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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-07 12:22:03 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-07 12:22:03 -0800 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9897821 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55172 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55172) diff --git a/old/55172-0.txt b/old/55172-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2e3d19a..0000000 --- a/old/55172-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8772 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Evolution and creation, by Herbert Junius Hardwicke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Evolution and creation - -Author: Herbert Junius Hardwicke - -Release Date: July 22, 2017 [EBook #55172] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVOLUTION AND CREATION *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Adrian Mastronardi, Les Galloway and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - EVOLUTION AND CREATION. - - - - -[Illustration: CHIMPANZEES (Troglodytes).] - - -[Illustration: GORILLAS (Troglodytes).] - - - - - EVOLUTION AND CREATION: - - BY - - HERBERT JUNIUS HARDWICKE, M.D., - - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, AND MEMBER OF - THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF EDINBURGH; FELLOW OF THE - LONDON MEDICAL SOCIETY; HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL -SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL, THE SOCIETY OF MEDICINE OF ATHENS, AND THE SOCIETIES - OF DOSIM. MEDICINE OF PARIS AND MADRID; VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL - BRANCH OF THE MALTHUSIAN LEAGUE; LATE EDITOR OF “THE SPECIALIST.” - HON. PHYSICIAN TO SHEFFIELD PUBLIC HOSPITAL FOR SKIN DISEASES, - AND TO SHEFFIELD AND SOUTH YORKSHIRE EAR AND THROAT HOSPITAL; - HON. CONSULTING PHYSICIAN TO LEEDS PUBLIC HOSPITAL FOR SKIN DISEASES; - AUTHOR OF “THE POPULAR FAITH UNVEILED,” ETC. - - [Illustration: Decoration] - - “‘Learn what is true in order to do what is right’ is the summing - up of the whole duty of man for all who are unable to satisfy their - mental hunger with the east wind of authority.”—Huxley. - - [Illustration: Decoration] - - PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. - - 1887. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Many imperfections, as I anticipated, have been discovered in my -“Popular Faith Unveiled,” some of importance and others of little -consequence; and many suggestions have been offered in all kindness by -those who have done me the honour of reading my work, for consideration -in case I should issue another edition. The strongest of all the -arguments urged in favour of the real necessity for a second and -revised edition is that that part of the subject treated upon which -related more particularly to the true origin of man was not dealt -with in a sufficiently exhaustive manner in the last work. This, of -course, is a true charge: but it should be borne in mind that the -main object of the book was to expose the real nature of the popular -superstition, and not to trace out the pedigree of man; and, moreover, -to have entered fully into such subjects as the evolution of mind and -matter would have considerably augmented the bulk of the work, and -consequently have necessitated such an increase in the price as to have -made it prohibitory to a large number of thinkers, who have not too -much spare cash to throw away. I therefore determined not to re-issue -the work in an amplified form, but to supplement it with a number of -published lectures (delivered here and in various other large towns) -and articles, which should be ultimately brought out as an illustrated -volume. - -These lectures, etc., some of which are re-prints from journals and -some of which I have myself printed in my leisure moments, I now -offer to the public in book form, together with a number of figures, -maps, etc., illustrative of the subjects treated upon. “Man—Whence -and Whither” and “Evolution of the God-idea” are re-printed from -_The Agnostic_; “Man’s Antiquity,” “Evolution of Mind,” “Zodiacal -Mythology,” “Intellectual Progress in Europe” and “The Annals of -Tacitus” from the _Secular Review_; and “The Special Senses” and “The -Bible” from _The Agnostic Annual_: the remainder of the text, as before -stated, has been printed by myself. - -I must acknowledge with gratitude my indebtedness to Mr. John Bennett, -of Prince’s Buildings, Dronfield, who has been kind enough to assist -me by drawing the zodiacal signs, the Bacchanalian insignia, the -oriental and Egyptian zodiacs, Amen-Ra, Mafuca, Aidanill and the negro -head, the two hands, the Fuegans, the Australian (2), African and -European skulls, and Boötes, Virgo, Cetus, Aquarius and Sagittarius; -and also to Mr. Wm. Gill Hall, of 66 Cecil Road, Sheffield, who has -kindly drawn for me the single chimpanzee, the orang, the lemur, the -face of the proboscis monkey, the moor monkey, the hairy couple from -Burmah, the genealogy of man, the earth’s section, and the ascent of -mind. The remainder of the illustrations, with the exception of the -two zincographs of the gorillas and chimpanzees (the frontispiece), -have been drawn by myself; and I must trust to the generosity of my -readers to overlook the amateur style of my productions, which, it is -hoped, will be found sufficiently well done to serve the purpose for -which they are intended. However amateur the illustrations may be in -appearance, this I can truthfully say, that every sketch in the book -is a faithful reproduction of the original. Some of the illustrations, -however, have been derived from such gross originals that it has not -been considered advisable, for many reasons, to reproduce the figures -in their entirety; but wherever part of a figure has been modified by -the substitution of a symbolical or other device the fact has been -notified to the reader at the foot of the illustration. - -In the course of the following lectures the opportunity has been seized -to rectify some of the mistakes inadvertently committed in my “Popular -Faith Unveiled;” but there are two errors in printing that have not yet -been set right, and to which, therefore, I should now like to call -attention. The first occurs on page 102, lines 9 & 10 from the bottom, -where אלהי—_A.L.E.I._ should have been written אליה—_A.L.Y (or.I.)E. -(El Yah), or_ אלוה—_A.L.OU.E. (Eloh)_, etc. The next occurs on page -109, line 6 from bottom, where _millions_ should read _thousands_. - -I have only now to frankly admit that during the last few years my -views as regards the theories of ultimate causation and the future -state have undergone some modification; that consequently I now regard -the line of argument adopted in support of the theory of a future state -of consciousness on pages 5 & 6 of my above named work as a false one -and the conclusions arrived at as consequently false also; and that -respecting the existence of a ruling power in the universe, I neither -affirm nor deny such a condition, being contented with the knowledge -that I neither know nor apparently can ever know anything at all about -the matter, and recognizing, with Moleschott, the incontrovertible -truth that “there is nothing in our intellect which has not entered by -the gate of the senses.” - - H. J. H. - - Purton Lodge, Sheffield. - January 1887. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - EXPLANATORY NOTES. - - ERRATA. - - MAN—WHENCE AND WHITHER?—Nebular Hypothesis—Formation of Earth’s - crust—Fossil remains in stratified rocks—Pedigree of Man—Pleistocene - and Neolithic Ages—Spontaneous evolution of life—Theories of existence - and ultimate causation—Man’s future state. - - MAN’S ANTIQUITY.—Cave explorations—British and continental - discoveries—Glacial periods—Tertiary upheaval and submergence in - Europe—Tertiary fauna and flora—Pleistocene ice age—Palæolithic - age—Tropical origin of Man—Neolithic age—Shell-mounds and remains of - lake-dwellings—Bronze and Iron ages—Aryan invasion of Europe—Historic - era. - - EVOLUTION OF MIND.—Universal life or motion—Protoplasmic life—Cell - life—Origin of organs of sense—Embryonic development—Dawn of - infantile intellect—Intellectual and emotional evolution in the - individual—Corresponding development in the race—Animals reflective - and emotional—Language in man and animals. - - THE SPECIAL SENSES.—Evolution of. - - EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA.—Dawn of intellect—Earliest conception - of Deity—Sun worship—First human tribes—Aryan mythology—Vedic - system—Brahmanism—Hindu virgin and child-saviour—Boodhism—Western - Aryan mythology—Zeus, Apollo, Prometheus, Hercules, Dionysos, & - Yao—Central Aryan mythology—Mazdeism—Mithra—Egyptian mythology—Osiris, - Isis & Horus—Amen-Ra, Mises—Chinese mythology—Semitic - mythology—Akkadian and Chaldean myths—Adonis, El, Yahouh—Jewish - origin—Bible gods—Confucianism—Mohammedanism—Christianism. - - ZODIACAL MYTHOLOGY.—Ancient and modern zodiacs—Precession of - equinoxes—Deification of zodiacal signs and other celestial - bodies—Savior-sun-god dramas—Sacred numbers & symbols—Ancient and - modern phallic worship—Dionysia, Adonia & Agapæ. - - INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE.—Egypto-Greek or classic - era—Alexander the Great—The Alexandrian Ptolemies—Essenian - revivalism—Destruction of the Serapion—Murder of Hypatia—Christian - annihilation of science—Birth of Mohammed—The Koran—Saracen - learning—Tenth century scare—Crusades—Averroism—Annihilation of - Saracen power—Establishment of Inquisition—Discovery of America—Martin - Luther—The Reformation—Copernicus—Revival of Arianism—Murder of - Servetus—Index Expurgatorius—First newspaper—Murder of Bruno—Kepler’s - laws—Galileo—Newton’s theory of gravitation—Discovery of Oxygen—First - locomotive engine and screw steamer—Telegraphy—Christian Church - opposed to progress. - - THE BIBLE—Origin of Authorised Version—List of Bible books—Description - of MSS—Ancient Hebrew language—Invention of vowel-points—Dates of - earliest Hebrew and Greek MSS. - - ANNALS OF TACITUS.—Abelard—Arnold of Brescia—Wicliffe’s heresy and - trials—Papal schism—Jerome of Prague—John Huss—Triple Popedom—Council - of Constance—Search for old MSS—Boggio Bracciolini, Niccolo Niccoli - & Lamberteschi—The forgery—Extracts from letters—Discovery of “The - Annals.” - - CREATION AND FALL.—Faith and reason—Mosaic narratives—Creation - opposed to science—Genesis absurd and immoral—Authorship of - Pentateuch—Christianity a failure—The real trinity—Religious - hypocrites—Morality not Christianity. - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - _Frontispiece_—Chimpanzees and gorillas. - - Lemur and face of Proboscis Monkey (after Mivart). - - Moor Monkey (after Mivart). - - Chimpanzee (after Mivart). - - Adult male Orang (after Mivart). - - Mafuca and Aidanill (after Mivart), and Swaheli Negro (after Tylor). - - Hands of Gorilla and Hammegh man (after Hartmann). - - Natives of Tierra del Fuego. - - The hairy family of Burmah. - - - _Man—Whence and Whither?_ - - Genealogy of Man. - - Section of Earth’s crust. - - Tertiary period in Europe. - - Eocene seas. - - Pleiocene seas. - - Pleistocene submergence during temperate inter-glacial epoch. - - Pleistocene Europe during post-glacial continental condition. - - Skeleton of man. - - Skeletons of gorilla and chimpanzee. - - Outlines of the skulls of a chimpanzee, the Neanderthal man and a - modern European. - - Outlines of the skulls of the Neanderthal man, a modern Australian - and the Engis man. - - Australian, African and European skulls (after Tylor and Hartmann). - - - _Man’s Antiquity._ - - Evolution of mind in man. - - Amœba and Gasteropoda. - - - _Evolution of Mind._ - - - _The Special Senses._ - - Androgynous Brahm. - - Isis, Horus and fish. - - Indranee and Indra; and Lakshmi and Vishnu. - - Devaki and Kristna: and Parvati and Siva. - - Amen-Ra (after Drummond). - - Crucifixion of Kristna; Crux Ansata; Assyrian virgin Ishtar; Cyprian - virgin and child; Isis and Horus. - - - _Evolution of the God Idea._ - - Zodiacal Signs, showing the precession of the equinoxes. - - Bacchanalian insignia. - - Oriental Zodiac (after Sir Wm. Jones). - - Egyptian Zodiac (after Sir Wm. Drummond). - - Northern signs and extra-zodiacal constellations. - - Southern signs and extra-zodiacal constellations. - - Zodiacal line, or Ecliptic, showing the precession of the equinoxes. - - Boötes, Adam, Joseph—Virgo, Eve, Mary—Cetus, Blasphemy. - - Aquarius, John Baptist, Peter—Sagittarius, Joseph, Philip. - - God incarnate with man. - - Phallic amulet and phallic lamp. - - Votive offerings to god Priapus. - - Phallic crux ansata and amulet. - - - _Zodiacal Mythology._ - - Vedic and Hindu Earths. - - Greek Earth, and Pomponius Mela’s cosmography. - - Eighth and tenth century maps. - - Fourteenth century maps. - - Egyptian and Ptolemaic planetary system. - - Planetary systems of Tycho Brahe and Copernicus. - - The Iron Virgin—inside view. - - Ditto—outside view. - - - _Intellectual Progress in Europe._ - - Sixth century MS. of Luke xx. 9, 10. - - Fragmentary MS. from John’s gospel. - - - _The Bible._ - - - - -EXPLANATORY NOTES. - - -The illustration of Brahm, the androgynous creator of the Hindus, -“is a copy of an original drawing made by a learned Hindu pundit for -Wm. Simpson, Esq., of London, whilst he was in India studying its -mythology. It represents Brahm supreme, who in the act of creation made -himself double, _i.e._, male and female. In the original the central -part of the figure is occupied by the triad and the unit, but far too -grossly shown for reproduction here. They are replaced by the _Crux -Ansata_ [a cross and circle representing the male and female elements -in nature]. The reader will notice the triad and the serpent in the -male hand, whilst in the female is to be seen a germinating seed, -indicative of the relative duties of father and mother. The whole -stands upon a lotus, the symbol of androgyneity. The technical word for -this incarnation is _Arddha Nari_.” (Inman’s “Ancient Faiths.”) - -The illustration of the god Siva, nursed by his virgin-wife-mother, -Parvati, requires some explanation. The right hand of the virgin makes -the symbol of the yoni (female principle) with the forefinger and -thumb, the rest of the fingers typifying the triad. In the palm and on -the navel is a lozenge, emblematic of woman. In the infant’s hand is -one of the many emblems of the linga (male principle), whilst under his -feet a lotus supports his body. The monkey is emblematic of the carnal -desire. The relationship existing between the mother and child was of a -twofold nature. The deities of the ancients were usually androgynous, -and thus each of the members of the Hindu triad possessed two parts, a -male half and a female half, which he inherited from his androgynous -parent Brahm, whose female principle brought forth the three essences, -Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Thus each god became the husband as well as -the son of the divine female principle, just as _Virgo_ of the zodiac -was both mother and wife of the sun-god of the annual revolution, -mother at his birth at the winter solstice and wife at his ascension -at the summer solstice. The female part or wife-mother of Siva was the -virgin goddess Parvati; of Vishnu, Lakshmi; of Krishna, Devaki; of -Indra, Indranee; of Horus, Isis; etc. - -The illustration of the amulet of the double _Crux Ansata_, represents -the female principle at the top in the shape of a ring (which has the -same meaning as the winged disc, cup, and shell, or _Concha Veneris_); -the male principle in full vigour on the right side in the shape of a -cross (male organ of generation in the original); the unprolific male -principle of infancy on the underneath side, also in the shape of a -cross (infantine male organ in the original); and the act of generation -on the left side, in the shape of a clenched hand, with the thumb bent -across the back of the first finger. - -The illustration of god incarnate with man represents the saviour of -the world—ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥSÔTÊR KOSMOU—as a cross, or phallic symbol (an -erect male organ in the original), which forms the beak on the head -of a cock, the symbol of the rising sun, the whole resting on the -shoulders of a man, symbolical of the incarnation of god and man. - -The illustration of the amulet in Mr. Townley’s museum represents the -female principle at the top, in the form of a circle, under which -is the victorious sun-god of the vernal equinox, in the shape of a -bull’s head with a cross or phallic symbol (erect male organ in the -original) on either side of the mouth, the whole being emblematic of -the sexual union of the powers of heaven and earth, and the consequent -regeneration of nature at the spring equinox. - -Mafuca, whose portrait is given in the following pages, was a female -ape from the Loango coast, placed in the Dresden Zoological Gardens. -Hartmann, in his “Anthropoid Apes,” describes her as being “120 cm. -in height, reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The face was -prognathous; the ears were comparatively small, placed high on the -skull, and projecting outwards; the supra-orbital arch was strongly -developed; the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls of fat -on the cheeks.” K. Th. von Siebold also classed her as a gorilla; but -Bolau and A. B. Meyer opposed this view; while Bischoff, judging by the -structure of the brain, thought she was a chimpanzee. Now it is pretty -generally believed that she was either a cross between the gorilla and -the chimpanzee, or else a member of a distinct species of anthropoids -intermediate between the gorilla and the chimpanzee. In Hartmann’s -account of Mafuca we read that she was “a remarkable creature, not -only in her external habits, but in her disposition.... She hardly -obeyed anyone except Schöpf, the director of the gardens, and when -in a good humour she would sit on his knee and put her muscular arms -round his neck with a caressing gesture.... Mafuca was able to use a -spoon, although somewhat awkwardly; and she could pour from larger -vessels into smaller ones without spilling the liquor. She took tea -and cocoa in the morning and evening, and a mixed diet between whiles, -such as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and water, and sugar.... If she -was left alone for any time she tried to open the lock of her cage -without having the key, and she once succeeded in doing so. On that -occasion she stole the key, which was hanging on the wall, hid it in -her axilla [arm-pit], and crept quietly back to her cage. With the key -she easily opened the lock; and she also knew how to use a gimlet. She -would draw off the keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out of -reach with them, and throw them at his head when asked for them. She -could wring out wet cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief. -When her illness began, she became apathetic, and looked about with a -vacant, unobservant stare. Just before her death, from consumption, she -put her arms round Schöpf’s neck when he came to visit her, looked at -him placidly, kissed him three times, stretched out her hand to him, -and died.” It may be added to this that Mafuca exhibited the greatest -decorum and modesty in the performance of all her daily and other -natural functions. - -Aidanill, the hairless Australian, is a good specimen of a low type of -human being; having a superciliary prominence greater than is usually -found amongst races of men, with a remarkably small cranial capacity -and almost entire absence of frontal development. The skull, in fact, -differs but little from that of Mafuca, given beneath it; and its owner -belonged to those races described on p. 14 of “Evolution of Mind.” - -The Swaheli Negro is a good specimen of the dolichocephalic prognathous -type of head, considerably higher in intellectual capacity than that of -Aidanill. - -The hands are intended to illustrate the close resemblance between -the hand of a gorilla and that of a man belonging to the Hammeghs -of the Nubian Soudan. It will be observed that while the fingers of -the gorilla are webbed, the second and third fingers of the man are -slightly webbed and his thumb and first finger very considerably -webbed. - - - - -ERRATA. - - -MAN—WHENCE AND WHITHER?—Page 12, line 11 from top, for “Palæolithic” -read “Pleistocene;” and line 12 from top, for “on the earth” read “in -Europe, for the human remains found in France clearly testify to the -fact; and even in America his antiquity must be very great indeed,” etc. - -EVOLUTION OF MIND—Page 1, line 6 from top, for “Protamnia” read -“Protista.” - -EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA—Page 25, line 17 from top, for Σευς read Ζευς. - -INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE—Page 17, line 9 from top and line 7 -from bottom for “Purgatorious” read “Expurgatorious.” - -ANNALS OF TACITUS—Page 15, line 13 from top, for “that religion” read -“that the religion.” - -CREATION AND FALL—Page 6, last line, and page 7, last line but one, for -“mammals” read “placental mammals.” - - -[Illustration: _LEMUR_—_Half Ape_—(_After Mivart_)] - -[Illustration: _FACE OF PROBOSCIS MONKEY_ (_After Mivart_)] - - -[Illustration: _THE MOOR MONKEY_ (_After Mivart_)] - - -[Illustration: _CHIMPANZEE_ (_Troglodytes_) (_After Mivart_)] - - -[Illustration: _ADULT MALE ORANG_ (_After Mivart_)] - - -[Illustration: SWAHELI NEGRO (_After Tyler_)] - -[Illustration: AIDANILL. HAIRLESS AUSTRALIAN. (_After Hartmann_)] - -[Illustration: MAFUCA -_The Anthropoid Ape at Dresden_ (_After Hartmann_)] - - -[Illustration: _Hand of a very aged male gorilla._ (_After Hartmann_)] - -[Illustration: _Hand of a Hammegh man from Roseres, Blue Nile._ (_After -Hartmann_)] - - -[Illustration: NATIVES OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO.] - - -[Illustration: - _Moung-Phoset The Son_ - _Mahphoon The Mother_ - _THE HAIRY FAMILY OF BURMAH_ - _Exhibited at the Piccadilly Hall London in 1886_] - - - - -MAN: WHENCE AND WHITHER? - - -The fables of the creation of nature and man by various fantastic and -ridiculous means, which have, for thousands of years, found favour with -the unthinking multitudes inhabiting the earth, and which even now -are, one or other, firmly believed by the large majority of both the -Eastern and Western populations, must, ere long, gradually give way to -the truer and grander theory of Evolution, resulting from the study -of the natural sciences. Priests, monks, and other interested people, -backed up by the enormous wealth which has accumulated to the various -religious creeds during the past centuries of darkness, ignorance, and -gross credulity, will, no doubt, oppose all their tremendous forces -against the new philosophy, thus, for a while, delaying the inevitable -result. But this condition of things cannot last long. Education is -doing, and will continue to do, its work, until, at length, falsehood -and slavery will give place to truth and liberty. - -In order to discover the origin of man, it is necessary to carry the -mind back to a very remote period, and observe the mode of development -of our planetary system; for, according to the theory of Evolution, -there were no starting points for particular forms in nature, the whole -universe consisting of one continuous unfolding of phenomena. - -The modern theory of the mode of development of our earth, as also -of all other planets and suns, is the one known as the “Nebular -Hypothesis,” which is the prelude to the great theory of Evolution, and -which teaches us that the earth, the sun, the moon, the planets, and -all the heavenly host are the effects or results of the condensation of -a nebulous vapour, which took place many millions of years ago, after -having been diffused for an incalculable period of time throughout -the illimitable expanse of space. The cause of this nebulous vapour, -or attenuated matter, is unknown to us, and will probably ever remain -enshrouded in the profound mystery which at present envelopes it. -Beyond this limit all is mere speculation or hypothesis; and the -Agnostic philosopher and the man of science, humbly acknowledging -their complete inability to solve this mighty problem of ultimate -causation, are content to leave further speculation in this direction -to metaphysicians and poets. - -During many long ages this process of condensation of the nebulous -vapour steadily continued, being controlled by the laws of gravitation -and transformation, until, at length, a number of rotating spherical -nebular masses were formed, in a state of high heat from the shock -of their recently-united atoms, which spheres gradually cooled by -radiation, consequently contracting and becoming possessed of a more -rapid rotary motion, giving off from their equatorial regions large -rings of vapour, which, in their turn, condensed and, under the -influence of the same two laws, formed separate spheres for themselves. -This is the mode by which our planetary system was formed, as taught by -Laplace and accepted by the scientists of to-day. - -The earth, then, in common with other planets, may be said to have -passed from the condition of a gaseous to a highly-heated fluid mass, -and to have gradually become plastic, and moulded by revolution on its -own axis to its present shape—_i.e._, an oblate spheroid, or globe, -flatter at the poles than at the equator, with a polar diameter about -twenty-six miles shorter than the equatorial diameter. This is the -shape that all plastic bodies which rotate on their axes must assume, -as we are clearly taught by mathematics. - -Assuming, then, that the earth was in a state of incandescence when it -began to take a definite form, we shall at once see that the denser -materials composing it would gravitate towards the centre, forming -a semi-plastic mass surrounded by an envelope of gases and watery -vapour. The gases would be quickly disposed of in various chemical -combinations, and the watery vapour would be condensed and deposited in -depressions on the surface of the central mass as soon as it had become -cooled sufficiently. The outer crust of this central, semi-solid mass -was soon converted, under the intense heat, into a hard, granite-like -rock, which was continually subject to sudden upheavals, resulting -partly from the violent escape of gases, and partly from water passing -through fissures on the surface to the heated interior and giving rise -to steam of great expansive power. In this manner great inequalities -of the surface were, no doubt, produced, whose rugged edges, after -the lapse of a vast period of time, were gradually softened down by -the subsequent action upon them of air and water. This first rock -formation is termed by geologists the Plutonic (from Pluto, monarch of -hell), on account of its being the result of intense heat, and not, -as is the case with all other rock formations, laid down in layers by -water. Whether the Plutonic rock forms a solid centre to our earth is -matter of uncertainty; but all are agreed that the internal heat of -our planet, whether caused by the friction of the particles of a solid -substance or by a molten fluid, is still, even in these later times, -intense. In boring through the earth’s crust, the average increase in -temperature for every fifty feet of descent, after the first hundred -feet from the surface, is one degree Fahr., which would give us, at a -depth of 125 miles, sufficient heat to melt most of the rocks. This -intense internal heat has generated, in times long gone by, enormous -forces, by which rocks of all ages have been raised and depressed, -twisted and distorted, broken and forced out of position, and forcibly -compressed, so as to eventually cause most important changes of surface -level. - -The next class of rock-formation is totally different from the -Plutonic, or unstratified series, in that it is the result of the -wear and tear of the surface when acted upon by air and water, and is -laid down, in the first instance, by water, as sediment. Water, in -the forms of seas, rivers, rain, and ice, has been the chief agent -in the arrangement of all the stratified rocks, the determination -of the earth’s contour, the direction of valleys, and, in fact, the -regulation of the whole physical geography of the visible portion of -the earth. With the help of this mighty agent, so soon as the earth -had become sufficiently cool to permit condensation to take place in -its vapoury envelope, the ceaseless wear and tear of the Plutonic—and, -subsequently, of all other—rocks, which has accumulated so vast a -mass of material, commenced. Large volumes of water were gradually -deposited, without intermission, until permanent seas and rivers had -become established, and the new process of stratification, which was -henceforth destined to shape the crust of the earth and to provide the -conditions of life, commenced to operate. This action is taking place -daily in rivers and seas, as we may observe at any time. On the tops -of mountains the same action is in operation, though under different -conditions, snow and ice splitting fragments from the rocks to be borne -away as grit into the valleys by impetuous torrents and deposited -in other places. Within the Polar circles ice on a grander scale is -levelling down the land; glaciers, covering thousands of square miles, -are slowly sliding down the valleys, grinding their surfaces still -deeper—forming sands, clays, and gravels, and forcing these down to the -sea-shore; and icebergs, many miles in circumference, are carried by -currents along coasts and against cliffs like huge ploughs, completely -altering the face of the rocks beneath. This wear and tear results in -the formation of immense quantities of detritus, which is deposited in -layers at the bottom of seas and rivers, and consolidated by pressure, -being frequently assisted by lime, iron, or silica as a cement. The -coarser-textured rock has been laid down in rapidly-moving, shallow -water; and the finer-textured in still, deep water. Thus, through many -long ages—probably millions of years—the surface of the earth underwent -continual change from the constant deposition of stratified rock, each -layer of which completely buried beneath it the various life forms -of the previous period, which circumstance enables us to ascribe to -the various members of the animal and vegetable kingdoms particular -geological periods; for fossilised remains of animals and vegetables -have been unearthed in the different layers of the stratified rocks, -conclusively proving their existence on the earth at those periods. - -In the Plutonic or unstratified rock-formation period there was, -of course, no life upon the earth, the conditions necessary for -such development not being present; but in the very earliest of the -stratified formations we find evidence of the dawn of marine life, -both vegetable and animal. Geologists have divided the stratified rock -into three chief divisions, the Palæozoic (ancient life), or Primary; -the Mesozoic (middle life), or Secondary; and the Kainozoic (latest -life), or Tertiary. Each of these, again, has been subdivided into -smaller sections, according to the particular kind of deposit met with, -the particular places where the best examples are to be found, or the -particular life-forms existing. The Primary, the depth of which is -unknown, is subdivided into seven periods—viz.:— - -Laurentian, consisting of highly metamorphosed (that is, changed in -appearance from the original stratified rock character, owing to its -proximity to the molten Plutonic rock) limestone, containing fossil -remains of the Foraminifera, some of the first living organisms. - -Huronian, consisting of less highly metamorphosed sandstone, limestone, -etc., and containing fossil remains of lowly-organised molluscs -(soft-bodied organisms). - -Cambrian, consisting of slates, sandstones, and conglomerates, -and containing fossil remains of sponges, sea-weeds, star-fishes, -sea-lilies, lowly shell-fish, marine worms, and the first land plants. - -Silurian, consisting of slates, limestones, etc., and containing fossil -remains of corals, chambered spiral shell-fish, crabs, sea-worms, and -bony plates and scales of a low form of fish. - -Devonian, consisting of old red sandstone, shales, and coralline -limestone, and containing fossil land plants, fishes, belonging to -shark, ray, and sturgeon families, and first fossil insect. - -Carboniferous, consisting of mountain limestone, coal, sandstone, -ironstone, clays, etc., and containing fossil scorpions, beetles, and -amphibians. - -Permian, consisting of new red sandstone, marls, magnesian limestones, -etc., and containing fossils of true reptiles. - -The Secondary division is subdivided into three periods, viz.:— - -Triassic, consisting of sandstone, limestone, and clays, and containing -fossils of gigantic reptiles and first mammals (small marsupials). - -Jurassic, or Oölitic, consisting of limestones, coral rags, clays, and -marls, and containing fossils of bird-reptiles and several species of -marsupials. - -Cretaceous, consisting of clays, sands, soft limestone, and lignites, -and containing fossils of new bird-reptiles. - -The Tertiary division is subdivided into four periods—viz.:— - -Eocene (dawn of recent life), consisting of sandstone, limestone, -sands, clays, marls, coral rags, and lignites, and containing fossil -equine forms, birds, reptiles, bats, and marsupials. - -Meiocene (less recent life), consisting of arctic coal, limestone, -sands, clays, and lignites, and containing fossil apes and marsupials. - -Pleiocene (more recent life), the white and red crags of Britain, -containing fossil apes, bears, and hyenas. - -Pleistocene (most recent life), consisting of glacial accumulations of -all kinds of earths, and containing fossil remains of apes and men, -and implements of stone, bone, and horn, and later still of remains of -lake-dwellings, shell-mounds, etc. - -These different layers of stratified rocks have not always kept -their proper positions with regard to each other in the order they -were originally laid down; but, owing to volcanic eruption, have -frequently intruded upon each other, so that, at first sight, it would -sometimes appear as though the regular order of deposition had not -been adhered to; but that this is not so has been made apparent by -careful investigation over large areas. The depth of the Secondary and -Tertiary is from twenty to twenty-five miles. We see, therefore, that -the first life-forms made their appearance as marine organisms in the -Laurentian, or first stratified rock period; but whether the animal -or the vegetable form first appeared, or whether both were developed -from one primordial organism, it is impossible at present to say. In -each successive layer of rock we meet with fossil remains of animal -and vegetable life, which steadily develop into more highly organised -forms, through the different periods, until, at last, they assume the -exquisite phases we now behold around us. The vegetable kingdom was the -first to exist upon the land, the first land-plant being found in the -fossil state in the Cambrian layer, at the same time that marine animal -life was assuming the forms of worms, shell-fish, and star-fishes. In -the Silurian period the first vertebrate animals made their appearance -in the form of lowly-organised fishes, from which, in the Carboniferous -age, developed amphibious creatures, the first breathing animals, -living both in and out of water, and the progenitors of the large -kingdom of land animals, including man. - -Now, if we take the pedigree of man, as arranged by Darwin and Haeckel, -and compare it with this geological tree, we shall see how perfectly -the sister sciences of Paleontology and Biology corroborate each other. -The first form of life, says Haeckel, was the Moneron, a structureless -albuminous atom of bioplasm, not even possessing the structure of -a mere cell. We place this, which belongs to the primitive order -Protozoa, in the Laurentian period, where we are told by geologists -that fossil foraminifera have been found. This promordial organism -gradually developed into single nucleated cells, called Amœbæ, and -these again into masses of nucleated cells, called Synamœbæ. These -simple and multiple cell organisms we place in the next period, -Huronian, in the strata of which geologists tell us have been found -fossil remains of lowly organised molluscs, or soft-bodied animals. -Ciliata are the next forms of life, which consist of Synamœbæ, covered -with vibratile cilia. These gradually developed a mouth, becoming -Gastrœada, and afterwards Turbellaria, a low form of worm (Vermes), -with a mouth and alimentary canal; and are placed in the Cambrian -period, in which stratum have been found remains of this kind of life. -The ascent continues through the transition stage of Scolecida to -Himatega, or sack-worms, with their rudimentary spinal cords; from -which gradually evolved Acrania, or the first vertebrate animals, -without skulls, brains, central heart, jaws, or limbs; but with a true -vertebral cord. This peculiar little animal was a lancet-shaped marine -worm, akin to the lancelet or amphioxus of to-day. From these developed -Monorrhini, or vertebrate hybrid worms and fishes, with skull, brain, -and central heart, but no sympathetic system, jaws, or limbs, and with -a single nasal cavity (lampreys). These three forms are placed in the -Silurian period, in which stratum have been found fossilised bony -plates and scales of fishes and Annelides, or sea-worms. - -The next forms of life to be developed, from the Monorrhini, were the -Selachii (Amphirrhini), or true fishes, of the shark family, with two -nasal cavities, swim-bladder, two pairs of fins, and jaws. From these -evolved the Ganoidei, and thence all osseous fishes; and Dipnoi (mud -fish), or hybrid fishes and amphibians, with both gills and lungs. -These little animals live during winter in water, when they breathe -air dissolved in water through their gills; and during the summer in -mud, when they breathe with their lungs. Both these are placed in the -Devonian period, in which have been found fossil sharks, etc. The next -forms are Sozobranchii, or amphibians with persistent gills, from which -evolved Urodela, or amphibians with transitory gills, but persistent -tails, and legs; allied to the salamander. These are placed in the -Carboniferous period, in which have been found fossilised amphibians. -We next get Protamnia, or hybrid salamanders and lizards (frogs and -toads), with no gills or tails, but possessing an amnion and cloaca. -These represent the parent forms of the three great higher branches of -vertebrates—Reptilia, Aves (which evolved from reptiles), and Mammalia, -and are placed in the Permian period, in which have been found -fossilised amphibians and true reptiles. Monotremata (Promammalia) are -the next forms developed in our pedigree, the parent forms of the class -Mammalia; with cloaca, amnion, and marsupial bones; which are placed in -the Triassic period; and from which evolved Marsupialia, mammals with -amnion and marsupial bones, but no cloaca; allied to the kangaroo and -opossum of to-day. This species we place in the Jurassic and Cretaceous -periods. From Marsupialia developed the large kingdom of Placentalia, -which lose the marsupial bones and cloaca, and acquire a placenta, and -which we divide into three main branches, according to the particular -placental formation. The first division we call Villiplacentalia (tufty -placenta), from which evolved Edentata (sloth, ant-eaters, and tertiary -monsters), Cetacea (marine placental mammals, such as whale, dolphin, -porpoise, and sea-cow), and Ungulata (horse, cow, pig, rhinoceros, and -hippopotamus). The second division we term Zenoplacentalia (ring-like -placenta), the earliest forms of which were Carnaria, or flesh-eaters, -from which came Carnivora, or land beasts of prey (cats, dogs, bears, -etc.), and Pinnipedia, or marine beasts of prey (seal and walrus). The -third division we name Discoplacentalia (discoid placenta); and here -we find, as the first development, the Prosimiæ, or tailed lemurs, -quadrupeds with claws, and having the appearance of hybrid cats and -monkeys. All these are placed in the Eocene period, in which stratum -geologists have found fossilised placentals. - -From the discoplacental-mammal Prosimiæ evolved the following -species—viz., Prosimiæ of Madagascar (lemurs of to-day), with four feet -and claws; Cheiroptera (bats); Rodentia (squirrels, mice, porcupines, -hares); Insectivora (moles, shrew-mice, and hedgehogs); and Simiæ, -or quadruped monkeys, with two feet, two hands, nails, and tails. We -divide Simiæ into two classes, the Platyrrhini, or New World apes, with -thirty-six teeth, tails, no cheek-pouches or callosities, and nasal -cavities pointing outwards and divided by a thick septum (from which -came the American howlers, weepers, capuchins, and squirrel-monkeys); -and the Catarrhini (Menocerca), or Old World apes, with thirty-two -teeth (like man), tails, cheek-pouches, callosities, and nasal cavities -pointing downwards and divided by a thin septum (like man). These are -placed in the Meiocene period, in which have been discovered the first -fossil apes. From the Catarrhini developed the tailed baboons and -macaques, with thirty-two teeth, cheek-pouches, and callosities; and -the Anthropoidæ, with thirty-two teeth, but no tails, cheek-pouches, -or callosities. These were evolved during the Pleiocene period. From -the anthropoid (man-like) apes we get three distinct divisions—viz., -the gibbon and orang families, with no tails or cheek-pouches, -walking partly on hind legs, and wandering in companies in India; -the chimpanzee and gorilla families of Africa, with no tails or -cheek-pouches, no articulate speech, walking on hind legs only, living -in companies in caves, and carrying their babes in their arms; and -Alali, or ape-like men, commonly called the “missing links,” who -were probably developed, during the Pleiocene period, in Lemuria, a -submerged continent which formerly occupied the position of the Indian -Ocean; or in the districts of the Nile and Ganges. - -These primitive ape-like men were the connecting links between men and -the apes, and are divided into two main branches—viz., woolly-haired -Alali, who migrated from Lemuria, west and south; and straight-haired -Alali, who migrated from Lemuria, north, east, and south. Both -these branches had skulls of the same character as those of the -chimpanzee and gorilla—that is, they were dolichocephalic (long-headed) -prognathous (prominent jaws), and also, like their ape brethren, were -troglodytes, or cave-dwellers. From the woolly-haired Alali evolved the -Papuans of New Guinea and Tasmania, and the Hottentots of Africa, whose -descendants of to-day are but little removed in brain development from -the higher apes. They are dolichocephalic prognathous savages, with -black, hairy skins, long arms, and short, thin legs, with ill-developed -calves; are semi-erect, walk on hind legs, and have no true articulate -speech. A higher development of the woolly-haired Alali is the -Negro, and higher still the Caffre, both of whom are dolichocephalic -prognathous savages, with black, semi-hairy skins, and imperfect -articulation. From the straight-haired Alali are derived the Australian -natives and the large family of Malays or Polynesians. The Australians -migrated south, and were dolichocephalic prognathous savages, with -smooth, dirty brown skins, and straight black hair. The lowest tribes -of the present day have no true articulate speech. The Polynesians -migrated north and east, and were dolichocephalic prognathous -troglodytes (as the gorilla and chimpanzee), with clear, smooth brown -skins, and true articulate speech. This branch split up into two large -families, the Mongolian or Turanian, and the Caucasian or Iranian. -The former covered Northern and Eastern Asia, Polynesia, and America, -and were originally brachycephalic (broad-headed) prognathous men. -They subdivided into two distinct species, the Mongols of China, -Japan, Lapland, Finland, and Hungary, who are brachycephalic, but not -prognathous, with smooth, brownish yellow skin, and straight black -hair; and the Mongols of America, who are mesocephalic (round-headed), -but not prognathous, with smooth red skins and straight black hair. -The Caucasian family covered Western Asia and most of Europe, being -mesocephalic prognathous troglodytes (afterwards agriculturalists) -with smooth dark skins and long straight hair; and subdivided into -two branches, the Semitic, of Arabia and Syria, and the Aryan or -Indo-European; both of whom are mesocephalic, but not prognathous. - -It is true that, so far, no fossil remains of Alali have been found, -with the exception of the Neanderthal skull; but it is equally true -that they may soon be discovered. It is only comparatively recently -that the other species have been found fossilised; and it must be -recollected that only a very small portion of the earth’s crust has yet -been explored, and that not the most likely for finding. No attempts -have been yet made to unearth the life-remains in the neighbourhood -of the Indian Ocean, where it is believed man first evolved from his -ape-like ancestors. It does not, however, seem to me to be essentially -necessary that the “missing link” be found in order to substantiate -the Evolution theory. There is so little difference between the higher -anthropoid apes and man, compared with the enormous differences -observed between the earlier forms of life and the ape species, that -the sequence and continuity appear now conclusively settled to any -reasonable observer. Comparative anatomists and embryologists both -declare in favour of the theory of development of Darwin and Haeckel. -It is a fact beyond dispute that every human being commences his -individual existence as a tiny piece of structureless bioplasm, from -which condition he passes through the Amœba stage to the Synamœba, and -thence in regular order through each successive stage of development -marked in the genealogy given above, becoming worm, fish, and mammal -in turn, and finally being born into the world as a member of the -human family. Each of these lower forms also passes through all the -species preceding it in precisely the same manner. This is one of the -strongest arguments in favour of Evolution. It is said that the power -of speech possessed by man opposes a strong barrier to the theory; -but it has been shown clearly that other animals besides man can -use articulate sounds, which convey meanings to each other. Monkeys -certainly understand each other’s chattering, and it is highly probable -that birds also understand each other’s cries. It is true that the -sounds made by animals are chiefly monosyllabic; but philologists -now tell us that the languages spoken by primitive races of men are -compounded of quite simple elements, perfectly within the grasp of an -ape’s voice. Travellers, whose veracity and ability cannot be impugned, -have described long conferences held by monkeys, where one individual -addressed the assembly at great length, fixing the attention of all -upon himself, and quelling every disturbance by a loud and harsh -cry, which was at once recognised and obeyed by the multitude. Is -it credible that this should be purposeless? Is it not actually the -exercise of speech? - -Is it not possible—nay, even extremely probable—that, under the -irresistible pressure of civilised man, his immediate precursor may -have become extinct? All the human races that now tend to bridge the -interval between the highest man and the highest ape are fast becoming -extinct under this very pressure. The gulf widens, and will widen. -The Caribs and Tasmanians have passed away, while the Australians, -New Zealanders, aboriginal Americans, Eskimo, and others, are fast -following in their wake, and this all in a comparatively short space -of time. There is undoubtedly now a far greater physical and mental -interval between the Hottentot woman and such men as Gladstone and -Darwin than between the Hottentot and an ape. It is a fact beyond -dispute that man was not in such a high state of development ages gone -by as at present. The earliest traces of man exhibit him to us in the -Palæolithic, or old stone, age, as wild and living in caves, using only -the rudest stone implements with which to battle with the ferocious -monsters around him. His jaw was then prognathous, like the ape, and -his body large and powerful. - -In the limestone caverns of France have been discovered the fossil -remains of men who inhabited caves and belonged to the Palæolithic, -or early Pleistocene, period. Together with these troglodytes, or -cave-dwellers, were rough, unpolished stone implements and weapons, -denoting a low state of civilisation. Other caves, in later strata, -give us lighter stone weapons, of better finish, and occasionally horn -dart-points, such as would be used for catching smaller game. Numbers -of skin-scrapers also were found, suggesting the idea that the people -used the hides of animals for clothing, instead of going naked, as -their ancestors. The hairy character of the body would be probably -giving place to a finer, smoother, and more delicate outer skin, -which would necessitate clothing of some kind. Still later we find -implements altogether of flint, lancet-shaped, admirably-proportioned, -and of three sizes, adapted for arrow, javeline, and lance points -respectively, and designed to be fitted to wooden and bone shafts. -After these appear arrows and darts of deer’s horn and bone, and stone -and flint tools, which were used for making these arrows. We also find -such implements as bone awls and needles for piercing and sewing skins, -arrow-heads furnished with barbs on each side, and harpoons barbed on -one side only. - -Now was man’s intellect fairly on the swing; but still he was, as yet, -only in the Palæolithic period, for not one polished implement nor -fragment of pottery is found in their stations. They were surrounded -by ferocious carnivora, which sometimes fell victims to their weapons. -The mammoth still tenanted the valleys, and the reindeer was the common -article of food. They were hunters, possessed of the rudest modes of -existence, and with but little of what is now called civilisation. - -In Britain the troglodyte man was contemporary with the mammoth, -rhinoceros, lion, and hyena, none of which existed in the later -Pleistocene era; but there have been no perfect skeletons found here -like those in France. Human _bones_, however, have been discovered in -various deposits, together with the skeletons of long-extinct animals. -The best British human fossil is the portion of an upper jaw containing -four teeth, from Kent’s Cavern. Hermetically sealed in stalagmite, -deposited on the floor of the cavern by water dropping from the roof, -this jaw lay _below_ the remains of extinct mammals; while beneath all -were bone and stone implements of human workmanship, equally firmly -fixed in a natural limestone cement. Geology fixes the date of this -troglodyte at the early Pleistocene period, and it is beyond doubt that -man existed at this remote period, or even earlier, in Europe, for the -human remains found in France clearly testify to the fact; and even in -America his antiquity must be very great indeed, for a human skull was -found in the delta of the Mississippi beneath _four_ different layers -of forest growth, which must have formed part of a living human being -50,000 years since. The celebrated Neanderthal skull, of which so much -has been heard, certainly belongs to the mammoth age, if not earlier; -and, if it represent a race, and not merely an individual, that race -would lie in a position intermediate between the lowest man and the -highest ape. It _may_ only represent a man of peculiar formation, as we -often see men in the present day deformed or of eccentric build; and, -therefore, we cannot look upon it _positively_ as the “missing link.” -One other similar find, however, would for ever settle the question, -and proclaim to the world that the “missing link” was, at last, found. -In capacity, the cranium is human, while the superciliary arches -and the brow are distinctly ape-like. Professor Huxley sums up his -examination of this skull with the remark that “the Neanderthal skull -is, of human remains, that which presents the most marked and definite -characters of a lower type.” - -Following the Palæolithic era, or rude stone age, is the Neolithic, -or new stone, age; and now we find man using polished weapons, making -pottery, using fire to warm himself with, and developing social -manners. Instead of living in caves, he lived in lake dwellings, with -others of his species, and gradually developed agricultural tastes. -This metamorphosis, we know from the fossil remains found deposited -in various strata, occupied a long period of time, probably thousands -of years; and even then we are left thousands of years before the -historical era, which followed the bronze and iron ages. Compare these -men with those who lived in the Grecian and Egyptian eras, and again -compare these latter with ourselves, and the record is one of trial -and failure through long ages, and of experiment crowned at last by -attainment. Has not the invention of the steam-engine alone been a -means of extending man’s dominion in a marvellous manner? Think what -has been achieved through electricity! There has, undoubtedly, been a -continued struggle from barbarism to civilisation, and the little we -know of the early history of man tells us that he lived the life of a -wild beast, leaving no impression on the earth save one of the victims -of his well-aimed stone or flint-pointed spear. - -So much for the “missing link.” There is one other point to be settled -before we have completed the sequence of evolution, which commences -with the condensation of the nebulous vapour and terminates with the -development of man; and that is the question of how life originated. -We have found that the first dawn of life was in the form of a simple -speck of bioplasm, void of any structure; and that this primordial -germ, which we call a Moneron, was developed in the earliest period -of deposition of stratified rock at the bottom of the sea, and is now -being constantly developed as of old. Now, if the theory of evolution -be not mere talk, this primordial germ must have been spontaneously -evolved from inanimate matter, for the theory allows of no break, -being a gradual unfolding of phenomena. We are told that there is no -experience in nature of such a development. Perhaps so; but that is no -argument against it. There is no experience in nature of any special -creation either; so why fly to this alternative, which is the only -one presented to us, instead of adopting the theory which agrees so -harmoniously with the whole evolutionary process? Why make this abrupt -break in the chain of sequence? Does it not annihilate completely the -whole theory of evolution? It is not more wonderful that life should -be evolved from inanimate nature than that man should be evolved from -a structureless bioplasm. The continuity of evolution once broken, why -may it not be broken again and again? - -If we are to accept the theory of evolution, we are bound to admit -that animate was evolved from inanimate matter. And the difficulty of -this admission is not, after all, so great as appears at first sight; -for who is to say whether such a condition really exists as inanimate -matter? It is a fact that every particle of matter in nature is in a -state of active motion; every molecule and atom is constantly active. -And why is this not life as much as the animal or vegetable, though -in a modified degree of development? Evolution, if it mean anything, -should admit this; and I will show you that it does not admit it -only, but absolutely declares that it is so. In the first place, it -must be recollected that Balfour Stewart, and all other physical and -chemical scientists, declare that every thing in nature is composed of -molecules and atoms. The molecules are the smallest quantities into -which any individual body or substance can be divided without losing -its individuality. For instance, table-salt, or chloride of sodium, can -be divided and subdivided, until you get to the limit of subdivision, -which is a molecule composed of chlorine and sodium in chemical -combination. Further subdivision annihilates its individuality as salt, -and leaves us with the two elementary chemical atoms, chlorine and -sodium, existing independently of each other. These atoms are incapable -of further subdivision. In the same manner, the whole matter of the -universe may be subdivided into molecules, which consist of atoms of -some two or more of about sixty-seven chemical elements in various -combinations. These atoms are the smallest separate particles of -masses of matter, and are separated from each other by what is termed -hypothetical ether—that is, the fluid ether we believe to be pervading -every portion of space. Each atom possesses an inherent sum of force, -or energy. The well-established and universally-admitted theory of -chemical affinity teaches us that these atoms are capable of attracting -and repelling each other, and, therefore, also teaches us, by -implication, that they are possessed with definite inclinations, follow -these sensations or impulses, and have also the will and ability to -move to and from one another. This we are clearly taught by chemistry. -Thus every atom in the universe possesses sensation and will, pleasure -and displeasure, desire and loathing, attraction and repulsion; and -its mass is, moreover, indestructible and unchangeable, and its energy -eternal, as we are again taught by the theory of conservation of -energy and matter. These sentient atoms of universal matter, whose -aggregate energy is the great animating spirit of the universe, have -the power of uniting together in various chemical combinations to -form molecules, or chemical unities, developing fresh properties in -the process, and forming the lowest conceivable division of compound -material substances, some atoms uniting to build up crystals and -other inorganic masses, and others to develop the various organic or -life forms. The atoms of the ultimate molecules of both organic and -inorganic bodies are identically the same. It depends entirely upon -what particular combination of atoms takes place whether an organic or -inorganic form is developed. The primordial life-form we have found -to be simple homogeneous plasm, consisting of molecules, each of -which is composed of atoms of five elements—carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, -hydrogen, and sulphur, differing not one iota from the molecules -of inorganic bodies, except that it acquires the special power of -reproduction, by virtue of the peculiar combination of its atoms, which -power is wanting in the inorganic world, whose molecules are composed -of similar atoms, but in different combinations. This is the only -difference between the organic, or life, world, and the inorganic, or -lifeless, world—life being, as compared with unlife, but the power -of reproduction. As examples of this, we may take crystals, the most -perfect development of inorganic nature, and the moneron, the least -perfect development of organic nature; and the difference between them -is almost _nil_, certainly less than between the parents and offspring -in many life-forms. The crystal molecules are composed of elementary -chemical atoms, as are the moneron molecules; but the former grow by -particles being deposited on particles externally, while the latter -grow by particles penetrating from without, or being absorbed into -the interior and becoming assimilated by the plasm, fresh molecules -being evolved in the process, this special power of reproduction being -generated by the peculiar combination of the atoms. This argument -appears to me to be logically and scientifically sound, and disposes -altogether of the notion of a break of continuity between the living -and the unliving worlds, which is such a formidable difficulty to many -minds. The plasm thus formed by the aggregation of life molecules -gradually differentiates into protoplasm and nucleus, which together -form a simple cell; and this cell partakes, by heredity, of the nature -and properties of its parent form, and also, by adaptation to different -circumstances surrounding its existence, acquires fresh properties, -which, together with the inherited properties, it transmits to its -progeny, thus evolving a still more complex form, inheriting the -acquired and inherited properties of its parent, and again acquiring -fresh properties; and so on, _ad infinitum_, through the various -life-forms we know have been developed in the pedigree of man and -animals, through Amœbæ, Synamœbæ, etc., as in the genealogy given above. - -In the course of the development of different life-forms -heredity—which, in plain English, is unconscious memory generated -in the first life-form and transmitted through all the different -species—is the sole factor in the preservation of the parent -properties; while adaptation to surrounding conditions and -circumstances, natural selection in the struggle for existence, and -sexual selection in the struggle of the males for females are the -principal factors in the differentiation of species. - -Having traced man’s pedigree according to the Evolution theory, from -primitive nebulous matter to his present commanding position, and found -him possessed with reason and the power of controlling and regulating -the forces of nature, our next inquiry is naturally for what purpose -is he here and what will become of him eventually. Here we come to -the most difficult problem of all ages, which has baffled learned men -of all nationalities, and which will probably never be satisfactorily -solved. Intimately connected with it is the almost as difficult -problem, How was the universe caused at all? There are eminent -scientific men who think they can conclusively show that the universe -existed from eternity; others as positively assert that it must have -been caused by a power outside and independent of itself; while others -are equally convinced that it was self-created. But when we examine -their arguments we find ourselves unable logically to accept any of -their conclusions. - -The Atheist declares that the universe has existed from eternity, not -having been produced by any other agency, and, therefore, without -any beginning; which necessarily implies the conception of infinite -past time—an effort of which the human mind is quite incapable. The -Pantheist declares that the universe evolved out of potential existence -into actual existence by virtue of some inherent necessity; which -is as unthinkable as the previous one, for potential existence must -be either something, in which case it would be actual existence, -or nothing, which it could not possibly be. But admitting, for the -sake of argument, the possibility of potential existence as nothing, -still we should have to account for its origin, which would involve -us in an infinity of still more remote potentialities. The Theistic -theory of creation by external agency implies either formation of -matter out of nothing, which is inconceivable, or out of pre-existing -materials, which leaves us under the necessity of showing the origin -of the pre-existing elements, and, like the preceding theory, would -involve us in an infinity of remote pre-existences. It also involves -the existence of a potentiality outside matter, which must either be -caused, which involves a prior cause, or uncaused, in which case it -must be either finite or infinite. If it be finite, it must be limited, -and, consequently, there must exist something outside its limits, which -destroys the notion of its being a first cause. Therefore, it must be -infinite. Also, as first cause, it must be independent; for dependency -would imply a more remote cause. The first cause must, therefore, be -both infinite and absolute, which is an absurdity; for a cause can only -exist in relation to its effect, and therefore cannot be absolute; and -the fact of its being infinite deprives us of the only means of escape -from the difficulty, by showing the impossibility of its being first of -all absolute and afterwards cause; for the infinite cannot become what -it once was not. - -Thus, then, we are driven to the conclusion that logic shows the -Theistic conception of the origin of nature, equally as much as the -Pantheistic and the Atheistic, to be utterly impossible; but it must -be admitted that if, instead of matter, we substitute time and space -in our consideration of this most important matter, the Atheistic -theory more nearly approaches the conceivable than either of the other -two; for by no mental effort can we conceive the formation of time and -space either by external agency or inherent necessity. It is absolutely -impossible for us to conceive the idea of the non-existence of either -time or space. - -Because the human mind cannot conceive the possibility of nature -being produced by external agency, it does not follow that we are -bound to admit the impossibility of the existence of an intelligence -controlling nature’s laws; for it is quite possible that such an -existence may be, though our finite minds cannot comprehend it. The -Agnostic philosopher, although he cannot logically demonstrate the -existence of the Divine Being, yet declares that, inasmuch as this -universe consists of existing phenomena, it is absolutely necessary -that there should be some cause adequate for the production of the -effects manifested. By this process of reasoning he arrives at the -conclusion that there exists a something controlling nature, which is -utterly incomprehensible—an ultimate reality, of which force and matter -are alike merely the phenomenal manifestations. This ultimate reality, -moreover, is intelligent. - -We cannot recall the wonders of the evolutionary development of the -universe without at once seeing that there is purpose at the bottom of -all, and that chance is no factor in the process. We cannot believe -that man is but a fortuitous concourse of atoms. Reason tells us -clearly that we are here for a well-ordained purpose; but what that -purpose is we cannot tell. The old notion that our destiny is to -prepare ourselves here, to live again in our bodily forms, play harps, -and sing halleluyah to all eternity, I regard as mere moonshine. Such -a fate would be to me far worse than annihilation. But that we have a -future destiny of some sort I have no doubt. We know we must die, and -that when we die our bodily functions, including brain functions, -will cease to be performed. Are we, then, annihilated? The answer of -scientists is decisively “Yes, so far as we are concerned as sentient -individual beings.” Science teaches us that the three things which -make up consciousness, or man’s mental side, are thought, emotion, -and volition; that they are inseparably bound up with the brain and -the nervous system, whose functions they are; and that when the brain -dies these functions cease. This is undeniable. Therefore, if there -is any future existence, it is not one of consciousness. The power of -muscular movement is arrested at death, and, therefore, we must admit -that the power of thought, emotion, and volition ceases at death. Why -should the appearance be deceptive in one case and not in the other? -It is not the case of a separate entity in the body, but of a distinct -function—an effect which ceases with its proper cause. It is absolutely -certain, from the teaching of science, that the consciousness grows as -the brain and body grow, varies according to the standard of health in -the brain, and declines as the general vigour of the brain declines; -and, therefore, we can but admit that it dies with the brain. We also -learn from Embryology that consciousness evolved by slow degrees from -unconsciousness, and that once there was no thought in any of us. Even -if science were to admit that man’s consciousness continued after -death, it would be equally rational to admit that animals also had a -future consciousness; for it is quite clear we have slowly evolved -from the lowest germ of animal life. Man’s very attributes are found -in a lower degree in animals, and yet it is the possession of his -lofty attributes which he says entitles him to conscious immortality. -The intellectual qualities in animals differ from those in man only -in degree, while in the possession of some of the highest moral -attributes—such as courage, fidelity, patience, self-sacrifice, and -affection—some of the lower animals, as the dog, the horse, and the -ant, far surpass him. Even among human beings themselves these higher -qualities, mental and moral, exist in all degrees, from their almost -total absence in the savage up to the mental and moral splendour of a -Buddha, a Socrates, a Disraeli, or a Gladstone. Are all these lower -animals, savage men, and intellectual and moral geniuses, to have -individual conscious immortality? If, as some say, man only and not -animals are immortal, then the question naturally arises, When and how -came man so? If he was always immortal, so were animals. If he became -immortal later on, he must either have slowly acquired the gift, or it -must have been suddenly conferred upon him. In either case there must -have been a particular moment when he became immortal. Can we conceive -of such a thing as the species being mortal one moment and immortal the -next? The question of _how_ he became immortal is still more difficult, -as the question _why_, or for what merit, is wholly unanswerable. -Then, again, science teaches us that animal life, of whatever form, -will vanish from the earth long before the inevitable decay of the -planet itself. Geologists tell us that, in obedience to a general law, -all species have their term of living. They appear, and after a time -disappear. How absurd, then, to raise a question as to the conscious -individual immortality of the countless myriads of a species that shall -itself have utterly vanished without leaving a trace! - -Are we, then, annihilated at death? Yes, as conscious individuals. We -are bound to admit the force of all the arguments brought forward by -science against the theory of a future conscious existence; but these -arguments in no way affect the great problem of the “ego,” or “self,” -which exists in all of us, irrespective of consciousness, memory, or -other brain function. A man may be unconscious, and yet live; therefore -consciousness is not necessary to life. When we ask ourselves whether -we shall be annihilated at death, we should first of all have a clear -definition of the word “we” before we reply. What are we? What am I? -I am not consciousness, which is but a function of one of my organs, -the brain, and which merely enables me to know myself. Then what am -I? I cannot conceive that I am anything but the energy or life-power -developed by the aggregation of my life-particles, which causes the -various organs of my body to perform their functions, as cerebrating, -etc. The primordial germ of my body was a simple bioplasm, consisting -of a combination of life-molecules, composed of energetic atoms. -From these molecules evolved fresh molecules, which, under the laws -of heredity and variation, acquired new properties; until, at last, -a complex organism became developed, possessing far higher powers -than those belonging to the primordial germ. As the development of -species continued, higher forces became manifested; until, at last, -the condition of man was reached, and a life-power developed of a much -higher order than any previously known. This life-power, or human -energy, is the “ego,” the “self,” the cause of the bodily functions, -and is eternal. Kant declared there was a world unknown, independent -of our conscious phenomenal world; and this we must admit to be true, -for we have already granted the existence of an unknown cause, of -which force and matter are merely the phenomenal manifestations. It is -this outer world of unknown and invisible energy that the scientist -finds himself unable to deal with. The death of the body is simply -the cessation of cohesion, or dissolution of partnership, between the -ultimate atoms of the plasm life-molecules, by which dissolution the -property called life ceases, and the atoms of the body assume their -original condition, again containing their original sum of force. But -what becomes of the huge force developed during the lifetime of the -bodily organism? Does that vanish and become a thing of naught? My -opinion is that this human force, which is the outcome of the complex -union of the ultimate atoms of the plasm life-molecules, and which is -but a phenomenal manifestation of the great incomprehensible cause of -all phenomena, will, at the death of the body, be re-absorbed into the -great animating spirit of the universe, and partake of the nature and -properties of the Unknown. This is but my opinion, from which many may -differ. I merely offer it as an opinion, and in no way shut my eyes to -the great fact that man’s destiny is a riddle as yet unsolved. We may -safely leave the matter to be dealt with according to the wisdom of -that unknown cause of all things, resting quite assured that we shall -be far better disposed of than we could possibly dispose of ourselves, -even if we had the power. We must bow the head in a truly scientific -spirit, and reply to the great question, “I cannot tell.” - -“To be or not to be? that is the question,” says the immortal -Shakespeare; after which he sums up the whole argument in two short -lines:— - - “To die, to sleep. To sleep? perchance to dream— - Aye, there’s the rub.” - - -PRINTED BY WATTS & CO., 17, JOHNSON’S COURT, FLEET STREET, LONDON. - - - - - GENEALOGY OF MAN - - Monera (Plasm) - │ - Amœbæ (Cells) - │ - Synamœbæ (Multiple cell-forms) - │ - Ciliata - │ - Gastrœada - │ - Turbellaria (Vermes) - │ - Scolecida - │ - Himatega (Sack-worm) - │ - Acrania (Vertebrata) - │ - Monorrhini - │ - Selachii (Pisces) - │ - ┌──────────────┴─────────┐ - │ │ - Dipnoi Ganoidei - │ │ - Sozobranchii Teleostei - │ - Urodela - │ - Protamnia - │ - ┌─────┴────────────────────┐ - Reptilia Monotremata (Mammalia) - │ │ - ┌────────┴───────┐ Marsupialia - Aves Reptilia │ - Placentalia - - - Placentalia - │ - ┌────────────────────────┼───────────────────────┐ - │ │ │ - Villiplacentalia Zenoplacentalia Discoplacentalia - │ Carnaria Prosimiæ - │ _______│_____________ │ - ┌───┴────┬───────┐ |Carnivora Pinnipedia| │ - │ │ │ │ - Edentata Ungulata Cetacea ┌────────┬──────────┬───┴─────┬──────┐ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Simiæ Prosimiæ Insectivora Rodentia │ - │ (Apes) (Lemurs) │ - │ │ Cheiroptera - │ └──────────┬───────────────┐ - ┌───────┴─────┬──────────┐ │ │ - Solidungula Ruminantia Pachydermata Catarrhini Platyrrhini - Menocerca - │ - ┌─────┴───────────┐ - Tailed Baboons Authropoidæ - + Macaques Man-like Apes - │ - ┌────────────────┬─────────────┬─────┘ - Gibbon and Chimpanzee Alali - Orang Gorilla (Ape-like Men) - │ - ┌─────────┴───────┐ - Woolly-haired Straight-haired - Alali Alali - │ │ - ┌──────────┬──────────┬───────┤ ┌──────┴───────┐ - Papuan Hottentot Negro Caffre Polynesian Australian - or Malay │ - │ - ┌──────────────────────┴─────┐ - Caucasian Mongolian - or Iranian or Turanian - │ │ - ┌─────┴─────┐ ┌───────────┴────┐ - Aryan or Semitic Mongols Mongols - Indo-European of China of America - - - SECTION OF EARTH’S CRUST - -Showing the different Geological Strata and Biological Ascent - - ————————-+——————————-+——————+—————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - | | | Strata | Fossils, Bones, | Man’s - | | | Deposits | etc Found |Ascent - | | +—————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - | | IRON | Recent Earth |Historic Era | - | RECENT | AGE | Deposits |Manufacture of Iron |Homo - | | | | Articles |Sapiens - | +——————+—————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - | |BRONZE|Recent Earth |Considerable advance|Homo - | |AGE | Deposits |in civilization. |Cultus - | | | |Manufactureof Bronze| - | | | | implements | - +——————————-+——————+—————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |POST- |NEO- | Glacial |Remains of Lake |Homo - |PLEIOCENE |LITHIC| Deposits |Dwellings. Manu- |Semi- - | | | |facture of Pottery |ferox - KAINOZOIC|QUATERNARY +——————+—————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - OR | OR |PALÆO-| Glacial |Fossil Cave-men, |Homo - TERTIARY |PLEISTOCENE|LITHIC| Deposits |Stone, bone, + horn |Ferox - | | | |implements. Mammoth | - | | | |Reindeer, Hyœna, etc.| - +——————————-+——————+—————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |PLEIOCENE |White and Red Crags |Apes, Bears & Hyœnas|Alali - | | of Britain | |Anthro- - | | | | pœdæ - +——————————-+—————————————————————+———————————————————-+—————— - |MEIOCENE |Arctic Coal, |Marsupials, | - | |Limestone, Sands, |Squirrels, Mastodon,|Meno- - | |Clays, and Lignites |Rhinoceros, | cerca - | | |Anthropomorphous |Simiæ - | | |Apes | - +——————————-+—————————————————————+———————————————————-+—————— - |EOCENE |Sandstone, Limestone,|Equine forms, Bats, |Prosimiæ - | |Sands, Clays, Marls, |Lemurs, Marsupials |Placent- - | |Lignites, Coral, Rag | |alia - ————————-+——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |CRETACEOUS |Clays, Sands, Soft |Birds, Reptiles and |Marsup- - | |Limestones, Lignites |Marsupials |ialia - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - MESOZOIC |JURASSIC |Limestones, Coral |Bird-reptiles, |Marsup- - OR | OR |rags, Clays, Marls, |several Marsupial |ialia - SECONDARY|OÖLITIC |Coal Lies at base |species | - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |TRIASSIC |Sandstones, |Gigantic Reptiles, |Promamm - | |Limestones, Clays |Small Marsupials |alia - ————————-+——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |PERMIAN |Marls, Magnesian | Reptiles |Protam- - | |limestones, Conglomerates.| |nia - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |CARBONI- |Carboniferous limestone,|Scorpions, |Urodela - | FEROUS |Coal, Ironstone, |Spiders, Beetles,|Sozo- - | |Sandstone, Clay, Shales |Flies, Amphibia |branchii - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |DEVONIAN |Old Red Sandstone, |Fossil land plants, |Dipnoi - | |Shales, Coralline |Fishes, First |Selachii - | |Limestone |fossil insect | - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |SILURIAN |Slates, Limestone, |Corals, Spiral |Monorrh- - PALÆOZOIC| |Conglomerates, |Shells, King-Crabs, |ini - OR | |Shales, Sandstones |Plates & Scales of |Acrania - PRIMARY | | |Fishes, Annelides | - | | |(sea-worms) | - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |CAMBRIAN |Slates, Limestone, |Sea-weeds, Sponges, |Himatega - | |Conglomerates, |Star-fishes Sea- |Turbell- - | | |lilies, Shell-fish, |aria - | | |First land plant |Gastrœada - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |HURONIAN |Partially Metamorphosed|Lowly organized |Ciliata - | |Limestone, Sandstone, |Molluscs |Synamœbæ - | |Slates, and Conglomerates| |Amœbæ - +——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - |LAURENTIAN |Highly Metamorphosed |Fossil Foraminifera |Monera - | |Limestone | (Protozoa) |(Bioplasm) - ————————-+——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - AZOIC |PLUTONIC |Molten Granite & Quartz |No life remains |No life - | |Partially or Wholly | | - | |Igneous. Base of all rocks| | - ————————-+——————————-+————————————————————-+———————————————————-+—————— - - - TERTIARY PERIOD IN EUROPE. - - +————————-+————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | IRON AGE & HISTORIC ERA | BRITAIN - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+ - | RECENT | BRONZE AGE—Homo Semi-cultus |AN ISLAND - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | CLIMATE TEMPERATE—Neolithic man | LAND SINKING - +————————-+————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE—Palæolithic man | CONTINENTAL - | | & Neolithic man | CONDITION - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | CLIMATE SLIGHTLY MILDER | LAND RISING - | | Palæolithic and Neolithic man. | - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | GLACIAL EPOCH OF MODERATE INTENSITY | - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+ - | PLEISTO-| CLIMATE TEMPERATE—Palæolithic man | BRITISH - | CENE +————————————————————————————————————————-+ - | | CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL—Palæolithic man | ARCHIPELAGO - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+ - | | CLIMATE TEMPERATE—Palæolithic man | - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE | CONTINENT - | | | SINKING - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | GLACIAL EPOCH OF GREAT INTENSITY | - | +————————————————————————————————————————-+ - | | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE—Palæolithic | LAND RISING - | | men or Ape-men | IN NORTH - +————————-+——————+—————-+———————————————————————————+ ENGLAND, - | | | WEY- | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE. | FRANCE, - | | |BOURNE| Existence of Cromer | SCOTLAND AND - | | |SANDS | Forest, Palæolithic | NORWAY - | | | | men or ape-men. | UNITED - | |NEWER +——————+———————————————————————————+ - | | |NORWICH| CLIMATE WARM-TEMPERATE. | - | | | CRAG | Sub-tropical fauna & flora| - |PLEIOCENE+——————+———-——+———————————————————————————+————————————————+ - | | | | | CONTINENT - | | | RED |CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL | SINKING IN NORTH - | | | CRAG | | & WEST. EUROPE - | |OLDER +——————+——————————————————————————-+ SEPARATED FROM - | | |CORAL-| Apes. Bears. Hyænas. | AMERICA & BRITAIN - | | |LINE | Sub-tropical flora. | FROM NORWAY. - | | |CRAG | | ENGLAND, IRELAND - | | | | | & FRANCE UNITED - +————————-+——————+—————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | | CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL | CONTINENT - | |UPPER | Antelopes. Gazelles. Tropical & | RISING ON - | | | Sub-tropical flora. | SOUTH-EAST - | +——————+——————————————————————————————————+ - | MEIOCENE|MIDDLE| Mastodon. Rhinoceros. Anthropo- | OF BRITAIN - | | | morphous Apes. Sloths. Anteaters.| DENMARK & - | +——————+——————————————————————————————————+ ENGLAND - | |LOWER | Placental mammals. Very few | UNITED - | | | Marsupials. Tropical flora. | - +————————-+————+———————————————————————————————————-+————————————————+ - | | | CLIMATE TROPICAL | - | |UPPER | Anehitheres. Hyænodon. Lemur. | EUROPO- - | | | Tapir-like beasts. | AMERICAN - | +——————+——————————————————————————————————+ - | EOCENE |MIDDLE| Lion-like Carnivora. | CONTINENTAL - | +——————+——————————————————————————————————+ CONDITION. - | |LOWER | Marsupials. Reptiles. Birds. | - +————————-+——————+——————————————————————————————————+————————————————+ - - -[Illustration: EOCENE SEAS After Dawkins] - - -[Illustration: PLEIOCENE SEAS After Dawkins] - - -[Illustration: (After Lyell) -PLEISTOCENE SUBMERGENCE DURING TEMPERATE INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH -(South of England and France only submerged during the -—GLACIAL PERIOD OF SUBMERGENCE)] - - -[Illustration: PLEISTOCENE EUROPE -DURING POST-GLACIAL CONTINENTAL CONDITION After Dawkins] - - -[Illustration: SKELETON OF MAN] - -[Illustration: SKELETON OF GORILLA] - -[Illustration: SKELETON OF CHIMPANZEE] - - -[Illustration: Outlines of the skulls of a Chimpanzee, the Neanderthal -man, and a modern European. After Lyell.] - - -[Illustration: Outline of the skulls of the Neanderthal man, a modern -Australian, and the Engis man. After Lyell.] - - -[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SKULLS (After Tyler) - - A. AUSTRALIAN (PROGNATHOUS). - B. AFRICAN (PROGNATHOUS). - C. EUROPEAN (ORTHOGNATHOUS).] - -[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN TYPE OF SKULL. (After Topinard.)] - - - - -MAN’S ANTIQUITY. - - -When we reflect on the magnitude of the pre-Christian Alexandrian -libraries, as well as the magnificent appointments attaching to and -lavish wealth expended upon the ancient University of the capital of -the Ptolemies, we seem almost unable to realise the fact that people -of education and intellect, until quite lately, believed that all -this intellectual and literary magnificence had reached that pitch -of excellence in the short space of less than four thousand years. -In this period of time it was believed that man had so far risen in -intellectual capacity from the absolutely ignorant condition of the -first pair as described in Genesis as to have reached that state of -mental perfection possessed by the professors in the Alexandrian, -Athenian, and Sicilian schools. We can see Professor Euclid pointing -out on the blackboard how, the sides of a rectilinear polygon all -touching a circle, the area of the polygon is equal to the rectangle -contained by the radius of the circle and the semi-perimeter of the -polygon; Professor Archimedes would be explaining the theory that, if -a force act upon a body, the measure of the force in absolute units -is numerically equal to the time-rate of change of momentum and to -the space-rate of change of kinetic energy; Professor Eratosthenes -would be impressing upon his class the importance of the knowledge -of the globular shape of the earth; and Professor Hipparchus would -be startling his hearers by stating that he would show them how the -failure of the sun to reach the same point in the same time in his -annual circuit (according to the old geocentric theory) caused the -vernal equinoxial sign to give place to the next zodiacal sign every -2,152 years. - -Here was a galaxy of intellectual attainments indeed! With such -a picture before our eyes we are calmly asked to believe that so -little time as less than four thousand years had been sufficient -for the building up of this vast intellectual edifice out of such -rude materials as the man and woman of Eden, when the two thousand -years following have been productive of so little advancement, -notwithstanding the exquisite materials upon which to work that were -left for us by the Alexandrian and Athenian sages. We cannot believe -so evident an absurdity to-day; and yet it is little more than half -a century since the whole of Christendom accepted without any doubt -whatever the old traditional statement of the Church that man had only -inhabited this earth for rather less than six thousand years. - -How is it, then, that we have believed the traditionary story for so -long and now reject it as absurd? People have believed the story of -the creation according to Genesis partly because it was dangerous -to do otherwise and partly because there was no absolute proof to -the contrary. In 1774, however, a German of the name of Esper made a -discovery which gave the finishing touch to the mortal wound inflicted -upon the Christian and Jewish superstitions by the previous adoption -of the Copernican system of astronomy; and, just as Copernicus, Bruno, -Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton drove the first half-dozen -nails into the coffin of the Bible, so did this discovery of Esper -drive into it the first of the last half-dozen, the remaining five -to be subsequently added by Darwin, Huxley, Lyell, Spencer, and -Carpenter. The discovery made by J. F. Esper consisted of some human -bones, mingled with remains of the Northern bear and other species -then unknown, which were lying in the famous cavern of Gailenreuth, in -Bavaria; and this was soon followed by the discovery, in 1797, by John -Frere, at Hoxne, in Suffolk, of a number of flint weapons, mixed up -with bones of extinct animals, the whole being embedded in rocks. These -and other similar discoveries made some sensation among scientific men, -which resulted in the publication, in 1823, of Dr. Buckland’s “Reliquiæ -Diluvianæ,” in which the author summed up all the facts then known -tending to the establishment of the truth that man co-existed with -animals long since extinct. Immediately after this, in 1826, Tournal, -of Narbonne, gave to the world an account of some discoveries he had -made in a cave in Aude (France), where he had found bones of the bison -and reindeer, cut and carved by the hand of man, together with remains -of edible shell-fish, which must have been brought there by some one -who dwelt there. A few years afterwards De Christol, of Montpellier, -discovered human bones and fragments of pottery, mixed with the remains -of the Northern bear, hyæna, and rhinoceros, in the caverns of Pondres -and Souvignargues. In 1833 Schmerling found in the caverns of Engis and -Enghihoul, in Belgium, two human skulls, surrounded by teeth of the -rhinoceros, elephant, bear, and hyæna, on some of which were marks of -human workmanship, and under which were flint knives and arrow-heads. -Two years afterwards Joly, a Montpellier professor, found in the cave -of Nabrigas (Lozère) the skull of a cave-bear, having upon it marks -made by an arrow, beside which were scattered fragments of pottery -bearing the imprints of human fingers. Following upon these discoveries -were those made in 1842 by Godwin Austen at Kent’s Cavern, near -Torquay, consisting of animal remains and results of man’s handiwork; -and those made in 1844, by Lund, in the caves of Brazil, consisting of -skeletons of thirty human beings, an ape, various carnivora, rodents, -pachyderms, sloths, etc. Kent’s Cavern, in 1847, was again the spot to -which all eyes were turned; for there McEnery had found, under a layer -of stalagmite, the remains of men and extinct animals. This remarkable -discovery was followed, in the same year, by the appearance of a work -by Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, in which he described the flint -tools, etc., found in the excavations made there and in the Somme -valley as far as Amiens. In 1857 the celebrated Neanderthal skull was -discovered; and in 1858 Prestwich, Falconer, and Pengelly (Englishmen) -found more flint implements in the lower strata of the Baumann cave, -in the Hartz mountains, at the same time that Gosse _fils_ obtained -from the sand-pits of Grenelle various flint implements and bones of -the mammoth; while in the following year Fontan discovered in the cave -of Massat (Ariége) utensils, human teeth, and bones of the cave-bear, -hyæna, and cave-lion. Near Bedford, about the same time, Wyatt found, -in the gravel-beds, flints similar to those found at Abbeville, and -bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, horse, and deer; -which discovery was soon followed by that of the celebrated human -burial place at Aurignac, by Lartet, in 1860, in which were found human -remains, together with bones of the bear, reindeer, bison, hyæna, wolf, -mammoth, and rhinoceros, a number of flint and horn implements, and -the remaining ashes of fires. The world was at last induced to give -some heed to the new cry of man’s extreme antiquity when Boucher de -Perthes, of Abbeville, in 1863, discovered at Moulin-Quignon, at a -depth of fifteen feet, in a virgin argilo-ferruginous bed belonging to -the later Pleiocene or early Pleistocene period, the half of a human -lower jaw-bone (which had belonged to an aged person of small stature), -covered with an earthy crust, by the side of which lay a flint hatchet, -covered with the same kind of crust; and not far from which were also -buried, in the same bed, two mammoths’ teeth. After this discovery -scientific men generally subscribed to the new theory of the antiquity -of man, and all seemed eager to pursue their investigations without -delay, the result being that we are now receiving, almost day by day, -fresh evidence on the subject, and hope soon to arrive at a tolerably -accurate conclusion as to the earliest date of man’s appearance upon -earth. - -Let us now look more closely at the discoveries made in the various -caves referred to above, and also see what advances had been made by -geologists in other directions during the same period, as well as what -amount of progress has been made during the last twenty years. Dr. -Schmerling, the Belgian geologist and comparative anatomist, after -exploring the Engis and other caves in the province of Liège, published -an illustrated work, giving the results of his investigations, which -were highly interesting, and contributed largely to the establishment -of the theory of man’s antiquity. In these caves Schmerling found the -bones of the cave-bear, hyæna, elephant, and rhinoceros, together with -human bones, none of which gave any evidence of having been gnawed, -from which circumstance it was inferred that these caves had not -been the dwelling-places of wild beasts; and the fact that the bones -were scattered about without any order having been observed in their -distribution pointed to the conclusion that the caves had not been used -as burying-places. Probably, therefore, these remains had been washed -into the caves from time to time, and had gradually become covered -with deposit, and thus protected and preserved. There were no complete -skeletons found; but in the Engis cave were discovered the remains of -at least three human beings, the skull of one being embedded by the -side of a mammoth’s tooth, and in such a state of disintegration that -it fell to pieces on being moved; while the skull of another, an adult, -was buried, five feet deep, by the side of a tooth of a rhinoceros, -several bones of a horse, and some reindeer bones. Besides the bones, -there were also discovered some rude flint implements, a polished bone -needle, and other products of man’s industry, all embedded in the same -layer as the bones. It follows from these facts that man lived on the -banks of the Meuse at the same time as the rhinoceros, mammoth, hyæna, -and cave-bear, extinct animals of the Pleiocene and early Pleistocene -era. - -Not far from these caves are those of the Lesse Valley, in which Dupont -discovered, in 1864, three different layers of human and other remains, -the lowest of which contained the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and -other extinct animals, together with flint instruments of the rudest -type, instruments of reindeer horn, and a human lower jaw with a marked -resemblance to the lower jaw of the higher apes. Another discovery at -some little distance away from these caves was made in 1857 in what -is called the Neanderthal Cave, in the valley of the Düssel, between -Düsseldorf and Elberfeld, which is important, not so much as an -indication of the length of time that man has lived on the earth, as -of the close resemblance existing between the skulls of human beings -in the early Pleistocene era and the skulls of apes. The discovery -consisted of a human skull and a number of human bones, together with -the bones of the rhinoceros, which latter were subsequently unearthed. -The skull was of such a character as to raise the question of whether -it was human or not, the forehead being narrow and very low and the -projection of the supra-orbital ridges enormously great. The long bones -of the skeleton agreed with those of men of the present day in respect -to length, but were of extraordinary thickness, and the ridges for the -attachment of muscles were developed in an unusual degree, showing that -the individual was possessed of great muscular strength, especially -in the thoracic neighbourhood. Drs. Schaafhausen and Fuhlrott pointed -out that the depression of the forehead was not due to any artificial -pressure, as the whole skull was symmetrical, and that the individual -must have been distinguished by an extraordinarily small cerebral -development as well as uncommon corporeal strength. Professor Huxley -considers this Neanderthal skull to be the most ape-like one he ever -beheld, and Busk, a great authority, gives valuable reasons for -supposing it to be the skull of an individual occupying a position -midway between the man and the gorilla or chimpanzee. Huxley has -carefully compared the Engis and Neanderthal skulls, and his remarks -upon them are given in their entirety in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.” -From these remarks we gather that the Engis skull was dolichocephalic -in form, extreme length 7.7 inches, extreme breadth not more than 5.25 -inches, forehead well arched, superciliary prominences well but not -abnormally developed, horizontal circumference 20½ inches, longitudinal -arc from nasal spine to occipital protuberance 13¾ inches, transverse -arc from one auditory foramen to the other, across the middle of the -sagittal suture, 13 inches. The Neanderthal skull is so different -from the Engis skull that Huxley says “it [Neanderthal] might well -be supposed to belong to a distinct race of mankind.” It is 8 inches -in extreme length, 5.75 inches in breadth, and only 3.4 inches from -the glabello-occipital line to the vertex; the longitudinal arc is 12 -inches, and the transverse arc probably about 10¼ inches, but, owing -to incompleteness of temporal bones, this could not be correctly -ascertained; the horizontal circumference is 23 inches, which high -figure is due to the vast development of the superciliary ridges; and -the sagittal suture, notwithstanding the great length of the skull, -only 4½ inches. Huxley sums up his examination of the Neanderthal -skull in these words: “There can be no doubt that, as Professor -Schaafhausen and Mr. Busk have stated, this skull is the most brutal of -all known human skulls, resembling those of the apes, not only in the -prodigious development of the superciliary prominences and the forward -extension of the orbits, but still more in the depressed form of the -brain-case, in the straightness of the squamosal suture, and in the -complete retreat of the occiput forward and upward from the superior -occipital ridges;” and he then proceeds to clearly show that the skull -could not have belonged to an idiot. On the whole, the Engis skull more -clearly approaches the Caucasian type, while the Neanderthal differs -entirely from all known human skulls, being more nearly allied to the -chimpanzee than to the human. Both these skulls belonged to individuals -who lived in the early Pleistocene era, the Engis being probably -the older of the two, and yet the Engis is the most like the modern -European skull, which tells us plainly that in those remote times there -were existing in Belgium and the surrounding districts two different -races of men, one highly advanced in brain evolution and the other in a -wretchedly low condition of intellectual development. The Neanderthal -skull probably formed part of an individual belonging to the tail-end -of a semi-human race, while the Engis skull, in all probability, -belonged to an oriental immigrant belonging to a more advanced race. It -must be always remembered that scientific men have long since admitted -the truth of the theory that the differences in character between the -brain of the highest races of men and that of the lowest, though less -in degree, are of the same order as those which separate the human from -the ape brain, the same rule holding good in regard to the shape of the -skull. - -The discoveries made in Kent’s Cavern, in the year 1842 and again -in 1847, led to a thorough investigation of the series of galleries -forming the now celebrated Brixham Caves, near Torquay, and as early as -1859 the labours of the explorers were rewarded by the discovery of a -number of flint implements in the cave-earth or loam, _underneath_ the -layer of stalagmite, which were the work of men living in Palæolithic -times, prior to the existence of the reindeer, whose antlers were found -deposited _in_ the layer of stalagmite. Previous to this time, when -McEnery, in 1826, examined Kent’s Cavern, he had stated that he had -found several teeth of _Ursus cultridens_, a huge carnivore belonging -to Tertiary formations, but now extinct; and as this monster was first -known in Meiocene deposits in France, but had never been traced in any -cavern or fluviatile Pleistocene deposits, although it had occurred in -Pleiocene formations, considerable excitement was caused on the score -that the flint implements lately found might possibly have belonged -to Meiocene, or at latest early Pleiocene men. Further investigations -were accordingly commenced for the purpose of solving this problem, -the explorations being under the superintendence of Messrs. Vivian and -Pengelley; and in 1872 they at last came upon a fine incisor of _Ursus -cultridens_ in the uppermost part of the cave-earth, which settled the -point as to man’s existence at the same time with the extinct bear -in England. The Kent’s Cavern deposits are as follows:—1. Limestone. -2. Black mould, containing articles of mediæval, Romano-British, and -pre-Roman date. 3. Stalagmite floor, from 16 to 20 inches thick, -containing a human jaw and remains of extinct animals. 4. Black -earth, containing charcoal and other evidence of fire, and also bone -and flint instruments. 5. Red cave-earth, containing Palæolithic -implements and bones and teeth of extinct animals, such as cave-lion, -mammoth, rhinoceros, and hyæna, and including the tooth of the _Ursus -cultridens_, or _Machairodus latidens_. 6. Second stalagmite floor, -from 3 to 12 feet thick, covering bones of bears only. 7. Dark red -sandy loam, containing bones of bears, three flint implements, and -one flint chip. The fact of the _Ursus cultridens_ being contemporary -in England with man is of enormous interest to geologists and -anthropologists, for it places the date of Palæolithic man as far back -as the Pleiocene age, instead of, as heretofore, in the Pleistocene. - -The caves of the Dordogne Valley in south-western France have supplied -us with some very good relics of a very remote period. They are -situated in rocks of Cretaceous age, and form shelters in which -ancient huntsmen used to find dwelling-places, leaving behind them -refuse-heaps and instruments of various kinds. In the Vezère Caves, -which are included in the Dordogne series, there is one of very -ancient date, Le Moustier, in which is a bed of sand having both above -and below floors of a similar character, containing charcoal, flint -instruments, and other remains. The depth of this sandy bed is about 10 -inches, having the appearance of a river deposit; and, although many -flint instruments have been found in it of a more ancient date than -those unearthed in the other caves, yet no worked bone instruments have -been discovered. In another cave, the Langerie, bronze and polished -stone objects have been found, together with various kinds of pottery, -below which, and under masses of fallen rock, covered with Palæolithic -flints and sculptured bones and antlers of reindeer, a human skeleton -was discovered lying under a block of stone. In another cave, La -Madeleine, was found a mammoth tusk, on which was rudely carved a -picture of the animal itself, proving incontestably that cave-men -lived here in mammoth times. In the Mentone cave Dr. Rivière, in 1872, -suddenly came upon the bones of a human foot, which caused him to make -a very careful examination of the deposit, the result being that he -unearthed an entire human skeleton at a depth of 20 feet, surrounded by -a large number of unpolished flint flakes and scrapers, and a fragment -of a skewer, about six inches long. No metal, pottery, or polished -flint was found; but bones of extinct mammals were scattered about, -thus suggesting a remote Palæolithic antiquity. The skeleton is 5 feet -9 inches high, the skull dolichocephalic, forehead narrow, temple -flattened, and facial angle measuring 80 to 85 degrees; the teeth -were worn flat by eating hard food, and the long bones are strong and -flattened. - -No human bones have as yet been discovered in the deposit of the Somme -valley, where so many Palæolithic flints have been found; but in the -valley of the Seine, at Clichy, Messrs. Bertrand and Reboux found, in -1868, portions of human skeletons in the same beds where Palæolithic -implements had been embedded. These bones were found at a depth of -seventeen feet, and included a female skull of very inferior type, -having enormously thick frontal bone and a low, narrow roof, slanting -from before backwards. A very good specimen of human fossil is that -known as the “Denise Fossil Man,” comprising the remains of more -than one skeleton found in a volcanic breccia near Le Puy-en-Velay, -in Central France. These bones have been very carefully examined by -the members of the French Scientific Congress, as also the deposit -in which they were found, and the opinion arrived at is that the -fossils are genuine and their age early Pleistocene. Another most -interesting specimen of ancient human remains is the skeleton found -buried under four Cypress forests, superimposed one upon the other, in -the delta of the Mississippi, near New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen -feet. Dr. Dowler ascribes to this skeleton an antiquity of at least -50,000 years, reckoning by the minimum length of time that must have -elapsed during the formation of the deposits found and the sinking of -the four successive forest beds. In another part of the same delta, -near Natchez, a human bone, _os innominatum_, accompanied by bones -of the mastodon and megalonyx, was washed out of what is believed -to be a still more ancient alluvial deposit. Dr. Dickeson, in whose -possession the said bone is now, states that it was buried at a depth -of thirty feet, and geologists agree that its date is very early, some -maintaining that it is probably of a higher antiquity than any yet -discovered. - -From these discoveries it is abundantly evident that man existed -on the earth contemporaneously with the mastodon and other extinct -mammals belonging to the Pleiocene and early Pleistocene eras. There -are, however, people who stoutly deny that this can be so—at any rate, -as regards Northern and Central Europe—and who rank the discoveries -at Moulin Quignon, Engis, Kent’s Cavern, etc., with late Pleistocene -remains. They maintain that the beds in which these relics were found -could not have been of Pleiocene or early Pleistocene formation, -inasmuch as they lie _above_ the till and boulder-clay which form the -glacial deposits of the time when Europe was an Arctic region—that -is to say, of late Pleistocene times. Therefore, they say, man’s -earliest existence in Europe was post-glacial or late Pleistocene. -But while the fact of the human remains having been discovered above -the boulder-clay appears to point to a post-glacial date, still -there is confronting us the perplexing anomaly of the contemporary -existence of extinct mammals belonging to a tropical fauna, which, -if we accept this theory, involves the necessity of admitting that a -tropical climate followed the last glacial epoch—a condition of things -that we know never existed at all. The fact is there have been more -periods of glaciation than one, each being followed by the deposition -of boulder-clays; and between the periods of intense Arctic cold -there were intervals of tropical or sub-tropical heat, when mammals -belonging to and requiring a tropical climate ventured as far north as -the north of England, to become extinct when the period of glaciation -supervened. The last glacial period, we know, extended its area of -influence as far as the high peaks of Switzerland and Northern Italy, -completely overwhelming the whole of Northern Europe as far south as -the latitude of 45º, and the whole of North America as far south as -the latitude of 40º; since when there has been a gradual diminution -of cold until the present temperate climate supervened. Now, if it -can be positively ascertained that all the boulder-clays found in -England and Northern Europe were deposited during and immediately -after this last glacial period, the date of man’s first appearance -in those districts, as far as we have as yet any evidence, must be -post-glacial; but in such a case it would have been impossible that a -tropical fauna and flora could have existed in the same localities, -whereas their remains have been abundantly found lying side by side -with the remains of Palæolithic man. The conclusion we must draw is -that the boulder-clays found below the remains of Palæolithic man could -not have been deposited after the last period of glaciation, but must -have followed some prior glacial condition, and that man existed in -England and Northern Europe contemporaneously with extinct mammalia -during inter-glacial or pre-glacial times, when the climate of England -was tropical or sub-tropical—that is to say, in middle Pleistocene or -late Pleiocene times. If man really existed in England in Pleiocene -times, in favour of which view there appears to be strong evidence, -he would have been in all probability the companion of the extinct -tropical mammalia found deposited in the Cromer Forest beds, and some -of which belonged to Meiocene times. This forest was in existence at -the close of the Pleiocene era, and stretched from Cromer far away into -what is now the German Ocean, uniting Norfolk and Suffolk to Holland -and Belgium; but soon after the commencement of the Pleistocene period -the North Sea gradually swept over the old continent between Britain -on the west and Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands on the east, thus -converting the old forest at Cromer into the bed of the ocean, where -the stumps of the trees may now be seen embedded in deposit at very -low tide. Immediately after the disappearance of this forest the first -period of glaciation commenced, from which moment until the close of -the glacial periods the alternations in temperature and surface level -were frequent and of enormous magnitude, the correct sequence of which -changes we have as yet no proper conception. - -If we go back to the commencement of the Tertiary great division of the -geological periods, we shall find that, at the beginning of the Eocene -deposits, the Secondary cretaceous rocks had been upheaved from the -bottom of the sea, and had become the dry ground of a large continent, -of which the British Islands formed a part; so that Eocene fauna and -flora in England had free communication with continental life. The -relative positions of land and water during this first Tertiary period -were as follows: The great continent spread from North America to -Europe, uniting Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Faroes, Shetlands, Orkneys, -Ireland, and Britain (except south-east portion), with Scandinavia -and Spitzbergen on the north-east, and with France (Brittany) and -Spain on the south. There were three seas—the North Sea, which, like -a wedge with its point downwards, separated Greenland, Iceland, and -Faroes from Spitzbergen and Scandinavia; the South-Eastern Sea, which -stretched from the top of Denmark to Boston in Lincolnshire, thence -to Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire, and on to Cherbourg, covering the whole -of the east and south-east of England; and the Atlantic, which was -separated from the North Sea by Iceland, Faroes, and intermediate -lands, and from the South-Eastern Sea by the British Islands, Western -France, and intermediate lands. These Eocene seas teemed with fish -now only found in more Southern latitudes; while the inland lakes and -rivers abounded with reptilian life. On the land tropical flora and -fauna flourished, among the former being palms, cypresses, and giant -cacti, and among the latter, in Lower Eocene times, large numbers of -marsupial species, in the Middle Eocene also lion-like carnivora, and -in Upper Eocene tapir-like animals, herds of Anchitheres (ancestors -of the horse), Hyænodon (ancestors of hyæna), and Lemurs. The Miocene -period opened with a lower temperature than that of the Eocene, and -with a considerable difference of surface level in Denmark and on the -South of England, the land having been upheaved to such an extent as -to leave no part of the country under water, uniting Yorkshire with -Denmark, and dividing the South-Eastern Sea into two portions, the -Northern one stretching from Schleswig as far as a few miles from -the present Lincolnshire coast and then back to the present mouth -of the Scheldt; and the latter stretching from Boulogne-sur-Mer to -Hastings and Portland Bill, and back to Cherbourg. Otherwise the -relationship between land and water was much the same as in Eocene -times. The climate of the Meiocene period was sub-tropical, and in -the lower strata were found placental mammals, but few marsupials; in -the middle beds remains of the mastodon, rhinoceros, anthropomorphous -apes, sloths, and ant-eaters; and in the upper layers antelopes -and gazelles; but no mammalian species in any Meiocene deposit has -continued to present times, all having become extinct. When we arrive -at the Pleiocene age we have quite a different state of things; the -Atlantic and North Seas gradually united together, thus separating -Europe from Faroes, Iceland, Greenland, and North America; and on the -east of Britain the North Sea slowly descended as far as the present -mouth of the Thames, thus separating Britain from Norway, Denmark, and -the Netherlands; while the two Southern seas disappeared altogether, -leaving a huge continent, the borders of which stretched from the -present west coast of Norway to Denmark, the Netherlands, across to -Essex, central Norfolk (east Norfolk and Suffolk being part of North -Sea), and up to the Shetlands, at which point a turn was made south -to a few miles west of present west coast of Ireland, and thence -southward to a few miles west of present coast of Brittany, in France, -thus leaving the British Isles, France, and the rest of Europe as one -large continent. To accomplish these enormous changes, a very long -time was required, during which the climate was gradually becoming -more temperate, being in older Pleiocene times sub-tropical and in -newer Pleiocene warm-temperate; while the fauna and flora gradually -became less tropical in kind. The older Pleiocene deposits are divided -into coralline crag and reg crag, while the newer Pleiocene consist -of Norwich crags and Weybourne sands, on a level with which latter -was the Cromer forest, submerged by the North Sea during the earlier -Pleistocene period. - -At this point commence those enormous alterations in the surface level -and climate of this part of the world which produced such extraordinary -results, and during which man made his first appearance in Britain. At -the very commencement of the Pleistocene era the temperature in Britain -was lowered to such an extent as to produce a sudden disappearance -of the semi-tropical fauna and flora: the land had reached the high -elevation of 500 feet above the present level, joining Scotland and -Scandinavia, and there had appeared in the North Sea large blocks of -ice, which rapidly increased in size and quantity, and continually -pushed farther south, until at length, after a long lapse of time, the -whole of Northern Europe, Asia, and America as far as the latitude -of about 45° became like a huge ice-house, the Arctic cold driving -all life before it to a more southern latitude, those forms which had -lived in Britain during Meiocene and Pleiocene times being the first to -disappear on the earliest sign of the approaching cold, and the Arctic -flora and fauna which took their place being afterwards compelled also -to move southward, owing to the intense severity of the glaciation. - -When this state of things had lasted a very considerable time the -climate became milder, the melting ice deposited its boulder-clay, and -the high continent commenced to sink again to its former level, during -which gradual submergence the climate became still warmer, until it -at length reached a more than temperate mildness, at one time being -almost tropical. Still the land continued to sink, and this submergence -lasted until the British part of the great continent had become a large -archipelago of small islands, the surface of the land being upwards -of one thousand feet below the present level. It has been calculated -that such a submergence would require at the least 88,000 years to -be completed; so that a general idea may be formed of the enormous -periods of time occupied by these glacial and inter-glacial epochs. -While the British archipelago existed, another change of climate -took place, resulting in another glacial period, but probably not of -such intensity as the previous one. At this period the upper boulder -clay was deposited in the sea, to be afterwards upheaved above the -sea level in Yorkshire and other places. After a long continuance of -this glaciation the land commenced to rise again and the climate to -improve, until, after a period of about 136,000 years (according to -careful computation), there was produced another continental condition, -the ground reaching about 600 feet higher than now, and the climate -becoming temperate once more. England, Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, -Denmark, the Netherlands, France, and Spain once again formed a mighty -continent, the climate of which was cold-temperate, becoming milder -year by year, and the elevation of which was gradually declining, as it -has continued to do until the present time, the British islands slowly -becoming once more separated from the continent of Europe. During the -last temperate continental condition Palæolithic and Neolithic man -lived in Britain, as is clearly proved by the evidence brought forward -by various authors in support of the contention; but, as we have seen, -Palæolithic man’s remains discovered in the various deposits were -often in the company of the bones of extinct mammals belonging to a -tropical fauna, which species could not have existed in Britain with -such a climate as that which followed the last period of glaciation, -but must have lived either in pre-glacial times, or, in other words, at -the end of Pleiocene or very beginning of Pleistocene times, or else -in inter-glacial or mid-Pleistocene times; and whichever alternative -be adopted we are bound to fix the date of the Palæolithic remains at -the same period. To fix their date in the very earliest of Pleistocene, -or latest of Pleiocene times, would give them an antiquity of nearly -300,000 years; to fix it in mid-Pleistocene times, during the temperate -or inter-glacial period of submergence, would give them an antiquity -of upwards of 170,000 years; and to fix it in post-glacial times would -give them an antiquity of probably 70,000 or 80,000 years at most. The -inter-glacial theory would, on the whole, appear most likely to be the -correct one, were it not for the fact that, during the inter-glacial -period, this country was partially submerged, which would probably have -prevented any communication in those times between the islands and -the mainland. We must, however, not forget that the great submergence -commenced during the first period of glaciation, and did not cease -until the second period had been reached, so that the inter-glacial -period of warmth would take place when England and Scotland were but -little different from now in their relationship to the continent, and -long before the archipelago was formed. Whether it would have been -possible under these conditions for Palæolithic man to cross from the -continent to the British islands we cannot say; but the probability is -that the distance to travel by water would have been far too great in -such early times; in which case we have no alternative but to place the -date of man’s earliest existence in England at the latest Pleiocene -age, as indeed we are compelled to do by the fact that Palæolithic -implements have been found in Kent’s cavern side by side with teeth of -the extinct bear of that period, as well as by the discoveries made in -the Engis and other caves. - -In Southern Europe and the Southern States of North America the glacial -epoch had little effect, so that man’s age upon the earth in those -districts will be better calculated than it can ever be here or in -France and Belgium; and it will not be surprising if we learn before -long that man lived in the districts surrounding the Mediterranean -Sea in early Pleiocene times. This sea, it must be recollected, was -almost dried up during the early and middle Pleistocene periods, and -there was no communication between it and the Atlantic Ocean, so that -Europe was connected both on the east and west with Africa, and was -also one continuous continent with Asia, there being then no Black -Sea and no Caspian Sea. The probability, therefore, is that man first -became a rational being, parting with his ape-like characteristics, -somewhere in Southern Asia or Northern Africa, or, more probably still, -in the now submerged continent of Lemuria, which once joined China, -India, and Africa in one continental system; after which he emigrated -in different directions, finding his way north-westwards over the -European continent as far as the very limit of the Franco-British -continental system. At what period man first existed in the districts -around the Mexican Gulf it is at present impossible to say; but the -skull found in the Mississippi beds is calculated to be at least -50,000 years old, and by some the date is fixed at 100,000 years, -which would carry us back to middle Pleistocene times at least. Man, -therefore, most probably existed in Europe long before he had made -his appearance in the new world, although it is quite possible that -further investigation may lead to the discovery of a still more -ancient stock than that to which the Mississippi skull belonged. How -long a time elapsed between the first appearance of Palæolithic man -in Northern Europe, and the subsequent advent of Neolithic man, it is -at present impossible to say with any degree of certainty; but the -interval must have been of enormous length, for we find no traces of -polished stone implements until the very close of the Pleistocene era -during the last Franco-British continental system. At this period man -had become much more civilised than his ancestors of the Palæolithic -age; his implements were more ornamental and better fitted for the -purposes for which they were intended; his mode of life had become more -settled; and he had developed primitive industries. In the ancient “hut -circles” found at Standlake and at Fisherton, near Salisbury, have -been found instruments used for spinning and weaving, which date back -to Neolithic times, also fragments of pottery and stones used for -grinding corn, side by side with the remains of domestic animals. From -this we conclude that Neolithic man was at this time a companion of -domestic animals, a keeper of flocks and herds, and an agriculturalist. -He very soon became, in addition to this, a miner, as is evident from -the remains found at Cissbury, on the South Downs, and at Grimes -Graves, near Bandon, in Suffolk. Shafts had been sunk and galleries -dug out of the ground in order to unearth a better kind of flint for -manufacturing useful implements; and in some of these galleries the -tools of the workmen have been discovered, consisting of picks made out -of stags’ antlers, polished stone celts, chisels of bone and antler, -and small cups made of chalk. With these and other primitive tools the -flint had been worked out in several places, forming deep hollows in -and near which were the remains of birds, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, -and dogs, which evidently had served as companions to and food for -the miners. Canoes, hollowed out of large trees by the use of fire -and axes, have also been discovered, together with huge paddles for -propelling them; and numerous have been the discoveries of heads of -javelins, arrows, and spears, which were probably used as weapons of -warfare, the population by this time having grown large and divided -itself into small communities more or less at enmity with each other. - -Similar progress was made by Neolithic man on the continent of Europe, -as we know from the discoveries made in Switzerland. As early as 1829 -very ancient piles had been discovered in the lake of Zürich, which -have since been found to be the remains of primitive lake-dwellings, -dating from Neolithic times. These peculiar habitations consisted of -wooden houses built on platforms erected on a number of wooden piles -driven into the bottom of the lake, and were, no doubt, so constructed -with the view of protecting the small colony from the raids of wild -beasts and warlike people from other parts of the country. Most of -these lake-dwellings were burnt down, their charred remains sinking -to the bottom of the lake, where they have been discovered together -with heaps of corn, pieces of woven and plaited cloth, mealing or -grinding stones, earthenware implements, nets and mats, and implements -of stone, antler, and bone. Numbers of domestic and other animals -were kept in these dwellings, such as the dog, horse, pig, sheep, and -cow; and fish appears to have been a regular article of consumption. -Similar discoveries have been made in Denmark by Professor Steenstrup -and others, which show an equal advance in civilisation and culture -during early Neolithic times. Vast accumulations of refuse matter, in -the form of oyster-shells, fish-bones, and animal remains, have been -found near the shores of the Baltic, the whole being heaped up into -mounds, evidently having formed public refuse-heaps for communities -of settlers. Scattered about were also found polished stone axes, but -no metal implements; while upon some of the stones were well-drawn -engravings, pointing to a considerable advance in culture; and the fact -that the remains of the domestic animals prove them to be of southern -and eastern origin suggests the probability that these settlers were -immigrants from the south-east of Europe, where we should expect -considerable advance to have been effected in civilisation. - -It is extremely probable and generally admitted that man became -civilised in oriental countries, and made his way northwards and -westwards, gradually covering the whole of Europe; so that we should -expect the races of Egypt, Persia, and India to be far more highly -cultured than those who were establishing themselves in the west at -the same time. It would take a very long time indeed for people to -spread themselves from Egypt and Persia over the whole of Europe, and -during all this time they would naturally, owing to their wandering -habits, advance in civilisation far more slowly than those who remained -in their original homes. At the time, therefore, that Neolithic man -had become a settler in Europe and Britain we may fairly suppose that -Egypt, Persia, and India were great, powerful, and prosperous states, -well advanced in civilisation and art, and, perhaps, even the tail-end -of a mighty and prosperous civilisation that had preceded them long -ages before. It was probably from these highly-civilised centres that -the discovery of bronze was carried into Europe, which marked the -commencement of what is called the Bronze or Prehistoric Age, during -which period the use of bronze implements almost entirely superseded -that of polished stone weapons. - -Before the Bronze Age had fairly commenced the last of the Pleistocene -deposits had taken place, and the recent layers of earth had begun to -distribute themselves upon the older strata; but how long a time has -actually elapsed since the completion of the Pleistocene stratification -has not been accurately ascertained. A rough approximation to the -relative length of the Pleistocene and Prehistoric periods may be -obtained from the fact that the valleys were cut down by streams -flowing through them as much as a hundred feet deep in the former -period, while the work done by the rivers during the latter period is -measured by the insignificant fluviatile deposits close to the adjacent -streams. We may, therefore, conclude that the Pleistocene era was, -beyond all calculation, of longer duration than the Prehistoric. It -must not be imagined from this that the Prehistoric period was a short -one, for there have been a series of changes in the fauna, and a series -of invasions of different races of men into Europe, which must have -required a very long time to have been brought about, judging from -similar changes recorded in history. - -It is believed that, soon after the commencement of the Bronze Age, an -Aryan stream of life poured over Europe from Central Asia, and finally -invaded England, driving out the old inhabitants and re-stocking the -country with a host of Aryan Celts, who brought with them the knowledge -of bronze manufacture. The defeated natives retreated to Ireland -and the west of England and Scotland, and finally gave themselves -up to their conquerors, whom they in future served as slaves. Thus -were annihilated the Neolithic men of Britain, and thus was the use -of polished stone weapons superseded by that of bronze implements. -These Celtic invaders, like their conquered predecessors, lived upon -the flesh both of wild and domestic animals, as is evident from the -discovery made in 1867 at Barton Mere, near Bury St. Edmunds, where -bronze spear-heads were found in and around large piles and blocks -of stone, together with vast quantities of the broken bones of the -stag, roe, wild boar, hare, urus, horse, ox, hog, and dog, as well -as fragments of pottery. Fire was produced by these men by striking a -flint flake against a piece of iron pyrites, as is evident from the -discovery of these articles in and around charred remains of fires; -thus a great advance was made in this direction upon the habits of the -older inhabitants, who had only been able to procure fire by rapidly -turning a piece of wood between their two hands, the point being fixed -in a hollow on another piece of wood, so that the great friction which -resulted produced heat sufficient to generate flame. - -Following the Bronze Age was the Iron Age, during which period the -historic era commenced; and thus we have not only various discoveries -to prove that iron gradually supplanted bronze, but history bears -witness to the same truth. The Homeric legends abound with feats -performed by heroes who wielded bronze and iron weapons; and from -Hesiod, who wrote nearly five hundred years before Herodotus, we learn -that iron had already superseded bronze among the Greeks, and that the -archæologists of his day recognised a distinct era of the past as the -Age of Bronze. The probability is that the discovery of the mode of -separating iron from its ore and turning it into useful articles was -made in Asia, from whence it was afterwards introduced into Europe; -for we find that at the very first appearance of iron in Britain and -France there were iron coins and iron ornaments in regular use among -the people, which articles were no doubt brought by invading tribes of -oriental people. In the early or prehistoric portion of the Iron Age -the practice of burying the dead at full length first became known in -Britain, cremation having always been practised previously. - -Having now arrived at historic times, our inquiry into man’s antiquity -need not be further continued. For the searcher after truth there only -now remains the task of carefully considering the facts here brought -forward and comparing the conclusions arrived at with the old orthodox -story of the creation of the world and man as found in the Bible. If -the story read in the Book of Nature be a true one, then man has lived -upon the earth several hundred thousand years, and has passed from -a state of unconscious animal existence, through innumerable stages -of savage, semi-savage, and civilised conditions, to his present -commanding position. If the story read in the so-called Book of God be -a true one, then the world and man were created less than six thousand -years ago. The reader must judge for himself which is the truth. - - - - - PLAN OF EVOLUTION OF MIND IN MAN - - INDIVIDUAL INTELLECTUAL RACE - ASCENT PRODUCTS EMOTIONAL PRODUCTS ASCENT - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 15 Yrs. | Science | Rational Emotion | Homo Sapiens| - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 10 Yrs. | Monotheism | Melancholy & Ecstasy | Homo Cultus | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 5 Yrs. | Polytheism | Reverence, Remorse | Homo | - | | | & Courtesy | Semi-Cultus | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 3-1/2 Yrs. | Fetishism | Awe and | Homo | - | | | Appreciation of Art | Semi-Ferox | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 3 Yrs. | Superstition | Avarice, Envy, Hate, | | - | | | Hope, Vanity, | | - | | | Mirth, Love of Beauty | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 2-1/2 Yrs. | Definite Morality | | Homo Ferox | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 26 Mos. | Judgment, | | Alali | - | | Recollection & | | | - | | Self Consciousness| | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 22 Mos. | Speech | | Semi-Human | - | | | | Apes | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 20 Mos. | Concerted Action | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 16 Mos. | Knowledge of the | | | - | | use of Simple | | | - | | Instruments | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 14 Mos. | Articulation | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 13 Mos. | Indefinite | | Anthropoid | - | | Morality | | Apes | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 8 Mos. | True Reason | Pride, Shame, Deceit, |Monkeys, Dogs| - | | | Passion, Cruelty & | | - | | | Ludicrousness | & Elephants | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 6 Mos. | Understanding | Sympathy, Curiosity, |Horses, Pigs | - | | of Words | Revenge & Gratitude | & Cats | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 5 Mos. | Dreaming | Emulation, | Birds | - | | | Jealousy, Joy, Grief. | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 4 Mos. | Recognition | Anger | Reptiles | - | | of Persons | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 15 Wks. | Recognition | Play | Insects | - | | of Places | | and Fishes | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 14 Wks. | Association | Pugnacity | Crustaceans | - | | of Ideas | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 13 Wks. | Conscious Memory | Fear | Crustaceans | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 1 to 2 | Pain and Pleasure | | Vermes | - | Mos. | | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | 3 Wks. | Consciousness | | Higher | - | | | | Molluscs | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | Birth | Imperfect Sense | | Lower | - | | organs | | Molluscs | - | | Primary Instincts | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | Embryo | Non-Nervous | | Amœbæ | - | | Adjustment | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - | Germ | Protoplasmic | | Protoplasm | - | | Motion | | | - +————————————+——————————————————-+——————————————————————-+————————————-+ - - -[Illustration: A creeping Amœba, or unicellular Protist that changes -its form continually; with cell-nucleus in the middle, within which is -the nucleolus. After Haeckel.] - -[Illustration: Gastrula of a Gasteropoda (Gastrœada) After Haeckel. -A. Ectoderm. B. Endoderm. C. Mouth. D. Gastric cavity.] - - - - -EVOLUTION OF MIND. - - -It seems hardly credible that there should exist people who profess -to accept the Darwinian theory of development of species in all -its fulness, and yet reject the idea of the human mind having been -evolved by slow stages from the primitive sense-organ of our lowliest -ancestors, the Protista. Such inconsistency seems almost puerile, and, -were it not for the fact that the admission of this truth would be the -final blow at the various faiths of the world, we should not be called -upon to-day to defend a position so utterly impregnable as that assumed -by Haeckel and others in regard to the evolution of the human mind. -When education has advanced further there will, we must hope, be less -of this shutting of the eyes to obvious truths for the mere sake of -propping up for a little while longer the belief in a batch of fairy -tales and preposterous legends. As we look around us upon the wonderful -objects of nature we see everywhere animation and law; the heavens -above are full of life—suns, planets, moons, and other celestial -bodies incessantly moving to and fro, all bound in their courses by -the immutable laws of nature; the vast ocean, teeming with myriads -of living beings, is incessantly rolling and roaring like some great -monster, but never exceeds the limits which nature has assigned to -its action; and the whole face of the earth presents a constant scene -of activity of some kind or other—volcanoes discharging their molten -fluid, huge glaciers grinding along the ground, monster rivers rushing -forward with incessant roar, and the vegetable and animal kingdoms -increasing and multiplying at a marvellous pace. All this is life—in -fact, everything we see around us, of whatever form or shape, is life -of some sort. The very ground upon which we stand is full of life, -each particle of dust being held to its fellow particles by mutual -attraction; and there is not a single atom of the earth’s substance or -of the whole universe that we can say is minus this property of life -or activity; nothing in the universe that we know of ever remains for -one moment in a state of rest; everything is constantly moving, and -every particle of the whole contributes its own share to the general -activity which we term motion or life. The whole universe is a huge -manifestation of phenomena, which make up the sum-total of life or -activity. The sun rotating on its axis is one form of life; the moon -silently wandering round our planet is another form of life; the trees -and animals growing and multiplying on the land are other forms; and -every lump of ore taken out of the ground and every paving stone in -our streets are other forms of life. Every particle of every substance -whatever is in a state of continual motion, and therefore full of life. -In fact, it is this very motion or life that sustains matter; for -matter could not exist—that is, its particles could not hold together, -and thus form substance—without the life, motion, activity, or whatever -we like to term the property which operates upon them and produces -mutual cohesion. - -Life has always, therefore, been active in matter, and always will be, -for life or motion cannot be separated from matter; and, just as matter -has passed from a condition of homogeneity to one of heterogeneity, -so has life done likewise. Life possesses infinite potentiality, and -manifests itself in an infinite variety of ways by means of different -combinations, which it brings about in the molecular atoms of universal -matter. It acts, for instance, upon a planet by causing its particles -to hold together in one mass apart from other bodies of a similar or -dissimilar character; it also acts upon what we unscientifically call -inanimate nature by causing its particles to hold together, forming in -one case a stone, in another a metal, etc.; and it acts upon what we -term animated nature by causing its molecules to combine and procreate. -This power of attraction and cohesion of particles of universal matter -is life, and it depends entirely upon what particular combination of -the molecular atoms of universal matter takes place whether a sun, a -moon, a planet, a stone, a crystal, a sponge, a tree, or a man be the -result. This much is certain, however, that not one of these bodies -can ever be produced except by an evolutionary process subject to the -universal and unchangeable law which fixes the sequence. - -Animal life, as distinct from all other life, is a comparatively late -development or manifestation in the sequence of universal phenomena. -This world on which we live had existed as a compact body for millions -of ages before life assumed the character of animal life; and so -gradual was the process of evolution from the primal condition of -homogeneity, through all the manifold stages of life, until the -condition of animal life was reached, that it is impossible to fix -a particular moment when such life became manifest. So it is with -every stage of the evolutionary process; there are no starting-places -for particular species, the whole being one continuous unfolding of -phenomena, without arrest of any kind. - -It is equally impossible to fix a particular point or moment for the -manifestation of the crystal life as it is for that of the animal or -the vegetable life. All are but gradual unfoldings of the universal -potentiality. Crystal life is the highest development of what is -popularly but erroneously termed inanimate nature, and differs not one -iota from Moneron life, which is the lowest form of animal life, in -its constituent elements, the only difference between the two being in -the mode of combination of the elementary particles composing each. -The crystal elements combine in such proportions as to cause the mass -to hold together like other solid bodies, its bulk being increased by -the deposition of fresh particles upon its outer surface; while the -Moneron elements combine in such a manner as to render the body soft -and yielding, so that it can absorb nutriment from without to within -and multiply by fission. The elements of both are identically the same: -the manner of combination causes the differences between them. Many -learned men declare that, if this were true, we ought to be able to -take the five elements—viz., Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon, and -Sulphur—in the necessary proportions, and, by uniting them, form animal -life. This, they say, has been attempted, and the result has been -failure; therefore, animal life could not have been generated in that -manner, but must have been specially created at some particular moment. -This argument is absurdly unsound. These persons might just as well -say that, to substantiate the assertion that crystals are formed of a -combination of elementary molecules, we ought to be able to take the -necessary quantity of these elements, and, by uniting them together, -form a crystal; and that, if this cannot be done, then crystals also -require a special creation. The same argument for a special creation -will apply to every species of the animal, vegetable, and mineral -kingdoms. Protoplasm is the lowest form of animal life, differing from -the highest form of mineral life only in the mode of combination of -its elementary particles; but this difference causes the manifestation -of fresh phenomena, in this case as in every other modification of a -previous state of nature, which gives it the appearance of possessing -a property that had not been possessed by any substance previously, -whereas, in truth, the apparently new property is but a further -development of that previously possessed by inorganic bodies. In short, -the power of absorption possessed by the Moneron is simply one of the -many manifestations of that universal life or energy that is inherent -in all matter, and has been so from all time; but it is a comparatively -late development, occurring at a particular period in the world’s -history, when the conditions necessary for such a development were -present. Before this period no such combination of molecular atoms took -place with the same result, simply because the necessary conditions of -development were absent. In the same manner precisely there was a prior -period when no such substance as a crystal existed, the conditions -requisite for the peculiar combination of molecular atoms to result in -the formation of a crystal having been absent. - -When the world had undergone sufficient evolutionary development there -came a time when such atmospheric and other conditions were present -as to permit of a modification of the then existing substances and -properties, which resulted in the formation of the crystal; and, -precisely in the same manner, and for the same reason, a further and -later modification resulted in the formation of Protoplasm, which is -the earliest form of animal life. This little substance gradually -differentiated into two distinct parts, by a nucleus being formed -in the centre of the protoplasmic mass, and became possessed with a -peculiar power of locomotion, which caused a still greater difference -to exist between itself and its ancestral stock. This power of -locomotion, again, is but a modification of that life-power of which we -have spoken, and forms a stepping-stone between the molecular action -of mineral substances and the mental wonders of the human being. The -crystal, in common with all other bodies in the mineral kingdom, always -possessed this power of locomotion to a limited extent; every one of -the individual atoms which make up the whole substance has always had -the power of locomotion, for they all attract and repel each other and -effect cohesions by their mutual attraction. This locomotive power -underwent such a modification when cell-life (Protozoa) was manifested -that not only were the constituent molecular atoms individually -possessed of this power, as before, but the whole mass of the cell -became endowed with the same property, just as a whole continent of -free people who have been in the habit of defending themselves singly -against their enemies sometimes combine and co-operate with each -other in the form of a republic, the function of the individual being -assumed by the body as a whole. The little cellular organisms, which -are called Amœbæ, possess this extended power of locomotion, and may be -seen constantly moving about in the endeavour to locate themselves in -the brightest part of their dwelling place, frequently a little pond. -They are attracted by light, which clearly proves that they possess -a degree of sensory perception, although special sense-organs are of -course wanting, the whole mass of the body being nothing more than a -single cell composed of protoplasm and nucleus. These little cellular -organisms soon unite with each other, forming small bodies composed of -several cells in a state of cohesion (Synamœbæ), and on the surface of -these multicellular organisms are shortly afterwards thrown out minute -threads or ciliae, the first attempt at separation of sense-organs -from the surface of the body. In these tiny Protozoa, those organisms -which consist of one single cell only, the Amœbæ, as well as those -consisting of several cells in a state of union, the Synamœbæ, are -able to perform all the functions of animal life—cohesion, sensation, -motion, digestion, and reproduction; but, as the organism becomes more -and more complex, these different functions are shared among several -groups of cells. This differentiation proceeds steadily stage by stage, -until at last different senses are located in different parts of the -body, and we find animals possessing eyes, ears, noses, and mouths, one -organ performing the function of sight, another that of hearing, and -so on. All these organs of sense are but parts of the general nervous -organisation of the body, which is _apparently_ absent in the Protista, -but existing potentially in the protoplasmic substance, as it also does -in every other substance in the universe. - -The ciliated multiple cell-organism, in course of time, becomes -transformed into a hollow body, having a wall composed of a single -layer of cells, and this again, by invagination, or folding of itself -within itself, forms a double-walled cavity, or Gastrula, having an -external opening like a mouth. These little animals, the Gastrœada, -having an inner layer of cells (the endoderm), which carries on the -nutritive and assimilative functions of the organism, and an outer -layer (the ectoderm), which forms the general motor and sense-organ of -the body, are the first animal organisms to possess a real sense-organ -separate and distinct from other parts of the body. From this epidermal -organ of sense are developed, as higher forms of animal life make -their appearance, the nerve-cells and sense-cells which form the whole -nervous system. - -In the fresh-water polyp, or Hydra, which is wanting in distinct -organs of sense and nervous system, we find a remarkable sensitiveness -to touch, warmth, and light, individual ectodermic neuro-muscular -cells performing these functions, but a far greater sensibility being -exhibited in the circle of fine prehensible tentacles surrounding the -mouth than elsewhere. Here we have a marked attempt at localisation of -sense-organs, and a manifestation of instinct, which makes the little -animal shrink from the touch. - -From the Hydræ evolved the Medusæ, which, instead of being dependent -entirely on neuro-muscular cells like the parent forms, developed -minute sets of nerves and muscles, by the use of which they became -enabled to swim about easily and at their own will and pleasure. We get -in this little animal the first appearance of real nerve function, or -conductibility of stimulus along the nervous fibre to a muscle which it -causes to contract—a totally different function to the contraction of -the whole body upon a stimulus being applied to it, as in the case of -the Hydræ. - -In the worm forms, which evolve from the Gastrœada, we come across -the first attempt at special sense-organ formation, in the shape of -depressions on the integument of the body. The Himatega, or sack-worms, -possess a rudimentary spinal cord, and were the parents of the first -true vertebrates, organisms without skulls or brains, but with a true -vertebral cord. These little vermiform animals, in addition to their -rudimentary spinal cords, exhibited upon the surface of the body -several small depressions, which answered the purpose of a set of -special sense-organs, one tiny depression being set apart especially -for the perception of light waves, another for the perception of sound -waves, another for the perception of odours, etc.; and thus gradually -came about that wonderful evolutionary process by which bodies became -endowed with more or less perfect special sense-organs. - -As the animal kingdom developed into higher and higher forms of -life, and skulls and brains became the order of the day, the special -sense-organs became possessed of larger powers, at the same time -that the whole nervous organisation assumed higher and more complex -functions, resulting eventually in a very gradual unfolding of the most -wonderful of all the latent potentialities of universal life—the marvel -of consciousness. This is the present climax of Nature’s evolution, the -grandest and most awful achievement of that hidden and mysterious force -which baffles comprehension, and beside which all things seen, heard, -or felt pale into insignificance. - -To point out the precise method of the evolution of mind, step by step, -until the final climax of consciousness was reached, would require an -abler pen than mine; therefore I shall be content to briefly notice -the different products of intellectual development in the order in -which they are unfolded, showing the analogy between ontogenesis, or -the life-history of the individual, and phylogenesis, or that of the -whole race, not now as regards bodily, but only mental, evolution. We -must ever remember that the biogenetic law insists that the process -of development in the race is reflected in miniature in the embryonic -history of every individual. In other words, it is, beyond doubt, an -accepted article of faith with biologists that the development of the -individual from the embryo _in utero_ to the full-grown man is an exact -counterpart of the development of the whole race from the primitive -protoplasmic atom, the lowly Moneron, to _homo sapiens_, equally in -regard to mental as to bodily evolution. - -Every human individual commences his term of separate existence -as a tiny speck of protoplasm, and slowly advances through the -phases of separate cell-life, multicellular existence, and the -gastrula, vermiform, and pisciform stages, being finally born as a -partially-developed member of the human family, from which moment -he grows rapidly to the perfection of the adult state, having -accomplished, in the short period of about a score of years, precisely -what his counterpart, the race, effected in many millions of years. -During the period in which the individual dwells _in utero_ great -and rapid modifications take place in the general construction of -the fœtus; sensory perception makes its appearance very early, being -followed quickly by the first attempt at differentiation of special -sense-organs in the form of tiny surface depressions; the brain and -spinal system gradually take shape and make ready for future action; -and the little body slowly assumes a form suitable for separate -extra-uterine existence. At the moment of birth the brain and special -sense-organs are not yet developed to such a degree that they can -properly discharge the functions they are called upon to perform in the -mature state; they have to advance gradually to perfection in harmony -with the growth of the whole body; and thus it is that a newly-born -individual does not see, hear, or exhibit signs of consciousness until -some time has elapsed from birth, although it is, at first, quite -sensitive to cold and heat. If a lighted candle be held in front of -the eyes of a newly-born infant, and moved to and fro, it will be -at once observed that the child is totally unconscious of it; and, -if a gun be fired off in the room occupied by the child, the effect -upon the infantile organism is _nil_; but, if the air of the room be -allowed to cool, the effect will be at once perceived, for the muscles -of the child will soon begin to contract, and his vocal bellows to -act vigorously. Gradually, however, the sight, hearing, etc., become -adjusted, and the infant begins to take notice of surrounding objects, -until at about a month after birth pain and pleasure, the first -indications of the dawn of the mental powers, manifest themselves. -Conscious, as distinguished from instinctive or non-conscious, memory -appears to be exercised at about the thirteenth week, and to be -immediately followed by association of ideas, the recognition of places -and persons, and dreaming. At the same time that these indications of -intellectual development are manifesting themselves, a corresponding -unfolding of the emotions is observed. Side by side with memory appears -fear, followed by pugnacity, play, and, later, anger; while, still -later, about on a par with the first period of dreaming, or at about -the age of five months, are manifested emulation, jealousy, joy, and -grief. In about another month we notice that the child begins to -understand words, while, on the emotional side, he evinces signs of -awakening sympathy, curiosity, revenge, and gratitude, followed within -a couple of months by pride, shame, deceitfulness, passionateness, -cruelty, and ludicrousness, which show themselves at the moment the -child appears to first exercise what we term true reason. From this -point we see rapidly unfolded the higher products of intellectual -development, the first of which is morality of a very indefinite kind, -which immediately precedes articulation at the age of about fourteen -months, being closely followed by knowledge of the use of various -simple instruments, afterwards at the age of twenty months by concerted -action, and still later by speech, which generally is effected at the -age of two years, or rather earlier. Following quickly upon speech we -observe judgment, recollection, and self-consciousness manifesting -themselves, and, by the time the child has attained the age of two -years and a half, morality of a definite kind makes its appearance. - -Tracing the child’s development still further, we find the next -important intellectual manifestation—viz., superstition—to take place -at about three years of age, while concurrently the following emotional -products appear—avarice, envy, hate, hope, vanity, mirth, and a love of -the beautiful, which are followed, in the course of a few months, by -awe and an appreciation of art. From this age to the condition of adult -life, the intellectual faculties develop according to the surroundings -of the individual, while, on the emotional side, reverence, remorse, -and courtesy make their appearance at about the age of five years, and -melancholy and ecstasy at about the tenth year. - -In the foregoing ontogenetic mirror will be found the key to the -unfolding of the great mystery of the evolution of mind in the animal -kingdom. We have only to take the geological periods one after the -other, and study the various life-forms found in each to see at once -that, with the race, the order of sequence in the appearance of the -intellectual and emotional faculties is precisely the same as with the -individual. We may place the new-born infant intellectually on a par -with the lowly molluscs or the vermiform little animals which existed -in the Cambrian period, in which little organisms probably pain first -made its entry upon the earth, followed by the appearance of pleasure, -memory (conscious), and association of ideas in the lowly crustaceans -of the later Cambrian and early Silurian periods. With the spiders, -fishes, and crabs of the later Silurian and Devonian periods we have -brought before us the faculty of recognising places of which these -animals are capable, which places them intellectually on a level with a -child of four or five months old. - -The recognition of individuals next made its appearance in the reptiles -of the Carboniferous and Permian epochs; while the birds of the Oölitic -and Cretaceous periods were the first to dream, and are thus placed on -an intellectual level with a child of five or six months. The emotional -development coincides with the intellectual, just as in the case of the -infant, for we find fear manifesting itself among the lower molluscs, -pugnacity among the crustaceans, play among spiders and crabs, anger -among reptiles, and emulation, jealousy, joy, and grief among birds. We -now rise in the palæontological scale to the Tertiary period, and find -in the Eocene age equine and other mammal forms, such as cats and pigs, -which are capable of understanding words and signs, and among which we -notice a manifestation of sympathy, curiosity, revenge, and gratitude. -In the early Meiocene age we have monkeys, dogs, and elephants -exhibiting the clearest signs of true reason, as may be observed at -the present day, and at the same time manifesting such emotional -signs as pride, shame, deceitfulness, passionateness, cruelty, and -ludicrousness, which places them on an intellectual par with the infant -of less than a year old. - -In the later Meiocene age we have anthropoid apes, which may be placed -on a level with one-year-old infants, and from which evolved apes -of a higher order, which acquired the faculty of articulation, and, -afterwards becoming more human, the knowledge of the use of simple -instruments, thus reaching the intellectual level of the child of -fifteen months old. As the apes became more and more human in the -later Meiocene and early Pleistocene ages, they gradually acquired -the faculty of acting in concert and of speech; and when, having -arrived at that stage of development in which they partook more of -the character of savage man than human ape, judgment, recollection, -self-consciousness, and, lastly, definite morality manifested -themselves, thus raising the ape-like man to the level of the child of -two and a half years. In the lowest savages of to-day, as well as in -the old descendants of the ape-like men, superstition developed to a -large extent at the same time that the emotional unfolding proceeded -in the direction of avarice, envy, hate, hope, vanity, mirth, a love -of the beautiful, and afterwards art appreciation, awe, reverence, -remorse, courtesy, melancholy, and ecstasy, precisely as with the -child of from five to ten years of age. As the race improved, -becoming in turn semi-savage, semi-civilised, civilised, and cultured, -the intellectual powers, of course, developed similarly, until, at -the present day, we find men possessed of the most wonderful mental -grandeur, we might almost say, conceivable. But this would be saying -too much, for we must not forget that, just as evolution has continued -in the past from eternity, so will it continue in the future to -eternity; and who can tell to what heights the human mind may soar in -the future? - -Lofty as is the human intellect at the present time, as compared with -the mental powers of those we have left far behind in the march of -evolution, it is yet very far from being able to grasp many of the -great problems of the universe, such as that of existence. Perhaps at -some future time, in millions of ages to come, these great questions -may be answered; but at present we know they baffle the wisest men, -and continually remind us of the finite and limited character of our -intellectual faculties. - -This comparison of the mental development of the individual with that -of the whole race is extremely interesting, and provides ample material -for thought. By such comparison, and by it alone, can the science of -psychology ever be based on a sure and enduring foundation. It is all -very well for theologians and other biased people to declare that -animal intelligence has nothing in common with the reasoning powers -of man; but let them honestly look at the facts as they are, thanks -to the indefatigable energy and indomitable perseverance of lovers -of science and truth, now presented to us. Candid observers cannot -fail to notice that the difference between the intelligence of man -and that of the lower animals is one only of degree, and not of kind. -When we see the order of sequence being followed in the development -of the individual so like that of the whole race, not only as regards -the bodily structure, but also as regards the mental functions, can -we help arriving at the conclusion that the one is but the epitome -of the other, and that the superior intellect of man is but a higher -development of the so-called instincts of the lower animals? Have we -not at the present day, among members of the human family itself, -various degrees of intelligence, from the almost barren brains of the -lowest races of savages to the brilliant mental achievements of a -Newton or a Spencer? - -It is beyond doubt that the intellectual superiority of civilised man -over his savage brethren is due to the greater multiplicity of his -objects of thought, and it follows that savage man’s intellectual -superiority over the lower animals is due to the same cause. The -actions of both have the same aim—viz., the supplying of the wants -of the physical nature and the gratifying of the desires aroused in -the mind. It is frequently asserted that man differs from the lower -animals in possessing the power of reflection; but this I hold to -be an exploded argument, and at variance with all recent teaching. -Dogs, elephants, and monkeys most certainly possess the faculty of -reflection, and it is not difficult to find races belonging to the -human family whose powers of reflection transcend hardly in the least -degree those possessed by the higher apes; while the difference -between the reflective capacity of the lowest savage, which is of the -simplest conceivable kind, and that of the civilised European, which -has developed into genius, is enormous. Then, again, it is often -said that only man is emotional; but one need only have an ordinary -acquaintanceship with domestic animals to at once see the absurdity of -this argument, for dogs are frequently observed to laugh, to cry, to -express joy and gratitude by their actions, and to betray feelings of -shame and remorse; while horses and elephants have been observed to -punish their cruel keepers in the most cunning manner and then to laugh -at the poor fellows’ discomfiture. As to the “conscience argument,” -so frequently brought forward, by religionists especially, all I have -to say here is that conscience, or the knowledge of the distinction -between right and wrong, is not an inherent quality of the human mind, -being merely a result of the operation of the reflective faculty aided -by experience, as is quite evident from the fact that the ideas of -morality vary according to the age in which we live. The same may be -said about the greatest of all the arguments against evolution—viz., -that of language; for, just as conscience is but a product of -reflection and experience, so is language also. It is a mistake to -imagine that the power of speech is possessed by man alone, and that -his language differs altogether from the cries and signals of the lower -animals, for such is not the case. Many animals possess the faculty of -speech, and human language differs from that of the lower animals only -in its degree of development, and in no sense in its origin. Probably -all language originated in interjection, or the “instinctive expression -of the subjective impressions derived from external nature,” as Mr. -Farrar puts it. And, just as the reflective powers of the race were -developed and shone more brilliantly as each stage in the evolutionary -march of intellect was passed, so did language pass from the simple -monosyllabic cries to the complex dialects of modern civilisation; and -it is worthy of notice that, at the present day, or at any rate very -recently, there were races of savage men inhabiting this earth who -possessed no language at all, and could not, on account of their mode -of living, be placed on a higher intellectual level than the higher -apes; while we have the authority of the leading philologists of the -times in support of the fact that the monosyllabic cries of some of the -lower human tribes are quite within the grasp of the ape’s voice. - -Human beings have been discovered in wild and hitherto unexplored -regions who have not the remotest idea of what we should term -civilisation. They lead a wandering and useless life, sleeping at -nights, not in huts, nor in caves, but squatting among the branches of -tall trees, where they are placed out of the reach of savage animals. -They do not appear capable of expressing their thoughts in sentences, -but make use of exclamatory grunts, which serve the purposes of speech -quite sufficiently for their limited requirements; and their general -appearance approaches to a remarkable extent that of the higher apes, -in that they are almost completely covered with hair, possess a dirty -brown skin, short legs, long arms, and full abdomens, can pick up -stones, sticks, etc., with their toes as well as their fingers, and -show few if any signs of intellectual powers. Let any one visit the -Zoological Gardens, in London, and carefully observe the apes exhibited -there, and then say whether there is a vast difference between some -of them and the human beings who answer to the above description. One -need but visit the travelling menagerie of Messrs. Edmunds, and view -their “missing link,” an excellent sample of the chimpanzee troglodyte, -to see that the difference between man and the lower animals is one -only of degree, quite as much as regards intellect as bodily form. I -once saw exhibited in the _Jardin d’Acclimatation_, in Paris, a lot of -Patagonian or Fuegan (I forget which) natives, who were very little -superior intellectually to the chimpanzee. They were stark naked, in a -wretchedly dirty condition, and appeared quite incapable of anything -like sustained mental effort. But these are by no means the lowest -among the human species. - -In conclusion, I need only re-state my opinion that all so-called -living things are but products of the development of protoplasm, -whether belonging to the animal or vegetable kingdoms; that this -protoplasm possesses the property of vitality, or the power of -perceiving stimuli of various kinds and responding to them by definite -movements; that the phenomena of mind are but functional manifestations -of this protoplasmic development; and that the highest intellectual -product of the human mind exists and has existed from eternity in a -state of latent potentiality in every atom of protoplasm, as well as in -every particle of matter in the universe. - - - - -THE SPECIAL SENSES. - - -According to the now almost universally (that is, among educated -scientific people) accepted theory of Evolution, each living being upon -this earth is a result of a very slow process of development, which -commenced with a low form of life many millions of years ago, and has -since been operating continuously, becoming more and more complex, and -imperceptibly attaining greater perfection as each fresh stage was -accomplished. From the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from inorganic -to organic, from Amœba to man, the evolutionary development has slowly, -steadily, and surely advanced step by step, in obedience to certain -well-defined laws. Yet it is impossible to discern in this slow process -of evolution any well-marked difference between one particular species -and the next of kin, although the difference becomes clearly apparent -if we take two species separated from each other by considerable -time; just as it is impossible to detect any alteration in form and -feature between a child of six days old and the same child of seven -days old, while the change is very evident after the lapse of several -weeks or months. If we were to photograph a human being regularly -each day from the moment of its birth to the time of its decease at -the age of eighty, we should be unable to detect any real difference -between the portraits on any two consecutive days; but the difference -between the child of a week old and the young man of twenty years would -be enormous, as would be that between the full-grown youth and the -tottering old man. As the human individual in its earliest condition -of existence is not possessed of the same faculties as it afterwards -enjoys as a more perfect development, so, in like manner, the species -in its primal condition was wanting in the loftier qualities now -possessed by the higher animals, such as consciousness, sight, hearing, -taste, smell, and touch, all of which have been gradually evolved -as the various life-forms developed from lower and more simple to -higher and more complex kind. For instance, at a very early period of -man’s individual existence he possessed no brain, eyes, ears, mouth, -or nose, and, therefore, was quite incapable of mentating, seeing, -hearing, tasting, or smelling; but, as the organism very gradually -developed into a higher and more complex kind, these various organs -manifested themselves, and slowly arrived at such perfection as we -find in the human infant at birth. Precisely so was it with the race. -The lowly Moneron was of homogeneous structure, possessing neither -parts nor kind, but gradually differentiating into nucleus and cell; -its descendants, the Gastrœada, becoming possessed, by a process of -invagination, of an external layer of nucleated cells and an internal -and more delicate layer, thus forming a hollow organism, or Gastrula. -This external cellular integument was the original sense-organ of the -animal kingdom, from which developed the organs of special sense. -Though without nerve and special sense-organs, yet these little hollow -Gastrœada, and, in fact, their ancestors, the Amœbæ, which consisted -of simple protoplasmic cells, each enclosing a nucleus, were possessed -with sensory perception, being influenced by light, and by variations -of pressure and temperature. As the evolutionary process continued, and -the animal kingdom assumed higher forms, the original epidermal general -sense-organ became converted into several special organs of sense, each -specialisation commencing with a simple depression upon the integument -of the organism; numerous little epidermal nerves of perception were -formed, which could perceive changes of pressure and of temperature, -and some of which gradually became enabled to understand particular -influences affecting them, such as those produced by a strong odour, -light-waves, and sound-waves. By adaptation, the extremities of these -sense-nerves became expanded and enlarged, so as to enable them the -better to understand the particular influences; and this expansion was -accompanied by a corresponding depression on the integument, which -cup-like formation afterwards became converted into an eye, or other -organ of special sense, very imperfect in the invertebrate forms of -life, imperfect in the fish, more perfect in the amphibian, and still -more perfect in the mammal forms, such as apes and men. In short, the -life-history of the individual is an exact counterpart in miniature of -the life-history of the species up to the particular point reached by -the particular individual. - -The order and mode of development is precisely the same in all animal -organisms, and may be conveniently studied by placing a hen’s egg in -an incubating machine, and carefully watching it for the space of -three weeks. It will be observed that the eye, ear, nose, and mouth -are not present at the commencement of the process, but make their -appearance later on, about the third or fourth day of incubation, as -tiny depressions on the integument, from which condition they gradually -develop into perfect organs of special sense, as possessed by the -full-grown chicken; the eyes, which receive the impressions caused -by light-waves; the ears, which receive those made by sound-waves; -the nose, by which odours are discerned; the mouth, which holds the -taste-organ; and the skin, which remains the organ of touch and -perception of temperature. Now, when we consider for a moment these -wonderful phenomena, we cannot help being struck by the remarkable -manner in which the animal kingdom has been slowly and steadily -progressing towards perfection, in spite of the enormous physical -difficulties encountered; and we cannot help coming to the conclusion -that, inasmuch as there was once a time when no animal existed having -eyes, ears, nose, or mouth, and, still later, a period when these -special sense-organs existed in a very imperfect condition, it is -highly probable that in the future ages man, who now possesses special -senses of a high order, will acquire even still more highly-developed -faculties. - -In congratulating ourselves upon the advance made by our own particular -species over other members of the animal kingdom, we must never forget -that, although we can mentate, see, hear, smell, taste, and feel, -while myriads of our lowly brethren can do none of these, we yet are -incapable of solving the mighty problems of the universe with any -or all of these organs without artificial aid. No man on earth has -ever yet been able to solve the mighty problem of existence, in spite -of his great intellectual powers. No man has ever yet been able to -see a millionth part of the wonders in the heavens above, or in the -earth beneath, with his own unaided eye; but with the telescope and -microscope new worlds have been opened out to him. We are as yet, -undoubtedly, in but a transitory condition, the victims of an imperfect -organisation, subject to a partially-developed brain and nervous -system, and to five imperfect special senses. We must accept the -situation philosophically, and without grumbling, and do our best to -make good use of the senses we have, and leave the solution of problems -we are unable to solve to future races of men, who will be possessed of -better materials with which to operate. - - - - -[Illustration: “THE SUPREME SPIRIT IN THE ACT OF CREATION BECAME BY -VOGA, TWO-FOLD, THE RIGHT SIDE WAS MALE, THE LEFT WAS PRAKRITI.” -(Brahma Vaivartta Puranu.) - -BRAHM THE HINDU ANDROGYNOUS CREATOR -Copied from Inman’s “Ancient Faiths”.] - - -[Illustration: ISIS, HORUS AND FISH - -From a photograph of a small bronze image in the Mayor collection -of Browne’s Museum, Liverpool. Copied from D^(r) Inman’s “Ancient -Faiths”.] - - -[Illustration: THE VEDIC VIRGIN, INDRANEE, WIFE-MOTHER OF SAVIOUR-GOD, -INDRA. From Hislop’s “Two Babylons”.] - -[Illustration: THE HINDU GOD VISHNU, NURSED BY HIS VIRGIN WIFE-MOTHER, -LAKSHMI. From Moore’s “Hindu Pantheon”.] - -[Illustration: DEVAKI AND CHRISTNA From Moore’s “Hindu Pantheon”.] - -[Illustration: THE HINDU GOD SIVA, NURSED BY HIS VIRGIN WIFE-MOTHER, -PARVATI. Copied from statuette in Liverpool museum.] - - -[Illustration: AMEN-RA (After Drummond.)] - - -[Illustration: CRUX ANSATA -Found marked on the breast of an Egyptian mummy in the University -College Museum, London.] - -[Illustration: THE ASSYRIAN VIRGIN ISHTAR -From Rawlinson’s “Ancient Monarchies”.] - -[Illustration: CRUCIFIXION OF CHRISTNA -From old Hindu engraving. After Higgins.] - -[Illustration: VIRGIN AND CHILD AT IDALIUM IN CYPRUS - After Rawlinson - (“Herodotus”)] - -[Illustration: ISIS AND HORUS THE EGYPTIAN VIRGIN AND SAVIOUR-GOD - From Rawlinson’s “Herodotus”.] - - - - -EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA. - - -“Knowing his adopted land well, the Eastern does not require recondite -volumes to explain ‘Dionysiak myths’ or ‘solar theories,’ as the old -faiths are now called in the West. He sees these pervading the tales -and epiks of East and West alike, just as Yahvism or Yahu-ism pervades -the Scriptures of Jews or Yahus—that ever-familiar and expressive -faith-term by which alone Asia knows the ‘Yahudean’ race.” While fully -admitting the true character of the old faith as here expressed, yet, -with all due deference to one of such acknowledged repute in the -literary world as Major-General Forlong, whose splendid work, entitled -“Rivers of Faith” (Preface, p. xxi.) contains the above paragraph, it -may be fairly urged that the educated few only, both among Easterns and -Westerns, have hitherto been capable of discerning the vein of solar -myth which pervades all systems of religion; while the vast multitude -of ignorant and credulous people even yet perceive, or think they -perceive, the Divine handiwork in the particular sacred oracle to which -they firmly pin their faith. The Hindu supreme deity is known as Brahm, -the Persian as Ormuzd, the Mohammedan as Allah, and the Jewish and -Christian as El, Elohim, Yahouh (or Jehovah), God, etc. Probably few -among the many millions who worship these various deities know much or -anything about their origin, innocently imagining that the Deity they -bow allegiance to once manifested itself to some chosen individual, -to whom it gave a revelation, the facts of which were handed down to -posterity. They little dream of the vast cycles of time that have -rolled past since the brain of man attained such a state of perfection -as to enable it to evolve the idea of Deity. It is utterly impossible -for the human mind to grasp the enormous interval of time that has -elapsed since primeval man emerged from the condition of unreasoning -existence to enter upon the bright dawn of intellectual activity, which -has developed into such mighty proportions as we behold to-day. Let -us carry the mind back far beyond the Dark Ages, through the classic -era, as far even as the very commencement of Egyptian history; and even -then we find ourselves but little nearer that remote period in which -the first spark of intelligence made its _debût_ upon the platform of -life. In imagination we may go still further back, and view the wonders -of that ancient Asian civilisation which preceded that of the ancient -Egyptians and Greeks, and which was probably derived very gradually -from the earliest social conceptions of the Caucasian branch of the -Polynesian primitive man. Still we are ages away from the period we -desire to arrive at; and even were we able to trace the human family -back to that remote time when man could not be said to partake more of -the character of the human than the ape species, still we should even -then be unable to point to the precise moment when intellect shed its -glorious rays upon the race, making bright, clear, and beautiful what -before was dark, misty, and unmeaning. The ancient Prosimiæ gradually -became Catarrhine apes, which, in their turn, as slowly assumed the -characters of the Anthropoidæ, and afterwards of ape-like men; but -the time required for this imperceptibly gradual process of evolution -was probably many hundred thousands of years, during which period, -or perhaps even at a prior time the first intellectual spark became -manifest: how, when, or for what ultimate purpose it is apparently -beyond our power to devise. - -How soon after the dawn of intellect the conception of Deity was -evolved in the human brain it is equally impossible to say; but the -probability is that the date was a very early one, for it seems -highly probable that such a conception would be among the very first -efforts of the mind, the materials necessary for the stimulation of -such an effort being at hand at any moment. We can imagine our early -fathers groping in the darkness of ignorance, with mental powers on -a par with those of the awakening minds of our own children, seeing -bogies in every natural phenomenon, and tremblingly glowering at the -spectra of their own imaginations. Having no experience of the past -or knowledge of the future, they would indeed be in a most helpless -condition, relying entirely upon the instinctive capabilities they had -inherited from their ancestors. By degrees, however, their various -faculties would be further awakened by impressions received from -external objects; their wants would be multiplied in proportion to -their intellectual development, causing them to manifest a desire -for industry; and their self-consciousness would arouse within them -a feeling of dignity and importance to which they had hitherto been -strangers. Thus gradually would the race cast off its animal and put -on its human clothes. The old plan of hand-to-mouth existence would be -abolished by the newly-developed reason of man; the innumerable dangers -which confronted him would undoubtedly stimulate him to approach his -fellows with the object of establishing mutual aid and of co-operating -for their common welfare; and a feeling of confident superiority over -others of the animal kingdom would become apparent among them. Not only -would man’s attention be arrested by the impending dangers of each -day, the necessity of procuring sustenance for himself and family, and -the obvious advantages accruing from co-operation, but also by the -constantly-recurring natural phenomena, such as the rising and setting -of the sun, moon and stars, the never-ending succession of day and -night, etc., as well as by the no less wonderful, and certainly more -awful, occasional natural occurrences, such as lightning, thunder, and -earthquake. He would be as much struck with wonder and amazement at the -one set of phenomena as with awe at the other. The returning sun-light -would each morning produce joy in his heart equally as much as the -inevitable recurrence each night of darkness would produce a feeling of -sadness, dread, and despair. We can easily imagine the long hours of -horror our first fathers must have passed through each night among the -yells and howls of the savage monsters by which they were surrounded, -and how they anxiously looked forward to the return of that glorious -orb which would bring back to them daylight, sunshine, warmth, and -happiness. What a boon it must have been to them! Can we wonder that -they should have regarded the sun with particular affection? It would -have been remarkable, indeed, had they not done so; and it is more -than probable that this daily re-appearance of the sun on the eastern -horizon was actually what prompted the first conception of deity. The -very oldest mythology with which we are acquainted appears strongly -to bear out this theory, and, indeed, in every other mythological -system we find the re-appearing sun to be one of the principal objects -of devotion and affection. If we turn our gaze to that part of Asia, -along the banks of the Oxus, over which our Aryan ancestors wandered -thousands of years before the time of the earliest Egyptian dynasty, we -find there a clue to the origin of the original conception of deity. -Among these early people were composed the hymns of the _Rig-Veda_, -which are probably the earliest records of any race, and in which we -find personified the phenomena of the heavens and earth, the storm, the -wind, the rain, the stars, etc. The earth is represented as a flat, -indefinite surface, existing passively, and forming the foundation of -the whole universe; while above it the luminous vault of heaven forms a -dwelling place for the fertile and life-giving light and a covering for -the earth below. To the earth the Aryans gave the name of Prihovi, “the -wide expanse;” the vault of heaven they called Varuna, “the vault;” -while the light between the two, in the cloud region, they named Dyaus, -“the luminous air,” “the dawn.” Varuna and Prihovi, in space, together -begat Agni, the fire-god, the sun in heaven and life-giver of the -universe; and Soma, the ambrosial deity of earth, god of immortality, -fertiliser of the waters, nourisher of plants, and quickener of the -semen of men and animals. In these hymns frequent mention is made of -the joy experienced at the return of dawn, and of the saddening effect -produced upon the mind by the ever-recurring twilight which ushered -in the dark and dreary night. We meet with incantations expressive -of the wildest excitement at the welcome appearance of the dawn-god, -Dyaus, which heralded the approach of the sun-god, Agni, who is led up -to the summit of his ascension, or bosom of Varuna, by the conquering -god of battle, Indra, the defeater of the evil powers of darkness; -and we find the most pathetical appeals both to Agni and Indra to -remain longer over the earth, and co-operate with Soma in replenishing -nature, instead of sinking into the twilight, or shades of evening, to -be slain by Vritra, “the coverer,” and tormented in the darkness of -night by Ahi, the dragon, and other cruel monsters. This is precisely -the drama we should expect to find depicted in the earliest writings -of man; is the root of all future religious ideas; and is still to be -found pervading almost every modern religious faith. It is a beautiful -representation of the earliest yearnings and fears of our forefathers; -and, though the picture is now and then almost effaced by numerous -subsequent additions of mythological lore, yet the original conception -remains indelibly depicted in the religions of the present day, -furnishing us with the key to the study of comparative mythology. - -It will be necessary, in order to compare, with any degree of accuracy, -the mythological systems which subsequently developed from this -primitive conception of a ruling power, to glance at the mode of -distribution of the various branches of the earliest human family; -and in doing so we must ever keep in mind the more than probable fact -that that portion of the earth’s surface which is now covered by -the Indian Ocean once formed a large equatorial continent, uniting -the east coast of Africa with Arabia, India, Ceylon, and the Malay -Peninsula. Instead of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates emptying their -waters into the Persian Gulf, and the Indus into the Arabian Sea, it -is highly probable that these rivers united to form one large estuary, -which emptied itself into the ocean on the south of the now submerged -continent of Lemuria. It is equally probable that the large rivers, -Ganges and Brahmapootra, likewise found an outlet south of a line drawn -from Point de Gall to Singapore. On this submerged continent, and on -the shores of these long-lost streams, it is supposed man evolved -from the anthropoid apes, in the early Pleiocene, or perhaps even in -the later Meiocene, geological period of the world’s history. The -transition stage in the pedigree of man between the Anthropoidæ and -true men—that is to say, between man-like Catarrhine apes and beings -possessing a larger proportion of the characteristics of the human -than of the ape species—is known to Anthropologists by the name of -Alali, or ape-like men. These wild and ill-formed savages wandered -about in bands along the banks of these monster rivers, passing their -time in hunting their less fortunate brethren of the animal kind. In -course of time they multiplied and spread over the entire continent, -killing all such monsters as interfered with their safety or comfort, -and gradually dividing and sub-dividing into families and races, -each acquiring, under the influence of the two laws of selection -and adaptation, peculiarities and characteristics not common to the -remainder. One branch wandered away to the west and south, becoming the -progenitors of the South African races; another found its way to the -east and south, to people Australasia; while a third struck out towards -the north, overrunning Malaya, Burmah, and Southern India. This last -branch, which we term the Malay, or Polynesian, subdivided into two -distinct families—the Mongolian, or Turanian, the progenitors of the -ancient Chinese, Ural Turks, Akkadians, and Finns; and the Caucasian, -or Iranian, the first human inhabitants of South-Western Asia. Of these -Iranians one stream, it is supposed, found its way to the banks of the -Nile, and became, in course of time, a distinct and powerful Egyptian -race; another, the Semitic, followed the direction of the Persian -Gulf, and settled in Arabia and along the banks of the Euphrates; -while a third, which we call the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, covered -India, Afghanistan, and Northern Persia, gradually extending along the -northern shores of the Black Sea into Europe. - -Now, as already stated, the earliest known records of any race are the -hymns of the _Rig-Veda_, composed among the Aryans of Northern Persia, -probably from earlier traditions handed down to them from the older -Iranian stock, or even from the still earlier Polynesians; and it is -remarkable that in all ancient mythological records, as well as on -monumental inscriptions, the same vein of solar myth as is found in the -_Rig-Veda_ is clearly traceable beneath the accumulated mythological -lore of future ages. The main idea in all mythologies seems to have -been that of a saviour-deity conquering the evil genius of night, or -winter, and bringing back the day, or summer, to replenish the earth. -As already stated, Indra was to the Aryans of the early Vedic period -the saviour-god who, with his companions, Vishnu and Rudra, leads -forth Agni, the god of celestial and terrestrial fire, to the bosom -of Varuna, where his influence operates upon Soma, the fertilizer of -earth. A conqueror from early morn to mid-day, Indra’s power grows -weaker as the evening approaches, until at last the twilight yields him -up to Vritra, who slays him, after which he is tormented by Ahi, the -dragon, for the remainder of the night. This drama was probably derived -from the original Iranian stock, and as probably underwent considerable -modification before being finally committed to writing as a cultus by -the Aryans; and, therefore, we should expect to find some resemblance -between the Aryan, Semitic, and Egyptian mythological systems. This is -precisely what we do find on carefully comparing these three oldest -of all known mythologies, though, as will be seen further on, each -accumulates such a vast quantity of fresh mythological matter that the -original conception is considerably obscured, and in each the original -deities become in course of time so mixed up with one another that it -is almost impossible to separate their individual characteristics. - -Although Agni was said to have been begotten by the conjunction in the -air of Varuna and Prihovi (Prithivi), all the principal gods, or Devas, -originally conceived as the phenomena and power of heaven, were called -the children of Dyaus and Prihovi, Agni and Indra being considered -the two chief of the twelve Devas. Dyaus, Prihovi, and their progeny -afterwards became endowed with moral qualities, and were looked upon as -creators and governors of the world; and as time wore on the original -Vedic deities gradually gave place to purely solar deities: the sun -was called Surya, and differed from Agni, who was god of terrestrial -and celestial fire—sun, lightning, and altar fire in one, the soul -of universe, and mediator between the gods and men; Surya was also -Savitri, the quickener, who in the early morn rouses the sleepers, and -in the evening twilight buries them again in sleep; he is also Vishnu, -the companion of Indra, who traverses the celestial space in three long -strides; he is Pushan, the nourisher and faithful guide of men and -animals; and he is Yama, who traverses the steep road to death and the -shades. Thus the gods multiplied—the original supreme deity, Varuna, -who was one with Indra, though different from him, giving place to a -multitude of solar deities, children of Dyaus, the great dawn-god or -day-father. - -As the old Vedic language became lost to the people there arose a -custom of setting apart certain individuals to faithfully preserve the -old and sacred records, and thus arose the priestly caste of Brahmans, -whose duties consisted in transcribing the sacred hymns of the -_Rig-Veda_ and preserving the knowledge of the sacred language in which -they were first written. The great day-father, Dyaus, now received the -name of Brahma, the magic power, and Prajapeti, the lord of creatures, -and was endowed with three divine energies—Agni (fire), Vayu (air), -and Surya (the sun), which together formed a subordinate triad. Soma -became associated with the moon; Asura became the demon of hell, which -was peopled with tormenting monsters; Indra and Vishnu became blended -with Surya; and Rudra was converted into Siva and identified with -Agni. As Brahmanism progressed the principal worship on the shores -of the Ganges gradually centred round Vishnu, who was supposed to -undergo periodically a number of Avataras, or incarnations, by means -of which he rescued fallen man from the fate awaiting him. These -descents to the lower world were very frequent, and appear to have -had some connection with the zodiacal constellations; for we find the -incarnation at one time taking place as a man, at another as a fish, at -another as a lion, and so on. - -The most ancient of the Avataras was probably the incarnation of -Krishna, the Indian Hercules, who was mentioned in the Vedic writings -as “Krishna, the son of Devaki,” and in whose honour festivals were -kept, at a very early period, similar to those connected with the -cultus of Bacchus. Megasthenes found the worship of Krishna prevailing -along the shores of the Ganges at the beginning of the third century -before our era, and described it as the worship of Hercules. This -incarnate offspring of the ancient sun-god, Vishnu, was said to have -been born at Mathura, a place situated between Delhi and Agra, and to -have acted the part of a saviour of the world and a mediator between -the gods and men. Soon after his birth his life was sought by the -reigning tyrant, Kamsa, who feared for the safety of his throne, which -necessitated the removal of Krishna to a place of safety. Arriving -at manhood, this young divinity slew the serpent Kaliya, and sported -with the Gopîs, or female cowherds, among whom he had been brought up. -He was fond of wine, Bacchanalian revels, and sensualities, though -considered to be immaculately holy, and resigned to his fate, which was -to suffer death in order to relieve the earth of the burden of a proud -race. For this purpose he was incarnated in the womb of his mother, -Devaki, and for this purpose he lived and died. - -In the mountainous regions away from the Ganges the cultus of Siva was -the more prevalent, Vishnu being considered of secondary importance; -but, as sects gradually were formed out of the ancient religion, one -party preferring this deity and another that, an attempt was made, -which eventually proved successful, to re-unite the various religious -parties and re-instate the principal gods in their original places. -The ancient orthodoxy was brought into sympathy with the new religion -in a very curious manner, by making Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva a trinity -of essences or attributes of the supreme Brahm, each a supreme god in -itself, and each equal with the others in importance; Brahma being -specially the creator, Vishnu the redeemer or preserver, and Siva the -destroyer. At times Krishna was added to the new trinity as a fourth -figure; but this was an innovation which found little favour, inasmuch -as Vishnu and Krishna were the same god, the one but the incarnation of -the other. Thus the old idea of Prajapeti, or Brahma, with the three -divine energies—Agni (fire), Vayu (air), and Surya (the sun)—were -revived in a manner as a new trinity of essences of the supreme deity, -under other names; and the arrangement thus concluded has continued -in use to this day with the orthodox Hindus. We find, therefore, -that, despite the accumulation of fresh myths, which grew larger as -time wore on, the original conception of the constant necessity for -a divine saviour was never lost, and that, as the approach of night -in the Vedic system was followed by the torments of the shades, and -the powers of darkness were destroyed by the re-appearance of the -dawn-god, so also the approaching extinction of the people under a -wicked tyrant was followed by the misery which preceded the appearance -of the saviour-god, Krishna. In fact, every myth that occurs in the -religions of India is built out of this original idea of the powers of -light being overcome by the powers of darkness and finally rescued by a -redeeming god. In later times, as the science of astronomy became more -popular and better understood, not only was the daily apparent course -of the sun the source from which myths were fabricated, but his annual -apparent march through the zodiacal signs was also drawn upon for the -creation of more imposing and elaborate dramas; and in this manner -were produced the fables containing allusions to the two crucifixions, -or passage of the sun across the equator at the vernal and autumnal -equinoxes, and the rites of baptism when the sun was passing through -the sign Aquarius, and fasting during the period of the sun’s transit -through Pisces, etc. - -The religion of Boodhism is an offshoot of the Brahman system, having -originated in the so-called incarnation of Vishnu, Gautama Boodha, -whose powerful personality has left an indelible impress upon the -religion. This remarkable man lived about the end of the sixth century; -but the real history of Boodhism does not commence until about the -middle of the third century before our era. The doctrines taught -by this great reformer were brotherly love, self-sacrifice, and an -eternal Nirvana as the consummation of all bliss. The doctrine of -the transmigration of the soul was still maintained; but a state of -Nirvana, or absolute non-existence, was declared to be the deliverance -from the endless succession of re-births for those who, by their -purity of life and heart, merit such a blissful end. Admitting that -men were born in different castes, determined by their good or evil -deeds in a prior existence, Boodha yet declared that all might attain -the highest salvation, and that none, not even those of the highest -caste and most sacred offices, could do this without having regard -to the well-being of all his fellow creatures. The authority of the -Vedas was rejected by the Boodhists, as also the whole dogmatic system -of the Brahmans; and in their place was substituted a higher moral -teaching, a more equitable relationship of men, and a wide-spreading -system of communism. This reformation of ancient dogmatic faith was not -destined to last long uncorrupted, for the monasteries established by -the Boodhists for the purpose of affording an asylum to the poor and -destitute soon became infested with religious fanatics—Jainas, as they -were called, some of whom went naked, while others robed themselves in -white linen. These ascetic monks looked forward to Nirvana as their -final goal, practised the most severe austerities, received confession, -administered priestly absolution, and kept regular feast and fast days; -but they discountenanced the growing custom of worshipping relics -which was finding favour with other Boodhist sects. Thus gradually the -primitive Aryan conception of a ruling power developed into a huge -system of dogmatism, monachism, and ritual in the countries south and -east of the Indus, as far even as the confines of the country of the -great Mongol race, whose religion is as yet but little known to us, -although it bears strong marks of having been originally derived from -the same source as that from which came the Vedic system. - -Having glanced somewhat cursorily at the religious development of -the Eastern Aryan peoples, we will now turn to the Western Aryans, -and observe the manner in which the old Vedic myth was perpetuated -in Western Europe, leaving the Central Aryans, or that branch which -remained in and around Persia and Western Afghanistan, for subsequent -consideration; for, in this central district, the Mongol Akkadians and -the Semites intermingled so frequently with the Aryans that a very -intricate mythological system gradually came into operation in some -districts, bearing resemblance to the Vedic, the Semitic, and the -Mongolian mythologies. - -The Western branch of the great Aryan family, after penetrating into -Southern Europe, became the progenitors of the ancient Pelasgi, the -earliest known inhabitants of Greece, and through them transmitted -the original Aryan myth to their successors, the Hellenes. Homer, in -his “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” written at latest B.C. 900, well describes -the religion of the Acheans, who inhabited Hellas for centuries prior -to B.C. 1000, and long before the supremacy of the Dorians; and, in -this description, as well as in that of Hesiod’s “Theogony,” written -immediately afterwards, there is exhibited a remarkable similarity -to the old Vedic system, the very name of the supreme deity being -clearly derived from an Aryan source, and that root being the identical -expression used to designate the Vedic Dawn God. From Dyaus Pitar, -the Day Father or Dawn God of the Aryans, the Greeks derived their -Zeus Pater, from whence we get Dios, Theos, the Latin _Deus Pater_, -_Dies Pater_ and Jupiter, and the French _Dieu_. Zeus was supreme -god, high above all others, having unlimited power, and living up -in the vault of heaven, surrounded by the inferior and subordinate -deities, who together formed his Olympian court. Instead of being -nature powers, these gods were endowed with freedom of action, subject -to pain and pleasure, and depended for their sustenance upon food. -The supremacy of King Zeus was firmly established; he presided over -councils of the gods to deliberate great matters, and was not bound -or fettered by any recognised restraint. With Athena and Apollo, he -formed a supreme triad, himself being the head, Athena the reason or -wisdom of the Divine Father, and Apollo the mouth, revealer of his -counsel, and loving son, who is always of one will with his father. -With Apollo was closely associated Prometheus, the great benefactor and -liberator of the race of man, who, according to that beautiful tragedy -of “Æschylus,” brought salvation to the world in spite of Jupiter, -his father and torturer, by whom he was crucified on a rock, where -he remained in fearful anguish until liberated by Hercules. Here we -find the old Vedic saviour redeeming the world from the darkness and -misery of night or winter, the same drama precisely as that described -in connection with the Eastern Aryan mythology. In both instances the -apparent daily and annual ascension and decline of the sun is depicted: -in the one case it rises again after its period of defeat in winter, or -night, as the sun-god Indra, afterwards Surya, and still later Krishna; -while in the other case it resuscitates the earth as Prometheus, the -benefactor of mankind. Just as Prometheus was but the Greek counterpart -of the Hindu Krishna, so also were Apollo, Hercules, Iao, and Dionysos -precisely the same. Each was the new-born sun, bringing back light and -glory to suffering humanity; and each passed through the very same -periods of power, decline, and misery before being born again. - -Zeus was the sun-god _par excellence_, residing on the summit of -Olympus, or in the highest part of the heavenly vault, during the -summer months, when he was called Olympian Zeus, and down in Hades -during the winter period, when he was known as the Stygian Zeus; and -thus the oracle of the Klarion Apollon taught that the supreme God was -called, according to the seasons of the year, Hades, Zeus, Helios, and -Iao. Apollo and Prometheus, although saviour sun-gods, representing -the new-born sun victorious over death and winter, were yet one with -Zeus, and merely repetitions of the same character under different -names. So, in like manner, Hercules was not only son of Zeus, but Zeus -himself, and may be traced right through the complete annual circuit -in his twelve labours, from Hades to Olympus, and from Olympus to -Hades again. Dionysos was, in reality, not an Aryan deity, but of -Egyptian origin, having been introduced into Greece at a very early -time, either from Egypt, where he was worshipped as Mises, or, more -probably, from Phœnicia, where he was worshipped under the name of Iēs, -which accounts for the fact that hero personifications of Dionysos in -later times were accorded the designation of Iesous, (Ιησους, or in -capitals ΙΗΣΟΥΣ—Latin _Jesus_), the Greek form of Iēs (Ιης, or in -capitals ΙΗΣ). This Egyptian saviour sun-god became later the popular -god Bacchus of the Romans, just as Apollo had been the popular Greek -divinity, and was thus described by Macrobius: “The images or statues -of Bacchus represent him sometimes under the form of a child, sometimes -under that of a young man, at other times with a beard of a mature man, -and, lastly, with the wrinkles of old age, as the Greeks represent -the god whom they call Baccapee and Briseis, and as the Neapolitans -in Campania paint the god whom they honour under the name of Hebon. -These differences of age relate to the sun, who seems to be a tender -child at the winter solstice, such as the Egyptians represent him on -a certain day [December 25th], when they bring forth from an obscure -nook of their sanctuary his infantine image, because, the day being -then at the shortest, the god seems yet to be but a feeble infant: -gradually growing from this moment, he arrives, by degrees, at the -vernal equinox, under the form of a young man, of which his images -at that time bear the appearance; then he arrives at his maturity, -indicated by the tufted beard with which the images which represent him -at the summer solstice are adorned, the day having then taken all the -increase of which it is susceptible. Lastly, he decreases insensibly, -and arrives at his old age, pictured by the state of decrepitude in -which he is portrayed in the images.” - -Yao, Iao, or Adonis was of Semitic origin, although widely worshipped -in Greece, and generally identified with Zeus, whose Semitic -counterpart he really was, although himself a saviour sun-god. Yao, -to the Phœnicians and Chaldeans, was as Zeus and Prometheus to the -Greeks, and represented the whole annual circuit, though he was always -called by the Greeks specially the god of the autumn, on account of his -having, at that period, to part from his lover, Aphrodite (Venus), for -six months; and thus there was usually a certain melancholy attached to -his worship, the oracle of the Klarion Apollon terming him the darling -or tender Yao (Ιαω), god of the autumn. - -As the Greek power and civilisation declined and the Roman advanced, -the god Yao, like his counterpart Iēs, became one of the most popular -of the Roman deities, being worshipped under the name Adonis in every -city of Italy; and the mythological horizon became crowded with gods -and demi-gods of every description, until, at length, it became a very -difficult matter to determine who was a god and who was not worthy -of that distinction; for the Roman Emperors were invariably deified, -as well as others of less degree. The old Aryan drama, however, was -preserved throughout in the worship of the principal gods, and has even -been perpetuated in the reformed religion of the Semitic communistic -enthusiast, Yahoshua, which became, soon after the commencement of our -era, the popular religious system of the whole of Europe. - -We have now to deal with the Central Aryans, or Eranians; and, in doing -so, must bear in mind that, while the Eastern Aryans, or Hindus, and -the Western Aryans of Europe, were almost altogether uninfluenced for -many centuries by the mythologies of surrounding tribes of other and -distinct families of the human race, this was far from being the case -with the Eranians, who were almost entirely cut off from their Western -brethren; and, although still in comparatively close contact with the -Eastern Aryans, were yet completely wedged in between the Turanian -Urals on the north, and the great Semitic stream of life on the south -and west. Such being the case, it is at once apparent that the religion -of the Eranian people would quickly lose many of its distinctive -Aryan marks and acquire many Turanian and Semitic characteristics. -Bactria, in Eastern Eran (Persia), appears to have been the ancient -birth-place of this semi-Aryan religion, which afterwards developed, -under the influence of that great reformer, Zoroaster (Zarathustra), -into the cultus called Mazdeism, or Parsism. From the Avesta, the -sacred writings of the Parsis, written in the old Zend language, we -derive considerable knowledge of Mazdeism. Ahura Mazdao (Ormazd), the -all-wise spirit, is supreme god, far above all gods, being creator of -the world, god of light and truth, existing from the beginning, and -eternal. Inferior to him are Mithra, god of light; Nairyo Sanha, god of -fire; Apan Napat, god of water; Haoma, god of the drink of immortality; -and Tistrya, the dog-star god. The chief goddess of fruitfulness was -Anahita, who in later time became an important deity in association -with the worship of Mithra, the son of Ormuzd. Mazdeism also recognised -a god of evil, Ahro Mainyus (Ahriman), who, with the evil Devas, -inhabit the under-world, and oppose Ormuzd on every occasion; the world -lying between the two kingdoms of righteousness and evil, ruled over -respectively by Ormuzd and Ahriman. This dualism is the most marked -feature of Mazdeism, and runs through the whole religion, being found -in every myth, and giving rise to the most hideous conceptions of -morality. In the cosmogony of the Parsis the great creator, Ormuzd, -after making a perfect world and introducing a perfect pair of human -beings, is defeated by the wicked Ahriman, who creates evil, and -seduces the man and woman to sin, thus placing in opposition to each -other upon this earth the two forces, good and evil. To avoid the -influence of this evil force, and to gain that of the good power, was -the great aim of all true Mazda-worshippers; and the means whereby -this much-desired end could be attained was the fire-god, Nairyo -Sanha, to whom constant supplications were made for this purpose. So -great was the influence of Ahriman upon human beings that the god of -light, Mithra, was promised as a saviour to come upon the earth and -rescue his people from the power of evil, his mission being to avenge -his father’s defeat by the god of the under-world, after doing which -he would ascend to his father and become one with him for ever. The -Magi, or Mithraitic priests of the “black art,” or “hidden science of -astrology,” are thus addressed in the “Zend-Avesta”:—”You, my children, -shall be first honoured by that divine person who is to appear in the -world; a star shall be before you to conduct you to the place of his -nativity; and when you have found him, present to him your oblations -and sacrifices, for he is indeed your lord and an everlasting king,” -meaning that after the constellation of the virgin came to the eastern -line of the horizon, as it did at twelve o’clock at midnight, between -December 24th and December 25th, in the period immediately following -that in which the words were written, the great star, _Vindemiatrix_, -in the virgin’s elbow, would, on January 6th, begin to shine, pointing -out to the astrologers, or Magi, her exact situation, who would then -know that the birth of the god-light of the new revolution had taken -place, and that by his re-appearance he would declare himself to be -the everlasting ruler of the universe. Consequently, for centuries -after this time the image of the god-light Mithra was presented to the -people for adoration every year on December 25th, soon after midnight, -in the shape of a newly-born male child, brought from the recesses of -the sacred grotto, or mystic cave of Mithra. Another image, supposed -to be the same deity fully grown, was said to die, and was carried -to the tomb after death by the priests, who chanted solemn hymns and -groaned. After pretending to mourn for three days, the sacred torch, or -emblem of new life, was lighted, and the priests exclaimed, “Reassure -yourselves, sacred bands of initiated; your god is restored to life; -his pains and sufferings procure your salvation.” This took place at -the vernal equinox, and the people responded: “I salute you, new light; -I salute you, young bridegroom and new light.” - -Like the old Aryan scheme, this Mithra myth was derived from the -constellations, having reference to the decline of the year in autumn, -the defeat of the sun by the powers of darkness (or winter), and the -rebirth and ascension of that grand luminary in the spring of the -year. Mithra was “spiritual life contending with spiritual darkness, -and through his labours the kingdom of darkness will be lit with -heaven’s own light: the eternal will receive all things back into his -favour; and the world will be redeemed to God. The impure are to be -purified, and the evil made good, through the mediation of Mithras, -the reconciler of Ormuzd and Ahriman. Mithras is the good; his name is -Love. In relation to the Eternal he is the source of grace; in relation -to men he is the life-giver and mediator. He brings the Word, as Brahma -brings the Vedas from the mouth of the Eternal” (Plutarch, “De Iside -et Osiride ”). The close connection of the later Eranians with the -Chaldeans no doubt gave the former facilities for studying the Akkadian -astronomy; and, therefore, it is fair to presume that the phenomenon -of the precession of the equinoxes was well understood by them, which -would account for the fact that Mithra is always represented in -earlier times under the figure of a bull, and afterwards under that -of a lamb. The reason of this is that, prior to about B.C. 2,200, the -vernal equinoxial sign was the zodiacal figure of the bull (_Taurus_); -while, after that period, the figure of the lamb or ram (_Aries_) took -its place; and as the saviour sun-god Mithra was the personification -of the new annual sun, born in the December constellation, crossing -the equator in March, and thereby conquering the powers of evil or -darkness, he was invariably represented by the figure of that zodiacal -constellation which happened to be at the vernal equinoxial point at -the time.[1] - -Having thus briefly glanced at the religious cults of the three -branches of the great Aryan family, and found the very same religious -conception of a divine and incarnate saviour, redeeming the universe -from the powers of darkness and evil, running through each mythological -system, we cannot help coming to the conclusion that, inasmuch as the -saviour-myth was developed into its full proportions long after the -separation of the families took place, and inasmuch as the development -followed similar lines in each separate case, there must have been -some common guide, and that guide was the unwritten word of nature as -expressed in the heavens above. - -[1] _Vide_ my “Popular Faith Unveiled.” - -Leaving the Aryan stream, and turning back to that division of the -great Iranian family which migrated to the valley of the Nile, and -which we call the Egyptian, we find a very similar religious system -in vogue among them from the very earliest times, as existed among -the Aryans. The first settlers in Egypt carried with them, no doubt, -the primitive religious conceptions of their Iranian fathers, which -were derived from a contemplation of the various phenomena of nature, -as previously stated; and it is highly probable that, at a very -early period, they gave considerable attention to the movements of -the heavenly bodies, for from monumental inscriptions, unearthed in -modern times, which geologists inform us must have lain _sub terra_ -for several thousands of years, we learn that the Egyptians, at that -remote time, well understood the theory of the precession of the -equinoxes, placing the zodiacal constellation of the bull at the vernal -equinoxial point in the period prior to about B.C. 4300, and that of -the ram in the period immediately following. It is probable, therefore, -that hundreds of years before this time these primitive men of the -Nile were engaging themselves with the study of astronomy, and using -effective astronomical instruments, which indicates a high state of -civilisation; and this is further borne out by the fact that, at the -commencement of the first Egyptian dynasty, about the year B.C. 5000, -when Menes reigned over Egypt, there was every appearance of a very -advanced civilisation that had lasted for centuries. From the “Book -of the Dead” and the Prisse Papyrus (most of the former written at -latest prior to B.C. 4000, and the latter very soon after) we derive a -tolerably accurate notion of the mythological system of the Egyptians -during the first portion of the Old Empire, and probably many hundreds -of years previously; while, from the writings of Herodotus, Diodorus, -Plutarch, and Manetho, we learn the progress the religion made during -the 4,000 following years. - -The “Book of the Dead” treats principally of the refining processes -through which the spirits of dead people passed in the under-world, -or Cher Nuter, before being purified sufficiently to inherit a state -of bliss and become spirits of light (Chu) to be absorbed into the -sun at the point where it is born, and taken within it to An, the -celestial Heliopolis. Before the time of Menes the religion of Egypt -was animistic, blended with a vague kind of sun-worship, the supreme -deity being, at Thinis-Abydos, the ancient capital, called Osiris, the -god of gods, son of Seb, god of earth, and Nu, goddess of the heavenly -ocean, and grandson of Ra. Osiris was the sun-god of the daily and -annual circle, who enjoyed his spouse, Isis, the great mother, during -the summer months and the daytime, after which he was overcome by the -evil Set-Typhon and his wife Nephthys, and tortured in the under-world, -until released by his son Horus, the conqueror sun-god, who rose into -the upper world as the avenger of his father’s defeat, and liberated -the soul of Osiris from torture, to be absorbed by, and for ever shine -forth in the constellation _Orion_, as the soul of Isis shines for -ever in _Sirius_. At Heliopolis, An, On, or Para, the city of the sun, -Ra was worshipped as supreme god, who as Tum, the hidden god, fought -the demon of darkness, the serpent Apap, in Amenti, and who rose -again from the under-world as Harmachis. Later, when Menes reigned as -the first monarch of the Old Empire (_circa_ B.C. 5000), Memphis, or -Mennefer, was the capital city, in which Phtah was worshipped as the -supreme god or creator of the world (called Sekru, the slain god, when -in the lower world), together with Ma, goddess of righteousness, and -Imhotep, the chief of priests, whose name signified “I come in peace,” -and who formed the third part of a kind of trinity, with Phtah and -Ma. All these, and other minor deities, such as deified kings, etc., -were represented on earth by incarnations in the shape of animals, Ra, -Osiris, and Phtah, the supreme gods, being manifested in the sacred -bull Apis, representing the sun at the vernal equinoctial point in -the zodiacal constellation _Taurus_. During six dynasties these gods -were worshipped peacefully, their incarnations and religious rites -being protected by the kings; but about the year B.C. 3800 the kingdom -appears to have dropped to bits, its religion to have been mixed up in -a most confused manner, and its people divided into a number of small -nationalities, with separate kings and separate laws; until, at length, -the whole country was once more united under the reigning monarchs of -the eleventh dynasty (Second Empire), whose capital was Thebes, and -whose popular deity was Amen, the hidden god, called also Amen-Ra, to -signify that he was not only the sun-god in the under-world, but also -the rising and conquering sun-god of the early morn and spring of the -year. In fact, Amen was the sun-god of the whole revolution, the Theban -Yao, one with his father Osiris in the mid-day and mid-summer, one -with his counterpart Horus at the early morn and spring of the year, -and one with Tum in the darkness of night and winter; just as Zeus of -the Greeks was Zeus Amen (Jupiter Ammon), Olympian Zeus, Zeus Yao, and -Stygian Zeus, according to the season of the year. - -Between the Middle Empire and the New Empire another catastrophe -occurred to the Egyptians, in the form of an invasion of the Hyksos, or -shepherd kings of Arabia, who overran the whole country, destroyed the -temples, and levied heavy tribute on the people, eventually settling -down for four centuries as Kings of Egypt, adopting many of the native -customs, and introducing many Semitic deities and observances. At -last the Hyksos were driven forth, and the New Empire commenced with -the eighteenth dynasty; but a considerable difference was now found -to exist in the religion of the country, partly on account of the -introduction of Semitic rites, and partly owing to the change that -had taken place at the vernal equinoctial point, by the precessional -movement of the zodiacal constellation _Taurus_. The vernal equinoctial -point was now (B.C. 2000) in the sign _Aries_, and therefore the -principal deities should be no longer represented as incarnate bulls, -but as incarnate rams. Accordingly, we find that after this date the -bull-god Apis, or Serapis, gradually fell into disrepute; and Amen, -who was now the supreme and representative god, was worshipped as an -incarnate ram, being depicted as a man wearing ram’s horns. - -Another mode of worshipping the young sun-god, born at the winter -solstice, December 25th, was that known as the Mysteries of the -Night, or Passion of Osiris, at which an idol of the infant Horus, or -Amen, called also the Holy Word, was presented to the people in its -mother’s arms, or exposed to view in a crib for the adoration of the -people by the priests, who were, according to Adrian, called Bishops -of Christ (χριστος, the anointed one); and when King Ptolemy, B.C. -350, asked the meaning of the custom, he was informed that it was a -sacred mystery. During these mysteries, which took place annually, -bread, after sacerdotal rites, was mystically converted into the body -of Osiris, to be partaken of by all the faithful, who were called -Christians; and an idol representing the body of the god, stretched on -a cross within a circle, was placed upon the mystic table for adoration -and praise. - -The winter solstitial point is really December 21st; but the ancients -always kept the festival of the birth of the sun-god on December 25th, -because at twelve o’clock, midnight between December 24th and 25th the -uppermost stars in the constellation _Virgo_ made their appearance -above the horizon, being the first indication of the birth of the -new sun, which had taken place exactly three days and three nights -previously. This gave rise to the popular superstition that the new -sun-god was born of a virgin, from whose womb he had been trying to -extricate himself for the space of three days and three nights. From -this the idea prevailed that the sun-god underwent similar periods of -struggle also at the summer solstice and the two equinoctial points; -and thus arose the legend of the two crucifixions, the one at the -vernal equinox, when the sun in _Aries_ crossed the Equator and was -crucified as the “Lamb of God” on March 21st, commencing the ascension -to heaven on March 25th; and the other at the autumnal equinox, when -the sun in _Libra_ (the balance of justice) crossed the Equator and was -crucified as the “Just Man” on September 23rd, descending to hell for -three days and three nights, after which he emerged into the shades -until born again at the winter solstice. - -A very popular deity of the Lower Nile was Mises (drawn from water), -the sun-god of wine and mirth, who was born on Mount Nyssa (Sinai), -and was found as a babe in a box floating on the Red Sea, and who, by -means of his magic wand, took his army dry-shod through the Sea and -the rivers Orontes and Hydaspes, drew water from rocks, and caused the -land through which he passed to flow with milk, wine, and honey. He was -depicted with a ram’s horn on his forehead, being the personification -of the new-born sun delivering the world from the powers of darkness, -and was afterwards worshipped in Phœnicia as Iēs, in Greece as Dionysos -(Διονυσος], God of Nyssa), son of Zeus, and in Rome as Bacchus. The -temples dedicated to this sun-god were, in the time of the Greek kings -of Egypt, very gorgeous, the mystic table having upon it, not only the -infant in its cradle, the transubstantiated bread, and the Osirian -crucifix, but also a bleeding lamb, the emblem of the sun-god at the -vernal equinox, over which was placed the Phœnician name of Mises, Iēs, -in Greek capitals (ΙΗΣ]), surrounded by the rays of glory, to signify -that he was the risen and crucified sun-god, and one with Horus and -Amen-Ra. - -Turning to the third great division of the Iranians—viz., the Semites, -who migrated to the Valley of the Euphrates, we find a more or less -complicated religious system, varying in accordance with the amount of -intercommunication which took place between the Semites and the tribes -belonging to the Aryan, Mongolian, and Egyptian families. The earliest -Semitic settlement was in the district stretching from the Euphrates to -the Red Sea and Mediterranean, and their religion was, at first, one of -pure animistic polydæmonism, varying enormously in details of drama in -the different tribes, but exhibiting in all common characteristics. - -All early Semitic peoples worshipped the sun-god, Shamsh, and all -were moon, planet, and star-worshippers to a very large extent; but, -as the race became divided into Northern and Southern Semites, a -distinct difference gradually arose between the religious cults of -the two branches. The Southern, or Arab, tribes, on account of their -more isolated situation, retained the original Semitic mythology, -worshipping the sun as their chief god, Shamsh, the moon as his -consort, and the stars and planets as inferior gods and goddesses, the -_Pleiades_ being objects of special homage. Shamsh was father of all, -and disappeared to the under-world at night to rest in slumber until -awakened into activity in the morning as Yachavah, his son, who became -one with his father. - -The Northern Semites, on penetrating, at a later period, the borders of -Mesopotamia, came in contact with a powerful and advanced civilisation, -which had been already established by the Akkadian branch of the -Northern Mongolian family, and thus the original Semitic religion -became very much modified by the introduction into it of many of the -Mongol, as well as some also of the Aryan, myths. - -Very little is known of the Akkadian mythology; but it is pretty -certain that they were, at a very early period, acquainted with the -science of astronomy, and that the Chaldeans, their successors, who -were a mongrel race, partly Akkadian and partly Semitic, invented the -cuneiform writing to take the place of the old Mongolian hieroglyphic -characters. From what we know of the religion of the old Mongol -Chinese empire prior to 1200 B.C., it was a kind of spirit-worship, -the Shang-ti, or supreme spirit, being Thian (Heaven), who, in -co-operation with Heu-thu (earth), produced everything. Man, according -to this cultus, had two souls, one of which ascended after death to -heaven, while the other descended into the earth, both being absorbed -respectively into Thian and Heu-thu. - -The Akkadians, who were but a branch of the same race as the -progenitors of the ancient Chinese, also worshipped spirits, the -greatest of whom was Ana (the highest heaven), the next Mulge (the -hidden heaven in the interior of the earth), and the third Ea, the -god of the atmosphere and of moisture. After these came an inferior -group—Uru-ki, the moon-god; Ud, the sun-god; and Im, the wind-god. -The spirits were divided into good and bad, which were constantly at -war with each other; and thus was introduced into the religion of the -semi-Semitic Chaldeans the dualistic notion of good and evil existing -in conflict throughout all time. - -The Northern Semites may be conveniently divided into four distinct -nations—viz., the Chaldeans (Babylonians and Assyrians), who were -partly Semitic and partly Akkadian, the Aramæans, the Canaanites, -and the Phœnicians. These peoples soon became acquainted with the -astronomical learning of the Akkadians, and were taught the wonderful -phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes; and it is highly -probable that the fact of the vernal equinoctial sign having changed -shortly before B.C. 2000 from that of the Bull to that of the Ram or -Lamb had much to do with the changing of the old Semitic name Shamsh -to that of El, as a designation of the sun-god, El (אל) being the old -Chaldean word for Ram. - -Owing to the mixed character of the Chaldean nation, their religion was -a peculiar blending of the Akkadian and Semitic mythologies, El Ilu, or -Ilah, being their chief deity; but, instead of sinking into the lower -world each night for peaceful slumber, as the older Shamsh had done, he -became the victim of the wicked demons, who tormented him all through -the dark hours, until he was avenged by his son Yachavah, who thereby -became the conqueror and saviour god, one with his father Ilu, and yet -different. To a great extent the religion of the purely Semitic tribes -of the north was affected by this Chaldean myth; but there arose many -points of difference between them. The Assyrians worshipped El under -the name of Asur, their national deity, the Babylonians converting the -name into Bel; while the pure Semites worshipped him as Bel and Baal in -the west, and as Al in the south. Out of the story of El and Yachavah -was fabricated the great Adonis myth of the Chaldeans, which became -so popular in future times among all the Semites except the Arabs of -the south, who retained the original character of the supreme Shamsh, -El or Al (afterwards Allah), and his son Yachavah, afterwards Yahouh. -This Adonis drama, as originally conceived, was that El reigned in -supreme power and glory in the highest heaven, enjoying the delights -of his spouse Istar, but that in the autumn the wicked gods of winter -overcame him, separating him from his lover, and tormenting him all -through the winter months, until in the spring he conquered the evil -demons as Adon, the beautiful youth, who is restored to his mourning -Istar. The worship of Adonis, or Adon was generally adopted by all -the Northern Semites, the god becoming eventually the most popular -deity of the Semitic people, being known as Yao (ΙΑΟ of the Greeks) -to the Phoenicians, Yahoo (יהו) to the Canaanites, and Tammuz to the -Aramæans, while his lover Istar became the Phoenician Ashtoreth. Iēs, -the god of wine, and Greek Dionysos, was another saviour sun-god -worshipped largely by the Phœnicians; but was most probably of Egyptian -origin, being identical with Mises, the Egyptian Bacchus. As already -stated, the Southern Semites of Arabia retained, in common with their -Ethiopian brethren, the old and simpler worship of the supreme god El -and his son Yahouh, although, owing to their propinquity to Egypt, -many strange inferior deities had been introduced into Arabia from -that country, which resulted, in much later times, in the formation -of various religious sects, each having a particular tribal deity, or -patron god, though all recognising El as supreme. One of these tribes, -with Yahouh as their tribal god, on which account they were called -Yahoudi, having left their native Arabian home, penetrated far into -the country of the Northern Semites, learning from the Canaanites, -Phœnicians, and Babylonians the strange legends of the Northern Semitic -deities, including the Adonis myth; and, after wandering about for many -years, one large portion of their tribe settled in the delta of the -Nile, while the remainder crossed the desert of Syria and approached -the confines of Babylonia, finally settling in the barren and rocky -interior of Syria, and making the spot where now stands the small -town of El-Khuds (Jerusalem) their headquarters. During their long -wanderings they became acquainted not only with the various Semitic -myths of the north, but also with the Babylonian and Persian legends, -and incorporated a quantity of strange deities and customs into their -own rude and primitive religion, thus manufacturing a very complicated -and weird system of mythology. - -The date of the Yahudean migration into Syria was certainly not earlier -than about B.C. 250, despite the declaration of interested parties -that these people were known as Israelites and Jews for centuries -before that time. The following quotation from Major-General Forlong’s -“Rivers of Faith” is worth reproducing on this point:—“The first -notice of the Jews is, _possibly_, that of certain Shemitic rulers of -the Aram, paying tribute about 850 B.C. to Vool-Nirari, the successor -of Shalmaneser of Syria, regarding which, however, much more is made -by Biblicists than the simple record warrants. This is the case also -where Champollion affirms that mention is made on the Theban temples -of the capture of certain towns of the land we call Judea, this being -thought to prove the existence of Jews. Similar assumption takes -place in regard to the hieratic papyri of the Leyden Museum, held to -belong to the time of Rameses II.; an inscription read on the rocks -of El-Hamamat, and the discovery of some names like Chedorlaomer in -the records of Babylonia; but this is all the ‘evidence’ as to the -existence of ancient Jews which has been advanced, and the most is -made of it in Dr. Birch’s opening address on ‘The Progress of Biblical -Archæology,’ at the inauguration of that Society. The only _logical_ -conclusion justifiable, when we give up the _inspiration_ theory, is -that Arabs and Syro-Phenicians were known to Assyrians and Egyptians, -and this none would deny. Indeed, we readily grant with Dr. Birch that, -‘under the nineteenth and twentieth Egyptian dynasties, the influence -of the Armenœan nations is distinctly marked; that not only, by blood -and alliances, had the Pharaohs been closely united with the princes -of Palestine and Syria, but that the language of the period abounds -in Semitic words, quite different from the Egyptian, with which they -were embroidered and intermingled.’ Could it possibly be otherwise? Is -it not so this day? Is a vast and rapidly-spawning Shemitic continent -like Arabia not to influence the narrow delta of a river adjoining -it, or the wild highlands of Syria to its north? Of course, Arabs, or -Shemites, were everywhere spread over Egypt, Syria, and Phenicia, as -well as in their ancient seats of empire in Arabi Irak (Kaldia), and on -the imperial mounds of Kalneh and Kouyunjik, _but not necessarily as -Jews_. I cannot find that these last were anything more than possibly a -peculiar religious sect of Arabs, who settled down from their pristine -nomadic habits, and obtained a _quasi_ government under petty princes -or sheks, such as we have seen take place in the case of numerous -Arabian and Indian sects.” - -Again, the author of “Rivers of Faith” remarks: “No efforts, say the -leaders of the Biblical Archæological Society, have been able to find, -either amid the numerous engravings on the rocks of Arabia Petrea or -Palestine, _any save Phenician inscriptions_—not even a record of -the Syro-Hebrew character, which was once thought to be the peculiar -property of Hebrews. ‘_Most of those inscriptions hitherto discovered -do not date anterior to the Roman Empire_’ (Dr. Birch, President of -Soc, op. cit., p. 9). ‘Few, if any, monuments (of Jews) have been -obtained in Palestine’ or the neighbouring countries of any useful -antiquity, save the Moabite Stone, and the value of this last is all -in favour of my previous arguments on these points. At the pool of -Siloam we have an ‘inscription, _in the Phenician character_, as old -as the time of the kings.... It is incised upon the walls of a rock -chamber, apparently _dedicated to Baal, who is mentioned on it_.’ So -that here, in a most holy place of this ‘peculiar people,’ we find -only Phenicians, and these worshipping the Sun-God of Fertility, as -was customary on every coast of Europe, from unknown times down to the -rise of Christianity. The Biblical Archæological Society and British -Museum authorities tell us frankly and clearly that no Hebrew square -character can be proved to exist till after the Babylonian captivity, -and that, ‘at all events, _this inscription of Siloam shows that the -curved or Phenician character was in use in Jerusalem itself under the -Hebrew Monarchy, as well as the conterminous Phenicia, Moabitis_, and -the more distant Assyria. No monument, indeed,’ continues Dr. Birch, -‘of greater antiquity, inscribed in the square character (Hebrew), has -been found, _as yet, older than the fifth century_, A.D.; and the coins -of the Maccabean princes, as well as those of the revolter Barcochab, -are impressed with _Samaritan_ characters.’” As to the Moabite Stone, -I would refer my readers to a little work entitled “An Inquiry into -the Age of the Moabite Stone,” by Samuel Sharpe, the celebrated author -of “The History of Egypt,” in which will be found abundant evidence to -prove that the inscription on the Stone is a forgery of about the year -A.D. 260. - -Apart from the history contained in the books of the Old Testament, -there is absolutely no record of the Jews as an independent people, -except that contained in the writings of Josephus (about A.D. -100); and, although that author may be tolerably trustworthy when -relating matters near to his own time, yet in his description of -Jewish antiquities he evidently, as he himself asserts, rests only -on tradition. For instance, he alone records the story of Alexander -entering the holy place at Jerusalem and offering sacrifice on the -altar; but Arrian, in his “Anabasis of Alexander the Great,” where he -specially treats of the life and actions of this great conqueror, says -not one word about such a place as Jerusalem, or about such a story -as that recorded by Josephus. Curtius, who wrote a far more detailed -account of the life and conquests of Alexander, mentions neither -Jerusalem nor the story of Alexander and the holy place. Herodotus, -about B.C. 430, when narrating the two raids of the Scythians through -Syria, as far as Egypt, says not a word about any Jews. Xenophon, who -wrote 150 years after they were said to have returned from Babylon, or -about B.C. 386, appears to have been unconscious of their existence, -only mentioning the Syrians of Palestine. Neither did Sanchoniathon, -Ctesias, Berosus, nor Manetho even once mention them as a nation. -Diodorus also, when writing of the siege of Tyre by the soldiers of -Alexander, neither mentions the Jews as a nation nor Jerusalem as -their chief town. In fact, we have no account of them at all, except -that contained in the Old Testament and that in the writings of -Josephus, until we find them subject to the Romans, under Antiochus -Epiphanes, about B.C. 165, when in all probability they had just -settled down into a dependent nation, having been driven into Syria -by the Babylonians, whose fertile valleys these Arabian nomads had -attempted to colonise. Being surrounded on all sides by nations whose -religions so very far surpassed their own in development, it did not -take long for the Yahoudi (afterwards called Jews) to become affected -by the mythological dramas of their neighbours; and, in carefully -examining the mythical records of their tribe, we find that they very -soon became acquainted with, and in some cases offered worship to, -almost all the purely Semitic and Chaldean, as well as to a few of -the Egyptian, deities. Their principal god always remained as before, -El (אל) signifying the zodiacal sign _Aries_, the heavenly ram and -first of the twelve zodiacal figures. Combined with Yah (יה), the -abbreviation of Yahouh (יהוה), their tribal deity, it formed a compound -word, Eloh (אלוה), or Elyah (אליה, the ו and י being interchangeable), -the plural of which was Elohim (אלהים), a word used frequently in the -Bible to signify the supreme God. Bearing in mind the fact that the -fables of the Bible are not actual history, but merely so many accounts -of the ever-recurring phenomena of the sidereal heavens, and that in -the various saviour myths the vernal equinoxial sign, or saviour sign, -_Aries_, was looked upon as the supreme god, who housed the new-born -sun on his first appearance in the upper world, just as in the present -day the song of praise on Easterday is “Worthy is the lamb who was -slain (crucified) to receive the power and bring back salvation to -the world,” the meanings of these names of the supreme deity become -apparent at once. All the words—and, in fact, almost every divine -name found in every divine record—signify the sun in one or other of -the divisions of his annual or daily apparent march, or else one of -the divisions itself. El signifies the first and saviour sign of the -zodiac, the celestial ram, and is always used when the winter period -is referred to, because from the autumnal to the vernal equinox the -sun-god, Yahouh, is separated from the ram, El, which remains god of -the lower world, until again united with its spouse, the sun, at the -vernal equinox, becoming the ram-sun-god, El-Yah or Eloh, whose plural -is Elohim, the ram-sun-gods, from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, -when the sun and _Aries_ are together for six months. At a later time, -when the old Bacchus worship was revived at Alexandria in the person -of the young Semitic Yahoshua, who was named Iesous, we have a good -illustration of this when the sun-god, in his agony at being separated -from the ram at the autumnal equinox or crucifixion, exclaimed: “Eloi, -Eloi, lama sabachthani?”—“My ram, my ram, why hast thou forsaken me?” -In, I believe, every instance in which the plural word, Elohim, is used -in the Bible the reference is to the summer half of the year, from the -vernal to the autumnal equinox, when El and Yah are together. We meet -with El—in its Babylonian form, Bel; in its Aramæan forms, Bel and -Belus; and in its Phenician form, Baal—frequently in the Bible, and -often in combination with other deities, as El-Shaddai and Bel-Shaddai -(בעלשדי), signifying the “breasted ram,” or the ram at the vernal -equinox, the period of suckling.[2] Other forms of the same divine name -were Baal-Berith, god of the equinox or covenant (_co-venire_, to come -together, as when the ecliptic crosses the equator at the two equinoxes -or crucifixions); Baal-Yah and El-Yah, rendered in the authorised -version respectively Bealiah and Elijah, when in reality they signify -the god Yahouh, or ram-sun-god; El-Yah also does duty for Joel; Elishah -signifies the saviour ram; Eliakim, the setting ram; Eleazar, the -creating ram; Samuel, the god of fame, or famous ram; Daniel, the -ram judge; and Israel, the struggle with El. The Phenician Hercules -wrestled with Typhon (the sun at the meridian) in the sand, just as -Israel or Jacob wrestled with Elohim in the dust—Hercules, like Jacob, -being wounded in the thigh; and the Canaanites knew the Greek Hercules, -who wrestled with Zeus, by the name of Ysrael. - -[2] El not only signified a ram, but also a lamb, or any other kind of -sheep. The vernal equinoxial sign, for instance, of the Persians was a -lamb, while that of the Egyptians was a ram. - -Baal-gad (בעלגד) was the god of Fortune, Gad being a Babylonian deity -representing fortune, which was placed at the foot of Hermon for public -worship. From this deity G D (גד) are derived the English words God -and Good, the German Gott and Gut, the Danish and Swedish Gud, and -the Wesleyan Methodist Gawd. Baal-Peor was the Phallic deity (_Deus -Vulvæ_), god of the opening, worshipped largely by the Hebrews, who, as -General Forlong points out, “had a strong solo-phalik fire-and-serpent -cult. They all had Baal, Nebu, and Peor on their high places; Yachavah -or Yahuê, the ‘Grove,’ or Asherah [Ashtoreth] and fire in their -central groves.” Baal Zephon was the god Typhon; Baal Hermon was -another name for Gad, god of Fortune; Baal Hazor was the god Hathor; -and Baal Hamon (בעלאמון) was the god Amen, or Jupiter Ammon. The word -Yahouh, in various terminal forms, was frequently used to designate -the sun at different times and seasons—as Joseph, the lamented Yah; -Jehu, Yahouh himself; and, according to Gesenius, Jehozabad, Yeho the -giver; Jehohanan, Yeho is good; Jehoiada, Yeho is knowing; Jehoshua, -or Joshua; Jehoshaphat; Jehoiakim; Hoshea; Zedekiyah, etc. Yahoshua -(Joshua) was the Canaanitish name for the Phoenician Yēs or Iēs, and -Egyptian Mises, and became in Latin Josue, or Jesus, according to -whether the Romans referred to the Phenician or Canaanitish Bacchus, -whose histories, though similar in the main, differed considerably -in details. The Egyptian Mises became also the Jewish law-giver and -leader, Moses, and is described in Ex. xxxiv. as being horned like -Bacchus (_vide_ my “Popular Faith Unveiled”). The Adonis myth occurs -over and over again in fragments throughout the Bible, the Babylonish -name Adon frequently being found in that form (אדן), in its Hebrew -rendering Adonai (אדני), and occasionally in its Aramæan form of -Tammuz. It occurs alone, as in Psalm cx. 1, “Yahouh said to Adonis, sit -at my right hand;” in Isaiah vii. 14, “Therefore our Adonis himself -shall give you a sign;” and in conjunction with Yahouh, as in Isaiah -vii. 7, “Thus saith Yahouh, our Adonis,” and numerous other places. It -also occurs with different terminations, to signify different forms and -positions of the sun-god—as Adoniyah or Adonijah, Adonis is Yahouh; -Adoni-zedek, the liberated Adonis; Adoni-bezek, the rising Adonis; etc. -The old Semitic sun-god Shamsh remained, as of old, the Hebrew שמש -(Shemosh), signifying the sun; and his Greek _alter ego_, Hercules, the -sun-hero, was not forgotten either, for we find a very poor attempt -to reproduce him in the history of Samson. Moloch, Dagon, and other -Semitic deities are also introduced into the Jewish Scriptures. There -is one other deity frequently met with which must now be named, and -that is the Egyptian Amen—the Zeus Amen (Ζευς Αμην·) of the Greeks, -and the Jupiter Ammon of the Romans. This god Ammon (אמן or אמון) -was worshipped by the Jews as the equal in power to, and the very -counterpart of, Yahouh, and was called by the very same names by which -he was known to the Egyptians—viz., the hidden god, true and faithful -witness (which epithet gave origin to the Greek adverb, Αμην, truly), -and saviour of the world, or regenerator of nature. In Isaiah xlv. 15 -we read, “Truly thou art the hidden god of Israel, the saviour;” and, -again, in chapter lxv. 16, “He who blesses himself on earth shall bless -himself by his god Ammon (אלהיאמן); and he who sweareth in the earth -shall swear by the god Ammon, because the former troubles are delivered -to oblivion, and because they are hidden from mine eyes.” This hidden -or occult god, Ammon, or Amen, is frequently addressed in the Psalms -and other places, and is there identified with Yahouh and Adonis. In -Psalm xxvii. 8, 9, we read, “Seek ye my face. My heart said to thee, -Thy face, O Yahouh, will I seek. O hide not thy face from me;” and -Psalm x. 1, “And why standest thou so far off, Yahouh, and hidest thy -face in the needful time of trouble?” Psalm lxxxix. 46 says, “Yahouh, -how long wilt thou hide thyself?” Verses 49, 50, “O our Adonis, where -are thy loving kindnesses of old, which thou swearest to David in thy -truth?” and verse 52, “Blessed be Yahouh for evermore (who is) Ammon, -even Ammon.” In Isaiah i. 15 we also read, “When ye spread forth your -hands I will hide myself from you; yea, when ye make many prayers I -will not hear you.” We find the same god also in the New Testament -Scriptures of the later Christian sect of Eclectic Egyptian Jews. In -the Apocalypse, for instance, the word Αμην is rendered “Amen” in the -authorised version, and is sometimes met with as a Greek noun, Ὁ Αμην -(never heard of in the classics), when it is rendered “the Amen,” -which senseless rendering is no doubt intended to conceal the real -and obvious meaning. In Rev. i. 18 we read, “I am he that liveth and -was dead, and behold I, Ammon, am alive for evermore,” the word Αμην -being rendered “Amen;” and in chap. iii. 14, “These things saith Ammon -[“the Amen” in the authorised version], the true and faithful witness, -the beginning of the creation of God.” As the celestial ram or lamb, -_Aries_, Amen is again mentioned in chap. xiii. 8, “The lamb which has -been slain from the foundation of the world”—that is, each year at the -vernal equinox, when the occult god rose from his hiding-place in the -lower hemisphere to bring salvation to the world. - -This concludes the examination of the old sun-myth religions; but there -are yet three very important religious systems to be dealt with—viz., -Confucianism, Mohammedanism, and Christianism. - -Confucianism took its birth in the sixth century B.C., at a time -when the old solar myth was very extensively believed in China and -the neighbouring countries, and was, strictly speaking, a system of -morality and conduct. Its author, Confucius (Kong-fu-tse), was born -B.C. 550, in Lu, a province of China, and at a very early age commenced -to preach a higher and purer morality among the Chinese people, many -of whom became regular followers of the young reformer, and followed -his good example by likewise teaching the people at every favourable -opportunity. He was strongly opposed to all false show, hypocrisy, and -deceit, and abhorred the life of a hermit as unnatural and mischievous. -He preferred not to speak of heaven as a personal being, as was the -habit of his countrymen, but was exceedingly fond of quoting its -example as the preserver of order, frequently alluding to its commands, -ordinances, and purposes. He attached no value to prayer, preached the -doctrine that good and evil are rewarded on the earth by prosperity and -adversity, and expressed his disbelief in special revelations to men. -The canonical books of the Confucians are known as the five _Kings_ -(the historical _Shu-King_, the psalms of the _Shi-King_, and the -ritual of the _Li-ki_, the chronicles of the _Tshun-tsiew_, and the -magical _Yi-King_), and the three volumes containing the remarkable -and benevolent utterances of the master Confucius himself—viz., the -_Lun-yu_, the _Ta-hio_, and the _Tshung-yung_. In the _Ta-hio_ occur -those celebrated and beautiful moral passages which have so justly -immortalised the name of Confucius. The one is the 24th moral: “Do -unto another what you would he should do to you, and do not to another -what you would should not be done to you. Thou needest this law alone; -it is the foundation and principle of all the rest.” The other is the -53rd moral: “Acknowledge thy benefits by return of other benefits, -but never avenge injuries.” Notwithstanding the great persecution of -Confucians in b.c. 212, by the Ts’in rulers, and other smaller attempts -to destroy the new system of morality in favour of the sun-gods, the -moral code of Confucius was publicly permitted to be used in A.D. 57, -and since the seventh century has almost entirely taken the place of -god-worship, a few only of the more uneducated classes still professing -to worship Fo-hi. - -Mohammedanism, or Islamism, the reformed faith of Arab polytheists, -arose in the sixth century of our era. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was a -young religious enthusiast, a camel-driver of Mecca, who determined -to uproot the idolatry and superstition of the Arab tribes, and was -singularly successful in his arduous undertaking. He had a powerful -aversion to all kinds of priestcraft, sacrifices, and superstitious -ordeals, and boldly preached the unity of God, declaring that “there -is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.” Of all the religions -of the world, perhaps none has been more successful than this; and, -certainly, not one ever spread so rapidly over the face of the earth. -In less than 100 years after the decease of the prophet the Khalifs -of Islamism were masters of the whole of Northern Africa, Spain, and -part of France, besides a great portion of Asia; which vast territories -they retained possession of for about 600 years, encouraging the while -philosophical and scientific studies, establishing libraries, schools, -and universities, and otherwise benefitting the human race. At the -present day upwards of 100,000,000 people embrace this faith, whose God -is Allah, the great unity, whose prophet is Mahomet, and whose Bible is -the Koran. - -We now come to Christianism, that widely-spread faith, whose cradle was -Alexandria, whose nursery was Rome, and whose workshop was Europe. The -founder of this religion, if he ever lived at all, about which there is -considerable doubt, was a young ascetic monk belonging to the Essenes—a -Syrian branch of the large order of Therapeutæ—whose headquarters were -in Alexandria. His name was Yahoshua ben Pandira and Stada; he was born -about B.C. 120, in the reign of Alexander Jannæus; and he preached the -doctrines of Confucius, declaring publicly that the priests were liars -and hypocrites, and inculcating communistic and socialistic theories. -He gained many lowly followers, who followed him about preaching in the -open air, and begging their bread from day to day, and, at last, was -publicly executed for his seditious conduct. - -At the same time a remarkable mental revolution was taking place in -Greece and Egypt, the natural homes of mythology; the University of -Alexandria and the Academic Groves of Athens were fast sending to the -right-about-face the old superstitions, much to the dismay of the -priests and religious fanatics, who were driven to their wits’ end to -know how to counteract this dangerous tendency of the age towards -infidelity and science. The idea struck them of utilising for their -purpose the new sect of religious reformers, who lived according to -the teaching of the young socialist, Yahoshua; they boldly declared -that this man was, when on earth, an incarnate deity, and proceeded -to attribute to him all the miraculous performances that had been -previously imputed to the sun-god Bacchus; and commenced forthwith -to prepare their documentary evidences ready for the ignorant and -credulous multitudes. A new sect of the Therapeut monks of Alexandria -came into existence, called Eclectics, whose mission was to collect -all that was good and useful in the religions of their neighbours, and -commit them to manuscript for the use of their monasteries and the -priestly class generally. It did not take long to fabricate a very -imposing story of the young man Yahoshua, whom they now called Iesous -(Ιησους, a name used by the Greeks to signify a hero personification -of the sun-god Bacchus, the Phœnician Ιης), Greek being at that time -the prevailing language of Lower Egypt. The performances of the ancient -sun-gods of Egypt, Persia, Arabia, India, Greece, Phœnicia, and Italy -were recalled to the minds of these Eclectic monks, by diligent search -among their old musty MSS., and, after carefully and judiciously -collating the fables, they were enabled to clothe their new Iesous, or -Jesus, with all the leading characteristics of these various deities. -He was born of a virgin at midnight between December 24th and December -25th, as were all the sun-gods: his birth, like that of Mithra and that -of Krishna, was foretold: a star pointed out the place of his nativity, -as in the case of Mithra: his birth-place was a manger in a stable, as -in the case of Hercules; or, according to another account, a cave, as -in the case of Mithra and Horus: he cured the sick, as did Æsculapius: -he fasted in the wilderness, as did Buddha: he performed miracles, as -did Bacchus, Hercules, and others: he turned water into wine, as did -the Egyptian Bacchus, and as was done at the Bacchanalian orgies: he -was crucified, as were also Krishna, Osiris, and Prometheus: he rose -from the dead after having been in the grave three days and three -nights, as did all the sun-gods: he descended to hell, as did all the -sun-gods: he was called Saviour (Σωτηρ, Gr., and Saotès, Egyp.) and -Lamb of God (_Agnus Dei_), as were all the sun-gods (Ζευς Σωτηρ, Mises -Saotès, etc.); Amen, as was Jupiter Ammon (Ζευς Αμην); Christ, or the -Anointed (χριστος), as was Osiris; Son of God, as were Plato’s Logos -(λογος), Bacchus, Mithra, and Horus; Holy Word (of Plato and Philo), as -also was Horus; God of Love, as were Adonis, Mithra, and Krishna; Light -of the World, as were all the sun-gods; and, like his _alter ego_, -Krishna, The Resurrection, The Incarnate, The Beginning and the End, -Existing before All Things, Chief of Prophets, and Messenger of Peace: -he was the incarnation of one third of a trinity, as were also Horus, -Krishna, and Plato’s Logos: his day was called the Day of the Sun: his -followers were called Christians, and his priests Bishops of Christ, -just as were those of Osiris: his priests absolved sins, received -confessions, and practised celibacy, as did the priests of Bacchus, -Adonis, Mithra, Krishna, Buddha, etc.: his feast was called the Lord’s -Supper and the Mystery of the Night, as were those of Bacchus, Adonis, -and Osiris: these suppers became, in course of time, obscene midnight -orgies, as did those of Bacchus and Adonis: at these suppers the -insignia over the table were the letters Ι Η Σ (the Phœnician name -of Bacchus, in Greek capitals), surrounded by the rays of light and -surmounted by a crucifix and a bleeding lamb, precisely as was the case -with the Bacchanalian orgies: at the Lord’s Supper bread and wine were -transubstantiated into the body and blood of Jesus, exactly as was done -in the case of Bacchus and Osiris: and lights were used at these feasts -just as they were at the Bacchanalian orgies. - -These fables were carefully compiled together, attributed to various -imaginary authors, and finally issued to the people as an appendix, -or New Testament, to the volume of the old Jewish Scriptures, or Old -Testament. Thus were gathered together by the Alexandrian Eclectics -the principal essentials of all the old mythological cults, and thus -came into existence the huge and powerful system of religion called -Christianism, which has been the great curse of Europe for well nigh -two thousand years. From the brutal murder of Hypatia, in a Christian -church, by the fanatical mob of a Christian bishop, down to the last -poor wretch burnt alive at the stake by the orders of the Church of -Jesus, the story of Christian infamy is not relieved by one bright -spot. Humanity stands aghast, and shudders at the hideous tale of crime -which the history of Christian Europe unfolds. It is one long wail of -anguish, poured forth by suffering man, finding relief only in the -silence of the grave—that stronghold of peace within which neither -god, devil, priest, nor tyrant can wreak their diabolical vengeance -further. How terrible have been the sufferings of poor Humanity under -the ghastly shadow of the Cross is beautifully expressed in Shelley’s -“Queen Mab,” in the dialogue between the spirit of Ianthe and the Fairy -Queen:— - - SPIRIT. I was an infant when my mother went - To see an Atheist burned. She took me there: - The dark-robed priests were met around the pile - The multitude was gazing silently; - And as the culprit passed with dauntless mien, - Tempered disdain in his unaltering eye, - Mixed with a quiet smile, shone calmly forth: - The thirsty fire crept round his manly limbs; - His resolute eyes were scorched to blindness soon; - His death-pang rent my heart! the insensate mob - Uttered a cry of triumph, and I wept. - Weep not, child! cried my mother, for that man - Has said, There is no God. - - FAIRY. There is no God! - Nature confirms the faith his death-groan seal’d: - Let heaven and earth, let man’s revolving race, - His ceaseless generations, tell their tale; - Let every part depending on the chain - That links it to the whole, point to the hand - That grasps its term! Let every seed that falls, - In silent eloquence unfold its store - Of argument: infinity within, - Infinity without, belie creation; - The exterminable spirit it contains - Is Nature’s only God; but human pride - Is skilful to invent most serious names - To hide its ignorance. - The name of God - Has fenced about all crime with holiness, - Himself the creature of his worshippers, - Whose names and attributes and passions change, - Seeva, Buddh, Foh, Jehovah, God, or Lord, - Even with the human dupes who build his shrines, - Still serving o’er the war-polluted world - For desolation’s watchword; whether hosts - Stain his death-blushing chariot wheels, as on - Triumphantly they roll, whilst Brahmins raise - A sacred hymn to mingle with the groans; - Or countless partners of his power divide - His tyranny to weakness; or the smoke - Of burning towns, the cries of female helplessness, - Unarmed old age, and youth, and infancy, - Horribly massacred, ascend to heaven - In honour of his name; or, last and worst, - Earth groans beneath religion’s iron age, - And priests dare babble of a God of peace, - Even while their hands are red with guiltless blood, - Murdering the while, uprooting every germ - Of truth, exterminating, spoiling all, - Making the earth a slaughter-house! - -There is no God! What, then, caused this mighty universe? To be caused -implies a cause, certainly; and that cause must, in the very nature of -things, be adequate for the production of the effect manifested. But, -inasmuch as cause and effect are but relative terms, the cause could -not exist independently of the effect, and _vice versâ_. Therefore, as -far as the human mind is capable of mentating, the universe could not -have been caused. It is, therefore, eternal. What that inherent power -of matter is that hides itself so mysteriously behind the phenomena of -nature we cannot tell, farther than that, being the inherent property -of eternal matter, it also is eternal. This point is the limit of -the human understanding, beyond which it is apparently impossible -at present for the mind of man to soar. In the words of Mr. Herbert -Spencer, “there is a power behind humanity and behind all things; a -power of which humanity is but a small and fugitive product; a power -which was, in the course of ever-changing manifestations, before -humanity was, and will continue through all other manifestations when -humanity has ceased to be.” This power, of which matter and motion, -thought and volition, are but the phenomenal manifestations, and which -regulates the varied movements of those myriads of stellar systems -interspersed throughout the infinity of space—this exhaustless power -of life and energy is to the human mind, as at present constituted, -unknowable. Call it Law; call it Gravity; call it the Mysterious -Unknown; but call it not God, that word which has brought so much -bitter anguish to humanity, and which blighted the beauty of nature, -causing hate where love should be, and tears to fall where smiles -should gladden the heart of man. Whether or not the mind of man in -future ages will be able to lift the veil that at present lies between -him and the Great Unknown time alone can tell. - -At present we are at the mercy of an imperfectly-developed nervous -organisation, with its five special senses, which, though very far -superior to the lowly nervous development of our remote ancestors -of millions of centuries back in the history of life, is perfectly -inadequate for the solution of the great problem of existence. But -a time will probably arrive in the dim and misty future when other -and more important senses will be evolved within the human frame, -which may bring man nearer the elucidation of this greatest of all -mysteries. Meanwhile let us apply ourselves boldly to the uprooting of -the old Upas tree of religious faith—that pernicious development of the -god-idea that has been the constant blight of all ages, stifling reason -by fostering blind faith and gross credulity, robbing the race of all -that is noble, manly, and honest, by the propagation of those canker -worms, hypocrisy and cant, and retarding the temporal salvation of man -by the substitution of the vain and foolish theory of future rewards -and punishments. - - -_Printed by Watts & Co., 17, Johnson’s Court, Fleet Street, London, -E.C._ - - - - -[Illustration: ZODIACAL SIGNS - - LIBRA A - VIRGO B - LEO C - CANCER D - GEMINI E - TAURUS F - ARIES G - PISCES H - AQUARIUS I - CAPRICORNUS J - SAGITARIUS K - SCORPIO L - - A Earth’s position at Vernal Equinox B.C. 4340. - B " " " " " " 2188. - C " " " " " " 36. - D " " " Winter Solstice " 4340. - E " " " " " " 2188. - F " " " " " " 36. - G " " " Autumnal Equinox " 4340. - H " " " " " " 2188. - I " " " " " " 36. - J " " " Summer Solstice " 4340. - K " " " " " " 2188. - L " " " " " " 36. -] - - -[Illustration: INSIGNIA ON THE WALLS IN THE TEMPLES OF BACCHUS] - - -[Illustration: ORIENTAL ZODIAC. After Sir W^(m) Jones.] - - -[Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ZODIAC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ISIS DENDERA -After Sir Wm. Drummond.] - - -[Illustration: NORTHERN SIGNS AND EXTRA-ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS. -B.C. 36 to A.D. 2116.] - - -[Illustration: SOUTHERN SIGNS AND EXTRA-ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS. -B.C. 36 to A.D. 2116.] - -[Illustration: _B.C. 4340 TO B.C. 2188._] - -[Illustration: _B.C. 36 TO A.D. 2116._] - - -[Illustration: _ZODIACAL LINE OR ECLIPTIC. B.C. 2188 TO B.C. 36._] - - -[Illustration: Boötes Adam Joseph the Carpenter - -Virgo Eve V. Mary - -Cetus Blasphemy] - - -[Illustration: Aquarius John the Baptist. Peter. - -Sagittarius. Joseph son of Jacob. Philip of Bethsaida. - -J. BENNETT.] - - -[Illustration: ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ - -GOD INCARNATE WITH MAN - -COPY OF CELEBRATED BRONZE IN THE VATICAN ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ]—SAVIOUR OF THE -W0RLD - -Taken from Payne Knight’s “Priapus Worship.” - -A Cross, the Phallic symbol, has been substituted for the male organ -erect of the original.] - - -[Illustration: AMULET IN TOWNLEY’S MUSEUM - -Representing the sexual union of the bull-sun-god, or Active principle -of generation, with the Passive, or female principle of nature or earth. - -Crosses have been here substituted for the erect male organs of the -original.] - -[Illustration: PHALLIC LAMP - -Found buried in London. - -Both figures are copied from “Priapus Worship”.] - - -[Illustration: VOTIVE OFFERINGS TO GOD PRIAPUS - -I. The god’s assistance was sought on behalf of a couple, PRIMINUS and -MENTILA, who were probably childless. Found in Roman camp at Adel, -Yorkshire, and now in Leeds Philosophical Society’s museum. - -II. Found in Roman camp at Westerford Fort, Scotland, upon the wall of -Antoninus. - -III. Found on one of the gateways of Hadrian’s wall, in the Roman camp -at Homesteads, Northumberland. - -The above are taken from “Priapus Worship”.] - - -[Illustration: AMULET FORMING DOUBLE CRUX ANSATA - -From “Priapus Worship”. Two Crosses are here substituted for the male -organs of the original.] - -[Illustration: ANCIENT AMULET - -Copied from one in the British Museum. - -A Cross is here substituted for the male organ of the original as shown -in “Priapus Worship”.] - - - - -ZODIACAL MYTHOLOGY. - - -To us of the nineteenth century, who have our national institutions for -the discovery and propagation of scientific truths, thus being saved -the trouble of investigating for ourselves, having only to open a book -to see when the next eclipse of the sun will take place, or whether -the Easter holidays fall later, or earlier than usual, it seems almost -incredible that there once existed races of men who devoted almost -all their time to the study of astronomy; but such is nevertheless -the fact; and when we consider the different conditions under which -society existed in very remote times from what we are now subject to, -we shall at once see that it was not altogether a pleasure, but in -fact a stern necessity, that impelled the people of those early times -to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the various natural -phenomena taking place around them day after day, month after month, -and year after year. In those days, when writing was either altogether -unknown or limited entirely to a few, and when such things as almanacks -and encyclopedias were not the order of the day, people had to trust -to their own knowledge of the movements of the heavenly bodies and the -properties and uses of plants, etc., for the successful carrying on of -their daily pursuits, which were then principally of an agricultural -nature. Instead of watches and clocks, the people had only the sun in -heaven to tell them the hours of the day; instead of monthly almanacks, -they had the moon for their guide; and, instead of annual calendars to -mark the commencement of the seasons, they had only the stars above to -teach them the proper times to till their lands and sow their grain. -Consequently, it was absolutely necessary that they should be well -acquainted with all the movements of the heavenly bodies; and we need -only glance at the earliest records of the human race to find that -they were more or less full of astronomical allusions—in fact, that the -principal study which engaged the attention of primitive man was the -study of the starry heavens. - -In my lecture on “The Evolution of the God Idea” I have already pointed -out how the earliest religious conceptions arose from this study; and -in my “Popular Faith Unveiled” I have endeavoured to show that, in -naming the constellations, the ancients adopted the wise device of -giving to groups of stars the names of the particular earth productions -or earth phenomena that happened to take place at the time when such -star groups made their appearance in the heavens. Now, it is a very -remarkable fact that in those ancient countries of which we have any -exact knowledge the heavenly bodies received very similar and, in many -instances, identical names, which is just what we should expect if the -above theory of the naming be correct. Take the zodiac, for example, -which is the line of the apparent annual circuit of the sun, and we -find that in Egypt, India, Persia, and Greece it was divided into -twelve portions of 30 degrees each, the whole circuit consisting of -360 degrees; and the equivalent signs bore a wonderful similarity to -each other. In the old Indian zodiac published in the “Philosophical -Transactions” of 1772 the signs are as follows, commencing at the -vernal equinoxial point:—Ram, Bull, Man with two shields, Crab, Lion, -Virgin, Balances, Scorpion, Bow and Arrow, Monster with goat’s head -and fish’s hindquarters, Urn, Fish. In the Indian zodiac published by -Sir W. Jones they are as follows:—Ram, Bull, Youth and Damsel, Crab, -Lion, Virgin in a boat, holding an ear of rice-corn, Man holding the -balances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with a bow and arrow, Monster -with antelope’s head and fish’s hindquarters, Man carrying a water-pot -on his shoulder, Two Fishes. The ancient Persian zodiacal signs were: -Lamb, Bull, Twins, Crab, Lion, Ear of Corn, Balances, Scorpion, Bow, -Goat, Pitcher of Water, Two Fishes. In the zodiac depicted on the -ceiling of the Egyptian temple of Isis at Dendera the following are -the signs:—Ram, Bull, Twins, Beetle, Lion, Virgin holding an ear of -corn, Balances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with bow and arrow, Monster -with goat’s head and fish’s hindquarters, Man pouring water from two -water-pots, Two Fishes. In Kircher’s Egyptian zodiac the signs are:—Man -with ram’s horns, Bull, Twins, Hermes with head of an Ibis, Lion, -Virgin holding an ear of corn, Man holding the balances, Man with -serpents for legs and having a serpent twisted round his body, Centaur -shooting with bow and arrow, Monster with goat’s head and fish’s -hindquarters, Man with an urn from which water was falling, Woman with -fish’s tail. Ancient Greek zodiacs had the following signs:—Ram, Bull, -Twins, Crab, Lion, Virgin, Balances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with -bow and arrow, Goat with fish’s hindquarters, Canobus with his pitcher -of water, Two Fishes. The Romans followed the Greeks, and these signs -have since remained unchanged in all modern zodiacs, being now known -under the following names:—Aries, the ram; Taurus, the bull; Gemini, -the twins; Cancer, the crab; Leo, the lion; Virgo, the virgin; Libra, -the balances; Scorpio, the scorpion; Sagittarius, the centaur-archer; -Capricornus, the goat-fish; Aquarius, the water-bearer; Pisces, the -fishes. - -Each of these signs corresponds with a particular portion of the year, -varying according to the slow movement known as the precession of the -equinoxes, by which all the signs are moved forward very slightly -year by year, at the rate of one degree in 71 or 72 years, until, at -the end of about 2,152 years, a whole sign has moved forward into the -position previously occupied by the sign immediately preceding it. -This is caused by the failure of the sun to reach the same point in -the same time in his apparent circuit each year; and thus it happens -that, in a period of rather less than 26,000 years, each sign will have -moved completely round the zodiacal band. Now, by careful calculation -it has been found that the vernal equinoxial point coincided with the -first degree of Aries about 28,000 years ago, with the first degree -of Libra about 17,000 years ago, with the first degree of Taurus B.C. -4,340, with that of Aries B.C. 2,188, and with that of Pisces B.C. -36; so that, at the present time, the vernal equinoxial point is -really occupied by the sign of the fishes, although, for astronomical -purposes, the sign of the ram is always placed in that position, and -will, for the future, always be considered as the first sign of the -zodiac, no matter what sign may really occupy that position. Thus there -is now what is called a fixed zodiac, which never changes, and which -is an arbitrary arrangement made for scientific purposes, and a real -zodiac whose figures move steadily and slowly year by year, until at -the end of rather more than two thousand years the vernal equinoxial -point is occupied by the sign immediately following the one which -occupied it during that period of time. - -Although now the fixed zodiac is an established fact, such an -arrangement was undreamed of by the ancients, who regulated their -almanacks from the actual sign at the time occupying the vernal -equinoxial point; so that between the years 4340 B.C. and 2188 B.C. -the sign of the bull was the first and chief sign of the zodiac, while -during the two thousand years following—that is, until 36 B.C.—the -sign of the ram or lamb took its place. The vernal equinox falls on -March 21st each year, at which time the sun, having ascended from its -lowest point of declination (December 21st), arrives at that portion -of its annual course at which the equator and the ecliptic cross each -other; and thus during the period when the sign of the bull was the -vernal equinoxial sign the sun was said to be in _Taurus_, while in -the following period, when the sign of the ram took the place of that -of the bull, the sun was said to be in _Aries_. In order to understand -thoroughly the apparent annual march of the sun round our earth, it -will be necessary to observe the actual double motions of our earth -round the sun and upon its own axis. Let us suppose that we are again -in the period when the sun was in _Aries_ at the vernal equinox; on the -21st of March our earth, in travelling round the sun (annual motion), -has reached a point at which the sun is placed between us and the first -stars of _Aries_, which are then, of course, invisible, because when -the sun is visible it is daytime—that is, the part of the earth on -which we stand is opposed to the sun, which renders all the stars in -that part of the heavens invisible; but, as the earth continues to turn -upon its axis (daily motion), we gradually lose sight of the sun, and -as the darkness closes around us the stars upon the opposite side of -the heavens become visible; so that, when the sun is in _Aries_, or any -other sign, that sign is always invisible to us, and at night we see -the sign that occupies the opposite side of the zodiac. Day after day, -as the earth continues to move round the sun, a few more stars in the -sign _Aries_ are covered, until at the end of a month the sun reaches -the next sign, _Taurus_; and the opposite signs, which we see at night, -have also moved on to the same extent. Thus at noon on March 21st the -sun is at its highest daily ascension, south of the zenith, or highest -point of the heavens, obliterating by its effulgence the first stars -of the sign _Aries_, through which it is apparently about to pass, and -at midnight following the opposite sign, _Libra_, is seen at the same -distance from the nadir, or highest point of the darkened heavens; -while a month later, when the sun at noon is in _Taurus_, the sign -_Scorpio_ is seen at the opposite point at midnight; and so on through -all the signs, one month being occupied by the passing of the sun -through each sign, so that it passes through _Aries_ in March, _Taurus_ -in April, _Gemini_ in May, _Cancer_ in June, _Leo_ in July, _Virgo_ in -August, _Libra_ in September, _Scorpio_ in October, _Sagittarius_ in -November, _Capricornus_ in December, _Aquarius_ in January, _Pisces_ -in February. This was precisely what occurred in the zodiac during the -years from B.C. 2188 to B.C. 36; but in the period of two thousand -years immediately preceding this, owing to the precession of the -equinoxes, the order was changed, so that _Taurus_ was the sign of -March, _Gemini_ of April, and so on, each sign being a month earlier; -while at the present time _Pisces_ is the sign of March, and each other -sign one month later than when _Aries_ was at the vernal equinoxial -point. Each of these signs occupies 30 degrees of the zodiac, the -whole twelve making up 360 degrees, which is the total length of the -imaginary sphere of the heavenly vault; and the ancients again divided -each of these signs into three portions of ten degrees each, called -decans making 36 decans for the complete zodiacal circle. When the -sun was passing through a sign the astrologers publicly proclaimed -the exact moment of its entry upon the first decan, which they called -the upper room, the whole sign being called the house of the sun; the -second decan they called the middle or inner room, and the third the -lower room. On each side of the zodiacal band there are also a number -of what are called extra-zodiacal constellations, which never vary -their position with regard to the zodiacal signs, the constellations on -either side of _Aries_ always rising and setting at the same time with -that sign, those on each side of _Taurus_ doing likewise, and so on -through all the signs. - -As the various astronomical figures became endowed by the ancients with -divine honours, each of these signs became associated with a number of -romantic stories, until at length the struggles, victories, and defeats -of the gods were told in such a variety of ways that sufficient lore -existed to fill, if written down, whole libraries. The zodiacal signs -were all gods of great importance; the planets were gods, the sun was -a god, the moon was a goddess, and the extra-zodiacal constellations -were either gods or heroes; but all were not of equal importance, and, -owing to the constant changing of positions, some were powerful and -victorious at one time and weak and dying at another. The chief deity, -which to the Aryans was Dyaus, the day-father, became in later times a -concentrated essence of all the gods, and was supposed to undergo all -the vicissitudes to which they were subjected; but, inasmuch as the -new-born sun was the life of the world, bringing back happiness, and -the vernal equinoxial sign was the one at which his influence began to -be felt, these two deities were looked upon as god _par excellence_, a -dual deity, separate yet conjoined, and of equal power and authority. -So, when the bull was the vernal equinoxial point, the sun-in-_Taurus_ -was supreme god; and when the ram, or lamb, was the vernal equinoxial -point the sun-in-_Aries_ was supreme God; and, although it was only -in March that the sun was at the vernal equinoxial point, yet the -bull-god, for two thousand years prior to B.C. 2188, was always -supreme, and the ram-god (in Egypt) or lamb-god (in Persia) after that -date. On leaving the vernal equinoxial sign the sun passed into the -next in order; but, although then not actually in conjunction with -the chief sign, it yet was but slightly removed from it, the distance -growing larger as each fresh sign was occupied; and never were the -sun and the principal sign actually separated from each other in the -zodiac, so as to pass into opposite hemispheres, until the autumnal -equinoxial point was crossed, after which the sun passed successively -through all the winter constellations, being separated for the space -of six months from the sign of the vernal equinox. Therefore the six -summer signs were accounted specially bountiful and holy, the sign of -the vernal equinox being the head and chief of the six, while the six -winter signs were accounted less holy, but quite as powerful for evil -as the others were for good. - -From this was formed the main drama of all subsequent mythological -systems, the groundwork of which was, briefly, as follows:—The -saviour-sun-god was born at the winter solstice, and ascended to -the vernal equinox, where he was united with the bull, becoming the -bull-god, and in aftertime with the ram or lamb, becoming the ram-god -or lamb-god: after crossing the equator at the spring covenant, or -coming together of the equator and ecliptic, he ascended to the summit -of the heavens, becoming the lion-god, at the height of his power, and -then descending again to the autumnal covenant, or equinox, to pass -through the winter or scorpion signs, alone, and mourning the loss of -the vernal equinoxial sign, which was torn from him at the autumnal -equinox. This simple narrative received numerous embellishments in -after times, according to the fancy of the astrologers and priests, -who, in many cases, contrived to make out of it a beautiful poem or a -sublime allegorical drama. - -In describing the entry of the sun upon any particular sign the ancient -astrologers were in the habit of referring, not only to the sign -itself and to its decans, but also to the accompanying extra-zodiacal -constellations, as well as to the visible zodiacal signs and -extra-zodiacal constellations of the opposite hemisphere. For instance, -during the period of the lamb’s supremacy (B.C. 2188 to B.C. 36) the -position of the stars at the moment of the commencement of the annual -apparent march of the sun round the zodiac was as follows:—The first -stars of the zodiacal sign _Capricornus_ were at the winter solstitial -point, December 21st, and invisible to the eye, being directly south of -the zenith at noon, the extra-zodiacal constellations _Picis Australis_ -on the south, and _Aquila_ on the north, being on either side of it, -and the zodiacal signs _Sagittarius_ in front and _Aquarius_ behind, -accompanying it in its march; while on the opposite side of the -zodiac, at midnight, was seen, directly to the south of the nadir, the -sign _Cancer_, in which were the _Præsepe_, or stable of Augias; the -_Io-sepe_, cradle of Jupiter or manger of Jao; and the _Aselli_, or two -asses; on the east the sign _Virgo_ was just about to appear above the -horizon; on the western horizon was the sign _Aries_, above which, and -crossing the equator, was the extra-zodiacal constellation _Orion_, -with the three large stars in his belt; and immediately below which was -the sea monster _Cetus_, just sinking below the horizon. In proclaiming -the birth of the sun at Christmas, therefore, the astrologers would -make mention of all these points; and, consequently, the more prominent -and interesting of them would become impressed more or less upon the -minds of the people, to be converted in after times into various -fantastic and romantic fables, as the manufacture of gods out of these -astronomical phenomena proceeded. - -The principal astronomical features of this annual sun-birth were, -therefore, as follows:—The birth took place in the house of the goat, -exactly opposite to which were the manger of Jao and the stable of -Augias, between two asses; at the same moment the virgin was about to -appear above the eastern horizon; the lamb was, as it were, hurling -the sea monster _Cetus_ below the western horizon; and the three -brilliant stars, called the three kings, in the belt of _Orion_, were -shining above the lamb, on the opposite horizon to where, after the -lapse of sixteen days (January 6th), would appear that brilliant star -_Vindemiatrix_, the Virgin by that time having risen sufficiently high -above the horizon for that orb, which is situated in her elbow, to be -seen at midnight. - -All the subsequent fables concerning the birth of a saviour-god were -but modifications of this. Mithra, Krishna, Horus, Bacchus, Jesus, -and, in fact, all the sun-gods, were born on December 25th, at -midnight; and the stories related of each bore a marked resemblance -to each other. The real birthday of the sun-god was December 22nd, -at the first hour; but it was always reckoned from the same time on -December 25th, because at that moment, and not before, the first stars -of _Virgo_ appeared above the horizon, which was the sign by which it -became known that the birth had actually taken place three days and -three nights previously. This gave rise to a popular notion that the -sun-god struggled for that length of time at each of the solstitial and -equinoxial points, and accounts for the fable of the two crucifixions -when the sun-god, in crossing the equator in March and September, was, -for three days and three nights, in torture before he finally ascended -to heaven in the one case, and descended to hell in the other. - -The Christian myth of the birth and death of the saviour-god, although -now considerably amplified and converted into a long history, was -originally, no doubt, of a much simpler form, and, probably, of the -following nature:—Jesus, the sun-god, was born at midnight, between -December 24th and December 25th, his mother, _Virgo_, having been three -days and three nights in the agony of childbirth; the virgin, not -being allowed to enter the house of the goat, being on the opposite -side of the zodiac, was obliged to seek refuge in the stable of Augias -(_Cancer_), and place her baby in the manger of Jao, at which moment -the lamb of god, _Aries_, hurled into the abyss the great monster of -evil, or _Cetus_; the three kings in the belt of _Orion_, perceiving, -on January 6th, the great star _Vindemiatrix_ rise in the east, -which was their guiding star, made obeisance to the new-born god -and disappeared below the horizon, going down by the west, instead -of returning by the east, or way they had come. Growing from this -moment, the young sun-god commenced his journey towards the city of -god, the summer solstice, at the top of the hill, or height of annual -ascension, meeting at the outset _Aquarius_, the man with the pitcher -of water, or John the Baptist, with whom he remained for a time; after -which he entered upon the season of fasting, or the sign _Pisces_, -the fishes, and prepared by austerities for the coming feast of the -Passover, or coming together (covenant) of the ecliptic and equator, -when he would be crucified—that is, be placed cross-wise on the two -lines (ecliptic and equator). After this he entered into the sign, -_Aries_, the lamb, having been shown the way by the man with the -pitcher of water, _Aquarius_, and partook of the feast in the upper -room or first decan, immediately after which he was crucified as the -lamb of god—that is, passed the crossing of the equator and ecliptic -in the sign of the lamb. For three days and three nights he struggled -in the tomb, or suspense, and then ascended into heaven, accompanied -by the lamb, passing the signs _Taurus_ and _Gemini_, saying to the -twins that he could stay with them but a little while, and where he -was going they could not go (John xii.), and finally reaching the -city of heaven, Jerusalem, or _Cancer_, passing over the two asses -(_Aselli_) at the entrance to it. Here, on the top of the mount, or -at the height of his annual ascension, he had another three days and -three nights of tribulation, struggling with the devil, the heavenly -serpent, who had led or preceded him up the mount, but who left him as -soon as he arrived at the top; for _Serpens_, at this point, returns -while the sun commences his descent towards the autumnal crucifixion. -Passing into _Leo_, he was transfigured on the mount—that is, became -more resplendent than ever, after which he entered _Virgo_, where the -seductions of the lady sorely tempted him, for being offered the juice -of the autumn grape he drank copiously with the damsel until none was -left; whereupon she suggested that he should turn water into wine, but -he resisted further temptation, exclaiming, “Woman, what have I to do -with thee?” and pursued his course towards the autumnal equinox, where -he passed into _Libra_ and crossed the equator and ecliptic again, -or, in other words, was crucified in Egypt as the “just man,” being -at length separated from _Aries_ for six months, which caused him to -exclaim in grief, “My ram! my ram! why hast thou forsaken me?” After -three days’ and three nights’ struggle he descended into hell, the -tomb, or the dark regions, to be born again at the winter solstice -as before; after which he would reconquer the powers of evil, or the -winter signs, and again become the lamb of god, “slain from the -foundation of the world” (Rev. xiii. 8) the Amen, or Jupiter Ammon, of -the Apocalypse, at which moment he exclaims, “I am he that liveth and -was dead, and behold I, Amen, am alive for evermore” (Rev. i. 18), and -“These things saith Amen, the true and faithful witness, the beginning -of the creation of God” (Rev. iii. 14). The winter period, commencing -with _Libra_, was called by the ancients the period of scorpions, -because _Scorpio_ was the principal sign of the period, and next after -the equinoxial sign; Egypt (see Rev. xi. 8), because, that being the -most southerly country then known, the sun appeared to descend into it -at that time of the year; and Sodom, Gomorrah, etc., because it was a -period of evil. The sea-monster, _Cetus_, is the same that is referred -to in Rev. xiii. as blasphemy, with a mouth like a lion, feet like a -bear, and leopard-like marks on its forequarters, and whose number was -declared to be 666, which figure being made up of ס 60, ת 400, ו 6, and -ר 200, stands for the word סתור, Setur, the concealed one, the Latin -equivalent of which is _Cetus_. This was probably something like the -original Christian myth, which, as time wore on, became converted into -the absurd story presented to us in the four Gospels. - -The story of Adonis being separated from his darling Venus for six -months, and being afterwards re-united to her in love for another six -months, was fabricated from the same source; as also were the legends -of Osiris and Horus, Vishnu and Krishna, Ormuzd and Mithras, Jupiter -and Apollo, Jupiter and Bacchus, and Jupiter and Hercules. The cult -of Bacchus, indeed, was almost a _fac simile_ of those of Jesus and -Adonis, the three being but representations in different countries of -the very same drama. The twelve labours of Hercules were no more than -the passage of the sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac, just as -the twelve patriarchs, the twelve tribes, the twelve stones, and the -twelve apostles were the twelve signs themselves. In my “Popular Faith -Unveiled” I have pointed out the reasons for thinking the twelve sons -of Jacob and the twelve apostles to be the twelve zodiacal signs; but I -may here state that, on re-consideration, I am inclined to modify the -order maintained there in regard to the twelve sons of Jacob (p. 122) -by changing the places of Benjamin and Zebulun, the former being, in -my present opinion, the sign _Gemini_, and the latter _Capricornus_; -and as to the twelve apostles, I may here supply an omission made in -the same work, by stating that Andrew (p. 198) represents _Aries_, of -March, being always depicted with a ×, which forms the angle made by -the crossing of the equator and ecliptic on March 21st. The mystic -number seven was derived from the summer signs of the zodiac, including -the two equinoxial signs, which were called the pillars of the temple, -the vault of the summer heavens being the temple itself. Thus arose -the allusions to the seven trumpets, the seven candlesticks, the seven -churches, and the seven seals in the Apocalypse, each of which was a -summer zodiacal sign; and here I may again supply an omission in my -“Popular Faith Unveiled” (p. 246) by stating that the church of Smyrna -represented _Virgo_, of August, in which month bundles of myrrh were -always offered to the sun, the word Σμυρνα signifying “myrrh.” - -Besides mystic numbers, there were a number of mystic symbols in use -among the ancients, by which the great and important phenomena in -nature were kept constantly before the eyes of the people. The chief -and most widely known symbol is the cross, representing the ascending -sun bringing back fresh life to the world at the vernal equinox; but -the cross was by no means the only symbol of this important occurrence; -trees, torches, the male organs of generation, or phallus, and -various animals were frequently used for the same purpose—in fact, -the symbolical worship of the ancients assumed gigantic proportions, -almost every conceivable device being seized upon to render homage to -the great re-fertiliser of the earth. No one of the religious cults was -free from a large admixture of what is known as phallic worship—that -is, worship of the fertilising principle; and it was a common custom -for people to swear by their generative organs, as being the most -sacred things on earth, representing the divine energy in a state of -procreative activity. Thus we find in Psalm lxxxix. 49 the following -words (literally translated): “O my Adonis, where are thy endearments -of old, which thou swearedst for the sake of love by thy phallus, O -Ammon?” The Hebrew letter ת was the sign of the cross, or phallus, -which was also used by the Phœnicians, being derived from the Arabic -תױ], the sybol of the life-giver. This passage evidently had reference -to the violent death of Adonis, who, at the autumnal equinox, was -attacked by a wild boar, which tore away his generative organs and -rendered him consequently impotent, until he was born again, when he -acquired fresh powers and grew in beauty and stature, ready to re-unite -with Venus at the spring equinox. - -On the mithraitic monuments the spring equinox is represented by -lighted and elevated torches, trees covered with leaves, entire bulls, -and young men holding lighted torches; while the autumnal equinox is -represented by a hydra, or long serpent, a scorpion, reversed and -extinguished torches, trees loaded with autumn fruits, a bull with -its generative organs torn away, and old men holding reversed and -extinguished torches. The Rev. G. W. Cox, M.A. and scholar of Trinity -College, Oxford, in his “Mythology of the Aryan Nations,” says: “The -male and female powers of nature were denoted respectively by an -upright and an oval emblem, and the conjunction of the two furnished -at once the altar and the ashera, or grove, against which the Hebrew -prophets lifted up their voice in earnest protest.... In the kingdom -both of Judah and Israel the rites connected with these emblems assumed -their most corrupting form. Even in the temple itself stood the Ashera, -or the upright emblem on the circular altar of Baal-Peor, the Priapos -of the Jews, thus reproducing the Linga and Yoni of the Hindu. For this -symbol the women wove hangings, as the Athenian maidens embroidered the -sacred peplos for the ship presented to Athene at the great Dionysiac -festival. Here, at the winter solstice, they wept and mourned for -Tammuz, the fair Adonis, done to death by the boar.... Here, also, -on the third day, they rejoiced at the resurrection of the lord of -light. Hence, as most intimately connected with the reproduction of -life on earth, it became the symbol under which the sun, invoked with -a thousand names, has been worshipped throughout the world as the -restorer of the powers of nature after the long sleep or death of -winter.” - -This symbol was from the earliest times venerated as a protecting -power, and Jacob, on his journey to Laban, slept under its protecting -influence: placed erect—sometimes as a tree, at others as a cross, and -often as a phallus—and resting on a crescent, the modified form of the -yoni, this symbol set forth the marriage of heaven and earth; and in -the form of a serpent, representing life and healing, it was worshipped -by the Egyptians and Jews. In the book of Genesis the phallic tree is -introduced, where it is called the tree of knowledge of good and evil. -From Plutarch we learn that the Egyptians represented Osiris with the -organ of generation erect, to show his generative and prolific power, -and that he was the same deity as the Bacchus of the Greek mythology -and the first begotten love (Ερως πρωτογονος) of Orpheus and Hesiod. -In an excellent work entitled “Discourse on the Worship of Priapus,” -by Richard Payne Knight, there are a number of plates illustrating the -mode in which this phallic worship was carried on by the ancients, -some of which are very curious and well worth the trouble of studying -carefully. One plate represents a celebrated bronze in the Vatican, -with the male organs of generation placed on the head of a cock, the -emblem of the rising sun, supported by the neck and shoulders of a man, -the whole being emblematical of god incarnate with man, and on the -base of which are inscribed the words ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ, “Saviour of the -world.” Another figure on the same plate represents an ornament in the -British Museum, consisting of a male organ with wings and the foot of -a man suspended from a chain. Another plate shows two representations -of the god Pan, one with the organ erect, the symbol of power, or -spring, the other with the organ in a state of tumid languor, and -loaded with the productions of the earth, the symbol of the results of -prolific efforts. Both these last are copies of bronzes in the museum -of C. Townley. On another plate is a copy of another of Mr. Townley’s -treasures, representing the incarnation of deity, in the shape of a -man having sexual intercourse with a goat, the emblem of the new-born -deity at the winter solstice, to which is appended the following note -by Mr. Payne Knight: “At Mendes a living goat was kept as the image -of the generative power, to whom the women presented themselves naked, -and had the honour of being publicly enjoyed by him. Herodotus saw the -act openly performed (ες επιδειξεν ανθρωπων), and calls it a prodigy -(τερας). But the Egyptians had no such horror of it; for it was to them -a representation of the incarnation of the deity, and the communication -of his creative spirit to man. It was one of the sacraments of that -ancient church, and was, without doubt, beheld with that pious awe and -reverence with which devout persons always contemplate the mysteries of -their faith, whatever they happen to be.” This figure represented the -human male symbol as incarnate with the divine, instead of the divine -male incarnate with the human, as in the well-known one found among the -ruins of Herculaneum and kept concealed in the Royal Museum of Portici. -It is unnecessary to describe the whole of the interesting plates which -illustrate Mr. Knight’s work, copies of all of which I have carefully -taken. - -There is abundant evidence in ancient authors as to the prevalence -of this worship of the generative organs, and all agree as to the -real meaning of the symbol. In every part of the then known world the -conquering sun bringing back life to the world at the spring equinox -was represented in some phallic form or other, either as a cross, a -phallus, a tree, a serpent, a goat, a bull, a torch, or some other -device emblematic of the sexual union of the powers of heaven with -mother earth. The cross was the most commonly used phallic symbol, -and was generally of the following form—☥, the о being the emblem of -the earth, or female organ, and the T that of the sun, or fecundating -principle, the combination forming a _crux ansata_, which was worn as -a charm by devout people. This was converted into a simple cross, in -which form, as well as in many others, it is found on ancient temples -of the most remote periods, as well as at the corners of roads, where -it evidently was used as a sign-post, as well as a religious symbol. -Among the paintings found at Pompeii there are some in which the god -Priapus is represented as a Hermes, on a square pedestal, with an -enormous phallus; and others in which he is represented with the usual -prominent feature, and, in addition, with a long stick in his hand to -point out the way to travellers. Herodotus thus describes a festival in -Egypt:—“The festival is celebrated almost exactly as Bacchic festivals -in Greece. They also use, instead of phalli, another invention, -consisting of images a cubit high, pulled by strings, which the women -carry round to the villages. The virile member of these figures is -scarcely less than the rest of the body, and this member they contrive -to move. A piper goes in front, and the women follow, singing hymns in -honour of Bacchus.” - -Among the royal offerings to the god Amen by Rameses III. in the great -Harris Papyrus are loaves (called “Taenhannur”) in the form of the -phallus.[3] In the Pamelia the Egyptians exhibited a statue provided -with three phalli; and in the festivals of Bacchus, celebrated by -Ptolemy Philadelphus, a gilt phallus, 120 cubits high, was carried in -procession. St. Jerome tells us that, in Syria, Baal-Peor, the Hebrew -Priapus, was represented with a phallus in his mouth; and in Ezekiel -xvi. 17 we find the Jewish women manufacturing silver and golden phalli. - -[3] “Primitive Symbolism,” by Hodder M. Westropp. - -According to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, the worship of Bacchus was -imported into Greece by Melampus, who taught the Greeks the mysteries -connected with phallic worship; and Plutarch says that “nothing, is -simpler than the manner in which they celebrated formerly in my country -the Dionysiaca. Two men walked at the head of the procession; one -carried an amphora of wine, the other a vine branch; a third led a -goat; a fourth bore a basket of figs; a figure of a phallus closed the -procession.” - -Tertullian tells us that that which in the mysteries of Eleusis is -considered as most holy, concealed with most care, and only explained -to the initiated at the last moment, is the image of the virile member. -The festival of Venus, held at Rome in the beginning of April each -year, was in honour of the sexual union of the powers of heaven and -of earth. The Roman ladies led a cart, in which was a huge phallus, -to the temple of Venus, outside the Colline gate, and there presented -the member to the sexual part of the goddess. Spring was, indeed, the -special season for phallic processions, as we learn from a passage of -“Iamblichus de Mysteriis,” given by Mr. Westropp: “We say the erection -of the phalli is a certain sign of prolific power, which, through this, -is called forth to the generative energy of the world; on which account -many phalli are consecrated in the spring, because then the whole world -receives from the gods the power which is productive of all generation.” - -It is sufficiently obvious that the return of the sun to the vernal -equinoxial sign each year, or the union of the active and passive -principles, formed the cornerstone of the various religious systems, -and that this marriage, as it were, of heaven with earth, occurring -each springtime, and bringing with it such a train of good results, -gave rise to the most sacred institutions and rites, which to us may -appear disgusting, but which, to the ancients, were looked upon with -the greatest awe and veneration. - -It was not to the generative organs that the ancients offered -homage, but to the principles represented by them—to the active and -procreative power of the god of nature, the prolific ram-sun, at -the spring equinox, and to the passive and recipient mother-earth, -the womb of nature, from which we all emanate and to which we all -return. It is, however, reasonable to imagine, with the Rev. G. W. -Cox, that “it is clear that such a cultus as this would carry with -it a constantly-increasing danger, until the original character of -the emblem should be as thoroughly disguised as the names of some of -the Vedic deities when transferred to Hellenic soil.” Indeed, it is -matter of history that these rites, which were held so sacred by the -Egyptians, were turned to the basest and most wicked purposes in after -times by the worshippers of Bacchus, Adonis, and other deities. The -Bacchanalian mysteries and secret rites called _Dionysia_, or Supper -of the lord Dionysos, were publicly denounced by the Roman authorities -at the commencement of our era, as were also the _Adonia_, or Suppers -of the lord Adonis, and the Love Feasts, _Agapæ_, or Suppers of the -lord Jesus. From Gibbon we learn that the early Christians were in the -habit of committing at their Love Feasts the most unnatural crimes -with sisters, mothers, and others, as is also clearly testified by -Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, and Minucius Felix; and Livy’s -account of similar practices indulged in by the Bacchanalians at their -_Dionysia_ leaves no doubt as to their participation in these horrors. -So widely spread was this phallic worship that, within one hundred -years of the present time, it was openly followed in some parts of -Europe, as appears from a letter of Sir William Hamilton, K.B., British -Minister at the Court of Naples, to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., President -of the Royal Society. Accompanying the letter the writer sends an -amulet worn by women and children of Naples and the neighbourhood as -ornaments of dress, which they imagine will be a preservative against -_mal occhii_ (“evil eyes”), or enchantment. It represents a hand -clenched, with the point of the thumb thrust between the index and -middle finger, on one side, and a male organ erect on the other side, -with a ring, or female organ, above, and a flaccid male organ and -scrotum beneath, the whole in the form of a cross. The letter is so -remarkable that it is worth while reproducing a considerable portion of -it, as it appears in Mr. Knight’s work. - -“The following is the account of the Fête of St. Cosmo and Damiano, -as it was actually celebrated at Isernia, on the confines of Abruzzo, -in the kingdom of Naples, so late as in the year of our Lord 1780. On -the 27th of September, at Isernia, one of the most ancient cities of -the kingdom of Naples, situated in the province called the Contado di -Molise, and adjoining to Abruzzo, an annual fair is held, which lasts -three days. The situation of this fair is on a rising ground, between -two rivers, about half a mile from the town of Isernia; on the most -elevated part of which there is an ancient church, with a vestibule. -The architecture is of the style of the lower ages; and it is said -to have been a church and convent belonging to the Benedictine monks -in the time of their poverty. This church is dedicated to St. Cosmus -and Damianus. One of the days of the fair the relics of the saints -are exposed, and afterwards carried in procession from the cathedral -of the city to this church, attended by a prodigious concourse of -people. In the city, and at the fair, _ex-voti_ of wax, representing -the male parts of generation, of various dimensions, some even of the -length of a palm, are publicly offered to sale. There are also waxen -vows, that represent other parts of the body mixed with them; but of -these there are few in comparison of the number of Priapi. The devout -distributors of these vows carry a basket full of them in one hand, -and hold a plate in the other to receive the money, crying aloud, ‘St. -Cosmo and Damiano!’ If you ask the price of one, the answer is, _Più -ci metti, più meriti_—’The more you give, the more’s the merit.’ In -the vestibule are two tables, at each of which one of the canons of -the church presides, this crying out, _Oui si ricevina le Misse, e -Litanie_—’Here Masses and Litanies are received;’ and the other, _Oui -si riceveno li Voti_—’Here the Vows are received.’ The price of a mass -is fifteen Neapolitan grains, and of a litany five grains. On each -table is a large basin for the reception of the different offerings. -The vows are chiefly presented by the female sex; and they are seldom -such as represent legs, arms, &c., but most commonly the male parts -of generation. The person who was at this fête in the year 1780, and -who gave me this account (the authenticity of every article of which -has since been fully confirmed to me by the Governor of Isernia), told -me also that he heard a woman say, at the time she presented a vow, -like that which is represented in Plate I., Fig. I., _Santo Cosimo -benedetto, cosi lo voglio_—’Blessed St. Cosmo, let it be like this;’ -another, _St. Cosimo, a te mi raccommendo_—’St. Cosmo, I recommend -myself to you;’ and a third, _St. Cosimo, ti ruigrazio_—’St. Cosmo, I -thank you.’ The vow is never presented without being accompanied by -a piece of money, and is always kissed by the devotee at the moment -of presentation. At the great altar in the church another of its -canons attends to give the holy unction, with the oil of St. Cosmo; -which is prepared by the same receipt as that of the Roman Ritual, -with the addition only of the prayer of the Holy Martyrs, St. Cosmus -and Damianus. Those who have an infirmity in any of their members -present themselves at the great altar, and uncover the member affected -(not even excepting that which is most frequently represented by -the _ex-voti_); and the reverend canon anoints it, saying, _Per -intercessionem beati Cosmi, liberet te ab omni malo, Amen_. The -ceremony finishes by the canons of the church dividing the spoils, both -money and wax, which must be to a very considerable amount, as the -concourse at this fête is said to be prodigiously numerous.” - -At the present day phallic symbolism is perpetuated in our church -steeples, in the crosses and circles on our altars and prayer-books, -in the pictures of the lamb holding a cross within a circle on our -church windows, in the cross-buns eaten at the paschal feast, in the -Easter eggs, and in various other ways; while the Pyramids of Egypt -and the Luxor obelisks—one in London, one in Paris, and one in St. -Petersburg—form a connecting phallic link between the ancient Egyptians -and ourselves. The sphynx has been said by some to be a phallic figure; -but I do not subscribe to this view at all, holding the opinion that -it is simply a union of two zodiacal signs, July and August of the -fixed zodiac. It appears to me that at a very remote time, when the -sign _Virgo_ was about to be supplanted at the vernal equinox by the -next sign, _Leo_—somewhere about fifteen thousand years ago, or rather -later—the priests or astrologers hit upon the idea of placing the head -of _Virgo_ upon the shoulders of _Leo_, thus manufacturing a new kind -of figure, which, on account of its partaking of the dual nature of the -then most prominent of the gods, became very popular, and was depicted -in various forms and in many parts of the country. This may also have -been the _modus faciendi_ of _Capricornus_ and _Sagittarius_, if we -can imagine a still earlier period when the zodiac was so different -from the present form as to have signs represented by a fish, a goat, a -horse, and an archer respectively. - -Next to the vernal equinoxial sign the ancients held the winter -solstitial sign in the greatest veneration, and consequently the -goat was a very sacred animal and occupied a prominent place in all -symbolical mythologies. It was from this point that the Egyptians -calculated their new year, although the Persians always reckoned theirs -from the vernal equinox; and it was on December 21st that the Egyptians -fixed the creation of the world, which gave origin to the fable of a -goat having been the creator, thus accounting for the fact of the -early copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch commencing with the following -words: “At the commencement the goat (העז) renovated the heavens and -the earth” (Genesis I. 1). Here we meet with a very good example of the -patchwork style in which the Bible was compiled. In Egypt the new year -reckoned from December 21st, and the creation was supposed to date from -the same time of the year, and consequently in all records emanating -from the Nile district the celestial goat was honoured for the occasion -with the chief godship; but in Persia the new year commenced on March -21st, the date of the creation being fixed at the same point of the -zodiac, so that the chief godship was assigned to the celestial lamb -or ram and its five fellow signs of the summer hemisphere. Therefore, -as the Hebrews derived their creation fable from the Persians, using -also the Egyptian mythology with which to embellish their newly-made -cosmogony, the two fables became mixed somewhat in the minds of these -ignorant wanderers, the consequence being that in some of their MSS. -the creation was said to have been the act of the goat (העז), while -in others it was attributed to the ram-sun, Elyah (אליה), or the six -summer signs commencing with the ram-sun, and called on that account -the Elohim (אלהים), this word being the plural form of Eloh (אלוה) or -Elyah (אליה), a compound word made up of Yah (יה), the Hebrew name for -the sun-god, and El (אל), the celestial lamb or ram. - -Not only were the three principal signs—the bull, the ram, and the -goat—held in great veneration by the Egyptians, but all the zodiacal -signs were worshipped in various degrees; indeed, each figure of the -zodiac can be easily assigned to one of the principal gods of Egypt, -as they were known prior to B.C. 2188. The ram was Amen, the Egyptian -Jupiter, called Zeus Amen (Ζευς Αμην) by the Greeks and _Jupiter Ammon_ -by the Romans, who was represented with a ram’s head and horns. The -bull was Apis, or Serapis, worshipped as a living bull, the incarnation -of the principal deity at the vernal equinox. The twins were the Greek -Castor and Pollux, who were worshipped by the Egyptians under similar -names. The crab was Anubis, the Egyptian Mercury. The lion was Osiris, -Ra, or Phthah, according to the district and age, the sun-god at the -height of his power at the summer solstitial point, June 24th. The -virgin was Isis, the beloved of Osiris. The balances were included -with the scorpion, the two being worshipped as Set-Typhon, Tum, or -Sekru, according to the district and age, the sun-god at the autumnal -equinox, suffering defeat at the hands of the powers of darkness. -The centaur-archer was the Egyptian Hercules. The goat was Pan, or -Mendes. The water-bearer was Horus, the avenger of his father’s defeat, -born December 21st, and a conqueror on March 21st; also Mises, the -Egyptian Bacchus, who, being the sign of the sun-god’s birth, leads the -twelve signs out of the land of bondage, and institutes the feast of -commemoration at the sign of the lamb, whose horns he wears; and also -Harmachis. The fishes are Oannes, the Egyptian saviour-fish, who, when -that sign was at the winter solstitial point, saved the world as the -new-born sun. - -These twelve signs of the zodiac were, in fact, the twelve principal -gods of all races; the seven summer signs, including the two equinoxial -signs, being the seven specially sacred gods, inhabiting the upper -temple of the most high god, which was the vault of the summer -heavens, supported by the two pillars of the equinoxes or covenants. -Almost every race had temples divided into upper and lower courts or -rooms, the upper one being the residence of their chief gods; and -these temples were originally meant to represent the universe, having -an upper hemisphere, governed by the good principle, and a lower -hemisphere, governed by the bad principle, this idea being frequently -further represented by a closed ark or chest, representing the lower -or dark hemisphere, upon which sat the chief deity, representing the -good principle of the upper hemisphere. The Egyptians, according to -Plutarch, enclosed the body of Osiris in an ark every year at the -autumnal equinox, when the sun was in _Scorpio_, which was a rite -emblematical of the annual death of the sun-god of summer; and the -Jews, it will be remembered, suffered defeat at the hands of the -Philistines, immediately after they had taken the ark out of Shiloh, -where it had been deposited, the word Shiloh being the name of a -tiny group of stars in the sign _Scorpio_. The movable temple of the -Hebrews, or tabernacle, as described in Exodus, is the best example we -have of this representation of the universe, being described in such -minute detail as to betray its meaning to the dullest mind. It was -divided into two portions—the lower or outer portion, and the upper or -inner portion, the holy of holies, where dwelt the Hebrew chief tribal -god, Yahouh, or Yah, sitting upon the ark of the covenant, representing -the winter part of the heavens between the two covenants or equinoxes. -On each side of Yah was a cherub, or monster with four faces (or, -according to some, with four bodies)—one like a bull, another like a -man, a third like an eagle, and the last like a lion, as we find fully -described by Ezekiel (chap. i.). In my “Popular Faith Unveiled” (pp. -131, 174, and 247) I have attributed these heads (or bodies) to the -four zodiacal signs of ascension after the vernal equinox, that like -a bull to _Taurus_, that like a man to _Gemini_, that like an eagle -to _Cancer_, and that like a lion to _Leo_; but, according to Sir W. -Drummond, in his “Œdipus Judaicus,” they correspond with the signs -at the four quarters of the sphere—viz., the man to _Aquarius_, the -ox to _Taurus_, the lion to _Leo_, and the eagle to _Scorpio_, this -calculation being based on the supposition that the cherubim were -first introduced during the period prior to B.C. 2188, when _Taurus_ -was the vernal equinoxial point, while mine supposes _Aries_ to have -been the chief zodiacal sign. Which calculation is right the reader -must decide for himself, after carefully studying the reasons given -for both conclusions. Clement of Alexandria, in his “Stromata,” says -of these cherubim: “Each of them has six wings, whether they typify -the two bears, as some will have it, or, which is better, the two -hemispheres.... Both have twelve wings, and thus through the circle of -the zodiac, and of self-marrying time, they typify the world perceived -by the senses.” The table in the temple was symbolical of the earth, -as we learn from Clement of Alexandria again, when he says: “The -table, as I think, signifies the image of the earth; it is sustained by -four feet, answering to the summer, autumn, spring, and winter.” The -shew-bread was placed on the table in front of Yah, and was divided -into twelve pieces, typical of the twelve signs, as we find stated in -Ex. xxv. 22 and 30 (literally translated): “And I will hang [or be -deposited] there, set [or sitting] before thee; and I will talk to thee -from above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubim, which are -upon the ark of the testimony ... and thou shalt set shew-bread always -upon the table in front of me.” The candlesticks, with three branches -on each side and one in the centre, having seven lamps burning on them, -represented the seven summer signs, including both the equinoxial ones. -Josephus tells us that the candlesticks were divided into seventy -parts, answering to the seventy decans of the seven signs. The veil -of the temple was of blue, purple, and scarlet, and represented the -atmospheric vault of heaven tinged, as it frequently is, by the sun’s -rays. The pomegranates represented the fixed stars. The dress of the -high priest was ornamented with 566 bells, corresponding with the days -of the sidereal year, with two bright emeralds and twelve precious -stones, which, according to Clement of Alexandria, represented the sun -and moon and the twelve signs of the zodiac. - -Sufficient has been said to leave no doubt as to the real meaning of -the tabernacle and its appurtenances, and, I think, to establish the -truth of what I have previously stated—viz., that the ancient religions -were of astronomical origin and abounding in symbolical rites and -ceremonies. It only remains for me now to repeat what I have maintained -before in other essays—that the Christian religion of to-day, -although modified by time and circumstances, having been considerably -manipulated so as to be brought within touch of modern requirements, is -nothing more or less than a rehash of the Egyptian, Persian, Hindu, and -Phœnician mythologies—an old worn-out faith, in fact, dressed in gaudy -and attractive garments. - - -[Illustration: THE EARTH OF THE VEDIC PRIESTS.] - -[Illustration: HINDU EARTH.] - -[Illustration: THE EARTH OF THE LATER GREEKS. B.C.] - -[Illustration: POMPONIUS MELA’S COSMOGRAPHY. -1^(st) Century. Heathen.] - -[Illustration: CHRISTIAN MAPS OF THE WORLD IN the 10th. Century.] - -[Illustration: CHRISTIAN MAP OF THE WORLD IN THE 8th. Century.] - -[Illustration: MAP OF MARCO POLO End of 14th. Century.] - -[Illustration: COSMOGRAPHY OF S^(t) DENIS Mid 14th. Century] - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN PLANETARY SYSTEM] - -[Illustration: PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM] - -[Illustration: TYCHO BRAHE’S PLANETARY SYSTEM] - -[Illustration: COPERNICAN SYSTEM] - -[Illustration: THE IRON VIRGIN. Inside View. - -The unbeliever or heretic was placed upright inside the virgin, and -the doors were closed so that the spikes penetrated the victim’s eyes -& chest, after which the body was dropped through the floor into the -river Pegnitz.] - -[Illustration: THE IRON VIRGIN. Outside View. - -Fixed in a vault cut out of the rock beneath the Nuremberg Town Hall, -in Bavaria, and used as an instrument of torture by the Christian -Church.] - - - - -INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS - -IN EUROPE. - - -No scientific student or observer of nature will have failed to notice -that all phenomena around him are ever in a condition of progressive -change, ever advancing from the simple to the complex, and ever -conforming to specific laws. Just as the world in which we live has -gradually developed from a condition of nebulous vapour to its present -complex form, and just as man has evolved from a simple molecule of -protoplasm by wonderful and manifold stages to his present commanding -position, so have civilisation, trade, politics, arts, literature, and -science all been slowly and gradually evolved from the primitive mind -of prehistoric man. A continual change has ever been going on from the -simple to the complex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from -the imperfect to the more perfect. This continual progress has been in -operation during all time, and will proceed in the future as of old, -leaving the present day far behind in its march, as the present day has -left behind it the past. - -In considering the evolution of reform, or progress of civilisation, -we are necessarily limited to a comparatively late period in man’s -history, for many thousands of years had passed away, during which time -man had gradually established himself as a social animal, before any -trustworthy records appeared to throw light in future ages upon the -primitive condition and habits of the human family. From the patient -and persevering studies of scientific men, we are now in possession of -a number of facts which lead us to the conclusion that primitive man -first lived the life of a wild beast, inhabiting caves, and devoting -all his energies to battling with the ferocious monsters around him. -From this condition he developed into a more civilised being, becoming -an agriculturalist, afterwards a manufacturer of stuffs and hardware, -and still later a member of an organised state. These changes probably -occupied hundreds of thousands of years, compared to which enormous -lapse of time the period embraced between the Egypto-Greek or classic -era and the present moment is a mere speck on the face of time. We are -now tolerably well acquainted with the civilisation of the ancient -Egyptians and Greeks, which had existed for many centuries before -the time of Aristotle, and which some four or five centuries before -our era had commenced its entry upon the wide field of scientific -development which followed the conquest of Persia by Alexander the -Great. These civilisations, which for centuries had been bound up -with the vain superstitions connected with the legion of divinities -of Olympus, of Memphis, and of Thebes, were gradually casting off the -yoke of ignorance, and becoming more acquainted with the majesty of the -operations of nature. Philosophers began to publicly declaim against -the Olympian absurdities, and to ridicule the notion of miracles or -prodigies; traditions began to be doubted and were fast being cast -aside; Zeus and his court were ceasing to command respect; and the -priests were often publicly insulted. The Ionian gods of Homer, as well -as the Doric of Hesiod, appeared likely to be quickly committed to -the darkness of oblivion. Powerful and influential resistance was, of -course, opposed to the wave of progress and reason; the philosophers -were branded as Atheists and their followers persecuted rigorously; -Euripides was declared a heretic, and Æschylus narrowly escaped being -stoned to death for blasphemy. So great was the opposition offered -to the movement that the philosophers would undoubtedly have been -silenced for some time to come had it not been for the sudden military -expedition against the Persians. Alexander, with his 38,000 Macedonian -soldiers, having crossed the Hellespont, B.C. 334, proceeded to -subjugate the imperious monarch of Persia, and, after successfully -conquering Asia Minor and Syria, completely defeated the Persian army -led by King Darius, and took possession of the great city of Babylon. - -This war engrossed the attention of all classes at home, so that the -philosophers were enabled to prosecute their studies unmolested. It -also in many other ways was a means of furthering the scientific -efforts of that and of future ages. For the first time the Macedonians -beheld the ebbing and flowing of the tides; they discovered and -examined the Chaldean astronomical instruments, and learnt their -calculations, extending over several thousand years; and they observed -the Chaldean division of the zodiac into twelve portions, and of -the day and night into twelve hours each. The particulars of these -they sent home to Aristotle. What a field was here opened out for -Greek speculation! The Chaldeans had detected the precession of the -equinoxes, and were well acquainted with the causes of eclipses; they -printed from a revolving roller, on which they had engraved cuneiform -letters; they possessed magnifying instruments; and were, in fact, -the tail-end of a mighty and advanced Accadian civilisation which -had been in existence for thousands of years. Not satisfied with -these achievements, the conquering Alexander next subdued the ancient -monarchy of Egypt, learnt the great feat of the Pharaohs—viz., the -circumnavigation of Africa by the Cape of Good Hope and the pillars of -Hercules, and founded the celebrated city of Alexandria. He died at -Babylon B.C. 323, after which his huge empire was divided among his -generals; his half brother, Ptolemy Soter, who had been governor of -Egypt during Alexander’s lifetime, taking possession of that country, -and establishing his seat of government at the new city of Alexandria. - -This period marks the commencement of European civilisation. Owing to -the excellent government adopted by Ptolemy, large numbers of Arabians, -Jews, and Greeks were induced to take up their residence at Alexandria, -which quickly became the centre of learning and first commercial -city of the whole known world, and the resort of people of all -nationalities. The celebrated museum, which was commenced by Ptolemy -Soter and completed by his successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, contained a -library, which grew so largely that 400,000 volumes were soon acquired -by it, and a daughter library, containing 300,000 volumes, built at the -Serapion, or Temple of Serapis. Books were freely bought, transcribers -engaged, apartments set aside, at the king’s expense, for the residence -of Greek philosophers and students, and four faculties established, -for literature, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, including -natural history. There were also in connection with the university -botanical and zoological gardens, an astronomical observatory, with -spheres, globes, parallactic rules, etc., and an anatomical theatre -for the dissection of dead bodies. It was here that Euclid produced -his celebrated geometrical demonstrations, which are at this day used -in our schools. Here also Archimedes proclaimed his method for the -determination of specific gravities, and invented the theory of the -lever. Here Eratosthenes daily taught that the earth was a globe, and -determined the interval between the tropics. The earth was described -as possessing imaginary poles, axis, equator, arctic and antarctic -circles, equinoxial points, solstices, climate, etc. Hipparchus taught -the precession of the equinoxes, catalogued the stars, and adopted -lines of latitude and longitude in describing the situations of places. -Thus science progressed under the wise and beneficent rule of the -Ptolemies. - -But a dark cloud was already looming in the distance, which was -destined to develop into a fierce storm, the effect of whose fury was -felt for centuries afterwards. Julius Cæsar, in B.C. 30, defeated -Cleopatra, then Queen of Egypt, and added that country to the Roman -dominions, the museum and larger library being entirely destroyed -during the siege of Alexandria. From this time learning and science -began to decline. Numerous religious sects arose around Alexandria, -the old mythologies were revived, and the priests once more gained -influence. The temples of Jupiter Ammon and Apollo in Egypt, of Adonis -and Ies in Phœnicia, of Dionysos in Greece, and of Bacchus in Rome, -were again filled to overflowing, and miracles were performed in -abundance. In the short space of about fifty years all the work of the -Ptolemies appeared to have been undone, and the world once more given -up to darkness, superstition, and ignorance, the popular frenzy being -kept up by a number of ascetic monks, called Therapeutæ, who inhabited -the hills around Alexandria, the desert and rocky plains of Arabia -Petræa, and the barren hills of Syria, and travelled about the country, -preaching in the open air to the ignorant and credulous multitudes. -Matters progressed favourably for the revivalists for a short time; -but there had shortly before occurred a circumstance which proved to -be, for us, the most important event in the world’s history, and which -considerably modified the Therapeut programme. - -According to ancient records, it appears that a monk, of the ascetic -order of Essenes, called Yahoshuah (Joshua) ben Pandira, was born -in Syria, in the fourth year of the reign of Alexander Jannæus, or -about B.C. 120; and, being educated in Egypt, under the supervision -of Yahoshuah-ben Perachia, soon made himself specially obnoxious to -the priests by his heterodox teaching. From the exceedingly scanty -information to be obtained from the historical writers of the time, -it appears that this young man had, in addition to his knowledge of -Egyptian sorcery, a large acquaintance with the sublime and moral -teachings of Confucius, for whose memory he appears to have had a -profound respect. Observing the despicable manner in which the priests -manipulated their sacred offices for their own advantage, robbing the -poor and credulous people of their hard earnings and indulging in all -kinds of immoralities, this young man boldly attacked these human -parasites in the public places, calling them liars and hypocrites, -preaching Socialistic and Communistic doctrines, and declaring that -there was but one law necessary for man—viz., the golden rule of -Confucius, “Do unto another,” etc. The wrath of the priests knew no -bounds; a council was called to consider the matter, and the bold -reformer was, it is said, sentenced to death for his noble efforts on -behalf of suffering humanity. Whether or not this young man ever lived, -or whether he was merely an ideal creation of the fanatical minds of -these therapeut monks, suggested by necessity, it is impossible to say -positively; for there are no really trustworthy records from which a -safe conclusion can be deduced. It is, however, probable that such a -man did actually exist, for it is not likely that, had he been but -an idea, the fact of his having declared one law to be sufficient -for man’s moral guidance would have been included among the fabulous -performances afterwards attributed to him, as such a declaration was -destructive of all priestcraft; besides which, we are told in the -Babylonian Gemara to the Mishna that Yahoshua, “son of Pandira and -Stada,” was stoned to death as a wizard in the city of Ludd, or Lydia, -after which he was crucified on a tree on the eve of the Passover, -about B.C. 70, which was the punishment generally inflicted on -preachers of heresy and sedition. Whether he had an actual existence -or was but an idea, it is an undisputed fact that his name has been, -during the past eighteen hundred years, a household word, and that the -whole face of European history has been moulded by the various sayings -and doings fabulously attributed to him. - -The reason of this is as follows. The therapeut monks of Alexandria, -who flourished in the first and second centuries of our era, in -attempting to revive the old mythological systems, and thus to deprive -scientists and philosophers of their late rapidly-increasing power, -were at a great disadvantage, owing to the length of time that had -elapsed since the wonderful feats of the gods had been performed. They -well understood the absolute necessity of keeping alive in the memories -of the people the older miraculous events by the performance of fresh -wonders in their own day; but the difficulty they had to encounter was -in finding suitable individuals for the occasion. The Syrian Essene -monk, who had infected a great number of the lower classes of society -by his heretical and revolutionary teachings, which, at first sight, -appeared likely to be damaging to the cause of the priesthood, was -quickly requisitioned by these astute monks for the great purpose -they had in view—viz., the reproduction on earth of the popular god -Bacchus, the Greek Dionysos, and Phœnician Ies. They boldly declared -that this man was, when on earth, an incarnate deity, and proceeded to -attribute to him all the wonderful performances that had previously -been imputed to the young sun-god Bacchus, such as miraculous birth -from a virgin, resurrection from the grave three days after death, -ascension to heaven, etc.; and, finally, gave him the Phœnician name -of Bacchus, Ies, in its Greek form Iesous—Greek being, at that time, -the prevailing language around Alexandria. The new religion gradually -spread from Egypt over the European provinces of the Roman empire, -and soon became such a great political power in the State that the -incarnate fiend and Emperor Constantine, in A.D. 312, was induced -to place himself at its head, and use its increasing influence to -further his own wicked projects. The new Church, by this act, gained an -enormous power; its priests became arrogant, the philosophers were even -more persecuted than before, and learning was fast approaching its end. -The only scientific work which the Church retained was the “Syntaxis” -of Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer, which taught that the earth -was the fixed centre of the universe, around which all other heavenly -bodies rotated. It also treated of the precession of the equinoxes, -the milky way, and the distances of the various bodies in the heavens -from the earth; but, as the geocentric theory was clearly taught in -conformity with the Bible records and the religious convictions of the -people, this system was gradually adopted by all classes of society, -and became the recognised authority on astronomy. - -A furious and important controversy about this time broke out between -Arius, the leader of those who retained the original belief in the -manhood of Jesus, and Athanasius, the leader of the Christians, who -declared him to be divine, which culminated in the celebrated Council -of Nicea, A.D. 325, at which it was decided that he was actually god. -From this moment not only Arians, but all others who refused to believe -in the god Jesus, were savagely persecuted, until, at last, science -and learning received their death-blow by the destruction of the -Serapion, under the order of the Emperor Theodosius, and the murder of -Hypatia at Alexandria. This philosopher was in the habit of lecturing -on mathematics at the university, and was so popular that the jealousy -of Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, was aroused; she was seized by his -fanatical followers as she was going to her lecture-room, stripped -naked, dragged into a Christian church, and there brained by the club -of Peter the Reader, in A.D. 414. - -Justinian next ordered the teaching of philosophy to be discontinued -at Athens, and closed all the schools. The sciences were made to -conform to Genesis, which was declared to be the only true account of -the origin of nature; and the earth was declared to be flat, the sky -spreading over it like a dome—or, in the words of St. Augustine, like -a skin—in which all the bodies moved to give light to man. Lactantius -declared the globular theory to be heretical. “Is it possible,” he -said, “that man can be so absurd as to believe that the crops and the -trees on the other side of the earth hang downwards, and that men have -their feet higher than their heads? If you ask them how they defend -these monstrosities, how things do not fall away from the earth on -that side, they reply that the nature of things is such that heavy -bodies tend towards the centre, like the spokes of a wheel, while light -bodies, as clouds, smoke, fire, tend from the centre to the heavens -on all sides. Now, I am really at a loss what to say of those who, -when they have once gone wrong, steadily persevere in their folly, -and defend one absurd opinion by another.” St. Augustine also said -that “it is impossible there should be inhabitants on the opposite -side of the earth, since no such race is recorded by Scripture among -the descendants of Adam;” and again: “In the day of judgment men on -the other side of a globe could not see the Lord descending through -the air.” Thus perished all the grand work effected by the Ptolemies. -Science was annihilated, progress arrested, and the dark ages had -commenced, which lasted until the time of Luther and Copernicus, -in the commencement of the sixteenth century. Throughout this long -and dreary period the most cruel enormities were practised upon -unoffending people; the Church became gorged with wealth; the clergy -gave themselves up to all kinds of lust and debauchery; relics were -sold, dispensations bartered; and no one’s property or person was safe. -Progress was, however, only arrested for a time. - -About the year 570 Mohammed was born in Arabia, and in 610 he declared -to the world that he had been commissioned by the angel Gabriel to -preach the unity of god. He appears to have been a very remarkable -religious enthusiast, who believed himself in his divine mission, -and was eminently successful in his arduous undertaking. Idolatry was -quickly abolished among the Arabs, and replaced by the religion of -Mohammed. On the death of the prophet his successors as vigorously -pursued the course he had entered upon. Ali, the general of Khalif -Omar’s army, in A.D. 637, captured Jerusalem and conquered Syria in the -name of the one true god and his prophet Mohammed. The Khalif rode from -Medina to Jerusalem upon a red camel, and, as he entered the conquered -city, issued the following proclamation: “In the name of the most -merciful God. From Omar Ebno’l Alchitâb to the inhabitants of Œlia. -They shall be protected and secured, both in their lives and their -fortunes; and their churches shall neither be pulled down nor made use -of by any but themselves.” Sophronius, the chief Christian priest, -having invited the conqueror to pray in a Christian church, received -a polite refusal, Omar contenting himself with kneeling on the steps -outside, so that his followers might not have any excuse for seizing -the edifice or otherwise annoying the conquered Christians. The Khalif -and his followers then pressed northwards, conquered the Roman Emperor -Heraclius, sent a fleet to the Hellespont, defeated the Roman fleet, -and laid siege to Constantinople, then called Byzantium. Egypt was -next conquered, the remnants of the Serapion destroyed, and the whole -of North Africa added to the dominions of the Khalif. Spain was then -seized upon, and the entire country, as far north as the Loire, annexed -to the growing empire. In 732 Charles Martel succeeded in stopping the -Saracen foe at Poictiers and driving him back to Spain, thus relieving -the anxiety of the Church, which was now becoming intense. In 846 a -Mussulman fleet sailed up the Tiber, menaced Rome, and carried away -St. Peter’s altar to Africa, the Christian empire being saved from -further trouble only by the Mohammedan power being divided into three -Khalifates. - -According to the Koran, the earth was a square plane, on the edges of -which rested the heavenly vault, divided into seven stories, in the -topmost of which dwelt god in his omnipotence. This theory, however, -was quickly given up by the learned Saracens, Al-Mamun declaring it -to be unscientific, and asserting that the earth was globular, with -a circumference of about 24,000 miles, which was not far wrong. In -661 the Khalif Moawyah encouraged this new teaching, and ordered the -writings of the Greek philosophers to be translated into Arabic. In -753 the Khalif Almansar recommended the study of astronomy, medicine, -and law at Bagdad; and his grandson, Haroum-al-Raschid, ordered that -every mosque should have a school attached to it, and established -a large library at Bagdad for the use of learned men. The sciences -of chemistry and geometry were revived, and algebra invented by the -Saracens. At Cairo the Fatimist Library became the wonder of the -world; and the great library of the Spanish Khalifs had 600,000 -vols., its catalogue alone occupying 44 vols. Gibbon tells us that -they “diffused the taste and the rewards of science from Samarcand -and Bokhara to Fez and Cordova, and that the vizier of a sultan -consecrated a sum of two hundred thousand pieces of gold to the -foundation of a college at Bagdad, which he endowed with an annual -revenue of fifteen thousand dinars.” The first medical college in -Europe was founded by the Saracens at Salerno in Italy, and the first -astronomical observatory was erected by them at Seville in Spain. The -streets in Spain were lighted, baths were erected, and total abstinence -universally practised. Thus we see that, while the power of the Church -was gradually steeping central Europe in darkness, ignorance, and -wretchedness, progress was on the march again in Western Asia, Africa, -and Spain. During this period, however, there were not wanting in -Europe bold men who attempted a revival of philosophy; but these were -quickly suppressed by the Church. In A.D. 800 there appeared a man -in Britain called John Erigena, who, having read Aristotle’s works, -adopted his views and attempted to reconcile them with the Christian -religion. There were also many Christian divines who had crossed the -Mediterranean to study philosophy secretly from Mohammedan doctors. -Erigena declared that every living thing evolved from something that -had previously lived; that each particular life-form was but a part of -general existence or mundane soul; and that all life must be eventually -re-absorbed in deity. The Church became infuriated and alarmed at this -heretical barbarian, who taught the pernicious doctrines of emanation -and absorption, and steps were immediately taken to suppress him. - -During the period of quiet which followed a certain priest of -Thuringia, Bernhardt by name, created a great sensation in central -Europe by declaring that the end of the world was fast approaching; -that the prophecy contained in the twentieth chapter of Revelation -would be fulfilled on December 31st, in the year 1000—or possibly -immediately before that time—when the devil would be unbound; and that -unutterable calamity or annihilation would come upon the world. The -clergy quickly followed suit, and as the fearful day approached every -church and cloister in Europe resounded with the frantic appeals of -the monks and priests for their flocks to prepare for the awful doom. -Europe was turned upside down; business was suspended; kings, princes, -senators, nobles, and peasants all alike left their occupations to -seek refuge in some holy sanctuary against the coming event. As the -dread moment approached there was not a church or convent in Europe -that was not crowded to suffocation, the people imagining that, if -they were found at the last moment in some consecrated place, their -chances of being saved would be better. Hundreds and thousands of these -poor wretches never had opportunity of obtaining the coveted shelter, -having been bereft of their reason under the awful excitement of the -hour. Amid prayer, faintings, hysterical screaming, and chanting of -choirs—priests, monarchs, and beggars all huddled together anyhow—the -clock struck twelve, and dead silence prevailed. Gradually the people -roused themselves from their stupor to find themselves the victims of -a cruel hoax. Strange to say, not any attempt was made to punish those -who had produced such a melancholy state of things. Kings and nobles -had endowed monasteries and churches with lands and wealth, which they -believed would soon be of so little use to them, and became suddenly -penitent, assuming the monk’s shirt of hair, and otherwise showing -evidence of their piety and humility. William of the Long Sword, Duke -of Normandy, Hugh Duke of Burgundy, Hugh Count of Arles, the Emperor -Henry II., all renounced their wealth and position to become monks. -Nobles had left lands and castles to the Church, the deeds being drawn -up by monks and witnessed by prelates and sovereigns, as though no -day of reckoning was at hand, the form being invariably as follows: -“Seeing that the end of the world is now approaching, and that every -day accumulates fresh miseries, I, Baron —— (or King ——), for the -good of my soul, give to the monastery of ——,” etc. The Church, which -before was poor, now became gorged with wealth, and the ignorance and -credulity of the people secured the treasures to the now powerful -prelates. - -During this period of excitement and terror the number of pilgrimages -to the Holy Land had enormously increased, so much so that the Saracen -masters of Jerusalem, with the view of putting a stop to the now -troublesome and inconvenient influx of Christians to the Holy City, -commenced to persecute the pilgrims, thus creating a very great -ill-feeling against themselves throughout Europe. Peter the Hermit, -a monk of Amiens, took up the cause of his ill-treated brethren, and -forthwith commenced to preach a holy war against the Saracens of -Syria, Pope Urban II. and his priests promising absolution from all -sin to those who took up arms against the Infidel. A vast multitude -of rabble from all parts of Europe soon started on their march to -the Holy Land, being divided into three large armies, one led by -Walter the Penniless, another by Peter the Hermit, and the third -by Gottschalk, a monk. The armies gave themselves up to unheard-of -iniquities, spreading poverty and misery on all sides in their march, -braining all who refused to give up their provisions and property to -them, and, at last, arriving in Constantinople footsore and diseased, -having left two-thirds of their comrades to die of starvation on the -road. Crossing over into Syria, they met the Saracen foe, who quickly -put an end to their sufferings by annihilating the whole lot. Seven -other Crusades followed, one composed altogether of children, who, -the priests declared, were to be the inheritors of the Holy Land, it -being now apparent that full-grown men were too sinful to conquer the -Infidel. The army of children was accordingly shipped off to destroy -the Saracen foe, but never reached Palestine, the boys having been -sold as slaves, and the girls drafted into Turkish harems. When, at -last, Acre surrendered to the Crusaders under Richard Cœur de Lion, -the leniency displayed by the Khalif Omar in his capture of Jerusalem -in 637 was repaid by 2,700 Saracen hostages being brutally beheaded -outside the city walls for the sport of the Christian soldiers. All -this time Europe was in a constant state of agitation and alarm, which -was further intensified by the revival in 1180 of the doctrines of John -Erigena by the Saracen philosopher Averroes, who boldly preached them -in Spain, making converts in all directions, among whom was the great -Jewish writer, Maimonides, who had been held by the Jews in the highest -esteem, and considered second only in wisdom to Moses. - -Under the tolerant and liberal rule of the Saracens Averroism made -great progress in Spain, where Mohammedans, Christians, and Jews were -permitted to live peaceably together, and where philosophical theories -were openly and fearlessly taught; but a day of reckoning was at hand. -On the death of the Caliph Hakem, Almansor usurped the throne, and, in -order to secure his position, entered into a secret treaty with the -orthodox section of the Mohammedans, thus establishing a Church and -State party of enormous power, which culminated in the expulsion of -Averroes from Spain and the suppression of the study of philosophy. -Thus were crushed again philosophy and progress in 1198. The Christians -of Italy, Germany, and France followed suit, ordering all Averroists -to be seized and punished, and shortly afterwards extending the order -also to Jews and Mohammedans. From the accession of Almansor dates the -downfall of the Mohammedan power in Spain and the commencement of the -fearful persecutions of Infidels by the Christian Church, which has -left such a dark blot upon the pages of European history. - -The Saracen power in Europe was annihilated by Ferdinand and Isabella, -and the Inquisition established by Pope Innocent IV. in 1243. For -two hundred years it seemed as though philosophy and progress were -indeed dead, so relentlessly did the Church persecute all heretics and -denounce all scientific studies. But an occurrence took place in 1440 -which completely turned the tide of events. In that year the art of -printing was introduced into Europe by the Venetians, who had learnt -it from the Chinese; and in 1469 it was carried to France, and from -thence to all the great cities of the continent. At first the Church -paid little heed to the innovation; but it soon became apparent that -a dangerous medium had been introduced for intercommunication of the -people and their governments, which must lessen the need and importance -of a religious medium. Books were only allowed to be published under -the supervision of the ecclesiastical authority, and heavy penalties -inflicted upon all who attempted to circulate any heretical works. The -writings of Averroes, Maimonides, and other heretics, were ordered to -be burnt, the doctrines taught by them being declared blasphemous and -subversive of all good government. The leading and most learned Jews -and Mohammedans in Spain and Southern France were avowed Averroists, -and did not shrink from preaching their doctrines in the public -thoroughfares; and the infection was extending so rapidly that the -Church feared that a great calamity would overtake the orthodox -faith unless some steps were taken to put a stop to the heresy. The -Inquisition, which had been found so effective in silencing heretics -in France, was now utilised for dealing with the Jews and Moors. A cry -was made in Castile by the orthodox Christians for the establishment -of the Inquisition in Spain, which was immediately taken up by all -haters of progress; and so great was the influence brought to bear by -the Dominican monk and arch-fiend, Torquemada, upon the Queen Isabella -that the Pope was petitioned for a bull, which was issued in 1478, -for the detection and suppression of heresy in Spain. The Christian -monster, Torquemada, proved himself a worthy agent of the Inquisition, -burning at the stake in eighteen years about 10,220 persons of both -sexes. Dispensations from the operation of the Inquisition were sold -by the Pope to such as could afford to purchase them; and in 1492 all -unbaptised Jews, old or young, were ordered by Torquemada to leave -Spain within four months, and to leave behind them all those effects -they could not sell in the meantime. These poor wretches swarmed in -the roads in their thousands, rending the air with their piteous -cries, the Christian Spaniards being forbidden to render assistance -under penalty of torture. The consequence was that hundreds and -thousands of men, women, and children died by the wayside from hunger, -thirst, and fatigue. In 1502 a further order was issued at Seville -for the Spaniards to drive out of their country every Infidel they -could hear of, no matter what the nationality might be. The Moors -were particularly indicated in the document, one clause stating that -it was justifiable to kill Mohammedans on account of their shameless -infidelity. The consequence was that, in a marvellously short space -of time, there was not a Mohammedan to be found on the European side -of the Straits of Gibraltar. In spite of the precautions made use of -by the Christians for the prevention of the study of philosophy and -the acquirement of knowledge, the news of the discovery of America by -Columbus, in 1492, very soon found its way all over Europe, producing -the most intense sensation, for the discovery came as a terrific -blow to the Church and its inspired Bible. To make matters worse, in -1522 Magellan sailed completely round the world, thus demonstrating -conclusively that the earth was a globe. - -Matters appeared to be going wrong with the Church, in spite of the -recent bloody triumphs of the Inquisition; and the clergy and laity -were not slow to notice the turn events were taking. Martin Luther, -a young Augustinian monk, in particular, took advantage of the -unsettled state of the mind of Europe to make a furious onslaught -against the Pope and the Church. Having been told by Cajetan that he -must “believe that one single drop of Christ’s blood is sufficient to -redeem the whole human race, and the remaining quantity that was shed -in the garden and on the cross was left as a legacy to the Pope, to -be a treasure from which indulgences were to be drawn,” this young -priest declared he never would accept such a doctrine, and commenced -forthwith to preach openly against the sale of indulgences, declaring -that the Church must stand or fall on the Bible, which taught no such -doctrine. The orthodox clergy, on the contrary, declared that the -Bible derived its authority from the Church, and not the Church from -the Bible, and demanded that Luther should be arrested for heresy. In -1520 the Pope excommunicated the bold monk, who, in return, defiantly -burnt the Papal bull, for which he was ordered to appear before the -Imperial Diet at Worms, when he deliberately refused to retract. -The views of the reformer quickly spread through Switzerland and -Germany, Pope Leo thundering forth his anathemas upon all who joined -the dangerous movement, until, at length, after many bloody wars and -horrible massacres, such as the slaughter of the Huguenots, etc., -the Reformation was firmly established, and the Bible became, to the -Reformed Church, the only guide to morals and duty. At first, the Pope -sullenly submitted to what appeared to be the inevitable; but soon -it became apparent that, in order to keep any authority at all over -the people, some plan would have to be adopted to curtail the growing -influence of the Reformed Church. Accordingly, Pope Paul III., in 1540, -established the Society of Jesus, the members of which order were sent -abroad all over Europe for the purpose of secretly undermining the -influence of the Reformers. Three years afterwards, as if to counteract -the evil designs of the Jesuits, there appeared on the scene the -celebrated work of Copernicus, which was destined for ever to demolish -the geocentric theory of Ptolemy, and to establish the heliocentric -philosophy, which taught that the sun was the centre of our system, -and that all the planets, including our earth, revolved in regular -order round it, and which, of course, called forth a volley of abuse -from the Vatican, the theory being declared heretical and its author -anathematised. The effect of all this was to cause quite a revolution -in thought among the learned of Europe, which gave rise to another -schism in the Church, departure being this time from the ranks of the -Reformers. - -Arianism was once more revived by a number of people, who maintained -that the doctrine of the Trinity was un-Scriptural, and that Jesus was -but a man like themselves, though endowed with great authority from -god. The orthodox and reformed Churches both alike were alarmed at this -turn of events, and co-operated to suppress the new heresy, denouncing -all philosophical studies, and branding the Unitarians as Infidels. -The upshot was that Servetus was burnt to death at the stake by the -order of the Trinitarian Calvin, and a check was thereby given to the -propagation of the Arian doctrines. It is satisfactory to note that -a Unitarian College now stands upon the very spot where Servetus was -murdered. - -Again progress was arrested, and this time it seemed as though a mortal -blow had been dealt at all acquirement of knowledge, for shortly -afterwards, in 1559, Pope Paul IV. established the Congregation of -the Index Expurgatorius for the purpose of examining all books and -manuscripts intended for publication, and of deciding whether the -people should read them. The usual counterpoise, however, quickly made -its appearance, proving once more that progress cannot be arrested for -long. - -In 1563 the first newspaper was produced in Venice, which again set the -ball of intellect rolling along, never more to be stopped by priest -or prince. The new Copernican philosophy was now accepted by many -learned men, among whom even were some of the priesthood. Giordano -Bruno, an Italian Dominican monk, among others, embraced these truths, -and was not afraid to openly teach them, for which daring act he -was soon obliged to seek refuge in Switzerland, where he prosecuted -his studies for some time in peace. The fiends of the Inquisition, -however, soon discovered his whereabouts and drove him into France, -then into England, and then back to Germany; in the end arresting him -at Venice. He was taken thence to Rome, publicly accused of teaching -the plurality of worlds, and burnt at the stake by the Inquisition in -1600. Eighteen years after the murder of this noble Italian, Kepler, -of Würtemberg, published his “Epitome of the Copernican System,” in -which he demonstrated for the first time that all the heavenly bodies -are bound in their courses by various laws. This work, like those -of Copernicus and Bruno, was prohibited by the Congregation of the -Index Purgatorius, and Kepler himself declared a dangerous infidel. -Still, in spite of the fury of the priesthood, Catholic and Reformer -alike, the study of the sciences made rapid strides, and in 1632 the -venerable Galileo published his “System of the World,” in which he -maintained the accuracy of the Copernican theory. For this daring -disregard of the Church’s warnings he was summoned to Rome and brought -before the Inquisition, accused of having taught that the earth moves -round the sun. The poor old man was compelled to kneel on the floor -of the court, place his hand on the Bible, and recant, after which he -was incarcerated in the prison of the Inquisition, where, ten years -afterwards, he died. Still science progressed, and was considerably -aided by the rapid increase in the number of newspapers throughout -Europe. In 1631 the _French Gazette_ was established, and, soon after, -newspapers appeared in all important cities, much to the discomfiture -of the Church, whose power was now more seriously imperilled than ever. -Confidence was gradually becoming established, and Descartes dared, -in 1680, to make an attempt to analyse the mind, declaring that the -necessity of universal doubt was the only starting-point of all true -philosophy. He was followed, six years later, by Newton, who published -his “Principia,” in which he demonstrated the grand truth which has -immortalised his name—viz., that all bodies attract each other with -forces jointly proportionate to their masses, varying universally as -the squares of their distances. Thus was established the great law -of universal gravitation, which marks an epoch in the intellectual -development of man. Owing to the constantly-recurring feuds between the -Lutherans, Calvinists, and Catholics, this great discovery passed for -a while almost unnoticed; but it soon became apparent that the final -blow had been given to the old theory of divine intervention in the -movements of the universe, and that learned men of all countries were -rapidly embracing the Newtonian theory of irreversible laws. - -It was, however, now too late for the Church to interfere, for all -classes were quickly becoming impressed with the grand theory of -gravitation, which was destined for ever to remain the most wonderful -discovery of man; and, although the clergy still continued to -anathematise all scholars and scientists, the study of nature was -pursued with rapidly-increasing enthusiasm, as though to make up for -lost time. In 1690 Locke, the physician and philosopher, published his -“Essay on the Human Understanding,” in which he declared all human -knowledge to be the result of experience, thus entirely upsetting the -old theory of intuition. Twenty years later Leibnitz published his work -entitled “Theodicée,” in which he endeavoured to solve the difficult -problem of existence of evil in the world under the moral government -of Deity. These two rival philosophers soon became the leaders of -philosophic thought in their respective countries; but barely thirty -years had passed away before an iconoclast appeared, in the person -of David Hume, who cut away the ground ruthlessly from beneath their -feet. His “Treatise on Human Nature,” published in 1739, upset all -the philosophical systems of the past, replacing them by the great -theory of causation, which was soon accepted by every philosopher and -scientist. Kant followed in 1781 with his “Critique of Pure Reason,” in -which he submitted matter to analysis, and declared it to be possessed -of inherent force. - -The other sciences were also joining in the march of progress. -Chemistry was fast becoming a settled science; Priestley’s discovery -of oxygen, in 1774, had created a great sensation; Cavendish shortly -afterwards, in 1783, discovered the constitution of water; and -Lavoisier, in 1789, summarised the combined researches of these two -chemists and himself in his “Elements of Chemistry,” which at once was -recognised as the standard work on the subject. Astronomy had, since -Newton’s discovery of gravitation, assumed a more settled condition, -but was destined to further modification by the enunciation of the -nebular hypothesis by Laplace, who commenced to publish his bulky work, -“ Mecanique Celeste,” in 1799. - -The nineteenth century opened with progress, as it were, on the gallop. -In 1804 the first locomotive engine was started in England, at the same -time that the first screw steamer was run at New York. It is needless -to enumerate all the inventions of scientific men during the century, -which are so well known to every one. Suffice it to say that, in a -marvellously short space of time, the whole face of Europe has been -changed. Railways cross each other at all points, like a huge network; -telegraph wires link together as one place all important centres of -population; public buildings are protected from nature’s freaks by -lightning conductors; lighthouses dot the whole length of our coasts; -the penny postage conveys our thoughts to and fro throughout the -length and breadth of the land; a free press ventilates our grievances -and enlightens our minds; hospitals and dispensaries minister to the -sick and maimed wherever we go; and the Habeas Corpus Act endows each -well-disposed individual with freedom and liberty. What a metamorphosis -to be effected in so short a time! - -The lesson we learn from such a cursory glance as this necessarily is -at the intellectual progress of Europe during the last two thousand -years is full of the deepest meaning. We cannot help being struck by -the dogged manner in which the Christian religion has opposed all -progress, ruthlessly murdering in cold blood any who dared to suggest -that the now-established and universally-accepted theories might -possibly possess some little of the truth. Every new scientific truth -or discovery has been denounced by the Church, every great benefactor -to the human race persecuted and hunted to death by the sleuth-hounds -of bigotry and intolerance, and every European war or massacre hatched -out of religious differences. To this very day the Church, though -robbed of all its old power to inflict evil and misery, persists in its -denunciation of all scientific discoveries; and not one of the numerous -sects which at present divide the Christian Church is exempt from -this charge. Hegel, Bunsen, John Stuart Mill, Rénan, Huxley, Darwin, -Tyndall, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Carpenter, Herbert Spencer, Emerson, -Haeckel, Schopenhauer, Victor Hugo, and, in short, all the leaders -of thought of our century, have incurred the bitter hostility of the -various Christian sects; and yet what a heirloom the works of these men -form for the coming generation! - -The discovery of the power of chloroform and ether to relieve pain was -denounced by the Church because it was proposed to apply it to the -relief of the agony of childbirth, the natural inheritance of woman -under the divine curse of Eden; the abolition of slavery was also -opposed by these human parasites because the practice was ordered in -the Bible; and it is well known how the priests of the Church utilised -for their own purposes those abominable texts of the Old Testament, -“Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live,” and “Neither shalt thou -countenance a poor man in his own cause.” - -The Middle Ages bear attestation to the fidelity of the priesthood to -their sacred oracles. Have not two honest citizens of London quite -lately undergone one whole year’s imprisonment for the grave sin of -ridiculing the notion of the Hebrew and Christian gods being other -than creations of man’s imagination? This very lecture will probably -be the means of bringing down the wrath of the priesthood—State Church -and Nonconformist alike—upon its author. And why? Are the facts -untrue? Just the reverse. The writer, historian, or pseudo-scientist -who writes volumes of falsehoods for the purpose of propping up for -a short time longer priestcraft and tyranny will assuredly fare well -at the hands of these insinuating gentlemen of the cloth; but let -the man who dares to write the honest, unvarnished truth beware! -His fair name, his business, and his social and family ties will be -undermined and destroyed in an incredibly short space of time. All -honor, therefore, be given to those brave ones who have dared to stand -before the world and speak out the truth in the cause of humanity! They -have done their share in helping forward the march of intellect, in -stifling superstition, and in uprooting ignorance. The state of Europe -to-day, as compared with its condition two thousand years since, is -overwhelming evidence of the continual progress of civilization, which, -in spite of the opposition from its old enemy, the Church, in the past -and, to a limited extent, in the present, has proved to the world that -it must, of necessity, continue for all time as one of the great and -immutable laws of Nature. - - - - -GENESIS I. 1, according to authorised Hebrew version, with final -letters, but without vowel points and breathings. - - בראשיתבראאלהיםאתהשמיםואתהארץ - -“In the beginning the ram (or lamb)-sun-gods (or the good gods) -renovated (reorganized or re-started) the heavens and the earth.” - -This refers to the commencement of the Persian new-year, at the vernal -equinox, _Aries_, the ram or lamb. - - -GENESIS I. 1, according to the Samaritan Pentateuch, transcribed into -ante-Masoretic, or original Hebrew, as written before the invention of -the five final letters. - - בראשיתבראהעזאתהשמימואתהארצ - -“In the beginning the goat renovated the heavens and the earth.” - -This refers to the commencement of the Egyptian new-year, at the winter -solstice, _Capricornus_, the goat. - - -[Illustration: Fac Simile of fragmentary MS. of sixth century (Luke -XX.9.10.), written in Greek and partially covered with Syrian writing -of 10^(th) century. -Copied from “Secular Review,” of March 27 1886.] - - -[Illustration: Small fragment from John’s Gospel, taken from the Cotton -Manuscript.] - - - - -THE BIBLE. - - -There is probably no book on earth that has ever had anything like -so large a circulation as that which is known as the Bible; and yet -few among the many millions who possess a copy ever think of asking -themselves the question, “Where and how did it originate?” They are -satisfied with the _ipse dixit_ of their parson that it “came from -God.” That may be sufficient to satisfy the unthinking multitude, but -it does not suffice for thinking people, who prefer to follow the -dictates of their reason rather than rest on the mere word of a man or -a number of men who are paid to preach that the Bible is the word of -God, and whose incomes would cease if their followers thought otherwise. - -What is this Bible? Where did it come from? Let us see. As we now -have it, it consists of a number of books, which are divided into two -main portions, the Old and the New Testaments, the former being made -up of the five books said to have been written by Moses under God’s -inspiration, and called the Pentateuch, and a number of historical, -poetical, and prophetic writings; and the latter consisting of four -narratives of the life of Jesus, called the Gospels, a narrative of -the Acts of the Apostles, a number of letters, and the Vision or -Revelation of one John. The number of books which make up the Bible -has varied from time to time, according to the fancy of the age; but -about 360 years since a Council of Protestants determined that a number -of hitherto received sacred writings were not the “Word of God,” and -finally decided that only those now included in the authorised version -were of divine origin. Before that time the following books had formed -part of the Bible—viz., Tobit and Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, -Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Song of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel -and the Dragon, and Maccabees, all of which are considered canonical at -the present time by the Roman Catholic Church. Besides these writings -there are a large number of others that have, at different times, -occupied positions of honour in this ever-varying compilation, but -which are now almost forgotten by pious divines, and entirely unknown -by their credulous and ignorant dupes. - -Dr. Dupin, Professor of Philosophy at the Paris University, and one of -the most pious and learned Christian writers of his time, gives a list -of over 150 books that have, from time to time, been held sacred, and -said to have formed part of the “Word of God,” as follows:— - - - OLD TESTAMENT. - - _Books now Considered Canonical by Jews and Christians._ - - The five Books of Moses. - The Book of Joshua. - The Book of Judges. - The Book of Samuel, or the first and second Books of Kings. - The third and fourth Books of Kings. - Isaiah. - Jeremiah. - Ezekiel. - The Twelve Minor Prophets. - The Book of Job. - The Hundred and Fifty Psalms. - The Proverbs of Solomon. - The Ecclesiastes. - The Canticles. - Daniel. - The Chronicles. - Esdras, divided into two Books. - - _Books Received as Canonical by some Jews and Rejected by Others._ - - Esther, Ruth. - - _Books Excluded from the Jewish Canon, and Reckoned as Apocryphal by - some of the Ancient Christians, but Allowed as Canonical of late by - the Church of Rome._ - - Baruch, Tobit, Judith, the Book of Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, the two - Books of the Maccabees. - The Song of the three Children in the Fiery Furnace. - The History of Susanna. - The History of Bel and the Dragon. - - _Books that are Excluded from the Canon without Apparent Reason._ - - The Prayer of Manasseh, inserted in the Apocrypha. - The third and fourth Books of Esdras (ibid). - The third and fourth Books of Maccabees, in the Septuagint Bible. - The Genealogy of Job, and his Wife’s Speech, at the end of the Greek - text of the Book of Job. - The 151st Psalm, at the end of the Greek Psalms. - A Discourse of King Solomon, at the end of the Book of Wisdom. - The Preface before the Lamentations of Jeremiah, in the vulgar Latin - and Greek text. - - _Other Apocryphal Books of the same Nature, which are Lost._ - - The Book of Enoch. - The Book of the Assumption of Moses. - The Assumption, Apocalypse, or Secrets of Elias. - The Secrets of Jeremiah. - - _Books Full of Fables and Errors, which are Lost._ - - The Generation, or the Creation of Adam. - The Revelation of Adam. - Of the Genealogy, or of the sons and daughters of Adam. - Cham’s Book of Magic. - A Treatise, entitled Seth. - The Assumption of Abraham. - Jetsira, or concerning the Creation ascribed to Abraham. - The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs. - The Discourses of Jacob and Joseph. - The Prophecy of Habakkuk. - A Collection of the Prophecies of Ezekiel. - The Prophecy of Eldad and Medad. - The Treatise of Jannes and Jambres. - The Book of King Og. - Jacob’s Ladder, and several other Tracts. - - - NEW TESTAMENT. - - _Books Owned as Canonical at all times and by all Christians._ - - The Four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. - The Acts of the Apostles. - Thirteen Epistles of St. Paul. - The First Epistle of St. Peter. - The First Epistle of St. John. - - _Books Questioned, but afterwards Admitted by the Church as Canonical._ - - The Epistle to the Hebrews. - The Epistle of St. James. - The Second Epistle of St. Peter. - The Second and Third of St. John. - The Epistle of St. Jude. - The Apocalypse, or Revelations of St. John, which was a long time - before it was admitted as Canonical. - The history of the angel and the agony of our Saviour related (Luke - xxii.). - The end of the last chapter of St. Matthew’s Gospel. - The history of the woman taken in adultery, related in the eighth - chapter of St. John’s Gospel. - The end of St. John’s Gospel. - The passage concerning the Trinity, taken out of the fifth chapter of - the First Epistle of St. John. - - _Apocryphal Writings which are not Full of Errors._ - - The letter of Jesus Christ to Abgarus. - The letter of the Blessed Virgin. - The Gospel according to the Egyptians. - The Gospel according to the Hebrews. - Additions to the Gospel of St. Matthew and St. Luke, in the Cambridge - Manuscript. - The Proto-Evangelicum of St. James. - The Gospel of Nicodemus. - The Ancient Acts of Paul and Thecla. - The Epistle of the Laodicæans. - The Epistle of St. Paul to Seneca. - The Epistle of St. Barnabas. - The Liturgies of St. Peter. - The Liturgies of St. Mark. - The Liturgies of St. James. - The Liturgies of St. Matthew. - The Canons and Constitutions of the Apostles. - The Treatise of Prochorus. - The Books of St. Linus. - The Treatise of Abdias. - The Acts of the Passion of St. Andrew. - - - _Books Full of Errors; almost all of them Lost._ - - The Gospel of St. Peter. - The Gospel of St. Thomas. - The Gospel of St. Matthias. - The Gospel of St. Bartholomew. - The Gospel of St. Philip. - The Gospel of Judas Iscariot. - The Gospel of Thaddæus. - The Gospel of Barnabas. - The Gospel of Truth by the Valentinians. - The Gospel of Perfection by the Gnostics. - The Gospel of Eve by the Gnostics. - A Book concerning the Infancy of Jesus Christ. - A Treatise concerning the Birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and - her Midwife. - A Treatise concerning the Virgin’s Lying-in, and the questions she - asked. - A Treatise of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, cited by St. Jerome. - The Apocryphal Treatise of the Life of the Virgin, cited by St. - Gregory Nysene. - Another Apocryphal Book on the Virgin, cited by Faustus. - The Writings of Jesus Christ about Miracles. - The Acts of St. Peter. - The Acts of St. Paul. - The Acts of St. Andrew. - The Acts of St. John. - The Acts of the Apostles. - The Acts of St. Philip. - The Acts of St. Thomas. - The Doctrine, Preaching, and Itinerary of St. Peter. - The Rapture of St. Paul. - The Memoirs of the Apostles. - The Lots of the Apostles. - The Itinerary of the Apostles. - The Treatise concerning the Priesthood of Jesus Christ. - The Apostolical Tract. - The Treatise of the Death and Assumption of the Virgin. - The Apocalypses or Revelations of St. Peter. - The Revelations of St. Paul. - The Revelations of St. Thomas. - The Revelations of St. Stephen. - The Revelations of the Great Apostle. - The Revelations of Abraham. - The Revelations of Seth. - The Revelations of Noriah. - -In addition to those already named there were a number of lost books -referred to and quoted from by the authors of the various canonical -books, such as:— - - The Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers xxi. 14). - The Book of the Covenant (Exodus xxiv. 7). - The Book of Jasher, or the Upright (Joshua x. 13, 2 Samuel i. 18). - The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 41). - The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel (1 Kings xiv. 19, - and eighteen other places in the Books of Kings; also 2 Chron. xx. 34 - and xxxiii. 18). - The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings xiv. 29, and twelve - other places in the Books of Kings). - The Book of Samuel the Seer (1 Chronicles xxix. 29). - The Book of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chronicles xxix. 29). - The Book of Gad the Seer (1 Chronicles xxix. 29). - The Chronicles of King David (1 Chronicles xxvii. 24). - The Book of Nathan the Prophet (2 Chronicles ix. 29). - The Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilomite (2 Chronicles ix. 29). - The Visions of Iddo the Seer against Jeroboam the son of Nebat (2 - Chron. ix. 29). - The Book of Shemaiah the Prophet (2 Chronicles xii. 15). - The Book of Iddo the Seer concerning Genealogies (2 Chronicles xii. - 15). - The Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chronicles xiii. 22). - The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chronicles xvi. 11, and - six other places in the same Book). - The Book of Jehu (2 Chronicles xx. 34). - The Memoirs of Hircanus (mentioned in 1 Maccabees). - The Books of Jason (mentioned in 2 Maccabees ii.). - The Acts of Uriah (mentioned in 2 Chronicles xxvi. 22). - Three thousand Proverbs of Solomon (mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 32). - A thousand and five Songs (mentioned in ibid). - Several other volumes by the same author (mentioned in ibid). - The Prophecy of Jeremiah, torn in pieces by Jehoiakim (cited in - Jeremiah xxxvi.). - Another Prophecy of his upon the city of Babylon (mentioned in - Jeremiah li.). - Memoirs or descriptions of the same author (mentioned in 1 Maccabees - ii.). - The Prophecy of Jonah (mentioned in the Book of Jonah). - -We can readily imagine what trouble our pious ancestors must have -experienced in deciding which of these writings really emanated from -the ghost of God and which were fraudulent productions, for the style -in which most of them were written rendered it almost impossible -to decipher them: written on rough skins, in ink which had become -obliterated by age, many of them had fallen into the hands of monks and -other rogues, who appeared to have suffered severely from _cacoëthes -scribendi_, and who recorded events connected with their own persons -or surroundings over the original writing, like a lady “crosses” her -letters, so that the whole manuscript became a complete jumble. In -most cases the original or ground language was Hebrew or Greek in -ill-formed and continuous capitals, undivided into words, and without -accents, points, or breathings, while the “crossing” was in Arabic, -Latin, or some other different dialect, badly written and accompanied -with ink spots and senseless dashes. Out of this heterogeneous mass of -scribblings the pious divines of the Reformation period compiled our -authorised version of the Bible, the translation into English being -made, in the case of the Old Testament, from the modern Hebrew text, -and in that of the New Testament from Beza’s fifth edition of the Greek -text. - -There are three different versions of the complete Old Testament—viz., -the Hebrew, the Greek Septuagint, and the Latin Vulgate, and two -Samaritan versions of the Pentateuch, one written in Aramæn and the -other in Arabic. The MSS. of the Hebrew version are all written in -modern or Masoretic Hebrew, which dates from about the year 1,000 -A.D. The original language of the Hebrews, which was derived from the -Egyptians and afterwards modified by contact with the Chaldeans, was -very different from that we are accustomed to read to-day in Hebrew -Bibles: instead of each word being separated from its neighbour, and -vowel points being subscribed to assist in the reading, sentences, -paragraphs, and even pages were written as though the whole formed -but one long word; and, considering that the Hebrew alphabet consists -of consonants only, the absence of the vowel points and final letters -afterwards introduced rendered the meaning of the writer most -obscure. For instance, the first verse of Genesis would have been -written as follows in ancient Hebrew, but in letters more nearly -approaching the cuneiform type, בראשיתבראאלהימאתהשמימואתהארצ. The -equivalent letters in English are (reading from right to left, as in -Hebrew) TS.R.A.H.T.A.V.M.Y.M.SH.H.T.A.M.Y.H.L.A.A.R.B.T.Y.SH.A.R.B -and the translators tell us that they signify, “In the beginning God -created the heavens and the earth.” Now, as they stand, it is utterly -impossible to pronounce the words; and, even supposing that vowels -were added, this could be done in such a variety of ways that hundreds -of different pronunciations might result; so also might the sense -be varied by many different renderings. Suppose we wrote down the -authorised translation, using consonants only, and leaving entirely -out the vowels, the result would be as follows (reading from left to -right, as in English), NTHBGNNGGDCRTDTHHVNSNDTHRTH, which would be -entirely unpronounceable unless we added vowels; and, by adding vowels -indiscriminately, a variety of renderings would result. The absurdity -of a written language composed only of consonants is thus made very -apparent. This difficulty opposed itself to the Jewish priests, and -was obviated by the introduction of vowel points, the manufacture of -five final letters, and the division of sentences into words according -to the arbitrary rendering of the introducers of the vowel points; so -that now we possess a Hebrew language which may be, and probably is, as -unlike the ancient Hebrew dialect as chalk is unlike cheese. - -By slightly altering the vowel points of a sentence or a word, -the whole sense may be entirely destroyed; and that this has been -frequently enough done requires no proof here, for it has been -abundantly shown elsewhere. Certain priests have attempted to prove -that the vowel points and final letters were in use in Ezra’s time; -but it is now generally admitted by scholars that they were inventions -of the middle ages. Hear what the learned Christian Dupin, Doctor of -the Sorbonne, says:—“The Hebrew alphabet is composed of twenty-two -letters, like those of the Samaritans, Chaldeans, and Syrians. -But, of these letters, _none are vowels_, and, in consequence, the -pronunciation cannot be determined. The Hebrews have invented _points_, -which, being put under the letters, answer the purpose of vowels. -Those vowel-points serve not only to fix the pronunciation, _but also -the signification of a word, because, many times, the word being -differently pointed and pronounced alters the meaning entirely_. This -is the consideration which has made the question as to the antiquity -of the points of so much importance, and has, consequently, had such -elaborate treatment. Some have pretended that these points are as -ancient as the Hebrew tongue, and that Abraham made use of them. Others -make Moses the author of them. But the most common opinion among the -Jews is that, Moses _having learnt of God the true pronunciation of -Hebrew words_, this science was preserved in the synagogue by oral -tradition till the time of Ezra, who invented the points and accents -to fix the meaning. Elias Levita, a German Jew of the last generation, -and deeply learned in Hebrew grammar, has rejected this opinion, and -contended that the invention of points took place in much more recent -times. He ascribes the invention to the Jews of Tiberias and to the -year 500 A.D., and alleges that the invention was not perfected till -about the year 1040 A.D., by two famous Maserites, Ben-Ascher and -Ben-Naphtali.” - -Hear, also, what the learned and pious Dr. Prideaux says:—“The sacred -books made use of among the Jews in their synagogues have ever been, -and still are, _without the vowel-points_, which could not have -happened had they been placed there by Ezra, and had, consequently, -been of the same authority with the letters; for, had they been so, -they would certainly have been preserved in the synagogues with the -same care as the rest of the text.” He then goes on to say that no -mention is made of the points in either the Mishna or Gemara, and -continues: “Neither do we find the least hint of them in Philo-Judæus -or Josephus, who are the oldest writers of the Jews, or in any of the -ancient Christian writers for _several hundred years after Christ_. -And, although among them Origen and Jerome were well skilled in the -Hebrew language, yet in none of their writings do they speak the least -of them. Origen flourished in the third, and Jerome in the fifth, -century; and the latter, having lived a long while in Judæa, and there -more especially applied himself to the study of the Hebrew learning, -and much conversed with the Jewish rabbis for his improvement herein, -it is not likely that he could have missed making some mention of -them through all his voluminous works, if they had been either in -being among the Jews in his time, or in any credit or authority with -them, and that especially since, in his commentaries, there were so -many necessary occasions for taking notice of them.” The Doctor then -declares that after the Babylonish Captivity “the Hebrew language -ceased to be the mother tongue of the Jews,” Aramæn, as we know, being -the dialect of Judæa at the time of Herod. - -We may, then, safely fix the date of our earliest Hebrew MS. at a -later period than 1000 A.D., for there does not exist one single -ante-Masoretic or unpointed Hebrew MS. of the Bible. The Greek -Septuagint was also written in Greek capitals, without accents and -breathings and without divisions between the words, and continued thus -until the eighth century, when accents and breathings came into use, -which were followed, in the tenth century, by small letters, as we have -them now in our Greek Bibles. The very same may be said about the New -Testament MSS., all of which are written in continuous Greek capitals. - -The oldest MS. of the New Testament is the Codex Sinaiticus, -discovered by Tischendorf at the convent of St. Catherine, on Mount -Sinai, in 1859, and supposed to belong to the fourth century. The -Codex Vaticanus is also supposed to belong to the fourth century, -and was first published at Rome by Vercellone, in 1858. The Codex -Alexandrinus, containing both Old and New Testaments, is supposed -to belong to the fifth century, and was first published by Woide, -in 1786, and afterwards by Cowper, in 1860. Of the Old Testament it -contains, besides the canonical and most apocryphal books found in -our editions, the third and fourth books of the Maccabees, Epistle of -Athanasius to Marcellinus (prefixed to the Psalms), and fourteen hymns, -the eleventh in honour of the Virgin. Ecclesiasticus, the Song of the -Three Children, Susannah, and Bell and the Dragon do not appear. Of the -New Testament there is, in addition to the received books, the First -Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians and part of the Second. The Codex -Ephraemi is supposed to belong to the fifth century, and was published -by Tischendorf in 1843. The Codex Bezæ is a Græco-Latin MS., said to -belong to the sixth century, and first published by Kipling, in 1793, -and afterwards by Scrivener, in 1864. All these MSS. are written in -continuous capitals, so badly formed, and so jumbled together, as to be -almost illegible. - -According to the showing of those most interested in proving the -antiquity of sacred writings, the very earliest MS. cannot lay claim -to an earlier date than the fourth century; and, if the authors to -whom the Church has attributed the various writings in the Bible wrote -the said records, it is clear that the latest originals must date -from the first century. But the originals do not anywhere exist, and -consequently it is utterly impossible for anybody to know who wrote -any one of the books of the Bible, which is, therefore, a compilation -of anonymous writings, and, as such, is of no authority whatever. So -far from being a divinely-inspired record, it is, as we have seen, -a product of the cunning and ingenuity of knaves and fanatics, who -deserve credit for only one thing, and that is that they managed to -make any sense whatever out of the wretched scribble and scrawl from -which they derived their information. - - - - -THE - -“ANNALS” OF TACITUS. - - -One of the darkest epochs in the history of Christianity is that period -which commenced with the annihilation of the Saracen power in Europe -and the establishment of the Inquisition by Pope Innocent IV. in 1243, -and continued until about the end of the fifteenth century. The ghastly -horrors perpetrated by the Christian Church at this time against -unoffending people are too well known to need any reproduction here, -and may be found fully detailed in Rule’s “History of the Inquisition,” -Draper’s “Conflict,” and other similar works. My purpose just now is -not to follow in detail these wicked and cruel abominations connected -with the Christian superstition, but to study carefully the various -circumstances surrounding the sudden appearance, in the early part of -the fifteenth century, of so many MSS. purporting to have been written -by the ancients. Among these manuscripts were the so-called “Annals -of Tacitus,” which have since become so celebrated on account of the -reference made by the author in his fifteenth book to the persecution -of the early Christians by Nero. It has long been suspected by learned -scholars that these “Annals,” and in particular the passage relating -to Nero’s persecution of Christians, were never written by Tacitus; -but, owing to the danger usually incurred in giving expression to -opinions so detrimental to the interests of the Church, no one ventured -until quite lately publicly to state his doubts as to the genuineness -of these celebrated writings. It is now, however, pretty generally -admitted among such scholars as do not make their honour subservient to -their interests that the author of the “History” and the author of the -“Annals” were not the same person, and that the latter, moreover, were -not written until many centuries after the death of Tacitus. - -To find out who was the real author of these “Annals,” and how they -became associated with the name of Tacitus, it will be necessary to -glance at the condition of the Christian Church during the period -referred to above; and in doing so none but authors of the highest -repute will be consulted. - -For some time after the establishment of the Inquisition in 1243 the -Church had been able to suppress, to a very large extent, the growing -tendency of the age towards the acquirement of knowledge: by the rack, -the stake, and the gibbet, by torture, by fire, and by the knife, she -had relentlessly pursued her horrid and diabolical career, hoping by -these means to preserve the faith and silence her enemies. To a large -extent it is admitted she was successful; but in remote places the -spirit of inquiry lived and grew in spite of her: Abelard, the first -Freethinker, had well sown his seeds in France; Arnold of Brescia had -left to his brethren in Italy a scheme of reform which was destined to -take practical shape in the autumn of 1870; and Wicliffe had preached -from his chair at Oxford doctrines which could not fail ere long to -have their effect upon the intellect of England. This bold Yorkshireman -did not scruple to publicly declare that the mendicant friars who were -commissioned by the Pope to travel over England and grant absolution -and indulgences to the people were a pack of thieves and sensualists, -that the clergy were indulging in open wickedness, that the indulgences -of the Pope were a manifest blasphemy, and that the priesthood had no -right to deprive the people of the right to search the Bible. He even -went so far as to speak of the Pope as “Antichrist, the proud worldly -priest of Rome, and the most cursed of clippers and purse-kervers.” -From the pulpit of his little church at Lutterworth he openly preached -against the authority of the Pope in England, and declared that Christ -had given no temporal lordship to the popes and no supremacy over -kings. The Pope and the Sacred College very naturally resented this -behaviour, and ordered copies of Wicliffe’s works to be sent forthwith -to Rome for inspection, the result being that three bulls were drafted -on May 22nd, 1377, and despatched to England, one being addressed -to Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, and William Courtenay, -Bishop of London, another being addressed to the King, and the third -to the University of Oxford. These bulls expressed the surprise of his -Holiness that such a fearful heresy had not been at once suppressed, -and commanded that immediate steps should be taken for silencing the -author of it. He was to be apprehended and shut up in prison until the -further orders of the Pope arrived; and all proofs and evidence of his -heresy were to be sent by special messenger to Rome without delay. -These bulls, however, arrived too late to be of much use. Already -Wicliffe had been brought to trial before the Bishop of London and his -court at St. Paul’s, with a result not at all to the liking of his -Holiness or any of his pious followers, as he very soon discovered. - -On February 19th, 1377, Courtenay sat in Our Lady’s Chapel in St. -Paul’s, surrounded by Church dignitaries, to hear the accusation -against the reformer, a large and excited crowd, favourably disposed -towards Wicliffe, howling outside the doors. Suddenly a disturbance -took place inside the chapel, caused by Lord Percy and John of Gaunt -forcing their way towards the reformer; the Bishop and his court were -scandalised, and immediately called upon the intruders to withdraw; -but, instead of doing so, Percy quietly turned to Wicliffe and politely -requested him to be seated, whereupon Courtenay became furious and -yelled out: “He must and shall stand; it is unreasonable that one on -his trial before his ordinary should sit.” High words followed; the -mob outside was in a state of fury, and the bishops and clergy were -terrified. The end soon came, for John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, -stepping in front of the Bishop, shouted: “As for you, who are growing -so arrogant and proud, I will bring down the pride, not of you alone, -but that of all the prelacy in England,” and then declared that in a -few moments he would drag him out of the court by the hair of his head. -This brought matters to a climax; the mob burst into the chapel, the -Bishop and clergy fled, and the reformer was set free. The greatest -consternation prevailed among the clergy upon the news of this outrage -being carried through the country, and for several weeks secret -deliberations were carried on for the purpose of devising some good -plan for restoring the visibly decreasing prestige of the clerical -party. - -At last the three bulls arrived from Rome, but were, as we have seen, -too late in the field; for not only had the trial of Wicliffe turned -out a failure, but the King had in the meantime died, and the Oxford -doctors had almost all sided with the reformer. Still, the Church -determined to punish Wicliffe, who was summoned to appear before -Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Lambeth Chapel, to answer charges -of heresy and insubordination; but this trial proved as unfortunate for -the clergy as the former one, for another angry mob besieged the chapel -and demanded the release of the reformer, in addition to which Sir -Lewis Clifford arrived in haste from the Queen to forbid the bishops -passing any sentence upon Wicliffe. This was indeed a surprise for -their reverences, who precipitately left the chapel and reached their -homes in the best way they could. All this had a great effect upon -the minds of the people both in England and on the Continent; for the -Pope and his satellites had not only been attacked, but, what was more -amazing, they had suffered an unparalleled defeat; and the probability -was that the discontented of France and Italy would follow the example -of the English reformer and attempt to put into practice the theories -of Arnold and Abelard. The times certainly looked black for the Church; -but an event happened shortly afterwards which added still more to the -general dismay of the clericals, and was near being the end of the -Papacy. - -Pope Gregory XI. died on March 27th, 1378, at the Vatican, where he had -arrived shortly before from his beautiful residence at Avignon; and -the Italian clergy, fearing that the next pope would also take up his -residence in France, determined to exert every effort to place upon the -vacant chair of St. Peter an Italian who would be likely to remain at -the Vatican. At this time the sacred college consisted of twenty-two -cardinals, twelve of whom were French, so that it would have been -an easy matter for the French majority to elect a French pope; but -the clamour, not only of the clergy, but of the laity of Rome, was so -great that the majority did not avail themselves of their opportunity, -and allowed the Archbishop of Bari, a Neapolitan, to be nominated and -unanimously elected to the vacant see, under the title of Urban VI. Not -many weeks passed away before the French majority began to repent their -haste, and ended by publicly excommunicating Pope Urban VI., calling -him apostate and antichrist, and electing in his stead, on September -21st, Robert of Geneva, under the title of Clement VII. The Italian -bishops and clergy stood by the Pope of their choice, who resided at -the Vatican, while the French bishops and clergy bowed allegiance only -to their Pope, who took up his residence at the old papal palace at -Avignon; and thus it happened that for the first time in the history -of the Church there were two popes at the same time, each pouring -forth his anathemas at the other, and each declaring himself to be -the divinely-ordained vicar of Christ on earth. Owing to this schism, -Wicliffe was allowed to preach his heresy without let or hindrance, for -the whole of Europe was in a constant ferment, and the bishops could -ill bestow time upon such an insignificant person when two such lofty -individuals were attracting the attention of both clergy and laity. - -For forty years these rival popes and their successors carried on a -perpetual warfare, both with the sword and the pen, Pope Urban being -succeeded in turn by Pope Boniface IX., Pope Innocent VII., and Pope -Gregory XII., and Pope Clement by Pope Benedict XIII. During this time -there were not wanting men who were bold enough to turn to account this -papal schism in the interest of reform. Wicliffe was working silently -but steadily in England, and actually had the audacity to render the -Bible in the vulgar tongue, so that the people could read it in the -churches, the thing of all others that the popes and the cardinals -dreaded, for they well knew that, as soon as the Bible was read and -understood, the authority of the Church would gradually wane, and -eventually cease to exist at all. In vain did the popes thunder forth -their curses upon Wicliffe’s venerable head, for was not the whole -of Europe at that very time discussing more or less fiercely the very -question as to which of the two holy ones was really Pope? Of what use -was it that he of Avignon denounced Wicliffe, when half of Christendom -denied his right to the papal chair? He of Rome was in precisely the -same position, so that the high-sounding anathemas fell but lightly on -the old reformer; but it was far otherwise with the heretical teachings -which called forth the papal curses; for they were carried into the -most remote corners of Europe, causing quite a sensation among the -hitherto loyal servants of the Church. Jerome of Prague, in the year -1400, just sixteen years after Wicliffe’s death, carried across the -channel a large assortment of Wicliffe’s writings, and immediately -commenced to carry on the work of the great reformer in Europe, -challenging the doctors of Paris and Vienna on his way home. Uniting -with John Huss, a Professor of Prague University, he attacked with -great violence the Papacy, declaring that the very fact of the head of -the Church being split into two was sufficient to destroy for ever the -notion of papal infallibility. Things had now arrived at such a pass -that the doctors of the Sorbonne in Paris made a desperate attempt to -settle the difficulty. For fifteen years past they had been urging -the two popes to resign simultaneously, so that one successor to both -could be unanimously elected, and the dispute thus settled; but neither -party would yield an inch. At last, in 1409, driven to desperation by -the effect produced by Wicliffe’s writings, and by the bold preaching -of Huss and Jerome, the Council of Pisa deposed both popes, and -elected a third—viz., Balthazar Corsa, who assumed the title of Pope -John XXIII. and took up his residence at Bologna. The two deposed -pontiffs, however, refused to recognise the decree of the Council, the -consequence being that, instead of there being two popes, there were -three. This strengthened the position of Huss and Jerome, who said: “If -we must obey, to whom is our obedience to be paid? If all three are -infallible, why does not their testimony agree? And if only one of them -is the most Holy Father, why is it that we cannot distinguish him from -the rest?” The Bolognan Pope declared the Roman Pope to be a heretic, -a demon, and antichrist; the Roman Pope entertained similar views about -his holy brother of Bologna; and both stigmatised the Avignon Pope as -an impostor and schismatic; while his Holiness of Avignon had as much -affection for his two holy brethren as they had for him. - -Another Council was held at Constance in 1418, at which all three -Holinesses were deposed, excellent precautions being at the same -time taken to ensure the proper carrying out of the sentences. Otho -Colonna was then elected to the chair of St. Peter, as Martin V., and -the schism at last put an end to. But at what a cost had this schism -been kept up for forty years! People had begun to seriously question -the right of the popes to claim infallibility; many were now in the -habit of daily reading the Bible, and some had even dared to search -ancient authors for fuller information respecting the establishment of -Christianity. Unless these three ulcers were immediately cauterised and -effectively effaced, the Church must fall from its high position, as -the holy ones at the Vatican well knew. Accordingly, the Inquisition -was brought into service of the Pope, to put a stop to the insolence -of those who dared to assail the dogma of infallibility, and who had -been guilty of the blasphemy of reading the Bible. Huss and Jerome -had already been burnt at the stake. In addition to this, large sums -of money were offered for freshly-discovered MSS. of the ancients, in -order that all the evidence it was possible to collect together might -be available in case of emergency. These means were very effectual; -for troublesome people, who had inquiring minds or who had learnt to -read and write, were quickly despatched to a happier land by the agents -of the Inquisition, while the money offered for newly-discovered MSS. -acted like magic in causing old musty writings to turn up in every -direction. - -While the Council of Constance was being held for the purpose of -electing one pope, and one only, to sit in the chair of St. Peter, -Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, second son of John of Gaunt, Duke -of Lancaster, happened to pass through the town, and took advantage -of the opportunity thus offered him to attend the sittings, where he -made the acquaintance of many, among whom was Boggio Bracciolini, -one of the Papal Secretaries. A friendship soon sprang up between -the two, which resulted in Bracciolini returning to England with -Bishop—afterwards Cardinal—Beaufort, in the autumn of 1418. After a -year or two spent with Beaufort, the late Secretary became dissatisfied -with his lot, complaining bitterly in his letters to his friend, -Niccolo Niccoli, of the many unfulfilled promises of the Cardinal. At -last he was offered, and duly accepted, a small living of 120 florins a -year, which he soon afterwards exchanged for one worth £40 a year, and -having fewer duties attached to it, which gave him more leisure time -for study, and, consequently, made him considerably happier, for his -passion for studying ancient authors was as intense as his knowledge of -the classic languages was profound. - -In a very short time, however, he became again dissatisfied with his -lot, and begged the Cardinal to supply him with an honorary canonry, so -that he might visit Italy and prosecute his studies, at the same time -that he drew a snug little salary from England. He was not successful, -for the Cardinal probably had many such applications, and found more -suitable objects upon which to bestow his favours. - -Just at this time the rage for finding old MSS. increased enormously, -owing to the large sums of money given by the Vatican to the lucky -finders, who, as a rule, were simply villains of the monk type and the -most impudent forgers. Bracciolini, whose passion for money was even -greater than his passion for knowledge, bitterly bewailed his fate, -and longed for an opportunity to turn his wits to account, and thus -secure some of the fine prizes which were being so lavishly bestowed -by his Holiness upon indigent Italian and Hungarian monks. While he -was despairing of any such good fortune turning up he unexpectedly -received from Piero Lamberteschi of Florence, agent to Cosmo de Medici, -an offer which greatly gratified him, and which he could plainly -see emanated in the first instance from his old friend Niccoli. The -nature of this offer was, for obvious reasons, kept strictly secret; -but, from a perusal of some of the letters which passed between -Bracciolini and Niccoli, no doubt now exists that it was really a -proposal that Bracciolini should enter into retirement and forge an -introduction to the “History” of Tacitus, for which work he would -be paid 500 gold sequins, equivalent to upwards of £10,000. Niccoli -strongly urged his friend to accept the offer, and Bracciolini, in -reply, “thinks he will follow his advice;” but the venture was such -a daring one that 500 sequins appeared to him insufficient; so he -wrote again to Niccoli about this “suggestion” and “offer” made by -Lamberteschi, who, he states, “will endeavour to procure for me in -three years 500 gold sequins. If he will make it 600, I will at once -close with his proposal. He holds forth sanguine hopes about several -future profitable contingencies, which, I am inclined to believe, may -probably be realised; yet it is more prudent to covenant for something -certain than to depend on hope alone.... I like the occupation to -which he has invited me, and hope I shall be able to produce something -_worth reading_; but for this purpose, as I tell him in my letters, -I require the retirement and leisure that are necessary for literary -work.” An arrangement was eventually arrived at, and it was definitely -settled that Bracciolini should leave England and go to Hungary, in -which country it was popularly believed were to be found lost literary -treasures. Still, Bracciolini had his doubts about the due payment of -the money, and, as he was about to give up a living in England, he was -anxious to have some security for the money promised by Lamberteschi, -for we find him writing to Niccoli as follows: “You know well how I -prefer liberty and literary leisure to the other things which the vast -majority hold in the highest estimation and make the objects of their -ambition.... If I were to see that I should get that which our friend -Piero expects, I would go not only to the end of Europe, but as far -as the wilds of Tartary, especially as I should have the opportunity -of paying attention to Greek literature, which it is my desire to -devour with avidity, were it but to avoid those wretched translations, -which so torment me that there is more pain in reading than pleasure -in acquiring knowledge.” He then wrote: “If I undertake a journey -to Hungary, it will be unknown to everybody but a few, and down the -throats of these I shall cram all sorts of speeches, since I will -pretend I have come from here [England].” - -Apparently matters were soon satisfactorily arranged; for, from this -time, Bracciolini commenced to prepare for his forgery. He made good -use of the library of Cardinal Beaufort, and searched everywhere for -old writers from whom he could gather information respecting the old -Roman empire; and, finally, made arrangements for quitting England. In -a letter to Niccoli, dated London, July 17th, 1420, he says that he -has “skimmed over Aristotle during the spring of the year, not for the -purpose of studying him then, but reading and seeing what there was -in each of his works.” He had found that sort of “perusal not wholly -unprofitable, as he had learnt something every day, superficially -though it might be, from understanding Aristotle in his own language, -where he found him in the words of translators either incomprehensible -or nonsensical.” It was arranged between the three friends that -Bracciolini should repair at once to Italy, where consultations could -be held frequently, “to deliberate fully what was best to be done;” so, -after vainly attempting to dispose of his living, Bracciolini finally -departed for France, _en route_ for Italy. Before doing so, however, -he wrote to Niccoli, expressing his fear that the forgery he had -undertaken was too great a toil for him, but declaring his intention -to proceed at all hazards. He says: “I want you to have no distrust; -give me the leisure and the time for _writing that history_, and I -will do something you will approve. My heart is in the work, though I -question my powers ... I have not for four years devoted any attention -to literature, nor read a single book that can be considered well -written—as you may judge from these letters of mine, which are not what -they used to be; but I shall soon get back into my old manner. When I -reflect on the merits of the ancient writers of history, I recoil with -fear from the undertaking, though, when I consider what are writers -of the present day, I recover some confidence in the hope that, if I -strive with all my might, I shall be inferior to few of them.” A few -days afterwards he wrote his last letter from England to Niccoli on -June 25th, 1422, still expressing fear about the ultimate result, and -especially the payment: “If Lamberteschi would only place something -certain before us, which we could adopt or approve,” he wrote; and “How -heartily I hope that Lamberteschi will do what would be agreeable to us -both.” - -Arrived in Rome, Bracciolini was offered and accepted the post of -Principal Secretary to the Pope, and, consequently, did not go, as -previously arranged, to Hungary, but set himself to work instead, -examining the old MSS. in the Vatican Library, for which he had ample -time, as his new post was almost a sinecure. He also wrote to his -friend Niccoli on May 15th, 1423, asking him to forward to him without -the least delay all his notes and extracts from the various books which -he had read; after receiving which he commenced in earnest his labour. -He had not worked long, however, before he discovered what an arduous -task he had undertaken, and again fear overcame him lest he should find -himself unequal to the effort; but, pulling himself together again, he -determined once more to keep up his courage and persevere to the end, -the gold sequins probably acting as a stimulus to him. - -Writing to his friend Niccoli on October 8th, 1423, he says that “ -beginnings of any kind are arduous and difficult;” and continues: “What -the ancients did pleasantly, quickly, and easily, is to me troublesome, -tedious, and burdensome.” In another letter to Niccoli, dated Rome, -November 6th, 1423, he begs his friend to make every effort to procure -for him some map of Ptolemy’s “Geography,” and not to forget Suetonius -and the other historians, above all Plutarch’s “Lives of Illustrious -Men.” - -For upwards of three years after this period Bracciolini shut himself -up with his papers, extracts, maps, etc., and worked steadily and -laboriously at his task, and, at the end of that time, had completed -the first instalment of his forgery. The next part of the process was -to find a suitable place in which the forged MS. could be _discovered_; -consequently, Bracciolini and Niccoli put their heads together in -consultation, finally settling upon Hirschfeldt, a small Saxon town -on the borders of Bohemia, which was celebrated for an old abbey of -the Benedictine monks. Bracciolini had accidentally met with one of -the monks from this place in Rome, and had managed to place this man -under an obligation to him; so, finding that he was needy, ignorant, -and stupid, he determined to make use of him for producing his MS. to -the public. Speaking of this monk in one of his letters to Niccoli, he -says: “The good fellow, who has not our attainments, thought that we -were equally ignorant of what he found he did not know himself.” To -this ignorant fellow he gave a long list of books that he wished him -to hunt up in the Abbey library, including a copy of Tacitus, telling -him to send a full description of each as soon as found. The object -of this was to find out whether the Abbey possessed a copy of Tacitus -in the oldest writing possible, which could be used as a guide to the -transcriber of the forgery; and the reason of giving such a long list -was to throw the monk off the scent. - -With all their precautions, however, their scheme was all but -discovered in the summer of 1427, for we find Bracciolini, on September -25th of that year, writing to Niccoli that, “when Tacitus came, he -would keep it a secret; that he knew all the tittle-tattle that was -going on—whence it came, through whom, and how it was got up; but that -he need have no fear, for that not a syllable should escape him.... -I hear nothing of the Tacitus that is in Germany. I am expecting an -answer from the monk.” From this it would appear that the monk had not -yet supplied the information about the books; but, in the following -October, Niccoli had forwarded to Bracciolini an old copy of Tacitus -that he had become possessed of. Bracciolini, however, returned it at -once, saying that it was so badly damaged as to be illegible to an -ordinary transcriber, and continuing: “Take care, therefore, that I -have another, if it can be done; but you can do it, if you will strive -your utmost.... You have sent me the book without the parchment. I know -not the state of mind you were in when you did this, except that you -were as mad as a March hare. For what book can be transcribed if there -be not the parchment? Have a care to it, then, and also to a second -manuscript; but, above all, keep in mind the vellum.” After a while the -parchment arrived, together with an old copy of Tacitus that could be -easily read by a transcriber; and then all was silence again for about -a year. During this period the old monk was busily engaged transcribing -the forged writings into very ancient characters, using the old copy of -Tacitus supplied by Niccoli as an example of style, the forgery being -intended as an introduction to the “History.” - -On September 11th, 1428, Bracciolini was evidently becoming impatient -with the work, for he wrote to Niccoli as follows: “Not a word of -Cornelius Tacitus from Germany; nor have I heard thence any further -news of his work.” Then, again, he writes February 26th, 1429: “The -Hirschfeldt monk has come without the book, and I gave him a sound -rating for it. He has given me his assurance that he will be back again -soon, for he is carrying on a suit about his abbey in the law courts, -and will bring the book. He made heavy demands upon me; but I told him -I would do nothing for him until I have the book; I am, therefore, -in hopes that I shall have it, as he is in need of my good offices.” -The book at length arrived, and Bracciolini wrote to Niccoli that, so -far as he was himself concerned, everything was “now complete with -respect to the _Little Work_, concerning which he would, on some future -opportunity, write to him; and, at the same time, send it to him to -read, in order to get his opinion of it.” - -So the forgery was complete, and there can be no doubt that Bracciolini -from this date was a rich man, living in his own villa at Valdarno in -Tuscany. The forged writings were handed over to Cosmo de Medici in -return for 500 gold sequins, according to arrangement, and remained -in the Library at Florence ever after. It was not, however, published -before 1468, when Johannes de Spire produced what are now known as the -last six books of the “Annals” of Tacitus, which he declared had been -copied from an (imaginary) original in St. Mark’s, Venice, but which -we now know were really copied from the forgery of Bracciolini, in -possession of the Medicis at Florence. - -What are now known as the first six books of the “Annals” did not make -their appearance until 1514, and most probably had also been forged -by Bracciolini immediately after he had finished the last six books. -The delight of the clergy at the sudden and unexpected discovery of -these hitherto altogether unknown writings knew no bounds; for they -now possessed the most precious heathen testimony to the sufferings -of the early Christians on account of their religion, which would -form a valuable addition to the evidence in course of collection by -pious monks intended to show forth clearly and indisputably the divine -origin of Christianity. The wily Pope knew well enough the enormous -value of such a record as this; for it was quite evident that a vein -of scepticism was permeating every class of society, in spite of the -vigilance of the Inquisitioners. - -The reformers who succeeded Wicliffe, Jerome, and Huss had been waxing -bolder day by day, and had even repulsed a large army sent against -them by his Holiness and led by Cardinal Cesarini and a host of German -princes, since which they had boldly and openly preached against the -papal supremacy, and were in many districts publicly distributing -copies of the writings of Aristotle and Averroes. The Church and the -Papacy were thus in real and imminent danger, for hitherto the people -had believed whatever the priests had told them, whereas now they -appeared determined to investigate the whole matter themselves and -to dispense with the services of the priestly mediator. At such a -time the discovery of the “Annals” came as a windfall to the Church; -every one apparently accepting them as having been originally written -by Tacitus; and every author, from this time forward, quoted them -repeatedly. The strangest thing about the affair is that no one even -thought of questioning the genuineness of the writings, especially -when it must have been well known that not one historian or writer, -from the time of Tacitus, who lived in the first century, down to -the end of the fifteenth century, when the “Annals” (so-called for -the first time by Beatus Rhenanus in 1533) were discovered, had ever -once quoted or even referred to them; not even Christian writers had -as much as once noticed them, which they could not have failed to do -had such valuable evidence of the sufferings of their brethren really -existed. Besides the “Annals” other MSS. were produced by pious -monks and passed off as ancient writings, until at length the Vatican -and other papal libraries were literally swarming with them; but all -these writings paled into insignificance before such a record as the -“Annals,” which was destined henceforth to be the chief evidence in -support of Christianity. Together with the passages in the writings -of Josephus, which were forged beyond doubt by Eusebius, Bishop of -Cæsarea, and the doubtful letter of the younger Pliny to the Emperor -Trajan, which time most assuredly will prove to be as great a forgery -as the other two, the Church had now heathen testimony in abundance to -prove that the religion was divinely instituted and that many suffered -death in defence of it. Neither Averroism nor Arianism could shake this -testimony, which would be a powerful prop to the religion for centuries -to come. It remained for Dr. Lardner and others, in the commencement of -last century, to expose the forgery in Josephus; to the present century -has been reserved the honour of unveiling the real authorship of the -forged “Annals” of Tacitus; and to future searchers after truth is left -the duty of discovering the real perpetrator of the forged letter which -has hitherto been known as from Pliny to Trajan. - -If any one should still doubt that Bracciolini forged the “Annals,” -let me recommend him to carefully read a work entitled “Tacitus and -Bracciolini,” and published by Messrs. Diprose & Bateman, of Lincoln’s -Inn Fields, London, in which will be found the most convincing proofs -that Bracciolini, and no other than he, was the real author of the -work. In that able indictment, from which I have drawn extensively -for this essay, the writings and peculiarities of both Tacitus and -Bracciolini have been most carefully detailed, with the result that -no one can help arriving at the conclusion that one person could -not have written both the “History” and the “Annals;” that Tacitus -could not possibly have written the “Annals,” owing to chronological -difficulties; and that suspicion points so forcibly to Bracciolini as -the author that it almost amounts to positive proof. - -What I have endeavoured to show is (1) that, owing to the teachings of -Abelard, Arnold, Wicliffe, Jerome, Huss, and other fifteenth-century -reformers, the authority of the Church and the very existence of -Christianity were seriously menaced; (2) that, on account of the -failure of the Inquisition to stem the current of scepticism, large -sums of money were offered for the discovery of ancient writings which -would bear testimony to the divine authority of the Church and the -divine establishment of Christianity; (3) that, in consequence of this -bribe, shoals of writings were forged by needy monks and scholars, -and attributed to ancient authors; and (4) that among these forgeries -were the “Annals” of Tacitus, which were composed by Bracciolini and -re-written by the Hirschfeldt monk in a style as nearly as possible -like a very old copy of the “History” of Tacitus, which was supplied to -him as a guide. - - - - -CREATION AND FALL. - - -The one great differential mark between man and the brutes is -his higher development of brain power, by which he is enabled to -discriminate between right and wrong, or good and evil, and thus to -improve his bodily and social condition. The individual who obstinately -refuses to avail himself of the great mental power within him not only -deprives himself of the greatest pleasure in life, but also allows -himself to sink to the level of the brutes from which he evolved, -exhibiting at the same time a gross want of gratitude to the being -who endowed him with so lofty an attribute. On the other hand, he who -cultivates his mental faculties, and uses them for his own improvement -and advancement, and also that of his fellows, fulfils the highest -mission of man, and continually shows his deep gratitude to his -mysterious benefactor. - -To think is the grandest faculty of man. To think logically and -well ought to be his noblest aspiration. To prevent, by any means -whatever, the individual from exercising his right to think, and from -giving expression to his thoughts, is a direct outrage upon the great -author of us all, upon the individual himself, and also upon the -whole human race. The greatest thinker of modern times, John Stuart -Mill, says, “The peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an -opinion is that it is robbing the human race, posterity as well as the -existing generation; those who dissent from the opinion still more -than those who hold it. If the opinion is right they are deprived of -the opportunity of exchanging error for truth; if wrong, they lose -what is almost as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier -impression of truth, produced by its collision with error. No one can -be a great thinker who does not recognise that, as a thinker, it is -his first duty to follow his intellect to whatever conclusions it may -lead. Truth gains more even by the errors of one who with due study -and preparation thinks for himself, than by the true opinions of those -who only hold them because they do not suffer themselves to think ... -complete liberty of contradicting and disproving our opinion is the -very condition which justifies us in assuming its truth for purposes of -action; and on no other terms can a being with human faculties have any -rational assurance of being right.” - -We claim the right to think upon any and every subject, and also to -express our thoughts before the world, in spite of the menace held out -to us by those whose interests conflict with any honest expression of -opinion. There is no tribunal but that of reason to which we possibly -can submit any theory or proposition. To talk of faith as opposed to -reason is to speak without seriously thinking. Such faith is but a -weird phantom that haunts the irresolute and credulous unthinker, but -which really has no existence at all. A man may say that he believes -something entirely opposed to reason, but he deceives himself, for it -is quite impossible to believe what does not appear to the mind to be -in accordance with reason. Such a man accepts, but does not believe. -We have faith in the existence of the island of Otaheite, although -we have never been there ourselves. Geographers tell us that such an -island exists on the other side of the world; and we have full faith -in such an existence, because it is in accordance with reason. But if -we were told that the king of Otaheite had never been born, but had, -like Topsy, ‘grow’d,’ or that he and his subjects, instead of talking, -crowed like cocks, or brayed like donkeys, we should not believe it, -because it would be contrary to reason. Sensible and thoughtful people -will, therefore, not accept anything as truth that does not accord with -reason and I ask you tonight to follow me in my endeavour to submit the -two important dogmas of my lecture to the test of reason, in the full -belief that you are as anxious as myself to arrive at a reasonable and -true conclusion regarding them. - -The doctrines of the creation and fall are, as it were, the foundations -upon which the huge superstructure of Christianity has been founded. -Take away these fundamental doctrines, and the whole fabric totters -to the ground; for without a fall there can be no possible need for a -redemption, and the etceteras of the religion, such as the miraculous -conception and ascension, baptism, and the eucharistic feast, vanish -into thin air as vain imaginations and things of naught. - -It cannot be too clearly and forcibly insisted upon that no fall -necessitates no redemption, for the proposition is self-evident, and -thus incapable of contradiction. If, therefore, we find the story of -the creation and fall, as given to us in the first three chapters -of Genesis, to be credible and reasonable, then our duty, upon -another occasion, will be to examine the evidence for and against the -subsequent theories of the religion, in order to discover whether they -also are credible and reasonable. If, on the other hand, we find the -story to be incredible and absurd, it will be our duty to reject the -whole Christian scheme that has emanated from it. Our business at the -present time is with these fundamental doctrines of creation and the -fall, and our sole object is the elucidation of the truth, no matter -whether it should be palatable or not to our minds. No sensible man -can desire to retain that which is not true, for no system that is not -founded on truth can be of any permanent service to the human race, but -must on the contrary produce most pernicious results. - -Having thus clearly explained my premisses, I shall now proceed to the -examination of the first three chapters of Genesis, and shall divide -my text into the two natural divisions suggested in the authorised -version. The first chapter and first three verses of the second chapter -contain what is known as the Elohistic narrative, so called on account -of the deity being throughout designated Elohim—אלהים, the plural of -Eloh (אלוה), or Elyah (אליה), a compound word made up of El (אל), a -ram, and Yah (יה), an abbreviation of Yahouh (יהוה), the future tense -of the verb Hahouh (הוה), to be. Eloh literally means ‘the ram will -be,’ and is used to signify the ram-sun, the sun-god, or the sun in -the zodiacal sign _Aries_, at the vernal equinox; the plural form, -Elohim, being used to signify the ram-suns, or the six summer months of -the year, in which the ram and the sun are together, from equinox to -equinox. El signifies ram, or god, alone, or without the sun, in the -winter period, and is always used to designate the evil principle, the -wicked god, or the winter period, in contradistinction to Eloh, the -ram-sun of the vernal equinox, and Elohim, the ram-suns of the summer -months, the good principle, or the good gods. In this first narrative -of the creation Elohim is rendered ‘God’ in the authorised version, -though in other parts of the Bible it is rendered ‘gods,’ ‘men,’ or -‘angels.’ The remainder of the second and the third chapters contain -the second, or Jehovistic narrative, so called on account of the deity -being designated throughout, Yahouh, or Jehovah (so pronounced by -Christians) Elohim (יהוה אלהים), rendered in the authorised version -‘the Lord God.’ That these two accounts were not written by one person -will become clear enough as we proceed in our examination, in which the -rendering of the authorised version will be strictly adhered to. - -According to the first narrative, god (Elohim) created the heavens and -the earth and all they contain in six ordinary days, and rested from -his work on the seventh day. It has been asserted by some zealous but -not over scrupulous Christians that days of twenty four hours’ duration -were not meant by the writer, but that the word יום (day) signifies an -enormous lapse of time; but it is quite clear to anyone with average -intelligence that an ordinary day was meant, or else there would have -been no use in saying that the evening and the morning were the first -day. Moreover, we are distinctly told in Exodus XX. 10, 11, that we -are to keep the seventh day as a holiday, “for in six days the Lord -made heaven and earth, the sea and all that is in them, and rested the -seventh day.” We therefore have here the creation of the world, with -day and night, but no sun, in one day, which we must admit at once is -an absurdity, for it is beyond all doubt scientifically proved that -this world could never have existed for one moment without the sun -round which it revolves, and our common sense tells us plainly that -without a sun there could never have been days and nights, or evenings -and mornings. - -On the second day we are told that god created the firmament, and -called it heaven, and that this firmament separated the waters above -from those below, which clearly proves that the writer had no other -conception of the universe than that it was limited above to the height -of the clouds, and bounded below by the earth itself. The third day -was set apart for the gathering together of the waters into seas and -rivers, and for the creation of the vegetable kingdom, which again is -contradictory of all known scientific facts, for there was still no -sun in existence. At last, on the fourth day, the sun was created, as -also the moon and stars, all being placed in the firmament, between -the clouds and the earth, for the sole purpose of acting as lamps and -marking time for this world. The writer evidently imagined that the -only object of the heavenly orbs is to light up this world, to divide -our day from our night, and to limit our seasons, being, apparently, -ignorant of the fact that our days and seasons are regulated by the -motions of the earth itself, quite irrespective of the movements of the -celestial bodies. He was also clearly under the impression that the sun -was, after our earth, the largest body in the universe, the moon being -next, and the stars the smallest; whereas the sun is five hundred times -larger than the earth and all the planets and their moons put together; -while the earth is about forty nine times larger in bulk than the moon; -and some of the stars are immensely larger than our sun, and all of -them, moreover, suns themselves. - -It is sufficiently evident from this account that the world had been in -existence for three days and three nights before the sun was made, and -that vegetation had in the meantime been produced, which is, we know, -an absurdity. There are some ingenious individuals who have declared -that this is quite possible, for there are, they say, lights that are -unconnected with the sun, and that the writer evidently alluded to -these faint glimmerings; but I assert confidently that, leaving out of -the question the light derived from the stars, so far as we know from -science, there is no light known which is not either directly produced -from the sun, or a reflection of the sun’s light from some other object. - -On the fifth day were created fishes, birds, and mammals in the form -of whales. Now there has been so far no creation of land animals -except birds, and yet the writer declares that whales were made, being -clearly quite ignorant of the fact that whales are not true fishes, but -mammals, belonging to the sub-kingdom Mammalia, to which belong also -horses, cows, apes and men. Whales were not evolved until long after -creeping animals, such as lizards, serpents, etc., and took to the -water again after having been, in the parent form, long accustomed to -dry land, just in the same manner as did the walrus, porpoise, sea-cow, -dolphin and seal, all of which are mammals. It was not until the next -(sixth) day that creeping animals were created, according to Genesis, -and yet we know well enough that they slowly evolved from molluscs, or -soft-bodied animals, at a very early period, ages before such species -as whales and cattle existed. On the very same day, according to the -narrative, god formed an androgynous, or hermaphrodite man, having two -sexes, and being the fac-simile of himself. Many ancient races believed -that their god was androgynous, and no doubt the writer of this account -held the same opinion, regarding the good principle of the summer -months, or Elohim, as a bi-sexual and reproductive deity. If this be -not the correct view of the matter, it would be interesting to know -which of the two sexes the god of Genesis partakes of. - -On the seventh day god rested from his work; but we do not find any -record of his having done anything to cause fatigue, except giving -utterance to his fiat day by day. - -This story is so palpably absurd as to need no argument to prove it so, -were it not for the fact that certain crafty persons, seeing the utter -impossibility of reconciling it with science and reason, have seen fit -to invent new interpretations of the original, in order to give it an -appearance of truth. One sect maintains that the days were epochs, and -not ordinary days, which, if it were true, would merely augment the -difficulty by making the earth to have existed, with vegetation, for -ages instead of days, without the sun; but we have already seen that -this theory will not hold ground for a moment. - -Another more cunning class of religionists have propounded the -hypothesis that the whole story is meant to be an epitome of what -occurred at the origin of the universe and life, and that ordinary days -were really meant, and purposely utilised to epitomise long periods of -time, as was customary with ancient writers, who frequently availed -themselves of poets’ licence in this manner. This theory is _primâ -facie_ a plausible one, and has, no doubt, satisfied many restless and -thoughtless spirits amongst us; but in reality it differs but little, -if at all, from the preceding hypothesis, both leaving us in much the -same position. They declare that the very same order is maintained in -the narrative as that adopted by scientists; that both agree that the -earth was formed first, and then, in the following order, vegetation, -fishes, birds, beasts of the field, and man. We know well enough, -however, that the sun is absolutely necessary for the existence of the -vegetable kingdom; that birds did not appear before reptiles and worms, -but long after them; and that placental mammals made their appearance, -not before creeping animals, and kangaroos, opossums and others of the -marsupial species, but many ages after them. - -In direct contradiction of this fable in Genesis, we learn from science -that our solar system once existed in a condition of highly attenuated -nebulous vapour; and that in the course of millions of years this huge -chaotic mass of matter, with its sum of force or energy, subject alike -to the laws of gravitation and transformation, gradually condensed, and -became moulded into cosmic order, forming in process of time a number -of rotating spherical nebular masses, in a state of intense heat, owing -to the shock of their recently united atoms. These spheres gradually -cooled by radiation, consequently contracting and becoming possessed -of a more rapid rotary movement, throwing off from their equatorial -regions large rings of vapour, which in their turn also condensed, and, -under the influence of the same two laws, formed separate spheres for -themselves. Thus gradually came into existence our sun, planets and -moons. - -In the course of time, as our earth cooled down, large volumes of -water were precipitated on the surface, causing an enormous wear and -tear of the now solid rock of the earth’s crust, which eventually gave -rise to depositions of various kinds of earth grits, in layers, one -above the other; which strata have been divided by geologists into -periods, according to various peculiarities observed in the course -of their deposition. In the earliest of these periods, owing to the -gradual change that took place in the relative proportions of the -atmospheric gases, and to the great decrease in temperature, a peculiar -combination of the molecular atoms of the earth’s substance took place, -which resulted in the formation of an albuminous substance, called -protoplasm, possessing the power of absorption, assimilation, and -reproduction by fission, or, in other words, developing the property -called life. Under the influence of the laws of heredity and selection -this primordial germ of life gradually developed into higher and -still higher organic forms of existence, from Amœbæ to Gastrœada, or -molluscs with mouths; next to Vermes, or worm life; then to Vertebrata, -or back-boned animals; through fishes; amphibians, living both in -and out of water; reptiles, from which eventually evolved birds; and -marsupials; up to placental mammals, such as whales, quadrupeds, apes -and men. The gradual evolution of these species occupied many millions -of years before the date of the creation in Genesis (B.C. 4004), -during which period the face of the earth underwent manifold and great -changes. - -Now, in the name of common sense and reason, does this hypothesis -agree with and corroborate, as it is said to do by some divines, the -1st Bible story of creation, in any manner at all? I maintain that the -man who replies in the affirmative does an injustice to his reasoning -faculties and outrages the common sense of his fellows. The theory of -creation is absolutely opposed to that of evolution on every point. - -Now let us examine the second narrative, as given in the second and -third chapters of Genesis. Here we have a direct contradiction of the -story in the first chapter; for we are told that god created the earth, -the heavens, vegetation and man, but not woman, all in one day. We are -also told that there had been no rain upon the earth, and yet that -“there went up a mist from the earth,” which we know is impossible. -“But,” say the orthodox, “everything is possible with god.” The reply -of the evolutionist is, “Can god, then, make a stick with one end -only?” God next planted a garden, in which he placed his newly made -man, after giving him instructions to eat of every tree within it, -except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, the fruit of which -was not to be touched, and the penalty of disobedience being instant -death. Then, in fresh contradiction of the first narrative, beasts of -the field and birds were created, after man; after which Adam, the -man, named them all; but how he acquired the power of speech necessary -for such a feat is not recorded. For absurdity the next part of the -narrative exceeds all that has preceded it. God created cattle and -birds in abundance, but yet could not manufacture a suitable partner -for the man; so he adopted the strange device of taking from Adam’s -body, while he slept, one of his ribs, with which he made a woman. Now -it must strike every thoughtful man and woman that this act was the -very acme of stupidity, for surely it would have been far easier to -have created the woman at once by another fiat, or to have created a -spare rib with which to make the woman. To attribute such conduct to -the great author is surely the height of irreverence. - -It is quite evident that both these stories were not written by one -author, and that both cannot be true, for they totally contradict each -other, and are written in quite different styles, the deity himself -being differently designated in each. We are told by certain parties -that if we do not believe these stories we shall most certainly be -roasted for all eternity; and indeed the New Testament distinctly bears -out this fearful fiat. According to this, every man in the whole world -who has been unfortunate enough to hear these two accounts read, and -who is endowed with sufficient intelligence to discriminate between a -pop-gun and an elephant, will inevitably perish; for it is impossible -for any sane man to believe two such contradictory statements. It is -not within the power of any man to do so. You might just as well demand -of a man that he must believe that a brick and a pan-cake are identical -articles. He could not do so, no matter how hard he tried. - -Compared with these fables, how ennobling, grand and sublime is the -theory of evolution. We behold the great and mysterious energy of -universe operating in a manner calculated to inspire our minds with -wonder, awe and admiration. The truly marvellous development of -ourselves from a chaotic nebula of attenuated matter, through all the -varied and manifold stages of existence, with their beautiful and -useful properties, is indeed an overwhelmingly convincing evidence of -the existence of an omniscient and omnipotent, although absolutely -inscrutable author; and I doubt much whether anyone ever approached -this subject with an honest desire to be guided by reason in his search -for truth, who did not experience this profound reverence for the -unknown author. Can we believe that these two narratives in Genesis are -also calculated to inspire such a sentiment in the minds of those who -are fairly well educated and amenable to reason? What kind of a deity, -think you, is this god of Genesis? The concluding portion of the 2nd -narrative will at once inform us. - -This story is well known to all of us, and is a very remarkable one, -for we learn from it the startling fact that the serpent, or devil, was -the greatest benefactor to the human race, and, moreover, truthful; -while god was the greatest enemy the race ever had, and was guilty of -falsehood and treachery. God placed this man and woman in the garden, -in front of a very strong temptation, pointed out the temptation to -them, and threatened them with instant death if they yielded to it. -This god is supposed to be omniscient, and therefore knew well enough -before he placed them there that the poor creatures would fall on the -very first temptation. Can we conceive more glaring injustice and -diabolical cruelty than this? Now the serpent knew very well that they -would not die if they ate the fruit, but that, instead, they would -become wise; and eventually he persuaded them to eat. Who spoke the -truth, god or the devil? Did the man and woman die on the day they ate -the fruit? Far from it. That day, were there any truth at all in the -narrative, would have been the grandest day ever known to man; for by -the eating of that fruit was made known to him the difference between -good and evil, that he might be able to seek the one and avoid the -other; his benefactor being the serpent, or devil, the circumventor and -conqueror of god. - -But notice further on how impotent this so-called almighty deity really -was. He exclaimed in fear, “Behold, the man is become as one of us -[which was precisely what the devil predicted] to know good and evil, -and now, lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life -and live for ever, therefore the Lord God sent him forth from the -garden.” Now how easy it would have been for an omnipotent creator to -have annihilated his own work, and thus cleared the way for a fresh -start. It would be interesting to know who the “we” were that the -writer refers to, if not an androgynous deity or a multitude of gods or -goddesses. - -What was the consequence of this sin of Adam and Eve? Every man and -every woman ever born upon this earth is guilty of this sin, and will -eternally burn in hell fire, says the Christian church, unless they -believe that this circumvented god became a man, lived on this earth, -and died the death of a criminal, in order to give satisfaction to -himself for the outrage committed on his divine majesty by three -of his creatures. The countless myriads of human beings who have -inhabited this earth during the six thousand years (according to Bible -chronology) that the world has existed, are all and each under this -fearful curse, although they had no more to do with Adam’s sin than the -man in the moon, and had no power to prevent it. These people have been -brought into the world, whether they liked it or not, and are subject -to this penalty, the enormous majority of them being inevitably doomed -to eternal torment; for there have lived many millions of people who -never even heard of the Bible, its gods or its scheme of redemption. -We may go farther and declare that all are inevitably doomed, for -we cannot conceive that anyone can believe such a story as that of -the fall. No one will venture to assert that infants and idiots can -believe anything, therefore there is no hope for these unfortunates, -whatever chances there may be for others. - -As the expression of the infantile imagination of primitive man, after -emerging from his brute ancestry, and commencing to exercise more fully -his reasoning faculties, these fables are easily understood; but as -the writings of men who had been inspired by the almighty power to -record a true account of the origin of nature and man for the use of -others, they must be at once rejected by all reasonable and thoughtful -people as gross absurdities. We can easily understand how the mind -of primitive man pondered over the strange mixture of good and evil -in the world, just as the awakening mind of a child would do to day; -how the mystery would be explained by the analogy of the celestial -movements; and how, as the result of the infantile reasoning, the good -principle became associated with the mental conception of a venerable -old gentleman, who planted a garden, and performed the principle part -in the drama just described from the third chapter of Genesis. - -Tho whole story bears the strongest marks of being the production of -an infantile intellect. The simple manner in which the writer tells us -that the man and woman sewed fig leaves together and made aprons for -themselves is sufficient evidence of this. We cannot believe that Adam -and Eve went through the many processes necessary for the production -of the needles and thread, with which to sew their leaves together. -Then the conversation between god, as he took his stroll in the garden -in the cool of the evening, and Adam and Eve, is just what we should -expect from the crude imaginations of our early ancestors; as also is -the manner in which the man placed the blame on the woman, and she in -her turn upon the serpent. The curse, too, is precisely in the same -style; first the serpent, then the woman, afterwards the man, and -lastly the earth itself being brought under the divine anathema. No -less apparent is the absurdity of the writer stating that Adam called -his wife Eve “because she was the mother of all living,” when there -were then no other human beings in existence; and declaring that god -made coats and breeches (see “Breeches Bible”) of skins, when as yet -death had not entered into the world. Such fables cannot be accepted as -true history by the intellect of the nineteenth century. - -That we suffer for the sins of our fathers is unfortunately too true; -but that we shall eternally frizzle for them I declare, without -the least hesitation, to be a vile falsehood and an insult to our -intellects. The vices and diseases of our ancestors are undoubtedly -reproduced in ourselves, as are their good deeds and lofty sentiments; -and we again transmit these properties to our offspring. We have, in -fact, the power of rendering happy or miserable those who follow us, -and making the general state of society somewhat better or worse. -Our great mental attributes were not surely evolved within us for no -purpose, and to lie dormant, but that we should exercise them and use -them for the moral and social improvement of ourselves and our fellows. -But to imagine that we shall suffer again in some other condition of -existence, because of our fathers’ sins, is the height of insanity. - -Respecting the authorship of these fables, we are told that the book -which contains them, as well as the other four books of the Pentateuch, -were written by Moses, under the inspiration of what is called the holy -ghost; but when we examine these books we find that this is without -doubt false, for it is not possible for any man to record his own death -and burial, and the lives of a succession of prophets who lived after -him, as is done in the last chapter of Deuteronomy. Then, again, in the -seventh chapter of Genesis clean and unclean beasts are mentioned in -connexion with the ark fable, whereas, according to the Bible, clean -and unclean beasts were not declared such until 600 years after Moses -is said to have died; which proves that Genesis was not written before -that late period. The town of Dan is also mentioned in the fourteenth -chapter, which town had no existence until 331 years after the recorded -death of Moses. In chap. XXXVI. a list is given of all the kings that -reigned over Edom “before there reigned any king over the children of -Israel,” proving once more that this book was not written until long -after kings had reigned over Israel. Numerous other passages might be -quoted to show that Moses could not have written the books that are -ascribed to him. To cut the matter short, however, we are told in the -2nd apocryphal book of Ezra that he and his clerks wrote all the books -of Moses; and in Chronicles and Kings that Shaphan discovered the -writings in an old chest. - -We find, therefore, not only that these fables of the creation and -fall are not true records, but that it is not known who wrote them, -although suspicion attaches to one Ezra; and yet we are expected to -hang our chances of salvation upon them. We are handed these books -and told by a priest that they were originally derived from god. Now -instead of believing the man, and taking no pains to find out what the -volume really contains, as is unfortunately the habit of most people, -our duty is clearly to investigate the matter, and try to find out -whether that priest speaks the truth or not, whether he has any sort -of interest in making us believe the volume to be the word of god, or, -assuming that he himself honestly believes it to be so, whether he is -a sufficient authority on the point. Let us, for instance, take the -case of a stranger to the Christian faith, one who never heard of the -Bible or its gods, and who meets a Christian priest in the backwoods -of America. The holy one informs the stranger that he possesses a book -which has been written by god, through the medium of the inspired -minds of a number of holy men. Would you consider the stranger to be a -man of sound mental faculties if he at once accepted the word of the -parasite, and shaped his whole career according to the teaching of that -book? Most assuredly not. The most natural thing for the stranger to -do would be to stare in amazement at the saint, and wonder whether he -was quite right in his mind. Observing that the priest was really in -earnest, and apparently of sane mind, he would parley with him, asking -where he procured his book from; who were the very holy parties who -had been inspired to write it; when and where they lived; and who knew -anything about them: in short he would demand from the unctions one his -credentials before believing such an astounding assertion as that god -wrote a book. The replies would be after this fashion. The book was -derived in the first instance from a publisher’s shop, where it had -been printed with lead type and black ink, from another printed copy, -which had been printed from another copy, and so on back to the first -printed edition, which was copied from a translation of various Hebrew -and Greek ‘originals.’ It was about two thousand years, he would say, -since some of these ‘originals’ were written, and the remainder were -supposed to be of much earlier date; but who the actual writers were -he could not tell, although it was beyond doubt they were guided by -god’s inspiration, for it was so declared in the writings themselves, -which had never yet been doubted, except by a few naughty men who were -now in hell. Do you think this would be good enough for the stranger? -Of course not. Then, in the name of common sense, why should we accept -these Bible books without enquiry? To accept any anonymous writings in -blind faith as being the production of particular individuals, without -corroborative evidence, is the act of a fool, not of a wise man. A -sensible person will make some enquiry about them before accepting them. - -Unfortunately for ourselves it is only lately that people have been -wise or bold enough to use their reasoning faculties in these matters, -the consequence being that the ordinary mind is now almost unequal to -the task of unravelling the net which has been so cunningly spun around -society by the Christian church. A careful investigation of the matter, -however, leads to the inference that about B.C. 250 or 300 the Jewish -chief priest Ezra, assisted by a number of clerks, commenced to form -a national history out of the various legends they had picked up in -their long wanderings, soon producing what are now known as the books -of Judges (from the 3rd chap.), Samuel, Kings and Chronicles, which, -together with the poems and incantations of various men of the tribes, -they set forth as the divinely inspired history of their people. Not -long afterwards the Persian system of creation, and story of the fall -of man were committed to manuscript, and adapted to the requirements -of the Jewish people by the substitution of their race in place of the -Chaldeans as the chosen people of god; and thus were produced the books -of the Pentateuch, with Joshua, and the two first chapters of Judges. -This explains why the stories of the creation, fall, flood, tower of -Babel, etc., are never mentioned in any of the books of the Bible after -Genesis for the space of about a thousand years; why in all the books -from Joshua as far as II. Kings the name of Moses is never met with, -the most remarkable man in the whole Jewish history; and why such -names as Adam, Eve, Seth, Cain, Abel, Enoch, Noah, Shem, Ham, Japhet, -Abraham, Isaac and Jacob never occur again after Genesis till the time -of the so-called return from Babylon. - -The real meaning of the Chaldean and Jewish stories of the creation and -fall, which were derived originally from the constellations above, it -would take too long here to unfold, but the riddle has been explained -in my “Popular Faith Unveiled,” to which those who desire to further -pursue the subject are referred. - -For nearly two thousand years Christianity, based on these fables of -the creation and fall, has had an unfettered career throughout Europe, -its avowed object being to bring salvation to men in the next world, -and to teach the doctrines of love, forbearance, humility and charity -while in this world. Respecting the bringing of salvation to men in -the next world, we cannot well determine to what extent the religion -has been successful; but with regard to its earthly mission it has -signally and utterly failed. The two thousand years have passed away -and still the evils surrounding us continue, and are even intensified; -poverty, misery, immorality and tyranny exist as of old, in spite -of the promise to the church that she should be helped, even to the -end, by the divine power. So far from love, charity, forbearance -and humility being inculcated by the church, we find the followers -of the meek and lowly one occupying high and lucrative offices, one -declaring himself the vice-regent of god on earth, and others, in our -own country, being in receipt of salaries ranging from fifteen and -ten thousand pounds annually to two or three hundred, driving their -carriages, sporting livery servants and cockades, stiling themselves -as Reverend, Very Reverend, Venerable, Most Reverend Father in God, -Right Honorable and other titles expressive of superior quality of -make; and all in a constant state of warfare amongst themselves. One -cannot take up a daily paper without seeing an instance of clerical -intolerance, hatred, envy or malice. The Romanist damns the Protestant; -the churchman rides the high horse over the dissenter, and would like -to deprive him of what is vulgarly considered to be decent burial; the -evangelicals denounce the high church party; the nonconformist bodies -are all at constant war with each other on points of doctrine; and -while all are eaten up with pride, egotism, selfishness, greed and -mutual hatred, each sect declares itself to be the genuine teacher of -love, forbearance, humility and charity. - -As a body the church has from the first opposed all progress. As early -as the year 414 Bishop Cyril’s mob brained the learned Hypatia in a -Christian church, for the heinous crime of teaching mathematics. The -Pope and his pious court attempted to prevent the art of printing -becoming known in Europe. Copernicus was excommunicated for the sin -of announcing the grand truth that the earth revolves round the sun. -Galileo rotted in the prison of the Inquisition for daring to say -that the earth rotates on its axis. Bruno was burnt at the stake for -declaring his belief in the Copernican philosophy. Newton’s theory of -gravitation was denounced by the church. Descartes, Kepler, Locke, -Laplace and Darwin all were abused and insulted by the holy ones for -their heretical writings, which have brought us such blessings. The -church opposed the abolition of slavery, both here and in America, the -bishops in the House of Lords applauding king George when he said that -slavery was a useful institution because it was taught in the holy -Bible, and the southern States of the Union appealing to the ‘word of -god’ in justification of their cruelty. The burning of witches, taught -in the Bible, was vigorously encouraged by the church; and the cruel -horrors of the Inquisition are too well known to need description. All -measures of reform in our own country have been opposed by bishops and -nobles together; the church and the state having aided each other in -trampling on the people’s rights, and enslaving both their minds and -bodies. In spite of the present very apparent poverty and misery, the -people are exhorted by the church to increase and multiply, being told -that it is a blessed thing to have one’s quiver full, and that it is -wicked to listen to those who preach conjugal prudence, small families, -and social thrift. In short the Christian religion has entirely failed -in its mission, being a standing menace to all progress, and a cause of -unceasing animosity all over Europe. - -Do we imagine that all the priests and ministers of the Christian -church believe the fables of the creation and fall? I would stake my -existence on it that if we were to cut off their salaries there would -be barely half a dozen parsons in each denomination who would stick to -their soul-saving business. Their trinity is supposed to consist of god -the father, god the son, and god the holy ghost; but if we represent -the first by the letter l, the second by s, and the third by d, we -should be much nearer the mark. £. s. d. is the Christian trinity, and -pew rents, tithes, etc., the means by which the one thing needful is -kept up. Ten million pounds sterling are annually spent in supporting -the clergy of the established church alone, while poverty, wretchedness -and crime confront us at every turn. The struggling workers of this -country, not content with having to contribute towards the payment of -£29,000,000 annually, as interest on the national debt resulting from -accumulated religious war charges, are foolish enough to spend more -than a third of this amount in keeping a host of state-made drones, -who oppose all progress, drain the hard earnings from the workers, -and assume haughty airs towards their poor dupes. In the face of the -depressed state of our trade, and the poverty and misery around us, it -is appalling to think of the enormous quantity of money that annually -drifts into the pockets of these human parasites, both episcopalian and -nonconformist alike. - -We know well enough that the large majority of those laymen who profess -to believe the fall and redemption scheme do not really believe it at -all, but play the part of the believer in order to serve their own -private interests. The laity may be divided into four classes:—1st, -those few honest and sincere men who deceive themselves by imagining -that they can really believe such unreasonable doctrines, and who -attempt by their means to do what could be done so very much better -without them. 2nd, those who are deficient in education and mental -power, and who will accept anything the priest tells them, no matter -how absurd. 3rd, those who have some little education but very little -brain power, and who consider themselves very important members of -society, when in reality the world does not know them even by name. -They resent in their little minds the silent affront offered to them -by their fellows, who, they think, ought to know their superior worth; -and they look around for a little church or chapel, where the stream of -intellect is sufficiently thin to allow of their feeble mental power -being perceived. They join, take a leading part in the performances, -carry the collecting box, open pew doors, hand hymn-books to strangers, -and are happy in the consciousness of their importance, being gazed -at Sunday after Sunday by an admiring congregation. Were these folk -obliged to do their religious work under cover of masks, their names -being at the same time studiously concealed from the congregation, -the race of pew openers, box carriers, etc., would soon die out; but -as it is, vanity, egotism and pomposity yet keep the race alive. The -fourth class consists of sharp business men, with plenty of brains and -fair average education, who join a church with a large congregation, -and adopt the particular creed in vogue there, as a means of pushing -their business, by assuming a mien of pious “respectability.” These -are the men, devoid of all honour, who forfeit their manhood at the -shrine of hypocrisy, and who ought more particularly to be shewn up -in their true colors. Without these four classes the religion of the -fall and redemption scheme would soon become a thing of the past. No -mention has been made of the ladies, who, according to some rude and -ungallant people, look forward to the lord’s day as one on which they -can display their new bonnets, procure food for another week’s gossip, -or hold sweet communion with the unmarried curate—all for Jesus. It is -unnecessary to say that this may not be true, and that a higher and -nobler motive may prompt the ardent zeal of the fair sex. - -Do not believe the parsons when they tell you that your souls are in -jeopardy for rejecting the Christian doctrines; the truth is that -their incomes are in danger, not your souls. Take care not to follow -their evil advice that it is a blessed thing to have your quiver full, -and that the lord loves a cheerful giver. Have small families, being -careful to bring into the world only as many as you can decently -provide for, so as to give them a fair chance in the world; and let -your creditors and your saving-banks, and not your lord, have your -spare cash—your lord being but another name for your parson. When they -tell you that you must take no thought for the morrow, and must not lay -up treasure on earth, where moths and rust corrupt, and where thieves -break through and steal, give them the cold shoulder, insure your life -in some sound office, and leave the laws of the country in which you -live to take care of the thieves, and their reverences to look after -the moths and rust. - -It will, no doubt, be urged that Christianity has done, and is doing -a great good in the world. This I emphatically deny. I readily admit -that some good has been effected in the name of Christianity, but deny -that the fall and redemption religion has been the cause. The same -amount of good would have resulted with any other religion, and much -more with no religion at all. All the good that has ever been effected -in the world has emanated from lofty individual minds; but as chance -has had it, the majority of these men in the past have been Christians, -simply because that religion has prevailed in Europe for nearly two -thousand years. In the present day this is not the case; and it is a -fact beyond contradiction that all the leaders of thought of our time -are men who have rejected the fables of the creation and fall as given -in Genesis, together with the consequent redemption scheme, as false -and vain. John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Tyndal, -Carpenter, Huxley, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Rénan, -Victor Hugo, Schopenhauer, Haeckel, and in fact every other modern -leader of thought, have rejected the orthodox faith; and yet we look -forward to the future with bright hope, expecting a steady progress -in man’s general welfare. Even when Christians themselves in days -long gone by, attempted to introduce any useful reform, their church -invariably persecuted them, as for instance Copernicus, Galileo, -Bruno, Luther, etc.; and the only Christian priest who ever propounded -any theory which was calculated to be a lasting boon to society was -Malthus, who declared that over population was the great cause of all -misery, and that until people were taught conjugal prudence it was -useless to attempt to ameliorate their social condition. This friend -of humanity was bitterly denounced by the church, and to this day his -followers are held in contempt, notwithstanding that the Malthusian -principles are now endorsed by the leading social scientists, and that -it is as clear as the sun at noon day that within the short space of 45 -years the present population of this country—now about 36,000,000—will -have doubled itself. The people now cannot support themselves, so how -they will manage when the population is 72,000,000 it is hard to say. -What with over population and land monopoly the future has indeed some -terrible social evils in store for us. - -Individual Christians undoubtedly have done something towards -making their fellows happy, but not so Christianity, as witness the -Inquisition and other enormities of the middle ages. But do the Jews, -Unitarians and Infidels of to day do nothing for their fellows? What -about Sir Moses Montefiore, who rejects the atonement? Have not the -Agnostics just founded the Whitminster College for purely secular -education? And what do we not owe to those heterodox scientists just -mentioned? It is the fashion with some people to give the name of -Christianity to the morality of this century; but this very ingenuous -attempt to clothe one of the most immoral of the world’s religions with -the garment of righteousness carries no weight for the scholar and the -historian. There is as much difference between the morality of to day -and the genuine Christian religion as there is between the north and -south poles. The two are the exact antitheses of each other. The real -reason that the human race has in the last hundred years so rapidly -advanced in intellectual qualities and moral progress is not because it -has become more Christian in its character but because it has gradually -shaken off the yoke of Christianity piece by piece. The whole Mosaic -cosmogony, with its flat earth theory, creation of man, etc., as taught -in Genesis, has been destroyed by Copernicus, Newton, Laplace and -Darwin; slavery has been abolished; witches are no longer burnt at -the stake; polygamy is discountenanced; and human sacrifice, murder, -rapine, theft and personal assaults are no longer justified. All these -immoralities are distinctly and prominently taught in the Christian -Bible, but have been expunged from the moral code of this century. -Were Christianity now dead instead of dying the same amount of good -would accrue to the race as before; and, judging from past history, -there would be a very vast decrease in the opposition that has for two -thousand years been offered to progress. - -The question after all is not what Christianity has done, but whether -or not its story is a true one. As already stated, if the creation and -fall stories are not true the whole scheme of Christianity, with its -god-man and its sacraments, is a fraud and a delusion. No religion that -cannot bear the test of reason, and be maintained on a public platform -can be founded on truth. If the Christian story be true there is no -need for the holy ones to secure themselves behind the fortifications -of ’coward’s castle’ every Sunday to preach their doctrines; the open -platform being a more suitable place from which to propagate the truth. -But what are the facts? The man who dares to submit the religion to the -test of reason, or even to discourse publicly upon evolution or any -other scientific theory that is likely to interfere with the steady -flow of bullion into the collection box, is denounced from the pulpit, -the holy ones branding him as a dangerous infidel, and using all the -means in their power to blacken his character and to insidiously -undermine his business. The challenge to debate is never accepted. - -The question before us is a momentous one. Creation or Evolution? Moses -or Darwin? We cannot follow both. - - - - -WORKS BY DR. H. J. HARDWICKE. - - -_Demy 8vo., pp. 202, price 10/-_ - -MEDICAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICE IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. - -“This book contains a fund of information.... The whole is preceded by -an introduction, which is worth the attention of all persons taking a -broad interest in medical education.... Some weaknesses in home and -foreign regulations are lightly passed over, and it may well be that -such a mass of statement will, on experience, be found to be defective -at points. But we accept it gratefully, as an attempt to supply a very -great want, and we commend some of the reflections of the author on the -defects of our own system to all whom it may concern.”—_Lancet._ - -“Here the reader will find information respecting the educational -bodies, examinations, and medical laws of every civilised state, and he -will also come to the humiliating confession that though there exist -a good many time-honoured institutions in the United States, and an -anxiety to put matters on a scientific footing in others, yet farther -south the condition of medicine is as bad as can possibly be imagined.’ -... But the authorities, and not Dr. Hardwicke, are responsible for -this, and we cordially thank him for his decidedly useful addition to -our knowledge of medical education in other countries.”—_Medical Press -and Circular._ - -“A good deal of information will be found in a useful book entitled, -‘Medical Education and Practice in all Parts of the World,’ by Dr. H. -J. Hardwicke.”—_British Medical Journal._ - -“A book which ought to cut the ground from beneath all bogus -diploma-dealers.”—_Medical Times and Gazette._ - -“This volume, extending to 202 pages, with double columns, really -contains the information which the title-page promises. It must have -cost the author a great amount of trouble. It is a useful guide for all -entrants to the profession, those especially who contemplate settling -in foreign parts. It will do good also indirectly by letting those -schools whose education is defective see what other schools are doing, -and so be the means of stimulating them to aim at higher things. To -be informed, for example, that medical teaching in Japan is already -treading on the heels of some of our British schools cannot fail to do -good.”—_Edinburgh Medical Journal._ - -“Dr. Hardwicke’s book will prove a valuable source of information to -those who may desire to know the conditions upon which medical practice -is or may be pursued in any or every country of the world, even to the -remotest corners of the earth. The work has been compiled with great -care, and must have required a vast amount of labour and perseverance -on the part of its author.”—_Dublin Medical Journal._ - -“This work supplies a want long felt.... The chief value of Dr. -Hardwicke’s volume, to students, is in the information he gives -concerning the rules of practice in other countries, and the -possibilities opened up of making a livelihood in them.... To teachers -the manual will be invaluable; it will not only inform them of usages -abroad, but enable them to glean many useful hints to aid the conduct -of their own classes here. We commend the work as a most admirable -_resumé_ of the state of medical education and practice in the -world.”—_Students’ Journal._ - -“This opportune and very useful work ... gives exact and in some -instances complete information of the requirements, curriculum, &c. -for obtaining a diploma in every part of the world.... Some idea of -the labour undertaken by the author may be gathered from the fact that -the index contains nearly five hundred references.... The book will -be a mine of reference for medical legislators, and will doubtless -colour the provisions of the new Medical Act so clamorously demanded -in England, and of the Act to which we are about to commit ourselves -here.”—_Australian Medical Journal._ - -“A great deal of useful and convenient information is contained in this -work in regard to the subjects of which it treats, and the information, -as a rule, seems to be fairly accurate and reliable. The part devoted -to the United States opens with the Philadelphia _Record’s_ full -account of the bogus traffic in that city. The position assigned to -this narrative is, perhaps, unnecessarily prominent, but we do not -think the exposure of those vile practices can be too minute or widely -circulated. This diploma traffic, whether carried on in Pennsylvania, -New York, or Massachusetts, was and is a disgrace to us, and we may as -well acknowledge it.”—_Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, U. S. - -“The want of such a book has been long felt by all who take any -interest in medical education, and is specially needed at the -present time, when the attention of our government has been called -to certain abuses, and it is about to introduce reforms. The book is -a most exhaustive one, and deserving the attention of all who are -in any way interested in the advancement of medical education and -reform.”—_American Specialist._ - -“This book, which extends to 202 closely-printed pages, with double -columns, is undoubtedly the remarkably comprehensive treatise promised -by the title. The labour of the undertaking must have been indeed -great, and the author must possess a rare knowledge of his subject -to be able to condense such a huge mass of information into a single -volume of 202 pages. We can strongly recommend the work as being the -only complete treatise on the subject. No portion of the whole world -has been omitted, and the author is to be congratulated on the very -satisfactory result of his eminently difficult task.”—_Family Doctor._ - -“This work is a valuable manual, of interest not only to medical -men, but also to the literary public, who evince at the present day -so much enthusiasm in studying the intellectual condition of other -nations, chiefly, no doubt, from magazine articles. Medical legislation -is, as experience amply proves, one of the latest developments of -civilisation.... Let us, for instance, glean from Dr. Hardwicke’s -book facts as to the condition of medicine in some parts of the -Spanish-American republics.... Let us turn to civilised countries -where medical teachers keep step with ‘the march of intellect.’ ... -We have still much to learn from Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, yet it -is undeniable that the general social and intellectual position of -the medical profession is as high in these islands as abroad, where -technical education is in many respects better. It is by the young -doctor, who finds the profession over stocked in his own country, that -Dr. Hardwicke’s manual will be found particularly valuable.”—_Athenæum._ - -“Those who are about to engage in medical study will do well to consult -Dr. Hardwicke’s ‘Medical Education and Practice,’ as an exact knowledge -of the relative value of the innumerable medical qualifications would -often prevent much after annoyance.”—_Westminster Review._ - -“In this book, says the author, ‘will be contained the conditions under -which a medical practitioner may practise his profession, and the -requirements for the medical degree at the universities and medical -corporations in almost all the civilised countries of the world.’ This -promise is kept.... It contains much information not easily accessible, -and likely to be useful.”—_Chemist and Druggist._ - -J. & A. CHURCHILL, 11 New Burlington St., London, W. - - -_8vo. 192 pages, Price 2/6._ - -HEALTH RESORTS AND SPAS OF EUROPE. - -“We have never yet seen anything that quite equalled the delicious -brevity of Dr. Hardwicke’s remarkably curt and incisive little -hand-book. In the brief space of 184 pages he introduces us to all -the health-resorts and spas of the entire eastern hemisphere, from -England to Egypt, and from Madeira to St. Moritz. We are bound to -admit that, so far as it is possible to test his information by the -light of personal experience, his short paragraphs are thoroughly -up to date, even as regards the smallest and most insignificant -watering-places.”—_Pall Mall Gazette._ - -“Contains, in addition to chapters on the climatic and hygienic -treatment of disease, and the properties and uses of various mineral -waters, succinct accounts, in alphabetical order, of the different -health-resorts and spas of Britain and of the continent of Europe. -The exposure, the elevation, the range and limit of temperature, and -other amenities of each watering-place, are briefly described; in many -cases also an analysis is given of the constituents and properties -of the various chalybeate and other springs. In short, a great mass -of information, such as invalids are most in quest of, is found in -condensed and handy form.”—_Scotsman._ - -“Contains some valuable knowledge of the climatic treatment of -diseases, of which all should avail themselves. The usefulness of such -a book must appear evident to those who experience the power of climate -over the human constitution. It should be bought and studied and will -doubtless give beneficial advice.”—_Brighton Gazette._ - -“Ought to be welcomed by the large number of invalids whose daily -avocation, as the author justly remarks, consists almost entirely in -battling against their formidable foes, ‘weather and insalubrity.’ -Dr. Hardwicke has some highly useful observations on the different -stages of consumption.... The chapter on the properties and uses of -water is also full of excellent hints.... Spa life on the continent is -graphically described.... A carefully compiled index greatly enhances -the value of this work, which is not to be judged merely by its -size.”—_Liverpool Mercury._ - -“The author gives some very practical remarks on the properties and -uses of water, hygienic ablutions and baths, and treats of mineral -waters and spa life. Succeeding chapters give brief but evidently -careful and authentic accounts of the leading health resorts and spas -of Europe.”—_Yorkshire Post._ - -“The introductory chapters on the treatment of disease by climate, -the properties and uses of water, and on mineral waters and spa -life, contain some valuable advice, which invalids will do well to -take. Dr. Hardwicke’s work does really supply a want felt by many -persons.”—_Sheffield Independent._ - -“A great deal of information is conveyed, and the avoidance of -technicalities will be an additional recommendation.”—_Bristol Mirror._ - -“A very handy little manual ... stating clearly and concisely the -advantages and disadvantages of the various health resorts and -spas.”—_Sussex Daily News._ - -“The ordinary reader will find this little volume far more interesting -than is usually the case with books dealing with medicine or medical -matters. The subject is one of very great importance, and the author -deals with it in a way that will be fully appreciated by non-medical -readers. He avoids technicalities, and places before us the salient -points very clearly and concisely.”—_Rotherham Advertiser._ - -“This little volume will be welcomed as a guide to the many health -resorts in Europe.... The book should have a large demand, for it -contains a great deal of information in a little space.”—_Doncaster -Gazette._ - -“Will be found very useful by everyone whose health requires either -change of air or the use of mineral waters.”—_Barnsley Independent._ - -“As a hand-book to any sufferer desirous of knowing in a general way -which are the baths most likely to suit his particular complaint, this -volume will be useful.”—_Bradford Observer._ - -“Many useful hints may be derived from this little book, for which -valetudinarians will be thankful.”—_Christian World._ - -W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 Waterloo Place, London, S.W. - - -_8vo., cloth bound, Price 5/-_ - -HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE MANORS OF PATTINGHAM AND WORFIELD. - -“Very complete, and must have been a work of very great -labour.”—_Salopian and West Midland Monthly Illustrated Journal._ - -Published by the author. - - -_Price 5/-8vo., cloth bound._ - -GUIDE TO EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES. - -“For those who contemplate studying abroad, this guide will prove of -great use.”—_Lancet._ - -“This little book is a guide to the medical department of the various -universities in France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, -Italy and Austria.... Most complete.... Those who intend visiting -any continental university should first of all read this very useful -guide.”—_Family Doctor._ - -Published by the author. - - -_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3½d._) - -CREATION AND FALL. - -Published by the author. - - -_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3½d._) - -MAN—WHENCE AND WHITHER? - -Published by the author. - - -_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3½d._) - -INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE - -Published by the author. - - -_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3½d._) - -EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA - -Published by the author. - - -_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3½d._) - -GENUINE LIBERALISM. - -Published by the author. - - -_Demy 8vo., pp. 274, price 5/6._ - -THE POPULAR FAITH UNVEILED. - -“We cannot do better than recommend all friends of independent thought, -and, to use Milton’s phrase, ‘unlicensed printing,’ to repay the -author’s energy by writing to him for the volume, which they will find -intelligent and fearless in an eminent degree, while it evinces a by no -means common acquaintance with the science of comparative religion. The -basis of Dr. Hardwicke’s theory and arguments about the popular faith -is the zodiacal origin of religious myths, and there is no doubt he is -in agreement with the greatest authorities so far as the broad lines -go.”—_Westminster Review._ - -“Dr. Hardwicke treats the extensive and difficult subject of the -evolution of Christianity from preëxisting religions with great -boldness and candour from the purely theistic and anti-dogmatic -standpoint.”—_The Scotsman._ - -“It is an exceptionally valuable book to Freethinkers.... The work -affords evidence of scholarly attainment and well-directed research, -and should occupy a place in the library of every intelligent -anti-Christian.”—_Secular Review._ - -“The result of this bold measure is more than creditable ... -consists of a careful examination of the Biblical records, full of -suggestion.”—_The Freethinker._ - -“In a manner at once searching and succinct it proves the Bible to be -little else than an effete old almanack, conceived in the earliest -dawn of thought, when man glowered tremblingly at the spectra in his -own brain, naming them heaven or hell, god or devil, as they produced -pleasure or pain.”—_The Agnostic_, Dallas. - -“A scholarly examination of the various legends that make up what is -called the Christian religion.... A very valuable contribution to the -historico-scientific freethought literature of the period.”—_Lucifer, -the Light-bearer_, Kansas. - -“A better book than this we have scarcely noticed in our columns. It is -the result of laborious researches and a deep erudition on the part of -the author.”—_The Anti-Christian_, Calcutta. - -Published by the Author, Sharrow, Sheffield. - - -_8vo., price 1/-_ - -VOX HUMANA; - -OR THE ART OF SINGING FROM A MEDICAL POINT OF VIEW. - -“This _multum in parvo_ is a remarkably cheap and thoroughly exhaustive -pamphlet.... The subject is well dealt with, and contains a large -amount of very valuable information.”—_Family Doctor._ - -“Contains a large amount of very valuable information and advice. Dr. -Hardwicke has treated his subject not only ably, but in a manner which -must interest all who peruse his pamphlet.”—_Rotherham and Masbrough -Advertiser._ - -“Just the kind of work to place in the hands of vocalists, or would-be -vocalists.”—_Sussex County Herald._ - -“A perusal of the doctor’s remarks, with reasonable attention thereto, -would result in a vast increase of really good voices.”—_Eastbourne -Gazette._ - -(Remainders only from the Author.) - - -_8vo., price 1/-_ - -SKIN ERUPTIONS; - -THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION. - -“Will be found very useful reading. It will be especially valuable to -those who have any family predisposition to skin disease, as there -are given a number of very useful hints concerning the preservation -of the skin in a healthy condition. There are also contained many -good suggestions for keeping school-children free from skin diseases -of an infectious or contagious nature. We recommend Dr. Hardwicke’s -production as a very cheap and useful treatise.”—_Family Doctor._ - -“Throws considerable light upon diseases of the skin, and points out -the general laws of health which should be observed to prevent such -diseases manifesting themselves.”—_Lincolnshire Chronicle._ - -“This recognised authority on skin diseases has produced a tractate -which appears to be the condensation and essence of much observation -and practical experience.”—_Sussex County Herald._ - -“Anyone may understand the treatise, and there is much in it that will -tend to correct many mistakes on the subject treated upon.”—_Eastbourne -Gazette._ - -(Remainders only from the Author.) - - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Notes - - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations - in hyphenation and ligatures have been standardised but all other - spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. - - The Errata have been implemented. - - Minor re-arrangement of the charts "GENEALOGY OF MAN" have been made - to improve clarity and fit. - - Italics are represented thus _italic_. - - The following corrections have been made to the list of books in the - chapter THE BIBLE: - - Books Excluded from the Jewish Canon, and Reckoned as Apocryphal by - some of the Ancient Christians, but Allowed as Canonical of late by - the Church of Rome. The from added. - - Books that are Excluded from the Canon without Apparent Reason. The - from added. - - The Preface before the Lamentations of Jeremiah, in the vulgar Latin - and Greek text The original read "The preace ..." changed to preface. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Evolution and creation, by Herbert Junius Hardwicke - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVOLUTION AND CREATION *** - -***** This file should be named 55172-0.txt or 55172-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/1/7/55172/ - -Produced by MWS, Adrian Mastronardi, Les Galloway and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Evolution and creation - -Author: Herbert Junius Hardwicke - -Release Date: July 22, 2017 [EBook #55172] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVOLUTION AND CREATION *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Adrian Mastronardi, Les Galloway and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a><br /><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a><br /><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> -<p class="half-title">EVOLUTION AND CREATION.</p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_004.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">CHIMPANZEES (Troglodytes).</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">GORILLAS (Troglodytes).</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a><br /><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h1> -EVOLUTION AND CREATION:</h1> - -<p class="center small">BY</p> - -<p class="center">HERBERT JUNIUS HARDWICKE, M.D.,<br /> - -<span class="xs">FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, AND MEMBER OF<br /> -THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF EDINBURGH; FELLOW OF THE<br /> -LONDON MEDICAL SOCIETY; HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL<br /> -SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL, THE SOCIETY OF MEDICINE OF ATHENS, AND THE SOCIETIES<br /> -OF DOSIM. MEDICINE OF PARIS AND MADRID; VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL<br /> -BRANCH OF THE MALTHUSIAN LEAGUE; LATE EDITOR OF “THE SPECIALIST.”<br /> -HON. PHYSICIAN TO SHEFFIELD PUBLIC HOSPITAL FOR SKIN DISEASES,<br /> -AND TO SHEFFIELD AND SOUTH YORKSHIRE EAR AND THROAT HOSPITAL;<br /> -HON. CONSULTING PHYSICIAN TO LEEDS PUBLIC HOSPITAL FOR SKIN DISEASES;<br /> -AUTHOR OF “THE POPULAR FAITH UNVEILED,” ETC.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_t1.jpg" alt="Decoration" /> -</div> - -<p class=" center xs">“‘Learn what is true in order to do what is right’ is the summing up of the<br /> -whole duty of man for all who are unable to satisfy their mental hunger with the<br /> -east wind of authority.”—Huxley.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_t2.jpg" alt="Decoration" /> -</div> - -<p class="center">PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.<br /> - -1887.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a><br /><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> - - -<p>Many imperfections, as I anticipated, have been discovered in my -“Popular Faith Unveiled,” some of importance and others of little -consequence; and many suggestions have been offered in all kindness -by those who have done me the honour of reading my work, for consideration -in case I should issue another edition. The strongest of all -the arguments urged in favour of the real necessity for a second and -revised edition is that that part of the subject treated upon which related -more particularly to the true origin of man was not dealt with in -a sufficiently exhaustive manner in the last work. This, of course, is -a true charge: but it should be borne in mind that the main object of -the book was to expose the real nature of the popular superstition, and -not to trace out the pedigree of man; and, moreover, to have entered -fully into such subjects as the evolution of mind and matter would -have considerably augmented the bulk of the work, and consequently -have necessitated such an increase in the price as to have made it prohibitory -to a large number of thinkers, who have not too much spare -cash to throw away. I therefore determined not to re-issue the work -in an amplified form, but to supplement it with a number of published -lectures (delivered here and in various other large towns) and articles, -which should be ultimately brought out as an illustrated volume.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> - -<p>These lectures, etc., some of which are re-prints from journals and -some of which I have myself printed in my leisure moments, I now -offer to the public in book form, together with a number of figures, -maps, etc., illustrative of the subjects treated upon. “Man—Whence -and Whither” and “Evolution of the God-idea” are re-printed from -<cite>The Agnostic</cite>; “Man’s Antiquity,” “Evolution of Mind,” “Zodiacal -Mythology,” “Intellectual Progress in Europe” and “The Annals of -Tacitus” from the <cite>Secular Review</cite>; and “The Special Senses” and -“The Bible” from <cite>The Agnostic Annual</cite>: the remainder of the text, -as before stated, has been printed by myself.</p> - -<p>I must acknowledge with gratitude my indebtedness to Mr. John -Bennett, of Prince’s Buildings, Dronfield, who has been kind enough -to assist me by drawing the zodiacal signs, the Bacchanalian insignia, -the oriental and Egyptian zodiacs, Amen-Ra, Mafuca, Aidanill and the -negro head, the two hands, the Fuegans, the Australian (2), African and -European skulls, and Boötes, Virgo, Cetus, Aquarius and Sagittarius; -and also to Mr. Wm. Gill Hall, of 66 Cecil Road, Sheffield, who has -kindly drawn for me the single chimpanzee, the orang, the lemur, the -face of the proboscis monkey, the moor monkey, the hairy couple from -Burmah, the genealogy of man, the earth’s section, and the ascent of -mind. The remainder of the illustrations, with the exception of the -two zincographs of the gorillas and chimpanzees (the frontispiece), -have been drawn by myself; and I must trust to the generosity of my -readers to overlook the amateur style of my productions, which, it is -hoped, will be found sufficiently well done to serve the purpose for -which they are intended. However amateur the illustrations may be -in appearance, this I can truthfully say, that every sketch in the book -is a faithful reproduction of the original. Some of the illustrations, -however, have been derived from such gross originals that it has not -been considered advisable, for many reasons, to reproduce the figures -in their entirety; but wherever part of a figure has been modified by -the substitution of a symbolical or other device the fact has been notified -to the reader at the foot of the illustration.</p> - -<p>In the course of the following lectures the opportunity has been -seized to rectify some of the mistakes inadvertently committed in my -“Popular Faith Unveiled;” but there are two errors in printing that -have not yet been set right, and to which, therefore, I should now like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> -to call attention. The first occurs on page 102, lines 9 & 10 from the -bottom, where אלהי—<i>A.L.E.I.</i> should have been written אליה—<i>A.L.Y -(or.I.)E. (El Yah), or</i> אלוה—<i>A.L.OU.E. (Eloh)</i>, etc. The next occurs -on page 109, line 6 from bottom, where <cite>millions</cite> should read <cite>thousands</cite>.</p> - -<p>I have only now to frankly admit that during the last few years my -views as regards the theories of ultimate causation and the future state -have undergone some modification; that consequently I now regard -the line of argument adopted in support of the theory of a future state -of consciousness on pages 5 & 6 of my above named work as a false -one and the conclusions arrived at as consequently false also; and that -respecting the existence of a ruling power in the universe, I neither -affirm nor deny such a condition, being contented with the knowledge -that I neither know nor apparently can ever know anything at all about -the matter, and recognizing, with Moleschott, the incontrovertible truth -that “there is nothing in our intellect which has not entered by the -gate of the senses.”</p> - -<p class="psig"> -H. J. H.</p> -<p> -Purton Lodge, Sheffield.</p> -<p class="pdate">January 1887.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> - - -<p> -<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></p> - -<p><a href="#EXPLANATORY_NOTES">EXPLANATORY NOTES.</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ERRATA">ERRATA.</a></p> - -<p><a href="#MAN_WHENCE_AND_WHITHER">MAN—WHENCE AND WHITHER</a>?—Nebular Hypothesis—Formation -of Earth’s crust—Fossil remains in stratified rocks—Pedigree -of Man—Pleistocene and Neolithic Ages—Spontaneous evolution of -life—Theories of existence and ultimate causation—Man’s future state.</p> - -<p><a href="#MANS_ANTIQUITY">MAN’S ANTIQUITY</a>.—Cave explorations—British and continental -discoveries—Glacial periods—Tertiary upheaval and submergence in -Europe—Tertiary fauna and flora—Pleistocene ice age—Palæolithic -age—Tropical origin of Man—Neolithic age—Shell-mounds and remains -of lake-dwellings—Bronze and Iron ages—Aryan invasion of -Europe—Historic era.</p> - -<p><a href="#EVOLUTION_OF_MIND">EVOLUTION OF MIND</a>.—Universal life or motion—Protoplasmic -life—Cell life—Origin of organs of sense—Embryonic development—Dawn -of infantile intellect—Intellectual and emotional evolution in the -individual—Corresponding development in the race—Animals reflective -and emotional—Language in man and animals.</p> - -<p><a href="#THE_SPECIAL_SENSES">THE SPECIAL SENSES</a>.—Evolution of.</p> - -<p><a href="#EVOLUTION_OF_THE_GOD_IDEA">EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA</a>.—Dawn of intellect—Earliest -conception of Deity—Sun worship—First human tribes—Aryan mythology—Vedic -system—Brahmanism—Hindu virgin and child-saviour—Boodhism—Western -Aryan mythology—Zeus, Apollo, Prometheus, -Hercules, Dionysos, & Yao—Central Aryan mythology—Mazdeism—Mithra—Egyptian -mythology—Osiris, Isis & Horus—Amen-Ra, Mises—Chinese -mythology—Semitic mythology—Akkadian and Chaldean -myths—Adonis, El, Yahouh—Jewish origin—Bible gods—Confucianism—Mohammedanism—Christianism.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> - -<p> -<a href="#ZODIACAL_MYTHOLOGY">ZODIACAL MYTHOLOGY</a>.—Ancient and modern zodiacs—Precession -of equinoxes—Deification of zodiacal signs and other celestial -bodies—Savior-sun-god dramas—Sacred numbers & symbols—Ancient -and modern phallic worship—Dionysia, Adonia & Agapæ.</p> - -<p><a href="#INTELLECTUAL_PROGRESS">INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE</a>.—Egypto-Greek or -classic era—Alexander the Great—The Alexandrian Ptolemies—Essenian -revivalism—Destruction of the Serapion—Murder of Hypatia—Christian -annihilation of science—Birth of Mohammed—The Koran—Saracen -learning—Tenth century scare—Crusades—Averroism—Annihilation -of Saracen power—Establishment of Inquisition—Discovery -of America—Martin Luther—The Reformation—Copernicus—Revival -of Arianism—Murder of Servetus—Index Expurgatorius—First newspaper—Murder -of Bruno—Kepler’s laws—Galileo—Newton’s theory -of gravitation—Discovery of Oxygen—First locomotive engine and -screw steamer—Telegraphy—Christian Church opposed to progress.</p> - -<p><a href="#THE_BIBLE">THE BIBLE</a>—Origin of Authorised Version—List of Bible books—Description -of MSS—Ancient Hebrew language—Invention of vowel-points—Dates -of earliest Hebrew and Greek MSS.</p> - -<p><a href="#ANNALS">ANNALS OF TACITUS</a>.—Abelard—Arnold of Brescia—Wicliffe’s -heresy and trials—Papal schism—Jerome of Prague—John Huss—Triple -Popedom—Council of Constance—Search for old MSS—Boggio -Bracciolini, Niccolo Niccoli & Lamberteschi—The forgery—Extracts -from letters—Discovery of “The Annals.”</p> - -<p><a href="#CREATION_AND_FALL">CREATION AND FALL</a>.—Faith and reason—Mosaic narratives—Creation -opposed to science—Genesis absurd and immoral—Authorship -of Pentateuch—Christianity a failure—The real trinity—Religious -hypocrites—Morality not Christianity.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - - -<ul> -<li><i>Frontispiece</i>—Chimpanzees and gorillas.</li> - -<li>Lemur and face of Proboscis Monkey (after Mivart).</li> - -<li>Moor Monkey (after Mivart).</li> - -<li>Chimpanzee (after Mivart).</li> - -<li>Adult male Orang (after Mivart).</li> - -<li>Mafuca and Aidanill (after Mivart), and Swaheli Negro (after Tylor).</li> - -<li>Hands of Gorilla and Hammegh man (after Hartmann).</li> - -<li>Natives of Tierra del Fuego.</li> - -<li>The hairy family of Burmah.</li> - - -<li class="title"><i><a href="#whence">Man—Whence and Whither</a>?</i></li> - - -<li>Genealogy of Man.</li> - -<li>Section of Earth’s crust.</li> - -<li>Tertiary period in Europe.</li> - -<li>Eocene seas.</li> - -<li>Pleiocene seas.</li> - -<li>Pleistocene submergence during temperate inter-glacial epoch.</li> - -<li>Pleistocene Europe during post-glacial continental condition.</li> - -<li>Skeleton of man.</li> - -<li>Skeletons of gorilla and chimpanzee.</li> - -<li>Outlines of the skulls of a chimpanzee, the Neanderthal man and a -modern European.</li> - -<li>Outlines of the skulls of the Neanderthal man, a modern Australian -and the Engis man.</li> - -<li>Australian, African and European skulls (after Tylor and Hartmann).</li> - - -<li class="title"><i><a href="#antiquity">Man’s Antiquity.</a></i></li> - -<li>Evolution of mind in man.</li> - -<li>Amœba and Gasteropoda.</li> - - -<li class="title"><i>Evolution of Mind.</i></li> - - -<li class="title"><i>The Special Senses.</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></li> - - -<li>Androgynous Brahm.</li> - -<li>Isis, Horus and fish.</li> - -<li>Indranee and Indra; and Lakshmi and Vishnu.</li> - -<li>Devaki and Kristna: and Parvati and Siva.</li> - -<li>Amen-Ra (after Drummond).</li> - -<li>Crucifixion of Kristna; Crux Ansata; Assyrian virgin Ishtar; Cyprian -virgin and child; Isis and Horus.</li> - - -<li class="title"><i><a href="#god">Evolution of the God Idea.</a></i></li> - -<li>Zodiacal Signs, showing the precession of the equinoxes.</li> - -<li>Bacchanalian insignia.</li> - -<li>Oriental Zodiac (after Sir Wm. Jones).</li> - -<li>Egyptian Zodiac (after Sir Wm. Drummond).</li> - -<li>Northern signs and extra-zodiacal constellations.</li> - -<li>Southern signs and extra-zodiacal constellations.</li> - -<li>Zodiacal line, or Ecliptic, showing the precession of the equinoxes.</li> - -<li>Boötes, Adam, Joseph—Virgo, Eve, Mary—Cetus, Blasphemy.</li> - -<li>Aquarius, John Baptist, Peter—Sagittarius, Joseph, Philip.</li> - -<li>God incarnate with man.</li> - -<li>Phallic amulet and phallic lamp.</li> - -<li>Votive offerings to god Priapus.</li> - -<li>Phallic crux ansata and amulet.</li> - - -<li class="title"><i><a href="#zodiacal">Zodiacal Mythology.</a></i></li> - -<li>Vedic and Hindu Earths.</li> - -<li>Greek Earth, and Pomponius Mela’s cosmography.</li> - -<li>Eighth and tenth century maps.</li> - -<li>Fourteenth century maps.</li> - -<li>Egyptian and Ptolemaic planetary system.</li> - -<li>Planetary systems of Tycho Brahe and Copernicus.</li> - -<li>The Iron Virgin—inside view.</li> - -<li>Ditto—outside view.</li> - - -<li class="title"><i><a href="#progress">Intellectual Progress in Europe.</a></i></li> - -<li>Sixth century MS. of Luke xx. 9, 10.</li> - -<li>Fragmentary MS. from John’s gospel.</li> - -<li class="title"><i><a href="#bible">The Bible.</a></i></li> -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a><br /><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="EXPLANATORY_NOTES">EXPLANATORY NOTES.</h2> - - -<p>The illustration of Brahm, the androgynous creator of the Hindus, -“is a copy of an original drawing made by a learned Hindu pundit for -Wm. Simpson, Esq., of London, whilst he was in India studying its -mythology. It represents Brahm supreme, who in the act of creation -made himself double, <i>i.e.</i>, male and female. In the original the central -part of the figure is occupied by the triad and the unit, but far too -grossly shown for reproduction here. They are replaced by the <i lang="la">Crux -Ansata</i> [a cross and circle representing the male and female elements -in nature]. The reader will notice the triad and the serpent in the -male hand, whilst in the female is to be seen a germinating seed, indicative -of the relative duties of father and mother. The whole stands -upon a lotus, the symbol of androgyneity. The technical word for this -incarnation is <i lang="sa">Arddha Nari</i>.” (Inman’s “Ancient Faiths.”)</p> - -<p>The illustration of the god Siva, nursed by his virgin-wife-mother, -Parvati, requires some explanation. The right hand of the virgin -makes the symbol of the yoni (female principle) with the forefinger -and thumb, the rest of the fingers typifying the triad. In the palm -and on the navel is a lozenge, emblematic of woman. In the infant’s -hand is one of the many emblems of the linga (male principle), whilst -under his feet a lotus supports his body. The monkey is emblematic -of the carnal desire. The relationship existing between the mother -and child was of a twofold nature. The deities of the ancients were -usually androgynous, and thus each of the members of the Hindu triad -possessed two parts, a male half and a female half, which he inherited -from his androgynous parent Brahm, whose female principle brought -forth the three essences, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Thus each god -became the husband as well as the son of the divine female principle, -just as <i>Virgo</i> of the zodiac was both mother and wife of the sun-god -of the annual revolution, mother at his birth at the winter solstice and -wife at his ascension at the summer solstice. The female part or wife-mother -of Siva was the virgin goddess Parvati; of Vishnu, Lakshmi; -of Krishna, Devaki; of Indra, Indranee; of Horus, Isis; etc.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> - -<p>The illustration of the amulet of the double <i lang="la">Crux Ansata</i>, represents -the female principle at the top in the shape of a ring (which has the -same meaning as the winged disc, cup, and shell, or <i lang="la">Concha Veneris</i>); -the male principle in full vigour on the right side in the shape of a -cross (male organ of generation in the original); the unprolific male -principle of infancy on the underneath side, also in the shape of a cross -(infantine male organ in the original); and the act of generation on -the left side, in the shape of a clenched hand, with the thumb bent -across the back of the first finger.</p> - -<p>The illustration of god incarnate with man represents the saviour of -the world—ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥSÔTÊR KOSMOU—as a cross, or phallic symbol (an erect -male organ in the original), which forms the beak on the head of a -cock, the symbol of the rising sun, the whole resting on the shoulders -of a man, symbolical of the incarnation of god and man.</p> - -<p>The illustration of the amulet in Mr. Townley’s museum represents -the female principle at the top, in the form of a circle, under which is -the victorious sun-god of the vernal equinox, in the shape of a bull’s -head with a cross or phallic symbol (erect male organ in the original) -on either side of the mouth, the whole being emblematic of the sexual -union of the powers of heaven and earth, and the consequent regeneration -of nature at the spring equinox.</p> - -<p>Mafuca, whose portrait is given in the following pages, was a female -ape from the Loango coast, placed in the Dresden Zoological Gardens. -Hartmann, in his “Anthropoid Apes,” describes her as being “120 cm. -in height, reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The face was -prognathous; the ears were comparatively small, placed high on the -skull, and projecting outwards; the supra-orbital arch was strongly -developed; the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls of -fat on the cheeks.” K. Th. von Siebold also classed her as a gorilla; -but Bolau and A. B. Meyer opposed this view; while Bischoff, judging -by the structure of the brain, thought she was a chimpanzee. Now it -is pretty generally believed that she was either a cross between the -gorilla and the chimpanzee, or else a member of a distinct species of -anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla and the chimpanzee. In -Hartmann’s account of Mafuca we read that she was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> “a remarkable -creature, not only in her external habits, but in her disposition.... She -hardly obeyed anyone except Schöpf, the director of the gardens, and -when in a good humour she would sit on his knee and put her muscular -arms round his neck with a caressing gesture.... Mafuca was able to use -a spoon, although somewhat awkwardly; and she could pour from -larger vessels into smaller ones without spilling the liquor. She took -tea and cocoa in the morning and evening, and a mixed diet between -whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and water, and sugar.... If -she was left alone for any time she tried to open the lock of her cage -without having the key, and she once succeeded in doing so. On that -occasion she stole the key, which was hanging on the wall, hid it in -her axilla [arm-pit], and crept quietly back to her cage. With the key -she easily opened the lock; and she also knew how to use a gimlet. -She would draw off the keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out -of reach with them, and throw them at his head when asked for them. -She could wring out wet cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief. -When her illness began, she became apathetic, and looked about with -a vacant, unobservant stare. Just before her death, from consumption, -she put her arms round Schöpf’s neck when he came to visit her, looked -at him placidly, kissed him three times, stretched out her hand to him, -and died.” It may be added to this that Mafuca exhibited the greatest -decorum and modesty in the performance of all her daily and other -natural functions.</p> - -<p>Aidanill, the hairless Australian, is a good specimen of a low type of -human being; having a superciliary prominence greater than is usually -found amongst races of men, with a remarkably small cranial capacity -and almost entire absence of frontal development. The skull, in fact, -differs but little from that of Mafuca, given beneath it; and its owner -belonged to those races described on p. 14 of “Evolution of Mind.”</p> - -<p>The Swaheli Negro is a good specimen of the dolichocephalic prognathous -type of head, considerably higher in intellectual capacity than -that of Aidanill.</p> - -<p>The hands are intended to illustrate the close resemblance between -the hand of a gorilla and that of a man belonging to the Hammeghs of -the Nubian Soudan. It will be observed that while the fingers of the -gorilla are webbed, the second and third fingers of the man are slightly -webbed and his thumb and first finger very considerably webbed.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="ERRATA">ERRATA.</h2> - -<div class="small"> -<p>MAN—WHENCE AND WHITHER?—Page 12, line 11 from top, -for “Palæolithic” read “Pleistocene;” and line 12 from top, for “on -the earth” read “in Europe, for the human remains found in France -clearly testify to the fact; and even in America his antiquity must be -very great indeed,” etc.</p> - -<p>EVOLUTION OF MIND—Page 1, line 6 from top, for “Protamnia” -read “Protista.”</p> - -<p>EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA—Page 25, line 17 from top, for -Σευς read Ζευς.</p> - -<p>INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE—Page 17, line 9 from -top and line 7 from bottom for “Purgatorious” read “Expurgatorious.”</p> - -<p>ANNALS OF TACITUS—Page 15, line 13 from top, for “that religion” -read “that the religion.”</p> - -<p>CREATION AND FALL—Page 6, last line, and page 7, last line -but one, for “mammals” read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a><br /><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> “placental mammals.”</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p id="whence"> </p> -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_022a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>LEMUR</i>—<i>Half Ape</i>—(<i>After Mivart</i>)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_022b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>FACE OF PROBOSCIS MONKEY</i><br />(<i>After Mivart</i>)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>THE MOOR MONKEY</i><br />(<i>After Mivart</i>)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a><br /><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a><br /><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>CHIMPANZEE</i> (<i>Troglodytes</i>)<br />(<i>After Mivart</i>)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>ADULT MALE ORANG</i><br /> (<i>After Mivart</i>)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a><br /><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a><br /><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_030a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">SWAHELI NEGRO (<i>After Tyler</i>) AIDANILL. HAIRLESS AUSTRALIAN. (<i>After Hartmann</i>)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_030b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">MAFUCA<br /><i>The Anthropoid Ape at Dresden</i><br />(<i>After Hartmann</i>)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_031a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>Hand of a very aged male gorilla.</i><br />(<i>After Hartmann</i>)</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_031b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>Hand of a Hammegh man from Roseres, Blue Nile.</i><br />(<i>After Hartmann</i>)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a><br /><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a><br /><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">NATIVES OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Moung-Phoset The Son Mahphoon The Mother<br /> -THE HAIRY FAMILY OF BURMAH<br /> -Exhibited at the Piccadilly Hall London in 1886 -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a><br /><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="MAN_WHENCE_AND_WHITHER">MAN: WHENCE AND WHITHER?</h2> - - -<p>The fables of the creation of nature and man by various fantastic and -ridiculous means, which have, for thousands of years, found favour with -the unthinking multitudes inhabiting the earth, and which even now are, -one or other, firmly believed by the large majority of both the Eastern -and Western populations, must, ere long, gradually give way to the -truer and grander theory of Evolution, resulting from the study of the -natural sciences. Priests, monks, and other interested people, backed -up by the enormous wealth which has accumulated to the various -religious creeds during the past centuries of darkness, ignorance, and -gross credulity, will, no doubt, oppose all their tremendous forces -against the new philosophy, thus, for a while, delaying the inevitable -result. But this condition of things cannot last long. Education is -doing, and will continue to do, its work, until, at length, falsehood and -slavery will give place to truth and liberty.</p> - -<p>In order to discover the origin of man, it is necessary to carry the -mind back to a very remote period, and observe the mode of development -of our planetary system; for, according to the theory of Evolution, -there were no starting points for particular forms in nature, the whole -universe consisting of one continuous unfolding of phenomena.</p> - -<p>The modern theory of the mode of development of our earth, as -also of all other planets and suns, is the one known as the “Nebular -Hypothesis,” which is the prelude to the great theory of Evolution, and -which teaches us that the earth, the sun, the moon, the planets, and -all the heavenly host are the effects or results of the condensation of a -nebulous vapour, which took place many millions of years ago, after -having been diffused for an incalculable period of time throughout the -illimitable expanse of space. The cause of this nebulous vapour, or -attenuated matter, is unknown to us, and will probably ever remain -enshrouded in the profound mystery which at present envelopes it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> -Beyond this limit all is mere speculation or hypothesis; and the -Agnostic philosopher and the man of science, humbly acknowledging -their complete inability to solve this mighty problem of ultimate causation, -are content to leave further speculation in this direction to metaphysicians -and poets.</p> - -<p>During many long ages this process of condensation of the -nebulous vapour steadily continued, being controlled by the laws of -gravitation and transformation, until, at length, a number of rotating -spherical nebular masses were formed, in a state of high heat from the -shock of their recently-united atoms, which spheres gradually cooled by -radiation, consequently contracting and becoming possessed of a more -rapid rotary motion, giving off from their equatorial regions large rings -of vapour, which, in their turn, condensed and, under the influence of -the same two laws, formed separate spheres for themselves. This is -the mode by which our planetary system was formed, as taught by -Laplace and accepted by the scientists of to-day.</p> - -<p>The earth, then, in common with other planets, may be said to have -passed from the condition of a gaseous to a highly-heated fluid mass, -and to have gradually become plastic, and moulded by revolution on its -own axis to its present shape—<i>i.e.</i>, an oblate spheroid, or globe, flatter -at the poles than at the equator, with a polar diameter about twenty-six -miles shorter than the equatorial diameter. This is the shape that -all plastic bodies which rotate on their axes must assume, as we are -clearly taught by mathematics.</p> - -<p>Assuming, then, that the earth was in a state of incandescence when -it began to take a definite form, we shall at once see that the denser -materials composing it would gravitate towards the centre, forming a -semi-plastic mass surrounded by an envelope of gases and watery -vapour. The gases would be quickly disposed of in various chemical -combinations, and the watery vapour would be condensed and deposited -in depressions on the surface of the central mass as soon as it had -become cooled sufficiently. The outer crust of this central, semi-solid -mass was soon converted, under the intense heat, into a hard, granite-like -rock, which was continually subject to sudden upheavals, resulting -partly from the violent escape of gases, and partly from water -passing through fissures on the surface to the heated interior and -giving rise to steam of great expansive power. In this manner great -inequalities of the surface were, no doubt, produced, whose rugged -edges, after the lapse of a vast period of time, were gradually softened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> -down by the subsequent action upon them of air and water. This -first rock formation is termed by geologists the Plutonic (from Pluto, -monarch of hell), on account of its being the result of intense heat, and -not, as is the case with all other rock formations, laid down in layers by -water. Whether the Plutonic rock forms a solid centre to our earth is -matter of uncertainty; but all are agreed that the internal heat of our -planet, whether caused by the friction of the particles of a solid substance -or by a molten fluid, is still, even in these later times, intense. -In boring through the earth’s crust, the average increase in temperature -for every fifty feet of descent, after the first hundred feet from the -surface, is one degree Fahr., which would give us, at a depth of 125 -miles, sufficient heat to melt most of the rocks. This intense internal -heat has generated, in times long gone by, enormous forces, by which -rocks of all ages have been raised and depressed, twisted and distorted, -broken and forced out of position, and forcibly compressed, so as to -eventually cause most important changes of surface level.</p> - -<p>The next class of rock-formation is totally different from the -Plutonic, or unstratified series, in that it is the result of the wear and -tear of the surface when acted upon by air and water, and is laid down, -in the first instance, by water, as sediment. Water, in the forms of -seas, rivers, rain, and ice, has been the chief agent in the arrangement -of all the stratified rocks, the determination of the earth’s contour, the -direction of valleys, and, in fact, the regulation of the whole physical -geography of the visible portion of the earth. With the help of this -mighty agent, so soon as the earth had become sufficiently cool to -permit condensation to take place in its vapoury envelope, the ceaseless -wear and tear of the Plutonic—and, subsequently, of all other—rocks, -which has accumulated so vast a mass of material, commenced. Large -volumes of water were gradually deposited, without intermission, until -permanent seas and rivers had become established, and the new process -of stratification, which was henceforth destined to shape the crust of -the earth and to provide the conditions of life, commenced to operate. -This action is taking place daily in rivers and seas, as we may observe -at any time. On the tops of mountains the same action is in operation, -though under different conditions, snow and ice splitting fragments from -the rocks to be borne away as grit into the valleys by impetuous torrents -and deposited in other places. Within the Polar circles ice on a -grander scale is levelling down the land; glaciers, covering thousands -of square miles, are slowly sliding down the valleys, grinding their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> -surfaces still deeper—forming sands, clays, and gravels, and forcing -these down to the sea-shore; and icebergs, many miles in circumference, -are carried by currents along coasts and against cliffs like huge ploughs, -completely altering the face of the rocks beneath. This wear and tear -results in the formation of immense quantities of detritus, which is -deposited in layers at the bottom of seas and rivers, and consolidated -by pressure, being frequently assisted by lime, iron, or silica as a -cement. The coarser-textured rock has been laid down in rapidly-moving, -shallow water; and the finer-textured in still, deep water. -Thus, through many long ages—probably millions of years—the surface -of the earth underwent continual change from the constant deposition -of stratified rock, each layer of which completely buried beneath it the -various life forms of the previous period, which circumstance enables -us to ascribe to the various members of the animal and vegetable kingdoms -particular geological periods; for fossilised remains of animals -and vegetables have been unearthed in the different layers of the -stratified rocks, conclusively proving their existence on the earth at -those periods.</p> - -<p>In the Plutonic or unstratified rock-formation period there was, of -course, no life upon the earth, the conditions necessary for such development -not being present; but in the very earliest of the stratified formations -we find evidence of the dawn of marine life, both vegetable and -animal. Geologists have divided the stratified rock into three chief -divisions, the Palæozoic (ancient life), or Primary; the Mesozoic (middle -life), or Secondary; and the Kainozoic (latest life), or Tertiary. Each -of these, again, has been subdivided into smaller sections, according to -the particular kind of deposit met with, the particular places where the -best examples are to be found, or the particular life-forms existing. The -Primary, the depth of which is unknown, is subdivided into seven -periods—viz.:—</p> - -<p>Laurentian, consisting of highly metamorphosed (that is, changed -in appearance from the original stratified rock character, owing to its -proximity to the molten Plutonic rock) limestone, containing fossil -remains of the Foraminifera, some of the first living organisms.</p> - -<p>Huronian, consisting of less highly metamorphosed sandstone, limestone, -etc., and containing fossil remains of lowly-organised molluscs -(soft-bodied organisms).</p> - -<p>Cambrian, consisting of slates, sandstones, and conglomerates, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> -containing fossil remains of sponges, sea-weeds, star-fishes, sea-lilies, lowly -shell-fish, marine worms, and the first land plants.</p> - -<p>Silurian, consisting of slates, limestones, etc., and containing fossil -remains of corals, chambered spiral shell-fish, crabs, sea-worms, and -bony plates and scales of a low form of fish.</p> - -<p>Devonian, consisting of old red sandstone, shales, and coralline -limestone, and containing fossil land plants, fishes, belonging to shark, -ray, and sturgeon families, and first fossil insect.</p> - -<p>Carboniferous, consisting of mountain limestone, coal, sandstone, -ironstone, clays, etc., and containing fossil scorpions, beetles, and -amphibians.</p> - -<p>Permian, consisting of new red sandstone, marls, magnesian limestones, -etc., and containing fossils of true reptiles.</p> - -<p>The Secondary division is subdivided into three periods, viz.:—</p> - -<p>Triassic, consisting of sandstone, limestone, and clays, and containing -fossils of gigantic reptiles and first mammals (small marsupials).</p> - -<p>Jurassic, or Oölitic, consisting of limestones, coral rags, clays, and -marls, and containing fossils of bird-reptiles and several species of marsupials.</p> - -<p>Cretaceous, consisting of clays, sands, soft limestone, and lignites, -and containing fossils of new bird-reptiles.</p> - -<p>The Tertiary division is subdivided into four periods—viz.:—</p> - -<p>Eocene (dawn of recent life), consisting of sandstone, limestone, -sands, clays, marls, coral rags, and lignites, and containing fossil equine -forms, birds, reptiles, bats, and marsupials.</p> - -<p>Meiocene (less recent life), consisting of arctic coal, limestone, sands, -clays, and lignites, and containing fossil apes and marsupials.</p> - -<p>Pleiocene (more recent life), the white and red crags of Britain, -containing fossil apes, bears, and hyenas.</p> - -<p>Pleistocene (most recent life), consisting of glacial accumulations of -all kinds of earths, and containing fossil remains of apes and men, and -implements of stone, bone, and horn, and later still of remains of lake-dwellings, -shell-mounds, etc.</p> - -<p>These different layers of stratified rocks have not always kept their -proper positions with regard to each other in the order they were originally -laid down; but, owing to volcanic eruption, have frequently -intruded upon each other, so that, at first sight, it would sometimes -appear as though the regular order of deposition had not been adhered -to; but that this is not so has been made apparent by careful investigation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> -over large areas. The depth of the Secondary and Tertiary is from -twenty to twenty-five miles. We see, therefore, that the first life-forms -made their appearance as marine organisms in the Laurentian, or first -stratified rock period; but whether the animal or the vegetable form -first appeared, or whether both were developed from one primordial -organism, it is impossible at present to say. In each successive layer of -rock we meet with fossil remains of animal and vegetable life, which -steadily develop into more highly organised forms, through the different -periods, until, at last, they assume the exquisite phases we now behold -around us. The vegetable kingdom was the first to exist upon the land, -the first land-plant being found in the fossil state in the Cambrian layer, -at the same time that marine animal life was assuming the forms of -worms, shell-fish, and star-fishes. In the Silurian period the first vertebrate -animals made their appearance in the form of lowly-organised fishes, -from which, in the Carboniferous age, developed amphibious creatures, -the first breathing animals, living both in and out of water, and the -progenitors of the large kingdom of land animals, including man.</p> - -<p>Now, if we take the pedigree of man, as arranged by Darwin and -Haeckel, and compare it with this geological tree, we shall see how -perfectly the sister sciences of Paleontology and Biology corroborate each -other. The first form of life, says Haeckel, was the Moneron, a -structureless albuminous atom of bioplasm, not even possessing the -structure of a mere cell. We place this, which belongs to the primitive -order Protozoa, in the Laurentian period, where we are told by geologists -that fossil foraminifera have been found. This promordial organism -gradually developed into single nucleated cells, called Amœbæ, and these -again into masses of nucleated cells, called Synamœbæ. These simple -and multiple cell organisms we place in the next period, Huronian, in -the strata of which geologists tell us have been found fossil remains of -lowly organised molluscs, or soft-bodied animals. Ciliata are the next -forms of life, which consist of Synamœbæ, covered with vibratile cilia. -These gradually developed a mouth, becoming Gastrœada, and afterwards -Turbellaria, a low form of worm (Vermes), with a mouth and -alimentary canal; and are placed in the Cambrian period, in which -stratum have been found remains of this kind of life. The ascent continues -through the transition stage of Scolecida to Himatega, or sack-worms, -with their rudimentary spinal cords; from which gradually -evolved Acrania, or the first vertebrate animals, without skulls, brains, -central heart, jaws, or limbs; but with a true vertebral cord. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> -peculiar little animal was a lancet-shaped marine worm, akin to the -lancelet or amphioxus of to-day. From these developed Monorrhini, or -vertebrate hybrid worms and fishes, with skull, brain, and central heart, -but no sympathetic system, jaws, or limbs, and with a single nasal cavity -(lampreys). These three forms are placed in the Silurian period, in -which stratum have been found fossilised bony plates and scales of fishes -and Annelides, or sea-worms.</p> - -<p>The next forms of life to be developed, from the Monorrhini, were -the Selachii (Amphirrhini), or true fishes, of the shark family, with -two nasal cavities, swim-bladder, two pairs of fins, and jaws. From -these evolved the Ganoidei, and thence all osseous fishes; and Dipnoi -(mud fish), or hybrid fishes and amphibians, with both gills and -lungs. These little animals live during winter in water, when they -breathe air dissolved in water through their gills; and during the -summer in mud, when they breathe with their lungs. Both these -are placed in the Devonian period, in which have been found -fossil sharks, etc. The next forms are Sozobranchii, or amphibians with -persistent gills, from which evolved Urodela, or amphibians with transitory -gills, but persistent tails, and legs; allied to the salamander. These are -placed in the Carboniferous period, in which have been found fossilised -amphibians. We next get Protamnia, or hybrid salamanders and lizards -(frogs and toads), with no gills or tails, but possessing an amnion and cloaca. -These represent the parent forms of the three great higher branches of -vertebrates—Reptilia, Aves (which evolved from reptiles), and Mammalia, -and are placed in the Permian period, in which have been found fossilised -amphibians and true reptiles. Monotremata (Promammalia) are the next -forms developed in our pedigree, the parent forms of the class Mammalia; -with cloaca, amnion, and marsupial bones; which are placed in -the Triassic period; and from which evolved Marsupialia, mammals with -amnion and marsupial bones, but no cloaca; allied to the kangaroo and -opossum of to-day. This species we place in the Jurassic and Cretaceous -periods. From Marsupialia developed the large kingdom of Placentalia, -which lose the marsupial bones and cloaca, and acquire a placenta, and -which we divide into three main branches, according to the particular -placental formation. The first division we call Villiplacentalia (tufty -placenta), from which evolved Edentata (sloth, ant-eaters, and tertiary -monsters), Cetacea (marine placental mammals, such as whale, dolphin, -porpoise, and sea-cow), and Ungulata (horse, cow, pig, rhinoceros, and -hippopotamus). The second division we term Zenoplacentalia (ring-like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> -placenta), the earliest forms of which were Carnaria, or flesh-eaters, from -which came Carnivora, or land beasts of prey (cats, dogs, bears, etc.), -and Pinnipedia, or marine beasts of prey (seal and walrus). The third -division we name Discoplacentalia (discoid placenta); and here we find, -as the first development, the Prosimiæ, or tailed lemurs, quadrupeds -with claws, and having the appearance of hybrid cats and monkeys. All -these are placed in the Eocene period, in which stratum geologists have -found fossilised placentals.</p> - -<p>From the discoplacental-mammal Prosimiæ evolved the following -species—viz., Prosimiæ of Madagascar (lemurs of to-day), with four -feet and claws; Cheiroptera (bats); Rodentia (squirrels, mice, porcupines, -hares); Insectivora (moles, shrew-mice, and hedgehogs); and Simiæ, or -quadruped monkeys, with two feet, two hands, nails, and tails. We -divide Simiæ into two classes, the Platyrrhini, or New World apes, with -thirty-six teeth, tails, no cheek-pouches or callosities, and nasal cavities -pointing outwards and divided by a thick septum (from which came the -American howlers, weepers, capuchins, and squirrel-monkeys); and the -Catarrhini (Menocerca), or Old World apes, with thirty-two teeth (like -man), tails, cheek-pouches, callosities, and nasal cavities pointing downwards -and divided by a thin septum (like man). These are placed in -the Meiocene period, in which have been discovered the first fossil apes. -From the Catarrhini developed the tailed baboons and macaques, with -thirty-two teeth, cheek-pouches, and callosities; and the Anthropoidæ, -with thirty-two teeth, but no tails, cheek-pouches, or callosities. These -were evolved during the Pleiocene period. From the anthropoid (man-like) -apes we get three distinct divisions—viz., the gibbon and orang -families, with no tails or cheek-pouches, walking partly on hind legs, and -wandering in companies in India; the chimpanzee and gorilla families -of Africa, with no tails or cheek-pouches, no articulate speech, walking -on hind legs only, living in companies in caves, and carrying their babes -in their arms; and Alali, or ape-like men, commonly called the “missing -links,” who were probably developed, during the Pleiocene period, in -Lemuria, a submerged continent which formerly occupied the position -of the Indian Ocean; or in the districts of the Nile and Ganges.</p> - -<p>These primitive ape-like men were the connecting links between men -and the apes, and are divided into two main branches—viz., woolly-haired -Alali, who migrated from Lemuria, west and south; and straight-haired -Alali, who migrated from Lemuria, north, east, and south. Both -these branches had skulls of the same character as those of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> -chimpanzee and gorilla—that is, they were dolichocephalic (long-headed) -prognathous (prominent jaws), and also, like their ape brethren, were -troglodytes, or cave-dwellers. From the woolly-haired Alali evolved the -Papuans of New Guinea and Tasmania, and the Hottentots of Africa, -whose descendants of to-day are but little removed in brain development -from the higher apes. They are dolichocephalic prognathous -savages, with black, hairy skins, long arms, and short, thin legs, with ill-developed -calves; are semi-erect, walk on hind legs, and have no true -articulate speech. A higher development of the woolly-haired Alali is -the Negro, and higher still the Caffre, both of whom are dolichocephalic -prognathous savages, with black, semi-hairy skins, and imperfect articulation. -From the straight-haired Alali are derived the Australian natives -and the large family of Malays or Polynesians. The Australians -migrated south, and were dolichocephalic prognathous savages, with -smooth, dirty brown skins, and straight black hair. The lowest -tribes of the present day have no true articulate speech. The Polynesians -migrated north and east, and were dolichocephalic prognathous -troglodytes (as the gorilla and chimpanzee), with clear, smooth brown -skins, and true articulate speech. This branch split up into two -large families, the Mongolian or Turanian, and the Caucasian or -Iranian. The former covered Northern and Eastern Asia, Polynesia, and -America, and were originally brachycephalic (broad-headed) prognathous -men. They subdivided into two distinct species, the Mongols of China, -Japan, Lapland, Finland, and Hungary, who are brachycephalic, but not -prognathous, with smooth, brownish yellow skin, and straight black -hair; and the Mongols of America, who are mesocephalic (round-headed), -but not prognathous, with smooth red skins and straight black -hair. The Caucasian family covered Western Asia and most of -Europe, being mesocephalic prognathous troglodytes (afterwards agriculturalists) -with smooth dark skins and long straight hair; and subdivided -into two branches, the Semitic, of Arabia and Syria, and the -Aryan or Indo-European; both of whom are mesocephalic, but not -prognathous.</p> - -<p>It is true that, so far, no fossil remains of Alali have been found, with -the exception of the Neanderthal skull; but it is equally true that they -may soon be discovered. It is only comparatively recently that the other -species have been found fossilised; and it must be recollected that only -a very small portion of the earth’s crust has yet been explored, and -that not the most likely for finding. No attempts have been yet made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> -to unearth the life-remains in the neighbourhood of the Indian Ocean, -where it is believed man first evolved from his ape-like ancestors. It -does not, however, seem to me to be essentially necessary that the -“missing link” be found in order to substantiate the Evolution theory. -There is so little difference between the higher anthropoid apes and -man, compared with the enormous differences observed between the -earlier forms of life and the ape species, that the sequence and continuity -appear now conclusively settled to any reasonable observer. -Comparative anatomists and embryologists both declare in favour of -the theory of development of Darwin and Haeckel. It is a fact beyond -dispute that every human being commences his individual existence as -a tiny piece of structureless bioplasm, from which condition he passes -through the Amœba stage to the Synamœba, and thence in regular order -through each successive stage of development marked in the genealogy -given above, becoming worm, fish, and mammal in turn, and finally -being born into the world as a member of the human family. Each of -these lower forms also passes through all the species preceding it in -precisely the same manner. This is one of the strongest arguments in -favour of Evolution. It is said that the power of speech possessed by -man opposes a strong barrier to the theory; but it has been shown -clearly that other animals besides man can use articulate sounds, which -convey meanings to each other. Monkeys certainly understand each -other’s chattering, and it is highly probable that birds also understand -each other’s cries. It is true that the sounds made by animals are chiefly -monosyllabic; but philologists now tell us that the languages spoken -by primitive races of men are compounded of quite simple elements, -perfectly within the grasp of an ape’s voice. Travellers, whose veracity -and ability cannot be impugned, have described long conferences held by -monkeys, where one individual addressed the assembly at great length, -fixing the attention of all upon himself, and quelling every disturbance -by a loud and harsh cry, which was at once recognised and obeyed by -the multitude. Is it credible that this should be purposeless? Is it -not actually the exercise of speech?</p> - -<p>Is it not possible—nay, even extremely probable—that, under the -irresistible pressure of civilised man, his immediate precursor may have -become extinct? All the human races that now tend to bridge the -interval between the highest man and the highest ape are fast becoming -extinct under this very pressure. The gulf widens, and will widen. -The Caribs and Tasmanians have passed away, while the Australians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> -New Zealanders, aboriginal Americans, Eskimo, and others, are fast -following in their wake, and this all in a comparatively short space of -time. There is undoubtedly now a far greater physical and mental -interval between the Hottentot woman and such men as Gladstone and -Darwin than between the Hottentot and an ape. It is a fact beyond -dispute that man was not in such a high state of development ages -gone by as at present. The earliest traces of man exhibit him to us in -the Palæolithic, or old stone, age, as wild and living in caves, using -only the rudest stone implements with which to battle with the ferocious -monsters around him. His jaw was then prognathous, like the ape, -and his body large and powerful.</p> - -<p>In the limestone caverns of France have been discovered the fossil -remains of men who inhabited caves and belonged to the Palæolithic, -or early Pleistocene, period. Together with these troglodytes, or cave-dwellers, -were rough, unpolished stone implements and weapons, -denoting a low state of civilisation. Other caves, in later strata, give -us lighter stone weapons, of better finish, and occasionally horn dart-points, -such as would be used for catching smaller game. Numbers -of skin-scrapers also were found, suggesting the idea that the people -used the hides of animals for clothing, instead of going naked, as their -ancestors. The hairy character of the body would be probably giving -place to a finer, smoother, and more delicate outer skin, which would -necessitate clothing of some kind. Still later we find implements -altogether of flint, lancet-shaped, admirably-proportioned, and of three -sizes, adapted for arrow, javeline, and lance points respectively, and -designed to be fitted to wooden and bone shafts. After these appear -arrows and darts of deer’s horn and bone, and stone and flint tools, -which were used for making these arrows. We also find such implements -as bone awls and needles for piercing and sewing skins, arrow-heads -furnished with barbs on each side, and harpoons barbed on one -side only.</p> - -<p>Now was man’s intellect fairly on the swing; but still he was, as -yet, only in the Palæolithic period, for not one polished implement nor -fragment of pottery is found in their stations. They were surrounded -by ferocious carnivora, which sometimes fell victims to their weapons. -The mammoth still tenanted the valleys, and the reindeer was the -common article of food. They were hunters, possessed of the rudest -modes of existence, and with but little of what is now called civilisation.</p> - -<p>In Britain the troglodyte man was contemporary with the -mammoth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg -48]</a></span> rhinoceros, lion, and hyena, none of which existed in -the later Pleistocene era; but there have been no perfect skeletons -found here like those in France. Human <em>bones</em>, however, have been -discovered in various deposits, together with the skeletons of -long-extinct animals. The best British human fossil is the portion of -an upper jaw containing four teeth, from Kent’s Cavern. Hermetically -sealed in stalagmite, deposited on the floor of the cavern by water -dropping from the roof, this jaw lay <em>below</em> the remains of extinct -mammals; while beneath all were bone and stone implements of human -workmanship, equally firmly fixed in a natural limestone cement. -Geology fixes the date of this troglodyte at the early Pleistocene -period, and it is beyond doubt that man existed at this remote period, -or even earlier, in Europe, for the human remains found in France -clearly testify to the fact; and even in America his antiquity must -be very great indeed, for a human skull was found in the delta of the -Mississippi beneath <em>four</em> different layers of forest growth, which -must have formed part of a living human being 50,000 years since. -The celebrated Neanderthal skull, of which so much has been heard, -certainly belongs to the mammoth age, if not earlier; and, if it -represent a race, and not merely an individual, that race would lie in -a position intermediate between the lowest man and the highest ape. -It <em>may</em> only represent a man of peculiar formation, as we often see -men in the present day deformed or of eccentric build; and, therefore, -we cannot look upon it <em>positively</em> as the “missing link.” One other -similar find, however, would for ever settle the question, and proclaim -to the world that the “missing link” was, at last, found. In capacity, -the cranium is human, while the superciliary arches and the brow are -distinctly ape-like. Professor Huxley sums up his examination of this -skull with the remark that “the Neanderthal skull is, of human remains, -that which presents the most marked and definite characters of a lower -type.”</p> - -<p>Following the Palæolithic era, or rude stone age, is the Neolithic, -or new stone, age; and now we find man using polished weapons, -making pottery, using fire to warm himself with, and developing -social manners. Instead of living in caves, he lived in lake dwellings, -with others of his species, and gradually developed agricultural tastes. -This metamorphosis, we know from the fossil remains found deposited -in various strata, occupied a long period of time, probably thousands -of years; and even then we are left thousands of years before the -historical era, which followed the bronze and iron ages. Compare -these men with those who lived in the Grecian and Egyptian eras, and -again compare these latter with ourselves, and the record is one of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> -trial and failure through long ages, and of experiment crowned at last -by attainment. Has not the invention of the steam-engine alone been -a means of extending man’s dominion in a marvellous manner? Think -what has been achieved through electricity! There has, undoubtedly, -been a continued struggle from barbarism to civilisation, and the little -we know of the early history of man tells us that he lived the life of a -wild beast, leaving no impression on the earth save one of the victims -of his well-aimed stone or flint-pointed spear.</p> - -<p>So much for the “missing link.” There is one other point to be -settled before we have completed the sequence of evolution, which -commences with the condensation of the nebulous vapour and -terminates with the development of man; and that is the question of -how life originated. We have found that the first dawn of life was in -the form of a simple speck of bioplasm, void of any structure; and -that this primordial germ, which we call a Moneron, was developed in -the earliest period of deposition of stratified rock at the bottom of the -sea, and is now being constantly developed as of old. Now, if the -theory of evolution be not mere talk, this primordial germ must have -been spontaneously evolved from inanimate matter, for the theory allows -of no break, being a gradual unfolding of phenomena. We are told -that there is no experience in nature of such a development. Perhaps -so; but that is no argument against it. There is no experience in -nature of any special creation either; so why fly to this alternative, -which is the only one presented to us, instead of adopting the theory -which agrees so harmoniously with the whole evolutionary process? -Why make this abrupt break in the chain of sequence? Does it not -annihilate completely the whole theory of evolution? It is not more -wonderful that life should be evolved from inanimate nature than that -man should be evolved from a structureless bioplasm. The continuity -of evolution once broken, why may it not be broken again and again?</p> - -<p>If we are to accept the theory of evolution, we are bound to admit -that animate was evolved from inanimate matter. And the difficulty -of this admission is not, after all, so great as appears at first sight; for -who is to say whether such a condition really exists as inanimate matter? -It is a fact that every particle of matter in nature is in a state of active -motion; every molecule and atom is constantly active. And why is -this not life as much as the animal or vegetable, though in a modified -degree of development? Evolution, if it mean anything, should admit -this; and I will show you that it does not admit it only, but absolutely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> -declares that it is so. In the first place, it must be recollected that -Balfour Stewart, and all other physical and chemical scientists, declare -that every thing in nature is composed of molecules and atoms. -The molecules are the smallest quantities into which any individual -body or substance can be divided without losing its individuality. For -instance, table-salt, or chloride of sodium, can be divided and subdivided, -until you get to the limit of subdivision, which is a molecule -composed of chlorine and sodium in chemical combination. Further -subdivision annihilates its individuality as salt, and leaves us with the two -elementary chemical atoms, chlorine and sodium, existing independently -of each other. These atoms are incapable of further subdivision. In -the same manner, the whole matter of the universe may be subdivided -into molecules, which consist of atoms of some two or more of about -sixty-seven chemical elements in various combinations. These atoms -are the smallest separate particles of masses of matter, and are separated -from each other by what is termed hypothetical ether—that is, the fluid -ether we believe to be pervading every portion of space. Each atom -possesses an inherent sum of force, or energy. The well-established -and universally-admitted theory of chemical affinity teaches us that -these atoms are capable of attracting and repelling each other, and, -therefore, also teaches us, by implication, that they are possessed with -definite inclinations, follow these sensations or impulses, and have also -the will and ability to move to and from one another. This we are -clearly taught by chemistry. Thus every atom in the universe possesses -sensation and will, pleasure and displeasure, desire and loathing, attraction -and repulsion; and its mass is, moreover, indestructible and unchangeable, -and its energy eternal, as we are again taught by the theory -of conservation of energy and matter. These sentient atoms of universal -matter, whose aggregate energy is the great animating spirit of -the universe, have the power of uniting together in various chemical -combinations to form molecules, or chemical unities, developing fresh -properties in the process, and forming the lowest conceivable division -of compound material substances, some atoms uniting to build up -crystals and other inorganic masses, and others to develop the various -organic or life forms. The atoms of the ultimate molecules of both -organic and inorganic bodies are identically the same. It depends -entirely upon what particular combination of atoms takes place whether -an organic or inorganic form is developed. The primordial life-form -we have found to be simple homogeneous plasm, consisting of molecules,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> -each of which is composed of atoms of five elements—carbon, -oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and sulphur, differing not one iota from -the molecules of inorganic bodies, except that it acquires the special -power of reproduction, by virtue of the peculiar combination of its -atoms, which power is wanting in the inorganic world, whose molecules -are composed of similar atoms, but in different combinations. This is -the only difference between the organic, or life, world, and the inorganic, -or lifeless, world—life being, as compared with unlife, but the power of -reproduction. As examples of this, we may take crystals, the most -perfect development of inorganic nature, and the moneron, the least -perfect development of organic nature; and the difference between -them is almost <i>nil</i>, certainly less than between the parents and offspring -in many life-forms. The crystal molecules are composed of elementary -chemical atoms, as are the moneron molecules; but the former grow -by particles being deposited on particles externally, while the latter -grow by particles penetrating from without, or being absorbed into -the interior and becoming assimilated by the plasm, fresh molecules -being evolved in the process, this special power of reproduction being -generated by the peculiar combination of the atoms. This argument -appears to me to be logically and scientifically sound, and disposes -altogether of the notion of a break of continuity between the living -and the unliving worlds, which is such a formidable difficulty to many -minds. The plasm thus formed by the aggregation of life molecules -gradually differentiates into protoplasm and nucleus, which together -form a simple cell; and this cell partakes, by heredity, of the nature -and properties of its parent form, and also, by adaptation to different -circumstances surrounding its existence, acquires fresh properties, which, -together with the inherited properties, it transmits to its progeny, thus -evolving a still more complex form, inheriting the acquired and -inherited properties of its parent, and again acquiring fresh properties; -and so on, <i lang="la">ad infinitum</i>, through the various life-forms we know have -been developed in the pedigree of man and animals, through Amœbæ, -Synamœbæ, etc., as in the genealogy given above.</p> - -<p>In the course of the development of different life-forms heredity—which, -in plain English, is unconscious memory generated in the first -life-form and transmitted through all the different species—is the sole -factor in the preservation of the parent properties; while adaptation -to surrounding conditions and circumstances, natural selection in the -struggle for existence, and sexual selection in the struggle of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> -males for females are the principal factors in the differentiation of -species.</p> - -<p>Having traced man’s pedigree according to the Evolution theory, -from primitive nebulous matter to his present commanding position, -and found him possessed with reason and the power of controlling and -regulating the forces of nature, our next inquiry is naturally for what -purpose is he here and what will become of him eventually. Here we -come to the most difficult problem of all ages, which has baffled learned -men of all nationalities, and which will probably never be satisfactorily -solved. Intimately connected with it is the almost as difficult problem, -How was the universe caused at all? There are eminent scientific -men who think they can conclusively show that the universe existed -from eternity; others as positively assert that it must have been caused -by a power outside and independent of itself; while others are equally -convinced that it was self-created. But when we examine their arguments -we find ourselves unable logically to accept any of their conclusions.</p> - -<p>The Atheist declares that the universe has existed from eternity, not -having been produced by any other agency, and, therefore, without any -beginning; which necessarily implies the conception of infinite past -time—an effort of which the human mind is quite incapable. The -Pantheist declares that the universe evolved out of potential existence -into actual existence by virtue of some inherent necessity; which is as -unthinkable as the previous one, for potential existence must be either -something, in which case it would be actual existence, or nothing, which -it could not possibly be. But admitting, for the sake of argument, the -possibility of potential existence as nothing, still we should have to -account for its origin, which would involve us in an infinity of still more -remote potentialities. The Theistic theory of creation by external -agency implies either formation of matter out of nothing, which is -inconceivable, or out of pre-existing materials, which leaves us under -the necessity of showing the origin of the pre-existing elements, and, -like the preceding theory, would involve us in an infinity of remote -pre-existences. It also involves the existence of a potentiality outside -matter, which must either be caused, which involves a prior cause, or -uncaused, in which case it must be either finite or infinite. If it be -finite, it must be limited, and, consequently, there must exist something -outside its limits, which destroys the notion of its being a first cause. -Therefore, it must be infinite. Also, as first cause, it must be independent;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> -for dependency would imply a more remote cause. The first -cause must, therefore, be both infinite and absolute, which is an absurdity; -for a cause can only exist in relation to its effect, and therefore -cannot be absolute; and the fact of its being infinite deprives us of the -only means of escape from the difficulty, by showing the impossibility -of its being first of all absolute and afterwards cause; for the infinite -cannot become what it once was not.</p> - -<p>Thus, then, we are driven to the conclusion that logic shows the -Theistic conception of the origin of nature, equally as much as the -Pantheistic and the Atheistic, to be utterly impossible; but it must be -admitted that if, instead of matter, we substitute time and space in our -consideration of this most important matter, the Atheistic theory more -nearly approaches the conceivable than either of the other two; for by -no mental effort can we conceive the formation of time and space either -by external agency or inherent necessity. It is absolutely impossible -for us to conceive the idea of the non-existence of either time or space.</p> - -<p>Because the human mind cannot conceive the possibility of nature -being produced by external agency, it does not follow that we are bound -to admit the impossibility of the existence of an intelligence controlling -nature’s laws; for it is quite possible that such an existence may be, -though our finite minds cannot comprehend it. The Agnostic philosopher, -although he cannot logically demonstrate the existence of the -Divine Being, yet declares that, inasmuch as this universe consists of -existing phenomena, it is absolutely necessary that there should be some -cause adequate for the production of the effects manifested. By this -process of reasoning he arrives at the conclusion that there exists a -something controlling nature, which is utterly incomprehensible—an -ultimate reality, of which force and matter are alike merely the phenomenal -manifestations. This ultimate reality, moreover, is intelligent.</p> - -<p>We cannot recall the wonders of the evolutionary development of -the universe without at once seeing that there is purpose at the bottom -of all, and that chance is no factor in the process. We cannot believe -that man is but a fortuitous concourse of atoms. Reason tells us clearly -that we are here for a well-ordained purpose; but what that purpose is -we cannot tell. The old notion that our destiny is to prepare ourselves -here, to live again in our bodily forms, play harps, and sing halleluyah -to all eternity, I regard as mere moonshine. Such a fate would be to -me far worse than annihilation. But that we have a future destiny of -some sort I have no doubt. We know we must die, and that when we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> -die our bodily functions, including brain functions, will cease to be -performed. Are we, then, annihilated? The answer of scientists is -decisively “Yes, so far as we are concerned as sentient individual -beings.” Science teaches us that the three things which make up consciousness, -or man’s mental side, are thought, emotion, and volition; -that they are inseparably bound up with the brain and the nervous -system, whose functions they are; and that when the brain dies these -functions cease. This is undeniable. Therefore, if there is any future -existence, it is not one of consciousness. The power of muscular -movement is arrested at death, and, therefore, we must admit that -the power of thought, emotion, and volition ceases at death. Why -should the appearance be deceptive in one case and not in the -other? It is not the case of a separate entity in the body, but of a -distinct function—an effect which ceases with its proper cause. It is -absolutely certain, from the teaching of science, that the consciousness -grows as the brain and body grow, varies according to the standard of -health in the brain, and declines as the general vigour of the brain -declines; and, therefore, we can but admit that it dies with the brain. -We also learn from Embryology that consciousness evolved by slow degrees -from unconsciousness, and that once there was no thought in -any of us. Even if science were to admit that man’s consciousness -continued after death, it would be equally rational to admit that animals -also had a future consciousness; for it is quite clear we have slowly -evolved from the lowest germ of animal life. Man’s very attributes are -found in a lower degree in animals, and yet it is the possession of his -lofty attributes which he says entitles him to conscious immortality. The -intellectual qualities in animals differ from those in man only in degree, -while in the possession of some of the highest moral attributes—such -as courage, fidelity, patience, self-sacrifice, and affection—some of -the lower animals, as the dog, the horse, and the ant, far surpass him. -Even among human beings themselves these higher qualities, mental -and moral, exist in all degrees, from their almost total absence in the -savage up to the mental and moral splendour of a Buddha, a Socrates, -a Disraeli, or a Gladstone. Are all these lower animals, savage men, -and intellectual and moral geniuses, to have individual conscious immortality? -If, as some say, man only and not animals are immortal, -then the question naturally arises, When and how came man so? If he -was always immortal, so were animals. If he became immortal later -on, he must either have slowly acquired the gift, or it must have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> -suddenly conferred upon him. In either case there must have been a -particular moment when he became immortal. Can we conceive of -such a thing as the species being mortal one moment and immortal -the next? The question of <em>how</em> he became immortal is still more -difficult, as the question <em>why</em>, or for what merit, is wholly unanswerable. -Then, again, science teaches us that animal life, of whatever form, will -vanish from the earth long before the inevitable decay of the planet -itself. Geologists tell us that, in obedience to a general law, all species have -their term of living. They appear, and after a time disappear. -How absurd, then, to raise a question as to the conscious individual -immortality of the countless myriads of a species that shall itself have -utterly vanished without leaving a trace!</p> - -<p>Are we, then, annihilated at death? Yes, as conscious individuals. -We are bound to admit the force of all the arguments brought -forward by science against the theory of a future conscious existence; -but these arguments in no way affect the great problem of the “ego,” -or “self,” which exists in all of us, irrespective of consciousness, -memory, or other brain function. A man may be unconscious, and -yet live; therefore consciousness is not necessary to life. When we -ask ourselves whether we shall be annihilated at death, we should first -of all have a clear definition of the word “we” before we reply. What -are we? What am I? I am not consciousness, which is but a function -of one of my organs, the brain, and which merely enables me to know -myself. Then what am I? I cannot conceive that I am anything but -the energy or life-power developed by the aggregation of my life-particles, -which causes the various organs of my body to perform their -functions, as cerebrating, etc. The primordial germ of my body was a -simple bioplasm, consisting of a combination of life-molecules, composed -of energetic atoms. From these molecules evolved fresh molecules, -which, under the laws of heredity and variation, acquired new -properties; until, at last, a complex organism became developed, possessing -far higher powers than those belonging to the primordial germ. -As the development of species continued, higher forces became manifested; -until, at last, the condition of man was reached, and a life-power -developed of a much higher order than any previously known. -This life-power, or human energy, is the “ego,” the “self,” the cause -of the bodily functions, and is eternal. Kant declared there was a -world unknown, independent of our conscious phenomenal world; -and this we must admit to be true, for we have already granted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> -existence of an unknown cause, of which force and matter are merely -the phenomenal manifestations. It is this outer world of unknown -and invisible energy that the scientist finds himself unable to deal with. -The death of the body is simply the cessation of cohesion, or dissolution -of partnership, between the ultimate atoms of the plasm life-molecules, -by which dissolution the property called life ceases, and -the atoms of the body assume their original condition, again containing -their original sum of force. But what becomes of the huge -force developed during the lifetime of the bodily organism? Does -that vanish and become a thing of naught? My opinion is that this -human force, which is the outcome of the complex union of the -ultimate atoms of the plasm life-molecules, and which is but a phenomenal -manifestation of the great incomprehensible cause of all -phenomena, will, at the death of the body, be re-absorbed into the -great animating spirit of the universe, and partake of the nature and -properties of the Unknown. This is but my opinion, from which many -may differ. I merely offer it as an opinion, and in no way shut my eyes -to the great fact that man’s destiny is a riddle as yet unsolved. We -may safely leave the matter to be dealt with according to the wisdom of -that unknown cause of all things, resting quite assured that we shall -be far better disposed of than we could possibly dispose of ourselves, -even if we had the power. We must bow the head in a truly scientific -spirit, and reply to the great question, “I cannot tell.”</p> - -<p>“To be or not to be? that is the question,” says the immortal -Shakespeare; after which he sums up the whole argument in two short -lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">“To die, to sleep. To sleep? perchance to dream—</div> - <div class="verse">Aye, there’s the rub.”</div> -</div></div></div> -<hr /> - -<p class="center space-above"><small>PRINTED BY WATTS & CO., 17, -JOHNSON’S COURT, FLEET STREET, LONDON.</small></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a><br /><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> - - - -<p class="center" id="antiquity">GENEALOGY OF MAN</p> - - -<div class="poetry-container small"><div class="poetry"> - <div class="verse indent20">Monera (Plasm)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Amœbæ (Cells)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Synamœbæ (Multiple cell-forms)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Ciliata</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Gastrœada</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Turbellaria (Vermes)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Scolecida</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Himatega (Sack-worm)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Acrania (Vertebrata)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Monorrhini</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent20">Selachii (Pisces)</div> - <div class="verse indent25">│</div> - <div class="verse indent4">┌────────────┴───────┐</div> - <div class="verse indent4">│<span class="gap14">│</span></div> - <div class="verse indent2">Dipnoi<span class="gap12">Ganoidei</span></div> - <div class="verse indent4">│<span class="gap14">│</span></div> - <div class="verse">Sozobranchii<span class="gap10">Teleostei</span></div> - <div class="verse indent4">│</div> - <div class="verse">Urodela</div> - <div class="verse indent4">│</div> - <div class="verse">Protamnia</div> -<div class="verse indent4">├────────────────────┐</div> - <div class="verse">Reptilia<span class="gap10">Monotremata (Mammalia)</span></div> - <div class="verse indent4">│<span class="gap14">│</span></div> -<div class="verse indent4">├───────┐<span class="gap6">Marsupialia</span></div> - <div class="verse indent2">Aves<span class="gap4">Reptilia</span><span class="gap6">│</span></div> - <div class="verse indent32"> Placentalia</div> -</div></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td align="left" colspan="11">Placentalia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="10">─Villiplacentalia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Edentata</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Ungulata</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="8">─Solidungula</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="8">─Ruminantia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="8">─Pachydermata</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="8">─Cetacea</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">┠</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="10">─Zenoplacentalia Carnaria</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Carnivora</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Pinnipedia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="10">─Discoplacentalia Prosimiæ</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Prosimiæ (Lemurs)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Insectivora</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Rodentia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Cheiroptera</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="9">─Simiæ (Apes)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="8">─Platyrrhini</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="8">─Catarrhini Menocerca</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="7">─Tailed Baboons + Macaques</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="7">─Anthropoidæ Man─like Apes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="6">─Gibbon + Orang</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="6">─Chimpanzee + Gorilla</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="6">─Alali (Ape─like Men)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="5"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="5">─Woolly─haired Alali</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="5"></td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">─Papuan</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="5"></td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">─Hottentot</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="5"></td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">─Negro</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="5"></td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">─Caffre</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="5"></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="5">─Straight─haired Alali</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="6"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">─Australian</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="6"></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">─Polynesian or Malay</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="7"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">─Caucasian or Iranian</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="7"></td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">─Aryan or Indo─European</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="7"></td> - <td class="tdr">│</td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">─Semitic</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="7"></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">─Mongolian or Turanian</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="8"></td> - <td class="tdr">├</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">─Mongols of China</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="8"></td> - <td class="tdr">└</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">─Mongols of America</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a><br /><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a><br /><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center">SECTION OF EARTH’S CRUST<br /> - -Showing the different Geological Strata and Biological Ascent</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="8">KAINO­ZOIC<br />OR<br /> TERTIARY</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">RECENT</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">IRON AGE</td> - <th class="tdc">Strata Deposits</th> - <th class="tdc">Fossils, Bones, etc Found</th> - <th class="tdc">Man’s Ascent</th> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">Recent Earth Deposits</td> - <td class="tdc">Historic Era; Manufacture of Iron Articles</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Sapiens</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">BRONZE AGE</td> - <td class="tdc">Recent Earth Deposits</td> - <td class="tdc">Considerable advance in civilization. Manufacture -of Bronze implements.</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Cultus</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">POST-­PLEIOCENE<br />QUATER­NARY -OR PLEIST­OCENE</td> - <td class="tdc">NEOLITHIC</td> - <td class="tdc">Glacial Deposits</td> - <td class="tdc">Remains of Lake Dwellings. Manufacture -of Pottery.</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Semi-ferox</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">PALÆO­LITHIC</td> - <td class="tdc">Glacial Deposits</td> - <td class="tdc">Fossil Cave-men, Stone, bone, + horn implements. -Mammoth Reindeer, Hyœna, etc.</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Ferox</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">PLEIOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">White and Red Crags of Britain</td> - <td class="tdc">Apes, Bears & Hyœnas</td> - <td class="tdc">Alali Anthropœdæ</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">MEIOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Arctic Coal, Limestone, Sands, -Clays, and Lignites</td> - <td class="tdc">Marsupials, Squirrels, Mastodon, Rhinoceros, -Anthropo­morphous Apes</td> - <td class="tdc">Menocerca Simiæ</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">EOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Sandstone, Limestone, Sands, Clays, Marls, -Lignites, Coral, Rag</td> - <td class="tdc">Equine forms, Bats, Lemurs, Marsupials</td> - <td class="tdc">Prosimiæ Placentalia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">MESO­ZOIC<br />OR<br />SECOND­ARY</td> - <td class="tdc">CRETA­CEOUS</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Clays, Sands, Soft -Limestones, Lignites</td> - <td class="tdc">Birds, Reptiles and Marsupials</td> - <td class="tdc">Marsupialia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">JURASSIC<br />OR<br />OÖLITIC</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Limestones, Coral rags, -Lignites, Clays, Marls, Coal Lies at base</td> - <td class="tdc">Bird-reptiles, several Marsupial species</td> - <td class="tdc">Marsupialia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">TRIASSIC</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Sandstones, Limestones, Clays</td> - <td class="tdc">Gigantic Reptiles, Small Marsupials</td> - <td class="tdc">Promammalia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="7">PALÆO­ZOIC<br />OR<br />PRIMARY</td> - <td class="tdc">PERMIAN</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Marls, Magnesian -limestones, Conglomerates.</td> - <td class="tdc">Reptiles </td> - <td class="tdc">Protamnia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">CARBON­IFEROUS</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Carboniferous limestone, -Coal, Ironstone, Sandstone, Clay, Shales</td> - <td class="tdc">Scorpions, Spiders, Beetles, Flies, Amphibia</td> - <td class="tdc">Urodela Sozobranchii</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">DEVONIAN</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Old Red Sandstone, -Shales, Coralline Limestone</td> - <td class="tdc">Fossil land plants, Fishes, -First fossil insect</td> - <td class="tdc">Dipnoi Selachii</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">SILURIAN</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Slates, Limestone, Conglomerates, Shales, -Sandstones</td> - <td class="tdc">Corals, Spiral Shells, King-Crabs, -Plates & Scales of Fishes, Annelides (sea-worms)</td> - <td class="tdc">Monorrhini Acrania</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">CAMBRIAN</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Slates, Limestone, Conglomerates</td> - <td class="tdc">Sea-weeds, Sponges, Star-fishes Sea-lilies, -Shell-fish, First land plant</td> - <td class="tdc">Himatega Turbellaria Gastrœada</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">HURONIAN</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Partially Metamorphosed Limestone, Sandstone, -Slates, and Conglomerates</td> - <td class="tdc">Lowly organized Molluscs</td> - <td class="tdc">Ciliata Synamœbæ Amœbæ</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">LAURENT­IAN</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Highly Metamorphosed Limestone</td> - <td class="tdc">Fossil Foraminifera (Protozoa)</td> - <td class="tdc">Monera (Bioplasm)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">AZOIC</td> - <td class="tdc">PLUTONIC</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Molten Granite & Quartz -Partially or Wholly Igneous. Base of all rocks</td> - <td class="tdc">No life remains</td> - <td class="tdc">No life remains</td> -</tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center">TERTIARY PERIOD IN EUROPE.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">RECENT</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">IRON AGE & HISTORIC ERA</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">BRITAIN AN ISLAND</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">BRONZE AGE—Homo Semi-cultus</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE TEMPERATE—Neolithic man</td> - <td class="tdc">LAND SINKING</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="9">PLEISTOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE—Palæolithic man -& Neolithic man</td> - <td class="tdc" >CONTINENTAL CONDITION</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE SLIGHTLY MILDER Palæolithic and -Neolithic man</td> - <td class="tdc" >LAND RISING</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">GLACIAL EPOCH OF MODERATE INTENSITY</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="4">BRITISH<br />ARCHIPELAGO</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE TEMPERATE—Palæolithic man</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL—Palæolithic man</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE TEMPERATE—Palæolithic man</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE</td> - <td class="tdc" >CONTINENT<br />SINKING</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">GLACIAL EPOCH OF GREAT INTENSITY</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="4">LAND RISING IN NORTH ENGLAND, -FRANCE, SCOTLAND AND NORWAY UNITED.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE—Palæolithic men or Ape-men</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="4">PLEIOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">NEWER</td> - <td class="tdc">WEYBOURNE SANDS</td> - <td class="tdc">CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE.<br />Existence of Cromer Forest -Palæolithic men or ape-men.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">NORWICH CRAG</td> - <td class="tdc">CLIMATE CLIMATE WARM-TEMPERATE.<br />Sub-tropical fauna & flora.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">OLDER</td> - <td class="tdc">RED CRAG</td> - <td class="tdc">CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">CONTINENT SINKING IN NORTH & WEST. EUROPE SEPARATED -FROM AMERICA & BRITAIN FROM NORWAY. ENGLAND, IRELAND & FRANCE UNITED.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">CORALLINE CRAG</td> - <td class="tdc">Apes. Bears. Hyænas. Sub-tropical flora.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">MEIOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc">UPPER</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"> CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL<br /> Antelopes. Gazelles. Tropical & -Sub-tropical flora.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">CONTINENT RISING ON SOUTH-EAST OF BRITAIN. -DENMARK & ENGLAND UNITED</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">MIDDLE</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Mastodon. Rhinoceros. Anthropomorphous -Apes. Sloths. Anteaters.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">LOWER</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Placental mammals. Very few Marsupials. -Tropical flora.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">EOCENE</td> - <td class="tdc">UPPER</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"> CLIMATE TROPICAL<br /> Anehitheres. Hyænodon. Lemur. -Tapir-like beasts.</td> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">EUROPO-AMERICAN CONTINENTAL CONDITION. -DENMARK & ENGLAND UNITED</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">MIDDLE</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Lion-like Carnivora.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">LOWER</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Marsupials. Reptiles. Birds.</td> -</tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a><br /><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a><br /><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">EOCENE SEAS<br />After Dawkins</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">PLEIOCENE SEAS<br />After Dawkins</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a><br /><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a><br /><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">PLEISTOCENE SUBMERGENCE<br /> -DURING TEMPERATE INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH<br /> -(South of England and France only submerged during the<br /> -—GLACIAL PERIOD OF SUBMERGENCE)<br /> -(After Lyell)</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">PLEISTOCENE EUROPE<br /> -DURING POST-GLACIAL CONTINENTAL CONDITION<br /> -After Dawkins</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a><br /><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a><br /><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">SKELETON OF MAN</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">SKELETON OF GORILLA SKELETON OF CHIMPANZEE</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a><br /><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a><br /><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_078a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Outlines of the skulls of a Chimpanzee, the Neanderthal -man, and a modern European. After Lyell.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_078b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> Outline of the skulls of the Neanderthal man, a modern - Australian, and the Engis man. After Lyell.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_079a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">SIDE VIEW OF SKULLS (After Tyler)<br /> -A. AUSTRALIAN (PROGNATHOUS).<br /> -B. AFRICAN (PROGNATHOUS).<br /> -C. EUROPEAN (ORTHOGNATHOUS).</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_079b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">AUSTRALIAN TYPE OF SKULL. (After Topinard.)</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a><br /><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="MANS_ANTIQUITY">MAN’S ANTIQUITY.</h2> - - -<p>When we reflect on the magnitude of the pre-Christian -Alexandrian libraries, as well as the magnificent appointments -attaching to and lavish wealth expended upon the -ancient University of the capital of the Ptolemies, we -seem almost unable to realise the fact that people of -education and intellect, until quite lately, believed that -all this intellectual and literary magnificence had reached -that pitch of excellence in the short space of less than -four thousand years. In this period of time it was -believed that man had so far risen in intellectual capacity -from the absolutely ignorant condition of the first pair -as described in Genesis as to have reached that state of -mental perfection possessed by the professors in the -Alexandrian, Athenian, and Sicilian schools. We can see -Professor Euclid pointing out on the blackboard how, -the sides of a rectilinear polygon all touching a circle, -the area of the polygon is equal to the rectangle contained -by the radius of the circle and the semi-perimeter -of the polygon; Professor Archimedes would be explaining -the theory that, if a force act upon a body, the -measure of the force in absolute units is numerically -equal to the time-rate of change of momentum and to -the space-rate of change of kinetic energy; Professor -Eratosthenes would be impressing upon his class the importance -of the knowledge of the globular shape of the -earth; and Professor Hipparchus would be startling his -hearers by stating that he would show them how the -failure of the sun to reach the same point in the same -time in his annual circuit (according to the old geocentric -theory) caused the vernal equinoxial sign to give place -to the next zodiacal sign every 2,152 years.</p> - -<p>Here was a galaxy of intellectual attainments indeed! -With such a picture before our eyes we are calmly asked -to believe that so little time as less than four thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> -years had been sufficient for the building up of this vast -intellectual edifice out of such rude materials as the man -and woman of Eden, when the two thousand years -following have been productive of so little advancement, -notwithstanding the exquisite materials upon which to -work that were left for us by the Alexandrian and -Athenian sages. We cannot believe so evident an -absurdity to-day; and yet it is little more than half a -century since the whole of Christendom accepted without -any doubt whatever the old traditional statement of the -Church that man had only inhabited this earth for rather -less than six thousand years.</p> - -<p>How is it, then, that we have believed the traditionary -story for so long and now reject it as absurd? People -have believed the story of the creation according to -Genesis partly because it was dangerous to do otherwise -and partly because there was no absolute proof to the -contrary. In 1774, however, a German of the name of -Esper made a discovery which gave the finishing touch -to the mortal wound inflicted upon the Christian and -Jewish superstitions by the previous adoption of the -Copernican system of astronomy; and, just as Copernicus, -Bruno, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton -drove the first half-dozen nails into the coffin of the -Bible, so did this discovery of Esper drive into it the -first of the last half-dozen, the remaining five to be -subsequently added by Darwin, Huxley, Lyell, Spencer, -and Carpenter. The discovery made by J. F. Esper -consisted of some human bones, mingled with remains -of the Northern bear and other species then unknown, -which were lying in the famous cavern of Gailenreuth, -in Bavaria; and this was soon followed by the discovery, -in 1797, by John Frere, at Hoxne, in Suffolk, of a -number of flint weapons, mixed up with bones of extinct -animals, the whole being embedded in rocks. These -and other similar discoveries made some sensation among -scientific men, which resulted in the publication, in 1823, -of Dr. Buckland’s “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” in which -the author summed up all the facts then known tending -to the establishment of the truth that man co-existed -with animals long since extinct. Immediately after this, -in 1826, Tournal, of Narbonne, gave to the world an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> -account of some discoveries he had made in a cave in -Aude (France), where he had found bones of the bison -and reindeer, cut and carved by the hand of man, -together with remains of edible shell-fish, which must -have been brought there by some one who dwelt there. -A few years afterwards De Christol, of Montpellier, -discovered human bones and fragments of pottery, mixed -with the remains of the Northern bear, hyæna, and -rhinoceros, in the caverns of Pondres and Souvignargues. -In 1833 Schmerling found in the caverns of Engis and -Enghihoul, in Belgium, two human skulls, surrounded -by teeth of the rhinoceros, elephant, bear, and hyæna, -on some of which were marks of human workmanship, -and under which were flint knives and arrow-heads. -Two years afterwards Joly, a Montpellier professor, -found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère) the skull of a -cave-bear, having upon it marks made by an arrow, -beside which were scattered fragments of pottery bearing -the imprints of human fingers. Following upon these -discoveries were those made in 1842 by Godwin Austen -at Kent’s Cavern, near Torquay, consisting of animal -remains and results of man’s handiwork; and those -made in 1844, by Lund, in the caves of Brazil, consisting -of skeletons of thirty human beings, an ape, various -carnivora, rodents, pachyderms, sloths, etc. Kent’s -Cavern, in 1847, was again the spot to which all eyes -were turned; for there McEnery had found, under a -layer of stalagmite, the remains of men and extinct -animals. This remarkable discovery was followed, in the -same year, by the appearance of a work by Boucher -de Perthes, of Abbeville, in which he described the -flint tools, etc., found in the excavations made there and -in the Somme valley as far as Amiens. In 1857 the -celebrated Neanderthal skull was discovered; and in -1858 Prestwich, Falconer, and Pengelly (Englishmen) -found more flint implements in the lower strata of the -Baumann cave, in the Hartz mountains, at the same time -that Gosse <i>fils</i> obtained from the sand-pits of Grenelle -various flint implements and bones of the mammoth; -while in the following year Fontan discovered in the -cave of Massat (Ariége) utensils, human teeth, and -bones of the cave-bear, hyæna, and cave-lion. Near<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> -Bedford, about the same time, Wyatt found, in the gravel-beds, -flints similar to those found at Abbeville, and bones -of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, horse, -and deer; which discovery was soon followed by that -of the celebrated human burial place at Aurignac, by -Lartet, in 1860, in which were found human remains, -together with bones of the bear, reindeer, bison, hyæna, -wolf, mammoth, and rhinoceros, a number of flint and -horn implements, and the remaining ashes of fires. The -world was at last induced to give some heed to the new -cry of man’s extreme antiquity when Boucher de Perthes, -of Abbeville, in 1863, discovered at Moulin-Quignon, -at a depth of fifteen feet, in a virgin argilo-ferruginous -bed belonging to the later Pleiocene or early Pleistocene -period, the half of a human lower jaw-bone (which had -belonged to an aged person of small stature), covered -with an earthy crust, by the side of which lay a flint -hatchet, covered with the same kind of crust; and not -far from which were also buried, in the same bed, two -mammoths’ teeth. After this discovery scientific men -generally subscribed to the new theory of the antiquity -of man, and all seemed eager to pursue their investigations -without delay, the result being that we are now -receiving, almost day by day, fresh evidence on the -subject, and hope soon to arrive at a tolerably accurate -conclusion as to the earliest date of man’s appearance -upon earth.</p> - -<p>Let us now look more closely at the discoveries made -in the various caves referred to above, and also see what -advances had been made by geologists in other directions -during the same period, as well as what amount of -progress has been made during the last twenty years. -Dr. Schmerling, the Belgian geologist and comparative -anatomist, after exploring the Engis and other caves in -the province of Liège, published an illustrated work, -giving the results of his investigations, which were highly -interesting, and contributed largely to the establishment -of the theory of man’s antiquity. In these caves -Schmerling found the bones of the cave-bear, hyæna, -elephant, and rhinoceros, together with human bones, -none of which gave any evidence of having been gnawed, -from which circumstance it was inferred that these caves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> -had not been the dwelling-places of wild beasts; and the -fact that the bones were scattered about without any -order having been observed in their distribution pointed -to the conclusion that the caves had not been used as -burying-places. Probably, therefore, these remains had -been washed into the caves from time to time, and had -gradually become covered with deposit, and thus protected -and preserved. There were no complete skeletons -found; but in the Engis cave were discovered the -remains of at least three human beings, the skull of -one being embedded by the side of a mammoth’s tooth, -and in such a state of disintegration that it fell to pieces -on being moved; while the skull of another, an adult, -was buried, five feet deep, by the side of a tooth of a -rhinoceros, several bones of a horse, and some reindeer -bones. Besides the bones, there were also discovered -some rude flint implements, a polished bone needle, and -other products of man’s industry, all embedded in the -same layer as the bones. It follows from these facts -that man lived on the banks of the Meuse at the same -time as the rhinoceros, mammoth, hyæna, and cave-bear, -extinct animals of the Pleiocene and early Pleistocene -era.</p> - -<p>Not far from these caves are those of the Lesse -Valley, in which Dupont discovered, in 1864, three -different layers of human and other remains, the lowest -of which contained the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, -and other extinct animals, together with flint -instruments of the rudest type, instruments of reindeer -horn, and a human lower jaw with a marked resemblance -to the lower jaw of the higher apes. Another discovery -at some little distance away from these caves was made -in 1857 in what is called the Neanderthal Cave, in the -valley of the Düssel, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld, -which is important, not so much as an indication of the -length of time that man has lived on the earth, as of the -close resemblance existing between the skulls of human -beings in the early Pleistocene era and the skulls of apes. -The discovery consisted of a human skull and a number -of human bones, together with the bones of the rhinoceros, -which latter were subsequently unearthed. The -skull was of such a character as to raise the question of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> -whether it was human or not, the forehead being narrow -and very low and the projection of the supra-orbital -ridges enormously great. The long bones of the skeleton -agreed with those of men of the present day in respect -to length, but were of extraordinary thickness, and the -ridges for the attachment of muscles were developed in -an unusual degree, showing that the individual was -possessed of great muscular strength, especially in the -thoracic neighbourhood. Drs. Schaafhausen and Fuhlrott -pointed out that the depression of the forehead was not -due to any artificial pressure, as the whole skull was -symmetrical, and that the individual must have been -distinguished by an extraordinarily small cerebral development -as well as uncommon corporeal strength. Professor -Huxley considers this Neanderthal skull to be the -most ape-like one he ever beheld, and Busk, a great -authority, gives valuable reasons for supposing it to be -the skull of an individual occupying a position midway -between the man and the gorilla or chimpanzee. Huxley -has carefully compared the Engis and Neanderthal -skulls, and his remarks upon them are given in their -entirety in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.” From these -remarks we gather that the Engis skull was dolichocephalic -in form, extreme length 7.7 inches, extreme -breadth not more than 5.25 inches, forehead well arched, -superciliary prominences well but not abnormally developed, -horizontal circumference 20½ inches, longitudinal -arc from nasal spine to occipital protuberance 13¾ -inches, transverse arc from one auditory foramen to the -other, across the middle of the sagittal suture, 13 inches. -The Neanderthal skull is so different from the Engis -skull that Huxley says “it [Neanderthal] might well be -supposed to belong to a distinct race of mankind.” It -is 8 inches in extreme length, 5.75 inches in breadth, -and only 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital line to -the vertex; the longitudinal arc is 12 inches, and the -transverse arc probably about 10¼ inches, but, owing -to incompleteness of temporal bones, this could not be -correctly ascertained; the horizontal circumference is -23 inches, which high figure is due to the vast development -of the superciliary ridges; and the sagittal suture, -notwithstanding the great length of the skull, only 4½<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> -inches. Huxley sums up his examination of the Neanderthal -skull in these words: “There can be no doubt -that, as Professor Schaafhausen and Mr. Busk have -stated, this skull is the most brutal of all known human -skulls, resembling those of the apes, not only in the prodigious -development of the superciliary prominences and -the forward extension of the orbits, but still more in the -depressed form of the brain-case, in the straightness of -the squamosal suture, and in the complete retreat of the -occiput forward and upward from the superior occipital -ridges;” and he then proceeds to clearly show -that the skull could not have belonged to an idiot. On -the whole, the Engis skull more clearly approaches the -Caucasian type, while the Neanderthal differs entirely -from all known human skulls, being more nearly allied -to the chimpanzee than to the human. Both these -skulls belonged to individuals who lived in the early -Pleistocene era, the Engis being probably the older of -the two, and yet the Engis is the most like the modern -European skull, which tells us plainly that in those -remote times there were existing in Belgium and the surrounding -districts two different races of men, one highly -advanced in brain evolution and the other in a -wretchedly low condition of intellectual development. -The Neanderthal skull probably formed part of an individual -belonging to the tail-end of a semi-human race, -while the Engis skull, in all probability, belonged to an -oriental immigrant belonging to a more advanced race. -It must be always remembered that scientific men have -long since admitted the truth of the theory that the differences -in character between the brain of the highest -races of men and that of the lowest, though less in degree, -are of the same order as those which separate the human -from the ape brain, the same rule holding good in regard -to the shape of the skull.</p> - -<p>The discoveries made in Kent’s Cavern, in the year -1842 and again in 1847, led to a thorough investigation -of the series of galleries forming the now celebrated -Brixham Caves, near Torquay, and as early as 1859 the -labours of the explorers were rewarded by the discovery -of a number of flint implements in the cave-earth or -loam, <em>underneath</em> the layer of stalagmite, which were the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> -work of men living in Palæolithic times, prior to the -existence of the reindeer, whose antlers were found deposited -<em>in</em> the layer of stalagmite. Previous to this time, -when McEnery, in 1826, examined Kent’s Cavern, he had -stated that he had found several teeth of <i>Ursus cultridens</i>, -a huge carnivore belonging to Tertiary formations, but -now extinct; and as this monster was first known in -Meiocene deposits in France, but had never been traced -in any cavern or fluviatile Pleistocene deposits, although -it had occurred in Pleiocene formations, considerable -excitement was caused on the score that the flint implements -lately found might possibly have belonged to -Meiocene, or at latest early Pleiocene men. Further -investigations were accordingly commenced for the purpose -of solving this problem, the explorations being -under the superintendence of Messrs. Vivian and Pengelley; -and in 1872 they at last came upon a fine -incisor of <i>Ursus cultridens</i> in the uppermost part of the -cave-earth, which settled the point as to man’s existence -at the same time with the extinct bear in England. The -Kent’s Cavern deposits are as follows:—1. Limestone. -2. Black mould, containing articles of mediæval, Romano-British, -and pre-Roman date. 3. Stalagmite floor, from -16 to 20 inches thick, containing a human jaw and -remains of extinct animals. 4. Black earth, containing -charcoal and other evidence of fire, and also bone and -flint instruments. 5. Red cave-earth, containing Palæolithic -implements and bones and teeth of extinct animals, -such as cave-lion, mammoth, rhinoceros, and hyæna, and -including the tooth of the <i>Ursus cultridens</i>, or <i>Machairodus -latidens</i>. 6. Second stalagmite floor, from 3 to -12 feet thick, covering bones of bears only. 7. Dark -red sandy loam, containing bones of bears, three flint -implements, and one flint chip. The fact of the <i>Ursus -cultridens</i> being contemporary in England with man is -of enormous interest to geologists and anthropologists, -for it places the date of Palæolithic man as far back as -the Pleiocene age, instead of, as heretofore, in the -Pleistocene.</p> - -<p>The caves of the Dordogne Valley in south-western -France have supplied us with some very good relics of a -very remote period. They are situated in rocks of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> -Cretaceous age, and form shelters in which ancient huntsmen -used to find dwelling-places, leaving behind them -refuse-heaps and instruments of various kinds. In the -Vezère Caves, which are included in the Dordogne -series, there is one of very ancient date, Le Moustier, -in which is a bed of sand having both above and below -floors of a similar character, containing charcoal, flint -instruments, and other remains. The depth of this sandy -bed is about 10 inches, having the appearance of a river -deposit; and, although many flint instruments have been -found in it of a more ancient date than those unearthed -in the other caves, yet no worked bone instruments have -been discovered. In another cave, the Langerie, bronze -and polished stone objects have been found, together -with various kinds of pottery, below which, and under -masses of fallen rock, covered with Palæolithic flints -and sculptured bones and antlers of reindeer, a human -skeleton was discovered lying under a block of stone. -In another cave, La Madeleine, was found a mammoth -tusk, on which was rudely carved a picture of the animal -itself, proving incontestably that cave-men lived here in -mammoth times. In the Mentone cave Dr. Rivière, in -1872, suddenly came upon the bones of a human foot, -which caused him to make a very careful examination of -the deposit, the result being that he unearthed an entire -human skeleton at a depth of 20 feet, surrounded by a -large number of unpolished flint flakes and scrapers, and -a fragment of a skewer, about six inches long. No metal, -pottery, or polished flint was found; but bones of extinct -mammals were scattered about, thus suggesting a remote -Palæolithic antiquity. The skeleton is 5 feet 9 inches -high, the skull dolichocephalic, forehead narrow, temple -flattened, and facial angle measuring 80 to 85 degrees; -the teeth were worn flat by eating hard food, and the -long bones are strong and flattened.</p> - -<p>No human bones have as yet been discovered in the -deposit of the Somme valley, where so many Palæolithic -flints have been found; but in the valley of the Seine, at -Clichy, Messrs. Bertrand and Reboux found, in 1868, -portions of human skeletons in the same beds where -Palæolithic implements had been embedded. These -bones were found at a depth of seventeen feet, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> -included a female skull of very inferior type, having -enormously thick frontal bone and a low, narrow roof, -slanting from before backwards. A very good specimen of -human fossil is that known as the “Denise Fossil Man,” -comprising the remains of more than one skeleton found -in a volcanic breccia near Le Puy-en-Velay, in Central -France. These bones have been very carefully examined -by the members of the French Scientific Congress, as -also the deposit in which they were found, and the -opinion arrived at is that the fossils are genuine and their -age early Pleistocene. Another most interesting specimen -of ancient human remains is the skeleton found buried -under four Cypress forests, superimposed one upon the -other, in the delta of the Mississippi, near New Orleans, -at a depth of sixteen feet. Dr. Dowler ascribes to this -skeleton an antiquity of at least 50,000 years, reckoning -by the minimum length of time that must have elapsed -during the formation of the deposits found and the sinking -of the four successive forest beds. In another part -of the same delta, near Natchez, a human bone, <i lang="la">os -innominatum</i>, accompanied by bones of the mastodon -and megalonyx, was washed out of what is believed to be -a still more ancient alluvial deposit. Dr. Dickeson, in -whose possession the said bone is now, states that it -was buried at a depth of thirty feet, and geologists agree -that its date is very early, some maintaining that it is -probably of a higher antiquity than any yet discovered.</p> - -<p>From these discoveries it is abundantly evident that -man existed on the earth contemporaneously with the -mastodon and other extinct mammals belonging to the -Pleiocene and early Pleistocene eras. There are, however, -people who stoutly deny that this can be so—at -any rate, as regards Northern and Central Europe—and -who rank the discoveries at Moulin Quignon, Engis, -Kent’s Cavern, etc., with late Pleistocene remains. -They maintain that the beds in which these relics were -found could not have been of Pleiocene or early Pleistocene -formation, inasmuch as they lie <em>above</em> the till and -boulder-clay which form the glacial deposits of the time -when Europe was an Arctic region—that is to say, of -late Pleistocene times. Therefore, they say, man’s -earliest existence in Europe was post-glacial or late<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> -Pleistocene. But while the fact of the human remains -having been discovered above the boulder-clay appears -to point to a post-glacial date, still there is confronting -us the perplexing anomaly of the contemporary -existence of extinct mammals belonging to a tropical -fauna, which, if we accept this theory, involves the necessity -of admitting that a tropical climate followed the -last glacial epoch—a condition of things that we know -never existed at all. The fact is there have been more -periods of glaciation than one, each being followed by -the deposition of boulder-clays; and between the periods -of intense Arctic cold there were intervals of tropical or -sub-tropical heat, when mammals belonging to and -requiring a tropical climate ventured as far north as -the north of England, to become extinct when the period -of glaciation supervened. The last glacial period, we -know, extended its area of influence as far as the high -peaks of Switzerland and Northern Italy, completely -overwhelming the whole of Northern Europe as far south -as the latitude of 45°, and the whole of North America -as far south as the latitude of 40°; since when there has -been a gradual diminution of cold until the present temperate -climate supervened. Now, if it can be positively -ascertained that all the boulder-clays found in England -and Northern Europe were deposited during and immediately -after this last glacial period, the date of man’s -first appearance in those districts, as far as we have as -yet any evidence, must be post-glacial; but in such a -case it would have been impossible that a tropical fauna -and flora could have existed in the same localities, -whereas their remains have been abundantly found lying -side by side with the remains of Palæolithic man. The -conclusion we must draw is that the boulder-clays found -below the remains of Palæolithic man could not have -been deposited after the last period of glaciation, but -must have followed some prior glacial condition, and -that man existed in England and Northern Europe contemporaneously -with extinct mammalia during inter-glacial -or pre-glacial times, when the climate of England -was tropical or sub-tropical—that is to say, in middle -Pleistocene or late Pleiocene times. If man really -existed in England in Pleiocene times, in favour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> -which view there appears to be strong evidence, he would -have been in all probability the companion of the extinct -tropical mammalia found deposited in the Cromer Forest -beds, and some of which belonged to Meiocene times. -This forest was in existence at the close of the Pleiocene -era, and stretched from Cromer far away into what is -now the German Ocean, uniting Norfolk and Suffolk to -Holland and Belgium; but soon after the commencement -of the Pleistocene period the North Sea gradually -swept over the old continent between Britain on the -west and Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands on the -east, thus converting the old forest at Cromer into the -bed of the ocean, where the stumps of the trees may -now be seen embedded in deposit at very low tide. -Immediately after the disappearance of this forest the -first period of glaciation commenced, from which moment -until the close of the glacial periods the alternations in -temperature and surface level were frequent and of enormous -magnitude, the correct sequence of which changes -we have as yet no proper conception.</p> - -<p>If we go back to the commencement of the Tertiary -great division of the geological periods, we shall find -that, at the beginning of the Eocene deposits, the -Secondary cretaceous rocks had been upheaved from the -bottom of the sea, and had become the dry ground of -a large continent, of which the British Islands formed a -part; so that Eocene fauna and flora in England had -free communication with continental life. The relative -positions of land and water during this first Tertiary -period were as follows: The great continent spread from -North America to Europe, uniting Canada, Greenland, -Iceland, Faroes, Shetlands, Orkneys, Ireland, and Britain -(except south-east portion), with Scandinavia and Spitzbergen -on the north-east, and with France (Brittany) and -Spain on the south. There were three seas—the North -Sea, which, like a wedge with its point downwards, -separated Greenland, Iceland, and Faroes from Spitzbergen -and Scandinavia; the South-Eastern Sea, which -stretched from the top of Denmark to Boston in Lincolnshire, -thence to Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire, and on to -Cherbourg, covering the whole of the east and south-east -of England; and the Atlantic, which was separated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> -from the North Sea by Iceland, Faroes, and intermediate -lands, and from the South-Eastern Sea by the British -Islands, Western France, and intermediate lands. These -Eocene seas teemed with fish now only found in more -Southern latitudes; while the inland lakes and rivers -abounded with reptilian life. On the land tropical flora -and fauna flourished, among the former being palms, -cypresses, and giant cacti, and among the latter, in -Lower Eocene times, large numbers of marsupial species, -in the Middle Eocene also lion-like carnivora, and in -Upper Eocene tapir-like animals, herds of Anchitheres -(ancestors of the horse), Hyænodon (ancestors of hyæna), -and Lemurs. The Miocene period opened with a lower -temperature than that of the Eocene, and with a considerable -difference of surface level in Denmark and on -the South of England, the land having been upheaved -to such an extent as to leave no part of the country under -water, uniting Yorkshire with Denmark, and dividing -the South-Eastern Sea into two portions, the Northern -one stretching from Schleswig as far as a few miles from -the present Lincolnshire coast and then back to the -present mouth of the Scheldt; and the latter stretching -from Boulogne-sur-Mer to Hastings and Portland Bill, -and back to Cherbourg. Otherwise the relationship -between land and water was much the same as in Eocene -times. The climate of the Meiocene period was sub-tropical, -and in the lower strata were found placental -mammals, but few marsupials; in the middle beds -remains of the mastodon, rhinoceros, anthropomorphous -apes, sloths, and ant-eaters; and in the upper layers -antelopes and gazelles; but no mammalian species in -any Meiocene deposit has continued to present times, -all having become extinct. When we arrive at the -Pleiocene age we have quite a different state of things; -the Atlantic and North Seas gradually united together, -thus separating Europe from Faroes, Iceland, Greenland, -and North America; and on the east of Britain -the North Sea slowly descended as far as the present -mouth of the Thames, thus separating Britain from -Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands; while the two -Southern seas disappeared altogether, leaving a huge -continent, the borders of which stretched from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> -present west coast of Norway to Denmark, the Netherlands, -across to Essex, central Norfolk (east Norfolk -and Suffolk being part of North Sea), and up to the -Shetlands, at which point a turn was made south to a -few miles west of present west coast of Ireland, and -thence southward to a few miles west of present coast -of Brittany, in France, thus leaving the British Isles, -France, and the rest of Europe as one large continent. -To accomplish these enormous changes, a very long time -was required, during which the climate was gradually -becoming more temperate, being in older Pleiocene -times sub-tropical and in newer Pleiocene warm-temperate; -while the fauna and flora gradually became less -tropical in kind. The older Pleiocene deposits are -divided into coralline crag and reg crag, while the newer -Pleiocene consist of Norwich crags and Weybourne -sands, on a level with which latter was the Cromer -forest, submerged by the North Sea during the earlier -Pleistocene period.</p> - -<p>At this point commence those enormous alterations in -the surface level and climate of this part of the world -which produced such extraordinary results, and during -which man made his first appearance in Britain. At the -very commencement of the Pleistocene era the temperature -in Britain was lowered to such an extent as to produce -a sudden disappearance of the semi-tropical fauna -and flora: the land had reached the high elevation of -500 feet above the present level, joining Scotland and -Scandinavia, and there had appeared in the North Sea -large blocks of ice, which rapidly increased in size and -quantity, and continually pushed farther south, until at -length, after a long lapse of time, the whole of Northern -Europe, Asia, and America as far as the latitude of -about 45° became like a huge ice-house, the Arctic cold -driving all life before it to a more southern latitude, those -forms which had lived in Britain during Meiocene and -Pleiocene times being the first to disappear on the earliest -sign of the approaching cold, and the Arctic flora and -fauna which took their place being afterwards compelled -also to move southward, owing to the intense severity -of the glaciation.</p> - -<p>When this state of things had lasted a very considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> -time the climate became milder, the melting ice deposited -its boulder-clay, and the high continent commenced to -sink again to its former level, during which gradual submergence -the climate became still warmer, until it at -length reached a more than temperate mildness, at one -time being almost tropical. Still the land continued to -sink, and this submergence lasted until the British part -of the great continent had become a large archipelago of -small islands, the surface of the land being upwards of -one thousand feet below the present level. It has been -calculated that such a submergence would require at the -least 88,000 years to be completed; so that a general -idea may be formed of the enormous periods of time -occupied by these glacial and inter-glacial epochs. While -the British archipelago existed, another change of -climate took place, resulting in another glacial period, -but probably not of such intensity as the previous -one. At this period the upper boulder clay was -deposited in the sea, to be afterwards upheaved above -the sea level in Yorkshire and other places. After a -long continuance of this glaciation the land commenced -to rise again and the climate to improve, until, after a -period of about 136,000 years (according to careful -computation), there was produced another continental -condition, the ground reaching about 600 feet higher than -now, and the climate becoming temperate once more. -England, Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, Denmark, the -Netherlands, France, and Spain once again formed a -mighty continent, the climate of which was cold-temperate, -becoming milder year by year, and the elevation of -which was gradually declining, as it has continued to do -until the present time, the British islands slowly becoming -once more separated from the continent of Europe. -During the last temperate continental condition Palæolithic -and Neolithic man lived in Britain, as is clearly -proved by the evidence brought forward by various -authors in support of the contention; but, as we have -seen, Palæolithic man’s remains discovered in the various -deposits were often in the company of the bones of -extinct mammals belonging to a tropical fauna, which -species could not have existed in Britain with such a -climate as that which followed the last period of glaciation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> -but must have lived either in pre-glacial times, or, -in other words, at the end of Pleiocene or very beginning -of Pleistocene times, or else in inter-glacial or mid-Pleistocene -times; and whichever alternative be adopted -we are bound to fix the date of the Palæolithic remains -at the same period. To fix their date in the very earliest -of Pleistocene, or latest of Pleiocene times, would give -them an antiquity of nearly 300,000 years; to fix it in -mid-Pleistocene times, during the temperate or inter-glacial -period of submergence, would give them an antiquity -of upwards of 170,000 years; and to fix it in post-glacial -times would give them an antiquity of probably -70,000 or 80,000 years at most. The inter-glacial theory -would, on the whole, appear most likely to be the correct -one, were it not for the fact that, during the inter-glacial -period, this country was partially submerged, which would -probably have prevented any communication in those -times between the islands and the mainland. We must, -however, not forget that the great submergence commenced -during the first period of glaciation, and did not -cease until the second period had been reached, so that -the inter-glacial period of warmth would take place when -England and Scotland were but little different from now -in their relationship to the continent, and long before the -archipelago was formed. Whether it would have been -possible under these conditions for Palæolithic man to -cross from the continent to the British islands we cannot -say; but the probability is that the distance to travel by -water would have been far too great in such early times; -in which case we have no alternative but to place the -date of man’s earliest existence in England at the latest -Pleiocene age, as indeed we are compelled to do by the -fact that Palæolithic implements have been found in -Kent’s cavern side by side with teeth of the extinct bear -of that period, as well as by the discoveries made in the -Engis and other caves.</p> - -<p>In Southern Europe and the Southern States of North -America the glacial epoch had little effect, so that man’s -age upon the earth in those districts will be better calculated -than it can ever be here or in France and Belgium; -and it will not be surprising if we learn before long that -man lived in the districts surrounding the Mediterranean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> -Sea in early Pleiocene times. This sea, it must be recollected, -was almost dried up during the early and -middle Pleistocene periods, and there was no communication -between it and the Atlantic Ocean, so that Europe -was connected both on the east and west with Africa, -and was also one continuous continent with Asia, there -being then no Black Sea and no Caspian Sea. The -probability, therefore, is that man first became a rational -being, parting with his ape-like characteristics, somewhere -in Southern Asia or Northern Africa, or, more -probably still, in the now submerged continent of -Lemuria, which once joined China, India, and Africa in -one continental system; after which he emigrated in -different directions, finding his way north-westwards over -the European continent as far as the very limit of the -Franco-British continental system. At what period man -first existed in the districts around the Mexican Gulf it -is at present impossible to say; but the skull found in -the Mississippi beds is calculated to be at least 50,000 -years old, and by some the date is fixed at 100,000 -years, which would carry us back to middle Pleistocene -times at least. Man, therefore, most probably existed -in Europe long before he had made his appearance in -the new world, although it is quite possible that further -investigation may lead to the discovery of a still more -ancient stock than that to which the Mississippi skull -belonged. How long a time elapsed between the first -appearance of Palæolithic man in Northern Europe, and -the subsequent advent of Neolithic man, it is at present -impossible to say with any degree of certainty; but the -interval must have been of enormous length, for we find -no traces of polished stone implements until the very -close of the Pleistocene era during the last Franco-British -continental system. At this period man had -become much more civilised than his ancestors of the -Palæolithic age; his implements were more ornamental -and better fitted for the purposes for which they were -intended; his mode of life had become more settled; -and he had developed primitive industries. In the -ancient “hut circles” found at Standlake and at Fisherton, -near Salisbury, have been found instruments used for -spinning and weaving, which date back to Neolithic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> -times, also fragments of pottery and stones used for -grinding corn, side by side with the remains of domestic -animals. From this we conclude that Neolithic man was -at this time a companion of domestic animals, a keeper -of flocks and herds, and an agriculturalist. He very soon -became, in addition to this, a miner, as is evident from -the remains found at Cissbury, on the South Downs, and -at Grimes Graves, near Bandon, in Suffolk. Shafts had -been sunk and galleries dug out of the ground in order -to unearth a better kind of flint for manufacturing useful -implements; and in some of these galleries the tools of -the workmen have been discovered, consisting of picks -made out of stags’ antlers, polished stone celts, chisels of -bone and antler, and small cups made of chalk. With -these and other primitive tools the flint had been worked -out in several places, forming deep hollows in and near -which were the remains of birds, sheep, goats, horses, -pigs, and dogs, which evidently had served as companions -to and food for the miners. Canoes, hollowed out of -large trees by the use of fire and axes, have also been -discovered, together with huge paddles for propelling -them; and numerous have been the discoveries of heads -of javelins, arrows, and spears, which were probably used -as weapons of warfare, the population by this time having -grown large and divided itself into small communities -more or less at enmity with each other.</p> - -<p>Similar progress was made by Neolithic man on the -continent of Europe, as we know from the discoveries -made in Switzerland. As early as 1829 very ancient -piles had been discovered in the lake of Zürich, which -have since been found to be the remains of primitive -lake-dwellings, dating from Neolithic times. These -peculiar habitations consisted of wooden houses built on -platforms erected on a number of wooden piles driven -into the bottom of the lake, and were, no doubt, so -constructed with the view of protecting the small colony -from the raids of wild beasts and warlike people from -other parts of the country. Most of these lake-dwellings -were burnt down, their charred remains sinking to the -bottom of the lake, where they have been discovered -together with heaps of corn, pieces of woven and plaited -cloth, mealing or grinding stones, earthenware<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> -implements, nets and mats, and implements of stone, antler, -and bone. Numbers of domestic and other animals were -kept in these dwellings, such as the dog, horse, pig, -sheep, and cow; and fish appears to have been a regular -article of consumption. Similar discoveries have been -made in Denmark by Professor Steenstrup and others, -which show an equal advance in civilisation and culture -during early Neolithic times. Vast accumulations of -refuse matter, in the form of oyster-shells, fish-bones, -and animal remains, have been found near the shores of -the Baltic, the whole being heaped up into mounds, -evidently having formed public refuse-heaps for communities -of settlers. Scattered about were also found -polished stone axes, but no metal implements; while -upon some of the stones were well-drawn engravings, -pointing to a considerable advance in culture; and the -fact that the remains of the domestic animals prove them -to be of southern and eastern origin suggests the probability -that these settlers were immigrants from the -south-east of Europe, where we should expect considerable -advance to have been effected in civilisation.</p> - -<p>It is extremely probable and generally admitted that -man became civilised in oriental countries, and made -his way northwards and westwards, gradually covering -the whole of Europe; so that we should expect the races -of Egypt, Persia, and India to be far more highly cultured -than those who were establishing themselves in the west -at the same time. It would take a very long time indeed -for people to spread themselves from Egypt and Persia -over the whole of Europe, and during all this time they -would naturally, owing to their wandering habits, advance -in civilisation far more slowly than those who remained -in their original homes. At the time, therefore, that -Neolithic man had become a settler in Europe and -Britain we may fairly suppose that Egypt, Persia, and -India were great, powerful, and prosperous states, well -advanced in civilisation and art, and, perhaps, even the -tail-end of a mighty and prosperous civilisation that had -preceded them long ages before. It was probably from -these highly-civilised centres that the discovery of bronze -was carried into Europe, which marked the commencement -of what is called the Bronze or Prehistoric Age,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> -during which period the use of bronze implements -almost entirely superseded that of polished stone -weapons.</p> - -<p>Before the Bronze Age had fairly commenced the last -of the Pleistocene deposits had taken place, and the -recent layers of earth had begun to distribute themselves -upon the older strata; but how long a time has actually -elapsed since the completion of the Pleistocene stratification -has not been accurately ascertained. A rough -approximation to the relative length of the Pleistocene -and Prehistoric periods may be obtained from the fact -that the valleys were cut down by streams flowing through -them as much as a hundred feet deep in the former -period, while the work done by the rivers during the -latter period is measured by the insignificant fluviatile -deposits close to the adjacent streams. We may, therefore, -conclude that the Pleistocene era was, beyond all -calculation, of longer duration than the Prehistoric. It -must not be imagined from this that the Prehistoric -period was a short one, for there have been a series of -changes in the fauna, and a series of invasions of different -races of men into Europe, which must have required a -very long time to have been brought about, judging from -similar changes recorded in history.</p> - -<p>It is believed that, soon after the commencement -of the Bronze Age, an Aryan stream of life poured over -Europe from Central Asia, and finally invaded England, -driving out the old inhabitants and re-stocking the -country with a host of Aryan Celts, who brought with -them the knowledge of bronze manufacture. The defeated -natives retreated to Ireland and the west of England -and Scotland, and finally gave themselves up to their -conquerors, whom they in future served as slaves. Thus -were annihilated the Neolithic men of Britain, and thus -was the use of polished stone weapons superseded by -that of bronze implements. These Celtic invaders, like -their conquered predecessors, lived upon the flesh both -of wild and domestic animals, as is evident from the -discovery made in 1867 at Barton Mere, near Bury St. -Edmunds, where bronze spear-heads were found in and -around large piles and blocks of stone, together with -vast quantities of the broken bones of the stag, roe, wild<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> -boar, hare, urus, horse, ox, hog, and dog, as well as -fragments of pottery. Fire was produced by these men -by striking a flint flake against a piece of iron pyrites, as -is evident from the discovery of these articles in and -around charred remains of fires; thus a great advance -was made in this direction upon the habits of the older -inhabitants, who had only been able to procure fire by -rapidly turning a piece of wood between their two hands, -the point being fixed in a hollow on another piece of -wood, so that the great friction which resulted produced -heat sufficient to generate flame.</p> - -<p>Following the Bronze Age was the Iron Age, during -which period the historic era commenced; and thus we -have not only various discoveries to prove that iron -gradually supplanted bronze, but history bears witness to -the same truth. The Homeric legends abound with feats -performed by heroes who wielded bronze and iron -weapons; and from Hesiod, who wrote nearly five hundred -years before Herodotus, we learn that iron had -already superseded bronze among the Greeks, and that -the archæologists of his day recognised a distinct era of -the past as the Age of Bronze. The probability is that -the discovery of the mode of separating iron from its -ore and turning it into useful articles was made in Asia, -from whence it was afterwards introduced into Europe; -for we find that at the very first appearance of iron in -Britain and France there were iron coins and iron ornaments -in regular use among the people, which articles -were no doubt brought by invading tribes of oriental -people. In the early or prehistoric portion of the Iron -Age the practice of burying the dead at full length -first became known in Britain, cremation having always -been practised previously.</p> - -<p>Having now arrived at historic times, our inquiry into -man’s antiquity need not be further continued. For the -searcher after truth there only now remains the task of -carefully considering the facts here brought forward -and comparing the conclusions arrived at with the old -orthodox story of the creation of the world and man as -found in the Bible. If the story read in the Book of -Nature be a true one, then man has lived upon the -earth several hundred thousand years, and has passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> -from a state of unconscious animal existence, through -innumerable stages of savage, semi-savage, and civilised -conditions, to his present commanding position. If the -story read in the so-called Book of God be a true one, -then the world and man were created less than six -thousand years ago. The reader must judge for himself -which is the truth.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a><br /><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center" id="evolution">PLAN OF EVOLUTION OF<br /> -MIND IN MAN</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <th class="tdc">INDIVIDUAL ASCENT</th> - <th class="tdc">INTELLECTUAL PRODUCTS</th> - <th class="tdc">EMOTIONAL PRODUCTS</th> - <th class="tdc">RACE ASCENT</th> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">15 Yrs.</td> - <td class="tdc">Science</td> - <td class="tdc">Rational Emotion</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Sapiens</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">10 Yrs.</td> - <td class="tdc">Monotheism</td> - <td class="tdc">Melancholy & Ecstasy</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Cultus</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">5 Yrs.</td> - <td class="tdc">Polytheism</td> - <td class="tdc">Reverence, Remorse & Courtesy</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Semi-Cultus</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">3½ Yrs. Fetishism</td> - <td class="tdc">Awe and Appreciation of Art</td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Semi-Ferox</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">3 Yrs.</td> - <td class="tdc">Superstition</td> - <td class="tdc">Avarice, Envy, Hate, Hope, Vanity, Mirth, Love of Beauty</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">2½ Yrs.</td> - <td class="tdc">Definite Morality</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Homo Ferox</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">26 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Judgment, Recollection & Self Consciousness</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Alali</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">22 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Speech</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Semi-Human Apes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">20 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Concerted Action</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">16 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Knowledge of the use of Simple Instruments</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">14 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Articulation</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">13 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Indefinite Morality</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Anthropoid Apes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">8 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">True Reason</td> - <td class="tdc">Pride, Shame, Deceit, Passion, Cruelty & Ludicrousness</td> - <td class="tdc">Monkeys, Dogs & Elephants</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">6 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Understanding of Words</td> - <td class="tdc">Sympathy, Curiosity, Revenge & Gratitude</td> - <td class="tdc">Horses, Pigs & Cats</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">5 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Dreaming</td> - <td class="tdc">Emulation, Jealousy, Joy, Grief.</td> - <td class="tdc">Birds</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">4 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Recognition of Persons</td> - <td class="tdc">Anger</td> - <td class="tdc">Reptiles</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">15 Wks.</td> - <td class="tdc">Recognition of Places</td> - <td class="tdc">Play</td> - <td class="tdc">Insects and Fishes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">14 Wks.</td> - <td class="tdc">Association of Ideas</td> - <td class="tdc">Pugnacity</td> - <td class="tdc">Crustaceans</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">13 Wks.</td> - <td class="tdc">Conscious Memory</td> - <td class="tdc">Fear</td> - <td class="tdc">Crustaceans</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">1 to 2 Mos.</td> - <td class="tdc">Pain and Pleasure</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Vermes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">3 Wks.</td> - <td class="tdc">Consciousness</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Higher Molluscs</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">Birth</td> - <td class="tdc">Imperfect Sense Organs Primary Instincts</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Lower Molluscs</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">Embryo</td> - <td class="tdc">Non-Nervous Adjustment</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Amœbæ</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">Germ</td> - <td class="tdc">Protoplasmic Motion</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">Protoplasm</td> -</tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_105a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">A creeping Amœba, or unicellular Protist that changes -its form continually; with cell-nucleus in the middle, -within which is the nucleolus. After Haeckel.</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_105b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Gastrula of a Gasteropoda (Gastrœada)<br /> -After Haeckel.<br /> -A. Ectoderm. B. Endoderm. C. Mouth. D. Gastric cavity.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a><br /><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="EVOLUTION_OF_MIND">EVOLUTION OF MIND.</h2> - - -<p>It seems hardly credible that there should exist people -who profess to accept the Darwinian theory of development -of species in all its fulness, and yet reject the idea -of the human mind having been evolved by slow stages -from the primitive sense-organ of our lowliest ancestors, -the Protista. Such inconsistency seems almost puerile, -and, were it not for the fact that the admission of this -truth would be the final blow at the various faiths of the -world, we should not be called upon to-day to defend a -position so utterly impregnable as that assumed by -Haeckel and others in regard to the evolution of the -human mind. When education has advanced further -there will, we must hope, be less of this shutting of the -eyes to obvious truths for the mere sake of propping up -for a little while longer the belief in a batch of fairy -tales and preposterous legends. As we look around us -upon the wonderful objects of nature we see everywhere -animation and law; the heavens above are full of life—suns, -planets, moons, and other celestial bodies incessantly -moving to and fro, all bound in their courses -by the immutable laws of nature; the vast ocean, teeming -with myriads of living beings, is incessantly rolling and -roaring like some great monster, but never exceeds the -limits which nature has assigned to its action; and the -whole face of the earth presents a constant scene of -activity of some kind or other—volcanoes discharging -their molten fluid, huge glaciers grinding along the -ground, monster rivers rushing forward with incessant -roar, and the vegetable and animal kingdoms increasing -and multiplying at a marvellous pace. All this is life—in -fact, everything we see around us, of whatever form -or shape, is life of some sort. The very ground upon -which we stand is full of life, each particle of dust being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> -held to its fellow particles by mutual attraction; and -there is not a single atom of the earth’s substance or of -the whole universe that we can say is minus this property -of life or activity; nothing in the universe that we know -of ever remains for one moment in a state of rest; everything -is constantly moving, and every particle of the -whole contributes its own share to the general activity -which we term motion or life. The whole universe is a -huge manifestation of phenomena, which make up the -sum-total of life or activity. The sun rotating on its -axis is one form of life; the moon silently wandering -round our planet is another form of life; the trees and -animals growing and multiplying on the land are other -forms; and every lump of ore taken out of the ground -and every paving stone in our streets are other forms of -life. Every particle of every substance whatever is in a -state of continual motion, and therefore full of life. In -fact, it is this very motion or life that sustains matter; -for matter could not exist—that is, its particles could not -hold together, and thus form substance—without the life, -motion, activity, or whatever we like to term the property -which operates upon them and produces mutual cohesion.</p> - -<p>Life has always, therefore, been active in matter, and -always will be, for life or motion cannot be separated -from matter; and, just as matter has passed from a condition -of homogeneity to one of heterogeneity, so has -life done likewise. Life possesses infinite potentiality, -and manifests itself in an infinite variety of ways by -means of different combinations, which it brings about in -the molecular atoms of universal matter. It acts, for -instance, upon a planet by causing its particles to hold -together in one mass apart from other bodies of a similar -or dissimilar character; it also acts upon what we unscientifically -call inanimate nature by causing its particles -to hold together, forming in one case a stone, in another -a metal, etc.; and it acts upon what we term animated -nature by causing its molecules to combine and procreate. -This power of attraction and cohesion of particles of -universal matter is life, and it depends entirely upon what -particular combination of the molecular atoms of universal -matter takes place whether a sun, a moon, a planet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> -a stone, a crystal, a sponge, a tree, or a man be the -result. This much is certain, however, that not one of -these bodies can ever be produced except by an evolutionary -process subject to the universal and unchangeable -law which fixes the sequence.</p> - -<p>Animal life, as distinct from all other life, is a comparatively -late development or manifestation in the -sequence of universal phenomena. This world on which -we live had existed as a compact body for millions of -ages before life assumed the character of animal life; -and so gradual was the process of evolution from the -primal condition of homogeneity, through all the manifold -stages of life, until the condition of animal life was -reached, that it is impossible to fix a particular moment -when such life became manifest. So it is with every -stage of the evolutionary process; there are no starting-places -for particular species, the whole being one continuous -unfolding of phenomena, without arrest of any -kind.</p> - -<p>It is equally impossible to fix a particular point or -moment for the manifestation of the crystal life as it is -for that of the animal or the vegetable life. All are but -gradual unfoldings of the universal potentiality. Crystal -life is the highest development of what is popularly but -erroneously termed inanimate nature, and differs not one -iota from Moneron life, which is the lowest form of -animal life, in its constituent elements, the only difference -between the two being in the mode of combination -of the elementary particles composing each. The crystal -elements combine in such proportions as to cause the -mass to hold together like other solid bodies, its bulk -being increased by the deposition of fresh particles upon -its outer surface; while the Moneron elements combine -in such a manner as to render the body soft and yielding, -so that it can absorb nutriment from without to within -and multiply by fission. The elements of both are identically -the same: the manner of combination causes the -differences between them. Many learned men declare -that, if this were true, we ought to be able to take the -five elements—viz., Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon, -and Sulphur—in the necessary proportions, and, by -uniting them, form animal life. This, they say, has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> -attempted, and the result has been failure; therefore, -animal life could not have been generated in that manner, -but must have been specially created at some particular -moment. This argument is absurdly unsound. These -persons might just as well say that, to substantiate the -assertion that crystals are formed of a combination of -elementary molecules, we ought to be able to take the -necessary quantity of these elements, and, by uniting -them together, form a crystal; and that, if this cannot -be done, then crystals also require a special creation. -The same argument for a special creation will apply to -every species of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. -Protoplasm is the lowest form of animal life, -differing from the highest form of mineral life only in -the mode of combination of its elementary particles; -but this difference causes the manifestation of fresh -phenomena, in this case as in every other modification -of a previous state of nature, which gives it the appearance -of possessing a property that had not been possessed -by any substance previously, whereas, in truth, the -apparently new property is but a further development of -that previously possessed by inorganic bodies. In short, -the power of absorption possessed by the Moneron is -simply one of the many manifestations of that universal -life or energy that is inherent in all matter, and has been -so from all time; but it is a comparatively late development, -occurring at a particular period in the world’s -history, when the conditions necessary for such a development -were present. Before this period no such -combination of molecular atoms took place with the -same result, simply because the necessary conditions of -development were absent. In the same manner precisely -there was a prior period when no such substance as a -crystal existed, the conditions requisite for the peculiar -combination of molecular atoms to result in the formation -of a crystal having been absent.</p> - -<p>When the world had undergone sufficient evolutionary -development there came a time when such atmospheric -and other conditions were present as to permit of a -modification of the then existing substances and properties, -which resulted in the formation of the crystal; and, -precisely in the same manner, and for the same reason,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> -a further and later modification resulted in the formation -of Protoplasm, which is the earliest form of animal life. -This little substance gradually differentiated into two -distinct parts, by a nucleus being formed in the centre -of the protoplasmic mass, and became possessed with a -peculiar power of locomotion, which caused a still -greater difference to exist between itself and its ancestral -stock. This power of locomotion, again, is but a modification -of that life-power of which we have spoken, and -forms a stepping-stone between the molecular action of -mineral substances and the mental wonders of the human -being. The crystal, in common with all other bodies in -the mineral kingdom, always possessed this power of -locomotion to a limited extent; every one of the individual -atoms which make up the whole substance has -always had the power of locomotion, for they all attract -and repel each other and effect cohesions by their -mutual attraction. This locomotive power underwent -such a modification when cell-life (Protozoa) was manifested -that not only were the constituent molecular -atoms individually possessed of this power, as before, -but the whole mass of the cell became endowed with the -same property, just as a whole continent of free people -who have been in the habit of defending themselves -singly against their enemies sometimes combine and -co-operate with each other in the form of a republic, the -function of the individual being assumed by the body -as a whole. The little cellular organisms, which are -called Amœbæ, possess this extended power of locomotion, -and may be seen constantly moving about in the -endeavour to locate themselves in the brightest part of -their dwelling place, frequently a little pond. They are -attracted by light, which clearly proves that they possess -a degree of sensory perception, although special sense-organs -are of course wanting, the whole mass of the -body being nothing more than a single cell composed of -protoplasm and nucleus. These little cellular organisms -soon unite with each other, forming small bodies composed -of several cells in a state of cohesion (Synamœbæ), -and on the surface of these multicellular organisms are -shortly afterwards thrown out minute threads or ciliae, -the first attempt at separation of sense-organs from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> -surface of the body. In these tiny Protozoa, those -organisms which consist of one single cell only, the -Amœbæ, as well as those consisting of several cells in a -state of union, the Synamœbæ, are able to perform all -the functions of animal life—cohesion, sensation, motion, -digestion, and reproduction; but, as the organism becomes -more and more complex, these different functions -are shared among several groups of cells. This differentiation -proceeds steadily stage by stage, until at last -different senses are located in different parts of the body, -and we find animals possessing eyes, ears, noses, and -mouths, one organ performing the function of sight, -another that of hearing, and so on. All these organs of -sense are but parts of the general nervous organisation -of the body, which is <em>apparently</em> absent in the Protista, -but existing potentially in the protoplasmic substance, -as it also does in every other substance in the universe.</p> - -<p>The ciliated multiple cell-organism, in course of time, -becomes transformed into a hollow body, having a wall -composed of a single layer of cells, and this again, by -invagination, or folding of itself within itself, forms a -double-walled cavity, or Gastrula, having an external -opening like a mouth. These little animals, the Gastrœada, -having an inner layer of cells (the endoderm), -which carries on the nutritive and assimilative functions -of the organism, and an outer layer (the ectoderm), -which forms the general motor and sense-organ of the -body, are the first animal organisms to possess a real -sense-organ separate and distinct from other parts of the -body. From this epidermal organ of sense are developed, -as higher forms of animal life make their appearance, -the nerve-cells and sense-cells which form the -whole nervous system.</p> - -<p>In the fresh-water polyp, or Hydra, which is wanting -in distinct organs of sense and nervous system, we find -a remarkable sensitiveness to touch, warmth, and light, -individual ectodermic neuro-muscular cells performing -these functions, but a far greater sensibility being exhibited -in the circle of fine prehensible tentacles surrounding -the mouth than elsewhere. Here we have a marked -attempt at localisation of sense-organs, and a manifestation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> -of instinct, which makes the little animal shrink -from the touch.</p> - -<p>From the Hydræ evolved the Medusæ, which, instead -of being dependent entirely on neuro-muscular cells like -the parent forms, developed minute sets of nerves and -muscles, by the use of which they became enabled to -swim about easily and at their own will and pleasure. -We get in this little animal the first appearance of real -nerve function, or conductibility of stimulus along the -nervous fibre to a muscle which it causes to contract—a -totally different function to the contraction of the whole -body upon a stimulus being applied to it, as in the case -of the Hydræ.</p> - -<p>In the worm forms, which evolve from the Gastrœada, -we come across the first attempt at special sense-organ -formation, in the shape of depressions on the integument -of the body. The Himatega, or sack-worms, -possess a rudimentary spinal cord, and were the parents -of the first true vertebrates, organisms without skulls -or brains, but with a true vertebral cord. These little -vermiform animals, in addition to their rudimentary -spinal cords, exhibited upon the surface of the body -several small depressions, which answered the purpose of -a set of special sense-organs, one tiny depression being -set apart especially for the perception of light waves, -another for the perception of sound waves, another -for the perception of odours, etc.; and thus gradually -came about that wonderful evolutionary process by which -bodies became endowed with more or less perfect special -sense-organs.</p> - -<p>As the animal kingdom developed into higher and -higher forms of life, and skulls and brains became the -order of the day, the special sense-organs became -possessed of larger powers, at the same time that the -whole nervous organisation assumed higher and more -complex functions, resulting eventually in a very gradual -unfolding of the most wonderful of all the latent potentialities -of universal life—the marvel of consciousness. -This is the present climax of Nature’s evolution, the -grandest and most awful achievement of that hidden and -mysterious force which baffles comprehension, and beside -which all things seen, heard, or felt pale into insignificance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> - -<p>To point out the precise method of the evolution of -mind, step by step, until the final climax of consciousness -was reached, would require an abler pen than mine; -therefore I shall be content to briefly notice the different -products of intellectual development in the order in -which they are unfolded, showing the analogy between -ontogenesis, or the life-history of the individual, and -phylogenesis, or that of the whole race, not now as -regards bodily, but only mental, evolution. We must -ever remember that the biogenetic law insists that the -process of development in the race is reflected in miniature -in the embryonic history of every individual. In -other words, it is, beyond doubt, an accepted article of -faith with biologists that the development of the individual -from the embryo <i lang="la">in utero</i> to the full-grown man is -an exact counterpart of the development of the whole -race from the primitive protoplasmic atom, the lowly -Moneron, to <i lang="la">homo sapiens</i>, equally in regard to mental -as to bodily evolution.</p> - -<p>Every human individual commences his term of separate -existence as a tiny speck of protoplasm, and slowly -advances through the phases of separate cell-life, multicellular -existence, and the gastrula, vermiform, and pisciform -stages, being finally born as a partially-developed -member of the human family, from which moment he -grows rapidly to the perfection of the adult state, having -accomplished, in the short period of about a score of -years, precisely what his counterpart, the race, effected -in many millions of years. During the period in which -the individual dwells <i lang="la">in utero</i> great and rapid modifications -take place in the general construction of the fœtus; -sensory perception makes its appearance very early, being -followed quickly by the first attempt at differentiation of -special sense-organs in the form of tiny surface depressions; -the brain and spinal system gradually take shape -and make ready for future action; and the little body -slowly assumes a form suitable for separate extra-uterine -existence. At the moment of birth the brain and special -sense-organs are not yet developed to such a degree that -they can properly discharge the functions they are called -upon to perform in the mature state; they have to -advance gradually to perfection in harmony with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> -growth of the whole body; and thus it is that a newly-born -individual does not see, hear, or exhibit signs of -consciousness until some time has elapsed from birth, -although it is, at first, quite sensitive to cold and heat. -If a lighted candle be held in front of the eyes of a newly-born -infant, and moved to and fro, it will be at once -observed that the child is totally unconscious of it; and, -if a gun be fired off in the room occupied by the child, -the effect upon the infantile organism is <i>nil</i>; but, if the -air of the room be allowed to cool, the effect will be at -once perceived, for the muscles of the child will soon -begin to contract, and his vocal bellows to act vigorously. -Gradually, however, the sight, hearing, etc., become -adjusted, and the infant begins to take notice of surrounding -objects, until at about a month after birth pain and -pleasure, the first indications of the dawn of the mental -powers, manifest themselves. Conscious, as distinguished -from instinctive or non-conscious, memory appears to -be exercised at about the thirteenth week, and to be -immediately followed by association of ideas, the recognition -of places and persons, and dreaming. At the same -time that these indications of intellectual development -are manifesting themselves, a corresponding unfolding of -the emotions is observed. Side by side with memory -appears fear, followed by pugnacity, play, and, later, -anger; while, still later, about on a par with the first -period of dreaming, or at about the age of five months, -are manifested emulation, jealousy, joy, and grief. In -about another month we notice that the child begins to -understand words, while, on the emotional side, he -evinces signs of awakening sympathy, curiosity, revenge, -and gratitude, followed within a couple of months by -pride, shame, deceitfulness, passionateness, cruelty, and -ludicrousness, which show themselves at the moment the -child appears to first exercise what we term true reason. -From this point we see rapidly unfolded the higher products -of intellectual development, the first of which is -morality of a very indefinite kind, which immediately -precedes articulation at the age of about fourteen months, -being closely followed by knowledge of the use of various -simple instruments, afterwards at the age of twenty -months by concerted action, and still later by speech,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> -which generally is effected at the age of two years, or -rather earlier. Following quickly upon speech we observe -judgment, recollection, and self-consciousness manifesting -themselves, and, by the time the child has attained the -age of two years and a half, morality of a definite kind -makes its appearance.</p> - -<p>Tracing the child’s development still further, we find -the next important intellectual manifestation—viz., superstition—to -take place at about three years of age, while -concurrently the following emotional products appear—avarice, -envy, hate, hope, vanity, mirth, and a love of the -beautiful, which are followed, in the course of a few -months, by awe and an appreciation of art. From this -age to the condition of adult life, the intellectual faculties -develop according to the surroundings of the individual, -while, on the emotional side, reverence, remorse, -and courtesy make their appearance at about the age of -five years, and melancholy and ecstasy at about the tenth -year.</p> - -<p>In the foregoing ontogenetic mirror will be found the -key to the unfolding of the great mystery of the evolution -of mind in the animal kingdom. We have only to -take the geological periods one after the other, and study -the various life-forms found in each to see at once that, -with the race, the order of sequence in the appearance -of the intellectual and emotional faculties is precisely the -same as with the individual. We may place the new-born -infant intellectually on a par with the lowly molluscs -or the vermiform little animals which existed in the -Cambrian period, in which little organisms probably pain -first made its entry upon the earth, followed by the -appearance of pleasure, memory (conscious), and association -of ideas in the lowly crustaceans of the later Cambrian -and early Silurian periods. With the spiders, fishes, -and crabs of the later Silurian and Devonian periods we -have brought before us the faculty of recognising places -of which these animals are capable, which places them -intellectually on a level with a child of four or five -months old.</p> - -<p>The recognition of individuals next made its appearance -in the reptiles of the Carboniferous and Permian epochs; -while the birds of the Oölitic and Cretaceous periods<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> -were the first to dream, and are thus placed on an intellectual -level with a child of five or six months. The -emotional development coincides with the intellectual, -just as in the case of the infant, for we find fear manifesting -itself among the lower molluscs, pugnacity among -the crustaceans, play among spiders and crabs, anger -among reptiles, and emulation, jealousy, joy, and grief -among birds. We now rise in the palæontological scale -to the Tertiary period, and find in the Eocene age equine -and other mammal forms, such as cats and pigs, which -are capable of understanding words and signs, and among -which we notice a manifestation of sympathy, curiosity, -revenge, and gratitude. In the early Meiocene age we -have monkeys, dogs, and elephants exhibiting the clearest -signs of true reason, as may be observed at the present -day, and at the same time manifesting such emotional -signs as pride, shame, deceitfulness, passionateness, -cruelty, and ludicrousness, which places them on an intellectual -par with the infant of less than a year old.</p> - -<p>In the later Meiocene age we have anthropoid apes, -which may be placed on a level with one-year-old infants, -and from which evolved apes of a higher order, which -acquired the faculty of articulation, and, afterwards -becoming more human, the knowledge of the use of -simple instruments, thus reaching the intellectual level of -the child of fifteen months old. As the apes became -more and more human in the later Meiocene and early -Pleistocene ages, they gradually acquired the faculty of -acting in concert and of speech; and when, having -arrived at that stage of development in which they -partook more of the character of savage man than human -ape, judgment, recollection, self-consciousness, and, -lastly, definite morality manifested themselves, thus -raising the ape-like man to the level of the child of two -and a half years. In the lowest savages of to-day, as -well as in the old descendants of the ape-like men, superstition -developed to a large extent at the same time that -the emotional unfolding proceeded in the direction of -avarice, envy, hate, hope, vanity, mirth, a love of the -beautiful, and afterwards art appreciation, awe, reverence, -remorse, courtesy, melancholy, and ecstasy, precisely as -with the child of from five to ten years of age. As the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> -race improved, becoming in turn semi-savage, semi-civilised, -civilised, and cultured, the intellectual powers, -of course, developed similarly, until, at the present day, -we find men possessed of the most wonderful mental -grandeur, we might almost say, conceivable. But this -would be saying too much, for we must not forget that, -just as evolution has continued in the past from eternity, -so will it continue in the future to eternity; and who -can tell to what heights the human mind may soar in -the future?</p> - -<p>Lofty as is the human intellect at the present time, as -compared with the mental powers of those we have left -far behind in the march of evolution, it is yet very far -from being able to grasp many of the great problems -of the universe, such as that of existence. Perhaps at -some future time, in millions of ages to come, these -great questions may be answered; but at present we -know they baffle the wisest men, and continually remind -us of the finite and limited character of our intellectual -faculties.</p> - -<p>This comparison of the mental development of the -individual with that of the whole race is extremely -interesting, and provides ample material for thought. -By such comparison, and by it alone, can the science of -psychology ever be based on a sure and enduring foundation. -It is all very well for theologians and other biased -people to declare that animal intelligence has nothing -in common with the reasoning powers of man; but let -them honestly look at the facts as they are, thanks to the -indefatigable energy and indomitable perseverance of -lovers of science and truth, now presented to us. Candid -observers cannot fail to notice that the difference between -the intelligence of man and that of the lower animals is -one only of degree, and not of kind. When we see -the order of sequence being followed in the development -of the individual so like that of the whole race, -not only as regards the bodily structure, but also as -regards the mental functions, can we help arriving at -the conclusion that the one is but the epitome of the -other, and that the superior intellect of man is but a -higher development of the so-called instincts of the -lower animals? Have we not at the present day, among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> -members of the human family itself, various degrees of -intelligence, from the almost barren brains of the lowest -races of savages to the brilliant mental achievements of -a Newton or a Spencer?</p> - -<p>It is beyond doubt that the intellectual superiority of -civilised man over his savage brethren is due to the -greater multiplicity of his objects of thought, and it -follows that savage man’s intellectual superiority over -the lower animals is due to the same cause. The actions -of both have the same aim—viz., the supplying of the -wants of the physical nature and the gratifying of the -desires aroused in the mind. It is frequently asserted -that man differs from the lower animals in possessing -the power of reflection; but this I hold to be an exploded -argument, and at variance with all recent teaching. -Dogs, elephants, and monkeys most certainly possess the -faculty of reflection, and it is not difficult to find races -belonging to the human family whose powers of reflection -transcend hardly in the least degree those possessed -by the higher apes; while the difference between the -reflective capacity of the lowest savage, which is of the -simplest conceivable kind, and that of the civilised -European, which has developed into genius, is enormous. -Then, again, it is often said that only man is emotional; -but one need only have an ordinary acquaintanceship -with domestic animals to at once see the absurdity of -this argument, for dogs are frequently observed to laugh, -to cry, to express joy and gratitude by their actions, and -to betray feelings of shame and remorse; while horses -and elephants have been observed to punish their cruel -keepers in the most cunning manner and then to laugh -at the poor fellows’ discomfiture. As to the “conscience -argument,” so frequently brought forward, by religionists -especially, all I have to say here is that conscience, or the -knowledge of the distinction between right and wrong, -is not an inherent quality of the human mind, being -merely a result of the operation of the reflective faculty -aided by experience, as is quite evident from the fact -that the ideas of morality vary according to the age in -which we live. The same may be said about the greatest -of all the arguments against evolution—viz., that of -language; for, just as conscience is but a product of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> -reflection and experience, so is language also. It is a -mistake to imagine that the power of speech is possessed -by man alone, and that his language differs altogether -from the cries and signals of the lower animals, for such -is not the case. Many animals possess the faculty of -speech, and human language differs from that of the -lower animals only in its degree of development, and -in no sense in its origin. Probably all language originated -in interjection, or the “instinctive expression of -the subjective impressions derived from external nature,” -as Mr. Farrar puts it. And, just as the reflective powers -of the race were developed and shone more brilliantly -as each stage in the evolutionary march of intellect -was passed, so did language pass from the simple monosyllabic -cries to the complex dialects of modern civilisation; -and it is worthy of notice that, at the present day, -or at any rate very recently, there were races of savage -men inhabiting this earth who possessed no language at -all, and could not, on account of their mode of living, -be placed on a higher intellectual level than the higher -apes; while we have the authority of the leading philologists -of the times in support of the fact that the monosyllabic -cries of some of the lower human tribes are -quite within the grasp of the ape’s voice.</p> - -<p>Human beings have been discovered in wild and -hitherto unexplored regions who have not the remotest -idea of what we should term civilisation. They lead a -wandering and useless life, sleeping at nights, not in huts, -nor in caves, but squatting among the branches of tall -trees, where they are placed out of the reach of savage -animals. They do not appear capable of expressing -their thoughts in sentences, but make use of exclamatory -grunts, which serve the purposes of speech quite sufficiently -for their limited requirements; and their general -appearance approaches to a remarkable extent that of -the higher apes, in that they are almost completely -covered with hair, possess a dirty brown skin, short legs, -long arms, and full abdomens, can pick up stones, sticks, -etc., with their toes as well as their fingers, and show -few if any signs of intellectual powers. Let any one -visit the Zoological Gardens, in London, and carefully -observe the apes exhibited there, and then say whether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> -there is a vast difference between some of them and the -human beings who answer to the above description. One -need but visit the travelling menagerie of Messrs. -Edmunds, and view their “missing link,” an excellent -sample of the chimpanzee troglodyte, to see that the -difference between man and the lower animals is one -only of degree, quite as much as regards intellect as -bodily form. I once saw exhibited in the <i lang="fr">Jardin -d’Acclimatation</i>, in Paris, a lot of Patagonian or Fuegan (I -forget which) natives, who were very little superior intellectually -to the chimpanzee. They were stark naked, in -a wretchedly dirty condition, and appeared quite incapable -of anything like sustained mental effort. But these -are by no means the lowest among the human species.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, I need only re-state my opinion that -all so-called living things are but products of the development -of protoplasm, whether belonging to the animal or -vegetable kingdoms; that this protoplasm possesses the -property of vitality, or the power of perceiving stimuli -of various kinds and responding to them by definite -movements; that the phenomena of mind are but -functional manifestations of this protoplasmic development; -and that the highest intellectual product of the -human mind exists and has existed from eternity in a -state of latent potentiality in every atom of protoplasm, -as well as in every particle of matter in the universe.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a><br /><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="THE_SPECIAL_SENSES">THE SPECIAL SENSES.</h2> - - -<p>According to the now almost universally (that is, among educated scientific -people) accepted theory of Evolution, each living being upon this -earth is a result of a very slow process of development, which commenced -with a low form of life many millions of years ago, and has since -been operating continuously, becoming more and more complex, and -imperceptibly attaining greater perfection as each fresh stage was accomplished. -From the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from inorganic -to organic, from Amœba to man, the evolutionary development has -slowly, steadily, and surely advanced step by step, in obedience to certain -well-defined laws. Yet it is impossible to discern in this slow -process of evolution any well-marked difference between one particular -species and the next of kin, although the difference becomes clearly apparent -if we take two species separated from each other by considerable -time; just as it is impossible to detect any alteration in form and feature -between a child of six days old and the same child of seven days old, -while the change is very evident after the lapse of several weeks or -months. If we were to photograph a human being regularly each day -from the moment of its birth to the time of its decease at the age of -eighty, we should be unable to detect any real difference between the portraits -on any two consecutive days; but the difference between the child -of a week old and the young man of twenty years would be enormous, -as would be that between the full-grown youth and the tottering old -man. As the human individual in its earliest condition of existence is -not possessed of the same faculties as it afterwards enjoys as a more perfect -development, so, in like manner, the species in its primal condition -was wanting in the loftier qualities now possessed by the higher animals, -such as consciousness, sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, all of -which have been gradually evolved as the various life-forms developed -from lower and more simple to higher and more complex kind. For -instance, at a very early period of man’s individual existence he possessed -no brain, eyes, ears, mouth, or nose, and, therefore, was quite incapable -of mentating, seeing, hearing, tasting, or smelling; but, as the -organism very gradually developed into a higher and more complex -kind, these various organs manifested themselves, and slowly arrived at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> -such perfection as we find in the human infant at birth. Precisely so -was it with the race. The lowly Moneron was of homogeneous structure, -possessing neither parts nor kind, but gradually differentiating into -nucleus and cell; its descendants, the Gastrœada, becoming possessed, -by a process of invagination, of an external layer of nucleated cells and -an internal and more delicate layer, thus forming a hollow organism, or -Gastrula. This external cellular integument was the original sense-organ -of the animal kingdom, from which developed the organs of special -sense. Though without nerve and special sense-organs, yet these -little hollow Gastrœada, and, in fact, their ancestors, the Amœbæ, which -consisted of simple protoplasmic cells, each enclosing a nucleus, were -possessed with sensory perception, being influenced by light, and by -variations of pressure and temperature. As the evolutionary process -continued, and the animal kingdom assumed higher forms, the original -epidermal general sense-organ became converted into several special -organs of sense, each specialisation commencing with a simple depression -upon the integument of the organism; numerous little epidermal -nerves of perception were formed, which could perceive changes of -pressure and of temperature, and some of which gradually became enabled -to understand particular influences affecting them, such as those -produced by a strong odour, light-waves, and sound-waves. By adaptation, -the extremities of these sense-nerves became expanded and enlarged, -so as to enable them the better to understand the particular -influences; and this expansion was accompanied by a corresponding -depression on the integument, which cup-like formation afterwards -became converted into an eye, or other organ of special sense, very -imperfect in the invertebrate forms of life, imperfect in the fish, more -perfect in the amphibian, and still more perfect in the mammal forms, -such as apes and men. In short, the life-history of the individual is an -exact counterpart in miniature of the life-history of the species up to -the particular point reached by the particular individual.</p> - -<p>The order and mode of development is precisely the same in -all animal organisms, and may be conveniently studied by placing a -hen’s egg in an incubating machine, and carefully watching it for the -space of three weeks. It will be observed that the eye, ear, nose, and -mouth are not present at the commencement of the process, but make -their appearance later on, about the third or fourth day of incubation, as -tiny depressions on the integument, from which condition they gradually -develop into perfect organs of special sense, as possessed by the full-grown -chicken; the eyes, which receive the impressions caused by light-waves; -the ears, which receive those made by sound-waves; the nose, -by which odours are discerned; the mouth, which holds the taste-organ; -and the skin, which remains the organ of touch and perception of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> -temperature. Now, when we consider for a moment these wonderful phenomena, -we cannot help being struck by the remarkable manner in -which the animal kingdom has been slowly and steadily progressing -towards perfection, in spite of the enormous physical difficulties encountered; -and we cannot help coming to the conclusion that, inasmuch as -there was once a time when no animal existed having eyes, ears, nose, or -mouth, and, still later, a period when these special sense-organs existed -in a very imperfect condition, it is highly probable that in the future -ages man, who now possesses special senses of a high order, will acquire -even still more highly-developed faculties.</p> - -<p>In congratulating ourselves upon the advance made by our own particular -species over other members of the animal kingdom, we must -never forget that, although we can mentate, see, hear, smell, taste, and -feel, while myriads of our lowly brethren can do none of these, we yet -are incapable of solving the mighty problems of the universe with any -or all of these organs without artificial aid. No man on earth has ever yet -been able to solve the mighty problem of existence, in spite of his great -intellectual powers. No man has ever yet been able to see a millionth part -of the wonders in the heavens above, or in the earth beneath, with his -own unaided eye; but with the telescope and microscope new worlds have -been opened out to him. We are as yet, undoubtedly, in but a transitory -condition, the victims of an imperfect organisation, subject to a partially-developed -brain and nervous system, and to five imperfect special -senses. We must accept the situation philosophically, and without -grumbling, and do our best to make good use of the senses we have, and -leave the solution of problems we are unable to solve to future races of -men, who will be possessed of better materials with which to operate.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a><br /><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a><br /><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p> - -<p id="god"> </p> -<div class="figcenter" > -<div class="caption">“THE SUPREME SPIRIT IN THE ACT OF CREATION<br /> -BECAME BY VOGA, TWO-FOLD, THE RIGHT SIDE WAS MALE,<br /> -THE LEFT WAS PRAKRITI.” (Brahma Vaivartta Puranu.)</div> -<img src="images/i_128.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">BRAHM<br /> -THE HINDU ANDROGYNOUS CREATOR<br /> -Copied from Inman’s “Ancient Faiths”.</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">ISIS, HORUS AND FISH<br /> -From a photograph of a small bronze image in the<br /> -Mayor collection of Browne’s Museum, Liverpool.<br /> -Copied from D<sup>r</sup> Inman’ s “Ancient Faiths.”</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a><br /><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a><br /><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_132a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">THE VEDIC VIRGIN, INDRANEE,<br /> -WIFE-MOTHER OF SAVIOUR-GOD, INDRA.<br /> -From Hislop’s “Two Babylons”.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_132b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> THE HINDU GOD VISHNU, NURSED BY HIS<br /> -VIRGIN WIFE-MOTHER, LAKSHMI.<br /> -From Moore’s “Hindu Pantheon”.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_133a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">DEVAKI AND CHRISTNA<br /> -From Moore’s “Hindu Pantheon”.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_133b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">THE HINDU GOD SIVA, NURSED BY HIS<br /> -VIRGIN WIFE-MOTHER, PARVATI.<br /> -Copied from statuette in Liverpool museum.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a><br /><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a><br /><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_136.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">AMEN-RA<br />(After Drummond.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> -<div class="small"> -<p>CRUX ANSATA<br /> -Found marked on the breast of an Egyptian mummy in the -University College Museum, London.</p> - -<p>THE ASSYRIAN VIRGIN ISHTAR<br /> -From Rawlinson’s “Ancient Monarchies”.</p> - -<p>CRUCIFIXION <span class="smcap lowercase">OF</span> CHRISTNA<br /> -From old Hindu engraving.<br /> -After Higgins.</p> - -<p>VIRGIN AND CHILD AT IDALIUM IN CYPRUS<br /> -After Rawlinson<br /> -(“Herodotus”)</p> - -<p>ISIS AND HORUS<br /> -THE EGYPTIAN VIRGIN -AND SAVIOUR-GOD<br /> -From Rawlinson’s “Herodotus”.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a><br /><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> - - -<h2 id="EVOLUTION_OF_THE_GOD_IDEA">EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA.</h2> - - -<p>“Knowing his adopted land well, the Eastern does not require recondite -volumes to explain ‘Dionysiak myths’ or ‘solar theories,’ as the -old faiths are now called in the West. He sees these pervading the -tales and epiks of East and West alike, just as Yahvism or Yahu-ism -pervades the Scriptures of Jews or Yahus—that ever-familiar and expressive -faith-term by which alone Asia knows the ‘Yahudean’ race.” -While fully admitting the true character of the old faith as here -expressed, yet, with all due deference to one of such acknowledged -repute in the literary world as Major-General Forlong, whose splendid -work, entitled “Rivers of Faith” (Preface, p. xxi.) contains the above -paragraph, it may be fairly urged that the educated few only, both -among Easterns and Westerns, have hitherto been capable of discerning -the vein of solar myth which pervades all systems of religion; while -the vast multitude of ignorant and credulous people even yet perceive, -or think they perceive, the Divine handiwork in the particular sacred -oracle to which they firmly pin their faith. The Hindu supreme deity -is known as Brahm, the Persian as Ormuzd, the Mohammedan as -Allah, and the Jewish and Christian as El, Elohim, Yahouh (or -Jehovah), God, etc. Probably few among the many millions who -worship these various deities know much or anything about their origin, -innocently imagining that the Deity they bow allegiance to once manifested -itself to some chosen individual, to whom it gave a revelation, -the facts of which were handed down to posterity. They little dream -of the vast cycles of time that have rolled past since the brain of -man attained such a state of perfection as to enable it to evolve the -idea of Deity. It is utterly impossible for the human mind to grasp -the enormous interval of time that has elapsed since primeval man -emerged from the condition of unreasoning existence to enter upon -the bright dawn of intellectual activity, which has developed into such -mighty proportions as we behold to-day. Let us carry the mind back -far beyond the Dark Ages, through the classic era, as far even as the -very commencement of Egyptian history; and even then we find ourselves -but little nearer that remote period in which the first spark of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> -intelligence made its <i lang="fr">debût</i> upon the platform of life. In imagination -we may go still further back, and view the wonders of that ancient Asian -civilisation which preceded that of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, -and which was probably derived very gradually from the earliest social -conceptions of the Caucasian branch of the Polynesian primitive man. -Still we are ages away from the period we desire to arrive at; and even -were we able to trace the human family back to that remote time when -man could not be said to partake more of the character of the human -than the ape species, still we should even then be unable to point to -the precise moment when intellect shed its glorious rays upon the race, -making bright, clear, and beautiful what before was dark, misty, and -unmeaning. The ancient Prosimiæ gradually became Catarrhine apes, -which, in their turn, as slowly assumed the characters of the Anthropoidæ, -and afterwards of ape-like men; but the time required for this -imperceptibly gradual process of evolution was probably many hundred -thousands of years, during which period, or perhaps even at a prior time -the first intellectual spark became manifest: how, when, or for what -ultimate purpose it is apparently beyond our power to devise.</p> - -<p>How soon after the dawn of intellect the conception of Deity was -evolved in the human brain it is equally impossible to say; but the -probability is that the date was a very early one, for it seems highly -probable that such a conception would be among the very first efforts -of the mind, the materials necessary for the stimulation of such an -effort being at hand at any moment. We can imagine our early fathers -groping in the darkness of ignorance, with mental powers on a par with -those of the awakening minds of our own children, seeing bogies in -every natural phenomenon, and tremblingly glowering at the spectra of -their own imaginations. Having no experience of the past or knowledge -of the future, they would indeed be in a most helpless condition, -relying entirely upon the instinctive capabilities they had inherited from -their ancestors. By degrees, however, their various faculties would be -further awakened by impressions received from external objects; their -wants would be multiplied in proportion to their intellectual development, -causing them to manifest a desire for industry; and their self-consciousness -would arouse within them a feeling of dignity and -importance to which they had hitherto been strangers. Thus gradually -would the race cast off its animal and put on its human clothes. The -old plan of hand-to-mouth existence would be abolished by the newly-developed -reason of man; the innumerable dangers which confronted -him would undoubtedly stimulate him to approach his fellows with the -object of establishing mutual aid and of co-operating for their common -welfare; and a feeling of confident superiority over others of the animal -kingdom would become apparent among them. Not only would ma<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>n’s -attention be arrested by the impending dangers of each day, the necessity -of procuring sustenance for himself and family, and the obvious -advantages accruing from co-operation, but also by the -constantly-recurring natural phenomena, such as the rising and setting of the sun, -moon and stars, the never-ending succession of day and night, etc., as -well as by the no less wonderful, and certainly more awful, occasional -natural occurrences, such as lightning, thunder, and earthquake. He -would be as much struck with wonder and amazement at the one set of -phenomena as with awe at the other. The returning sun-light would -each morning produce joy in his heart equally as much as the inevitable -recurrence each night of darkness would produce a feeling of sadness, -dread, and despair. We can easily imagine the long hours of horror -our first fathers must have passed through each night among the yells -and howls of the savage monsters by which they were surrounded, and -how they anxiously looked forward to the return of that glorious orb -which would bring back to them daylight, sunshine, warmth, and happiness. -What a boon it must have been to them! Can we wonder that -they should have regarded the sun with particular affection? It would -have been remarkable, indeed, had they not done so; and it is more -than probable that this daily re-appearance of the sun on the eastern -horizon was actually what prompted the first conception of deity. The -very oldest mythology with which we are acquainted appears strongly -to bear out this theory, and, indeed, in every other mythological system -we find the re-appearing sun to be one of the principal objects of devotion -and affection. If we turn our gaze to that part of Asia, along the -banks of the Oxus, over which our Aryan ancestors wandered thousands -of years before the time of the earliest Egyptian dynasty, we find there -a clue to the origin of the original conception of deity. Among these -early people were composed the hymns of the <cite>Rig-Veda</cite>, which are -probably the earliest records of any race, and in which we find personified -the phenomena of the heavens and earth, the storm, the wind, the -rain, the stars, etc. The earth is represented as a flat, indefinite surface, -existing passively, and forming the foundation of the whole universe; -while above it the luminous vault of heaven forms a dwelling place for -the fertile and life-giving light and a covering for the earth below. To -the earth the Aryans gave the name of Prihovi, “the wide expanse;” -the vault of heaven they called Varuna, “the vault;” while the light -between the two, in the cloud region, they named Dyaus, “the luminous -air,” “the dawn.” Varuna and Prihovi, in space, together begat Agni, -the fire-god, the sun in heaven and life-giver of the universe; and Soma, -the ambrosial deity of earth, god of immortality, fertiliser of the waters, -nourisher of plants, and quickener of the semen of men and animals. -In these hymns frequent mention is made of the joy experienced at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> -return of dawn, and of the saddening effect produced upon the mind -by the ever-recurring twilight which ushered in the dark and dreary -night. We meet with incantations expressive of the wildest excitement -at the welcome appearance of the dawn-god, Dyaus, which heralded the -approach of the sun-god, Agni, who is led up to the summit of his -ascension, or bosom of Varuna, by the conquering god of battle, Indra, -the defeater of the evil powers of darkness; and we find the most -pathetical appeals both to Agni and Indra to remain longer over the -earth, and co-operate with Soma in replenishing nature, instead of -sinking into the twilight, or shades of evening, to be slain by Vritra, -“the coverer,” and tormented in the darkness of night by Ahi, the -dragon, and other cruel monsters. This is precisely the drama we -should expect to find depicted in the earliest writings of man; is the -root of all future religious ideas; and is still to be found pervading -almost every modern religious faith. It is a beautiful representation of -the earliest yearnings and fears of our forefathers; and, though the -picture is now and then almost effaced by numerous subsequent additions -of mythological lore, yet the original conception remains indelibly -depicted in the religions of the present day, furnishing us with the key -to the study of comparative mythology.</p> - -<p>It will be necessary, in order to compare, with any degree of accuracy, -the mythological systems which subsequently developed from this primitive -conception of a ruling power, to glance at the mode of distribution -of the various branches of the earliest human family; and in doing so -we must ever keep in mind the more than probable fact that that portion -of the earth’s surface which is now covered by the Indian Ocean once -formed a large equatorial continent, uniting the east coast of Africa -with Arabia, India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. Instead of the -rivers Tigris and Euphrates emptying their waters into the Persian Gulf, -and the Indus into the Arabian Sea, it is highly probable that these -rivers united to form one large estuary, which emptied itself into the -ocean on the south of the now submerged continent of Lemuria. It is -equally probable that the large rivers, Ganges and Brahmapootra, likewise -found an outlet south of a line drawn from Point de Gall to Singapore. -On this submerged continent, and on the shores of these long-lost -streams, it is supposed man evolved from the anthropoid apes, in -the early Pleiocene, or perhaps even in the later Meiocene, geological -period of the world’s history. The transition stage in the pedigree of -man between the Anthropoidæ and true men—that is to say, between -man-like Catarrhine apes and beings possessing a larger proportion of -the characteristics of the human than of the ape species—is known to -Anthropologists by the name of Alali, or ape-like men. These wild -and ill-formed savages wandered about in bands along the banks of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> -these monster rivers, passing their time in hunting their less fortunate -brethren of the animal kind. In course of time they multiplied and -spread over the entire continent, killing all such monsters as interfered -with their safety or comfort, and gradually dividing and sub-dividing -into families and races, each acquiring, under the influence of the two -laws of selection and adaptation, peculiarities and characteristics not -common to the remainder. One branch wandered away to the west -and south, becoming the progenitors of the South African races; -another found its way to the east and south, to people Australasia; -while a third struck out towards the north, overrunning Malaya, Burmah, -and Southern India. This last branch, which we term the Malay, or -Polynesian, subdivided into two distinct families—the Mongolian, or -Turanian, the progenitors of the ancient Chinese, Ural Turks, Akkadians, -and Finns; and the Caucasian, or Iranian, the first human -inhabitants of South-Western Asia. Of these Iranians one stream, it is -supposed, found its way to the banks of the Nile, and became, in course -of time, a distinct and powerful Egyptian race; another, the Semitic, -followed the direction of the Persian Gulf, and settled in Arabia and -along the banks of the Euphrates; while a third, which we call the -Aryan or Indo-Germanic, covered India, Afghanistan, and Northern -Persia, gradually extending along the northern shores of the Black Sea -into Europe.</p> - -<p>Now, as already stated, the earliest known records of any race are -the hymns of the <cite>Rig-Veda</cite>, composed among the Aryans of Northern -Persia, probably from earlier traditions handed down to them from the -older Iranian stock, or even from the still earlier Polynesians; and it is -remarkable that in all ancient mythological records, as well as on monumental -inscriptions, the same vein of solar myth as is found in the -<cite>Rig-Veda</cite> is clearly traceable beneath the accumulated mythological lore -of future ages. The main idea in all mythologies seems to have been -that of a saviour-deity conquering the evil genius of night, or winter, -and bringing back the day, or summer, to replenish the earth. As -already stated, Indra was to the Aryans of the early Vedic period the -saviour-god who, with his companions, Vishnu and Rudra, leads forth -Agni, the god of celestial and terrestrial fire, to the bosom of Varuna, -where his influence operates upon Soma, the fertilizer of earth. A -conqueror from early morn to mid-day, Indra’s power grows weaker as -the evening approaches, until at last the twilight yields him up to -Vritra, who slays him, after which he is tormented by Ahi, the dragon, -for the remainder of the night. This drama was probably derived from -the original Iranian stock, and as probably underwent considerable -modification before being finally committed to writing as a cultus by -the Aryans; and, therefore, we should expect to find some resemblance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> -between the Aryan, Semitic, and Egyptian mythological systems. This -is precisely what we do find on carefully comparing these three oldest -of all known mythologies, though, as will be seen further on, each -accumulates such a vast quantity of fresh mythological matter that the -original conception is considerably obscured, and in each the original -deities become in course of time so mixed up with one another that it -is almost impossible to separate their individual characteristics.</p> - -<p>Although Agni was said to have been begotten by the conjunction -in the air of Varuna and Prihovi (Prithivi), all the principal gods, or -Devas, originally conceived as the phenomena and power of heaven, -were called the children of Dyaus and Prihovi, Agni and Indra being -considered the two chief of the twelve Devas. Dyaus, Prihovi, and -their progeny afterwards became endowed with moral qualities, and -were looked upon as creators and governors of the world; and as time -wore on the original Vedic deities gradually gave place to purely solar -deities: the sun was called Surya, and differed from Agni, who was god -of terrestrial and celestial fire—sun, lightning, and altar fire in one, the -soul of universe, and mediator between the gods and men; Surya was -also Savitri, the quickener, who in the early morn rouses the sleepers, -and in the evening twilight buries them again in sleep; he is also -Vishnu, the companion of Indra, who traverses the celestial space in -three long strides; he is Pushan, the nourisher and faithful guide of -men and animals; and he is Yama, who traverses the steep road to -death and the shades. Thus the gods multiplied—the original supreme -deity, Varuna, who was one with Indra, though different from him, -giving place to a multitude of solar deities, children of Dyaus, the great -dawn-god or day-father.</p> - -<p>As the old Vedic language became lost to the people there arose a -custom of setting apart certain individuals to faithfully preserve the old -and sacred records, and thus arose the priestly caste of Brahmans, whose -duties consisted in transcribing the sacred hymns of the <cite>Rig-Veda</cite> and -preserving the knowledge of the sacred language in which they were -first written. The great day-father, Dyaus, now received the name of -Brahma, the magic power, and Prajapeti, the lord of creatures, and was -endowed with three divine energies—Agni (fire), Vayu (air), and Surya -(the sun), which together formed a subordinate triad. Soma became -associated with the moon; Asura became the demon of hell, which was -peopled with tormenting monsters; Indra and Vishnu became blended -with Surya; and Rudra was converted into Siva and identified with -Agni. As Brahmanism progressed the principal worship on the shores -of the Ganges gradually centred round Vishnu, who was supposed to -undergo periodically a number of Avataras, or incarnations, by means -of which he rescued fallen man from the fate awaiting him. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> -descents to the lower world were very frequent, and appear to have -had some connection with the zodiacal constellations; for we find the -incarnation at one time taking place as a man, at another as a fish, at -another as a lion, and so on.</p> - -<p>The most ancient of the Avataras was probably the incarnation of -Krishna, the Indian Hercules, who was mentioned in the Vedic writings -as “Krishna, the son of Devaki,” and in whose honour festivals were -kept, at a very early period, similar to those connected with the cultus -of Bacchus. Megasthenes found the worship of Krishna prevailing -along the shores of the Ganges at the beginning of the third century -before our era, and described it as the worship of Hercules. This -incarnate offspring of the ancient sun-god, Vishnu, was said to have -been born at Mathura, a place situated between Delhi and Agra, and -to have acted the part of a saviour of the world and a mediator between -the gods and men. Soon after his birth his life was sought by the -reigning tyrant, Kamsa, who feared for the safety of his throne, which -necessitated the removal of Krishna to a place of safety. Arriving at -manhood, this young divinity slew the serpent Kaliya, and sported with -the Gopîs, or female cowherds, among whom he had been brought up. -He was fond of wine, Bacchanalian revels, and sensualities, though -considered to be immaculately holy, and resigned to his fate, which was -to suffer death in order to relieve the earth of the burden of a proud -race. For this purpose he was incarnated in the womb of his mother, -Devaki, and for this purpose he lived and died.</p> - -<p>In the mountainous regions away from the Ganges the cultus of Siva -was the more prevalent, Vishnu being considered of secondary importance; -but, as sects gradually were formed out of the ancient religion, -one party preferring this deity and another that, an attempt was made, -which eventually proved successful, to re-unite the various religious -parties and re-instate the principal gods in their original places. The -ancient orthodoxy was brought into sympathy with the new religion in a -very curious manner, by making Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva a trinity of -essences or attributes of the supreme Brahm, each a supreme god in -itself, and each equal with the others in importance; Brahma being -specially the creator, Vishnu the redeemer or preserver, and Siva the -destroyer. At times Krishna was added to the new trinity as a fourth -figure; but this was an innovation which found little favour, inasmuch -as Vishnu and Krishna were the same god, the one but the incarnation -of the other. Thus the old idea of Prajapeti, or Brahma, with the three -divine energies—Agni (fire), Vayu (air), and Surya (the sun)—were -revived in a manner as a new trinity of essences of the supreme deity, -under other names; and the arrangement thus concluded has continued -in use to this day with the orthodox Hindus. We find, therefore, that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> -despite the accumulation of fresh myths, which grew larger as time wore -on, the original conception of the constant necessity for a divine saviour -was never lost, and that, as the approach of night in the Vedic system -was followed by the torments of the shades, and the powers of darkness -were destroyed by the re-appearance of the dawn-god, so also the -approaching extinction of the people under a wicked tyrant was followed -by the misery which preceded the appearance of the saviour-god, -Krishna. In fact, every myth that occurs in the religions of India is -built out of this original idea of the powers of light being overcome -by the powers of darkness and finally rescued by a redeeming god. -In later times, as the science of astronomy became more popular and -better understood, not only was the daily apparent course of the sun -the source from which myths were fabricated, but his annual apparent -march through the zodiacal signs was also drawn upon for the creation -of more imposing and elaborate dramas; and in this manner were -produced the fables containing allusions to the two crucifixions, or -passage of the sun across the equator at the vernal and autumnal -equinoxes, and the rites of baptism when the sun was passing through -the sign Aquarius, and fasting during the period of the sun’s transit -through Pisces, etc.</p> - -<p>The religion of Boodhism is an offshoot of the Brahman system, -having originated in the so-called incarnation of Vishnu, Gautama -Boodha, whose powerful personality has left an indelible impress upon -the religion. This remarkable man lived about the end of the sixth -century; but the real history of Boodhism does not commence until -about the middle of the third century before our era. The doctrines -taught by this great reformer were brotherly love, self-sacrifice, and an -eternal Nirvana as the consummation of all bliss. The doctrine of the -transmigration of the soul was still maintained; but a state of Nirvana, -or absolute non-existence, was declared to be the deliverance from the -endless succession of re-births for those who, by their purity of life and -heart, merit such a blissful end. Admitting that men were born in -different castes, determined by their good or evil deeds in a prior existence, -Boodha yet declared that all might attain the highest salvation, -and that none, not even those of the highest caste and most sacred -offices, could do this without having regard to the well-being of all his -fellow creatures. The authority of the Vedas was rejected by the -Boodhists, as also the whole dogmatic system of the Brahmans; and in -their place was substituted a higher moral teaching, a more equitable -relationship of men, and a wide-spreading system of communism. This -reformation of ancient dogmatic faith was not destined to last long -uncorrupted, for the monasteries established by the Boodhists for the -purpose of affording an asylum to the poor and destitute soon became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> -infested with religious fanatics—Jainas, as they were called, some of -whom went naked, while others robed themselves in white linen. These -ascetic monks looked forward to Nirvana as their final goal, practised -the most severe austerities, received confession, administered priestly -absolution, and kept regular feast and fast days; but they discountenanced -the growing custom of worshipping relics which was finding -favour with other Boodhist sects. Thus gradually the primitive Aryan -conception of a ruling power developed into a huge system of dogmatism, -monachism, and ritual in the countries south and east of the Indus, -as far even as the confines of the country of the great Mongol race, -whose religion is as yet but little known to us, although it bears strong -marks of having been originally derived from the same source as that -from which came the Vedic system.</p> - -<p>Having glanced somewhat cursorily at the religious development of -the Eastern Aryan peoples, we will now turn to the Western Aryans, -and observe the manner in which the old Vedic myth was perpetuated -in Western Europe, leaving the Central Aryans, or that branch which -remained in and around Persia and Western Afghanistan, for subsequent -consideration; for, in this central district, the Mongol Akkadians and -the Semites intermingled so frequently with the Aryans that a very -intricate mythological system gradually came into operation in some -districts, bearing resemblance to the Vedic, the Semitic, and the Mongolian -mythologies.</p> - -<p>The Western branch of the great Aryan family, after penetrating -into Southern Europe, became the progenitors of the ancient Pelasgi, -the earliest known inhabitants of Greece, and through them transmitted -the original Aryan myth to their successors, the Hellenes. Homer, in -his “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” written at latest <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 900, well describes -the religion of the Acheans, who inhabited Hellas for centuries prior -to B.C. 1000, and long before the supremacy of the Dorians; and, in -this description, as well as in that of Hesiod’s “Theogony,” written -immediately afterwards, there is exhibited a remarkable similarity to the -old Vedic system, the very name of the supreme deity being clearly -derived from an Aryan source, and that root being the identical expression -used to designate the Vedic Dawn God. From Dyaus Pitar, the -Day Father or Dawn God of the Aryans, the Greeks derived their -Zeus Pater, from whence we get Dios, Theos, the Latin <i lang="la">Deus Pater</i>, -<i lang="la">Dies Pater</i> and Jupiter, and the French <i lang="fr">Dieu</i>. Zeus was supreme -god, high above all others, having unlimited power, and living up -in the vault of heaven, surrounded by the inferior and subordinate -deities, who together formed his Olympian court. Instead of being -nature powers, these gods were endowed with freedom of action, -subject to pain and pleasure, and depended for their sustenance upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> -food. The supremacy of King Zeus was firmly established; he presided -over councils of the gods to deliberate great matters, and was -not bound or fettered by any recognised restraint. With Athena and -Apollo, he formed a supreme triad, himself being the head, Athena -the reason or wisdom of the Divine Father, and Apollo the mouth, -revealer of his counsel, and loving son, who is always of one will with -his father. With Apollo was closely associated Prometheus, the great -benefactor and liberator of the race of man, who, according to that -beautiful tragedy of “Æschylus,” brought salvation to the world in -spite of Jupiter, his father and torturer, by whom he was crucified on -a rock, where he remained in fearful anguish until liberated by -Hercules. Here we find the old Vedic saviour redeeming the world -from the darkness and misery of night or winter, the same drama -precisely as that described in connection with the Eastern Aryan -mythology. In both instances the apparent daily and annual ascension -and decline of the sun is depicted: in the one case it rises again after -its period of defeat in winter, or night, as the sun-god Indra, afterwards -Surya, and still later Krishna; while in the other case it resuscitates the -earth as Prometheus, the benefactor of mankind. Just as Prometheus -was but the Greek counterpart of the Hindu Krishna, so also were -Apollo, Hercules, Iao, and Dionysos precisely the same. Each was -the new-born sun, bringing back light and glory to suffering humanity; -and each passed through the very same periods of power, decline, and -misery before being born again.</p> - -<p>Zeus was the sun-god <i lang="fr">par excellence</i>, residing on the summit of -Olympus, or in the highest part of the heavenly vault, during the -summer months, when he was called Olympian Zeus, and down in -Hades during the winter period, when he was known as the Stygian -Zeus; and thus the oracle of the Klarion Apollon taught that the -supreme God was called, according to the seasons of the year, Hades, -Zeus, Helios, and Iao. Apollo and Prometheus, although saviour -sun-gods, representing the new-born sun victorious over death and -winter, were yet one with Zeus, and merely repetitions of the same -character under different names. So, in like manner, Hercules was -not only son of Zeus, but Zeus himself, and may be traced right -through the complete annual circuit in his twelve labours, from Hades -to Olympus, and from Olympus to Hades again. Dionysos was, in -reality, not an Aryan deity, but of Egyptian origin, having been introduced -into Greece at a very early time, either from Egypt, where he was -worshipped as Mises, or, more probably, from Phœnicia, where he was -worshipped under the name of Iēs, which accounts for the fact that -hero personifications of Dionysos in later times were accorded the -designation of Iesous, (Ιησους, or in capitals ΙΗΣΟΥΣ—Latin <i>Jesus</i>),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> -the Greek form of Iēs (Ιης, or in capitals ΙΗΣ). This Egyptian saviour -sun-god became later the popular god Bacchus of the Romans, just -as Apollo had been the popular Greek divinity, and was thus described -by Macrobius: “The images or statues of Bacchus represent him sometimes -under the form of a child, sometimes under that of a young -man, at other times with a beard of a mature man, and, lastly, with -the wrinkles of old age, as the Greeks represent the god whom they -call Baccapee and Briseis, and as the Neapolitans in Campania paint -the god whom they honour under the name of Hebon. These -differences of age relate to the sun, who seems to be a tender child at -the winter solstice, such as the Egyptians represent him on a certain -day [December 25th], when they bring forth from an obscure nook of -their sanctuary his infantine image, because, the day being then at the -shortest, the god seems yet to be but a feeble infant: gradually growing -from this moment, he arrives, by degrees, at the vernal equinox, under -the form of a young man, of which his images at that time bear the -appearance; then he arrives at his maturity, indicated by the tufted -beard with which the images which represent him at the summer solstice -are adorned, the day having then taken all the increase of which it is susceptible. -Lastly, he decreases insensibly, and arrives at his old age, -pictured by the state of decrepitude in which he is portrayed in the -images.”</p> - -<p>Yao, Iao, or Adonis was of Semitic origin, although widely worshipped -in Greece, and generally identified with Zeus, whose Semitic -counterpart he really was, although himself a saviour sun-god. Yao, to -the Phœnicians and Chaldeans, was as Zeus and Prometheus to the -Greeks, and represented the whole annual circuit, though he was always -called by the Greeks specially the god of the autumn, on account of -his having, at that period, to part from his lover, Aphrodite (Venus), for -six months; and thus there was usually a certain melancholy attached -to his worship, the oracle of the Klarion Apollon terming him the -darling or tender Yao (Ιαω), god of the autumn.</p> - -<p>As the Greek power and civilisation declined and the Roman -advanced, the god Yao, like his counterpart Iēs, became one of the -most popular of the Roman deities, being worshipped under the name -Adonis in every city of Italy; and the mythological horizon became -crowded with gods and demi-gods of every description, until, at length, -it became a very difficult matter to determine who was a god and who -was not worthy of that distinction; for the Roman Emperors were -invariably deified, as well as others of less degree. The old Aryan -drama, however, was preserved throughout in the worship of the principal -gods, and has even been perpetuated in the reformed religion of the -Semitic communistic enthusiast, Yahoshua, which became, soon after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> -the commencement of our era, the popular religious system of the whole -of Europe.</p> - -<p>We have now to deal with the Central Aryans, or Eranians; and, in -doing so, must bear in mind that, while the Eastern Aryans, or Hindus, -and the Western Aryans of Europe, were almost altogether uninfluenced -for many centuries by the mythologies of surrounding tribes of other -and distinct families of the human race, this was far from being the -case with the Eranians, who were almost entirely cut off from their -Western brethren; and, although still in comparatively close contact -with the Eastern Aryans, were yet completely wedged in between the -Turanian Urals on the north, and the great Semitic stream of life on -the south and west. Such being the case, it is at once apparent that the -religion of the Eranian people would quickly lose many of its distinctive -Aryan marks and acquire many Turanian and Semitic characteristics. -Bactria, in Eastern Eran (Persia), appears to have been the -ancient birth-place of this semi-Aryan religion, which afterwards developed, -under the influence of that great reformer, Zoroaster (Zarathustra), -into the cultus called Mazdeism, or Parsism. From the Avesta, the -sacred writings of the Parsis, written in the old Zend language, we -derive considerable knowledge of Mazdeism. Ahura Mazdao (Ormazd), -the all-wise spirit, is supreme god, far above all gods, being creator of -the world, god of light and truth, existing from the beginning, and -eternal. Inferior to him are Mithra, god of light; Nairyo Sanha, god of -fire; Apan Napat, god of water; Haoma, god of the drink of immortality; -and Tistrya, the dog-star god. The chief goddess of fruitfulness -was Anahita, who in later time became an important deity in association -with the worship of Mithra, the son of Ormuzd. Mazdeism also recognised -a god of evil, Ahro Mainyus (Ahriman), who, with the evil Devas, -inhabit the under-world, and oppose Ormuzd on every occasion; the -world lying between the two kingdoms of righteousness and evil, ruled -over respectively by Ormuzd and Ahriman. This dualism is the most -marked feature of Mazdeism, and runs through the whole religion, being -found in every myth, and giving rise to the most hideous conceptions -of morality. In the cosmogony of the Parsis the great creator, Ormuzd, -after making a perfect world and introducing a perfect pair of human -beings, is defeated by the wicked Ahriman, who creates evil, and seduces -the man and woman to sin, thus placing in opposition to each other -upon this earth the two forces, good and evil. To avoid the influence of -this evil force, and to gain that of the good power, was the great aim of -all true Mazda-worshippers; and the means whereby this much-desired -end could be attained was the fire-god, Nairyo Sanha, to whom constant -supplications were made for this purpose. So great was the influence -of Ahriman upon human beings that the god of light, Mithra, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> -promised as a saviour to come upon the earth and rescue his people -from the power of evil, his mission being to avenge his father’s defeat -by the god of the under-world, after doing which he would ascend to -his father and become one with him for ever. The Magi, or Mithraitic -priests of the “black art,” or “hidden science of astrology,” are thus -addressed in the “Zend-Avesta”:—”You, my children, shall be first -honoured by that divine person who is to appear in the world; a star -shall be before you to conduct you to the place of his nativity; and -when you have found him, present to him your oblations and sacrifices, -for he is indeed your lord and an everlasting king,” meaning that after -the constellation of the virgin came to the eastern line of the horizon, -as it did at twelve o’clock at midnight, between December 24th and -December 25th, in the period immediately following that in which the -words were written, the great star, <i>Vindemiatrix</i>, in the virgin’s elbow, -would, on January 6th, begin to shine, pointing out to the astrologers, -or Magi, her exact situation, who would then know that the birth of the -god-light of the new revolution had taken place, and that by his re-appearance -he would declare himself to be the everlasting ruler of the -universe. Consequently, for centuries after this time the image of the -god-light Mithra was presented to the people for adoration every year -on December 25th, soon after midnight, in the shape of a newly-born -male child, brought from the recesses of the sacred grotto, or mystic -cave of Mithra. Another image, supposed to be the same deity fully -grown, was said to die, and was carried to the tomb after death by the -priests, who chanted solemn hymns and groaned. After pretending to -mourn for three days, the sacred torch, or emblem of new life, was -lighted, and the priests exclaimed, “Reassure yourselves, sacred bands -of initiated; your god is restored to life; his pains and sufferings procure -your salvation.” This took place at the vernal equinox, and the -people responded: “I salute you, new light; I salute you, young bridegroom -and new light.”</p> - -<p>Like the old Aryan scheme, this Mithra myth was derived from the -constellations, having reference to the decline of the year in autumn, -the defeat of the sun by the powers of darkness (or winter), and the rebirth -and ascension of that grand luminary in the spring of the year. -Mithra was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> “spiritual life contending with spiritual darkness, and through -his labours the kingdom of darkness will be lit with heaven’s own light: -the eternal will receive all things back into his favour; and the world -will be redeemed to God. The impure are to be purified, and the evil -made good, through the mediation of Mithras, the reconciler of Ormuzd -and Ahriman. Mithras is the good; his name is Love. In relation to -the Eternal he is the source of grace; in relation to men he is the life-giver -and mediator. He brings the Word, as Brahma brings the Vedas -from the mouth of the Eternal” (Plutarch, “De Iside et Osiride ”). The -close connection of the later Eranians with the Chaldeans no doubt -gave the former facilities for studying the Akkadian astronomy; and, -therefore, it is fair to presume that the phenomenon of the precession of -the equinoxes was well understood by them, which would account for -the fact that Mithra is always represented in earlier times under the -figure of a bull, and afterwards under that of a lamb. The reason of -this is that, prior to about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2,200, the vernal equinoxial sign was the -zodiacal figure of the bull (<i>Taurus</i>); while, after that period, the figure -of the lamb or ram (<i>Aries</i>) took its place; and as the saviour sun-god -Mithra was the personification of the new annual sun, born in the -December constellation, crossing the equator in March, and thereby -conquering the powers of evil or darkness, he was invariably represented -by the figure of that zodiacal constellation which happened to be at the -vernal equinoxial point at the time.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>Having thus briefly glanced at the religious cults of the three -branches of the great Aryan family, and found the very same religious -conception of a divine and incarnate saviour, redeeming the universe -from the powers of darkness and evil, running through each mythological -system, we cannot help coming to the conclusion that, inasmuch -as the saviour-myth was developed into its full proportions long after the -separation of the families took place, and inasmuch as the development -followed similar lines in each separate case, there must have been some -common guide, and that guide was the unwritten word of nature as -expressed in the heavens above.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i lang="la">Vide</i> my “Popular Faith Unveiled.”</p></div> - -<p>Leaving the Aryan stream, and turning back to that division of the -great Iranian family which migrated to the valley of the Nile, and which -we call the Egyptian, we find a very similar religious system in vogue -among them from the very earliest times, as existed among the Aryans. -The first settlers in Egypt carried with them, no doubt, the primitive -religious conceptions of their Iranian fathers, which were derived from -a contemplation of the various phenomena of nature, as previously -stated; and it is highly probable that, at a very early period, they gave -considerable attention to the movements of the heavenly bodies, for -from monumental inscriptions, unearthed in modern times, which geologists -inform us must have lain <i lang="la">sub terra</i> for several thousands of years, -we learn that the Egyptians, at that remote time, well understood the -theory of the precession of the equinoxes, placing the zodiacal constellation -of the bull at the vernal equinoxial point in the period prior to -about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 4300, and that of the ram in the period immediately following. -It is probable, therefore, that hundreds of years before this time these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> -primitive men of the Nile were engaging themselves with the study of -astronomy, and using effective astronomical instruments, which indicates -a high state of civilisation; and this is further borne out by the fact that, -at the commencement of the first Egyptian dynasty, about the year -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 5000, when Menes reigned over Egypt, there was every appearance -of a very advanced civilisation that had lasted for centuries. From the -“Book of the Dead” and the Prisse Papyrus (most of the former written -at latest prior to <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 4000, and the latter very soon after) we derive a -tolerably accurate notion of the mythological system of the Egyptians -during the first portion of the Old Empire, and probably many hundreds -of years previously; while, from the writings of Herodotus, Diodorus, -Plutarch, and Manetho, we learn the progress the religion made during -the 4,000 following years.</p> - -<p>The “Book of the Dead” treats principally of the refining processes -through which the spirits of dead people passed in the under-world, or -Cher Nuter, before being purified sufficiently to inherit a state of bliss -and become spirits of light (Chu) to be absorbed into the sun at the -point where it is born, and taken within it to An, the celestial Heliopolis. -Before the time of Menes the religion of Egypt was animistic, blended -with a vague kind of sun-worship, the supreme deity being, at Thinis-Abydos, -the ancient capital, called Osiris, the god of gods, son of Seb, -god of earth, and Nu, goddess of the heavenly ocean, and grandson of -Ra. Osiris was the sun-god of the daily and annual circle, who enjoyed -his spouse, Isis, the great mother, during the summer months and the -daytime, after which he was overcome by the evil Set-Typhon and his -wife Nephthys, and tortured in the under-world, until released by his -son Horus, the conqueror sun-god, who rose into the upper world as -the avenger of his father’s defeat, and liberated the soul of Osiris from -torture, to be absorbed by, and for ever shine forth in the constellation -<i>Orion</i>, as the soul of Isis shines for ever in <i>Sirius</i>. At Heliopolis, An, -On, or Para, the city of the sun, Ra was worshipped as supreme god, -who as Tum, the hidden god, fought the demon of darkness, the serpent -Apap, in Amenti, and who rose again from the under-world as Harmachis. -Later, when Menes reigned as the first monarch of the Old -Empire (<i lang="la">circa</i> <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 5000), Memphis, or Mennefer, was the capital city, -in which Phtah was worshipped as the supreme god or creator of the -world (called Sekru, the slain god, when in the lower world), together -with Ma, goddess of righteousness, and Imhotep, the chief of priests, -whose name signified “I come in peace,” and who formed the third -part of a kind of trinity, with Phtah and Ma. All these, and other -minor deities, such as deified kings, etc., were represented on earth by -incarnations in the shape of animals, Ra, Osiris, and Phtah, the supreme -gods, being manifested in the sacred bull Apis, representing the sun at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> -the vernal equinoctial point in the zodiacal constellation <i>Taurus</i>. During -six dynasties these gods were worshipped peacefully, their incarnations -and religious rites being protected by the kings; but about the year -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 3800 the kingdom appears to have dropped to bits, its religion to -have been mixed up in a most confused manner, and its people divided -into a number of small nationalities, with separate kings and separate -laws; until, at length, the whole country was once more united under -the reigning monarchs of the eleventh dynasty (Second Empire), whose -capital was Thebes, and whose popular deity was Amen, the hidden -god, called also Amen-Ra, to signify that he was not only the sun-god -in the under-world, but also the rising and conquering sun-god of the -early morn and spring of the year. In fact, Amen was the sun-god of -the whole revolution, the Theban Yao, one with his father Osiris in the -mid-day and mid-summer, one with his counterpart Horus at the early -morn and spring of the year, and one with Tum in the darkness of -night and winter; just as Zeus of the Greeks was Zeus Amen (Jupiter -Ammon), Olympian Zeus, Zeus Yao, and Stygian Zeus, according to the -season of the year.</p> - -<p>Between the Middle Empire and the New Empire another catastrophe -occurred to the Egyptians, in the form of an invasion of the -Hyksos, or shepherd kings of Arabia, who overran the whole country, -destroyed the temples, and levied heavy tribute on the people, eventually -settling down for four centuries as Kings of Egypt, adopting many -of the native customs, and introducing many Semitic deities and observances. -At last the Hyksos were driven forth, and the New Empire -commenced with the eighteenth dynasty; but a considerable difference -was now found to exist in the religion of the country, partly on account -of the introduction of Semitic rites, and partly owing to the change that -had taken place at the vernal equinoctial point, by the precessional -movement of the zodiacal constellation <i>Taurus</i>. The vernal equinoctial -point was now (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2000) in the sign <i>Aries</i>, and therefore the principal -deities should be no longer represented as incarnate bulls, but as incarnate -rams. Accordingly, we find that after this date the bull-god Apis, -or Serapis, gradually fell into disrepute; and Amen, who was now the -supreme and representative god, was worshipped as an incarnate ram, -being depicted as a man wearing ram’s horns.</p> - -<p>Another mode of worshipping the young sun-god, born at the winter -solstice, December 25th, was that known as the Mysteries of the Night, -or Passion of Osiris, at which an idol of the infant Horus, or Amen, -called also the Holy Word, was presented to the people in its mother’s -arms, or exposed to view in a crib for the adoration of the people by -the priests, who were, according to Adrian, called Bishops of Christ -(χριστος, the anointed one); and when King Ptolemy, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 350, asked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> -the meaning of the custom, he was informed that it was a sacred -mystery. During these mysteries, which took place annually, bread, -after sacerdotal rites, was mystically converted into the body of Osiris, -to be partaken of by all the faithful, who were called Christians; and -an idol representing the body of the god, stretched on a cross within a -circle, was placed upon the mystic table for adoration and praise.</p> - -<p>The winter solstitial point is really December 21st; but the ancients -always kept the festival of the birth of the sun-god on December 25th, -because at twelve o’clock, midnight between December 24th and 25th -the uppermost stars in the constellation <i>Virgo</i> made their appearance -above the horizon, being the first indication of the birth of the new sun, -which had taken place exactly three days and three nights previously. -This gave rise to the popular superstition that the new sun-god was born -of a virgin, from whose womb he had been trying to extricate himself -for the space of three days and three nights. From this the idea prevailed -that the sun-god underwent similar periods of struggle also at -the summer solstice and the two equinoctial points; and thus arose the -legend of the two crucifixions, the one at the vernal equinox, when the -sun in <i>Aries</i> crossed the Equator and was crucified as the “Lamb of -God” on March 21st, commencing the ascension to heaven on March -25th; and the other at the autumnal equinox, when the sun in <i>Libra</i> -(the balance of justice) crossed the Equator and was crucified as the -“Just Man” on September 23rd, descending to hell for three days -and three nights, after which he emerged into the shades until born -again at the winter solstice.</p> - -<p>A very popular deity of the Lower Nile was Mises (drawn from -water), the sun-god of wine and mirth, who was born on Mount Nyssa -(Sinai), and was found as a babe in a box floating on the Red Sea, and -who, by means of his magic wand, took his army dry-shod through -the Sea and the rivers Orontes and Hydaspes, drew water from rocks, -and caused the land through which he passed to flow with milk, wine, -and honey. He was depicted with a ram’s horn on his forehead, -being the personification of the new-born sun delivering the world -from the powers of darkness, and was afterwards worshipped in -Phœnicia as Iēs, in Greece as Dionysos (Διονυσος], God of Nyssa), son -of Zeus, and in Rome as Bacchus. The temples dedicated to this sun-god -were, in the time of the Greek kings of Egypt, very gorgeous, the -mystic table having upon it, not only the infant in its cradle, the transubstantiated -bread, and the Osirian crucifix, but also a bleeding lamb, -the emblem of the sun-god at the vernal equinox, over which was -placed the Phœnician name of Mises, Iēs, in Greek capitals (ΙΗΣ]), -surrounded by the rays of glory, to signify that he was the risen and -crucified sun-god, and one with Horus and Amen-Ra.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> - -<p>Turning to the third great division of the Iranians—viz., the Semites, -who migrated to the Valley of the Euphrates, we find a more or less -complicated religious system, varying in accordance with the amount -of intercommunication which took place between the Semites and the -tribes belonging to the Aryan, Mongolian, and Egyptian families. The -earliest Semitic settlement was in the district stretching from the -Euphrates to the Red Sea and Mediterranean, and their religion was, -at first, one of pure animistic polydæmonism, varying enormously in -details of drama in the different tribes, but exhibiting in all common -characteristics.</p> - -<p>All early Semitic peoples worshipped the sun-god, Shamsh, and all -were moon, planet, and star-worshippers to a very large extent; but, -as the race became divided into Northern and Southern Semites, a -distinct difference gradually arose between the religious cults of the -two branches. The Southern, or Arab, tribes, on account of their -more isolated situation, retained the original Semitic mythology, worshipping -the sun as their chief god, Shamsh, the moon as his consort, -and the stars and planets as inferior gods and goddesses, the <i>Pleiades</i> -being objects of special homage. Shamsh was father of all, and -disappeared to the under-world at night to rest in slumber until -awakened into activity in the morning as Yachavah, his son, who -became one with his father.</p> - -<p>The Northern Semites, on penetrating, at a later period, the borders -of Mesopotamia, came in contact with a powerful and advanced civilisation, -which had been already established by the Akkadian branch of -the Northern Mongolian family, and thus the original Semitic religion -became very much modified by the introduction into it of many of -the Mongol, as well as some also of the Aryan, myths.</p> - -<p>Very little is known of the Akkadian mythology; but it is pretty -certain that they were, at a very early period, acquainted with the -science of astronomy, and that the Chaldeans, their successors, who -were a mongrel race, partly Akkadian and partly Semitic, invented the -cuneiform writing to take the place of the old Mongolian hieroglyphic -characters. From what we know of the religion of the old Mongol -Chinese empire prior to 1200 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, it was a kind of spirit-worship, the -Shang-ti, or supreme spirit, being Thian (Heaven), who, in co-operation -with Heu-thu (earth), produced everything. Man, according to this -cultus, had two souls, one of which ascended after death to heaven, -while the other descended into the earth, both being absorbed respectively -into Thian and Heu-thu.</p> - -<p>The Akkadians, who were but a branch of the same race as the -progenitors of the ancient Chinese, also worshipped spirits, the greatest -of whom was Ana (the highest heaven), the next Mulge (the hidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> -heaven in the interior of the earth), and the third Ea, the god of the -atmosphere and of moisture. After these came an inferior group—Uru-ki, -the moon-god; Ud, the sun-god; and Im, the wind-god. The -spirits were divided into good and bad, which were constantly at war -with each other; and thus was introduced into the religion of the -semi-Semitic Chaldeans the dualistic notion of good and evil existing -in conflict throughout all time.</p> - -<p>The Northern Semites may be conveniently divided into four -distinct nations—viz., the Chaldeans (Babylonians and Assyrians), who -were partly Semitic and partly Akkadian, the Aramæans, the Canaanites, -and the Phœnicians. These peoples soon became acquainted with -the astronomical learning of the Akkadians, and were taught the -wonderful phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes; and it is -highly probable that the fact of the vernal equinoctial sign having -changed shortly before <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2000 from that of the Bull to that of the -Ram or Lamb had much to do with the changing of the old Semitic -name Shamsh to that of El, as a designation of the sun-god, El (אל) -being the old Chaldean word for Ram.</p> - -<p>Owing to the mixed character of the Chaldean nation, their religion -was a peculiar blending of the Akkadian and Semitic mythologies, El -Ilu, or Ilah, being their chief deity; but, instead of sinking into the -lower world each night for peaceful slumber, as the older Shamsh had -done, he became the victim of the wicked demons, who tormented him -all through the dark hours, until he was avenged by his son Yachavah, -who thereby became the conqueror and saviour god, one with his father -Ilu, and yet different. To a great extent the religion of the purely -Semitic tribes of the north was affected by this Chaldean myth; but -there arose many points of difference between them. The Assyrians -worshipped El under the name of Asur, their national deity, the Babylonians -converting the name into Bel; while the pure Semites worshipped -him as Bel and Baal in the west, and as Al in the south. Out of the -story of El and Yachavah was fabricated the great Adonis myth of the -Chaldeans, which became so popular in future times among all the -Semites except the Arabs of the south, who retained the original character -of the supreme Shamsh, El or Al (afterwards Allah), and his -son Yachavah, afterwards Yahouh. This Adonis drama, as originally -conceived, was that El reigned in supreme power and glory in the -highest heaven, enjoying the delights of his spouse Istar, but that in the -autumn the wicked gods of winter overcame him, separating him from -his lover, and tormenting him all through the winter months, until in the -spring he conquered the evil demons as Adon, the beautiful youth, who -is restored to his mourning Istar. The worship of Adonis, or Adon -was generally adopted by all the Northern Semites, the god becoming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> -eventually the most popular deity of the Semitic people, being known as -Yao (ΙΑΟ of the Greeks) to the Phoenicians, Yahoo (יהו) to the -Canaanites, and Tammuz to the Aramæans, while his lover Istar became -the Phoenician Ashtoreth. Iēs, the god of wine, and Greek Dionysos, -was another saviour sun-god worshipped largely by the Phœnicians; but -was most probably of Egyptian origin, being identical with Mises, the -Egyptian Bacchus. As already stated, the Southern Semites of Arabia -retained, in common with their Ethiopian brethren, the old and simpler -worship of the supreme god El and his son Yahouh, although, owing to -their propinquity to Egypt, many strange inferior deities had been introduced -into Arabia from that country, which resulted, in much later times, -in the formation of various religious sects, each having a particular -tribal deity, or patron god, though all recognising El as supreme. One -of these tribes, with Yahouh as their tribal god, on which account they -were called Yahoudi, having left their native Arabian home, penetrated -far into the country of the Northern Semites, learning from the -Canaanites, Phœnicians, and Babylonians the strange legends of the -Northern Semitic deities, including the Adonis myth; and, after -wandering about for many years, one large portion of their tribe settled -in the delta of the Nile, while the remainder crossed the desert of Syria -and approached the confines of Babylonia, finally settling in the barren -and rocky interior of Syria, and making the spot where now stands the -small town of El-Khuds (Jerusalem) their headquarters. During their -long wanderings they became acquainted not only with the various -Semitic myths of the north, but also with the Babylonian and Persian -legends, and incorporated a quantity of strange deities and customs into -their own rude and primitive religion, thus manufacturing a very complicated -and weird system of mythology.</p> - -<p>The date of the Yahudean migration into Syria was certainly not -earlier than about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 250, despite the declaration of interested parties -that these people were known as Israelites and Jews for centuries before -that time. The following quotation from Major-General Forlong’s -“Rivers of Faith” is worth reproducing on this point:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>—“The first -notice of the Jews is, <em>possibly</em>, that of certain Shemitic rulers of the -Aram, paying tribute about 850 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> to Vool-Nirari, the successor of -Shalmaneser of Syria, regarding which, however, much more is made -by Biblicists than the simple record warrants. This is the case also -where Champollion affirms that mention is made on the Theban -temples of the capture of certain towns of the land we call Judea, this -being thought to prove the existence of Jews. Similar assumption -takes place in regard to the hieratic papyri of the Leyden Museum, -held to belong to the time of Rameses II.; an inscription read on the -rocks of El-Hamamat, and the discovery of some names like Chedorlaomer -in the records of Babylonia; but this is all the ‘evidence’ as -to the existence of ancient Jews which has been advanced, and the -most is made of it in Dr. Birch’s opening address on ‘The Progress -of Biblical Archæology,’ at the inauguration of that Society. The only -<em>logical</em> conclusion justifiable, when we give up the <em>inspiration</em> theory, is -that Arabs and Syro-Phenicians were known to Assyrians and Egyptians, -and this none would deny. Indeed, we readily grant with Dr. Birch -that, ‘under the nineteenth and twentieth Egyptian dynasties, the -influence of the Armenœan nations is distinctly marked; that not only, -by blood and alliances, had the Pharaohs been closely united with the -princes of Palestine and Syria, but that the language of the period -abounds in Semitic words, quite different from the Egyptian, with -which they were embroidered and intermingled.’ Could it possibly be -otherwise? Is it not so this day? Is a vast and rapidly-spawning -Shemitic continent like Arabia not to influence the narrow delta of a -river adjoining it, or the wild highlands of Syria to its north? Of course, -Arabs, or Shemites, were everywhere spread over Egypt, Syria, and -Phenicia, as well as in their ancient seats of empire in Arabi Irak -(Kaldia), and on the imperial mounds of Kalneh and Kouyunjik, <em>but -not necessarily as Jews</em>. I cannot find that these last were anything more -than possibly a peculiar religious sect of Arabs, who settled down from -their pristine nomadic habits, and obtained a <i>quasi</i> government under -petty princes or sheks, such as we have seen take place in the case of -numerous Arabian and Indian sects.”</p> - -<p>Again, the author of “Rivers of Faith” remarks: “No efforts, say -the leaders of the Biblical Archæological Society, have been able to find, -either amid the numerous engravings on the rocks of Arabia Petrea or -Palestine, <em>any save Phenician inscriptions</em>—not even a record of the Syro-Hebrew -character, which was once thought to be the peculiar property -of Hebrews. ‘<em>Most of those inscriptions hitherto discovered do not date -anterior to the Roman Empire</em>’ (Dr. Birch, President of Soc, op. cit., -p. 9). ‘Few, if any, monuments (of Jews) have been obtained in -Palestine’ or the neighbouring countries of any useful antiquity, save -the Moabite Stone, and the value of this last is all in favour of my -previous arguments on these points. At the pool of Siloam we have -an ‘inscription, <em>in the Phenician character</em>, as old as the time of the -kings.... It is incised upon the walls of a rock chamber, apparently -<em>dedicated to Baal, who is mentioned on it</em>.’ So that here, in a most holy -place of this ‘peculiar people,’ we find only Phenicians, and these -worshipping the Sun-God of Fertility, as was customary on every coast -of Europe, from unknown times down to the rise of Christianity. The -Biblical Archæological Society and British Museum authorities tell us -frankly and clearly that no Hebrew square character can be proved to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> -exist till after the Babylonian captivity, and that, ‘at all events, <em>this -inscription of Siloam shows that the curved or Phenician character was in -use in Jerusalem itself under the Hebrew Monarchy, as well as the conterminous -Phenicia, Moabitis</em>, and the more distant Assyria. No monument, -indeed,’ continues Dr. Birch, ‘of greater antiquity, inscribed in -the square character (Hebrew), has been found, <em>as yet, older than the -fifth century</em>, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>; and the coins of the Maccabean princes, as well -as those of the revolter Barcochab, are impressed with <em>Samaritan</em> -characters.’” As to the Moabite Stone, I would refer my readers to a -little work entitled “An Inquiry into the Age of the Moabite Stone,” -by Samuel Sharpe, the celebrated author of “The History of Egypt,” -in which will be found abundant evidence to prove that the inscription -on the Stone is a forgery of about the year <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 260.</p> - -<p>Apart from the history contained in the books of the Old Testament, -there is absolutely no record of the Jews as an independent people, -except that contained in the writings of Josephus (about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 100); -and, although that author may be tolerably trustworthy when relating -matters near to his own time, yet in his description of Jewish -antiquities he evidently, as he himself asserts, rests only on tradition. -For instance, he alone records the story of Alexander entering the holy -place at Jerusalem and offering sacrifice on the altar; but Arrian, in his -“Anabasis of Alexander the Great,” where he specially treats of the life -and actions of this great conqueror, says not one word about such a -place as Jerusalem, or about such a story as that recorded by Josephus. -Curtius, who wrote a far more detailed account of the life and conquests -of Alexander, mentions neither Jerusalem nor the story of Alexander -and the holy place. Herodotus, about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 430, when narrating the -two raids of the Scythians through Syria, as far as Egypt, says not a -word about any Jews. Xenophon, who wrote 150 years after they were -said to have returned from Babylon, or about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 386, appears to have -been unconscious of their existence, only mentioning the Syrians of -Palestine. Neither did Sanchoniathon, Ctesias, Berosus, nor Manetho -even once mention them as a nation. Diodorus also, when writing of -the siege of Tyre by the soldiers of Alexander, neither mentions the -Jews as a nation nor Jerusalem as their chief town. In fact, we have -no account of them at all, except that contained in the Old Testament -and that in the writings of Josephus, until we find them subject to the -Romans, under Antiochus Epiphanes, about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 165, when in all -probability they had just settled down into a dependent nation, having -been driven into Syria by the Babylonians, whose fertile valleys these -Arabian nomads had attempted to colonise. Being surrounded on all -sides by nations whose religions so very far surpassed their own in -development, it did not take long for the Yahoudi (afterwards called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> -Jews) to become affected by the mythological dramas of their neighbours; -and, in carefully examining the mythical records of their tribe, -we find that they very soon became acquainted with, and in some cases -offered worship to, almost all the purely Semitic and Chaldean, as well -as to a few of the Egyptian, deities. Their principal god always -remained as before, El (אל) signifying the zodiacal sign <i>Aries</i>, the -heavenly ram and first of the twelve zodiacal figures. Combined with -Yah (יה), the abbreviation of Yahouh (יהוה), their tribal deity, it -formed a compound word, Eloh (אלוה), or Elyah (אליה, the ו and י -being interchangeable), the plural of which was Elohim (אלהים), a -word used frequently in the Bible to signify the supreme God. Bearing -in mind the fact that the fables of the Bible are not actual history, but -merely so many accounts of the ever-recurring phenomena of the sidereal -heavens, and that in the various saviour myths the vernal equinoxial -sign, or saviour sign, <i>Aries</i>, was looked upon as the supreme god, who -housed the new-born sun on his first appearance in the upper world, -just as in the present day the song of praise on Easterday is “Worthy -is the lamb who was slain (crucified) to receive the power and bring -back salvation to the world,” the meanings of these names of the -supreme deity become apparent at once. All the words—and, in fact, -almost every divine name found in every divine record—signify the sun -in one or other of the divisions of his annual or daily apparent march, -or else one of the divisions itself. El signifies the first and saviour sign of -the zodiac, the celestial ram, and is always used when the winter period -is referred to, because from the autumnal to the vernal equinox the sun-god, -Yahouh, is separated from the ram, El, which remains god of the -lower world, until again united with its spouse, the sun, at the vernal -equinox, becoming the ram-sun-god, El-Yah or Eloh, whose plural is -Elohim, the ram-sun-gods, from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, -when the sun and <i>Aries</i> are together for six months. At a later time, -when the old Bacchus worship was revived at Alexandria in the person -of the young Semitic Yahoshua, who was named Iesous, we have a good -illustration of this when the sun-god, in his agony at being separated -from the ram at the autumnal equinox or crucifixion, exclaimed: “Eloi, -Eloi, lama sabachthani?”—“My ram, my ram, why hast thou forsaken -me?” In, I believe, every instance in which the plural word, Elohim, -is used in the Bible the reference is to the summer half of the year, -from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, when El and Yah are together. -We meet with El—in its Babylonian form, Bel; in its Aramæan -forms, Bel and Belus; and in its Phenician form, Baal—frequently in -the Bible, and often in combination with other deities, as El-Shaddai -and Bel-Shaddai (בעלשדי), signifying the “breasted ram,” or the ram<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> -at the vernal equinox, the period of suckling.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Other forms of the -same divine name were Baal-Berith, god of the equinox or covenant -(<i lang="la">co-venire</i>, to come together, as when the ecliptic crosses the equator at -the two equinoxes or crucifixions); Baal-Yah and El-Yah, rendered in -the authorised version respectively Bealiah and Elijah, when in reality -they signify the god Yahouh, or ram-sun-god; El-Yah also does duty -for Joel; Elishah signifies the saviour ram; Eliakim, the setting ram; -Eleazar, the creating ram; Samuel, the god of fame, or famous ram; -Daniel, the ram judge; and Israel, the struggle with El. The -Phenician Hercules wrestled with Typhon (the sun at the meridian) -in the sand, just as Israel or Jacob wrestled with Elohim in the dust—Hercules, -like Jacob, being wounded in the thigh; and the Canaanites -knew the Greek Hercules, who wrestled with Zeus, by the name of -Ysrael.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> El not only signified a ram, but also a lamb, or any other kind of sheep. The -vernal equinoxial sign, for instance, of the Persians was a lamb, while that of the -Egyptians was a ram.</p></div> - -<p>Baal-gad (בעלגד) was the god of Fortune, Gad being a Babylonian -deity representing fortune, which was placed at the foot of Hermon for -public worship. From this deity G D (גד) are derived the English -words God and Good, the German Gott and Gut, the Danish and -Swedish Gud, and the Wesleyan Methodist Gawd. Baal-Peor was the -Phallic deity (<i lang="la">Deus Vulvæ</i>), god of the opening, worshipped largely by -the Hebrews, who, as General Forlong points out, “had a strong solo-phalik -fire-and-serpent cult. They all had Baal, Nebu, and Peor on -their high places; Yachavah or Yahuê, the ‘Grove,’ or Asherah -[Ashtoreth] and fire in their central groves.” Baal Zephon was the god -Typhon; Baal Hermon was another name for Gad, god of Fortune; -Baal Hazor was the god Hathor; and Baal Hamon (בעלאמון) was the -god Amen, or Jupiter Ammon. The word Yahouh, in various terminal -forms, was frequently used to designate the sun at different times and -seasons—as Joseph, the lamented Yah; Jehu, Yahouh himself; and, -according to Gesenius, Jehozabad, Yeho the giver; Jehohanan, Yeho is -good; Jehoiada, Yeho is knowing; Jehoshua, or Joshua; Jehoshaphat; -Jehoiakim; Hoshea; Zedekiyah, etc. Yahoshua (Joshua) was the -Canaanitish name for the Phoenician Yēs or Iēs, and Egyptian Mises, -and became in Latin Josue, or Jesus, according to whether the Romans -referred to the Phenician or Canaanitish Bacchus, whose histories, -though similar in the main, differed considerably in details. The -Egyptian Mises became also the Jewish law-giver and leader, Moses, -and is described in Ex. xxxiv. as being horned like Bacchus (<i lang="la">vide</i> my -“Popular Faith Unveiled”). The Adonis myth occurs over and over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> -again in fragments throughout the Bible, the Babylonish name Adon -frequently being found in that form (אדן), in its Hebrew rendering -Adonai (אדני), and occasionally in its Aramæan form of Tammuz. -It occurs alone, as in Psalm cx. 1, “Yahouh said to Adonis, sit at my -right hand;” in Isaiah vii. 14, “Therefore our Adonis himself shall -give you a sign;” and in conjunction with Yahouh, as in Isaiah vii. 7, -“Thus saith Yahouh, our Adonis,” and numerous other places. It -also occurs with different terminations, to signify different forms and -positions of the sun-god—as Adoniyah or Adonijah, Adonis is Yahouh; -Adoni-zedek, the liberated Adonis; Adoni-bezek, the rising Adonis; etc. -The old Semitic sun-god Shamsh remained, as of old, the Hebrew -שמש (Shemosh), signifying the sun; and his Greek <i lang="la">alter ego</i>, Hercules, -the sun-hero, was not forgotten either, for we find a very poor attempt -to reproduce him in the history of Samson. Moloch, Dagon, and other -Semitic deities are also introduced into the Jewish Scriptures. There -is one other deity frequently met with which must now be named, and -that is the Egyptian Amen—the Zeus Amen (Ζευς Αμην·) of the Greeks, -and the Jupiter Ammon of the Romans. This god Ammon (אמן or -אמון) was worshipped by the Jews as the equal in power to, and the -very counterpart of, Yahouh, and was called by the very same names -by which he was known to the Egyptians—viz., the hidden god, true -and faithful witness (which epithet gave origin to the Greek adverb, -Αμην, truly), and saviour of the world, or regenerator of nature. In -Isaiah xlv. 15 we read, “Truly thou art the hidden god of Israel, the -saviour;” and, again, in chapter lxv. 16, “He who blesses himself on -earth shall bless himself by his god Ammon (אלהיאמן); and he who -sweareth in the earth shall swear by the god Ammon, because the -former troubles are delivered to oblivion, and because they are hidden -from mine eyes.” This hidden or occult god, Ammon, or Amen, is -frequently addressed in the Psalms and other places, and is there identified -with Yahouh and Adonis. In Psalm xxvii. 8, 9, we read, “Seek -ye my face. My heart said to thee, Thy face, O Yahouh, will I seek. -O hide not thy face from me;” and Psalm x. 1, “And why standest -thou so far off, Yahouh, and hidest thy face in the needful time of -trouble?” Psalm lxxxix. 46 says, “Yahouh, how long wilt thou hide -thyself?” Verses 49, 50, “O our Adonis, where are thy loving kindnesses -of old, which thou swearest to David in thy truth?” and verse -52, “Blessed be Yahouh for evermore (who is) Ammon, even Ammon.” -In Isaiah i. 15 we also read, “When ye spread forth your hands I will -hide myself from you; yea, when ye make many prayers I will not hear -you.” We find the same god also in the New Testament Scriptures of -the later Christian sect of Eclectic Egyptian Jews. In the Apocalypse, -for instance, the word Αμην is rendered “Amen” in the authorised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> -version, and is sometimes met with as a Greek noun, Ὁ Αμην (never -heard of in the classics), when it is rendered “the Amen,” which senseless -rendering is no doubt intended to conceal the real and obvious -meaning. In Rev. i. 18 we read, “I am he that liveth and was dead, -and behold I, Ammon, am alive for evermore,” the word Αμην being -rendered “Amen;” and in chap. iii. 14, “These things saith Ammon -[“the Amen” in the authorised version], the true and faithful witness, -the beginning of the creation of God.” As the celestial ram or lamb, -<i>Aries</i>, Amen is again mentioned in chap. xiii. 8, “The lamb which has -been slain from the foundation of the world”—that is, each year at the -vernal equinox, when the occult god rose from his hiding-place in the -lower hemisphere to bring salvation to the world.</p> - -<p>This concludes the examination of the old sun-myth religions; but -there are yet three very important religious systems to be dealt with—viz., -Confucianism, Mohammedanism, and Christianism.</p> - -<p>Confucianism took its birth in the sixth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, at a time when -the old solar myth was very extensively believed in China and the neighbouring -countries, and was, strictly speaking, a system of morality and -conduct. Its author, Confucius (Kong-fu-tse), was born <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 550, in -Lu, a province of China, and at a very early age commenced to preach -a higher and purer morality among the Chinese people, many of whom -became regular followers of the young reformer, and followed his good -example by likewise teaching the people at every favourable opportunity. -He was strongly opposed to all false show, hypocrisy, and deceit, and -abhorred the life of a hermit as unnatural and mischievous. He preferred -not to speak of heaven as a personal being, as was the habit of -his countrymen, but was exceedingly fond of quoting its example as the -preserver of order, frequently alluding to its commands, ordinances, -and purposes. He attached no value to prayer, preached the doctrine -that good and evil are rewarded on the earth by prosperity and adversity, -and expressed his disbelief in special revelations to men. The canonical -books of the Confucians are known as the five <i>Kings</i> (the historical -<i>Shu-King</i>, the psalms of the <i>Shi-King</i>, and the ritual of the <i>Li-ki</i>, the -chronicles of the <i>Tshun-tsiew</i>, and the magical <i>Yi-King</i>), and the three -volumes containing the remarkable and benevolent utterances of the -master Confucius himself—viz., the <i>Lun-yu</i>, the <i>Ta-hio</i>, and the <i>Tshung-yung</i>. -In the <i>Ta-hio</i> occur those celebrated and beautiful moral -passages which have so justly immortalised the name of Confucius. -The one is the 24th moral: “Do unto another what you would he -should do to you, and do not to another what you would should not -be done to you. Thou needest this law alone; it is the foundation and -principle of all the rest.” The other is the 53rd moral:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> “Acknowledge -thy benefits by return of other benefits, but never avenge injuries.” -Notwithstanding the great persecution of Confucians in b.c. 212, by -the Ts’in rulers, and other smaller attempts to destroy the new system -of morality in favour of the sun-gods, the moral code of Confucius was -publicly permitted to be used in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 57, and since the seventh century -has almost entirely taken the place of god-worship, a few only of the -more uneducated classes still professing to worship Fo-hi.</p> - -<p>Mohammedanism, or Islamism, the reformed faith of Arab polytheists, -arose in the sixth century of our era. Mahomet, or Mohammed, -was a young religious enthusiast, a camel-driver of Mecca, who determined -to uproot the idolatry and superstition of the Arab tribes, and -was singularly successful in his arduous undertaking. He had a powerful -aversion to all kinds of priestcraft, sacrifices, and superstitious -ordeals, and boldly preached the unity of God, declaring that “there -is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.” Of all the religions of -the world, perhaps none has been more successful than this; and, -certainly, not one ever spread so rapidly over the face of the earth. In -less than 100 years after the decease of the prophet the Khalifs of -Islamism were masters of the whole of Northern Africa, Spain, and -part of France, besides a great portion of Asia; which vast territories -they retained possession of for about 600 years, encouraging the while -philosophical and scientific studies, establishing libraries, schools, and -universities, and otherwise benefitting the human race. At the present -day upwards of 100,000,000 people embrace this faith, whose God is -Allah, the great unity, whose prophet is Mahomet, and whose Bible is -the Koran.</p> - -<p>We now come to Christianism, that widely-spread faith, whose cradle -was Alexandria, whose nursery was Rome, and whose workshop was -Europe. The founder of this religion, if he ever lived at all, about -which there is considerable doubt, was a young ascetic monk belonging -to the Essenes—a Syrian branch of the large order of Therapeutæ—whose -headquarters were in Alexandria. His name was Yahoshua ben -Pandira and Stada; he was born about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 120, in the reign of Alexander -Jannæus; and he preached the doctrines of Confucius, declaring -publicly that the priests were liars and hypocrites, and inculcating communistic -and socialistic theories. He gained many lowly followers, who -followed him about preaching in the open air, and begging their bread -from day to day, and, at last, was publicly executed for his seditious -conduct.</p> - -<p>At the same time a remarkable mental revolution was taking place -in Greece and Egypt, the natural homes of mythology; the University -of Alexandria and the Academic Groves of Athens were fast sending to -the right-about-face the old superstitions, much to the dismay of the -priests and religious fanatics, who were driven to their wits’ end to know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> -how to counteract this dangerous tendency of the age towards infidelity -and science. The idea struck them of utilising for their purpose the -new sect of religious reformers, who lived according to the teaching of -the young socialist, Yahoshua; they boldly declared that this man was, -when on earth, an incarnate deity, and proceeded to attribute to him -all the miraculous performances that had been previously imputed to -the sun-god Bacchus; and commenced forthwith to prepare their documentary -evidences ready for the ignorant and credulous multitudes. A -new sect of the Therapeut monks of Alexandria came into existence, -called Eclectics, whose mission was to collect all that was good and -useful in the religions of their neighbours, and commit them to manuscript -for the use of their monasteries and the priestly class generally. -It did not take long to fabricate a very imposing story of the young man -Yahoshua, whom they now called Iesous (Ιησους, a name used by the -Greeks to signify a hero personification of the sun-god Bacchus, the -Phœnician Ιης), Greek being at that time the prevailing language of -Lower Egypt. The performances of the ancient sun-gods of Egypt, -Persia, Arabia, India, Greece, Phœnicia, and Italy were recalled to -the minds of these Eclectic monks, by diligent search among their old -musty MSS., and, after carefully and judiciously collating the fables, they -were enabled to clothe their new Iesous, or Jesus, with all the leading -characteristics of these various deities. He was born of a virgin at -midnight between December 24th and December 25th, as were all the -sun-gods: his birth, like that of Mithra and that of Krishna, was foretold: -a star pointed out the place of his nativity, as in the case of Mithra: -his birth-place was a manger in a stable, as in the case of Hercules; or, -according to another account, a cave, as in the case of Mithra and -Horus: he cured the sick, as did Æsculapius: he fasted in the wilderness, -as did Buddha: he performed miracles, as did Bacchus, Hercules, -and others: he turned water into wine, as did the Egyptian Bacchus, and -as was done at the Bacchanalian orgies: he was crucified, as were also -Krishna, Osiris, and Prometheus: he rose from the dead after having -been in the grave three days and three nights, as did all the sun-gods: -he descended to hell, as did all the sun-gods: he was called Saviour -(Σωτηρ, Gr., and Saotès, Egyp.) and Lamb of God (<i>Agnus Dei</i>), as -were all the sun-gods (Ζευς Σωτηρ, Mises Saotès, etc.); Amen, as was -Jupiter Ammon (Ζευς Αμην); Christ, or the Anointed (χριστος), as was -Osiris; Son of God, as were Plato’s Logos (λογος), Bacchus, Mithra, -and Horus; Holy Word (of Plato and Philo), as also was Horus; God -of Love, as were Adonis, Mithra, and Krishna; Light of the World, as -were all the sun-gods; and, like his <i lang="la">alter ego</i>, Krishna, The Resurrection, -The Incarnate, The Beginning and the End, Existing before All -Things, Chief of Prophets, and Messenger of Peace: he was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> -incarnation of one third of a trinity, as were also Horus, Krishna, -and Plato’s Logos: his day was called the Day of the Sun: his -followers were called Christians, and his priests Bishops of Christ, -just as were those of Osiris: his priests absolved sins, received confessions, -and practised celibacy, as did the priests of Bacchus, Adonis, -Mithra, Krishna, Buddha, etc.: his feast was called the Lord’s Supper -and the Mystery of the Night, as were those of Bacchus, Adonis, and -Osiris: these suppers became, in course of time, obscene midnight -orgies, as did those of Bacchus and Adonis: at these suppers the -insignia over the table were the letters Ι Η Σ (the Phœnician name of -Bacchus, in Greek capitals), surrounded by the rays of light and surmounted -by a crucifix and a bleeding lamb, precisely as was the case -with the Bacchanalian orgies: at the Lord’s Supper bread and wine -were transubstantiated into the body and blood of Jesus, exactly as was -done in the case of Bacchus and Osiris: and lights were used at these -feasts just as they were at the Bacchanalian orgies.</p> - -<p>These fables were carefully compiled together, attributed to various -imaginary authors, and finally issued to the people as an appendix, or -New Testament, to the volume of the old Jewish Scriptures, or Old -Testament. Thus were gathered together by the Alexandrian Eclectics -the principal essentials of all the old mythological cults, and thus came -into existence the huge and powerful system of religion called Christianism, -which has been the great curse of Europe for well nigh two -thousand years. From the brutal murder of Hypatia, in a Christian -church, by the fanatical mob of a Christian bishop, down to the last -poor wretch burnt alive at the stake by the orders of the Church of -Jesus, the story of Christian infamy is not relieved by one bright spot. -Humanity stands aghast, and shudders at the hideous tale of crime -which the history of Christian Europe unfolds. It is one long wail of -anguish, poured forth by suffering man, finding relief only in the -silence of the grave—that stronghold of peace within which neither -god, devil, priest, nor tyrant can wreak their diabolical vengeance further. -How terrible have been the sufferings of poor Humanity under the -ghastly shadow of the Cross is beautifully expressed in Shelley’s “Queen -Mab,” in the dialogue between the spirit of Ianthe and the Fairy -Queen:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse"><span class="smcap">Spirit.</span><span class="gap2-5">I was an infant when my mother went</span></div> - <div class="verse indent10">To see an Atheist burned. She took me there:</div> - <div class="verse indent10">The dark-robed priests were met around the pile</div> - <div class="verse indent10">The multitude was gazing silently;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">And as the culprit passed with dauntless mien,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Tempered disdain in his unaltering eye,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Mixed with a quiet smile, shone calmly forth:</div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> - <div class="verse indent10">The thirsty fire crept round his manly limbs;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">His resolute eyes were scorched to blindness soon;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">His death-pang rent my heart! the insensate mob</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Uttered a cry of triumph, and I wept.</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Weep not, child! cried my mother, for that man</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Has said, There is no God.</div> -</div><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse"><span class="smcap">Fairy.</span><span class="gap10">There is no God!</span></div> - <div class="verse indent10">Nature confirms the faith his death-groan seal’d:</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Let heaven and earth, let man’s revolving race,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">His ceaseless generations, tell their tale;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Let every part depending on the chain</div> - <div class="verse indent10">That links it to the whole, point to the hand</div> - <div class="verse indent10">That grasps its term! Let every seed that falls,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">In silent eloquence unfold its store</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Of argument: infinity within,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Infinity without, belie creation;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">The exterminable spirit it contains</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Is Nature’s only God; but human pride</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Is skilful to invent most serious names</div> - <div class="verse indent10">To hide its ignorance.</div> - <div class="verse indent26">The name of God</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Has fenced about all crime with holiness,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Himself the creature of his worshippers,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Whose names and attributes and passions change,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Seeva, Buddh, Foh, Jehovah, God, or Lord,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Even with the human dupes who build his shrines,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Still serving o’er the war-polluted world</div> - <div class="verse indent10">For desolation’s watchword; whether hosts</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Stain his death-blushing chariot wheels, as on</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Triumphantly they roll, whilst Brahmins raise</div> - <div class="verse indent10">A sacred hymn to mingle with the groans;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Or countless partners of his power divide</div> - <div class="verse indent10">His tyranny to weakness; or the smoke</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Of burning towns, the cries of female helplessness,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Unarmed old age, and youth, and infancy,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Horribly massacred, ascend to heaven</div> - <div class="verse indent10">In honour of his name; or, last and worst,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Earth groans beneath religion’s iron age,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">And priests dare babble of a God of peace,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Even while their hands are red with guiltless blood,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Murdering the while, uprooting every germ</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Of truth, exterminating, spoiling all,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Making the earth a slaughter-house!</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>There is no God! What, then, caused this mighty universe? To -be caused implies a cause, certainly; and that cause must, in the very -nature of things, be adequate for the production of the effect manifested. -But, inasmuch as cause and effect are but relative terms, the cause could -not exist independently of the effect, and <i lang="la">vice versâ</i>. Therefore, as far -as the human mind is capable of mentating, the universe could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> -have been caused. It is, therefore, eternal. What that inherent -power of matter is that hides itself so mysteriously behind the phenomena -of nature we cannot tell, farther than that, being the inherent property -of eternal matter, it also is eternal. This point is the limit of the -human understanding, beyond which it is apparently impossible at -present for the mind of man to soar. In the words of Mr. Herbert -Spencer, “there is a power behind humanity and behind all things; a -power of which humanity is but a small and fugitive product; a power -which was, in the course of ever-changing manifestations, before -humanity was, and will continue through all other manifestations when -humanity has ceased to be.” This power, of which matter and motion, -thought and volition, are but the phenomenal manifestations, and -which regulates the varied movements of those myriads of stellar -systems interspersed throughout the infinity of space—this exhaustless -power of life and energy is to the human mind, as at present -constituted, unknowable. Call it Law; call it Gravity; call it the -Mysterious Unknown; but call it not God, that word which has -brought so much bitter anguish to humanity, and which blighted the -beauty of nature, causing hate where love should be, and tears to -fall where smiles should gladden the heart of man. Whether or not -the mind of man in future ages will be able to lift the veil that at present -lies between him and the Great Unknown time alone can tell.</p> - -<p>At present we are at the mercy of an imperfectly-developed nervous -organisation, with its five special senses, which, though very far superior -to the lowly nervous development of our remote ancestors of millions -of centuries back in the history of life, is perfectly inadequate for the -solution of the great problem of existence. But a time will probably -arrive in the dim and misty future when other and more important -senses will be evolved within the human frame, which may bring man -nearer the elucidation of this greatest of all mysteries. Meanwhile let -us apply ourselves boldly to the uprooting of the old Upas tree of -religious faith—that pernicious development of the god-idea that has -been the constant blight of all ages, stifling reason by fostering blind -faith and gross credulity, robbing the race of all that is noble, manly, -and honest, by the propagation of those canker worms, hypocrisy and -cant, and retarding the temporal salvation of man by the substitution -of the vain and foolish theory of future rewards and punishments.</p> - - -<p class="center small"><i>Printed by Watts & Co., 17, Johnson’s Court, Fleet Street, London, E.C.</i></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a><br /><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a><br /><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p> - -<p id="zodiacal"> </p> -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">A</td><td align="left">LIBRA</td><td align="left">Earth’s position at</td><td align="left">Vernal Equinox B.C.</td><td align="right">4340.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">B</td><td align="left">VIRGO</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">2188.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">C</td><td align="left">LEO</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">36.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">D</td><td align="left">CANCER</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Winter Solstice</td><td align="right">4340.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">E</td><td align="left">GEMINI</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">2188.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">F</td><td align="left">TAURUS</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">36.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">G</td><td align="left">ARIES</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Autumnal Equinox</td><td align="right">4340.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">H</td><td align="left">PISCES</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">2188.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">I</td><td align="left">AQUARIUS</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">36.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">J</td><td align="left">CAPRICORNUS</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Summer Solstice</td><td align="right">4340.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">K</td><td align="left">SAGITARIUS</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">2188.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">L</td><td align="left">SCORPIO</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">36.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_173.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">INSIGNIA ON THE WALLS IN - THE TEMPLES OF BACCHUS</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a><br /><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a><br /><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figright" > -<img src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">ORIENTAL - ZODIAC. After Sir W<sup>m</sup> Jones.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">ANCIENT -EGYPTIAN ZODIAC -FROM THE -TEMPLE OF ISIS -DENDERA After Sir Wm. Drummond.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a><br /><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a><br /><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_180.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">NORTHERN SIGNS AND EXTRA-ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS. - B.C. 36 to A.D. 2116.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">SOUTHERN SIGNS AND EXTRA-ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS. B.C. 36 to A.D. 2116. -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a><br /><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a><br /><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_184.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><i>B.C. 4340 <span class="smcap lowercase">TO</span> B.C. 2188.</i><br /> -and<br /><i>B.C. 36 <span class="smcap lowercase">TO</span> A.D. 2116.</i></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">ZODIACAL LINE OR ECLIPTIC. B.C. 2188 <span class="smcap lowercase">TO</span> B.C. 36.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a><br /><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a><br /><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Boötes; Adam, Joseph the Carpenter.<br /> -Virgo; Eve, V. Mary.<br /> -Cetus; Blasphemy.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Aquarius; John the Baptist. Peter.<br /> -Sagittarius; Joseph son of Jacob. Philip of Bethsaida.<br /> -<small>J. BENNET.</small></div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a><br /><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a><br /><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_192.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ</div> -</div> - - -<p class="center">GOD INCARNATE WITH MAN</p> - -<p class="center small">COPY OF CELEBRATED BRONZE IN THE VATICAN -ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ—SAVIOUR OF THE W0RLD<br /> - -Taken from Payne Knight’s “Priapus Worship.”<br /> - -A Cross, the Phallic symbol, has been substituted -for the male organ erect of the original.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_193a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">AMULET IN TOWNLEY’S MUSEUM</div> -</div> - -<p class="center small">Representing the sexual union of the bull-sun-god, or -Active principle of generation, with the Passive, or -female principle of nature or earth.<br /> - -Crosses have been here substituted for the erect -male organs of the original.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_193b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">PHALLIC LAMP<br /> -Found buried in London.<br /> -Both figures are copied from “Priapus Worship”.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a><br /><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a><br /><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<div class="captiont">VOTIVE OFFERINGS TO GOD PRIAPUS</div> -<img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><small>I. The god’s assistance was sought on behalf of a couple, -PRIMINUS and MENTILA, who were probably childless. -Found in Roman camp at Adel, Yorkshire, and now in -Leeds Philosophical Society’s museum.</small></p> - -<p><small>II. Found in Roman camp at Westerford Fort, Scotland, -upon the wall of Antoninus.</small></p> - -<p><small>III. Found on one of the gateways of Hadrian’s wall, in the -Roman camp at Homesteads, Northumberland.</small></p> - -<p class="center"><small>The above are taken from “Priapus Worship”.</small></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_197a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">AMULET FORMING DOUBLE CRUX ANSATA<br /> -<small>From “Priapus Worship”. Two Crosses are here -substituted for the male organs of the original</small>.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_197b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">ANCIENT AMULET<br /> -Copied from one in the British Museum.<br /> -<small>A Cross is here substituted for the male -organ of the original as shown in -“Priapus Worship”</small>.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a><br /><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> - - -<h2 id="ZODIACAL_MYTHOLOGY">ZODIACAL MYTHOLOGY.</h2> - - -<p>To us of the nineteenth century, who have our national -institutions for the discovery and propagation of scientific -truths, thus being saved the trouble of investigating -for ourselves, having only to open a book to see when -the next eclipse of the sun will take place, or whether -the Easter holidays fall later, or earlier than usual, it -seems almost incredible that there once existed races of -men who devoted almost all their time to the study of -astronomy; but such is nevertheless the fact; and when -we consider the different conditions under which society -existed in very remote times from what we are now subject -to, we shall at once see that it was not altogether a -pleasure, but in fact a stern necessity, that impelled the -people of those early times to make themselves thoroughly -acquainted with the various natural phenomena -taking place around them day after day, month after -month, and year after year. In those days, when writing -was either altogether unknown or limited entirely to a -few, and when such things as almanacks and encyclopedias -were not the order of the day, people had to trust -to their own knowledge of the movements of the heavenly -bodies and the properties and uses of plants, etc., for -the successful carrying on of their daily pursuits, which -were then principally of an agricultural nature. Instead -of watches and clocks, the people had only the sun in -heaven to tell them the hours of the day; instead of -monthly almanacks, they had the moon for their guide; -and, instead of annual calendars to mark the commencement -of the seasons, they had only the stars above to -teach them the proper times to till their lands and sow -their grain. Consequently, it was absolutely necessary -that they should be well acquainted with all the movements -of the heavenly bodies; and we need only glance -at the earliest records of the human race to find that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> -they were more or less full of astronomical allusions—in -fact, that the principal study which engaged the attention -of primitive man was the study of the starry -heavens.</p> - -<p>In my lecture on “The Evolution of the God Idea” -I have already pointed out how the earliest religious -conceptions arose from this study; and in my “Popular -Faith Unveiled” I have endeavoured to show that, in -naming the constellations, the ancients adopted the -wise device of giving to groups of stars the names -of the particular earth productions or earth phenomena -that happened to take place at the time -when such star groups made their appearance in -the heavens. Now, it is a very remarkable fact -that in those ancient countries of which we have any -exact knowledge the heavenly bodies received very -similar and, in many instances, identical names, which is -just what we should expect if the above theory of the -naming be correct. Take the zodiac, for example, which -is the line of the apparent annual circuit of the sun, -and we find that in Egypt, India, Persia, and Greece it -was divided into twelve portions of 30 degrees each, the -whole circuit consisting of 360 degrees; and the equivalent -signs bore a wonderful similarity to each other. In -the old Indian zodiac published in the “Philosophical -Transactions” of 1772 the signs are as follows, commencing -at the vernal equinoxial point:—Ram, Bull, -Man with two shields, Crab, Lion, Virgin, Balances, -Scorpion, Bow and Arrow, Monster with goat’s head and -fish’s hindquarters, Urn, Fish. In the Indian zodiac -published by Sir W. Jones they are as follows:—Ram, -Bull, Youth and Damsel, Crab, Lion, Virgin in a boat, -holding an ear of rice-corn, Man holding the balances, -Scorpion, Centaur shooting with a bow and arrow, -Monster with antelope’s head and fish’s hindquarters, -Man carrying a water-pot on his shoulder, Two Fishes. -The ancient Persian zodiacal signs were: Lamb, Bull, -Twins, Crab, Lion, Ear of Corn, Balances, Scorpion, -Bow, Goat, Pitcher of Water, Two Fishes. In the zodiac -depicted on the ceiling of the Egyptian temple of Isis -at Dendera the following are the signs:—Ram, Bull, -Twins, Beetle, Lion, Virgin holding an ear of corn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> -Balances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with bow and -arrow, Monster with goat’s head and fish’s hindquarters, -Man pouring water from two water-pots, Two Fishes. In -Kircher’s Egyptian zodiac the signs are:—Man with ram’s -horns, Bull, Twins, Hermes with head of an Ibis, Lion, -Virgin holding an ear of corn, Man holding the -balances, Man with serpents for legs and having a serpent -twisted round his body, Centaur shooting with -bow and arrow, Monster with goat’s head and fish’s -hindquarters, Man with an urn from which water -was falling, Woman with fish’s tail. Ancient Greek -zodiacs had the following signs:—Ram, Bull, Twins, -Crab, Lion, Virgin, Balances, Scorpion, Centaur -shooting with bow and arrow, Goat with fish’s -hindquarters, Canobus with his pitcher of water, Two -Fishes. The Romans followed the Greeks, and these -signs have since remained unchanged in all modern -zodiacs, being now known under the following names:—Aries, -the ram; Taurus, the bull; Gemini, the twins; -Cancer, the crab; Leo, the lion; Virgo, the virgin; -Libra, the balances; Scorpio, the scorpion; Sagittarius, -the centaur-archer; Capricornus, the goat-fish; Aquarius, -the water-bearer; Pisces, the fishes.</p> - -<p>Each of these signs corresponds with a particular -portion of the year, varying according to the slow movement -known as the precession of the equinoxes, by which -all the signs are moved forward very slightly year by year, -at the rate of one degree in 71 or 72 years, until, at the -end of about 2,152 years, a whole sign has moved forward -into the position previously occupied by the sign immediately -preceding it. This is caused by the failure of the -sun to reach the same point in the same time in his -apparent circuit each year; and thus it happens that, in -a period of rather less than 26,000 years, each sign will -have moved completely round the zodiacal band. Now, -by careful calculation it has been found that the vernal -equinoxial point coincided with the first degree of Aries -about 28,000 years ago, with the first degree of Libra -about 17,000 years ago, with the first degree of Taurus -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 4,340, with that of Aries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2,188, and with that -of Pisces <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 36; so that, at the present time, the vernal -equinoxial point is really occupied by the sign of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> -fishes, although, for astronomical purposes, the sign of -the ram is always placed in that position, and will, for -the future, always be considered as the first sign of the -zodiac, no matter what sign may really occupy that position. -Thus there is now what is called a fixed zodiac, -which never changes, and which is an arbitrary arrangement -made for scientific purposes, and a real zodiac -whose figures move steadily and slowly year by year, until -at the end of rather more than two thousand years the -vernal equinoxial point is occupied by the sign immediately -following the one which occupied it during that -period of time.</p> - -<p>Although now the fixed zodiac is an established fact, -such an arrangement was undreamed of by the ancients, -who regulated their almanacks from the actual sign at -the time occupying the vernal equinoxial point; so that -between the years 4340 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> and 2188 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> the sign of -the bull was the first and chief sign of the zodiac, while -during the two thousand years following—that is, until -36 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>—the sign of the ram or lamb took its place. -The vernal equinox falls on March 21st each year, at -which time the sun, having ascended from its lowest -point of declination (December 21st), arrives at that -portion of its annual course at which the equator and -the ecliptic cross each other; and thus during the period -when the sign of the bull was the vernal equinoxial sign -the sun was said to be in <i>Taurus</i>, while in the following -period, when the sign of the ram took the place of that -of the bull, the sun was said to be in <i>Aries</i>. In order to -understand thoroughly the apparent annual march of the -sun round our earth, it will be necessary to observe the -actual double motions of our earth round the sun and -upon its own axis. Let us suppose that we are again in -the period when the sun was in <i>Aries</i> at the vernal -equinox; on the 21st of March our earth, in travelling -round the sun (annual motion), has reached a point -at which the sun is placed between us and the first stars -of <i>Aries</i>, which are then, of course, invisible, because -when the sun is visible it is daytime—that is, the part of -the earth on which we stand is opposed to the sun, -which renders all the stars in that part of the heavens -invisible; but, as the earth continues to turn upon its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> -axis (daily motion), we gradually lose sight of the sun, -and as the darkness closes around us the stars upon the -opposite side of the heavens become visible; so that, -when the sun is in <i>Aries</i>, or any other sign, that sign is -always invisible to us, and at night we see the sign that -occupies the opposite side of the zodiac. Day after -day, as the earth continues to move round the sun, a -few more stars in the sign <i>Aries</i> are covered, until at the -end of a month the sun reaches the next sign, <i>Taurus</i>; -and the opposite signs, which we see at night, have also -moved on to the same extent. Thus at noon on -March 21st the sun is at its highest daily ascension, -south of the zenith, or highest point of the heavens, -obliterating by its effulgence the first stars of the sign -<i>Aries</i>, through which it is apparently about to pass, and -at midnight following the opposite sign, <i>Libra</i>, is seen -at the same distance from the nadir, or highest point of -the darkened heavens; while a month later, when the -sun at noon is in <i>Taurus</i>, the sign <i>Scorpio</i> is seen at the -opposite point at midnight; and so on through all the -signs, one month being occupied by the passing of the -sun through each sign, so that it passes through <i>Aries</i> in -March, <i>Taurus</i> in April, <i>Gemini</i> in May, <i>Cancer</i> in June, -<i>Leo</i> in July, <i>Virgo</i> in August, <i>Libra</i> in September, -<i>Scorpio</i> in October, <i>Sagittarius</i> in November, <i>Capricornus</i> -in December, <i>Aquarius</i> in January, <i>Pisces</i> in February. -This was precisely what occurred in the zodiac during -the years from <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2188 to <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 36; but in the period -of two thousand years immediately preceding this, owing -to the precession of the equinoxes, the order was changed, -so that <i>Taurus</i> was the sign of March, <i>Gemini</i> of April, -and so on, each sign being a month earlier; while at -the present time <i>Pisces</i> is the sign of March, and each -other sign one month later than when <i>Aries</i> was at the -vernal equinoxial point. Each of these signs occupies -30 degrees of the zodiac, the whole twelve making up -360 degrees, which is the total length of the imaginary -sphere of the heavenly vault; and the ancients again -divided each of these signs into three portions of ten -degrees each, called decans making 36 decans for the -complete zodiacal circle. When the sun was passing -through a sign the astrologers publicly proclaimed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> -exact moment of its entry upon the first decan, which -they called the upper room, the whole sign being called -the house of the sun; the second decan they called the -middle or inner room, and the third the lower room. -On each side of the zodiacal band there are also a -number of what are called extra-zodiacal constellations, -which never vary their position with regard to the -zodiacal signs, the constellations on either side of <i>Aries</i> -always rising and setting at the same time with that sign, -those on each side of <i>Taurus</i> doing likewise, and so on -through all the signs.</p> - -<p>As the various astronomical figures became endowed -by the ancients with divine honours, each of these signs -became associated with a number of romantic stories, -until at length the struggles, victories, and defeats of the -gods were told in such a variety of ways that sufficient -lore existed to fill, if written down, whole libraries. The -zodiacal signs were all gods of great importance; the -planets were gods, the sun was a god, the moon was a -goddess, and the extra-zodiacal constellations were -either gods or heroes; but all were not of equal importance, -and, owing to the constant changing of positions, -some were powerful and victorious at one time and weak -and dying at another. The chief deity, which to the -Aryans was Dyaus, the day-father, became in later times -a concentrated essence of all the gods, and was supposed -to undergo all the vicissitudes to which they were subjected; -but, inasmuch as the new-born sun was the life -of the world, bringing back happiness, and the vernal -equinoxial sign was the one at which his influence began -to be felt, these two deities were looked upon as god -<i lang="fr">par excellence</i>, a dual deity, separate yet conjoined, and -of equal power and authority. So, when the bull was -the vernal equinoxial point, the sun-in-<i>Taurus</i> was -supreme god; and when the ram, or lamb, was the -vernal equinoxial point the sun-in-<i>Aries</i> was supreme -God; and, although it was only in March that the sun -was at the vernal equinoxial point, yet the bull-god, for -two thousand years prior to <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2188, was always supreme, -and the ram-god (in Egypt) or lamb-god (in -Persia) after that date. On leaving the vernal equinoxial -sign the sun passed into the next in order; but, although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> -then not actually in conjunction with the chief sign, it -yet was but slightly removed from it, the distance growing -larger as each fresh sign was occupied; and never -were the sun and the principal sign actually separated -from each other in the zodiac, so as to pass into opposite -hemispheres, until the autumnal equinoxial point was -crossed, after which the sun passed successively through -all the winter constellations, being separated for the -space of six months from the sign of the vernal equinox. -Therefore the six summer signs were accounted specially -bountiful and holy, the sign of the vernal equinox being -the head and chief of the six, while the six winter signs -were accounted less holy, but quite as powerful for evil -as the others were for good.</p> - -<p>From this was formed the main drama of all subsequent -mythological systems, the groundwork of which was, -briefly, as follows:—The saviour-sun-god was born at -the winter solstice, and ascended to the vernal equinox, -where he was united with the bull, becoming the bull-god, -and in aftertime with the ram or lamb, becoming -the ram-god or lamb-god: after crossing the equator at -the spring covenant, or coming together of the equator -and ecliptic, he ascended to the summit of the heavens, -becoming the lion-god, at the height of his power, and -then descending again to the autumnal covenant, or -equinox, to pass through the winter or scorpion signs, -alone, and mourning the loss of the vernal equinoxial -sign, which was torn from him at the autumnal equinox. -This simple narrative received numerous embellishments -in after times, according to the fancy of the -astrologers and priests, who, in many cases, contrived to -make out of it a beautiful poem or a sublime allegorical -drama.</p> - -<p>In describing the entry of the sun upon any particular -sign the ancient astrologers were in the habit of referring, -not only to the sign itself and to its decans, but also to -the accompanying extra-zodiacal constellations, as well -as to the visible zodiacal signs and extra-zodiacal constellations -of the opposite hemisphere. For instance, during -the period of the lamb’s supremacy (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2188 to <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 36) -the position of the stars at the moment of the commencement -of the annual apparent march of the sun round the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> -zodiac was as follows:—The first stars of the zodiacal -sign <i>Capricornus</i> were at the winter solstitial point, -December 21st, and invisible to the eye, being directly -south of the zenith at noon, the extra-zodiacal constellations -<i>Picis Australis</i> on the south, and <i>Aquila</i> on the -north, being on either side of it, and the zodiacal signs -<i>Sagittarius</i> in front and <i>Aquarius</i> behind, accompanying -it in its march; while on the opposite side of the zodiac, -at midnight, was seen, directly to the south of the nadir, -the sign <i>Cancer</i>, in which were the <i>Præsepe</i>, or stable of -Augias; the <i>Io-sepe</i>, cradle of Jupiter or manger of Jao; -and the <i>Aselli</i>, or two asses; on the east the sign <i>Virgo</i> -was just about to appear above the horizon; on the -western horizon was the sign <i>Aries</i>, above which, and -crossing the equator, was the extra-zodiacal constellation -<i>Orion</i>, with the three large stars in his belt; and -immediately below which was the sea monster <i>Cetus</i>, -just sinking below the horizon. In proclaiming the birth -of the sun at Christmas, therefore, the astrologers would -make mention of all these points; and, consequently, -the more prominent and interesting of them would -become impressed more or less upon the minds of the -people, to be converted in after times into various fantastic -and romantic fables, as the manufacture of gods out of -these astronomical phenomena proceeded.</p> - -<p>The principal astronomical features of this annual sun-birth -were, therefore, as follows:—The birth took place -in the house of the goat, exactly opposite to which were -the manger of Jao and the stable of Augias, between -two asses; at the same moment the virgin was about to -appear above the eastern horizon; the lamb was, as it -were, hurling the sea monster <i>Cetus</i> below the western -horizon; and the three brilliant stars, called the three -kings, in the belt of <i>Orion</i>, were shining above the lamb, -on the opposite horizon to where, after the lapse of -sixteen days (January 6th), would appear that brilliant -star <i>Vindemiatrix</i>, the Virgin by that time having risen -sufficiently high above the horizon for that orb, which is -situated in her elbow, to be seen at midnight.</p> - -<p>All the subsequent fables concerning the birth of a -saviour-god were but modifications of this. Mithra, -Krishna, Horus, Bacchus, Jesus, and, in fact, all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> -sun-gods, were born on December 25th, at midnight; and -the stories related of each bore a marked resemblance -to each other. The real birthday of the sun-god was -December 22nd, at the first hour; but it was always -reckoned from the same time on December 25th, because -at that moment, and not before, the first stars of <i>Virgo</i> -appeared above the horizon, which was the sign by which -it became known that the birth had actually taken place -three days and three nights previously. This gave rise -to a popular notion that the sun-god struggled for that -length of time at each of the solstitial and equinoxial -points, and accounts for the fable of the two crucifixions -when the sun-god, in crossing the equator in March and -September, was, for three days and three nights, in torture -before he finally ascended to heaven in the one case, -and descended to hell in the other.</p> - -<p>The Christian myth of the birth and death of the -saviour-god, although now considerably amplified and -converted into a long history, was originally, no doubt, -of a much simpler form, and, probably, of the following -nature:—Jesus, the sun-god, was born at midnight, -between December 24th and December 25th, his mother, -<i>Virgo</i>, having been three days and three nights in the -agony of childbirth; the virgin, not being allowed to -enter the house of the goat, being on the opposite side -of the zodiac, was obliged to seek refuge in the stable -of Augias (<i>Cancer</i>), and place her baby in the manger of -Jao, at which moment the lamb of god, <i>Aries</i>, hurled -into the abyss the great monster of evil, or <i>Cetus</i>; the -three kings in the belt of <i>Orion</i>, perceiving, on January -6th, the great star <i>Vindemiatrix</i> rise in the east, which -was their guiding star, made obeisance to the new-born -god and disappeared below the horizon, going down by -the west, instead of returning by the east, or way they had -come. Growing from this moment, the young sun-god -commenced his journey towards the city of god, the -summer solstice, at the top of the hill, or height of -annual ascension, meeting at the outset <i>Aquarius</i>, the -man with the pitcher of water, or John the Baptist, with -whom he remained for a time; after which he entered -upon the season of fasting, or the sign <i>Pisces</i>, the fishes, -and prepared by austerities for the coming feast of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> -Passover, or coming together (covenant) of the ecliptic -and equator, when he would be crucified—that is, be -placed cross-wise on the two lines (ecliptic and equator). -After this he entered into the sign, <i>Aries</i>, the lamb, -having been shown the way by the man with the pitcher -of water, <i>Aquarius</i>, and partook of the feast in the upper -room or first decan, immediately after which he was -crucified as the lamb of god—that is, passed the crossing -of the equator and ecliptic in the sign of the lamb. -For three days and three nights he struggled in the -tomb, or suspense, and then ascended into heaven, -accompanied by the lamb, passing the signs <i>Taurus</i> and -<i>Gemini</i>, saying to the twins that he could stay with them -but a little while, and where he was going they could -not go (John xii.), and finally reaching the city of heaven, -Jerusalem, or <i>Cancer</i>, passing over the two asses (<i>Aselli</i>) -at the entrance to it. Here, on the top of the mount, -or at the height of his annual ascension, he had another -three days and three nights of tribulation, struggling -with the devil, the heavenly serpent, who had led or -preceded him up the mount, but who left him as soon as -he arrived at the top; for <i>Serpens</i>, at this point, returns -while the sun commences his descent towards the -autumnal crucifixion. Passing into <i>Leo</i>, he was transfigured -on the mount—that is, became more resplendent -than ever, after which he entered <i>Virgo</i>, where the seductions -of the lady sorely tempted him, for being offered -the juice of the autumn grape he drank copiously with -the damsel until none was left; whereupon she suggested -that he should turn water into wine, but he resisted -further temptation, exclaiming, “Woman, what have I -to do with thee?” and pursued his course towards the -autumnal equinox, where he passed into <i>Libra</i> and -crossed the equator and ecliptic again, or, in other words, -was crucified in Egypt as the “just man,” being at length -separated from <i>Aries</i> for six months, which caused him -to exclaim in grief, “My ram! my ram! why hast thou -forsaken me?” After three days’ and three nights’ -struggle he descended into hell, the tomb, or the dark -regions, to be born again at the winter solstice as before; -after which he would reconquer the powers of evil, or -the winter signs, and again become the lamb of god,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> -“slain from the foundation of the world” (Rev. xiii. 8) -the Amen, or Jupiter Ammon, of the Apocalypse, at -which moment he exclaims, “I am he that liveth and -was dead, and behold I, Amen, am alive for evermore” -(Rev. i. 18), and “These things saith Amen, the true and -faithful witness, the beginning of the creation of God” -(Rev. iii. 14). The winter period, commencing with -<i>Libra</i>, was called by the ancients the period of scorpions, -because <i>Scorpio</i> was the principal sign of the period, and -next after the equinoxial sign; Egypt (see Rev. xi. 8), -because, that being the most southerly country then -known, the sun appeared to descend into it at that time -of the year; and Sodom, Gomorrah, etc., because it was -a period of evil. The sea-monster, <i>Cetus</i>, is the same -that is referred to in Rev. xiii. as blasphemy, with a -mouth like a lion, feet like a bear, and leopard-like marks -on its forequarters, and whose number was declared to -be 666, which figure being made up of ס 60, ת 400, -ו 6, and ר 200, stands for the word סתור, Setur, the -concealed one, the Latin equivalent of which is <i>Cetus</i>. -This was probably something like the original Christian -myth, which, as time wore on, became converted into -the absurd story presented to us in the four Gospels.</p> - -<p>The story of Adonis being separated from his darling -Venus for six months, and being afterwards re-united to -her in love for another six months, was fabricated from -the same source; as also were the legends of Osiris and -Horus, Vishnu and Krishna, Ormuzd and Mithras, -Jupiter and Apollo, Jupiter and Bacchus, and Jupiter -and Hercules. The cult of Bacchus, indeed, was almost -a <i>fac simile</i> of those of Jesus and Adonis, the three -being but representations in different countries of the -very same drama. The twelve labours of Hercules were -no more than the passage of the sun through the twelve -signs of the zodiac, just as the twelve patriarchs, the -twelve tribes, the twelve stones, and the twelve apostles -were the twelve signs themselves. In my “Popular -Faith Unveiled” I have pointed out the reasons for -thinking the twelve sons of Jacob and the twelve -apostles to be the twelve zodiacal signs; but I may here -state that, on re-consideration, I am inclined to modify -the order maintained there in regard to the twelve sons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> -of Jacob (p. 122) by changing the places of Benjamin -and Zebulun, the former being, in my present opinion, -the sign <i>Gemini</i>, and the latter <i>Capricornus</i>; and as to -the twelve apostles, I may here supply an omission made -in the same work, by stating that Andrew (p. 198) represents -<i>Aries</i>, of March, being always depicted with a ×, -which forms the angle made by the crossing of the equator -and ecliptic on March 21st. The mystic number seven -was derived from the summer signs of the zodiac, including -the two equinoxial signs, which were called the -pillars of the temple, the vault of the summer heavens -being the temple itself. Thus arose the allusions to the -seven trumpets, the seven candlesticks, the seven -churches, and the seven seals in the Apocalypse, each of -which was a summer zodiacal sign; and here I may again -supply an omission in my “Popular Faith Unveiled” -(p. 246) by stating that the church of Smyrna represented -<i>Virgo</i>, of August, in which month bundles of -myrrh were always offered to the sun, the word Σμυρνα -signifying “myrrh.”</p> - -<p>Besides mystic numbers, there were a number of -mystic symbols in use among the ancients, by which the -great and important phenomena in nature were kept -constantly before the eyes of the people. The chief and -most widely known symbol is the cross, representing the -ascending sun bringing back fresh life to the world at -the vernal equinox; but the cross was by no means the -only symbol of this important occurrence; trees, torches, -the male organs of generation, or phallus, and various -animals were frequently used for the same purpose—in -fact, the symbolical worship of the ancients assumed -gigantic proportions, almost every conceivable device -being seized upon to render homage to the great re-fertiliser -of the earth. No one of the religious cults was -free from a large admixture of what is known as phallic -worship—that is, worship of the fertilising principle; and -it was a common custom for people to swear by their -generative organs, as being the most sacred things on -earth, representing the divine energy in a state of procreative -activity. Thus we find in Psalm lxxxix. 49 the -following words (literally translated):<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> “O my Adonis, -where are thy endearments of old, which thou swearedst -for the sake of love by thy phallus, O Ammon?” The -Hebrew letter ת was the sign of the cross, or phallus, -which was also used by the Phœnicians, being derived -from the Arabic תױ], the sybol of the life-giver. This -passage evidently had reference to the violent death of -Adonis, who, at the autumnal equinox, was attacked by -a wild boar, which tore away his generative organs and rendered -him consequently impotent, until he was born again, -when he acquired fresh powers and grew in beauty and -stature, ready to re-unite with Venus at the spring equinox.</p> - -<p>On the mithraitic monuments the spring equinox is -represented by lighted and elevated torches, trees covered -with leaves, entire bulls, and young men holding lighted -torches; while the autumnal equinox is represented by a -hydra, or long serpent, a scorpion, reversed and extinguished -torches, trees loaded with autumn fruits, a bull -with its generative organs torn away, and old men holding -reversed and extinguished torches. The Rev. G. -W. Cox, M.A. and scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in -his “Mythology of the Aryan Nations,” says:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> “The male -and female powers of nature were denoted respectively -by an upright and an oval emblem, and the conjunction -of the two furnished at once the altar and the ashera, or -grove, against which the Hebrew prophets lifted up their -voice in earnest protest.... In the kingdom both of -Judah and Israel the rites connected with these emblems -assumed their most corrupting form. Even in the temple -itself stood the Ashera, or the upright emblem on the -circular altar of Baal-Peor, the Priapos of the Jews, thus -reproducing the Linga and Yoni of the Hindu. For -this symbol the women wove hangings, as the Athenian -maidens embroidered the sacred peplos for the ship -presented to Athene at the great Dionysiac festival. -Here, at the winter solstice, they wept and mourned for -Tammuz, the fair Adonis, done to death by the boar.... -Here, also, on the third day, they rejoiced at the -resurrection of the lord of light. Hence, as most intimately -connected with the reproduction of life on earth, -it became the symbol under which the sun, invoked -with a thousand names, has been worshipped throughout -the world as the restorer of the powers of nature after -the long sleep or death of winter.”</p> - -<p>This symbol was from the earliest times venerated as -a protecting power, and Jacob, on his journey to Laban, -slept under its protecting influence: placed erect—sometimes -as a tree, at others as a cross, and often as a -phallus—and resting on a crescent, the modified form of -the yoni, this symbol set forth the marriage of heaven -and earth; and in the form of a serpent, representing -life and healing, it was worshipped by the Egyptians and -Jews. In the book of Genesis the phallic tree is introduced, -where it is called the tree of knowledge of good -and evil. From Plutarch we learn that the Egyptians -represented Osiris with the organ of generation erect, to -show his generative and prolific power, and that he was -the same deity as the Bacchus of the Greek mythology -and the first begotten love (Ερως πρωτογονος) of Orpheus -and Hesiod. In an excellent work entitled “Discourse -on the Worship of Priapus,” by Richard Payne Knight, -there are a number of plates illustrating the mode in -which this phallic worship was carried on by the ancients, -some of which are very curious and well worth the -trouble of studying carefully. One plate represents a -celebrated bronze in the Vatican, with the male organs -of generation placed on the head of a cock, the emblem -of the rising sun, supported by the neck and shoulders -of a man, the whole being emblematical of god incarnate -with man, and on the base of which are inscribed -the words ΣΩΤΗΡ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ, “Saviour of the world.” -Another figure on the same plate represents an ornament -in the British Museum, consisting of a male organ with -wings and the foot of a man suspended from a chain. -Another plate shows two representations of the god Pan, -one with the organ erect, the symbol of power, or spring, -the other with the organ in a state of tumid languor, and -loaded with the productions of the earth, the symbol of -the results of prolific efforts. Both these last are copies -of bronzes in the museum of C. Townley. On another -plate is a copy of another of Mr. Townley’s treasures, -representing the incarnation of deity, in the shape of a -man having sexual intercourse with a goat, the emblem -of the new-born deity at the winter solstice, to which is -appended the following note by Mr. Payne Knight:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> “At -Mendes a living goat was kept as the image of the -generative power, to whom the women presented themselves -naked, and had the honour of being publicly -enjoyed by him. Herodotus saw the act openly performed -(ες επιδειξεν ανθρωπων), and calls it a prodigy -(τερας). But the Egyptians had no such horror of it; -for it was to them a representation of the incarnation of -the deity, and the communication of his creative spirit to -man. It was one of the sacraments of that ancient -church, and was, without doubt, beheld with that pious -awe and reverence with which devout persons always -contemplate the mysteries of their faith, whatever they -happen to be.” This figure represented the human -male symbol as incarnate with the divine, instead of the -divine male incarnate with the human, as in the well-known -one found among the ruins of Herculaneum and -kept concealed in the Royal Museum of Portici. It is -unnecessary to describe the whole of the interesting -plates which illustrate Mr. Knight’s work, copies of all -of which I have carefully taken.</p> - -<p>There is abundant evidence in ancient authors as to -the prevalence of this worship of the generative organs, -and all agree as to the real meaning of the symbol. In -every part of the then known world the conquering sun -bringing back life to the world at the spring equinox was -represented in some phallic form or other, either as a -cross, a phallus, a tree, a serpent, a goat, a bull, a torch, -or some other device emblematic of the sexual union of -the powers of heaven with mother earth. The cross -was the most commonly used phallic symbol, and was -generally of the following form—☥, the о being the -emblem of the earth, or female organ, and the <span class="smcap lowercase">T</span> that -of the sun, or fecundating principle, the combination -forming a <i lang="la">crux ansata</i>, which was worn as a charm by -devout people. This was converted into a simple cross, -in which form, as well as in many others, it is found on -ancient temples of the most remote periods, as well as -at the corners of roads, where it evidently was used as -a sign-post, as well as a religious symbol. Among the -paintings found at Pompeii there are some in which the -god Priapus is represented as a Hermes, on a square -pedestal, with an enormous phallus; and others in which -he is represented with the usual prominent feature, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> -in addition, with a long stick in his hand to point out -the way to travellers. Herodotus thus describes a festival -in Egypt:—“The festival is celebrated almost exactly as -Bacchic festivals in Greece. They also use, instead of -phalli, another invention, consisting of images a cubit -high, pulled by strings, which the women carry round -to the villages. The virile member of these figures is -scarcely less than the rest of the body, and this member -they contrive to move. A piper goes in front, and the -women follow, singing hymns in honour of Bacchus.”</p> - -<p>Among the royal offerings to the god Amen by -Rameses III. in the great Harris Papyrus are loaves -(called “Taenhannur”) in the form of the phallus.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -In the Pamelia the Egyptians exhibited a statue provided -with three phalli; and in the festivals of Bacchus, celebrated -by Ptolemy Philadelphus, a gilt phallus, 120 cubits -high, was carried in procession. St. Jerome tells us -that, in Syria, Baal-Peor, the Hebrew Priapus, was represented -with a phallus in his mouth; and in Ezekiel xvi. 17 -we find the Jewish women manufacturing silver and -golden phalli.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> “Primitive Symbolism,” by Hodder M. Westropp.</p></div> - -<p>According to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, the -worship of Bacchus was imported into Greece by Melampus, -who taught the Greeks the mysteries connected -with phallic worship; and Plutarch says that “nothing, -is simpler than the manner in which they celebrated -formerly in my country the Dionysiaca. Two men walked -at the head of the procession; one carried an amphora -of wine, the other a vine branch; a third led a goat; a -fourth bore a basket of figs; a figure of a phallus closed -the procession.”</p> - -<p>Tertullian tells us that that which in the mysteries -of Eleusis is considered as most holy, concealed with -most care, and only explained to the initiated at the last -moment, is the image of the virile member. The festival -of Venus, held at Rome in the beginning of April each -year, was in honour of the sexual union of the powers -of heaven and of earth. The Roman ladies led a cart, -in which was a huge phallus, to the temple of Venus, -outside the Colline gate, and there presented the member<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> -to the sexual part of the goddess. Spring was, indeed, -the special season for phallic processions, as we learn -from a passage of “Iamblichus de Mysteriis,” given by -Mr. Westropp: “We say the erection of the phalli is a -certain sign of prolific power, which, through this, is -called forth to the generative energy of the world; on -which account many phalli are consecrated in the spring, -because then the whole world receives from the gods the -power which is productive of all generation.”</p> - -<p>It is sufficiently obvious that the return of the sun to -the vernal equinoxial sign each year, or the union of the -active and passive principles, formed the cornerstone -of the various religious systems, and that this marriage, -as it were, of heaven with earth, occurring each springtime, -and bringing with it such a train of good results, -gave rise to the most sacred institutions and rites, which -to us may appear disgusting, but which, to the ancients, -were looked upon with the greatest awe and veneration.</p> - -<p>It was not to the generative organs that the ancients -offered homage, but to the principles represented by -them—to the active and procreative power of the god of -nature, the prolific ram-sun, at the spring equinox, and -to the passive and recipient mother-earth, the womb of -nature, from which we all emanate and to which we all -return. It is, however, reasonable to imagine, with the -Rev. G. W. Cox, that “it is clear that such a cultus as -this would carry with it a constantly-increasing danger, -until the original character of the emblem should be -as thoroughly disguised as the names of some of the -Vedic deities when transferred to Hellenic soil.” Indeed, -it is matter of history that these rites, which were held -so sacred by the Egyptians, were turned to the basest -and most wicked purposes in after times by the worshippers -of Bacchus, Adonis, and other deities. The -Bacchanalian mysteries and secret rites called <i>Dionysia</i>, -or Supper of the lord Dionysos, were publicly denounced -by the Roman authorities at the commencement of our -era, as were also the <i>Adonia</i>, or Suppers of the lord -Adonis, and the Love Feasts, <i>Agapæ</i>, or Suppers of the -lord Jesus. From Gibbon we learn that the early Christians -were in the habit of committing at their Love -Feasts the most unnatural crimes with sisters, mothers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> -and others, as is also clearly testified by Justin Martyr, -Athenagoras, Tertullian, and Minucius Felix; and Livy’s -account of similar practices indulged in by the Bacchanalians -at their <i>Dionysia</i> leaves no doubt as to their -participation in these horrors. So widely spread was -this phallic worship that, within one hundred years of -the present time, it was openly followed in some parts of -Europe, as appears from a letter of Sir William Hamilton, -K.B., British Minister at the Court of Naples, to Sir -Joseph Banks, Bart., President of the Royal Society. -Accompanying the letter the writer sends an amulet -worn by women and children of Naples and the neighbourhood -as ornaments of dress, which they imagine -will be a preservative against <i lang="la">mal occhii</i> (“evil eyes”), or -enchantment. It represents a hand clenched, with the -point of the thumb thrust between the index and middle -finger, on one side, and a male organ erect on the other -side, with a ring, or female organ, above, and a flaccid -male organ and scrotum beneath, the whole in the form -of a cross. The letter is so remarkable that it is worth -while reproducing a considerable portion of it, as it -appears in Mr. Knight’s work.</p> - -<p>“The following is the account of the Fête of St. Cosmo -and Damiano, as it was actually celebrated at Isernia, -on the confines of Abruzzo, in the kingdom of Naples, -so late as in the year of our Lord 1780. On the 27th -of September, at Isernia, one of the most ancient cities -of the kingdom of Naples, situated in the province called -the Contado di Molise, and adjoining to Abruzzo, an -annual fair is held, which lasts three days. The situation -of this fair is on a rising ground, between two rivers, -about half a mile from the town of Isernia; on the most -elevated part of which there is an ancient church, with a -vestibule. The architecture is of the style of the lower -ages; and it is said to have been a church and convent -belonging to the Benedictine monks in the time of their -poverty. This church is dedicated to St. Cosmus and -Damianus. One of the days of the fair the relics of the -saints are exposed, and afterwards carried in procession -from the cathedral of the city to this church, attended -by a prodigious concourse of people. In the city, and -at the fair, <i lang="la">ex-voti</i> of wax, representing the male parts of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> -generation, of various dimensions, some even of the -length of a palm, are publicly offered to sale. There are -also waxen vows, that represent other parts of the body -mixed with them; but of these there are few in comparison -of the number of Priapi. The devout distributors -of these vows carry a basket full of them in one hand, -and hold a plate in the other to receive the money, -crying aloud, ‘St. Cosmo and Damiano!’ If you ask -the price of one, the answer is, <i lang="it">Più ci metti, più meriti</i>—’The -more you give, the more’s the merit.’ In the -vestibule are two tables, at each of which one of the -canons of the church presides, this crying out, <i lang="it">Oui si -ricevina le Misse, e Litanie</i>—’Here Masses and Litanies -are received;’ and the other, <i lang="it">Oui si riceveno li Voti</i>—’Here -the Vows are received.’ The price of a mass is fifteen Neapolitan -grains, and of a litany five grains. On each table -is a large basin for the reception of the different offerings. -The vows are chiefly presented by the female sex; and -they are seldom such as represent legs, arms, &c., but -most commonly the male parts of generation. The -person who was at this fête in the year 1780, and who -gave me this account (the authenticity of every article of -which has since been fully confirmed to me by the -Governor of Isernia), told me also that he heard a -woman say, at the time she presented a vow, like that -which is represented in Plate I., Fig. I., <i lang="it">Santo Cosimo -benedetto, cosi lo voglio</i>—’Blessed St. Cosmo, let it be -like this;’ another, <i lang="it">St. Cosimo, a te mi raccommendo</i>—’St. -Cosmo, I recommend myself to you;’ and a third, -<i lang="it">St. Cosimo, ti ruigrazio</i>—’St. Cosmo, I thank you.’ The -vow is never presented without being accompanied by a -piece of money, and is always kissed by the devotee at -the moment of presentation. At the great altar in the -church another of its canons attends to give the holy -unction, with the oil of St. Cosmo; which is prepared -by the same receipt as that of the Roman Ritual, with -the addition only of the prayer of the Holy Martyrs, St. -Cosmus and Damianus. Those who have an infirmity -in any of their members present themselves at the great -altar, and uncover the member affected (not even excepting -that which is most frequently represented by the -<i lang="la">ex-voti</i>); and the reverend canon anoints it, saying,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> -<i lang="la">Per intercessionem beati Cosmi, liberet te ab omni malo, -Amen</i>. The ceremony finishes by the canons of the -church dividing the spoils, both money and wax, which -must be to a very considerable amount, as the concourse -at this fête is said to be prodigiously numerous.”</p> - -<p>At the present day phallic symbolism is perpetuated -in our church steeples, in the crosses and circles on our -altars and prayer-books, in the pictures of the lamb -holding a cross within a circle on our church windows, -in the cross-buns eaten at the paschal feast, in the Easter -eggs, and in various other ways; while the Pyramids of -Egypt and the Luxor obelisks—one in London, one in -Paris, and one in St. Petersburg—form a connecting -phallic link between the ancient Egyptians and ourselves. -The sphynx has been said by some to be a -phallic figure; but I do not subscribe to this view at all, -holding the opinion that it is simply a union of two -zodiacal signs, July and August of the fixed zodiac. It -appears to me that at a very remote time, when the sign -<i>Virgo</i> was about to be supplanted at the vernal equinox -by the next sign, <i>Leo</i>—somewhere about fifteen thousand -years ago, or rather later—the priests or astrologers -hit upon the idea of placing the head of <i>Virgo</i> upon the -shoulders of <i>Leo</i>, thus manufacturing a new kind of -figure, which, on account of its partaking of the dual -nature of the then most prominent of the gods, became -very popular, and was depicted in various forms and in -many parts of the country. This may also have been -the <i lang="la">modus faciendi</i> of <i>Capricornus</i> and <i>Sagittarius</i>, if we -can imagine a still earlier period when the zodiac was -so different from the present form as to have signs represented -by a fish, a goat, a horse, and an archer -respectively.</p> - -<p>Next to the vernal equinoxial sign the ancients held -the winter solstitial sign in the greatest veneration, and -consequently the goat was a very sacred animal and -occupied a prominent place in all symbolical mythologies. -It was from this point that the Egyptians calculated -their new year, although the Persians always -reckoned theirs from the vernal equinox; and it was on -December 21st that the Egyptians fixed the creation of -the world, which gave origin to the fable of a goat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> -having been the creator, thus accounting for the fact of -the early copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch commencing -with the following words: “At the commencement -the goat (העז) renovated the heavens and the earth” -(Genesis I. 1). Here we meet with a very good example -of the patchwork style in which the Bible was compiled. -In Egypt the new year reckoned from December 21st, -and the creation was supposed to date from the same -time of the year, and consequently in all records emanating -from the Nile district the celestial goat was -honoured for the occasion with the chief godship; but -in Persia the new year commenced on March 21st, the -date of the creation being fixed at the same point of -the zodiac, so that the chief godship was assigned to the -celestial lamb or ram and its five fellow signs of the -summer hemisphere. Therefore, as the Hebrews derived -their creation fable from the Persians, using also the -Egyptian mythology with which to embellish their newly-made -cosmogony, the two fables became mixed somewhat -in the minds of these ignorant wanderers, the -consequence being that in some of their MSS. the creation -was said to have been the act of the goat (העז), -while in others it was attributed to the ram-sun, Elyah -(אליה), or the six summer signs commencing with the -ram-sun, and called on that account the Elohim (אלהים), -this word being the plural form of Eloh (אלוה) or -Elyah (אליה), a compound word made up of Yah (יה), -the Hebrew name for the sun-god, and El (אל), the -celestial lamb or ram.</p> - -<p>Not only were the three principal signs—the bull, the -ram, and the goat—held in great veneration by the -Egyptians, but all the zodiacal signs were worshipped in -various degrees; indeed, each figure of the zodiac can -be easily assigned to one of the principal gods of Egypt, -as they were known prior to <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2188. The ram was -Amen, the Egyptian Jupiter, called Zeus Amen (Ζευς -Αμην) by the Greeks and <i>Jupiter Ammon</i> by the Romans, -who was represented with a ram’s head and horns. The -bull was Apis, or Serapis, worshipped as a living bull, -the incarnation of the principal deity at the vernal -equinox. The twins were the Greek Castor and Pollux,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> -who were worshipped by the Egyptians under similar -names. The crab was Anubis, the Egyptian Mercury. -The lion was Osiris, Ra, or Phthah, according to the -district and age, the sun-god at the height of his power -at the summer solstitial point, June 24th. The virgin -was Isis, the beloved of Osiris. The balances were -included with the scorpion, the two being worshipped as -Set-Typhon, Tum, or Sekru, according to the district -and age, the sun-god at the autumnal equinox, suffering -defeat at the hands of the powers of darkness. The -centaur-archer was the Egyptian Hercules. The goat -was Pan, or Mendes. The water-bearer was Horus, the -avenger of his father’s defeat, born December 21st, and -a conqueror on March 21st; also Mises, the Egyptian -Bacchus, who, being the sign of the sun-god’s birth, leads -the twelve signs out of the land of bondage, and institutes -the feast of commemoration at the sign of the -lamb, whose horns he wears; and also Harmachis. The -fishes are Oannes, the Egyptian saviour-fish, who, when -that sign was at the winter solstitial point, saved the -world as the new-born sun.</p> - -<p>These twelve signs of the zodiac were, in fact, the -twelve principal gods of all races; the seven summer -signs, including the two equinoxial signs, being the -seven specially sacred gods, inhabiting the upper temple -of the most high god, which was the vault of the summer -heavens, supported by the two pillars of the equinoxes -or covenants. Almost every race had temples divided -into upper and lower courts or rooms, the upper one -being the residence of their chief gods; and these temples -were originally meant to represent the universe, -having an upper hemisphere, governed by the good principle, -and a lower hemisphere, governed by the bad -principle, this idea being frequently further represented -by a closed ark or chest, representing the lower or dark -hemisphere, upon which sat the chief deity, representing -the good principle of the upper hemisphere. The -Egyptians, according to Plutarch, enclosed the body of -Osiris in an ark every year at the autumnal equinox, -when the sun was in <i>Scorpio</i>, which was a rite emblematical -of the annual death of the sun-god of summer; -and the Jews, it will be remembered, suffered defeat at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> -the hands of the Philistines, immediately after they had -taken the ark out of Shiloh, where it had been deposited, -the word Shiloh being the name of a tiny group -of stars in the sign <i>Scorpio</i>. The movable temple of the -Hebrews, or tabernacle, as described in Exodus, is the -best example we have of this representation of the universe, -being described in such minute detail as to betray -its meaning to the dullest mind. It was divided into -two portions—the lower or outer portion, and the upper -or inner portion, the holy of holies, where dwelt the -Hebrew chief tribal god, Yahouh, or Yah, sitting upon -the ark of the covenant, representing the winter part of -the heavens between the two covenants or equinoxes. -On each side of Yah was a cherub, or monster with four -faces (or, according to some, with four bodies)—one like -a bull, another like a man, a third like an eagle, and the -last like a lion, as we find fully described by Ezekiel -(chap. i.). In my “Popular Faith Unveiled” (pp. 131, -174, and 247) I have attributed these heads (or bodies) -to the four zodiacal signs of ascension after the vernal -equinox, that like a bull to <i>Taurus</i>, that like a man to -<i>Gemini</i>, that like an eagle to <i>Cancer</i>, and that like a -lion to <i>Leo</i>; but, according to Sir W. Drummond, in -his “Œdipus Judaicus,” they correspond with the signs -at the four quarters of the sphere—viz., the man to -<i>Aquarius</i>, the ox to <i>Taurus</i>, the lion to <i>Leo</i>, and the -eagle to <i>Scorpio</i>, this calculation being based on the -supposition that the cherubim were first introduced -during the period prior to <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2188, when <i>Taurus</i> was -the vernal equinoxial point, while mine supposes <i>Aries</i> -to have been the chief zodiacal sign. Which calculation -is right the reader must decide for himself, after carefully -studying the reasons given for both conclusions. -Clement of Alexandria, in his “Stromata,” says of these -cherubim: “Each of them has six wings, whether they -typify the two bears, as some will have it, or, which is -better, the two hemispheres.... Both have twelve wings, -and thus through the circle of the zodiac, and of self-marrying -time, they typify the world perceived by the -senses.” The table in the temple was symbolical of the -earth, as we learn from Clement of Alexandria again, -when he says:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> “The table, as I think, signifies the -image of the earth; it is sustained by four feet, answering -to the summer, autumn, spring, and winter.” The -shew-bread was placed on the table in front of Yah, and -was divided into twelve pieces, typical of the twelve -signs, as we find stated in Ex. xxv. 22 and 30 (literally -translated): “And I will hang [or be deposited] there, -set [or sitting] before thee; and I will talk to thee from -above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubim, -which are upon the ark of the testimony ... and thou -shalt set shew-bread always upon the table in front of me.” -The candlesticks, with three branches on each side and -one in the centre, having seven lamps burning on them, -represented the seven summer signs, including both the -equinoxial ones. Josephus tells us that the candlesticks -were divided into seventy parts, answering to the seventy -decans of the seven signs. The veil of the temple was -of blue, purple, and scarlet, and represented the atmospheric -vault of heaven tinged, as it frequently is, by the -sun’s rays. The pomegranates represented the fixed -stars. The dress of the high priest was ornamented with -566 bells, corresponding with the days of the sidereal -year, with two bright emeralds and twelve precious -stones, which, according to Clement of Alexandria, represented -the sun and moon and the twelve signs of the -zodiac.</p> - -<p>Sufficient has been said to leave no doubt as to the -real meaning of the tabernacle and its appurtenances, -and, I think, to establish the truth of what I have previously -stated—viz., that the ancient religions were of -astronomical origin and abounding in symbolical rites -and ceremonies. It only remains for me now to repeat -what I have maintained before in other essays—that -the Christian religion of to-day, although modified by -time and circumstances, having been considerably manipulated -so as to be brought within touch of modern -requirements, is nothing more or less than a rehash of -the Egyptian, Persian, Hindu, and Phœnician mythologies—an -old worn-out faith, in fact, dressed in gaudy -and attractive garments.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a><br /><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> - -<p id="progress"> </p> -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_224a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">THE EARTH OF THE VEDIC PRIESTS.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_224b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">HINDU EARTH.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_225a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">THE EARTH OF THE LATER GREEKS. B.C.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_225b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">POMPONIUS MELA’S COSMOGRAPHY. -1<sup>st</sup> Century. Heathen.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a><br /><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a><br /><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_228a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> CHRISTIAN MAPS OF THE WORLD IN -THE 10th. CENTURY.</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_228b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> CHRISTIAN MAP OF THE WORLD IN THE -8th. CENTURY.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_229a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">MAP OF MARCO POLO End of 14th. Century.</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_229b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">COSMOGRAPHY OF S<sup>t</sup> DENIS Mid 14th. Century</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a><br /><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a><br /><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_232a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">EGYPTIAN PLANETARY SYSTEM</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_232b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_233a.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">TYCHO BRAHE’S PLANETARY SYSTEM</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_233b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">COPERNICAN SYSTEM</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a><br /><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a><br /><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_236.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">THE IRON VIRGIN. Inside View.</div> -</div> - - -<p><small>The unbeliever or heretic was placed upright inside -the virgin, and the doors were closed so that the -spikes penetrated the victim’s eyes & chest, after -which the body was dropped through the floor into the -river Pegnitz</small>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_237.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">THE IRON VIRGIN. Outside View.</div> -</div> - - -<p><small>Fixed in a vault cut out of the rock beneath -the Nuremberg Town Hall, in Bavaria, and used -as an instrument of torture by the Christian Church</small>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a><br /><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="INTELLECTUAL_PROGRESS">INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS<br /> - -IN EUROPE.</h2> - - -<p>No scientific student or observer of nature will have -failed to notice that all phenomena around him are ever -in a condition of progressive change, ever advancing -from the simple to the complex, and ever conforming to -specific laws. Just as the world in which we live has -gradually developed from a condition of nebulous vapour -to its present complex form, and just as man has evolved -from a simple molecule of protoplasm by wonderful and -manifold stages to his present commanding position, so -have civilisation, trade, politics, arts, literature, and -science all been slowly and gradually evolved from the -primitive mind of prehistoric man. A continual change -has ever been going on from the simple to the complex, -from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from the -imperfect to the more perfect. This continual progress -has been in operation during all time, and will proceed -in the future as of old, leaving the present day far behind -in its march, as the present day has left behind it the -past.</p> - -<p>In considering the evolution of reform, or progress of -civilisation, we are necessarily limited to a comparatively -late period in man’s history, for many thousands of years -had passed away, during which time man had gradually -established himself as a social animal, before any trustworthy -records appeared to throw light in future ages -upon the primitive condition and habits of the human -family. From the patient and persevering studies of -scientific men, we are now in possession of a number of -facts which lead us to the conclusion that primitive man -first lived the life of a wild beast, inhabiting caves, and -devoting all his energies to battling with the ferocious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> -monsters around him. From this condition he developed -into a more civilised being, becoming an agriculturalist, -afterwards a manufacturer of stuffs and hardware, and -still later a member of an organised state. These changes -probably occupied hundreds of thousands of years, compared -to which enormous lapse of time the period -embraced between the Egypto-Greek or classic era and -the present moment is a mere speck on the face of time. -We are now tolerably well acquainted with the civilisation -of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, which had -existed for many centuries before the time of Aristotle, -and which some four or five centuries before our era had -commenced its entry upon the wide field of scientific -development which followed the conquest of Persia by -Alexander the Great. These civilisations, which for -centuries had been bound up with the vain superstitions -connected with the legion of divinities of Olympus, of -Memphis, and of Thebes, were gradually casting off the -yoke of ignorance, and becoming more acquainted with -the majesty of the operations of nature. Philosophers -began to publicly declaim against the Olympian absurdities, -and to ridicule the notion of miracles or prodigies; -traditions began to be doubted and were fast being cast -aside; Zeus and his court were ceasing to command -respect; and the priests were often publicly insulted. -The Ionian gods of Homer, as well as the Doric of -Hesiod, appeared likely to be quickly committed to the -darkness of oblivion. Powerful and influential resistance -was, of course, opposed to the wave of progress and -reason; the philosophers were branded as Atheists and -their followers persecuted rigorously; Euripides was declared -a heretic, and Æschylus narrowly escaped being -stoned to death for blasphemy. So great was the opposition -offered to the movement that the philosophers -would undoubtedly have been silenced for some time to -come had it not been for the sudden military expedition -against the Persians. Alexander, with his 38,000 Macedonian -soldiers, having crossed the Hellespont, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 334, -proceeded to subjugate the imperious monarch of Persia, -and, after successfully conquering Asia Minor and Syria, -completely defeated the Persian army led by King -Darius, and took possession of the great city of Babylon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p> - -<p>This war engrossed the attention of all classes at home, -so that the philosophers were enabled to prosecute their -studies unmolested. It also in many other ways was a -means of furthering the scientific efforts of that and of -future ages. For the first time the Macedonians beheld -the ebbing and flowing of the tides; they discovered and -examined the Chaldean astronomical instruments, and -learnt their calculations, extending over several thousand -years; and they observed the Chaldean division of the -zodiac into twelve portions, and of the day and night into -twelve hours each. The particulars of these they sent -home to Aristotle. What a field was here opened out -for Greek speculation! The Chaldeans had detected -the precession of the equinoxes, and were well acquainted -with the causes of eclipses; they printed from a revolving -roller, on which they had engraved cuneiform letters; -they possessed magnifying instruments; and were, in fact, -the tail-end of a mighty and advanced Accadian civilisation -which had been in existence for thousands of years. -Not satisfied with these achievements, the conquering -Alexander next subdued the ancient monarchy of Egypt, -learnt the great feat of the Pharaohs—viz., the circumnavigation -of Africa by the Cape of Good Hope and the -pillars of Hercules, and founded the celebrated city of -Alexandria. He died at Babylon <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 323, after which -his huge empire was divided among his generals; his -half brother, Ptolemy Soter, who had been governor of -Egypt during Alexander’s lifetime, taking possession of -that country, and establishing his seat of government at -the new city of Alexandria.</p> - -<p>This period marks the commencement of European -civilisation. Owing to the excellent government adopted -by Ptolemy, large numbers of Arabians, Jews, and Greeks -were induced to take up their residence at Alexandria, -which quickly became the centre of learning and first -commercial city of the whole known world, and the -resort of people of all nationalities. The celebrated -museum, which was commenced by Ptolemy Soter and -completed by his successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, contained -a library, which grew so largely that 400,000 -volumes were soon acquired by it, and a daughter library, -containing 300,000 volumes, built at the Serapion, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> -Temple of Serapis. Books were freely bought, transcribers -engaged, apartments set aside, at the king’s -expense, for the residence of Greek philosophers and -students, and four faculties established, for literature, -mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, including natural -history. There were also in connection with the university -botanical and zoological gardens, an astronomical -observatory, with spheres, globes, parallactic rules, etc., -and an anatomical theatre for the dissection of dead -bodies. It was here that Euclid produced his celebrated -geometrical demonstrations, which are at this day used -in our schools. Here also Archimedes proclaimed his -method for the determination of specific gravities, and -invented the theory of the lever. Here Eratosthenes -daily taught that the earth was a globe, and determined -the interval between the tropics. The earth was described -as possessing imaginary poles, axis, equator, arctic and -antarctic circles, equinoxial points, solstices, climate, etc. -Hipparchus taught the precession of the equinoxes, -catalogued the stars, and adopted lines of latitude and -longitude in describing the situations of places. Thus -science progressed under the wise and beneficent rule -of the Ptolemies.</p> - -<p>But a dark cloud was already looming in the distance, -which was destined to develop into a fierce storm, the -effect of whose fury was felt for centuries afterwards. -Julius Cæsar, in <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 30, defeated Cleopatra, then Queen -of Egypt, and added that country to the Roman dominions, -the museum and larger library being entirely -destroyed during the siege of Alexandria. From this -time learning and science began to decline. Numerous -religious sects arose around Alexandria, the old mythologies -were revived, and the priests once more gained -influence. The temples of Jupiter Ammon and Apollo -in Egypt, of Adonis and Ies in Phœnicia, of Dionysos -in Greece, and of Bacchus in Rome, were again filled to -overflowing, and miracles were performed in abundance. -In the short space of about fifty years all the work of -the Ptolemies appeared to have been undone, and the -world once more given up to darkness, superstition, and -ignorance, the popular frenzy being kept up by a number -of ascetic monks, called Therapeutæ, who inhabited the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> -hills around Alexandria, the desert and rocky plains of -Arabia Petræa, and the barren hills of Syria, and -travelled about the country, preaching in the open air -to the ignorant and credulous multitudes. Matters progressed -favourably for the revivalists for a short time; -but there had shortly before occurred a circumstance -which proved to be, for us, the most important event in -the world’s history, and which considerably modified the -Therapeut programme.</p> - -<p>According to ancient records, it appears that a monk, -of the ascetic order of Essenes, called Yahoshuah -(Joshua) ben Pandira, was born in Syria, in the -fourth year of the reign of Alexander Jannæus, or about -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 120; and, being educated in Egypt, under the -supervision of Yahoshuah-ben Perachia, soon made himself -specially obnoxious to the priests by his heterodox -teaching. From the exceedingly scanty information to -be obtained from the historical writers of the time, it -appears that this young man had, in addition to his knowledge -of Egyptian sorcery, a large acquaintance with the -sublime and moral teachings of Confucius, for whose -memory he appears to have had a profound respect. -Observing the despicable manner in which the priests -manipulated their sacred offices for their own advantage, -robbing the poor and credulous people of their hard -earnings and indulging in all kinds of immoralities, this -young man boldly attacked these human parasites in the -public places, calling them liars and hypocrites, preaching -Socialistic and Communistic doctrines, and declaring -that there was but one law necessary for man—viz., the -golden rule of Confucius, “Do unto another,” etc. The -wrath of the priests knew no bounds; a council was -called to consider the matter, and the bold reformer -was, it is said, sentenced to death for his noble efforts on -behalf of suffering humanity. Whether or not this young -man ever lived, or whether he was merely an ideal -creation of the fanatical minds of these therapeut monks, -suggested by necessity, it is impossible to say positively; -for there are no really trustworthy records from which a -safe conclusion can be deduced. It is, however, probable -that such a man did actually exist, for it is not likely -that, had he been but an idea, the fact of his having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> -declared one law to be sufficient for man’s moral guidance -would have been included among the fabulous -performances afterwards attributed to him, as such a -declaration was destructive of all priestcraft; besides -which, we are told in the Babylonian Gemara to the -Mishna that Yahoshua, “son of Pandira and Stada,” was -stoned to death as a wizard in the city of Ludd, or Lydia, -after which he was crucified on a tree on the eve of the -Passover, about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 70, which was the punishment -generally inflicted on preachers of heresy and sedition. -Whether he had an actual existence or was but an idea, -it is an undisputed fact that his name has been, during -the past eighteen hundred years, a household word, and -that the whole face of European history has been moulded -by the various sayings and doings fabulously attributed -to him.</p> - -<p>The reason of this is as follows. The therapeut -monks of Alexandria, who flourished in the first and -second centuries of our era, in attempting to revive the -old mythological systems, and thus to deprive scientists -and philosophers of their late rapidly-increasing power, -were at a great disadvantage, owing to the length of time -that had elapsed since the wonderful feats of the gods -had been performed. They well understood the absolute -necessity of keeping alive in the memories of the -people the older miraculous events by the performance -of fresh wonders in their own day; but the difficulty they -had to encounter was in finding suitable individuals for -the occasion. The Syrian Essene monk, who had infected -a great number of the lower classes of society by -his heretical and revolutionary teachings, which, at first -sight, appeared likely to be damaging to the cause of the -priesthood, was quickly requisitioned by these astute -monks for the great purpose they had in view—viz., the -reproduction on earth of the popular god Bacchus, the -Greek Dionysos, and Phœnician Ies. They boldly -declared that this man was, when on earth, an incarnate -deity, and proceeded to attribute to him all the wonderful -performances that had previously been imputed to the -young sun-god Bacchus, such as miraculous birth from a -virgin, resurrection from the grave three days after death, -ascension to heaven, etc.; and, finally, gave him the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> -Phœnician name of Bacchus, Ies, in its Greek form -Iesous—Greek being, at that time, the prevailing language -around Alexandria. The new religion gradually spread -from Egypt over the European provinces of the Roman -empire, and soon became such a great political power in -the State that the incarnate fiend and Emperor Constantine, -in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 312, was induced to place himself at its -head, and use its increasing influence to further his own -wicked projects. The new Church, by this act, gained -an enormous power; its priests became arrogant, the -philosophers were even more persecuted than before, and -learning was fast approaching its end. The only scientific -work which the Church retained was the “Syntaxis” -of Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer, which taught -that the earth was the fixed centre of the universe, around -which all other heavenly bodies rotated. It also treated -of the precession of the equinoxes, the milky way, and -the distances of the various bodies in the heavens from -the earth; but, as the geocentric theory was clearly taught -in conformity with the Bible records and the religious -convictions of the people, this system was gradually -adopted by all classes of society, and became the recognised -authority on astronomy.</p> - -<p>A furious and important controversy about this time -broke out between Arius, the leader of those who retained -the original belief in the manhood of Jesus, and Athanasius, -the leader of the Christians, who declared him to -be divine, which culminated in the celebrated Council of -Nicea, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 325, at which it was decided that he was -actually god. From this moment not only Arians, but -all others who refused to believe in the god Jesus, were -savagely persecuted, until, at last, science and learning -received their death-blow by the destruction of the -Serapion, under the order of the Emperor Theodosius, -and the murder of Hypatia at Alexandria. This philosopher -was in the habit of lecturing on mathematics at -the university, and was so popular that the jealousy of -Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, was aroused; she was seized -by his fanatical followers as she was going to her lecture-room, -stripped naked, dragged into a Christian church, -and there brained by the club of Peter the Reader, in -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 414.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p> - -<p>Justinian next ordered the teaching of philosophy to -be discontinued at Athens, and closed all the schools. -The sciences were made to conform to Genesis, which -was declared to be the only true account of the origin of -nature; and the earth was declared to be flat, the sky -spreading over it like a dome—or, in the words of St. -Augustine, like a skin—in which all the bodies moved to -give light to man. Lactantius declared the globular -theory to be heretical. “Is it possible,” he said, “that -man can be so absurd as to believe that the crops and -the trees on the other side of the earth hang downwards, -and that men have their feet higher than their heads? If -you ask them how they defend these monstrosities, how -things do not fall away from the earth on that side, they -reply that the nature of things is such that heavy bodies -tend towards the centre, like the spokes of a wheel, -while light bodies, as clouds, smoke, fire, tend from the -centre to the heavens on all sides. Now, I am really at -a loss what to say of those who, when they have once -gone wrong, steadily persevere in their folly, and defend -one absurd opinion by another.” St. Augustine also said -that “it is impossible there should be inhabitants on the -opposite side of the earth, since no such race is recorded -by Scripture among the descendants of Adam;” and -again: “In the day of judgment men on the other side -of a globe could not see the Lord descending through -the air.” Thus perished all the grand work effected by -the Ptolemies. Science was annihilated, progress arrested, -and the dark ages had commenced, which lasted until the -time of Luther and Copernicus, in the commencement -of the sixteenth century. Throughout this long and -dreary period the most cruel enormities were practised -upon unoffending people; the Church became gorged -with wealth; the clergy gave themselves up to all kinds -of lust and debauchery; relics were sold, dispensations -bartered; and no one’s property or person was safe. -Progress was, however, only arrested for a time.</p> - -<p>About the year 570 Mohammed was born in Arabia, -and in 610 he declared to the world that he had been -commissioned by the angel Gabriel to preach the unity -of god. He appears to have been a very remarkable -religious enthusiast, who believed himself in his divine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> -mission, and was eminently successful in his arduous -undertaking. Idolatry was quickly abolished among the -Arabs, and replaced by the religion of Mohammed. On -the death of the prophet his successors as vigorously -pursued the course he had entered upon. Ali, the general -of Khalif Omar’s army, in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 637, captured Jerusalem -and conquered Syria in the name of the one true god -and his prophet Mohammed. The Khalif rode from -Medina to Jerusalem upon a red camel, and, as he -entered the conquered city, issued the following proclamation: -“In the name of the most merciful God. From -Omar Ebno’l Alchitâb to the inhabitants of Œlia. They -shall be protected and secured, both in their lives and -their fortunes; and their churches shall neither be pulled -down nor made use of by any but themselves.” Sophronius, -the chief Christian priest, having invited the conqueror -to pray in a Christian church, received a polite -refusal, Omar contenting himself with kneeling on the -steps outside, so that his followers might not have any -excuse for seizing the edifice or otherwise annoying the -conquered Christians. The Khalif and his followers -then pressed northwards, conquered the Roman Emperor -Heraclius, sent a fleet to the Hellespont, defeated the -Roman fleet, and laid siege to Constantinople, then -called Byzantium. Egypt was next conquered, the remnants -of the Serapion destroyed, and the whole of North -Africa added to the dominions of the Khalif. Spain -was then seized upon, and the entire country, as far -north as the Loire, annexed to the growing empire. In -732 Charles Martel succeeded in stopping the Saracen -foe at Poictiers and driving him back to Spain, thus relieving -the anxiety of the Church, which was now becoming -intense. In 846 a Mussulman fleet sailed up the -Tiber, menaced Rome, and carried away St. Peter’s altar -to Africa, the Christian empire being saved from further -trouble only by the Mohammedan power being divided -into three Khalifates.</p> - -<p>According to the Koran, the earth was a square plane, -on the edges of which rested the heavenly vault, divided -into seven stories, in the topmost of which dwelt god in -his omnipotence. This theory, however, was quickly -given up by the learned Saracens, Al-Mamun declaring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> -it to be unscientific, and asserting that the earth was -globular, with a circumference of about 24,000 miles, -which was not far wrong. In 661 the Khalif Moawyah -encouraged this new teaching, and ordered the writings of -the Greek philosophers to be translated into Arabic. In -753 the Khalif Almansar recommended the study of -astronomy, medicine, and law at Bagdad; and his -grandson, Haroum-al-Raschid, ordered that every mosque -should have a school attached to it, and established a -large library at Bagdad for the use of learned men. The -sciences of chemistry and geometry were revived, and -algebra invented by the Saracens. At Cairo the Fatimist -Library became the wonder of the world; and the great -library of the Spanish Khalifs had 600,000 vols., its catalogue -alone occupying 44 vols. Gibbon tells us that -they “diffused the taste and the rewards of science from -Samarcand and Bokhara to Fez and Cordova, and that -the vizier of a sultan consecrated a sum of two hundred -thousand pieces of gold to the foundation of a college -at Bagdad, which he endowed with an annual revenue of -fifteen thousand dinars.” The first medical college in -Europe was founded by the Saracens at Salerno in Italy, -and the first astronomical observatory was erected by -them at Seville in Spain. The streets in Spain were -lighted, baths were erected, and total abstinence universally -practised. Thus we see that, while the power of -the Church was gradually steeping central Europe in -darkness, ignorance, and wretchedness, progress was on -the march again in Western Asia, Africa, and Spain. -During this period, however, there were not wanting in -Europe bold men who attempted a revival of philosophy; -but these were quickly suppressed by the Church. In -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 800 there appeared a man in Britain called John -Erigena, who, having read Aristotle’s works, adopted his -views and attempted to reconcile them with the Christian -religion. There were also many Christian divines who -had crossed the Mediterranean to study philosophy -secretly from Mohammedan doctors. Erigena declared -that every living thing evolved from something that had -previously lived; that each particular life-form was but -a part of general existence or mundane soul; and that -all life must be eventually re-absorbed in deity. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> -Church became infuriated and alarmed at this heretical -barbarian, who taught the pernicious doctrines of emanation -and absorption, and steps were immediately taken -to suppress him.</p> - -<p>During the period of quiet which followed a certain -priest of Thuringia, Bernhardt by name, created a great -sensation in central Europe by declaring that the end of -the world was fast approaching; that the prophecy contained -in the twentieth chapter of Revelation would be -fulfilled on December 31st, in the year 1000—or possibly -immediately before that time—when the devil would be -unbound; and that unutterable calamity or annihilation -would come upon the world. The clergy quickly followed -suit, and as the fearful day approached every church and -cloister in Europe resounded with the frantic appeals of -the monks and priests for their flocks to prepare for the -awful doom. Europe was turned upside down; business -was suspended; kings, princes, senators, nobles, and -peasants all alike left their occupations to seek refuge in -some holy sanctuary against the coming event. As the -dread moment approached there was not a church or -convent in Europe that was not crowded to suffocation, -the people imagining that, if they were found at the last -moment in some consecrated place, their chances of -being saved would be better. Hundreds and thousands -of these poor wretches never had opportunity of obtaining -the coveted shelter, having been bereft of their reason -under the awful excitement of the hour. Amid prayer, -faintings, hysterical screaming, and chanting of choirs—priests, -monarchs, and beggars all huddled together anyhow—the -clock struck twelve, and dead silence prevailed. -Gradually the people roused themselves from their stupor -to find themselves the victims of a cruel hoax. Strange -to say, not any attempt was made to punish those who -had produced such a melancholy state of things. Kings -and nobles had endowed monasteries and churches with -lands and wealth, which they believed would soon be of so -little use to them, and became suddenly penitent, assuming -the monk’s shirt of hair, and otherwise showing -evidence of their piety and humility. William of the -Long Sword, Duke of Normandy, Hugh Duke of Burgundy, -Hugh Count of Arles, the Emperor Henry II.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> -all renounced their wealth and position to become monks. -Nobles had left lands and castles to the Church, the -deeds being drawn up by monks and witnessed by prelates -and sovereigns, as though no day of reckoning was at -hand, the form being invariably as follows: “Seeing that -the end of the world is now approaching, and that every -day accumulates fresh miseries, I, Baron —— (or -King ——), for the good of my soul, give to the -monastery of ——,” etc. The Church, which before -was poor, now became gorged with wealth, and the -ignorance and credulity of the people secured the treasures -to the now powerful prelates.</p> - -<p>During this period of excitement and terror the number -of pilgrimages to the Holy Land had enormously increased, -so much so that the Saracen masters of Jerusalem, -with the view of putting a stop to the now troublesome -and inconvenient influx of Christians to the Holy -City, commenced to persecute the pilgrims, thus creating -a very great ill-feeling against themselves throughout -Europe. Peter the Hermit, a monk of Amiens, took up -the cause of his ill-treated brethren, and forthwith commenced -to preach a holy war against the Saracens of -Syria, Pope Urban II. and his priests promising absolution -from all sin to those who took up arms against the -Infidel. A vast multitude of rabble from all parts of -Europe soon started on their march to the Holy Land, -being divided into three large armies, one led by Walter -the Penniless, another by Peter the Hermit, and the -third by Gottschalk, a monk. The armies gave themselves -up to unheard-of iniquities, spreading poverty and -misery on all sides in their march, braining all who refused -to give up their provisions and property to them, -and, at last, arriving in Constantinople footsore and -diseased, having left two-thirds of their comrades to die -of starvation on the road. Crossing over into Syria, they -met the Saracen foe, who quickly put an end to their -sufferings by annihilating the whole lot. Seven other -Crusades followed, one composed altogether of children, -who, the priests declared, were to be the inheritors of -the Holy Land, it being now apparent that full-grown -men were too sinful to conquer the Infidel. The army -of children was accordingly shipped off to destroy the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> -Saracen foe, but never reached Palestine, the boys having -been sold as slaves, and the girls drafted into Turkish -harems. When, at last, Acre surrendered to the Crusaders -under Richard Cœur de Lion, the leniency displayed -by the Khalif Omar in his capture of Jerusalem in 637 -was repaid by 2,700 Saracen hostages being brutally beheaded -outside the city walls for the sport of the Christian -soldiers. All this time Europe was in a constant -state of agitation and alarm, which was further intensified -by the revival in 1180 of the doctrines of John Erigena -by the Saracen philosopher Averroes, who boldly preached -them in Spain, making converts in all directions, among -whom was the great Jewish writer, Maimonides, who had -been held by the Jews in the highest esteem, and considered -second only in wisdom to Moses.</p> - -<p>Under the tolerant and liberal rule of the Saracens -Averroism made great progress in Spain, where Mohammedans, -Christians, and Jews were permitted to live -peaceably together, and where philosophical theories were -openly and fearlessly taught; but a day of reckoning was -at hand. On the death of the Caliph Hakem, Almansor -usurped the throne, and, in order to secure his position, -entered into a secret treaty with the orthodox section of -the Mohammedans, thus establishing a Church and State -party of enormous power, which culminated in the expulsion -of Averroes from Spain and the suppression of -the study of philosophy. Thus were crushed again philosophy -and progress in 1198. The Christians of Italy, -Germany, and France followed suit, ordering all Averroists -to be seized and punished, and shortly afterwards -extending the order also to Jews and Mohammedans. -From the accession of Almansor dates the downfall of -the Mohammedan power in Spain and the commencement -of the fearful persecutions of Infidels by the Christian -Church, which has left such a dark blot upon the -pages of European history.</p> - -<p>The Saracen power in Europe was annihilated by -Ferdinand and Isabella, and the Inquisition established -by Pope Innocent IV. in 1243. For two hundred years -it seemed as though philosophy and progress were indeed -dead, so relentlessly did the Church persecute all heretics -and denounce all scientific studies. But an occurrence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> -took place in 1440 which completely turned the tide of -events. In that year the art of printing was introduced -into Europe by the Venetians, who had learnt it from -the Chinese; and in 1469 it was carried to France, and -from thence to all the great cities of the continent. At -first the Church paid little heed to the innovation; but it -soon became apparent that a dangerous medium had -been introduced for intercommunication of the people -and their governments, which must lessen the need and -importance of a religious medium. Books were only -allowed to be published under the supervision of the -ecclesiastical authority, and heavy penalties inflicted upon -all who attempted to circulate any heretical works. The -writings of Averroes, Maimonides, and other heretics, -were ordered to be burnt, the doctrines taught by them -being declared blasphemous and subversive of all good -government. The leading and most learned Jews and -Mohammedans in Spain and Southern France were -avowed Averroists, and did not shrink from preaching -their doctrines in the public thoroughfares; and the infection -was extending so rapidly that the Church feared -that a great calamity would overtake the orthodox faith -unless some steps were taken to put a stop to the heresy. -The Inquisition, which had been found so effective in -silencing heretics in France, was now utilised for dealing -with the Jews and Moors. A cry was made in Castile -by the orthodox Christians for the establishment of the -Inquisition in Spain, which was immediately taken up by -all haters of progress; and so great was the influence -brought to bear by the Dominican monk and arch-fiend, -Torquemada, upon the Queen Isabella that the Pope -was petitioned for a bull, which was issued in 1478, for -the detection and suppression of heresy in Spain. The -Christian monster, Torquemada, proved himself a worthy -agent of the Inquisition, burning at the stake in eighteen -years about 10,220 persons of both sexes. Dispensations -from the operation of the Inquisition were sold by the -Pope to such as could afford to purchase them; and in -1492 all unbaptised Jews, old or young, were ordered by -Torquemada to leave Spain within four months, and to -leave behind them all those effects they could not sell in -the meantime. These poor wretches swarmed in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> -roads in their thousands, rending the air with their piteous -cries, the Christian Spaniards being forbidden to render -assistance under penalty of torture. The consequence -was that hundreds and thousands of men, women, and -children died by the wayside from hunger, thirst, and -fatigue. In 1502 a further order was issued at Seville -for the Spaniards to drive out of their country every -Infidel they could hear of, no matter what the nationality -might be. The Moors were particularly indicated in the -document, one clause stating that it was justifiable to -kill Mohammedans on account of their shameless infidelity. -The consequence was that, in a marvellously -short space of time, there was not a Mohammedan to be -found on the European side of the Straits of Gibraltar. -In spite of the precautions made use of by the Christians -for the prevention of the study of philosophy and the -acquirement of knowledge, the news of the discovery of -America by Columbus, in 1492, very soon found its way -all over Europe, producing the most intense sensation, -for the discovery came as a terrific blow to the Church -and its inspired Bible. To make matters worse, in 1522 -Magellan sailed completely round the world, thus demonstrating -conclusively that the earth was a globe.</p> - -<p>Matters appeared to be going wrong with the Church, -in spite of the recent bloody triumphs of the Inquisition; -and the clergy and laity were not slow to notice the turn -events were taking. Martin Luther, a young Augustinian -monk, in particular, took advantage of the unsettled state -of the mind of Europe to make a furious onslaught against -the Pope and the Church. Having been told by Cajetan -that he must “believe that one single drop of Christ’s -blood is sufficient to redeem the whole human race, and -the remaining quantity that was shed in the garden and -on the cross was left as a legacy to the Pope, to be a -treasure from which indulgences were to be drawn,” this -young priest declared he never would accept such a -doctrine, and commenced forthwith to preach openly -against the sale of indulgences, declaring that the Church -must stand or fall on the Bible, which taught no such -doctrine. The orthodox clergy, on the contrary, declared -that the Bible derived its authority from the Church, and -not the Church from the Bible, and demanded that Luther<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> -should be arrested for heresy. In 1520 the Pope excommunicated -the bold monk, who, in return, defiantly -burnt the Papal bull, for which he was ordered to appear -before the Imperial Diet at Worms, when he deliberately -refused to retract. The views of the reformer quickly -spread through Switzerland and Germany, Pope Leo -thundering forth his anathemas upon all who joined the -dangerous movement, until, at length, after many bloody -wars and horrible massacres, such as the slaughter of the -Huguenots, etc., the Reformation was firmly established, -and the Bible became, to the Reformed Church, the only -guide to morals and duty. At first, the Pope sullenly -submitted to what appeared to be the inevitable; but -soon it became apparent that, in order to keep any authority -at all over the people, some plan would have to be -adopted to curtail the growing influence of the Reformed -Church. Accordingly, Pope Paul III., in 1540, established -the Society of Jesus, the members of which order -were sent abroad all over Europe for the purpose of -secretly undermining the influence of the Reformers. -Three years afterwards, as if to counteract the evil designs -of the Jesuits, there appeared on the scene the celebrated -work of Copernicus, which was destined for ever to -demolish the geocentric theory of Ptolemy, and to establish -the heliocentric philosophy, which taught that the -sun was the centre of our system, and that all the planets, -including our earth, revolved in regular order round it, -and which, of course, called forth a volley of abuse from -the Vatican, the theory being declared heretical and its -author anathematised. The effect of all this was to -cause quite a revolution in thought among the learned of -Europe, which gave rise to another schism in the Church, -departure being this time from the ranks of the Reformers.</p> - -<p>Arianism was once more revived by a number of people, -who maintained that the doctrine of the Trinity was un-Scriptural, -and that Jesus was but a man like themselves, -though endowed with great authority from god. The -orthodox and reformed Churches both alike were alarmed -at this turn of events, and co-operated to suppress the -new heresy, denouncing all philosophical studies, and -branding the Unitarians as Infidels. The upshot was -that Servetus was burnt to death at the stake by the order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> -of the Trinitarian Calvin, and a check was thereby given -to the propagation of the Arian doctrines. It is satisfactory -to note that a Unitarian College now stands upon -the very spot where Servetus was murdered.</p> - -<p>Again progress was arrested, and this time it seemed -as though a mortal blow had been dealt at all acquirement -of knowledge, for shortly afterwards, in 1559, Pope -Paul IV. established the Congregation of the Index -Expurgatorius for the purpose of examining all books and -manuscripts intended for publication, and of deciding -whether the people should read them. The usual counterpoise, -however, quickly made its appearance, proving -once more that progress cannot be arrested for long.</p> - -<p>In 1563 the first newspaper was produced in Venice, -which again set the ball of intellect rolling along, never -more to be stopped by priest or prince. The new -Copernican philosophy was now accepted by many -learned men, among whom even were some of the -priesthood. Giordano Bruno, an Italian Dominican -monk, among others, embraced these truths, and was -not afraid to openly teach them, for which daring act -he was soon obliged to seek refuge in Switzerland, where -he prosecuted his studies for some time in peace. The -fiends of the Inquisition, however, soon discovered his -whereabouts and drove him into France, then into -England, and then back to Germany; in the end arresting -him at Venice. He was taken thence to Rome, -publicly accused of teaching the plurality of worlds, and -burnt at the stake by the Inquisition in 1600. Eighteen -years after the murder of this noble Italian, Kepler, of -Würtemberg, published his “Epitome of the Copernican -System,” in which he demonstrated for the first time -that all the heavenly bodies are bound in their courses -by various laws. This work, like those of Copernicus -and Bruno, was prohibited by the Congregation of the -Index Purgatorius, and Kepler himself declared a -dangerous infidel. Still, in spite of the fury of the -priesthood, Catholic and Reformer alike, the study of -the sciences made rapid strides, and in 1632 the venerable -Galileo published his “System of the World,” in -which he maintained the accuracy of the Copernican -theory. For this daring disregard of the Churc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>h’s -warnings he was summoned to Rome and brought -before the Inquisition, accused of having taught that the -earth moves round the sun. The poor old man was -compelled to kneel on the floor of the court, place his -hand on the Bible, and recant, after which he was incarcerated -in the prison of the Inquisition, where, ten years -afterwards, he died. Still science progressed, and was -considerably aided by the rapid increase in the number -of newspapers throughout Europe. In 1631 the <cite>French -Gazette</cite> was established, and, soon after, newspapers -appeared in all important cities, much to the discomfiture -of the Church, whose power was now more seriously -imperilled than ever. Confidence was gradually becoming -established, and Descartes dared, in 1680, to make -an attempt to analyse the mind, declaring that the necessity -of universal doubt was the only starting-point of all -true philosophy. He was followed, six years later, by -Newton, who published his “Principia,” in which he -demonstrated the grand truth which has immortalised -his name—viz., that all bodies attract each other with -forces jointly proportionate to their masses, varying -universally as the squares of their distances. Thus was -established the great law of universal gravitation, which -marks an epoch in the intellectual development of man. -Owing to the constantly-recurring feuds between the -Lutherans, Calvinists, and Catholics, this great discovery -passed for a while almost unnoticed; but it soon became -apparent that the final blow had been given to the old -theory of divine intervention in the movements of the -universe, and that learned men of all countries were -rapidly embracing the Newtonian theory of irreversible -laws.</p> - -<p>It was, however, now too late for the Church to interfere, -for all classes were quickly becoming impressed -with the grand theory of gravitation, which was destined -for ever to remain the most wonderful discovery of man; -and, although the clergy still continued to anathematise -all scholars and scientists, the study of nature was -pursued with rapidly-increasing enthusiasm, as though -to make up for lost time. In 1690 Locke, the physician -and philosopher, published his “Essay on the -Human Understanding,” in which he declared all human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> -knowledge to be the result of experience, thus entirely -upsetting the old theory of intuition. Twenty years -later Leibnitz published his work entitled “Theodicée,” -in which he endeavoured to solve the difficult problem -of existence of evil in the world under the moral government -of Deity. These two rival philosophers soon -became the leaders of philosophic thought in their -respective countries; but barely thirty years had passed -away before an iconoclast appeared, in the person of -David Hume, who cut away the ground ruthlessly from -beneath their feet. His “Treatise on Human Nature,” -published in 1739, upset all the philosophical systems -of the past, replacing them by the great theory of causation, -which was soon accepted by every philosopher and -scientist. Kant followed in 1781 with his “Critique of -Pure Reason,” in which he submitted matter to analysis, -and declared it to be possessed of inherent force.</p> - -<p>The other sciences were also joining in the march of -progress. Chemistry was fast becoming a settled science; -Priestley’s discovery of oxygen, in 1774, had created a -great sensation; Cavendish shortly afterwards, in 1783, -discovered the constitution of water; and Lavoisier, in -1789, summarised the combined researches of these two -chemists and himself in his “Elements of Chemistry,” -which at once was recognised as the standard work on -the subject. Astronomy had, since Newton’s discovery -of gravitation, assumed a more settled condition, but -was destined to further modification by the enunciation -of the nebular hypothesis by Laplace, who commenced -to publish his bulky work, “ Mecanique Celeste,” in -1799.</p> - -<p>The nineteenth century opened with progress, as it -were, on the gallop. In 1804 the first locomotive engine -was started in England, at the same time that the first -screw steamer was run at New York. It is needless to -enumerate all the inventions of scientific men during the -century, which are so well known to every one. Suffice -it to say that, in a marvellously short space of time, the -whole face of Europe has been changed. Railways -cross each other at all points, like a huge network; -telegraph wires link together as one place all important -centres of population; public buildings are protected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> -from nature’s freaks by lightning conductors; lighthouses -dot the whole length of our coasts; the penny -postage conveys our thoughts to and fro throughout the -length and breadth of the land; a free press ventilates -our grievances and enlightens our minds; hospitals and -dispensaries minister to the sick and maimed wherever -we go; and the Habeas Corpus Act endows each well-disposed -individual with freedom and liberty. What a -metamorphosis to be effected in so short a time!</p> - -<p>The lesson we learn from such a cursory glance as -this necessarily is at the intellectual progress of Europe -during the last two thousand years is full of the deepest -meaning. We cannot help being struck by the dogged -manner in which the Christian religion has opposed all -progress, ruthlessly murdering in cold blood any who -dared to suggest that the now-established and universally-accepted -theories might possibly possess some little of -the truth. Every new scientific truth or discovery has -been denounced by the Church, every great benefactor -to the human race persecuted and hunted to death by -the sleuth-hounds of bigotry and intolerance, and every -European war or massacre hatched out of religious -differences. To this very day the Church, though robbed -of all its old power to inflict evil and misery, persists -in its denunciation of all scientific discoveries; and not -one of the numerous sects which at present divide the -Christian Church is exempt from this charge. Hegel, -Bunsen, John Stuart Mill, Rénan, Huxley, Darwin, -Tyndall, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Carpenter, Herbert -Spencer, Emerson, Haeckel, Schopenhauer, Victor Hugo, -and, in short, all the leaders of thought of our century, -have incurred the bitter hostility of the various Christian -sects; and yet what a heirloom the works of these men -form for the coming generation!</p> - -<p>The discovery of the power of chloroform and ether -to relieve pain was denounced by the Church because -it was proposed to apply it to the relief of the agony of -childbirth, the natural inheritance of woman under -the divine curse of Eden; the abolition of slavery was -also opposed by these human parasites because the -practice was ordered in the Bible; and it is well known -how the priests of the Church utilised for their own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> -purposes those abominable texts of the Old Testament, -“Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live,” and “Neither -shalt thou countenance a poor man in his own cause.”</p> - -<p>The Middle Ages bear attestation to the fidelity of -the priesthood to their sacred oracles. Have not two -honest citizens of London quite lately undergone one -whole year’s imprisonment for the grave sin of ridiculing -the notion of the Hebrew and Christian gods being -other than creations of man’s imagination? This very -lecture will probably be the means of bringing down the -wrath of the priesthood—State Church and Nonconformist -alike—upon its author. And why? Are the -facts untrue? Just the reverse. The writer, historian, -or pseudo-scientist who writes volumes of falsehoods -for the purpose of propping up for a short time longer -priestcraft and tyranny will assuredly fare well at the -hands of these insinuating gentlemen of the cloth; but -let the man who dares to write the honest, unvarnished -truth beware! His fair name, his business, and his -social and family ties will be undermined and destroyed -in an incredibly short space of time. All honor, therefore, -be given to those brave ones who have dared to -stand before the world and speak out the truth in the -cause of humanity! They have done their share in -helping forward the march of intellect, in stifling superstition, -and in uprooting ignorance. The state of Europe -to-day, as compared with its condition two thousand -years since, is overwhelming evidence of the continual -progress of civilization, which, in spite of the opposition -from its old enemy, the Church, in the past and, to a -limited extent, in the present, has proved to the world -that it must, of necessity, continue for all time as one -of the great and immutable laws of Nature.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a><br /><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a><br /><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> - -<p id="bible"> </p> -<blockquote> -<div class="small"> -<p>GENESIS I. 1, according to authorised Hebrew version, -with final letters, but without vowel points and breathings.</p> - -<p>בראשיתבראאלהיםאתהשמיםואתהארץ</p> - - -<p>“In the beginning the ram (or lamb)-sun-gods (or the good gods) -renovated (reorganized or re-started) the heavens and the earth.”</p> - -<p>This refers to the commencement of the Persian new-year, at the -vernal equinox, <i>Aries</i>, the ram or lamb.</p> - - -<p>GENESIS I. 1, according to the Samaritan Pentateuch, -transcribed into ante-Masoretic, or original Hebrew, as written -before the invention of the five final letters.</p> - -<p>בראשיתבראהעזאתהשמימואתהארצ</p> - -<p>“In the beginning the goat renovated the heavens and the earth.”</p> - -<p>This refers to the commencement of the Egyptian new-year, at the -winter solstice, <i>Capricornus</i>, the goat.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a><br /><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_264.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Fac Simile of fragmentary MS. of sixth century -(Luke XX.9.10.), written in Greek and partially<br /> -covered with Syrian writing of 10<sup>th</sup> century.<br /> -Copied from “Secular Review,” of March 27 1886.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_265.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Small fragment from John’s Gospel, -taken from the Cotton Manuscript.</div> -</div> -</blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a><br /><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="THE_BIBLE">THE BIBLE.</h2> - - -<p>There is probably no book on earth that has ever had anything like so -large a circulation as that which is known as the Bible; and yet few -among the many millions who possess a copy ever think of asking -themselves the question, “Where and how did it originate?” They are -satisfied with the <i lang="la">ipse dixit</i> of their parson that it “came from God.” -That may be sufficient to satisfy the unthinking multitude, but it does -not suffice for thinking people, who prefer to follow the dictates of their -reason rather than rest on the mere word of a man or a number of men -who are paid to preach that the Bible is the word of God, and whose -incomes would cease if their followers thought otherwise.</p> - -<p>What is this Bible? Where did it come from? Let us see. As we -now have it, it consists of a number of books, which are divided into -two main portions, the Old and the New Testaments, the former being -made up of the five books said to have been written by Moses under -God’s inspiration, and called the Pentateuch, and a number of historical, -poetical, and prophetic writings; and the latter consisting of four narratives -of the life of Jesus, called the Gospels, a narrative of the Acts of -the Apostles, a number of letters, and the Vision or Revelation of one -John. The number of books which make up the Bible has varied from -time to time, according to the fancy of the age; but about 360 years -since a Council of Protestants determined that a number of hitherto -received sacred writings were not the “Word of God,” and finally -decided that only those now included in the authorised version were of -divine origin. Before that time the following books had formed part of -the Bible—viz., Tobit and Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, -Epistle of Jeremiah, Song of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel and the -Dragon, and Maccabees, all of which are considered canonical at the -present time by the Roman Catholic Church. Besides these writings -there are a large number of others that have, at different times, occupied -positions of honour in this ever-varying compilation, but which are now -almost forgotten by pious divines, and entirely unknown by their -credulous and ignorant dupes.</p> - -<p>Dr. Dupin, Professor of Philosophy at the Paris University, and one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> -of the most pious and learned Christian writers of his time, gives a list -of over 150 books that have, from time to time, been held sacred, and -said to have formed part of the “Word of God,” as follows:—</p> - - -<p class="center">OLD TESTAMENT.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Books now Considered Canonical by Jews and Christians.</i></p> -<ul class="books"> -<li>The five Books of Moses.</li> -<li>The Book of Joshua.</li> -<li>The Book of Judges.</li> -<li>The Book of Samuel, or the first and second Books of Kings.</li> -<li>The third and fourth Books of Kings.</li> -<li>Isaiah.</li> -<li>Jeremiah.</li> -<li>Ezekiel.</li> -<li>The Twelve Minor Prophets.</li> -<li>The Book of Job.</li> -<li>The Hundred and Fifty Psalms.</li> -<li>The Proverbs of Solomon.</li> -<li>The Ecclesiastes.</li> -<li>The Canticles.</li> -<li>Daniel.</li> -<li>The Chronicles.</li> -<li>Esdras, divided into two Books.</li> -</ul> - - -<p class="center"><i>Books Received as Canonical by some Jews and Rejected by Others.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"><li>Esther, Ruth.</li></ul> - -<p class="center"><i>Books Excluded from the Jewish Canon, and Reckoned as Apocryphal by some of the Ancient -Christians, but Allowed as Canonical of late by the Church of Rome.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"><li>Baruch, Tobit, Judith, the Book of Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, the two Books of the -Maccabees.</li> -<li>The Song of the three Children in the Fiery Furnace.</li> -<li>The History of Susanna.</li> -<li>The History of Bel and the Dragon.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="center"><i>Books that are Excluded from the Canon without Apparent Reason.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"><li>The Prayer of Manasseh, inserted in the Apocrypha.</li> -<li>The third and fourth Books of Esdras (ibid).</li> -<li>The third and fourth Books of Maccabees, in the Septuagint Bible.</li> -<li>The Genealogy of Job, and his Wife’s Speech, at the end of the Greek text of the -Book of Job.</li> -<li>The 151st Psalm, at the end of the Greek Psalms.</li> -<li>A Discourse of King Solomon, at the end of the Book of Wisdom.</li> -<li>The Preface before the Lamentations of Jeremiah, in the vulgar Latin and Greek text. -</li></ul> - - -<p class="center"><i>Other Apocryphal Books of the same Nature, which are Lost.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"> -<li>The Book of Enoch.</li> -<li>The Book of the Assumption of Moses.</li> -<li>The Assumption, Apocalypse, or Secrets of Elias.</li> -<li>The Secrets of Jeremiah.</li> -</ul> - - -<p class="center"><i>Books Full of Fables and Errors, which are Lost.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"> -<li>The Generation, or the Creation of Adam.</li> -<li>The Revelation of Adam.</li> -<li>Of the Genealogy, or of the sons and daughters of Adam.</li> -<li>Cham’s Book of Magic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></li> -<li>A Treatise, entitled Seth.</li> -<li>The Assumption of Abraham.</li> -<li>Jetsira, or concerning the Creation ascribed to Abraham.</li> -<li>The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs.</li> -<li>The Discourses of Jacob and Joseph.</li> -<li>The Prophecy of Habakkuk.</li> -<li>A Collection of the Prophecies of Ezekiel.</li> -<li>The Prophecy of Eldad and Medad.</li> -<li>The Treatise of Jannes and Jambres.</li> -<li>The Book of King Og.</li> -<li>Jacob’s Ladder, and several other Tracts.</li> -</ul> - - - -<p class="center">NEW TESTAMENT.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Books Owned as Canonical at all times and by all Christians.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"> -<li>The Four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.</li> -<li>The Acts of the Apostles.</li> -<li>Thirteen Epistles of St. Paul.</li> -<li>The First Epistle of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The First Epistle of St. John.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="center"><i>Books Questioned, but afterwards Admitted by the Church as Canonical.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"><li>The Epistle to the Hebrews.</li> -<li>The Epistle of St. James.</li> -<li>The Second Epistle of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The Second and Third of St. John.</li> -<li>The Epistle of St. Jude.</li> -<li>The Apocalypse, or Revelations of St. John, which was a long time before it was -admitted as Canonical.</li> -<li>The history of the angel and the agony of our Saviour related (Luke xxii.).</li> -<li>The end of the last chapter of St. Matthew’s Gospel.</li> -<li>The history of the woman taken in adultery, related in the eighth chapter of St. -John’s Gospel.</li> -<li>The end of St. John’s Gospel.</li> -<li>The passage concerning the Trinity, taken out of the fifth chapter of the First -Epistle of St. John.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="center"><i>Apocryphal Writings which are not Full of Errors.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"> -<li>The letter of Jesus Christ to Abgarus.</li> -<li>The letter of the Blessed Virgin.</li> -<li>The Gospel according to the Egyptians.</li> -<li>The Gospel according to the Hebrews.</li> -<li>Additions to the Gospel of St. Matthew and St. Luke, in the Cambridge manuscript.</li> -<li>The Proto-Evangelicum of St. James.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Nicodemus.</li> -<li>The Ancient Acts of Paul and Thecla.</li> -<li>The Epistle of the Laodicæans.</li> -<li>The Epistle of St. Paul to Seneca.</li> -<li>The Epistle of St. Barnabas.</li> -<li>The Liturgies of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The Liturgies of St. Mark.</li> -<li>The Liturgies of St. James.</li> -<li>The Liturgies of St. Matthew.</li> -<li>The Canons and Constitutions of the Apostles.</li> -<li>The Treatise of Prochorus.</li> -<li>The Books of St. Linus.</li> -<li>The Treatise of Abdias.</li> -<li>The Acts of the Passion of St. Andrew.</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Books Full of Errors; almost all of them Lost.</i></p> - -<ul class="books"> -<li>The Gospel of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The Gospel of St. Thomas.</li> -<li>The Gospel of St. Matthias.</li> -<li>The Gospel of St. Bartholomew.</li> -<li>The Gospel of St. Philip.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Judas Iscariot.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Thaddæus.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Barnabas.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Truth by the Valentinians.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Perfection by the Gnostics.</li> -<li>The Gospel of Eve by the Gnostics.</li> -<li>A Book concerning the Infancy of Jesus Christ.</li> -<li>A Treatise concerning the Birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and her Midwife.</li> -<li>A Treatise concerning the Virgin’s Lying-in, and the questions she asked.</li> -<li>A Treatise of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, cited by St. Jerome.</li> -<li>The Apocryphal Treatise of the Life of the Virgin, cited by St. Gregory Nysene.</li> -<li>Another Apocryphal Book on the Virgin, cited by Faustus.</li> -<li>The Writings of Jesus Christ about Miracles.</li> -<li>The Acts of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The Acts of St. Paul.</li> -<li>The Acts of St. Andrew.</li> -<li>The Acts of St. John.</li> -<li>The Acts of the Apostles.</li> -<li>The Acts of St. Philip.</li> -<li>The Acts of St. Thomas.</li> -<li>The Doctrine, Preaching, and Itinerary of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The Rapture of St. Paul.</li> -<li>The Memoirs of the Apostles.</li> -<li>The Lots of the Apostles.</li> -<li>The Itinerary of the Apostles.</li> -<li>The Treatise concerning the Priesthood of Jesus Christ.</li> -<li>The Apostolical Tract.</li> -<li>The Treatise of the Death and Assumption of the Virgin.</li> -<li>The Apocalypses or Revelations of St. Peter.</li> -<li>The Revelations of St. Paul.</li> -<li>The Revelations of St. Thomas.</li> -<li>The Revelations of St. Stephen.</li> -<li>The Revelations of the Great Apostle.</li> -<li>The Revelations of Abraham.</li> -<li>The Revelations of Seth.</li> -<li>The Revelations of Noriah.</li> -</ul> - -<p>In addition to those already named there were a number of lost books -referred to and quoted from by the authors of the various canonical -books, such as:—</p> - - - -<ul class="books"><li>The Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers xxi. 14).</li> -<li>The Book of the Covenant (Exodus xxiv. 7).</li> -<li>The Book of Jasher, or the Upright (Joshua x. 13, 2 Samuel i. 18).</li> -<li>The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 41).</li> -<li>The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel (1 Kings xiv. 19, and eighteen other places in the Books of Kings; also 2 Chron. xx. 34 and xxxiii. 18).</li> -<li>The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings xiv. 29, and twelve other places in the Books of Kings).</li> -<li>The Book of Samuel the Seer (1 Chronicles xxix. 29).</li> -<li>The Book of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chronicles xxix. 29).</li> -<li>The Book of Gad the Seer (1 Chronicles xxix. 29).</li> -<li>The Chronicles of King David (1 Chronicles xxvii. 24).</li> -<li>The Book of Nathan the Prophet (2 Chronicles ix. 29).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></li> -<li>The Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilomite (2 Chronicles ix. 29).</li> -<li>The Visions of Iddo the Seer against Jeroboam the son of Nebat (2 Chron. ix. 29).</li> -<li>The Book of Shemaiah the Prophet (2 Chronicles xii. 15).</li> -<li>The Book of Iddo the Seer concerning Genealogies (2 Chronicles xii. 15).</li> -<li>The Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chronicles xiii. 22).</li> -<li>The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chronicles xvi. 11, and six other places in the same Book).</li> -<li>The Book of Jehu (2 Chronicles xx. 34).</li> -<li>The Memoirs of Hircanus (mentioned in 1 Maccabees).</li> -<li>The Books of Jason (mentioned in 2 Maccabees ii.).</li> -<li>The Acts of Uriah (mentioned in 2 Chronicles xxvi. 22).</li> -<li>Three thousand Proverbs of Solomon (mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 32).</li> -<li>A thousand and five Songs (mentioned in ibid).</li> -<li>Several other volumes by the same author (mentioned in ibid).</li> -<li>The Prophecy of Jeremiah, torn in pieces by Jehoiakim (cited in Jeremiah xxxvi.).</li> -<li>Another Prophecy of his upon the city of Babylon (mentioned in Jeremiah li.).</li> -<li>Memoirs or descriptions of the same author (mentioned in 1 Maccabees ii.).</li> -<li>The Prophecy of Jonah (mentioned in the Book of Jonah).</li> -</ul> - -<p>We can readily imagine what trouble our pious ancestors must have -experienced in deciding which of these writings really emanated from -the ghost of God and which were fraudulent productions, for the style -in which most of them were written rendered it almost impossible to -decipher them: written on rough skins, in ink which had become obliterated -by age, many of them had fallen into the hands of monks and -other rogues, who appeared to have suffered severely from <i lang="la">cacoëthes -scribendi</i>, and who recorded events connected with their own persons or -surroundings over the original writing, like a lady “crosses” her letters, -so that the whole manuscript became a complete jumble. In most cases -the original or ground language was Hebrew or Greek in ill-formed and -continuous capitals, undivided into words, and without accents, points, -or breathings, while the “crossing” was in Arabic, Latin, or some other -different dialect, badly written and accompanied with ink spots and -senseless dashes. Out of this heterogeneous mass of scribblings the -pious divines of the Reformation period compiled our authorised version -of the Bible, the translation into English being made, in the case of the -Old Testament, from the modern Hebrew text, and in that of the New -Testament from Beza’s fifth edition of the Greek text.</p> - -<p>There are three different versions of the complete Old Testament—viz., -the Hebrew, the Greek Septuagint, and the Latin Vulgate, and two -Samaritan versions of the Pentateuch, one written in Aramæn and the -other in Arabic. The MSS. of the Hebrew version are all written in -modern or Masoretic Hebrew, which dates from about the year 1,000 -<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> The original language of the Hebrews, which was derived from -the Egyptians and afterwards modified by contact with the Chaldeans, -was very different from that we are accustomed to read to-day in Hebrew -Bibles: instead of each word being separated from its neighbour, and -vowel points being subscribed to assist in the reading, sentences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> -paragraphs, and even pages were written as though the whole formed -but one long word; and, considering that the Hebrew alphabet consists -of consonants only, the absence of the vowel points and final letters -afterwards introduced rendered the meaning of the writer most obscure. -For instance, the first verse of Genesis would have been written as -follows in ancient Hebrew, but in letters more nearly approaching the -cuneiform type, בראשיתבראאלהימאתהשמימואתהארצ. The -equivalent letters in English are (reading from right to left, as in Hebrew) -TS.R.A.H.T.A.V.M.Y.M.SH.H.T.A.M.Y.H.L.A.A.R.B.T.Y.SH.A.R.B -and the translators tell us that they signify, “In the beginning God -created the heavens and the earth.” Now, as they stand, it is utterly -impossible to pronounce the words; and, even supposing that vowels -were added, this could be done in such a variety of ways that hundreds -of different pronunciations might result; so also might the sense be -varied by many different renderings. Suppose we wrote down the authorised -translation, using consonants only, and leaving entirely out the -vowels, the result would be as follows (reading from left to right, as in -English), NTHBGNNGGDCRTDTHHVNSNDTHRTH, which would -be entirely unpronounceable unless we added vowels; and, by adding -vowels indiscriminately, a variety of renderings would result. The -absurdity of a written language composed only of consonants is thus -made very apparent. This difficulty opposed itself to the Jewish priests, -and was obviated by the introduction of vowel points, the manufacture -of five final letters, and the division of sentences into words according -to the arbitrary rendering of the introducers of the vowel points; so that -now we possess a Hebrew language which may be, and probably is, as -unlike the ancient Hebrew dialect as chalk is unlike cheese.</p> - -<p>By slightly altering the vowel points of a sentence or a word, the -whole sense may be entirely destroyed; and that this has been frequently -enough done requires no proof here, for it has been abundantly shown -elsewhere. Certain priests have attempted to prove that the vowel -points and final letters were in use in Ezra’s time; but it is now -generally admitted by scholars that they were inventions of the middle -ages. Hear what the learned Christian Dupin, Doctor of the Sorbonne, -says:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>—“The Hebrew alphabet is composed of twenty-two letters, like -those of the Samaritans, Chaldeans, and Syrians. But, of these letters, -<em>none are vowels</em>, and, in consequence, the pronunciation cannot be -determined. The Hebrews have invented <em>points</em>, which, being put -under the letters, answer the purpose of vowels. Those vowel-points -serve not only to fix the pronunciation, <em>but also the signification of a -word, because, many times, the word being differently pointed and pronounced -alters the meaning entirely</em>. This is the consideration which has -made the question as to the antiquity of the points of so much importance, -and has, consequently, had such elaborate treatment. Some -have pretended that these points are as ancient as the Hebrew tongue, -and that Abraham made use of them. Others make Moses the author -of them. But the most common opinion among the Jews is that, Moses -<em>having learnt of God the true pronunciation of Hebrew words</em>, this -science was preserved in the synagogue by oral tradition till the time of -Ezra, who invented the points and accents to fix the meaning. Elias -Levita, a German Jew of the last generation, and deeply learned in -Hebrew grammar, has rejected this opinion, and contended that the -invention of points took place in much more recent times. He ascribes -the invention to the Jews of Tiberias and to the year 500 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, and -alleges that the invention was not perfected till about the year 1040 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, -by two famous Maserites, Ben-Ascher and Ben-Naphtali.”</p> - -<p>Hear, also, what the learned and pious Dr. Prideaux says:—“The -sacred books made use of among the Jews in their synagogues have -ever been, and still are, <em>without the vowel-points</em>, which could not have -happened had they been placed there by Ezra, and had, consequently, -been of the same authority with the letters; for, had they been so, they -would certainly have been preserved in the synagogues with the same -care as the rest of the text.” He then goes on to say that no mention -is made of the points in either the Mishna or Gemara, and continues: -“Neither do we find the least hint of them in Philo-Judæus or Josephus, -who are the oldest writers of the Jews, or in any of the ancient Christian -writers for <em>several hundred years after Christ</em>. And, although -among them Origen and Jerome were well skilled in the Hebrew -language, yet in none of their writings do they speak the least of them. -Origen flourished in the third, and Jerome in the fifth, century; and -the latter, having lived a long while in Judæa, and there more especially -applied himself to the study of the Hebrew learning, and much conversed -with the Jewish rabbis for his improvement herein, it is not -likely that he could have missed making some mention of them through -all his voluminous works, if they had been either in being among the -Jews in his time, or in any credit or authority with them, and that -especially since, in his commentaries, there were so many necessary -occasions for taking notice of them.” The Doctor then declares that -after the Babylonish Captivity “the Hebrew language ceased to be the -mother tongue of the Jews,” Aramæn, as we know, being the dialect of -Judæa at the time of Herod.</p> - -<p>We may, then, safely fix the date of our earliest Hebrew MS. at a -later period than 1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, for there does not exist one single ante-Masoretic -or unpointed Hebrew MS. of the Bible. The Greek Septuagint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> -was also written in Greek capitals, without accents and breathings -and without divisions between the words, and continued thus until the -eighth century, when accents and breathings came into use, which were -followed, in the tenth century, by small letters, as we have them now in -our Greek Bibles. The very same may be said about the New Testament -MSS., all of which are written in continuous Greek capitals.</p> - -<p>The oldest MS. of the New Testament is the Codex Sinaiticus, -discovered by Tischendorf at the convent of St. Catherine, on Mount -Sinai, in 1859, and supposed to belong to the fourth century. The -Codex Vaticanus is also supposed to belong to the fourth century, and -was first published at Rome by Vercellone, in 1858. The Codex -Alexandrinus, containing both Old and New Testaments, is supposed -to belong to the fifth century, and was first published by Woide, in 1786, -and afterwards by Cowper, in 1860. Of the Old Testament it contains, -besides the canonical and most apocryphal books found in our editions, -the third and fourth books of the Maccabees, Epistle of Athanasius to -Marcellinus (prefixed to the Psalms), and fourteen hymns, the eleventh -in honour of the Virgin. Ecclesiasticus, the Song of the Three Children, -Susannah, and Bell and the Dragon do not appear. Of the New -Testament there is, in addition to the received books, the First Epistle -of Clement to the Corinthians and part of the Second. The Codex -Ephraemi is supposed to belong to the fifth century, and was published -by Tischendorf in 1843. The Codex Bezæ is a Græco-Latin MS., said -to belong to the sixth century, and first published by Kipling, in 1793, -and afterwards by Scrivener, in 1864. All these MSS. are written in -continuous capitals, so badly formed, and so jumbled together, as to be -almost illegible.</p> - -<p>According to the showing of those most interested in proving the -antiquity of sacred writings, the very earliest MS. cannot lay claim to an -earlier date than the fourth century; and, if the authors to whom the -Church has attributed the various writings in the Bible wrote the said -records, it is clear that the latest originals must date from the first -century. But the originals do not anywhere exist, and consequently it is -utterly impossible for anybody to know who wrote any one of the books -of the Bible, which is, therefore, a compilation of anonymous writings, -and, as such, is of no authority whatever. So far from being a divinely-inspired -record, it is, as we have seen, a product of the cunning and -ingenuity of knaves and fanatics, who deserve credit for only one thing, -and that is that they managed to make any sense whatever out of the -wretched scribble and scrawl from which they derived their information.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="ANNALS" id="ANNALS"></a>THE<br /> - -“ANNALS” OF TACITUS.</h2> - - -<p>One of the darkest epochs in the history of Christianity -is that period which commenced with the annihilation -of the Saracen power in Europe and the establishment -of the Inquisition by Pope Innocent IV. in 1243, and -continued until about the end of the fifteenth century. -The ghastly horrors perpetrated by the Christian Church -at this time against unoffending people are too well -known to need any reproduction here, and may be found -fully detailed in Rule’s “History of the Inquisition,” -Draper’s “Conflict,” and other similar works. My purpose -just now is not to follow in detail these wicked -and cruel abominations connected with the Christian -superstition, but to study carefully the various circumstances -surrounding the sudden appearance, in the early -part of the fifteenth century, of so many MSS. purporting -to have been written by the ancients. Among these -manuscripts were the so-called “Annals of Tacitus,” -which have since become so celebrated on account of -the reference made by the author in his fifteenth book -to the persecution of the early Christians by Nero. It -has long been suspected by learned scholars that these -“Annals,” and in particular the passage relating to Nero’s -persecution of Christians, were never written by Tacitus; -but, owing to the danger usually incurred in giving expression -to opinions so detrimental to the interests of -the Church, no one ventured until quite lately publicly -to state his doubts as to the genuineness of these celebrated -writings. It is now, however, pretty generally -admitted among such scholars as do not make their -honour subservient to their interests that the author of -the “History” and the author of the “Annals” were -not the same person, and that the latter, moreover, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> -not written until many centuries after the death of -Tacitus.</p> - -<p>To find out who was the real author of these “Annals,” -and how they became associated with the name of -Tacitus, it will be necessary to glance at the condition -of the Christian Church during the period referred to -above; and in doing so none but authors of the highest -repute will be consulted.</p> - -<p>For some time after the establishment of the Inquisition -in 1243 the Church had been able to suppress, to a -very large extent, the growing tendency of the age -towards the acquirement of knowledge: by the rack, the -stake, and the gibbet, by torture, by fire, and by the -knife, she had relentlessly pursued her horrid and diabolical -career, hoping by these means to preserve the -faith and silence her enemies. To a large extent it is -admitted she was successful; but in remote places the -spirit of inquiry lived and grew in spite of her: Abelard, -the first Freethinker, had well sown his seeds in France; -Arnold of Brescia had left to his brethren in Italy a -scheme of reform which was destined to take practical -shape in the autumn of 1870; and Wicliffe had preached -from his chair at Oxford doctrines which could not fail -ere long to have their effect upon the intellect of England. -This bold Yorkshireman did not scruple to -publicly declare that the mendicant friars who were -commissioned by the Pope to travel over England and -grant absolution and indulgences to the people were a -pack of thieves and sensualists, that the clergy were -indulging in open wickedness, that the indulgences of -the Pope were a manifest blasphemy, and that the -priesthood had no right to deprive the people of the -right to search the Bible. He even went so far as to -speak of the Pope as “Antichrist, the proud worldly -priest of Rome, and the most cursed of clippers and -purse-kervers.” From the pulpit of his little church at -Lutterworth he openly preached against the authority of -the Pope in England, and declared that Christ had given -no temporal lordship to the popes and no supremacy -over kings. The Pope and the Sacred College very -naturally resented this behaviour, and ordered copies of -Wicliffe’s works to be sent forthwith to Rome for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> -inspection, the result being that three bulls were drafted -on May 22nd, 1377, and despatched to England, one -being addressed to Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, -and William Courtenay, Bishop of London, -another being addressed to the King, and the third to -the University of Oxford. These bulls expressed the -surprise of his Holiness that such a fearful heresy had -not been at once suppressed, and commanded that -immediate steps should be taken for silencing the author -of it. He was to be apprehended and shut up in prison -until the further orders of the Pope arrived; and all -proofs and evidence of his heresy were to be sent by -special messenger to Rome without delay. These bulls, -however, arrived too late to be of much use. Already -Wicliffe had been brought to trial before the Bishop of -London and his court at St. Paul’s, with a result not at -all to the liking of his Holiness or any of his pious followers, -as he very soon discovered.</p> - -<p>On February 19th, 1377, Courtenay sat in Our Lady’s -Chapel in St. Paul’s, surrounded by Church dignitaries, -to hear the accusation against the reformer, a large and -excited crowd, favourably disposed towards Wicliffe, -howling outside the doors. Suddenly a disturbance -took place inside the chapel, caused by Lord Percy and -John of Gaunt forcing their way towards the reformer; -the Bishop and his court were scandalised, and immediately -called upon the intruders to withdraw; but, -instead of doing so, Percy quietly turned to Wicliffe and -politely requested him to be seated, whereupon Courtenay -became furious and yelled out: “He must and -shall stand; it is unreasonable that one on his trial -before his ordinary should sit.” High words followed; -the mob outside was in a state of fury, and the bishops -and clergy were terrified. The end soon came, for John -of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, stepping in front of the -Bishop, shouted: “As for you, who are growing so arrogant -and proud, I will bring down the pride, not of you -alone, but that of all the prelacy in England,” and then -declared that in a few moments he would drag him out -of the court by the hair of his head. This brought -matters to a climax; the mob burst into the chapel, the -Bishop and clergy fled, and the reformer was set free.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> -The greatest consternation prevailed among the clergy -upon the news of this outrage being carried through the -country, and for several weeks secret deliberations were -carried on for the purpose of devising some good plan -for restoring the visibly decreasing prestige of the clerical -party.</p> - -<p>At last the three bulls arrived from Rome, but were, -as we have seen, too late in the field; for not only had -the trial of Wicliffe turned out a failure, but the King -had in the meantime died, and the Oxford doctors had -almost all sided with the reformer. Still, the Church -determined to punish Wicliffe, who was summoned to -appear before Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, in -Lambeth Chapel, to answer charges of heresy and insubordination; -but this trial proved as unfortunate for the -clergy as the former one, for another angry mob besieged -the chapel and demanded the release of the reformer, -in addition to which Sir Lewis Clifford arrived in haste -from the Queen to forbid the bishops passing any sentence -upon Wicliffe. This was indeed a surprise for -their reverences, who precipitately left the chapel and -reached their homes in the best way they could. All -this had a great effect upon the minds of the people -both in England and on the Continent; for the Pope -and his satellites had not only been attacked, but, what -was more amazing, they had suffered an unparalleled -defeat; and the probability was that the discontented -of France and Italy would follow the example of the -English reformer and attempt to put into practice the -theories of Arnold and Abelard. The times certainly -looked black for the Church; but an event happened -shortly afterwards which added still more to the general -dismay of the clericals, and was near being the end of -the Papacy.</p> - -<p>Pope Gregory XI. died on March 27th, 1378, at the -Vatican, where he had arrived shortly before from his -beautiful residence at Avignon; and the Italian clergy, -fearing that the next pope would also take up his residence -in France, determined to exert every effort to -place upon the vacant chair of St. Peter an Italian who -would be likely to remain at the Vatican. At this time -the sacred college consisted of twenty-two cardinals,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> -twelve of whom were French, so that it would have been -an easy matter for the French majority to elect a French -pope; but the clamour, not only of the clergy, but of -the laity of Rome, was so great that the majority did not -avail themselves of their opportunity, and allowed the -Archbishop of Bari, a Neapolitan, to be nominated and -unanimously elected to the vacant see, under the title -of Urban VI. Not many weeks passed away before the -French majority began to repent their haste, and ended -by publicly excommunicating Pope Urban VI., calling -him apostate and antichrist, and electing in his stead, on -September 21st, Robert of Geneva, under the title of -Clement VII. The Italian bishops and clergy stood by -the Pope of their choice, who resided at the Vatican, -while the French bishops and clergy bowed allegiance -only to their Pope, who took up his residence at the old -papal palace at Avignon; and thus it happened that for -the first time in the history of the Church there were two -popes at the same time, each pouring forth his anathemas -at the other, and each declaring himself to be the divinely-ordained -vicar of Christ on earth. Owing to this schism, -Wicliffe was allowed to preach his heresy without let or -hindrance, for the whole of Europe was in a constant -ferment, and the bishops could ill bestow time upon such -an insignificant person when two such lofty individuals -were attracting the attention of both clergy and laity.</p> - -<p>For forty years these rival popes and their successors -carried on a perpetual warfare, both with the sword and -the pen, Pope Urban being succeeded in turn by -Pope Boniface IX., Pope Innocent VII., and Pope -Gregory XII., and Pope Clement by Pope Benedict -XIII. During this time there were not wanting men -who were bold enough to turn to account this papal -schism in the interest of reform. Wicliffe was working -silently but steadily in England, and actually had the -audacity to render the Bible in the vulgar tongue, so -that the people could read it in the churches, the thing -of all others that the popes and the cardinals dreaded, -for they well knew that, as soon as the Bible was read -and understood, the authority of the Church would -gradually wane, and eventually cease to exist at all. In -vain did the popes thunder forth their curses upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> -Wicliffe’s venerable head, for was not the whole of Europe -at that very time discussing more or less fiercely the very -question as to which of the two holy ones was really -Pope? Of what use was it that he of Avignon denounced -Wicliffe, when half of Christendom denied his right to -the papal chair? He of Rome was in precisely the -same position, so that the high-sounding anathemas fell -but lightly on the old reformer; but it was far otherwise -with the heretical teachings which called forth the papal -curses; for they were carried into the most remote -corners of Europe, causing quite a sensation among the -hitherto loyal servants of the Church. Jerome of Prague, -in the year 1400, just sixteen years after Wicliffe’s death, -carried across the channel a large assortment of Wicliffe’s -writings, and immediately commenced to carry on the -work of the great reformer in Europe, challenging the -doctors of Paris and Vienna on his way home. Uniting -with John Huss, a Professor of Prague University, he -attacked with great violence the Papacy, declaring that -the very fact of the head of the Church being split into -two was sufficient to destroy for ever the notion of papal -infallibility. Things had now arrived at such a pass that -the doctors of the Sorbonne in Paris made a desperate -attempt to settle the difficulty. For fifteen years past -they had been urging the two popes to resign simultaneously, -so that one successor to both could be unanimously -elected, and the dispute thus settled; but neither -party would yield an inch. At last, in 1409, driven to -desperation by the effect produced by Wicliffe’s writings, -and by the bold preaching of Huss and Jerome, the -Council of Pisa deposed both popes, and elected a third—viz., -Balthazar Corsa, who assumed the title of Pope -John XXIII. and took up his residence at Bologna. The -two deposed pontiffs, however, refused to recognise the -decree of the Council, the consequence being that, -instead of there being two popes, there were three. This -strengthened the position of Huss and Jerome, who -said: “If we must obey, to whom is our obedience to -be paid? If all three are infallible, why does not their -testimony agree? And if only one of them is the most -Holy Father, why is it that we cannot distinguish him -from the rest?” The Bolognan Pope declared the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> -Roman Pope to be a heretic, a demon, and antichrist; -the Roman Pope entertained similar views about his holy -brother of Bologna; and both stigmatised the Avignon -Pope as an impostor and schismatic; while his Holiness -of Avignon had as much affection for his two holy -brethren as they had for him.</p> - -<p>Another Council was held at Constance in 1418, at -which all three Holinesses were deposed, excellent precautions -being at the same time taken to ensure the -proper carrying out of the sentences. Otho Colonna was -then elected to the chair of St. Peter, as Martin V., and -the schism at last put an end to. But at what a cost -had this schism been kept up for forty years! People -had begun to seriously question the right of the popes -to claim infallibility; many were now in the habit of -daily reading the Bible, and some had even dared to -search ancient authors for fuller information respecting -the establishment of Christianity. Unless these three -ulcers were immediately cauterised and effectively effaced, -the Church must fall from its high position, as the holy -ones at the Vatican well knew. Accordingly, the Inquisition -was brought into service of the Pope, to put a stop -to the insolence of those who dared to assail the dogma -of infallibility, and who had been guilty of the blasphemy -of reading the Bible. Huss and Jerome had already -been burnt at the stake. In addition to this, large sums -of money were offered for freshly-discovered MSS. of -the ancients, in order that all the evidence it was possible -to collect together might be available in case of emergency. -These means were very effectual; for troublesome -people, who had inquiring minds or who had learnt -to read and write, were quickly despatched to a happier -land by the agents of the Inquisition, while the money -offered for newly-discovered MSS. acted like magic in -causing old musty writings to turn up in every direction.</p> - -<p>While the Council of Constance was being held for -the purpose of electing one pope, and one only, to sit in -the chair of St. Peter, Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, -second son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, -happened to pass through the town, and took advantage -of the opportunity thus offered him to attend the sittings, -where he made the acquaintance of many, among whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> -was Boggio Bracciolini, one of the Papal Secretaries. A -friendship soon sprang up between the two, which resulted -in Bracciolini returning to England with Bishop—afterwards -Cardinal—Beaufort, in the autumn of 1418. -After a year or two spent with Beaufort, the late Secretary -became dissatisfied with his lot, complaining bitterly -in his letters to his friend, Niccolo Niccoli, of the many -unfulfilled promises of the Cardinal. At last he was -offered, and duly accepted, a small living of 120 florins -a year, which he soon afterwards exchanged for one worth -£40 a year, and having fewer duties attached to it, -which gave him more leisure time for study, and, consequently, -made him considerably happier, for his passion -for studying ancient authors was as intense as his knowledge -of the classic languages was profound.</p> - -<p>In a very short time, however, he became again dissatisfied -with his lot, and begged the Cardinal to supply -him with an honorary canonry, so that he might visit -Italy and prosecute his studies, at the same time that he -drew a snug little salary from England. He was not -successful, for the Cardinal probably had many such -applications, and found more suitable objects upon which -to bestow his favours.</p> - -<p>Just at this time the rage for finding old MSS. increased -enormously, owing to the large sums of money given by -the Vatican to the lucky finders, who, as a rule, were -simply villains of the monk type and the most impudent -forgers. Bracciolini, whose passion for money was even -greater than his passion for knowledge, bitterly bewailed -his fate, and longed for an opportunity to turn his wits -to account, and thus secure some of the fine prizes -which were being so lavishly bestowed by his Holiness -upon indigent Italian and Hungarian monks. While he -was despairing of any such good fortune turning up he -unexpectedly received from Piero Lamberteschi of -Florence, agent to Cosmo de Medici, an offer which -greatly gratified him, and which he could plainly see -emanated in the first instance from his old friend -Niccoli. The nature of this offer was, for obvious -reasons, kept strictly secret; but, from a perusal of some -of the letters which passed between Bracciolini and -Niccoli, no doubt now exists that it was really a proposal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> -that Bracciolini should enter into retirement and forge -an introduction to the “History” of Tacitus, for which -work he would be paid 500 gold sequins, equivalent to -upwards of £10,000. Niccoli strongly urged his friend -to accept the offer, and Bracciolini, in reply, “thinks he -will follow his advice;” but the venture was such a -daring one that 500 sequins appeared to him insufficient; -so he wrote again to Niccoli about this “suggestion” -and “offer” made by Lamberteschi, who, he -states, “will endeavour to procure for me in three years -500 gold sequins. If he will make it 600, I will at once -close with his proposal. He holds forth sanguine hopes -about several future profitable contingencies, which, I -am inclined to believe, may probably be realised; yet it -is more prudent to covenant for something certain than -to depend on hope alone.... I like the occupation to -which he has invited me, and hope I shall be able to -produce something <em>worth reading</em>; but for this purpose, -as I tell him in my letters, I require the retirement and -leisure that are necessary for literary work.” An arrangement -was eventually arrived at, and it was definitely -settled that Bracciolini should leave England and go to -Hungary, in which country it was popularly believed -were to be found lost literary treasures. Still, Bracciolini -had his doubts about the due payment of the money, -and, as he was about to give up a living in England, he -was anxious to have some security for the money promised -by Lamberteschi, for we find him writing to -Niccoli as follows: “You know well how I prefer liberty -and literary leisure to the other things which the vast -majority hold in the highest estimation and make the -objects of their ambition.... If I were to see that I -should get that which our friend Piero expects, I would -go not only to the end of Europe, but as far as the wilds -of Tartary, especially as I should have the opportunity -of paying attention to Greek literature, which it is my -desire to devour with avidity, were it but to avoid those -wretched translations, which so torment me that there is -more pain in reading than pleasure in acquiring knowledge.” -He then wrote:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> “If I undertake a journey to -Hungary, it will be unknown to everybody but a few, -and down the throats of these I shall cram all sorts of -speeches, since I will pretend I have come from here -[England].”</p> - -<p>Apparently matters were soon satisfactorily arranged; -for, from this time, Bracciolini commenced to prepare -for his forgery. He made good use of the library of -Cardinal Beaufort, and searched everywhere for old -writers from whom he could gather information respecting -the old Roman empire; and, finally, made arrangements -for quitting England. In a letter to Niccoli, -dated London, July 17th, 1420, he says that he has -“skimmed over Aristotle during the spring of the year, -not for the purpose of studying him then, but reading -and seeing what there was in each of his works.” He -had found that sort of “perusal not wholly unprofitable, -as he had learnt something every day, superficially though -it might be, from understanding Aristotle in his own -language, where he found him in the words of translators -either incomprehensible or nonsensical.” It was -arranged between the three friends that Bracciolini should -repair at once to Italy, where consultations could be -held frequently, “to deliberate fully what was best to -be done;” so, after vainly attempting to dispose of his -living, Bracciolini finally departed for France, <i lang="fr">en route</i> for -Italy. Before doing so, however, he wrote to Niccoli, -expressing his fear that the forgery he had undertaken -was too great a toil for him, but declaring his intention -to proceed at all hazards. He says: “I want you to -have no distrust; give me the leisure and the time for -<em>writing that history</em>, and I will do something you will -approve. My heart is in the work, though I question -my powers ... I have not for four years devoted any -attention to literature, nor read a single book that can -be considered well written—as you may judge from these -letters of mine, which are not what they used to be; but -I shall soon get back into my old manner. When I reflect -on the merits of the ancient writers of history, I recoil -with fear from the undertaking, though, when I consider -what are writers of the present day, I recover some confidence -in the hope that, if I strive with all my might, I -shall be inferior to few of them.” A few days afterwards -he wrote his last letter from England to Niccoli on June -25th, 1422, still expressing fear about the ultimate result,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> -and especially the payment: “If Lamberteschi would -only place something certain before us, which we could -adopt or approve,” he wrote; and “How heartily I hope -that Lamberteschi will do what would be agreeable to -us both.”</p> - -<p>Arrived in Rome, Bracciolini was offered and accepted -the post of Principal Secretary to the Pope, and, consequently, -did not go, as previously arranged, to Hungary, -but set himself to work instead, examining the old MSS. -in the Vatican Library, for which he had ample time, as -his new post was almost a sinecure. He also wrote to -his friend Niccoli on May 15th, 1423, asking him to -forward to him without the least delay all his notes and -extracts from the various books which he had read; after -receiving which he commenced in earnest his labour. He -had not worked long, however, before he discovered what -an arduous task he had undertaken, and again fear overcame -him lest he should find himself unequal to the -effort; but, pulling himself together again, he determined -once more to keep up his courage and persevere to the -end, the gold sequins probably acting as a stimulus to -him.</p> - -<p>Writing to his friend Niccoli on October 8th, 1423, -he says that “ beginnings of any kind are arduous and -difficult;” and continues: “What the ancients did -pleasantly, quickly, and easily, is to me troublesome, -tedious, and burdensome.” In another letter to Niccoli, -dated Rome, November 6th, 1423, he begs his friend -to make every effort to procure for him some map of -Ptolemy’s “Geography,” and not to forget Suetonius and -the other historians, above all Plutarch’s “Lives of -Illustrious Men.”</p> - -<p>For upwards of three years after this period Bracciolini -shut himself up with his papers, extracts, maps, etc., and -worked steadily and laboriously at his task, and, at the -end of that time, had completed the first instalment of -his forgery. The next part of the process was to find -a suitable place in which the forged MS. could be <em>discovered</em>; -consequently, Bracciolini and Niccoli put their -heads together in consultation, finally settling upon -Hirschfeldt, a small Saxon town on the borders of -Bohemia, which was celebrated for an old abbey of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> -Benedictine monks. Bracciolini had accidentally met -with one of the monks from this place in Rome, and -had managed to place this man under an obligation to -him; so, finding that he was needy, ignorant, and stupid, -he determined to make use of him for producing his -MS. to the public. Speaking of this monk in one of -his letters to Niccoli, he says: “The good fellow, who -has not our attainments, thought that we were equally -ignorant of what he found he did not know himself.” -To this ignorant fellow he gave a long list of books that -he wished him to hunt up in the Abbey library, including -a copy of Tacitus, telling him to send a full description -of each as soon as found. The object of this was to -find out whether the Abbey possessed a copy of Tacitus -in the oldest writing possible, which could be used as a -guide to the transcriber of the forgery; and the reason -of giving such a long list was to throw the monk off the -scent.</p> - -<p>With all their precautions, however, their scheme was -all but discovered in the summer of 1427, for we find -Bracciolini, on September 25th of that year, writing to -Niccoli that, “when Tacitus came, he would keep it a -secret; that he knew all the tittle-tattle that was going -on—whence it came, through whom, and how it was got -up; but that he need have no fear, for that not a syllable -should escape him.... I hear nothing of the Tacitus -that is in Germany. I am expecting an answer from -the monk.” From this it would appear that the monk -had not yet supplied the information about the books; -but, in the following October, Niccoli had forwarded to -Bracciolini an old copy of Tacitus that he had become -possessed of. Bracciolini, however, returned it at once, -saying that it was so badly damaged as to be illegible to -an ordinary transcriber, and continuing:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> “Take care, -therefore, that I have another, if it can be done; but -you can do it, if you will strive your utmost.... You -have sent me the book without the parchment. I know -not the state of mind you were in when you did this, -except that you were as mad as a March hare. For -what book can be transcribed if there be not the parchment? -Have a care to it, then, and also to a second -manuscript; but, above all, keep in mind the vellum.” -After a while the parchment arrived, together with an -old copy of Tacitus that could be easily read by a transcriber; -and then all was silence again for about a year. -During this period the old monk was busily engaged -transcribing the forged writings into very ancient -characters, using the old copy of Tacitus supplied by -Niccoli as an example of style, the forgery being intended -as an introduction to the “History.”</p> - -<p>On September 11th, 1428, Bracciolini was evidently -becoming impatient with the work, for he wrote to Niccoli -as follows: “Not a word of Cornelius Tacitus from -Germany; nor have I heard thence any further news of -his work.” Then, again, he writes February 26th, 1429: -“The Hirschfeldt monk has come without the book, and -I gave him a sound rating for it. He has given me his -assurance that he will be back again soon, for he is carrying -on a suit about his abbey in the law courts, and will -bring the book. He made heavy demands upon me; -but I told him I would do nothing for him until I have -the book; I am, therefore, in hopes that I shall have it, -as he is in need of my good offices.” The book at length -arrived, and Bracciolini wrote to Niccoli that, so far as -he was himself concerned, everything was “now complete -with respect to the <cite>Little Work</cite>, concerning which he -would, on some future opportunity, write to him; and, -at the same time, send it to him to read, in order to get -his opinion of it.”</p> - -<p>So the forgery was complete, and there can be no -doubt that Bracciolini from this date was a rich man, -living in his own villa at Valdarno in Tuscany. The -forged writings were handed over to Cosmo de Medici -in return for 500 gold sequins, according to arrangement, -and remained in the Library at Florence ever after. It -was not, however, published before 1468, when Johannes -de Spire produced what are now known as the last six -books of the “Annals” of Tacitus, which he declared -had been copied from an (imaginary) original in St. -Mark’s, Venice, but which we now know were really -copied from the forgery of Bracciolini, in possession of -the Medicis at Florence.</p> - -<p>What are now known as the first six books of the -“Annals” did not make their appearance until 1514,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> -and most probably had also been forged by Bracciolini -immediately after he had finished the last six books. -The delight of the clergy at the sudden and unexpected -discovery of these hitherto altogether unknown writings -knew no bounds; for they now possessed the most -precious heathen testimony to the sufferings of the early -Christians on account of their religion, which would -form a valuable addition to the evidence in course of -collection by pious monks intended to show forth clearly -and indisputably the divine origin of Christianity. The -wily Pope knew well enough the enormous value of such -a record as this; for it was quite evident that a vein of -scepticism was permeating every class of society, in spite -of the vigilance of the Inquisitioners.</p> - -<p>The reformers who succeeded Wicliffe, Jerome, and -Huss had been waxing bolder day by day, and had even -repulsed a large army sent against them by his Holiness -and led by Cardinal Cesarini and a host of German -princes, since which they had boldly and openly preached -against the papal supremacy, and were in many districts -publicly distributing copies of the writings of Aristotle -and Averroes. The Church and the Papacy were thus -in real and imminent danger, for hitherto the people -had believed whatever the priests had told them, whereas -now they appeared determined to investigate the whole -matter themselves and to dispense with the services of -the priestly mediator. At such a time the discovery of -the “Annals” came as a windfall to the Church; every -one apparently accepting them as having been originally -written by Tacitus; and every author, from this time -forward, quoted them repeatedly. The strangest thing -about the affair is that no one even thought of questioning -the genuineness of the writings, especially when it -must have been well known that not one historian or -writer, from the time of Tacitus, who lived in the first -century, down to the end of the fifteenth century, when -the “Annals” (so-called for the first time by Beatus -Rhenanus in 1533) were discovered, had ever once -quoted or even referred to them; not even Christian -writers had as much as once noticed them, which they -could not have failed to do had such valuable evidence -of the sufferings of their brethren really existed. Besides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> -the “Annals” other MSS. were produced by pious -monks and passed off as ancient writings, until at length -the Vatican and other papal libraries were literally swarming -with them; but all these writings paled into insignificance -before such a record as the “Annals,” which was -destined henceforth to be the chief evidence in support -of Christianity. Together with the passages in the -writings of Josephus, which were forged beyond doubt -by Eusebius, Bishop of Cæsarea, and the doubtful letter -of the younger Pliny to the Emperor Trajan, which -time most assuredly will prove to be as great a forgery as -the other two, the Church had now heathen testimony -in abundance to prove that the religion was divinely instituted -and that many suffered death in defence of it. Neither -Averroism nor Arianism could shake this testimony, -which would be a powerful prop to the religion for centuries -to come. It remained for Dr. Lardner and others, -in the commencement of last century, to expose the -forgery in Josephus; to the present century has been -reserved the honour of unveiling the real authorship of -the forged “Annals” of Tacitus; and to future searchers -after truth is left the duty of discovering the real perpetrator -of the forged letter which has hitherto been known -as from Pliny to Trajan.</p> - -<p>If any one should still doubt that Bracciolini forged -the “Annals,” let me recommend him to carefully read -a work entitled “Tacitus and Bracciolini,” and published -by Messrs. Diprose & Bateman, of Lincoln’s Inn Fields, -London, in which will be found the most convincing -proofs that Bracciolini, and no other than he, was the -real author of the work. In that able indictment, from -which I have drawn extensively for this essay, the -writings and peculiarities of both Tacitus and Bracciolini -have been most carefully detailed, with the result -that no one can help arriving at the conclusion that one -person could not have written both the “History” and -the “Annals;” that Tacitus could not possibly have written -the “Annals,” owing to chronological difficulties; and -that suspicion points so forcibly to Bracciolini as the -author that it almost amounts to positive proof.</p> - -<p>What I have endeavoured to show is (1) that, owing -to the teachings of Abelard, Arnold, Wicliffe, Jerome,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> -Huss, and other fifteenth-century reformers, the authority -of the Church and the very existence of Christianity were -seriously menaced; (2) that, on account of the failure -of the Inquisition to stem the current of scepticism, large -sums of money were offered for the discovery of ancient -writings which would bear testimony to the divine authority -of the Church and the divine establishment of -Christianity; (3) that, in consequence of this bribe, shoals -of writings were forged by needy monks and scholars, -and attributed to ancient authors; and (4) that among -these forgeries were the “Annals” of Tacitus, which -were composed by Bracciolini and re-written by the -Hirschfeldt monk in a style as nearly as possible like a -very old copy of the “History” of Tacitus, which was -supplied to him as a guide.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="CREATION_AND_FALL">CREATION AND FALL.</h2> - - -<p>The one great differential mark between man and the brutes is his -higher development of brain power, by which he is enabled to discriminate -between right and wrong, or good and evil, and thus to improve -his bodily and social condition. The individual who obstinately refuses -to avail himself of the great mental power within him not only deprives -himself of the greatest pleasure in life, but also allows himself to sink -to the level of the brutes from which he evolved, exhibiting at the -same time a gross want of gratitude to the being who endowed him -with so lofty an attribute. On the other hand, he who cultivates his -mental faculties, and uses them for his own improvement and advancement, -and also that of his fellows, fulfils the highest mission of man, -and continually shows his deep gratitude to his mysterious benefactor.</p> - -<p>To think is the grandest faculty of man. To think logically and -well ought to be his noblest aspiration. To prevent, by any means -whatever, the individual from exercising his right to think, and from -giving expression to his thoughts, is a direct outrage upon the great -author of us all, upon the individual himself, and also upon the whole -human race. The greatest thinker of modern times, John Stuart Mill, -says,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> “The peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is -that it is robbing the human race, posterity as well as the existing -generation; those who dissent from the opinion still more than those -who hold it. If the opinion is right they are deprived of the opportunity -of exchanging error for truth; if wrong, they lose what is -almost as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier impression -of truth, produced by its collision with error. No one can be a great -thinker who does not recognise that, as a thinker, it is his first duty to -follow his intellect to whatever conclusions it may lead. Truth -gains more even by the errors of one who with due study and preparation -thinks for himself, than by the true opinions of those who only -hold them because they do not suffer themselves to think ... complete -liberty of contradicting and disproving our opinion is the very condition -which justifies us in assuming its truth for purposes of action; -and on no other terms can a being with human faculties have any -rational assurance of being right.”</p> - -<p>We claim the right to think upon any and every subject, and also to -express our thoughts before the world, in spite of the menace held out -to us by those whose interests conflict with any honest expression of -opinion. There is no tribunal but that of reason to which we possibly -can submit any theory or proposition. To talk of faith as opposed to -reason is to speak without seriously thinking. Such faith is but a -weird phantom that haunts the irresolute and credulous unthinker, but -which really has no existence at all. A man may say that he believes -something entirely opposed to reason, but he deceives himself, for it is -quite impossible to believe what does not appear to the mind to be in -accordance with reason. Such a man accepts, but does not believe. -We have faith in the existence of the island of Otaheite, although we -have never been there ourselves. Geographers tell us that such an -island exists on the other side of the world; and we have full faith in -such an existence, because it is in accordance with reason. But if we -were told that the king of Otaheite had never been born, but had, like -Topsy, ‘grow’d,’ or that he and his subjects, instead of talking, crowed -like cocks, or brayed like donkeys, we should not believe it, because it -would be contrary to reason. Sensible and thoughtful people will, -therefore, not accept anything as truth that does not accord with -reason and I ask you tonight to follow me in my endeavour to submit -the two important dogmas of my lecture to the test of reason, in -the full belief that you are as anxious as myself to arrive at a reasonable -and true conclusion regarding them.</p> - -<p>The doctrines of the creation and fall are, as it were, the foundations -upon which the huge superstructure of Christianity has been founded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> -Take away these fundamental doctrines, and the whole fabric totters -to the ground; for without a fall there can be no possible need for a -redemption, and the etceteras of the religion, such as the miraculous -conception and ascension, baptism, and the eucharistic feast, vanish -into thin air as vain imaginations and things of naught.</p> - -<p>It cannot be too clearly and forcibly insisted upon that no fall necessitates -no redemption, for the proposition is self-evident, and thus -incapable of contradiction. If, therefore, we find the story of the -creation and fall, as given to us in the first three chapters of Genesis, -to be credible and reasonable, then our duty, upon another occasion, -will be to examine the evidence for and against the subsequent theories -of the religion, in order to discover whether they also are credible and -reasonable. If, on the other hand, we find the story to be incredible -and absurd, it will be our duty to reject the whole Christian scheme -that has emanated from it. Our business at the present time is with -these fundamental doctrines of creation and the fall, and our sole object -is the elucidation of the truth, no matter whether it should be palatable -or not to our minds. No sensible man can desire to retain that which -is not true, for no system that is not founded on truth can be of any -permanent service to the human race, but must on the contrary produce -most pernicious results.</p> - -<p>Having thus clearly explained my premisses, I shall now proceed to -the examination of the first three chapters of Genesis, and shall divide -my text into the two natural divisions suggested in the authorised -version. The first chapter and first three verses of the second chapter -contain what is known as the Elohistic narrative, so called on account -of the deity being throughout designated Elohim—אלהים, the plural -of Eloh (אלוה), or Elyah (אליה), a compound word made up of El (אל), a -ram, and Yah (יה), an abbreviation of Yahouh (יהוה), the future tense -of the verb Hahouh (הוה), to be. Eloh literally means ‘the ram will -be,’ and is used to signify the ram-sun, the sun-god, or the sun in the -zodiacal sign <i>Aries</i>, at the vernal equinox; the plural form, Elohim, -being used to signify the ram-suns, or the six summer months of the -year, in which the ram and the sun are together, from equinox to equinox. -El signifies ram, or god, alone, or without the sun, in the winter -period, and is always used to designate the evil principle, the wicked -god, or the winter period, in contradistinction to Eloh, the ram-sun of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> -the vernal equinox, and Elohim, the ram-suns of the summer months, -the good principle, or the good gods. In this first narrative of the -creation Elohim is rendered ‘God’ in the authorised version, though in -other parts of the Bible it is rendered ‘gods,’ ‘men,’ or ‘angels.’ The -remainder of the second and the third chapters contain the second, or -Jehovistic narrative, so called on account of the deity being designated -throughout, Yahouh, or Jehovah (so pronounced by Christians) Elohim -(יהוה אלהים), rendered in the authorised version ‘the Lord God.’ That -these two accounts were not written by one person will become clear -enough as we proceed in our examination, in which the rendering of -the authorised version will be strictly adhered to.</p> - -<p>According to the first narrative, god (Elohim) created the heavens -and the earth and all they contain in six ordinary days, and rested from -his work on the seventh day. It has been asserted by some zealous -but not over scrupulous Christians that days of twenty four hours’ duration -were not meant by the writer, but that the word יום (day) signifies -an enormous lapse of time; but it is quite clear to anyone with average -intelligence that an ordinary day was meant, or else there would have -been no use in saying that the evening and the morning were the first -day. Moreover, we are distinctly told in Exodus <span class="smcap lowercase">XX.</span> 10, 11, that we -are to keep the seventh day as a holiday, “for in six days the Lord -made heaven and earth, the sea and all that is in them, and rested the -seventh day.” We therefore have here the creation of the world, with -day and night, but no sun, in one day, which we must admit at once is -an absurdity, for it is beyond all doubt scientifically proved that this -world could never have existed for one moment without the sun round -which it revolves, and our common sense tells us plainly that without -a sun there could never have been days and nights, or evenings and -mornings.</p> - -<p>On the second day we are told that god created the firmament, and -called it heaven, and that this firmament separated the waters above -from those below, which clearly proves that the writer had no other -conception of the universe than that it was limited above to the height -of the clouds, and bounded below by the earth itself. The third day -was set apart for the gathering together of the waters into seas and -rivers, and for the creation of the vegetable kingdom, which again is -contradictory of all known scientific facts, for there was still no sun in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> -existence. At last, on the fourth day, the sun was created, as also the -moon and stars, all being placed in the firmament, between the clouds -and the earth, for the sole purpose of acting as lamps and marking -time for this world. The writer evidently imagined that the only -object of the heavenly orbs is to light up this world, to divide our day -from our night, and to limit our seasons, being, apparently, ignorant of -the fact that our days and seasons are regulated by the motions of the -earth itself, quite irrespective of the movements of the celestial bodies. -He was also clearly under the impression that the sun was, after our -earth, the largest body in the universe, the moon being next, and the -stars the smallest; whereas the sun is five hundred times larger than -the earth and all the planets and their moons put together; while the -earth is about forty nine times larger in bulk than the moon; and some -of the stars are immensely larger than our sun, and all of them, moreover, -suns themselves.</p> - -<p>It is sufficiently evident from this account that the world had been -in existence for three days and three nights before the sun was made, -and that vegetation had in the meantime been produced, which is, we -know, an absurdity. There are some ingenious individuals who have -declared that this is quite possible, for there are, they say, lights that -are unconnected with the sun, and that the writer evidently alluded to -these faint glimmerings; but I assert confidently that, leaving out of -the question the light derived from the stars, so far as we know from -science, there is no light known which is not either directly produced -from the sun, or a reflection of the sun’s light from some other object.</p> - -<p>On the fifth day were created fishes, birds, and mammals in the form -of whales. Now there has been so far no creation of land animals except -birds, and yet the writer declares that whales were made, being -clearly quite ignorant of the fact that whales are not true fishes, but -mammals, belonging to the sub-kingdom Mammalia, to which belong -also horses, cows, apes and men. Whales were not evolved until long -after creeping animals, such as lizards, serpents, etc., and took to the -water again after having been, in the parent form, long accustomed to -dry land, just in the same manner as did the walrus, porpoise, sea-cow, -dolphin and seal, all of which are mammals. It was not until the next -(sixth) day that creeping animals were created, according to Genesis, -and yet we know well enough that they slowly evolved from molluscs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> -or soft-bodied animals, at a very early period, ages before such species -as whales and cattle existed. On the very same day, according to the -narrative, god formed an androgynous, or hermaphrodite man, having -two sexes, and being the fac-simile of himself. Many ancient races -believed that their god was androgynous, and no doubt the writer of -this account held the same opinion, regarding the good principle of the -summer months, or Elohim, as a bi-sexual and reproductive deity. If -this be not the correct view of the matter, it would be interesting to -know which of the two sexes the god of Genesis partakes of.</p> - -<p>On the seventh day god rested from his work; but we do not find -any record of his having done anything to cause fatigue, except giving -utterance to his fiat day by day.</p> - -<p>This story is so palpably absurd as to need no argument to prove it -so, were it not for the fact that certain crafty persons, seeing the utter -impossibility of reconciling it with science and reason, have seen fit to -invent new interpretations of the original, in order to give it an appearance -of truth. One sect maintains that the days were epochs, and not -ordinary days, which, if it were true, would merely augment the difficulty -by making the earth to have existed, with vegetation, for ages -instead of days, without the sun; but we have already seen that this -theory will not hold ground for a moment.</p> - -<p>Another more cunning class of religionists have propounded the -hypothesis that the whole story is meant to be an epitome of what occurred -at the origin of the universe and life, and that ordinary days -were really meant, and purposely utilised to epitomise long periods of -time, as was customary with ancient writers, who frequently availed -themselves of poets’ licence in this manner. This theory is <i lang="la">primâ facie</i> -a plausible one, and has, no doubt, satisfied many restless and thoughtless -spirits amongst us; but in reality it differs but little, if at all, from -the preceding hypothesis, both leaving us in much the same position. -They declare that the very same order is maintained in the narrative as -that adopted by scientists; that both agree that the earth was formed -first, and then, in the following order, vegetation, fishes, birds, beasts -of the field, and man. We know well enough, however, that the sun -is absolutely necessary for the existence of the vegetable kingdom; -that birds did not appear before reptiles and worms, but long after -them; and that placental mammals made their appearance, not before creeping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> -animals, and kangaroos, opossums and others of the marsupial species, -but many ages after them.</p> - -<p>In direct contradiction of this fable in Genesis, we learn from science -that our solar system once existed in a condition of highly attenuated -nebulous vapour; and that in the course of millions of years this huge -chaotic mass of matter, with its sum of force or energy, subject alike -to the laws of gravitation and transformation, gradually condensed, -and became moulded into cosmic order, forming in process of time a -number of rotating spherical nebular masses, in a state of intense heat, -owing to the shock of their recently united atoms. These spheres -gradually cooled by radiation, consequently contracting and becoming -possessed of a more rapid rotary movement, throwing off from their -equatorial regions large rings of vapour, which in their turn also condensed, -and, under the influence of the same two laws, formed separate -spheres for themselves. Thus gradually came into existence our sun, -planets and moons.</p> - -<p>In the course of time, as our earth cooled down, large volumes of -water were precipitated on the surface, causing an enormous wear and -tear of the now solid rock of the earth’s crust, which eventually gave -rise to depositions of various kinds of earth grits, in layers, one above -the other; which strata have been divided by geologists into periods, -according to various peculiarities observed in the course of their deposition. -In the earliest of these periods, owing to the gradual change -that took place in the relative proportions of the atmospheric gases, -and to the great decrease in temperature, a peculiar combination of the -molecular atoms of the earth’s substance took place, which resulted in -the formation of an albuminous substance, called protoplasm, possessing -the power of absorption, assimilation, and reproduction by fission, -or, in other words, developing the property called life. Under the -influence of the laws of heredity and selection this primordial germ -of life gradually developed into higher and still higher organic forms -of existence, from Amœbæ to Gastrœada, or molluscs with mouths; -next to Vermes, or worm life; then to Vertebrata, or back-boned animals; -through fishes; amphibians, living both in and out of water; -reptiles, from which eventually evolved birds; and marsupials; up to -placental mammals, such as whales, quadrupeds, apes and men. The gradual -evolution of these species occupied many millions of years before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> -date of the creation in Genesis (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 4004), during which period the -face of the earth underwent manifold and great changes.</p> - -<p>Now, in the name of common sense and reason, does this hypothesis -agree with and corroborate, as it is said to do by some divines, the 1st -Bible story of creation, in any manner at all? I maintain that the -man who replies in the affirmative does an injustice to his reasoning -faculties and outrages the common sense of his fellows. The theory -of creation is absolutely opposed to that of evolution on every point.</p> - -<p>Now let us examine the second narrative, as given in the second and -third chapters of Genesis. Here we have a direct contradiction of the -story in the first chapter; for we are told that god created the earth, -the heavens, vegetation and man, but not woman, all in one day. We -are also told that there had been no rain upon the earth, and yet that -“there went up a mist from the earth,” which we know is impossible. -“But,” say the orthodox, “everything is possible with god.” The -reply of the evolutionist is, “Can god, then, make a stick with one -end only?” God next planted a garden, in which he placed his newly -made man, after giving him instructions to eat of every tree within it, -except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, the fruit of which -was not to be touched, and the penalty of disobedience being instant -death. Then, in fresh contradiction of the first narrative, beasts of the -field and birds were created, after man; after which Adam, the man, -named them all; but how he acquired the power of speech necessary -for such a feat is not recorded. For absurdity the next part of the -narrative exceeds all that has preceded it. God created cattle and -birds in abundance, but yet could not manufacture a suitable partner -for the man; so he adopted the strange device of taking from Adam’s -body, while he slept, one of his ribs, with which he made a woman. -Now it must strike every thoughtful man and woman that this act was -the very acme of stupidity, for surely it would have been far easier to -have created the woman at once by another fiat, or to have created a -spare rib with which to make the woman. To attribute such conduct -to the great author is surely the height of irreverence.</p> - -<p>It is quite evident that both these stories were not written by one -author, and that both cannot be true, for they totally contradict each -other, and are written in quite different styles, the deity himself being -differently designated in each. We are told by certain parties that if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> -we do not believe these stories we shall most certainly be roasted for -all eternity; and indeed the New Testament distinctly bears out this -fearful fiat. According to this, every man in the whole world who has -been unfortunate enough to hear these two accounts read, and who is -endowed with sufficient intelligence to discriminate between a pop-gun -and an elephant, will inevitably perish; for it is impossible for any sane -man to believe two such contradictory statements. It is not within the -power of any man to do so. You might just as well demand of a man -that he must believe that a brick and a pan-cake are identical articles. -He could not do so, no matter how hard he tried.</p> - -<p>Compared with these fables, how ennobling, grand and sublime is the -theory of evolution. We behold the great and mysterious energy of -universe operating in a manner calculated to inspire our minds with -wonder, awe and admiration. The truly marvellous development of -ourselves from a chaotic nebula of attenuated matter, through all the -varied and manifold stages of existence, with their beautiful and useful -properties, is indeed an overwhelmingly convincing evidence of the -existence of an omniscient and omnipotent, although absolutely inscrutable -author; and I doubt much whether anyone ever approached this -subject with an honest desire to be guided by reason in his search for -truth, who did not experience this profound reverence for the unknown -author. Can we believe that these two narratives in Genesis are also -calculated to inspire such a sentiment in the minds of those who are -fairly well educated and amenable to reason? What kind of a deity, -think you, is this god of Genesis? The concluding portion of the 2nd -narrative will at once inform us.</p> - -<p>This story is well known to all of us, and is a very remarkable one, -for we learn from it the startling fact that the serpent, or devil, was -the greatest benefactor to the human race, and, moreover, truthful; -while god was the greatest enemy the race ever had, and was guilty -of falsehood and treachery. God placed this man and woman in the -garden, in front of a very strong temptation, pointed out the temptation -to them, and threatened them with instant death if they yielded -to it. This god is supposed to be omniscient, and therefore knew well -enough before he placed them there that the poor creatures would fall -on the very first temptation. Can we conceive more glaring injustice -and diabolical cruelty than this? Now the serpent knew very well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> -that they would not die if they ate the fruit, but that, instead, they -would become wise; and eventually he persuaded them to eat. Who -spoke the truth, god or the devil? Did the man and woman die on -the day they ate the fruit? Far from it. That day, were there any -truth at all in the narrative, would have been the grandest day ever -known to man; for by the eating of that fruit was made known to him -the difference between good and evil, that he might be able to seek -the one and avoid the other; his benefactor being the serpent, or devil, -the circumventor and conqueror of god.</p> - -<p>But notice further on how impotent this so-called almighty deity -really was. He exclaimed in fear, “Behold, the man is become as one -of us [which was precisely what the devil predicted] to know good -and evil, and now, lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree -of life and live for ever, therefore the Lord God sent him forth from -the garden.” Now how easy it would have been for an omnipotent -creator to have annihilated his own work, and thus cleared the way for -a fresh start. It would be interesting to know who the “we” were -that the writer refers to, if not an androgynous deity or a multitude of -gods or goddesses.</p> - -<p>What was the consequence of this sin of Adam and Eve? Every -man and every woman ever born upon this earth is guilty of this sin, -and will eternally burn in hell fire, says the Christian church, unless -they believe that this circumvented god became a man, lived on this -earth, and died the death of a criminal, in order to give satisfaction to -himself for the outrage committed on his divine majesty by three of -his creatures. The countless myriads of human beings who have inhabited -this earth during the six thousand years (according to Bible -chronology) that the world has existed, are all and each under this -fearful curse, although they had no more to do with Adam’s sin than -the man in the moon, and had no power to prevent it. These people -have been brought into the world, whether they liked it or not, and -are subject to this penalty, the enormous majority of them being inevitably -doomed to eternal torment; for there have lived many millions -of people who never even heard of the Bible, its gods or its scheme of -redemption. We may go farther and declare that all are inevitably -doomed, for we cannot conceive that anyone can believe such a story -as that of the fall. No one will venture to assert that infants and idiots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> -can believe anything, therefore there is no hope for these unfortunates, -whatever chances there may be for others.</p> - -<p>As the expression of the infantile imagination of primitive man, after -emerging from his brute ancestry, and commencing to exercise more -fully his reasoning faculties, these fables are easily understood; but as -the writings of men who had been inspired by the almighty power to -record a true account of the origin of nature and man for the use of -others, they must be at once rejected by all reasonable and thoughtful -people as gross absurdities. We can easily understand how the mind -of primitive man pondered over the strange mixture of good and evil -in the world, just as the awakening mind of a child would do to day; -how the mystery would be explained by the analogy of the celestial -movements; and how, as the result of the infantile reasoning, the good -principle became associated with the mental conception of a venerable -old gentleman, who planted a garden, and performed the principle part -in the drama just described from the third chapter of Genesis.</p> - -<p>Tho whole story bears the strongest marks of being the production -of an infantile intellect. The simple manner in which the writer tells -us that the man and woman sewed fig leaves together and made aprons -for themselves is sufficient evidence of this. We cannot believe that -Adam and Eve went through the many processes necessary for the -production of the needles and thread, with which to sew their leaves -together. Then the conversation between god, as he took his stroll in -the garden in the cool of the evening, and Adam and Eve, is just what -we should expect from the crude imaginations of our early ancestors; -as also is the manner in which the man placed the blame on the woman, -and she in her turn upon the serpent. The curse, too, is precisely in -the same style; first the serpent, then the woman, afterwards the man, -and lastly the earth itself being brought under the divine anathema. -No less apparent is the absurdity of the writer stating that Adam called -his wife Eve “because she was the mother of all living,” when there -were then no other human beings in existence; and declaring that god -made coats and breeches (see “Breeches Bible”) of skins, when as yet -death had not entered into the world. Such fables cannot be accepted -as true history by the intellect of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>That we suffer for the sins of our fathers is unfortunately too true; -but that we shall eternally frizzle for them I declare, without the least<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> -hesitation, to be a vile falsehood and an insult to our intellects. The -vices and diseases of our ancestors are undoubtedly reproduced in ourselves, -as are their good deeds and lofty sentiments; and we again -transmit these properties to our offspring. We have, in fact, the power -of rendering happy or miserable those who follow us, and making the -general state of society somewhat better or worse. Our great mental -attributes were not surely evolved within us for no purpose, and to lie -dormant, but that we should exercise them and use them for the moral -and social improvement of ourselves and our fellows. But to imagine -that we shall suffer again in some other condition of existence, because -of our fathers’ sins, is the height of insanity.</p> - -<p>Respecting the authorship of these fables, we are told that the book -which contains them, as well as the other four books of the Pentateuch, -were written by Moses, under the inspiration of what is called the holy -ghost; but when we examine these books we find that this is without -doubt false, for it is not possible for any man to record his own death -and burial, and the lives of a succession of prophets who lived after -him, as is done in the last chapter of Deuteronomy. Then, again, in -the seventh chapter of Genesis clean and unclean beasts are mentioned -in connexion with the ark fable, whereas, according to the Bible, clean -and unclean beasts were not declared such until 600 years after Moses -is said to have died; which proves that Genesis was not written before -that late period. The town of Dan is also mentioned in the fourteenth -chapter, which town had no existence until 331 years after the recorded -death of Moses. In chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXVI.</span> a list is given of all the kings that -reigned over Edom “before there reigned any king over the children -of Israel,” proving once more that this book was not written until long -after kings had reigned over Israel. Numerous other passages might -be quoted to show that Moses could not have written the books that -are ascribed to him. To cut the matter short, however, we are told in -the 2nd apocryphal book of Ezra that he and his clerks wrote all the -books of Moses; and in Chronicles and Kings that Shaphan discovered -the writings in an old chest.</p> - -<p>We find, therefore, not only that these fables of the creation and -fall are not true records, but that it is not known who wrote them, -although suspicion attaches to one Ezra; and yet we are expected to -hang our chances of salvation upon them. We are handed these books<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> -and told by a priest that they were originally derived from god. Now -instead of believing the man, and taking no pains to find out what the -volume really contains, as is unfortunately the habit of most people, our -duty is clearly to investigate the matter, and try to find out whether -that priest speaks the truth or not, whether he has any sort of interest -in making us believe the volume to be the word of god, or, assuming -that he himself honestly believes it to be so, whether he is a sufficient -authority on the point. Let us, for instance, take the case of a stranger -to the Christian faith, one who never heard of the Bible or its gods, -and who meets a Christian priest in the backwoods of America. The -holy one informs the stranger that he possesses a book which has been -written by god, through the medium of the inspired minds of a number -of holy men. Would you consider the stranger to be a man of sound -mental faculties if he at once accepted the word of the parasite, and -shaped his whole career according to the teaching of that book? Most -assuredly not. The most natural thing for the stranger to do would be -to stare in amazement at the saint, and wonder whether he was quite -right in his mind. Observing that the priest was really in earnest, and -apparently of sane mind, he would parley with him, asking where he -procured his book from; who were the very holy parties who had been -inspired to write it; when and where they lived; and who knew anything -about them: in short he would demand from the unctions one his -credentials before believing such an astounding assertion as that god -wrote a book. The replies would be after this fashion. The book was -derived in the first instance from a publisher’s shop, where it had been -printed with lead type and black ink, from another printed copy, which -had been printed from another copy, and so on back to the first printed -edition, which was copied from a translation of various Hebrew and -Greek ‘originals.’ It was about two thousand years, he would say, -since some of these ‘originals’ were written, and the remainder were -supposed to be of much earlier date; but who the actual writers were -he could not tell, although it was beyond doubt they were guided by -god’s inspiration, for it was so declared in the writings themselves, -which had never yet been doubted, except by a few naughty men who -were now in hell. Do you think this would be good enough for the -stranger? Of course not. Then, in the name of common sense, why -should we accept these Bible books without enquiry? To accept any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> -anonymous writings in blind faith as being the production of particular -individuals, without corroborative evidence, is the act of a fool, not of -a wise man. A sensible person will make some enquiry about them -before accepting them.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately for ourselves it is only lately that people have been -wise or bold enough to use their reasoning faculties in these matters, -the consequence being that the ordinary mind is now almost unequal -to the task of unravelling the net which has been so cunningly spun -around society by the Christian church. A careful investigation of the -matter, however, leads to the inference that about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 250 or 300 the -Jewish chief priest Ezra, assisted by a number of clerks, commenced to -form a national history out of the various legends they had picked up -in their long wanderings, soon producing what are now known as the -books of Judges (from the 3rd chap.), Samuel, Kings and Chronicles, -which, together with the poems and incantations of various men of the -tribes, they set forth as the divinely inspired history of their people. -Not long afterwards the Persian system of creation, and story of the -fall of man were committed to manuscript, and adapted to the requirements -of the Jewish people by the substitution of their race in place of -the Chaldeans as the chosen people of god; and thus were produced -the books of the Pentateuch, with Joshua, and the two first chapters of -Judges. This explains why the stories of the creation, fall, flood, tower -of Babel, etc., are never mentioned in any of the books of the Bible -after Genesis for the space of about a thousand years; why in all the -books from Joshua as far as II. Kings the name of Moses is never met -with, the most remarkable man in the whole Jewish history; and why -such names as Adam, Eve, Seth, Cain, Abel, Enoch, Noah, Shem, Ham, -Japhet, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob never occur again after Genesis till -the time of the so-called return from Babylon.</p> - -<p>The real meaning of the Chaldean and Jewish stories of the creation -and fall, which were derived originally from the constellations above, it -would take too long here to unfold, but the riddle has been explained -in my “Popular Faith Unveiled,” to which those who desire to further -pursue the subject are referred.</p> - -<p>For nearly two thousand years Christianity, based on these fables of -the creation and fall, has had an unfettered career throughout Europe, -its avowed object being to bring salvation to men in the next world,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> -and to teach the doctrines of love, forbearance, humility and charity -while in this world. Respecting the bringing of salvation to men in -the next world, we cannot well determine to what extent the religion -has been successful; but with regard to its earthly mission it has -signally and utterly failed. The two thousand years have passed away -and still the evils surrounding us continue, and are even intensified; -poverty, misery, immorality and tyranny exist as of old, in spite of the -promise to the church that she should be helped, even to the end, by -the divine power. So far from love, charity, forbearance and humility -being inculcated by the church, we find the followers of the meek and -lowly one occupying high and lucrative offices, one declaring himself -the vice-regent of god on earth, and others, in our own country, being -in receipt of salaries ranging from fifteen and ten thousand pounds -annually to two or three hundred, driving their carriages, sporting -livery servants and cockades, stiling themselves as Reverend, Very -Reverend, Venerable, Most Reverend Father in God, Right Honorable -and other titles expressive of superior quality of make; and all in a -constant state of warfare amongst themselves. One cannot take up a -daily paper without seeing an instance of clerical intolerance, hatred, -envy or malice. The Romanist damns the Protestant; the churchman -rides the high horse over the dissenter, and would like to deprive him -of what is vulgarly considered to be decent burial; the evangelicals -denounce the high church party; the nonconformist bodies are all at -constant war with each other on points of doctrine; and while all are -eaten up with pride, egotism, selfishness, greed and mutual hatred, -each sect declares itself to be the genuine teacher of love, forbearance, -humility and charity.</p> - -<p>As a body the church has from the first opposed all progress. As -early as the year 414 Bishop Cyril’s mob brained the learned Hypatia -in a Christian church, for the heinous crime of teaching mathematics. -The Pope and his pious court attempted to prevent the art of printing -becoming known in Europe. Copernicus was excommunicated for the -sin of announcing the grand truth that the earth revolves round the -sun. Galileo rotted in the prison of the Inquisition for daring to say -that the earth rotates on its axis. Bruno was burnt at the stake for -declaring his belief in the Copernican philosophy. Newton’s theory of -gravitation was denounced by the church. Descartes, Kepler, Locke,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> -Laplace and Darwin all were abused and insulted by the holy ones for -their heretical writings, which have brought us such blessings. The -church opposed the abolition of slavery, both here and in America, the -bishops in the House of Lords applauding king George when he said -that slavery was a useful institution because it was taught in the holy -Bible, and the southern States of the Union appealing to the ‘word of -god’ in justification of their cruelty. The burning of witches, taught -in the Bible, was vigorously encouraged by the church; and the cruel -horrors of the Inquisition are too well known to need description. All -measures of reform in our own country have been opposed by bishops -and nobles together; the church and the state having aided each other -in trampling on the people’s rights, and enslaving both their minds and -bodies. In spite of the present very apparent poverty and misery, the -people are exhorted by the church to increase and multiply, being told -that it is a blessed thing to have one’s quiver full, and that it is wicked -to listen to those who preach conjugal prudence, small families, and -social thrift. In short the Christian religion has entirely failed in its -mission, being a standing menace to all progress, and a cause of unceasing -animosity all over Europe.</p> - -<p>Do we imagine that all the priests and ministers of the Christian -church believe the fables of the creation and fall? I would stake my -existence on it that if we were to cut off their salaries there would be -barely half a dozen parsons in each denomination who would stick to -their soul-saving business. Their trinity is supposed to consist of god -the father, god the son, and god the holy ghost; but if we represent -the first by the letter l, the second by s, and the third by d, we should -be much nearer the mark. £. s. d. is the Christian trinity, and pew -rents, tithes, etc., the means by which the one thing needful is kept -up. Ten million pounds sterling are annually spent in supporting the -clergy of the established church alone, while poverty, wretchedness -and crime confront us at every turn. The struggling workers of this -country, not content with having to contribute towards the payment -of £29,000,000 annually, as interest on the national debt resulting from -accumulated religious war charges, are foolish enough to spend more -than a third of this amount in keeping a host of state-made drones, -who oppose all progress, drain the hard earnings from the workers, -and assume haughty airs towards their poor dupes. In the face of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> -depressed state of our trade, and the poverty and misery around us, it -is appalling to think of the enormous quantity of money that annually -drifts into the pockets of these human parasites, both episcopalian and -nonconformist alike.</p> - -<p>We know well enough that the large majority of those laymen who -profess to believe the fall and redemption scheme do not really believe -it at all, but play the part of the believer in order to serve their own -private interests. The laity may be divided into four classes:—1st, -those few honest and sincere men who deceive themselves by imagining -that they can really believe such unreasonable doctrines, and who -attempt by their means to do what could be done so very much better -without them. 2nd, those who are deficient in education and mental -power, and who will accept anything the priest tells them, no matter -how absurd. 3rd, those who have some little education but very little -brain power, and who consider themselves very important members of -society, when in reality the world does not know them even by name. -They resent in their little minds the silent affront offered to them by -their fellows, who, they think, ought to know their superior worth; -and they look around for a little church or chapel, where the stream of -intellect is sufficiently thin to allow of their feeble mental power being -perceived. They join, take a leading part in the performances, carry -the collecting box, open pew doors, hand hymn-books to strangers, -and are happy in the consciousness of their importance, being gazed at -Sunday after Sunday by an admiring congregation. Were these folk -obliged to do their religious work under cover of masks, their names -being at the same time studiously concealed from the congregation, -the race of pew openers, box carriers, etc., would soon die out; but -as it is, vanity, egotism and pomposity yet keep the race alive. The -fourth class consists of sharp business men, with plenty of brains and -fair average education, who join a church with a large congregation, -and adopt the particular creed in vogue there, as a means of pushing -their business, by assuming a mien of pious “respectability.” These -are the men, devoid of all honour, who forfeit their manhood at the -shrine of hypocrisy, and who ought more particularly to be shewn up -in their true colors. Without these four classes the religion of the fall -and redemption scheme would soon become a thing of the past. No -mention has been made of the ladies, who, according to some rude and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> -ungallant people, look forward to the lord’s day as one on which they -can display their new bonnets, procure food for another week’s gossip, -or hold sweet communion with the unmarried curate—all for Jesus. It -is unnecessary to say that this may not be true, and that a higher and -nobler motive may prompt the ardent zeal of the fair sex.</p> - -<p>Do not believe the parsons when they tell you that your souls are in -jeopardy for rejecting the Christian doctrines; the truth is that their -incomes are in danger, not your souls. Take care not to follow their -evil advice that it is a blessed thing to have your quiver full, and that -the lord loves a cheerful giver. Have small families, being careful to -bring into the world only as many as you can decently provide for, so -as to give them a fair chance in the world; and let your creditors and -your saving-banks, and not your lord, have your spare cash—your lord -being but another name for your parson. When they tell you that you -must take no thought for the morrow, and must not lay up treasure on -earth, where moths and rust corrupt, and where thieves break through -and steal, give them the cold shoulder, insure your life in some sound -office, and leave the laws of the country in which you live to take care -of the thieves, and their reverences to look after the moths and rust.</p> - -<p>It will, no doubt, be urged that Christianity has done, and is doing a -great good in the world. This I emphatically deny. I readily admit -that some good has been effected in the name of Christianity, but deny -that the fall and redemption religion has been the cause. The same -amount of good would have resulted with any other religion, and much -more with no religion at all. All the good that has ever been effected -in the world has emanated from lofty individual minds; but as chance -has had it, the majority of these men in the past have been Christians, -simply because that religion has prevailed in Europe for nearly two -thousand years. In the present day this is not the case; and it is a -fact beyond contradiction that all the leaders of thought of our time -are men who have rejected the fables of the creation and fall as given -in Genesis, together with the consequent redemption scheme, as false -and vain. John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Tyndal, -Carpenter, Huxley, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ralph Waldo Emerson, -Rénan, Victor Hugo, Schopenhauer, Haeckel, and in fact every other -modern leader of thought, have rejected the orthodox faith; and yet -we look forward to the future with bright hope, expecting a steady<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> -progress in man’s general welfare. Even when Christians themselves -in days long gone by, attempted to introduce any useful reform, their -church invariably persecuted them, as for instance Copernicus, Galileo, -Bruno, Luther, etc.; and the only Christian priest who ever propounded -any theory which was calculated to be a lasting boon to society was -Malthus, who declared that over population was the great cause of all -misery, and that until people were taught conjugal prudence it was -useless to attempt to ameliorate their social condition. This friend of -humanity was bitterly denounced by the church, and to this day his -followers are held in contempt, notwithstanding that the Malthusian -principles are now endorsed by the leading social scientists, and that -it is as clear as the sun at noon day that within the short space of 45 -years the present population of this country—now about 36,000,000—will -have doubled itself. The people now cannot support themselves, -so how they will manage when the population is 72,000,000 it is hard -to say. What with over population and land monopoly the future has -indeed some terrible social evils in store for us.</p> - -<p>Individual Christians undoubtedly have done something towards -making their fellows happy, but not so Christianity, as witness the -Inquisition and other enormities of the middle ages. But do the Jews, -Unitarians and Infidels of to day do nothing for their fellows? What -about Sir Moses Montefiore, who rejects the atonement? Have not -the Agnostics just founded the Whitminster College for purely secular -education? And what do we not owe to those heterodox scientists -just mentioned? It is the fashion with some people to give the name -of Christianity to the morality of this century; but this very ingenuous -attempt to clothe one of the most immoral of the world’s religions with -the garment of righteousness carries no weight for the scholar and the -historian. There is as much difference between the morality of to day -and the genuine Christian religion as there is between the north and -south poles. The two are the exact antitheses of each other. The real -reason that the human race has in the last hundred years so rapidly -advanced in intellectual qualities and moral progress is not because it -has become more Christian in its character but because it has gradually -shaken off the yoke of Christianity piece by piece. The whole Mosaic -cosmogony, with its flat earth theory, creation of man, etc., as taught -in Genesis, has been destroyed by Copernicus, Newton, Laplace and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> -Darwin; slavery has been abolished; witches are no longer burnt at -the stake; polygamy is discountenanced; and human sacrifice, murder, -rapine, theft and personal assaults are no longer justified. All these -immoralities are distinctly and prominently taught in the Christian -Bible, but have been expunged from the moral code of this century. -Were Christianity now dead instead of dying the same amount of good -would accrue to the race as before; and, judging from past history, -there would be a very vast decrease in the opposition that has for two -thousand years been offered to progress.</p> - -<p>The question after all is not what Christianity has done, but whether -or not its story is a true one. As already stated, if the creation and -fall stories are not true the whole scheme of Christianity, with its god-man -and its sacraments, is a fraud and a delusion. No religion that -cannot bear the test of reason, and be maintained on a public platform -can be founded on truth. If the Christian story be true there is no -need for the holy ones to secure themselves behind the fortifications of -’coward’s castle’ every Sunday to preach their doctrines; the open -platform being a more suitable place from which to propagate the truth. -But what are the facts? The man who dares to submit the religion to -the test of reason, or even to discourse publicly upon evolution or any -other scientific theory that is likely to interfere with the steady flow of -bullion into the collection box, is denounced from the pulpit, the holy -ones branding him as a dangerous infidel, and using all the means in -their power to blacken his character and to insidiously undermine his -business. The challenge to debate is never accepted.</p> - -<p>The question before us is a momentous one. Creation or Evolution? -Moses or Darwin? We cannot follow both.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="WORKS_BY_DR_H_J_HARDWICKE">WORKS BY DR. H. J. HARDWICKE.</h2> - - -<p class="center"><i>Demy 8vo., pp. 202, price 10/-</i></p> - -<p class="center">MEDICAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICE<br /> -IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.</p> - -<p>“This book contains a fund of information.... The whole is preceded -by an introduction, which is worth the attention of all persons taking a -broad interest in medical education.... Some weaknesses in home and -foreign regulations are lightly passed over, and it may well be that such -a mass of statement will, on experience, be found to be defective at points. -But we accept it gratefully, as an attempt to supply a very great want, -and we commend some of the reflections of the author on the defects of -our own system to all whom it may concern.”—<i>Lancet.</i></p> - -<p>“Here the reader will find information respecting the educational -bodies, examinations, and medical laws of every civilised state, and he -will also come to the humiliating confession that though there exist a -good many time-honoured institutions in the United States, and an -anxiety to put matters on a scientific footing in others, yet farther south -the condition of medicine is as bad as can possibly be imagined.’ ... But -the authorities, and not Dr. Hardwicke, are responsible for this, and we -cordially thank him for his decidedly useful addition to our knowledge -of medical education in other countries.”—<i>Medical Press and Circular.</i></p> - -<p>“A good deal of information will be found in a useful book entitled, -‘Medical Education and Practice in all Parts of the World,’ by Dr. H. -J. Hardwicke.”—<i>British Medical Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“A book which ought to cut the ground from beneath all bogus -diploma-dealers.”—<i>Medical Times and Gazette.</i></p> - -<p>“This volume, extending to 202 pages, with double columns, really -contains the information which the title-page promises. It must have -cost the author a great amount of trouble. It is a useful guide for all -entrants to the profession, those especially who contemplate settling in -foreign parts. It will do good also indirectly by letting those schools -whose education is defective see what other schools are doing, and so -be the means of stimulating them to aim at higher things. To be -informed, for example, that medical teaching in Japan is already treading -on the heels of some of our British schools cannot fail to do good.”—<i>Edinburgh -Medical Journal.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Dr. Hardwicke’s book will prove a valuable source of information -to those who may desire to know the conditions upon which medical -practice is or may be pursued in any or every country of the world, -even to the remotest corners of the earth. The work has been compiled -with great care, and must have required a vast amount of labour -and perseverance on the part of its author.”—<i>Dublin Medical Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“This work supplies a want long felt.... The chief value of Dr. Hardwicke’s -volume, to students, is in the information he gives concerning -the rules of practice in other countries, and the possibilities opened up -of making a livelihood in them.... To teachers the manual will be invaluable; -it will not only inform them of usages abroad, but enable -them to glean many useful hints to aid the conduct of their own classes -here. We commend the work as a most admirable <i>resumé</i> of the state -of medical education and practice in the world.”—<i>Students’ Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“This opportune and very useful work ... gives exact and in some -instances complete information of the requirements, curriculum, &c. for -obtaining a diploma in every part of the world.... Some idea of the -labour undertaken by the author may be gathered from the fact that -the index contains nearly five hundred references.... The book will be -a mine of reference for medical legislators, and will doubtless colour -the provisions of the new Medical Act so clamorously demanded in -England, and of the Act to which we are about to commit ourselves -here.”—<i>Australian Medical Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“A great deal of useful and convenient information is contained in -this work in regard to the subjects of which it treats, and the information, -as a rule, seems to be fairly accurate and reliable. The part -devoted to the United States opens with the Philadelphia <i>Record’s</i> full -account of the bogus traffic in that city. The position assigned to this -narrative is, perhaps, unnecessarily prominent, but we do not think the -exposure of those vile practices can be too minute or widely circulated. -This diploma traffic, whether carried on in Pennsylvania, New York, -or Massachusetts, was and is a disgrace to us, and we may as well -acknowledge it.”—<i>Boston Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, U. S.</p> - -<p>“The want of such a book has been long felt by all who take any -interest in medical education, and is specially needed at the present -time, when the attention of our government has been called to certain -abuses, and it is about to introduce reforms. The book is a most exhaustive -one, and deserving the attention of all who are in any way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> -interested in the advancement of medical education and reform.”—<i>American -Specialist.</i></p> - -<p>“This book, which extends to 202 closely-printed pages, with double -columns, is undoubtedly the remarkably comprehensive treatise promised -by the title. The labour of the undertaking must have been indeed -great, and the author must possess a rare knowledge of his subject to -be able to condense such a huge mass of information into a single -volume of 202 pages. We can strongly recommend the work as being -the only complete treatise on the subject. No portion of the whole -world has been omitted, and the author is to be congratulated on the -very satisfactory result of his eminently difficult task.”—<i>Family Doctor.</i></p> - -<p>“This work is a valuable manual, of interest not only to medical -men, but also to the literary public, who evince at the present day so -much enthusiasm in studying the intellectual condition of other nations, -chiefly, no doubt, from magazine articles. Medical legislation is, as -experience amply proves, one of the latest developments of civilisation.... -Let us, for instance, glean from Dr. Hardwicke’s book facts as to -the condition of medicine in some parts of the Spanish-American republics.... -Let us turn to civilised countries where medical teachers keep -step with ‘the march of intellect.’ ... We have still much to learn -from Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, yet it is undeniable that the general -social and intellectual position of the medical profession is as high in -these islands as abroad, where technical education is in many respects -better. It is by the young doctor, who finds the profession over -stocked in his own country, that Dr. Hardwicke’s manual will be found -particularly valuable.”—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> - -<p>“Those who are about to engage in medical study will do well to -consult Dr. Hardwicke’s ‘Medical Education and Practice,’ as an exact -knowledge of the relative value of the innumerable medical qualifications -would often prevent much after annoyance.”—<i>Westminster Review.</i></p> - -<p>“In this book, says the author, ‘will be contained the conditions -under which a medical practitioner may practise his profession, and the -requirements for the medical degree at the universities and medical -corporations in almost all the civilised countries of the world.’ This -promise is kept.... It contains much information not easily accessible, -and likely to be useful.”—<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p> - - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">J. & A. Churchill</span>, 11 New Burlington St., London, W.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo. 192 pages, Price 2/6.</i></p> - -<p class="center">HEALTH RESORTS AND SPAS OF EUROPE.</p> - -<p>“We have never yet seen anything that quite equalled the delicious -brevity of Dr. Hardwicke’s remarkably curt and incisive little hand-book. -In the brief space of 184 pages he introduces us to all the -health-resorts and spas of the entire eastern hemisphere, from England -to Egypt, and from Madeira to St. Moritz. We are bound to admit -that, so far as it is possible to test his information by the light of -personal experience, his short paragraphs are thoroughly up to date, -even as regards the smallest and most insignificant watering-places.”—<i>Pall -Mall Gazette.</i></p> - -<p>“Contains, in addition to chapters on the climatic and hygienic treatment -of disease, and the properties and uses of various mineral waters, -succinct accounts, in alphabetical order, of the different health-resorts -and spas of Britain and of the continent of Europe. The exposure, -the elevation, the range and limit of temperature, and other amenities -of each watering-place, are briefly described; in many cases also an -analysis is given of the constituents and properties of the various -chalybeate and other springs. In short, a great mass of information, -such as invalids are most in quest of, is found in condensed and handy -form.”—<i>Scotsman.</i></p> - -<p>“Contains some valuable knowledge of the climatic treatment of -diseases, of which all should avail themselves. The usefulness of such -a book must appear evident to those who experience the power of -climate over the human constitution. It should be bought and studied -and will doubtless give beneficial advice.”—<i>Brighton Gazette.</i></p> - -<p>“Ought to be welcomed by the large number of invalids whose -daily avocation, as the author justly remarks, consists almost entirely -in battling against their formidable foes, ‘weather and insalubrity.’ Dr. -Hardwicke has some highly useful observations on the different stages -of consumption.... The chapter on the properties and uses of water is -also full of excellent hints.... Spa life on the continent is graphically -described.... A carefully compiled index greatly enhances the value -of this work, which is not to be judged merely by its size.”—<i>Liverpool -Mercury.</i></p> - -<p>“The author gives some very practical remarks on the properties -and uses of water, hygienic ablutions and baths, and treats of mineral -waters and spa life. Succeeding chapters give brief but evidently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> -careful and authentic accounts of the leading health resorts and spas -of Europe.”—<i>Yorkshire Post.</i></p> - -<p>“The introductory chapters on the treatment of disease by climate, -the properties and uses of water, and on mineral waters and spa life, -contain some valuable advice, which invalids will do well to take. Dr. -Hardwicke’s work does really supply a want felt by many persons.”—<i>Sheffield -Independent.</i></p> - -<p>“A great deal of information is conveyed, and the avoidance of -technicalities will be an additional recommendation.”—<i>Bristol Mirror.</i></p> - -<p>“A very handy little manual ... stating clearly and concisely the -advantages and disadvantages of the various health resorts and spas.”—<i>Sussex -Daily News.</i></p> - -<p>“The ordinary reader will find this little volume far more interesting -than is usually the case with books dealing with medicine or medical -matters. The subject is one of very great importance, and the author -deals with it in a way that will be fully appreciated by non-medical -readers. He avoids technicalities, and places before us the salient -points very clearly and concisely.”—<i>Rotherham Advertiser.</i></p> - -<p>“This little volume will be welcomed as a guide to the many health -resorts in Europe.... The book should have a large demand, for it contains -a great deal of information in a little space.”—<i>Doncaster Gazette.</i></p> - -<p>“Will be found very useful by everyone whose health requires either -change of air or the use of mineral waters.”—<i>Barnsley Independent.</i></p> - -<p>“As a hand-book to any sufferer desirous of knowing in a general -way which are the baths most likely to suit his particular complaint, -this volume will be useful.”—<i>Bradford Observer.</i></p> - -<p>“Many useful hints may be derived from this little book, for which -valetudinarians will be thankful.”—<i>Christian World.</i></p> - - -<p class="center">W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 Waterloo Place, London, S.W.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., cloth bound, Price 5/-</i></p> - -<p class="center">HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE MANORS OF<br /> -PATTINGHAM AND WORFIELD.</p> - -<p>“Very complete, and must have been a work of very great labour.”—<i>Salopian -and West Midland Monthly Illustrated Journal.</i></p> - - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Price 5/-8vo., cloth bound.</i></p> - -<p class="center">GUIDE TO EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES.</p> - -<p>“For those who contemplate studying abroad, this guide will prove -of great use.”—<i>Lancet.</i></p> - -<p>“This little book is a guide to the medical department of the various -universities in France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Italy -and Austria.... Most complete.... Those who intend visiting any -continental university should first of all read this very useful guide.”—<i>Family -Doctor.</i></p> - - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 3d.</i> (<i>post free 3½d.</i>)</p> - -<p class="center">CREATION AND FALL.</p> - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 3d.</i> (<i>post free 3½d.</i>)</p> - -<p class="center">MAN—WHENCE AND WHITHER?</p> - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 3d.</i> (<i>post free 3½d.</i>)</p> - -<p class="center">INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE</p> - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 3d.</i> (<i>post free 3½d.</i>)</p> - -<p class="center">EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA</p> - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 3d.</i> (<i>post free 3½d.</i>)</p> - -<p class="center">GENUINE LIBERALISM.</p> - -<p class="center">Published by the author.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Demy 8vo., pp. 274, price 5/6.</i></p> - -<p class="center">THE POPULAR FAITH UNVEILED.</p> - -<p>“We cannot do better than recommend all friends of independent -thought, and, to use Milton’s phrase, ‘unlicensed printing,’ to repay the -author’s energy by writing to him for the volume, which they will find -intelligent and fearless in an eminent degree, while it evinces a by no -means common acquaintance with the science of comparative religion. -The basis of Dr. Hardwicke’s theory and arguments about the popular -faith is the zodiacal origin of religious myths, and there is no doubt he -is in agreement with the greatest authorities so far as the broad lines -go.”—<i>Westminster Review.</i></p> - -<p>“Dr. Hardwicke treats the extensive and difficult subject of the -evolution of Christianity from preëxisting religions with great boldness -and candour from the purely theistic and anti-dogmatic standpoint.”—<i>The -Scotsman.</i></p> - -<p>“It is an exceptionally valuable book to Freethinkers.... The work -affords evidence of scholarly attainment and well-directed research, -and should occupy a place in the library of every intelligent anti-Christian.”—<i>Secular -Review.</i></p> - -<p>“The result of this bold measure is more than creditable ... consists -of a careful examination of the Biblical records, full of suggestion.”—<i>The -Freethinker.</i></p> - -<p>“In a manner at once searching and succinct it proves the Bible to -be little else than an effete old almanack, conceived in the earliest -dawn of thought, when man glowered tremblingly at the spectra in his -own brain, naming them heaven or hell, god or devil, as they produced -pleasure or pain.”—<i>The Agnostic</i>, Dallas.</p> - -<p>“A scholarly examination of the various legends that make up what -is called the Christian religion.... A very valuable contribution to the -historico-scientific freethought literature of the period.”—<i>Lucifer, the -Light-bearer</i>, Kansas.</p> - -<p>“A better book than this we have scarcely noticed in our columns. -It is the result of laborious researches and a deep erudition on the part -of the author.”—<i>The Anti-Christian</i>, Calcutta.</p> - - -<p class="center">Published by the Author, Sharrow, Sheffield.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 1/-</i></p> - -<p class="center">VOX HUMANA;</p> - -<p class="center">OR THE ART OF SINGING FROM A MEDICAL POINT OF VIEW.</p> - -<p>“This <i>multum in parvo</i> is a remarkably cheap and thoroughly exhaustive -pamphlet.... The subject is well dealt with, and contains a -large amount of very valuable information.”—<i>Family Doctor.</i></p> - -<p>“Contains a large amount of very valuable information and advice. -Dr. Hardwicke has treated his subject not only ably, but in a manner -which must interest all who peruse his pamphlet.”—<i>Rotherham and -Masbrough Advertiser.</i></p> - -<p>“Just the kind of work to place in the hands of vocalists, or would-be -vocalists.”—<i>Sussex County Herald.</i></p> - -<p>“A perusal of the doctor’s remarks, with reasonable attention thereto, -would result in a vast increase of really good voices.”—<i>Eastbourne -Gazette.</i></p> - - -<p class="center">(Remainders only from the Author.)</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>8vo., price 1/-</i></p> - -<p class="center">SKIN ERUPTIONS;</p> - -<p class="center">THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION.</p> - -<p>“Will be found very useful reading. It will be especially valuable -to those who have any family predisposition to skin disease, as there -are given a number of very useful hints concerning the preservation of -the skin in a healthy condition. There are also contained many good -suggestions for keeping school-children free from skin diseases of an -infectious or contagious nature. We recommend Dr. Hardwicke’s -production as a very cheap and useful treatise.”—<i>Family Doctor.</i></p> - -<p>“Throws considerable light upon diseases of the skin, and points -out the general laws of health which should be observed to prevent -such diseases manifesting themselves.”—<i>Lincolnshire Chronicle.</i></p> - -<p>“This recognised authority on skin diseases has produced a tractate -which appears to be the condensation and essence of much observation -and practical experience.”—<i>Sussex County Herald.</i></p> - -<p>“Anyone may understand the treatise, and there is much in it that -will tend to correct many mistakes on the subject treated upon.”—<i>Eastbourne -Gazette.</i></p> - - -<p class="center">(Remainders only from the Author.)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber's Notes</h3> - -<p> Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations - in hyphenation and ligatures have been standardised but all other - spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. -</p> -<p> The Errata have been implemented.</p> - -<p> Minor re-arrangement of the charts “GENEALOGY OF MAN” have been made - to improve clarity and fit. -</p> -<p> The following corrections have been made to the list of books in the - chapter THE BIBLE: -</p> -<p> “Books Excluded from the Jewish Canon, and Reckoned as Apocryphal by - some of the Ancient Christians, but Allowed as Canonical of late by - the Church of Rome.” The from added. -</p> -<p> “Books that are Excluded from the Canon without Apparent Reason.” The - from added. -</p> -<p> “The Preface before the Lamentations of Jeremiah, in the vulgar Latin - and Greek text” The original read “The Preace ...” changed to Preface. -</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Evolution and creation, by Herbert Junius Hardwicke - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVOLUTION AND CREATION *** - -***** This file should be named 55172-h.htm or 55172-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/1/7/55172/ - -Produced by MWS, Adrian Mastronardi, Les Galloway and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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