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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fb7390 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53373 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53373) diff --git a/old/53373-0.txt b/old/53373-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a19855d..0000000 --- a/old/53373-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6257 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's A Manual of Historic Ornament, by Richard Glazier - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A Manual of Historic Ornament - -Author: Richard Glazier - -Release Date: October 26, 2016 [EBook #53373] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF HISTORIC ORNAMENT *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - Historic - Ornament. - - [Illustration: PAGE FROM ONE OF THE HARLEIAN MANUSCRIPTS. - - BRITISH MUSEUM. - - FRENCH, EARLY 15TH CENTURY.] - - - - - A Manual of - HISTORIC - ORNAMENT - - TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, - TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF - ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED - ARTS. - - PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS - AND CRAFTSMEN. - - [Illustration] - - BY RICHARD GLAZIER, - Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; - Head Master of the Municipal School - of Art, Manchester. - - [Illustration] - - With 470 illustrations by the Author. - - [Illustration] - - LONDON: - B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN. - 1899. - - MANCHESTER: - PRINTED BY CHORLTON & KNOWLES, MAYFIELD PRESS. - - - - -Preface. - - -This manual has been prepared with the three-fold object of giving an -elementary knowledge of Architecture and Historic Ornament, of awakening -a responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many beautiful and -interesting remains of ancient and mediæval civilization, and lastly of -directing the attention of students and craftsmen to the beauty, -suggestiveness and vitality of the Industrial Arts of the past, and -their intimate relation to the social and religious life of the people. - -The advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from such a study -are manifold, for, by a careful study of these arts, we may see the -capabilities and limitations of material, the appropriateness and -application of ornament, the continuity of line and form--yet with a -marked diversity of enrichment and treatment--the interest and -significance of detail, and the customs, myths and traditions of the -past with their continuity of thought and expression. - -The illustrations, which have been chosen expressly for this work, are -typical examples of each period or style and are produced in line as -being the method best suited to the requirements of students, giving -definition, emphasis and the constructive qualities of design rather -than pictorial effect. - -In the appendix will be found a list of text books and works of -reference, which may be studied with considerable advantage by students -desiring further information upon this important subject. - -RICHARD GLAZIER. - -MANCHESTER, - -1899. - - - - -Contents. - - - PAGE. - Ornament of Oceania 3 - Egyptian Ornament 5 - Assyrian Ornament 7 - Greek Architecture 9 - Greek Ornament 13 - Roman Architecture 21 - Roman Ornament 25 - Pompeian Ornament 29 - Byzantine Ornament 31 - Scandinavian Ornament 33 - Celtic Ornament 35 - Norman and Gothic Architecture 36 - Norman Details 43 - Early Gothic Details 45 - Renascence Ornament 49 - French Renascence 58 - English Renascence 60 - Mahometan and Moresque 63 - Persian Ornament 65 - Indian Ornament 69 - Chinese and Japanese Ornament 71 - Ivories 73 - Mosaics 75 - Greek Ceramics 77 - Ceramic Art 79 - Maiolica 87 - Terra Cotta 88 - Enamels 91 - Glass 95 - Stained Glass 97 - Gold and Silver 101 - Bronzes 103 - Wrought Iron 105 - Furniture 106 - Textile Fabrics 109 - Frets 123 - Continuity of Style 125 - Terms used in Ornamental Art 131 - - - - -List of Plates - - - PLATE. PAGE. - 1 Ornament of Oceania 2 - 2 Egyptian Ornament 4 - 3 Assyrian Ornament 6 - 4 Greek Architecture 8 - 5 Greek Ornament 12 - 6 Greek Ornament 18 - 7 Roman Architecture 20 - 8 Roman Ornament 24 - 9 Roman Ornament 26 - 10 Pompeian Ornament 28 - 11 Byzantine Ornament 30 - 12 Scandinavian Ornament 32 - 13 Celtic Ornament 34 - 14 The Triforium and Clearstory 41 - 15 Norman Details 42 - 16 Early Gothic Details 44 - 17 Decorated & Perpendicular Gothic Details 46 - 18 Renascence Ornament 48 - 19 Renascence Ornament 55 - 20 Arabian Ornament 62 - 21 Persian Ornament 64 - 22 Persian Ornament 67 - 23 Indian Ornament 68 - 24 Chinese and Japanese Ornament 70 - 25 Ivories 72 - 26 Mosaics 74 - 27 Greek Ceramics 76 - 28 Ceramics 78 - 29 Maiolica 86 - 30 Glass 94 - 31 Stained Glass 96 - 32 Gold and Silver 100 - 33 Bronzes 102 - 34 Wrought Iron 104 - 35 Textile Fabrics 108 - 36 Sicilian Fabric 111 - 37 Indian Palampore 112 - 38 Persian Carpet 114 - 39 Textile Fabrics 117 - 40 Peruvian Textiles 119 - 41 Peruvian Textiles 120 - 42 Frets 122 - 43 Polynesian Paddle 124 - - - - -Illustrations in the Text. - - - PAGE. - -Ornament of Oceania 3 - -Plan of the Parthenon 9 - -Plan of the Erectheum 10 - -The two Fates, from the -Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon 14 - -Doric Frieze of the Parthenon 14 - -North Frieze of the Parthenon 15 - -Frieze from Phigaleia 15 - -Relief from Nike Apteros 16 - -Frieze from Pergamos 16 - -Frieze from Susa 17 - -Greek Scroll 17 - -Greek Coins 19 - -Arch of Septimius Severus 21 - -Theatre of Marcellus 22 - -Plan of the Pantheon 22 - -Plan of the House of Pansa 23 - -Roman Scroll 25 - -Coffered Ceiling 25 - -Frieze from Tivoli 27 - -Plan of St. Mark’s 31 - -Plan of St. Sophia 31 - -Lismore Crosier 35 - -Gothic Piers 37 - -Plan of Lincoln Cathedral 37 - -Early Gothic Window 38 - -Grisaille Glass, Salisbury 39 - -Gothic Crockets 45 - -Gothic Borders 45 - -Tomb of Ilaria del Carretto 50 - -Bas-relief, by Donatello 51 - -Monument to Conte Ugino 51 - -Italian Velvet 52 - -Fresco, by Michel-Angelo 52 - -A Sibyl, by Michel-Angelo 53 - -Arabesque Decorations 53 - -Renascence Scroll 54 - -Renascence Marble Inlay 54 - -Frieze, by Mantegna 56 - -An Italian Etching 56 - -Venetian Well-head 57 - -Wood Carving, period of Francis I. 58 - -Decoration, period of Francis II. 58 - -Relief, by Jean Goujon 59 - -Wood Carving, by Jean Goujon 59 - -Frieze, by Le Pautre 59 - -Wood Carving, period of Louis XV. 59 - -Elizabethan Frieze 60 - -Elizabethan Strap-work 60 - -Ceiling, Audley End 60 - -Persian Plate 65 - -Peruvian Pottery 85 - -Greek Terra Cotta 89 - -The Annunciation, by Andrea della Robbia 89 - -Relief, by Andrea della Robbia 90 - -Painted Enamel by Pierre Raymond 93 - -Battersea Enamel 93 - -Early Gothic Glass 97 - -Early French Glass 98 - -Late Gothic Glass 98 - -Chairs 106 - -Italian Carved Chest 107 - -Carved Wood Screen 107 - -Italian Fabrics 115 - -Flower Vase Pattern 116 - -Spitalsfield Silk 116 - -Flemish Fabrics 116 - -Frets 123 - -Egyptian Capital 126 - -Corinthian Capital 127 - -Early French Capital 127 - -Composite Capital 127 - -Byzantine Capital 128 - -French Romanesque Capital 128 - -Siculo-Norman Capital 129 - -Early English Capital 129 - -Arabian Capital 129 - -Decorated Gothic Capital 130 - -Renascence Capital 130 - -Roman Scroll 130 - -[Illustration: - -ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. Plate 1. -] - - - - -ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. - - -The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is full of interest -and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental -style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions purely local and -in no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of -meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded -upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands but upon -abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a -pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into -provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and -traditions, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia -the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia. - -Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and -zig-zag lines; that of Australia consists almost entirely of these lines -incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. In New -Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and -curved lines, being carved in flat relief. In the province of -Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the linear -ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The Hervey -and Austral Islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of -the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the -original type and its ornamental development. These examples, together -with the circular eye pattern form the elements of the Hervey province, -of which the Heape collection contains many fine examples. In the -Solomon Island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an -inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is -distinguished by its skilful pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral -forms adapted from the human figure, fig. 1. 12., and the constant use -of the border here given. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - -EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2. -] - - - - -EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. - - -The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 B.C. to 340 B.C., during which -30 dynasties existed, is usually divided into three groups: (1) The -Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 B.C. (2) The Middle Empire, -XII.-XIX., 2466-1200; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties, -1200-340 B.C. - -The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the -Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor and Tanis: and of the New Empire, Sais and -Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these early dynasties are -attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture and -decorative arts that enrich our national museums. The Great Pyramids -were built during the fourth dynasty, the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700 -B.C., is 756 ft. × 756 ft., and 480 ft. high; the second, by Kephren, -3666-3633 B.C., is 707 ft. × 707 ft. and 454 ft. high: and the third, -333 ft. × 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600 -B.C. - -The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known, -and is probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is singular that -all the earliest sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties with which we -are acquainted, were realistic portraiture, remarkable for its fidelity -to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note, were finely -sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities, Amen Sckhet, -Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris, were represented in the later dynasties -by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather than for -their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of -the earlier period. Much of the architectural enrichment was in Cavo -Relievo, a peculiarly Egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the -figures, birds, or flowers, being sunk into the surface of the granite -or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground -or bed raised, these reliefs being invariably painted red, blue, green, -and yellow. The frieze, which, in the hands of the Greeks at a later -period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the -Egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial -arts and pursuits, weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery; -ploughing, sowing, and reaping, also hunting and fishing. The -composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined and -purely decorative, with a _naïveté_ and unaffection so appropriate to -the architectonic conditions. Mingled with these incidents were the -beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 -are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of -lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the latter -being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new -life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative -work. Great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their -architectural capitals with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A -singular feature introduced during the 18th dynasty was the Hathor -Capital surmounted by a small Naos. During the Ptolemaic period, B.C. -300, the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical bell-shaped capital -(fig. 3). - -[Illustration: - -ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3. -] - - - - -ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. - - -The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars -and conquests. Originally one nation, they became divided, and the -younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that -period under Tiglath Pileser I., B.C. 1100, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. -885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C. 860-25, Tiglath-Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, -the Great Sargon, B.C., 722-705, Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon, -B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C. 668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital, -Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to -power under Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562; this city was destroyed by -Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539. - -Assyrian art with its racial influences, religious beliefs and climatic -conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though -stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no -doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from -Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in -Chaldea, and Nineveh in Assyria, the traditional type of building was -rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks; -the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, -carved in low relief with scenes representing the King and his warriors -engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). The upper part of the wall was -in enamelled brick or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and -Bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the -archivolt. The representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of -agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian -reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea, -were modelled in low relief with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, -white and black, of fine quality and colour, one splendid example is the -Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of -Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels -were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones, -but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious -subjects (fig. 9). The portals of the doors were enriched with colossal -winged and human headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. -Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and Bud (figs. 2 and -3), the Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn or Tree of Life -(fig 8). The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only came -into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between the two -nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian lotus by -its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the -calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2). - -The Anthemion or _Hom_, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with -strong lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass -(fig. 3). The _Hom_ is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a -form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian and -Sicilian textile fabrics. - -[Illustration: - -GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Plate 4. -] - - - - -GREEK ARCHITECTURE. - - -Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman -styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture; the -Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and many -examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her -colonies:--Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of -these buildings certain constructive and decorative features are -observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the -characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base, (except -in the Grecian Doric, which has no base) column and capital, and the -Entablature, which consists of the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The -proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower -diameter of the column which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts; the -height of the column always including the base and capital. The DORIC -order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600 and culminated -in the Parthenon B.C. 438. The COLUMNS in this order are 4-1/2 to 6 -diameters in height with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp -arrises; the CAPITAL is half a diameter in height and is composed of an -echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and -a large square abacus above. The ARCHITRAVE is plain; the FRIEZE is -enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3 vertical channellings in the -face, termed triglyphs, alternately with square metopes which were -frequently sculptured. The CORNICE, composed of simple mouldings, and -enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs and metopes, -projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze. - -[Illustration] - -The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9-1/2 diameters in height, with -24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the _base_ is half a diameter in -height and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus, -and fillet. The CAPITAL is 7/10 of a diameter high and consists of a -pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding -enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below. - -The ENTABLATURE is 1/4 the height of the columns, the ARCHITRAVE of one -or more fascias, the FRIEZE continuous and frequently enriched with -sculpture in low relief; the CORNICE has simple and compound mouldings -supported by a dentil band. Caryatides were occasionally introduced into -this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical -folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column. These caryatides -supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example -of this feature is the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens. - -The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples -however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The -COLUMNS are 10 diameters in height with 24 flutings; the BASE is 1/2 -diameter high; the CAPITAL is a little greater than a diameter in height -and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The -ENTABLATURE is richer; and the CORNICE deeper and more elaborate than -those of the other orders. - -A table is here given showing the relative height in parts (a part is -1/60 of the diameter) of the entablature in some typical Grecian -examples. - -+------------+------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| | | | | | Total | -| | | Architrave | Frieze | Cornice | Entablature | -| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| Doric | Parthenon | 43 | 43 | 32 | 118 | -| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| | Theseus | 50 | 48 | 19 | 107 | -| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| Ionic | Erechtheum | 43 | 48 | 47 | 140 | -| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| | Priene | 37 | 49 | 47 | 133 | -| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| Corinthian | Lysicrates | 53 | 41 | 49 | 143 | -| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ -| | Jupiter | | | | | -| | Olympius | 40 | 26 | 46 | 112 | -+------------+------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ - -The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:--The Temples at Corinth -B.C. 650, Ægina B.C. 550, the Parthenon and the Theseum B.C. 438, the -Temples of Jupiter at Olympia, Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ B.C. 436, -Minerva at Sunium, and the Propylæa at Athens B.C. 431. The Parthenon is -the only octastyle temple in Greece. - -Ionic buildings in Greece are:--Temples at Ilyssus, Nike Apteros, and -the Erectheum. In Asia Minor, the Temples at Samos, Priene, Teos, and of -Diana at Ephesus, and of Apollo at Miletos. - -[Illustration] - -Corinthian buildings in Greece are:--Monument of Lysicrates, the Tower -of Winds, and Jupiter Olympius, all in Athens. - -During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used in the -Greek colonies of Sicily. At Acragas or Agrigentum the remains of 6 fine -hexastyle and peripteral Doric Temples are found, of which the Temple of -Zeus B.C. 450 is the largest, being 354 by 173 feet. In this temple were -found the Telemones or Atlantes, male figures 25 feet in height, with -their arms raised, probably supporting the roof of the temple. - -At Selinus there are six large Doric temples, five being hexastyle and -peripteral, the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral, 372 by 175 feet. -This temple has columns 57 feet in height with an entablature of 19 -feet. At Egesta, there is a hexastyle, peripteral, Doric temple with -the columns not fluted, and at Pæstum in Southern Italy there are two -Doric temples, the temple of Neptune, and the temple of Vesta, of the -usual hexastyle and peripteral form, but the Basilica is pseudo-dipteral -and is remarkable for its two porticos of nine columns each. All these -buildings in Sicily and Pæstum date between B.C. 500 and 430. - -Classification of Classic Temples:-- - -1st. The arrangements of the columns and walls - -(_a_) When the side walls have no colonnade _Apteral_ - -(_b_) When there is a colonnade standing apart -from the side walls _Peripteral_ - -(_c_) When the colonnade is attached to the -side of the side walls _Pseudo-peripteral_ - -(_d_) When there is a double colonnade standing -from the wall _Dipteral_ - -2nd. The relation of the ends of the temple - -(_a_) When the columns do not project beyond -the walls _In Antis_ - -(_b_) When a portico stood in front of the -temple _Prostyle_ - -(_c_) When there was a portico at each end _Amphi-prostyle_ - -(_d_) If the portico was one column in depth_Mono-prostyle_ - -(_e_) If the portico was two columns in depth _Di-prostyle_ - -3rd. The number of columns in the portico - -(_a_) If of 2 columns _Distyle_ - -(_b_) If of 4 columns _Tetrastyle_ - -(_c_) If of 6 columns exastyle_ - -(_d_) If of 8 columns _Octastyle_ - -4th. The Intercolumniation - -(_a_) If 1-1/2 diameters apart _Pycnostyle_ - -(_b_) If 2 diameters apart _Systyle_ - -(_c_) If 2-1/4 diameters apart _Eustyle_ - -(_d_) If 3 diameters apart _Diastyle_ - -(_e_) If 4 diameters apart _Ærostyle_ - -[Illustration: - -GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 5. -] - - - - -GREEK ORNAMENT. - - -Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the -same language, and worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the -Ægean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies, -which supplanted those of the Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon. The southern -portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern -by Ionians. In the course of time other Greek settlements were made on -the Black Sea and Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor; as well as at -Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum, in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna -Grecia in Italy. These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of -art at an early period than Greece itself. The ascendency in art in -Greece was enjoyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta -took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens -became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in -that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was -destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles -(470-29 B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination. - -The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architecture, -sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic -feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality -and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and -goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the -people. Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, -the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the -beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of -Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. The almost inexhaustible -store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other -European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of -the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of conception, -the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the -human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship, are here seen in -the greatest diversity of treatment and incident. - -The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely -represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great -personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence, upon -contemporary and later plastic art. - -The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the -Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, was -enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the -originals are now in the British Museum, forming part of the Elgin -Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. The two -pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger -than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and -the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon for the soil of -Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British -Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture -during the Phidian age. An illustration of the “Fates” from the Western -pediment is given here, showing a perfect mastery of the human figure, -with rare selective power of composition. The appropriateness of line -and mass for its position renders it singularly beautiful and -architectonic in character. Of the 92 square metopes sculptured in high -relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin -Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between -the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or Greeks, and are fine examples of -composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the -colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in -height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject -being the Panathenæic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the -religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm -of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and -maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, its heroes and deities, -heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial oxen, and its horses and riders -are doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor’s art. Each -figure is full of life and motion, admirable in detail, having an -individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition, -appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band. - -The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or -statue of the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed of -plates of gold and ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture. Probably -owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of Phidias -disappeared at an early date. - -[Illustration] - -Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the -beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, -erected by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which shows an -extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long, and consists of -23 slabs 25-1/2 inches in width, the incidents depicted being the battle -of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest between the Centaurs and -the Lapithæ. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon frieze is here -replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuberance of modelling. - -[Illustration] - -Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument -of Xanthos, B.C. 372, so called because the female figures display moist -clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds between their feet. -These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the -work of the Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis. - -Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of -the Erectheum, B.C. 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background, and -white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros, of about the same -date is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which -crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands. An example of Nike -or victory, adjusting her sandal is here given. These reliefs are -remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment, and the -exquisite rendering of the draped female figure. Other friezes now in -the British Museum are from the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her -husband Mausolus B.C. 357-348. This tomb consisted of a solid basement -of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36 columns. -The upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze, illustrating -the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the frieze of the cella was -illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus. Seventeen slabs of -the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British Museum; -they represent the battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their -composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and -richness of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon -frieze in its fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, -the sculptor of the Nereid monument executed the north frieze, while the -south was by Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important feature, -was the great altar at Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II., B.C. 168. This -had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and 16 ft. high, enriched -with a sculptured frieze 7-1/2 ft. high. The subject is the -Gigantomachia, or battle of the gods and giants; the treatment being -characterised by passionate energy and expression, and daring skill in -grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze -are now in the Berlin Museum. - -The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians and -Greeks. The continuity of incident and rhythm of movement that was -possible with the continuous frieze, together with its functional use of -banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form, hence we have -many remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment. An -early and fine example is the frieze of Archers from the palace of -Darius at Persepolis, B.C. 532, now in the Louvre. This frieze, of -which an illustration is here given, was executed in glazed and -enamelled bricks. A dignity of conception and unity of composition were -here combined with skilful modelling of relief work, and fine colouring -of blue, turquoise and yellow. This treatment of the frieze no doubt -influenced the later work of the Greeks, who so nobly carried on this -tradition of the frieze. - -[Illustration] - -Greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line, refinement of -detail, radiation of parts, unity of composition and perfect symmetry. -The anthemion, which is the typical form, is derived from the -traditional lotus and bud of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs -however in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism, -having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts, yet -lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many -periods of art. - -[Illustration] - -The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele, (figs. -1, 2, and 5, plate 4), upon the architrave of doorways (fig. 6), and -above the necking of the Ionic columns (plate 6); or painted upon the -panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It was also used in a thousand -ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period. -The simplicity and - -[Illustration: - -GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6. -] - -beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability, has doubtless -rendered it one of the best known types of ornament. Like the Egyptian -and Assyrian prototype the Greek anthemion is usually arranged with -alternate flower and bud, connected by a curved line or more frequently -by a double spiral. Illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a -few typical examples, where the rhythm and beauty of composition are -indicative of the culture and perfection of Greek craftsmanship. - -Another feature, which at a later period received considerable -development, was the scroll given on the preceding page, which is a fine -example from the roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scroll cut with -V shaped sections, springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage, the -same features being observed in the nest of foliage which supports the -tripod upon the apex of the roof (plate 6). This scroll is formed of a -series of spirals springing from each other, the junction of the spiral -being covered by a sheath or flower; the spiral itself being often -broken by a similar sheath. - -This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and -Italian Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the -Gothic ornament, in which the construction line is continuous and -unbroken. - -The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form was frequently -used upon the architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele (fig. 5 plate -5) where its circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with -the functional straight lines of architectural design. The extraordinary -vitality and versatility of the Greek craftsmen may be traced through a -magnificent series of coins dating from B.C. 700 to B.C. 280. The -interest of subject, beauty of composition and largeness of style, -combined with the utmost delicacy of technique, of these gold, silver -and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of -the early Greeks. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - -ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 7. -] - - - - -ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. - - -Roman Architecture is differentiated from that of Greece by the -extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. The many fine -remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary -versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their constructive -skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other -nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the Greek -prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and -with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornament, less refined in -contour and detail. - -[Illustration] - -A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of -Septimus Severus, A.D. 211. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D. -79, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326. Trajan’s Arch, A.D. 114, was -destroyed by Constantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building -of his own arch. - -The superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed -illustration from the Theatre of Marcellus, where the lower order is of -the Doric and the upper of the Ionic. The Colosseum has a third story, -having the Corinthian order, and an attic story, with Corinthian -pilasters; the whole reaching to a height of 156 feet. - -[Illustration] - -One of the best preserved buildings of the Roman period is the Pantheon, -with its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels, enriched with bronze -ornaments. The portico, octastyle and di-prostyle, is of the Corinthian -order, beautifully proportioned and enriched. The finest example of the -Corinthian order was used in the temple of Castor and Pollux, frequently -called Jupiter Stator; some 50 examples of this Corinthian order date -from the Roman period. The _Tuscan_ and _Composite_ orders were added by -the Romans to the Doric, Ionic and the Corinthian, forming the five -orders of architecture. - -[Illustration] - -The following table gives the relative proportions of the typical Roman -orders, the columns in modules, and the capital, entablature, &c., in -parts:-- - -+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ -| | |Columns|Capital|Architrave|Frieze|Cornice|Entablature| -+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ -|Doric. |Theatre of| 15-1/2| 24 | 31 | 46 | 37 | 113 | -| | Marcellus| | | | | | | -| |Baths of | 1 | 22 | 32 | 45 | 46 | 123 | -| | Diocletia| | | | | | | -+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ -|Ionic. |Theatre of| 18 | 31 | 43 | 36 | 66 | 145 | -| | Marcellus| | | | | | | -| |Temple of | 17-1/2| 33-3/4| 38 | 28 | 70 | 137 | -| | Virilis | | | | | | | -+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ -|Corinthian.|Jupiter | 20 | 66 | 43 | 43 | 69 | 156 | -| | Stator | | | | | | | -| |Pantheon | 19-1/2| 67 | 42 | 39 | 54 | 136 | -+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ - -The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cella was -of the same width as the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces the -Romans show the greatest constructive skill and splendour of -embellishment. The skilful planning and appropriateness of decorative -treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the -practical nature of the Romans. - -The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature, -rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the -Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with -concrete, and supported with rows of columns or biers. The remains of -two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of -Trajan, A.D. 114, rectangular, 180 × 160 feet, five aisles, the centre -aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, -is typical of one class; and the basilica of Maxentinus, A.D. 310, with -a width of 195 feet and a length of 260 feet, is typical of a vaulted -Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle -with an intersecting vaulted roof. - -These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their -service, and the basilica church was the typical form used up to the -12th century in the Romanesque provinces. - -[Illustration] - -The Roman houses were of two types: the _Domus_, or houses clustered -together, and the _Insular_, houses which were surrounded by streets. -Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the _Insular_ type. - -The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the _Ostium_ or entrance, -sometimes called the _Vestibule_, which opened into the _Atrium_, which -was a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the -centre called the _Conpluvium_, under which was the _Impluvium_, or -cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers -surrounded the _Atrium_, and at the further end was the _Tablinum_ or -private room, frequently leading to the _Peristylium_ or private part of -the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble -fountain, with flowers, shrubs and trees, forming a _Viridarium_. -Surrounding the _Peristylium_ were private rooms, one of which was the -_Triclinium_ or dining room. From the _Peristylium_, _fauces_ or -passages led to the _Porticus_, a colonnade which overlooked the -garden. - -[Illustration: - -ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8 -] - - - - -ROMAN ORNAMENT. - - -Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by successive wars and -conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the -architecture of the Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of -Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. From these varied sources arose the style -termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal -entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings and -the decorative use of bronze and the terra-cotta of the Etruscans, with -the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and -Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the -Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D. - -Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, -consisting of the anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans -using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with -bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement and -graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines clothed with -cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals terminating in -a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved -or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foliation, such as the -vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or -griffin (fig. 1) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving -that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so characteristic -of Roman art. - -The Thermæ, or baths and public buildings, displayed fine decorative -ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria; or coffers, square, -hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high relief and -the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart -or the water leaf. These exhibit an effective treatment of moulded -surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases -ornamented - -[Illustration: - -ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 9. -] - -with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or -mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the mouldings -or divisions in higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and -dart enrichment (plate 9.) - -[Illustration] - -The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this -period were often decorated with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9), and -were supported by cupids or by candelabra (plate 9), or by the skulls of -oxen, as on the frieze from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, here given, -which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of worship. - -The architectural basilica and forum of Trajan, erected A.D. 114, by -Apollodorus, a Greek of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the -remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans. -Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a -rectangular pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the -dresses, armour and standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports -a column of the Tuscan order of architecture 97-1/4 feet high and 12 -feet in diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having -bas-reliefs representing the successive events of the Dacian War by the -Emperor Trajan. - -This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a -complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that period. -Another well-preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in -Rome by Marcus Aurelius A.D. 174, the subjects of its reliefs being the -war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns, or Tazzas, enriched with -Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage and birds and animals; -magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and candelabra, of bronze, enriched -with silver damascening, together with the choice remains of sculpture -and mosaics, all indicate the luxuriousness and love of magnificence of -the wealthy Roman citizens. - -In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling -combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of -foliage, repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This -elaboration of the typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded -serrations of the Acanthus, forms the chief characteristic of Roman -ornament, which is wonderfully bold, and vigorous in conception and -execution, but deficient in the refinement and delicacy of Greek art. - -[Illustration: - -POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 10. -] - - - - -POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. - - -Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an -eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79. These cities had already -suffered from an earthquake in A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt -when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The younger Pliny, the -historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two -letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from -the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the -treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural -paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of -marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of -the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century A.D. -Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748 A.D., and from -these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum -at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small -bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large -mosaics, together with a splendid collection of marble statuary. - -A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of -and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the -vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed -with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, -and white tesserie. The triclinium, or dining room floor was often a -magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject. -The walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado 1/6th the height -of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels -and a frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour was, the -dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black -dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The -decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, -and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, -such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon -the painted walls. A small panel painted with a classical subject -usually occupies the centre of each wall panel. - -The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman -relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral -form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups -grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon -which birds are placed. - -Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings, -were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of -small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the -anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series. - -[Illustration: - -BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11. -] - - - - -BYZANTINE. - - -When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of Government from Rome -to Byzantium, in the year A.D. 330, he inaugurated a new era in art, -viz.: the Byzantine. The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now -assimilated with the arts of Persia and Syria, but moulded and -influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal vitality, -deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the -Byzantine period. - -[Illustration] - -The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the -buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, -but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the -building of S. Sophia by Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, -during the reign of Justinian, A.D. 538. This building is remarkable for -its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square -plan, its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great -inventiveness and symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp -acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of -Christianity such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the -peacock also is frequently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but -groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground -mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and -domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna in -Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale, the basilica -churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe, -A.D. 538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and -sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of -Torcello, A.D. 670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice, -marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans -here given are typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of -the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This symbolism -is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and -crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a -peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the -sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in -the sculptured ornament of this period. - -[Illustration: - -SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 12. -] - - - - -SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. - - -The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery, and implements of war of the -early Viking period, found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, display no -trace of plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter consisting -wholly of interlacing animal forms, chiefly the dragon. The viking ship -found at Sandifiord in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows -traces of the “Bronze Dragon Prow,” referred to in the early -Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement of the 12th century, plant forms -are found mingled with the dragons, and figure sculpture became -important in treating of the myths of the gods; Frey, Woden, Thor and -Fyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the newer cult in -religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap. - -Hreiômar had three sons, Otter, Fafni and Regan. Otter was killed one -day by Loki, one of the three Scandinavian gods--Loki, Hœni and -Woden--these being seized by Hreiômar, who would only release them when -the skin of Otter should be covered with gold. Thereupon Loki seized the -dwarf Andwan, who was made to give up his treasure of gold, and a ring -of magical properties, carrying with it a curse, that the treasure -should be the death of those who held it. Loki then returned and covered -the skin of Otter with the gold (fig. 3), after which the gods were set -at liberty. Then Hreiômar was slain by his sons for the treasure. Fafni, -after seizing the latter, took the form of a dragon, and lay guarding -the plunder at Gnita Heath. Regan, his brother, in order to obtain the -treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd, -in testing his sword, broke it in twain, thereupon Regan made him a -magic sword, with which he lay in the trail of the dragon, and pierced -it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regan took out the heart of the dragon, -which Sigurd cut into slices and toasted while Regan slept. Sigurd, -burning his fingers, places them in his mouth, and tasted the blood of -Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo! he heard the voice of birds saying -that Regan was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed Regan, eat the -heart of Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse -Grani, and departed, only to be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for -this crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. 1).[A] - -This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in figs. 1 and -2 the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the -fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in -Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same -subjects, dating from the 11th century. In later times the dragon -becomes more pronounced in character, until in the 14th century it fills -the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament (fig. 6). - -[Illustration: - -CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13. -] - - - - -CELTIC ORNAMENT. - - -No period in the history of Art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The -carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels and -silversmith’s work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with -capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the -clear and accurate writing of the text, are all indications of the -culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people. The incised -ornament upon the stone tumuli of the 3rd and 4th centuries B.C. show -simple forms such as chequers, chevrons, circles and spirals which are -used by almost all primitive people, yet even at this early stage the -Celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. -The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel -enriched with the northern “Fylfot” is a typical example of the 2nd or -3rd century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, -which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree -of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries (figs. 2 to 7), being -typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 11th century when all -trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used -from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from Byzantine -and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a marked -feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been borrowed from -the north, as Ireland had no traditions of dragons, and it is to -Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin -of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zormorpic character that -distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except -Scandinavian. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical -examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period -is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with -Champlevé enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (plate 34) and the Tara -Brooch (7th century) are splendid examples of the Christian period -dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-460. The beautiful Book of Kells, A.D. -650-690, the Book of Armagh, A.D. 807, the Book of Durrow, A.D. 750 -(Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham, A.D. 689-721, written -by Eadfrith and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, -assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftsmanship of -the early Irish people. - - - - -NORMAN AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. - - -English Gothic Architecture has been broadly divided into periods for -the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most -generally accepted. - -By SHARPE.[B] - - A.D. -Romanesque {Saxon 1066. - {Norman 1066-1145. - - {Transitional 1145-1190. -Gothic {Lancet 1190-1245. - {Curvilinear 1245-1360. - {Rectilinear 1360-1550. - -By RICKMAN.[C] - - A.D. -Norman 1066-1189. -Early English 1189-1307. -Decorated 1307-1379. -Perpendicular 1379-1483. -Tudor 1483-1546. - -French Classification by DE CAUMONT. - - {Primordiale 5th to 10th century. -Romanesque {Secondaire 10th to 12th “ - {Tertiaire 12th “ - - {Primitive 13th century. -Pointed {Secondaire or Rayonnant 14th “ - {Tertiaire or Flamboyant 15th “ - -Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded A.D. 1066-1170 by Norman -bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and -York, or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new -sites such as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more -magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the -older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of -Roman and Byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art -of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples. - -The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the -apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and -is therefore considered a typical English cathedral. Each vertical -division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On plate -14 is an illustration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, -showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. The -general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it -can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was -influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily overlapping -its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the -choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular -Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the -Triforium and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side -with the pointed arch. - -The PIERS (sometimes termed columns) of these bays have distinctive -features which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic -development. Sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took -place in the shape of the pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general -characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses. - -[Illustration] - - -CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD. - -NAVE ARCADING. The universal use of the round arch, cylindrical or -rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face. -Capitals cubical and cushion shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with -concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament. - -[Illustration] - -TRIFORIUM. In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small -arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch. - -CLEARSTORY. One window with an open arcading in front, of three arches, -the centre one larger and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow -gallery in the thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof of the nave, -of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra -partite vaulting. - -An arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall, -under the aisle windows. - -Early windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply -splayed on the inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb -shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few -semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine example is to -be found in Barfrestone Church, Kent. - - -EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD. - -The Lancet or pointed arch universal. - -CAPITALS, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch -mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the -characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in -bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch -mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a -“Dripstone,” and when used horizonally over a square headed window a -“Label.” - -The TRIFORIUM has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or -subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced -trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate -shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and -enriched with the _Dog’s tooth_ ornament or trefoil foliage. - -The CLEARSTORY lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the -inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the -floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and -finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from -which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite -in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and -at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass -similar to the example given on the next page from Salisbury Cathedral. -The annexed example from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely -proportioned window and its arrangement. - -[Illustration] - -Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was frequently -used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed -singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are -fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate -14). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the -north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they -are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of -the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical -adornment. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, -Chartres, and Rheims. - -[Illustration] - - -DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD. - -In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain -mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or -mallow. The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, -usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage similar to that -upon the capitals. - -The TRIFORIUM consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches, -adorned with Geometric tracery. - -The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window -being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral -triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 14). -Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which -springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital -under the Clearstory string. - -The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric -tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with -mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the -transepts are typical of this period. - - -PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR. - -The PIERS of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings -carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they -frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, -or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an -angular treatment of the vine. In some instances, the upper part of the -plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is -also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular -screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings. - -The TRIFORIUM is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two -horizontal divisions only. The CLEARSTORY, owing to the suppression of -the Triforium becomes of more importance. The windows are large and -often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings -of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have -horizontal transoms, on which the battlement ornament is displayed. The -aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered -with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in -the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, -also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use -of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic features of the -Perpendicular or Tudor period. English cathedrals show a marked contrast -in scale to contemporary French buildings. The English nave and choir is -less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. -For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with -its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 feet -in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide, -and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft. -wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, -39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough -with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York -with 45 ft. being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave. - -The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand, -being as follows:--Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, -and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. -wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. -wide, and 485 ft. in length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great -height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in -length. - -The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th -centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in -a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is, -S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and -canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the -famous _Scaligers_ at Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by -the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in -France and England where Gothic architecture reached its culmination; -the abbeys and cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched -with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and -canopies with crockets, finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and -details, and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass, -are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the -middle ages. - -On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that -took place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the -15th century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in -the Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style -may also be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman -one (fig. 1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and -8. - -[Illustration: - -THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14. -] - -[Illustration: - -NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 15. -] - - - - -NORMAN DETAILS. - - -Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional -semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic -period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated -with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman -work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of -the Chevron, the Cable Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge -and the beading or pearling. Characteristic features of this period also -are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the corbel-table, which was a series of -heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the -parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant; -at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of -semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or -imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of -surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6). - -Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known -of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and -not the rule. - -Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular -arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The -semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude -sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament -in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the -jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, -or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals -showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and -the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front -of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west -door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire. - -The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus, -enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The -capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or -segments of circles. - -The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary -work in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its -name--Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style, -beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of -Angouleme Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading, -displays more affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two -French capitals (figs. 9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals -and birds may be seen, showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art -of that period. - -[Illustration: - -EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 16. -] - - - - -EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. - - -The NORMAN style was succeeded by the pointed, or GOTHIC style, -remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular -grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian -and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of -perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric character of -the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and -well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its -capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed -foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading -out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to -the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it -from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three -crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic -ornament. - -[Illustration: A] - -[Illustration: B] - -[Illustration: C] - -A. Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. B. -Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and -maple, with a flowing indulating line. C. Perpendicular Gothic, showing -the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular -manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the -borders here given. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church, Kent (fig. 1), is -remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms -of ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early -English foliage. - -The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar -to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the - -[Illustration: - -DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR -GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17. -] - -profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in -addition to the spiral forms of foliage. - -Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from -the early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a -rounder type of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is -so characteristic of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain -moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in -France. - -[Illustration] - - -DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS. - -Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural -types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its -ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the -rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, -being carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and -architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in -brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with -adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply -attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but -lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early -work. - -Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were -now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The -ball flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the -equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style. - -French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more -reserve and affinity for architectural forms. - -This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within -half a century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style, -with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface -panelling, and the prevalent use of the four centred arch--of octagonal -capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine,--of heraldic -shields and arms, and of the four-leaved flower; all typical of the -period. - -[Illustration: - -RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 18. -] - - - - -RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. - - -The arts of Rome and Byzantium lingered in Italy until the 12th century, -losing their vitality and vigour, except at Venice, where the Byzantine -style reached a culminating point in the glorious buildings at Murano -and of St. Mark’s. - -Lombardy, in the north, had witnessed a singular blending of the old -classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards and -the symbolisms of the old Byzantine, thus producing the architecture -known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, -quaint imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as -a support for the columns. These are features of the early art at Lucca, -and at Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy; a beautiful -illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin’s “_Stones of -Venice_,” Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic -influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and -crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture -with this Gothic personality; hence, during the 12th and 13th centuries -in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs -and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the -imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in -conception. Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the -glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style where symmetry was to play an -important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, -of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and which, though beautiful in -proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet lacked that -symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness, and rugged personality of the -early Byzantine, Lombardic and Gothic styles. - -ITALIAN Renascence is broadly divided into three periods. Tre-cento, -A.D. 1300 to 1400; Quattro-cento, A.D. 1400 to 1500; and Cinque-cento, -A.D. 1500 to 1600. In the Tre-cento style this intermingling of the -classic details with the Lombardic and Gothic constructions produced -such remarkable buildings as S. Maria della Spina, and the Campo Santo -at Pisa, by Giovanni Pisano 1240-1320; the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church -of Santa Croce, and the Cathedral of Florence, by Arnolfo di Cambio -(1232-1310), with its alternate courses of black and white marble, and -its Gothic arches and tracery; the beautiful Campanile by Giotto -(1276-1336) is a noble accessory to Arnolfo’s Cathedral. A charming -illustration of this Tre-cento period, from Giotto’s Campanile, is the -frontispiece to Ruskin’s “_Seven Lamps of Architecture_.” - -The sculpture and decorative arts of this period are marked by dignity -of conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classical traditions. -Perhaps the earliest examples known are the hexagonal pulpit in the -Baptistery at Pisa, a similar one in the Cathedral at Siena, and the -fountain at Perugia, all by Nicolo Pisano (1206-76). He was assisted in -much of his work by his son Giovanni, who also executed the pulpit in -the Cathedral at Pisa. Andrea Pisano (1273-1344), a pupil of Giovanni -executed a beautiful bronze gate or door, cast in 1332, for the -Baptistery at Florence. - -A fine monumental work of this period is the tomb of St. Peter the -Martyr, in the Church of St. Eustorgio at Milan, by Balducco di Pisa, -1308-47. - -The QUATTRO-CENTO period, of which Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465), was the -great master, is remarkable for its vitality and naturalism. Ghiberti’s -chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery; the -first gate is dated 1403-24, and the second 1425-50. Both have panels -modelled in low relief, the first with incidents from the New, and the -second from the Old Testament. The frame-work of these gates has a -series of single figures in niches, with circular medallions between -them. The bronze architrave round each of the Ghiberti gates, in -addition to the one he placed round the earlier gate, by Andrea Pisano, -are rich examples of Quattro-cento design. The details are natural -fruits, flowers, and foliage, banded-together with ribbons, with the -introduction of birds, squirrels, &c. The egg-plant and pomegranate -portion (fig. 1) is a familiar example. - -[Illustration] - -Other masters of this period were Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438) who -executed the beautiful monument here shown, to Ilaria di Carretto, in -the cathedral at Lucca. The recumbent figure of Ilaria is sculptured in -white marble with perfect simplicity and beauty; another famous work of -Jacopo was the fountain at Siena. - -Luca della Robbia (1400-82) executed a beautiful organ gallery in marble -for the Cathedral at Florence, with admirable singing and dancing -figures in relief. But beautiful as this work is, Luca’s reputation -rests upon his Enamelled Terra Cotta, which he perfected to a -remarkable degree. Modelled first in clay and coated with tin enamel -(see Maiolica), he produced a marvellous series of these reliefs, which -were invariably surrounded with the typical quattro-cento border of -modelled fruit and flowers, enamelled in bright colours. His nephew, -Andrea della Robbia (1445-1525) continued the traditions, methods, and -skill, with marked success; and also Andrea’s son Giovanni (1524) who -executed a beautiful frieze upon the façade of the hospital at Pistoja. -Andrea’s other sons, Girolamo and Luca carried the art into France under -Francis I. (1531.) Donatello (1386-1466) was remarkable for the singular -grace and sincerity of his portraiture, especially of children; the -dancing figures in relief on the panels of the singing gallery of the -Cathedral of Florence, are perfect examples of his art. Donatello also -carried the art of low flat relief called “_Stiacciato_” to the greatest -perfection. An illustration of Donatello’s work, from the high altar of -St. Antonio at Padua, is here given. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The art of the medallist, which had declined since the Roman period, now -took its position among the arts of the quattro-cento period, under -Vittore Pisano, called Pisanello (1380-1451). The vigour of his -modelling, and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary -Princes of Italy, are exceedingly fine. Among other remarkable -medallists were Sperandio of Verona (1423-90); Caradosso, of Milan -(1480-1545); Vincentine, of Vicenza (1468-1546); Benvenuto Cellini, of -Florence (1500-71); Lione Leoni (1498-1560); Pompeoni Leoni (1530-1610); -and Pastorino, of Siena (1510-91). The great dome of Arnolfo’s Cathedral -at Florence was designed by Brunelleschi (1377-1446), who was a -competitor with Ghiberti for the bronze gates of the Baptistery at -Florence. Other names of this period were Desiderio da Settignano -(1428-64,) his masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini, in the -Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da Fiesole (1430-84); Andrea -Verrocchio (1435-88); the author of the fine equestrian statue of -Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes); Matteo Civitali -(1435-1501); and the Rossellini, a remarkable family of five brothers, -of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini (1427-79), who executed -a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di Portogallo in the Church of the -Nunziata, Florence. - -The CINQUE-CENTO period was the culmination of the Renascence, when -architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were under -the magnificent patronage of the Popes and Princes of Italy. Palaces, -churches, and public buildings were completed and embellished with -beautiful sculptures and decorations; hung with the most sumptuous -fabrics of the Venetian, Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with -altar paintings and mural decorations, by the most renowned of painters; -and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and -silversmiths’ art, and the loveliest of intarsia or inlaid woodwork. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Michel Angelo Buonarroti (1474-1653), by his great intellect and power, -stands above his many contemporaries. The colossal figure of _David_, -and the _Madonna_ and _Child_ at Bruges, are familiar examples of this -great artist’s work. The magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano de -Medici at Florence, show his noble power and conceptions of art. The -splendid decorative work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the -Vatican is another example where unity of conception and marvellous -execution are shown in a remarkable degree. Two illustrations of this -ceiling are given--one of the panels, with the expulsion from Eden, and -one of the Sibyls or Prophets, both showing beautiful harmony of -incident and composition. - -[Illustration] - -Contemporary with Michel Angelo was Raphael (1483-1520), who displayed -the highest capacity for grace and refinement in painting. His principal -mural paintings are in the stanze of the Vatican, where four rooms are -painted in fresco, almost entirely by Raphael. The Loggia of the -Vatican, by Bramante, was also decorated by Raphael and his pupils. The -then-recent discoveries of the Baths of Titus and House of Livia, with -their Roman mural painting, influenced in a remarkable degree the -decorative painting of the Cinque-Cento period. These arabesques (or, as -they were termed, Grotteschi, being found in the supposed caves or -grottos of Roman gardens), were utilised by Raphael in the decoration of -the pilasters, piers, and walls of this Loggia. The designs were painted -with a fine range of colour upon white ground, and enclosed within -borders of modelled stucco ornaments. In the panels upon the ceiling, -Raphael painted a series of 52 incidents of the Bible. These are spoken -of as “Raphael’s Bible.” - -[Illustration] - -Raphael was assisted in this work of the Loggia by many contemporary -artists: Giovanni da Udine (1494-1564), Giulio Romano (1492-1546), -Francesco Penni (1488-1528), Perino del Vaga (1500-47), and Primaticcio -(1490-1580), who completed much of the work after Raphael’s death. These -artists carried his traditions and methods to other parts of Italy. -Giulio Romano executed some fine mural decorations at the Villa Madama -in Rome; and for Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, he enriched with -beautiful decorative paintings and arabesques, the Palazzo Ducale and -the Palazzo del Te. These arabesques were upon richly coloured or -parti-coloured grounds (see plates 86-9 “_Grammar of Ornament_,” by Owen -Jones). - -[Illustration] - -These arabesques of Raphael’s, which were excelled by later ones of -Giulio Romano, show a great inventiveness and skilful combination of -parts, but they are not to be compared with the refined and beautiful -modelling and harmonious composition of the contemporary carved work of -Andrea Sansovino (1460-1528), Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Agostino -Busti, Pietro Lombardo (1500), and his sons Tullio and Antonio. These -delicate reliefs have the traditional Roman acanthus, but treated with a -fine feeling for relief modelling, and beauty of line; vases, masks, -shields, and similar accessories are found in profusion in some examples -(fig. 3, plate 19). The composition of the Cinque-cento ornament is -symmetrical, the details being varied and most interesting in the best -work, and whilst lacking the vigour and symbolism of the Lombardic and -Byzantine styles, it excelled them in its absolute adaptation to -architectural conditions, with perfection of design and craftsmanship. - -[Illustration] - -Andrea Mantegna (1431-1517) executed nine paintings or cartoons in -tempera upon linen, representing the triumphs of Julius Cæsar, which are -a portion of the cartoons for a frieze 9 feet high and 80 feet long, -painted for Lodovico Gonzaga’s Palace of St. Sebastian at Mantua, they -were purchased by Charles I., and are now at Hampton Court. An -illustration of this frieze, from an engraving upon copper in the -British Museum, is given on page 55; they were also engraved on wood by -Andrea Andreani in 1599. - -Many beautiful examples of the Cinque-Cento ornament may be found in -contemporary printed and illuminated books. The advent of printing in -Italy (1465) by the Germans, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannitz at the -Benedictine Monastery of Subiaco, near Rome, gave a great impetus to -Literature, and printing rapidly progressed in Italy, more especially at -Venice, where in 1499 Aldus Manutius produced the Hypnerotomachia, or -dream of Poliphilus - -[Illustration: - -RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 19. -] - -with illustrations ascribed to Mantegna. Good reproductions of many of -these early illustrated books are given in the “_Italian Book -Illustrations_,” by A. W. Pollard, No. 12 of the Portfolio, December, -1894; and in “_The Decorative Illustration of Books_,” by Walter Crane. - -[Illustration] - -The study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publication at -Rome in 1486, of the treatise by Vitruvius, an architect of the time of -Augustus; an edition was also published at Florence in 1496, and at -Venice in 1511. In 1570, Fra Giocondo, at Venice, published “_The Five -Books of Architecture_,” by Andrea Palladio (1518-80). Another treatise -upon architecture, by Serlio (1500-52), was also published at Venice in -1537 and 1540. - -[Illustration] - -Beautiful types of the Renascence decorative art were the Venetian -well-heads, situated as they were in most of the public squares of -Venice, and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces. Designed -with details of the most varied and beautiful character by such artists -as Andrea Sansovino, Pietro Lombardo, and his sons Tullio and Antonio, -the Venetian well-head became a type of beauty, diversified in its -treatment, but never losing its characteristics or its usefulness. -Venetian well-heads display a great variety of form and decoration. The -earlier examples are square or circular, with enrichments of Byzantine -character, consisting largely of interlacing, circular, and angular -lines, enclosing quaint bird and animal forms. In the later examples the -Renascence treatment is used with singular richness and appropriateness, -the grace, delicacy and diversity of detail being a tribute to the -vivacity and artistic feeling of the Venetian Republic. These -well-heads, worked mostly in white marble and evincing good judgment in -the quality of relief, now show comparatively little injury after -centuries of usefulness. Occasionally they were of bronze, of which two -fine examples are still in position in the court-yard of the Doge’s -Palace. Many of these well-heads are carefully treasured in our -European Museums, teaching us that beauty of form, and perfection and -delicacy of ornament are quite compatible with usefulness, when used by -an artistic people. - -[Illustration] - -The Renascence in Italy was remarkable for the many magnificent secular -buildings erected during the 15th and 16th centuries in the chief cities -in Italy. - -In FLORENCE the palaces have a severe dignity of treatment, with bold -rusticated courses of stone-work, circular-headed windows, and -finely-proportioned cornices. The first Renascence palace was the -Riccardi (1430) by Michelozzi (1370-1440); and it was followed by the -Pitti (1435), by Brunelleschi (1377-1444), the Rucellai (1460), by Leon -Battista Alberti (1389-1472), the Strozzi (1489), by Cronaca -(1454-1509), the Gondi (1490), by Giuliano Sangallo (1443-1507), the -Guadagni and the Nicolini, by Bramante (1444-1514), the Pandolfini -(1520), by Raphael (1483-1520), and the Bartolini (1520), by Baccio -d’Agnolo (1460-1543). - -In ROME the palaces were characterised by largeness of scale and the -frequent use of Ionic and Corinthian pilasters or columns, and -square-headed windows with triangular or curved pediments. The chief -palaces in Rome are the Cancelleria (1495) and the Giraud (1506) by -Bramante (1444-1514), the Farnesina (1506), the Massimi (1510), and the -Villa Ossoli (1525), by Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), the Palma and -the Farnese, by Antonio Sangallo (1476-1546), the Borghese (1590), by -Martino Lunghi, the Laterano, by Fontana (1543-1610), and the Barberini, -by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629), Borromini (1599-1667), and Bernini -(1598-1680). - -In VENICE the palaces were rich and varied; with the frequent use of -pilasters, semi-columns and circular-headed mullioned windows suggested -by the earlier Gothic palaces. The Renascence period commenced here with -the re-building of the court-yard of the Doge’s Palace (1486) by Antonio -Bregno, and completed in 1550 by Scarpagnino. Then came a beautiful -series of buildings, the chief being:--the Vendramini, the Trevisani, -and the Gradenigo Palaces, by Sante Lombardo (1504-1560); the Cornaro -Palace and the Library of St. Mark’s, by Sansovino (1479-1570), and the -Grimani Palace by San Michele (1484-1559). - - - - -FRENCH RENASCENCE. - - -Towards the close of the 15th century, the vigorous and beautiful Gothic -architecture of France, with its rich traceried and mullioned windows, -its niches and canopies, its crocketed spires and varied treatment of -floral enrichment, lost its vitality; and was succeeded by the -Renascence style, which at first was purely Italian, but afterwards, -with the intermingling of Gothic traditions and craftsmanship, became a -distinct phase of the Renascence. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -French Renascence may be broadly divided into distinctive periods: 1st. -The earlier or transitional, 1453-1515, when the influence of the -Renascence began to be felt. 2nd. 1515-47, FRANÇOIS PREMIER. This period -is remarkable for the number of Italians engaged by Francis I. for the -embellishment of the Château Fontainbleau, the principal being Rosso, -painter; Serlio and Vignola, architects; Primaticcio and Penni, -ornamentists, Benvenuto Cellini, with his beautiful goldsmiths’ art; and -Girolamo della Robbia, who produced enamelled Terra Cotta. The work of -these renowned craftsmen necessarily had a marked influence upon the -traditional French art. Of the architecture of this period, there is the -south-west angle of the Louvre, commenced in 1548 by Pierre Lescot -(1510-78), and enriched with sculpture by Jean Goujon (1515-72), who -also executed the sculptures that embellished the beautiful Château -Ecouen, by Jean Bullant (1515-60), and the beautiful fountain of the -Innocents at Paris, of which an illustration of one of the panels is -here given. The tomb of Louis XII., at St. Denis, by Jean Juste (1518), -is remarkable for the purity of its enrichments. - -3rd. HENRI DEUX and HENRI QUATRE period, 1547-1610, when the building of -the Tuileries was commenced in 1564 by Philibert de Lorme (1500-78), the -building of the Louvre being continued by De Carreau and Duperac; the -Luxembourg being subsequently built by De Brosse, 1610. This period was -also represented by the exquisite Ceramics of Oiron or Henri Deux Ware, -and the fine geometrical interlacings and arabesques of the bookbindings -of Grolier. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -4th period, 1610-43, under LOUIS TREIZE, when considerable skill was -shown in the carved and painted shell and scroll ornament, and in the -bookbindings of Le Gascon. - -[Illustration] - -5th. LOUIS QUATORZE period, 1643-1715, of which the palace of Versailles -and the Château Maison, by François Mansard (1598-1666), are typical -examples of architecture. The decorative compositions of le Pautre (see -annexed illustrations), and the richly-decorated furniture, with -marquetry in tortoise-shell and brass, by André Boule (1642-1732); the -magnificent Gobelins tapestry, so liberally encouraged by the Minister -Colbert (1667); and the beautiful Rouen pottery; are characteristic of -the industrial and decorative arts. - -[Illustration] - -6th. LOUIS QUINZE period, 1715-74, when the Rococo style was paramount, -the vitality of the preceding periods being lost. The pastoral scenes by -the painter Watteau (1684-1721), and the inlaid furniture of Jean -François Ochen (1754-65), for Madame de Pompadour, are typical of this -period. - -7th. LOUIS SEIZE, 1774-89. The arts of this period are more refined and -reserved in line, as evinced in the fine marquetry furniture of Riesener -and David Roentgen with the ormolu mountings by Gouthière (1740-1810), -for Marie Antoinette. - -The last period, EMPIRE STYLE, 1804-70, when purely classical forms and -Greek enrichments prevailed throughout the whole of the decorative -arts. - - - - -ENGLISH RENASCENCE. - - -The English Renascence period began during the reign of Henry VIII., and -was contemporary with that of France under Francis I. It was Torrigiano, -a contemporary of Michel Angelo, who about 1519 brought this new -Renascence style into repute by erecting the tomb of Henry VII., and -that of the Countess of Richmond, in Westminster Abbey. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -English Renascence was further developed by Hans Holbein (1498-1554), -who came into this country in 1526, followed by craftsmen from Flanders, -Germany and Italy. This intermingling of Flemish, German and Italian -styles with the traditional Gothic of our own country, distinguishes -English Renascence from that of France and Italy. The marked prevalence -of interlacing strap-work, which is so characteristic of Elizabethan and -Jacobean ornament, had its origin in Flemish sources. - -[Illustration] - -Of English Renascence architecture, Caius College, Cambridge, (1565-74), -by Theodore Hare, of Cleves, and Longleat House (1567-79), by John -Thorp, are the earliest examples extant. The Wonderful Palace of Nonsuch -(of which no trace remains) was erected by Henry VIII. about 1530-40, -doubtless in the Renascence style, as we know that it was embellished -with beautifully enriched stucco ornaments and figures by Tolo del -Nunziato. Robert Smithson built Wollaton House in 1580. Hardwicke Hall -and Haddon Hall are of the later Elizabethan age (1592-97). Typical -buildings of the Jacobean period are Holland House (1607), Hatfield -(1611), Bolsover (1613), Audley End (1616), Crewe Hall and Aston Hall -(1620). These are all enriched with many beautiful examples of modelled -plaster work. That at Longleat and Hardwicke being executed by Charles -Williams, and at Audley End, by Bernard Jansen (1615). - -English stucco-work of this period often consisted of geometrical -panelling similar in style to the Tudor fan-tracery and the pendentives -of the preceding century. These richly-moulded pendentives were -connected together by bands of pierced strap-work decorated with -arabesques in low relief. From 1615 to 1650 the panels were composed of -purely geometrical forms, such as circles, squares, lozenges and -interlacing quatre-foils, enriched with delicate arabesques, the ribs or -mouldings frequently having a repeating pattern impressed in the soft -plaster. - -The many fine friezes of this period were remarkable for their boldness -of conception and their skilful craftsmanship; frequently a double -frieze was used, the lower part consisting of delicate arabesques and -interlacing strap-work, while the upper part was of boldly modelled -cartouche and delicate arabesques. During the latter part of the 17th -century, owing to French influence, the stucco enrichment usually -consisted of acanthus foliage and festoons. - -From Charles I., (1625), to Queen Anne, (1702), the purely Italian -Renascence prevailed; the Banqueting House at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones, -(1572-1652), being a fine example of this period. St. Paul’s Cathedral -(1675-1710) by Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) and his many beautiful -churches in London, mark a distinct epoch of English Renascence; the -tradition being carried-on by Vanbrugh (1666-1736) who built Blenheim -Palace and Castle Howard. Other architects of this period were Hawksmoor -(1666-1726), Kent (1684-1754), Gibbs (1674-1754), Chambers (1726-96), -who built Somerset House, and Robert Adam (1725-92), who carried on the -traditional method of stucco enrichment, but in a more rigid and formal -classic manner. His geometrical panelling of hexagons, octagons, and -ovals, was enriched with conventional renderings of the acanthus and -olive leaf arranged in small units and repeated without variation over -the whole of the surface. These enrichments were cast in plaster or -compo and were mechanical in treatment, lacking the beautiful decorative -quality of the modelled stucco of the early 17th century. The Wellington -Monument in St. Paul’s Cathedral, by Alfred Stevens, is distinguished -from much of the modern work by its strong vitality and architectonic -treatment of the composition, and the beauty and singular grace of its -detail. - -[Illustration: - -MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. Plate 20. -] - - - - -MAHOMETAN & MORESQUE. - - -Of mediæval history as associated with the decorative arts, the rise and -development of the Arabs is the most remarkable. The wide appreciation -and liberal patronage of the arts by the Khalifs; the influence of its -religion and precepts upon contemporary and later periods of art; the -distinct individuality and geometrical arrangement of its ornamentation; -all had a most marked effect upon tradition and craftsmanship. - -The history commences with Mohammed, A.D. 570-632, who founded and -consolidated the empire, of which, under Omar, A.D. 635, Damascus became -the capital; in A.D. 638 Kufa and Bassora were founded in Persia. In -A.D. 641 Egypt was conquered and the Mahometan capital, Fustât, founded. -Persia was conquered in A.D. 642, Spain invaded in A.D. 711, Bagdad in -Persia became the capital of the Arabian Khalifs in A.D. 762, and in -A.D. 827 Sicily was conquered; but it was not until the dynasty of -Ibu-Tūlūn, A.D. 868-914, that the history of Cairene art begins, of -which the mosque of Ibu-Tūlūn in Fustât, or old Cairo, is the earliest -example. Under the Fatimy dynasty, A.D. 867-1171, Cairo was founded, and -the arts, receiving further encouragement, were now introduced into -Sicily and Europe. In A.D. 997 the Mahometan invasion of India took -place. In A.D. 796-965 the mosque of Cordova was built, and in A.D. 1236 -the kingdom of Granada was founded and the Alhambra was built by -Mohammed ben Alhamar, A.D. 1248, and Mahometan art, as exemplified in -the architectural decorations, arms and armour, woodwork, ivory, textile -fabrics, and illuminated books, reached its culmination under the Mamlūk -dynasty, A.D. 1250-1516. - -Thus the Arabs, from a roving tribe, became, by religious zeal and -conquests, the most powerful and wealthiest nation of mediæval times, -assimilating and influencing the customs and the arts of the different -nations and provinces. - -The term MAHOMETAN ART includes ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, and -SICILIAN, all having the same characteristics yet distinguished by the -racial influence and custom. The Arabian is marked by its flowing, -interlacing, and symmetrical lines, geometrical arrangement (doubtless -derived from Byzantine sources), and its prevalence of inscriptions or -texts from the Koran. In Spain a more complex geometrical arrangement is -found, intermingled with a flowing foliage or arabesque of a purely -conventional type. This style is noticeable for its entire absence of -any natural forms and its abundant use of inscriptions, and glazed and -enamelled tiles, distinctly influenced of Persian tradition though -purely geometric and formal. These tiles cover the lower part of the -wall, the upper portion, as also the ceiling being decorated with -arabesques of modelled plaster in flat relief, of two or more planes, -enriched with red, blue, white and gold; this is typical of the Moresque -style. The Sicilian work is remarkable for its beautiful fabrics of silk -and the prevalence in its ornament of birds, animals, and heraldic -forms, showing the continuity of the traditions of Persia. - -[Illustration: - -PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 21. -] - - - - -PERSIAN ORNAMENT. - - -The early art of Persia was similar to that of Assyria and Babylon, -having the same forms, materials, and traditions. With the accession of -the Sassanides (A.D. 223) came the introduction of the elliptical dome, -so typical of eastern architecture. This dome rested on pendentives -which occupied the angles of the square base. These pendentives and the -elliptical dome are distinctive features in Mahometan architecture. - -The industrial arts of Persia were largely influenced by the traditional -arts of Assyria and Chaldea; this tradition was carried on with rare -skill and selective power by the Persians, culminating in the splendid -period of Shah Abbas A.D. 1586 to 1625. The vitality, beauty, and -interest of detail, combined with perfect decorative adaptation to -material, are characteristic of the textiles, pottery, metal work, and -illuminated manuscripts of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. - -The Mahometan conquest of Persia, A.D. 632 to 637, by Abu Bekr, the -successor of Mohammed, largely influenced the development of the arts of -the Persians, who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races, -yet preserved all the characteristics of their art; and there is no -doubt that the art of the Arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of -Persia. - -[Illustration] - -Persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and -colour, and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such -as the pink, hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. These -are used with perfect sincerity and frankness, and are essentially -decorative in treatment, combining harmony of composition of mass, -beauty of form, and purity of colour. It was doubtless owing to these -qualities, together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to material, -that the Persian style so largely influenced contemporary work, and -especially the European textile fabrics of the 16th and 17th centuries. -The illustrations given are of some familiar types of Persian -adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their significance, -beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of decorative treatment. -Purely Arabian forms, as given in plate 21, are frequently associated -with the Persian floral treatment, showing the influence of the Artists -of Damascus. Many fine examples of lustred wall tiles, dating from the -10th and 11th centuries, are in the South Kensington Museum, of which -the blue, brown, and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality. They -often have Arabic inscriptions interspersed with the floral enrichments. -Examples of wall tiles of the 8th century have been found in the ruins -of Rhages. - -These lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or hereditary -proclivity. This art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of Babylon, -and the later frieze of Susa, page 16, with its brilliant enamel and -fine colour, was continued by the Persians, and, passing to the Arabs, -the tradition was carried to Cairo, Spain and Majorca; thence into -Italy, where enamelled lustred ware was made, differing from the -original Persian by its frequent absence of utility, which was -fundamental to the art of the Persians. - -Mahometan ornament has four broad divisions, viz.: Arabian, Moresque, -Indian, and Persian; and they are characterised by strongly-marked -compartments or fields which are filled with finer and more delicate -enrichments. These compartments are most pronounced in the Moresque with -its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms -(figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8, page 62). The Arabian style is somewhat similar, -but less formal. The Indian has a conventional rendering of plants, and -the introduction of the lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. 2, plate -23); while in the Persian work there is a still less formal constructive -arrangement, with floral forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the -introduction of the human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger and -birds. Note the illustration in Textiles which is taken from a fine -carpet in the South Kensington Museum. In this carpet, animal forms, -chosen with rare selective power and judgment, are combined with the -typical floral enrichment of Persia, with the wealth of colour, -admirable spacing of detail and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and -appropriateness of treatment. These are features that distinguish the -industrial designs of Persia, and it is doubtless due to the interest -and vitality of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of -Persian art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of Europe. - -[Illustration: - -PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 22. -] - -[Illustration: - -INDIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 23. -] - - - - -INDIAN ORNAMENT. - - -The civilization of India dates from the remote past, but the oldest -remains of its art and architecture are connected with the Buddhist -religion, introduced by the prophet Sakya Muni, B.C. 638. This -influenced the arts of India till A.D. 250, when the Jaina style was -adopted. The examples of Buddhist architecture consist of Topes (which -were sacred or monumental temples, either detached or rock-cut), and -monasteries. The rock-cut temples usually consist of a nave and aisles, -and a semi-circular recess containing a statue of the seated Buddha. The -hall has square or octagonal columns, with bracket capitals (fig. 1). -The finest examples of these temples are those at Ajanta, which are -richly-decorated in colour with incidents of Hindoo mythology. The fine -temples at Ellora, which are cut entirely out from the rock, are of the -Jaina period, A.D. 250. The pagodas at Chedombaram are of the Brahmin -period, as is also the great hall of 1,000 pillars, which is 190×340 -feet, containing the sacred image of the god Siva. - -Alexander the Great conquered India B.C. 327, and doubtless left the -influence of the Persian tradition in India. This influence was still -further developed by the commercial intercourse of Persia and India, and -by the Arabian invasion of India in A.D. 711, when a Mahometan dynasty -was established, 711 to 1152. This largely controlled and influenced the -arts under the Mogul dynasty, 1525-1837, when the decorative arts and -the manufacture of the beautiful woven brocades and silks were fully -developed. The splendid carpets and rugs, printed cottons, metal work, -and fine enamels of this dynasty bear a remarkable tribute to the -vitality, originality of ideas, and the practical utility of the -industrial arts of India. - -Indian ornament has the typical Mahometan division of spaces, but is -more flowing and graceful than the pure Arabian style. These divisions -are filled with fine conventional floral forms, as the lotus, the date -or hom, the iris, the rosette and the pine. This pine is treated -occasionally as a single flower, but more frequently as a cluster of -flowers, which still retains the distinctive form of the pine (figs. 2, -4 and 6). - -Typical also of this period is the judicious treatment of the elephant, -lion, tiger, peacock, and the human figure, as accessories in the -decorative arts of India. They were applied with rare knowledge and -skill, combined with an artistic perception of applied art, showing a -very strong affinity with contemporary Persian ornament. - -Indian ornament has a more conventional rendering of natural forms, than -the frank treatment of Persian ornament. Block printing upon silk and -cotton fabrics reached a high degree of perfection during the last -century. The inventiveness and significance of detail; the charm of -composition of line and mass, and the beautiful colour of these printed -fabrics are a reflex of the decorative feeling for beauty by the people -of India. - -[Illustration: - -CHINESE AND JAPANESE -ORNAMENT. Plate 24. -] - - - - -CHINESE AND JAPANESE ORNAMENT. - - -The early bronzes, enamels, porcelain and textile fabrics of China are -indicative of the perfection and luxuriance of the decorative arts of -that ancient Empire. This perfection is shown by a Splendid technic and -a fine appreciation of colour and ornamentation, differentiated from the -western nations by myths, traditions, and the remarkable persistency of -a few typical forms through many centuries, doubtless owing to the -profound ancestral worship and veneration for the past. The Dragon was -represented under many aspects, frequently forming vigorous lines of -composition (fig. 3, 4). The beautiful flora of the country largely -influenced Chinese art. The peony and chrysanthemum (frequently highly -conventionalized), are typical examples, forming the elements of -decorative design. Geometric forms, such as the hexagon, octagon, and -the circle, enriched with flowers or the fret, are largely used. The -many splendid examples of bells, gongs, and incense-burners in bronze -and iron:--the carvings in wood, ivory, and jade:--the beautiful woven -silks and embroidered fabrics, and the richness and purity of their -porcelain, all testify to the versatility and vitality of the Chinese -decorative arts in the past. Their architecture was usually of wood, -distinguished by complexity and quaintness of form rather than beauty of -proportion and detail, but their pagodas or temples were of brick -encased with glazed tiles, the most remarkable of these erections being -the Nankin Pagoda of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1412-31), with its imperial -yellow tiles. - -The arts of Japan, though doubtless owing their origin to China, are -differentiated by a keener observation of nature and a more literal -treatment of landscape, bird and animal life, and the beautiful flora of -the country--the “kiki” or chrysanthemum, the “botan” or peony, the -“kosai” or iris, the “yuri” or lily, the “kiri” or paulawina imperialis -(somewhat resembling our horse chestnut), the “ume” or plum, the “matsi” -or fir, and the “taki” or bamboo,--likewise the peacock, the crane, the -duck, the pheasant and many smaller beautiful birds, together with -reptiles, insects, and fishes; all are elements in the decorative arts, -being rendered with remarkable fidelity and delicacy of touch, united -with a fine feeling for composition of line. It is this literal -treatment of natural types, the marvellous technic and especially the -significance of the forms chosen that constitutes the charm of the -earlier Japanese art. It is singular that the materials used by the -Japanese should be of little intrinsic value. Having no jewellery, they -use little of the precious metals; iron, bronze, enamels, wood and lac, -being the chief materials utilised in the decorative arts of Japan. - -[Illustration: - -IVORIES. Plate 25. -] - - - - -IVORY, - - -doubtless owing to its beautiful texture, colour and adaptability for -delicate carving, has been in use from a remote period. Egypt, Assyria, -and India have each contributed many beautiful examples of fine -craftsmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the centuries -preceding the Christian Era. Of Solomon we read in I Kings, 18, x: -“Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory and overlaid it with the -best gold.” This traditional use of ivory was most probably derived from -Egypt, the source of so many of the decorative arts. - -In the Periclean age of Greece, ivory was used for the figure of Athene -Parthenos by Pheidias, placed inside the Parthenon. This statue of the -standing goddess, 40 feet high, was of gold and ivory (called -_chryselephantine sculpture_), the drapery being of beaten gold and the -exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory. A -seated _chryselephantine_ figure of Jupiter, about 58 feet high, in the -temple of Olympia, was also by Pheidias. Pausanias the Roman traveller -enumerates some ten _chryselephantine_ statues which he saw in his -travels, A.D. 140. - -The Roman period is noted for the many beautiful Consular diptychs, -which may now be seen in our national museums. They consist of two ivory -leaves usually 12 by 5 inches, the inside having a slightly sunk plane -covered with wax for writing upon, the outside being enriched with -delicate carved reliefs (figs. 7, 8, and 9). These diptychs were given -by new consuls on their appointment, to their friends and officers of -the state. The consul is usually represented seated on the cushioned -curule chair, or chair of state, and his name is generally written -across the top of one leaf. - -The Byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory, of -which an illustration is given in fig. 6; the ivory throne of Maximian, -Archbishop of Ravenna, A.D. 546-556, is also of this period. A beautiful -treatment of ivory was used in the 13th and 14th centuries by the -Saracens of Egypt; they frequently worked a fine geometric inlay of -ivory upon ebony; in other examples ivory panels were pentagonal, -hexagonal, or star-shaped, and carved with delicate arabesques, the -framing of the panels being of cedar or ebony. In India ivory carving -reached a high degree of perfection, especially in the many ivory combs, -with pierced and relief work representing the figure of Buddha -surrounded with foliage and richly caparisoned elephants. - -In the Carlovingian period, 8th to 10th centuries, ivory was largely -used for coffers or small chests. During the early Gothic period in -Italy and France, ivory crucifixes, pastoral staffs, croziers, -statuettes and triptychs were made in large numbers; and the ivory combs -and mirror cases of the Renascence period have fine reliefs of legendary -or allegorical subjects. Of pictorial ivories the modern Japanese -craftsmen show the highest technical skill, combined with a keen -perception of nature and movement, yet their ivories lack the beauty and -dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of the early and -Mediæval ivories. - -[Illustration: - -MOSAICS. Plate 26. -] - - - - -MOSAICS. - - -The durability, range of colour, and appropriateness of material and -treatment to architectural conditions, has placed the art of Mosaic as -the chief decorative enrichment of architecture. Its antiquity is -unquestionable, for in the Book of Esther, i, 6, we read “of a pavement -of red, and blue, and white, and black marble.” - -Mosaic is the art of forming patterns by means of pieces of -variously-coloured materials, fitted together, and is broadly divided -into three classes: (1) OPUS TESSELATUM, or clay mosaic; (2) OPUS -LITHOSTRATUM, or stone mosaic; (3) OPUS MISERUM, or glass mosaic. These -divisions are again sub-divided into: (1) _Opus Figlinum_, or ceramic -mosaic, formed of a vitreous composition and coloured with metallic -oxides; (2) _Opus Signinum_, small pieces of tile; (3) _Opus -Vermiculatum_, sub-divided into (a) _Majus_, black and white marble, (b) -_Medium_, in which all materials and colours were used, and (c) _Minus_, -of minute tesseræ, principally used for furniture inlay; (4) _Opus -Sculpturatum_, slabs of marble hollowed out and filled in with grey or -black marble; (5) _Opus Alexandrinum_, inlay of porphyry and serpentine; -and (6) _Opus Sectile_, formed of different laminæ or slices of marble -of various colours. - -It was in Rome that the art of Mosaic was brought to its greatest -perfection, during the 1st and 2nd centuries, A.D., and many splendid -examples of this period are now in the museums of the Vatican and at -Naples. The finest example came from the House of the Faun, Pompeii, and -represents the battle of Issus, between Alexander and Darius. This -mosaic, of the 3rd century B.C., is probably a copy of a Greek painting. - -Many fine Roman mosaics have been found in England at Cirencester, -London, Lincoln (fig. 6), Leicester, and at Brading in the Isle of -Wight. - -The tradition was carried on in Italy at Ravenna and Venice, where the -_Opus Miserum_ reached its culmination. Of the Ravenna mosaics, those of -the Baptistery, A.D. 450, and of S. Apollinare are typical examples of -the earlier Byzantine mosaics, having dark green and gold back-grounds -with tesseræ about 3/8 inch square. The beautiful frieze of male and -female saints in S. Apollinare extends along both sides of the nave, and -is 10 feet high. The vaulting and domes of St. Mark are entirely covered -with the characteristic 11th century Byzantine gold ground mosaic, -formed by fusing two pieces of glass together with gold leaf between. At -Santa Sophia, Constantinople, other fine mosaics exist of the 6th and -7th centuries. In Italy under the Cosmati (a family of mosaicists of the -13th and 14th centuries), fine geometrical inlaid mosaics were used for -the enrichment of marble tombs and altars; some good examples of this -style are in Westminster Abbey on the tomb of Edward the Confessor -(finished under Henry III, A.D. 1270). - -[Illustration: - -GREEK CERAMICS. Plate 27. -] - - - - -GREEK CERAMICS. - - -It is difficult in the 19th century to realise the importance of vases -in ancient life. To the Greeks a vase was a receptacle for food, liquid, -or storage, and for the adornment of the home. It was used in the daily -life of the living and buried with the dead. Most of the finer Greek -vases have been found in Etruscan tombs, but of Greek workmanship, -imported from Greece or Grecian Colonies. Some black unglazed Etruscan -vases have been found, but painted vases of Etruscan origin are rare. - -Early Greek pottery, dating probably from the 10th century B.C., has -been found in Greece, the Colonies of Rhodes, Cyrene in Africa, and -Naucratis in the delta of Egypt--these, showing an historic development, -are arranged in groups, each with its distinctive characteristic:--(1st) -Primitive vases, simple in shape, handles small or absent, decorations -in simple line, punctured or incised, or in raised slip. (2nd) MYCENÆ or -COLONIAL (B.C. 900-700) vases, often covered with a creamy slip; the -designs painted in brown and black, being derived from geometric -patterns with marine and animal forms. (3rd) DIPYLON or GEOMETRIC (B.C. -700), with fret pattern enrichment, and panels with rude figures of men -and animals in black and brown. (4th) PHALERON WARE (B.C. 700-550), with -continuous bands of animals, probably derived from Phœnicia or Assyria -(fig. 4). Among the animals depicted, are placed portions of the fret -pattern, a survival of the previous style. The details are incised -through the black or brown figure, showing the colour of the clay body. -A development of this Phaleron Ware was the introduction of the rosette, -taking the place of the fret pattern, between the figures or the -animals. (5th) BLACK FIGURE PERIOD (B.C. 600-480), vases, fine in -profile, and with good handles, the body of the vase, in red ware, being -painted with subjects of Grecian mythology in black, and the details -incised; the faces, arms, and legs of the female figures afterwards -painted in white or red slip, and fired at a lower heat. The AMPHORA -(fig. 5) was the chief form of this black figure period, some fine -examples are signed by Exekias and Amasis. (6th) the Transitional period -(B.C. 500-470), when the black silhouette figures on a red ground gave -way to the RED FIGURE PERIOD on a black ground. Artists of this style -were Epiktetos, Pamphæios, Nicosthenes, and Pythos. Many of the vases by -Nicosthenes resemble contemporary metal work in their shape and handles. -The 7th group (B.C. 470-336), also red figures on the black ground, was -the period when Greek fictiles reached their highest perfection, the -chief form employed being the KYLIX. A fine series of these _Kylikes_, -signed by Cachrylion, Euphronios, Duris, Pethenos, and Hieron, are in -the British Museum. - -A vase produced specially for funeral purposes was the ATHENIAN -LEKYTHOS, the body of which was covered with white slip, then painted in -polychrome with subjects of singular appropriateness. - -[Illustration: - -CERAMICS. Plate 28. -] - - - - -CERAMIC ART. - - -The antiquity of Ceramic Art and its scientific and artistic qualities, -render this subject one of considerable interest to art students. - -The plasticity of clay and its hardening qualities under the influence -of intense heat, its adaptability to the most refined and appropriate -forms, its affinity for the beautiful glazes and enamels so often -associated with pottery, and its splendid traditions of craftsmanship, -of colour, form and decorations, so beautiful and varied in -character,--all combine to invest the subject with a charm or -fascination of its own. Intrinsically valueless in its natural state, it -is capable of being rendered almost priceless by scientific workmanship -and artistic skill. The history of this material, and of its easy -adaptation to the most refined and intricate, as well as the simplest of -forms, affords invaluable lessons for present day artistic students. - -Pottery clay may be classified under three divisions or headings: (1) -EARTHENWARE. (2) STONEWARE. (3) PORCELAIN. Under the first are grouped -the largest number of Ceramic Wares. The pottery of Egypt, the faience -of Assyria and Persia, the Greek and Etruscan vases, the famous red ware -from the Isle of Samoa, and its counterpart the Roman Samian ware, the -beautiful maiolica of Spain and Italy, the pottery of Rouen, St. -Porchaire, Delft, and most of our English pottery are earthenwares; the -paste or body consists of natural clays selected for their plasticity, -their hardening qualities, their fusibility or their colour, and when -burnt have a porous opaque body, usually dull in colour. This dulness -was usually overcome by coating the ware with a slip of fine white clay, -which, whilst not possessing inherent qualities to form pottery by -itself, would adhere to the coarser coloured body of the earthenware, -thereby forming a smooth white ground. The early Greek vases of -Nancrates, the later Lekythos of the Greeks, the faience of Persia, the -Mezza Maiolica and the Sgraffito of the early Italian Renascence, and -our English slip ware are examples of this method of giving a smooth -white surface to coarse coloured earthenware. A similar result to the -slip covering was also produced by the use of a silicious glaze, -rendered white and opaque by the addition of oxide of tin. Early -Assyrian faience, Della Robbia ware, the Maiolica of Spain and Italy, -and the wares of Delft and Rouen are earthenwares coated with a tin -enamel. - -The silicious glaze here referred to is prepared by fusing silicious -materials with soda or potash, and is known as Vitreous, or glass glaze. -Plumbeous, or lead glaze, is produced by the addition of oxide of lead -to the silicious glaze, rendering it more fusible, and still -transparent. A white opaque enamel formed by using oxide of tin with the -vitreous glaze, is termed Stanniferous, or tin enamel. These different -processes of covering the porous body of the earthenware largely -influenced the decorations and scheme of colouring. - -The beautiful faience of Damascus and Rhodes is covered with the -silicious slip or glaze, the colours being rich blues, produced by -cobalt, turquoise and green, by cobalt and copper, and purple by the use -of manganese; and then covered with an Alkaline glaze. - -In the Rhodian Ware the same scheme of colour prevails, except that the -purple is replaced by a fine opaque red of great body, called Rhodian -red, produced from Armenian bole. On the Italian Maiolica, with its tin -enamel and plumbeous glaze, there are fine blue, turquoise and green, -but red is very poor in colour, and is generally replaced by rich yellow -from antimony, and orange from iron. This white tin enamel was -undoubtedly introduced into Europe by the Moors, as some tiles in the -Alhambra date from 1273-1302. - -A large number of bowls and dishes, called Samian Ware, of Roman -importation, have been found in England. The paste is usually of a fine -sealing wax red, with a good glaze. These bowls are enriched with a -series of horizontal bands, containing the festoon, the scroll, birds, -animals, and figures. The bands or friezes are often divided by the -traditional egg and tongue moulding (fig. 1). Clay moulds, impressed -with stamps, were made and then fired. The red paste having been pressed -into the mould, the interior was smoothly turned in the lathe. A mould -of this character was found at York in 1874, so it is possible that some -of this ware was made in England, by Roman potters. Roman pottery has -also been found at Castor, near Peterborough, doubtless made at the -former place, kilns for firing having been found on the same site. This -Castor ware is usually brown, with a black glaze, being ornamented with -indented tool marks, and raised slip patterns of pipe clay (fig. 3). -Many Roman dishes and vases of a dark grey colour, ornamented with -incised lines and raised bosses of clay, have been found in the Upchurch -Marshes in Kent. Little artistic pottery of the mediæval period however -is known to exist. Early in the 13th century beautiful encaustic tiles -were made for the great monasteries, abbeys and cathedrals. - -About 1500, the production of tiles was introduced into Holland, -quantities of small blue and white ones decorated with scriptural -subjects, being made at Delft, and thence exported to England for the -lining of fire places, &c. Some fine painted tiles or “Azulejos” were -made at Valencia about the 17th century. - -In the 16th century, the porcelain of China was introduced into Europe -by the Dutch and Portuguese traders, and much of the Delft and Rouen -ware subsequently produced, was in imitation of this oriental porcelain. -“Delft” ware which takes its name from the small town of that name in -Holland, dating from 1500 A.D., is a ceramic coated with stanniferous -enamel, decorated with a full and liquid brush upon the absorbent enamel -ground, and then glazed with a plumbeous glaze. Some of this Delft ware -is very fine in quality, the cobalt blues under the glaze being -remarkably soft and rich in colour. Early examples were decorated with -historical subjects, often containing numerous figures, the middle -period being notable for its imitation of Chinese porcelain, and the -application of coloured enamels on coloured grounds. Vast quantities of -this kind of ware were manufactured up to 1760 and exported to all parts -of Europe. The production of Delft ware was first introduced into -England at Lambeth by some Dutch potters in 1676, being subsequently -extended to Fulham, Bristol and Liverpool. - -The use of stanniferous enamel was introduced into France by Girolamo -della Robbia, son of Andrea della Robbia, during the reign of Francis -I., 1516, and enamelled ware similar to the later productions of Urbino -was made at Nevers, where also was produced a fine ware decorated with -Persian _Motifs_ in yellow and blue. At Rouen, also, a fine earthenware -covered with tin enamel was manufactured, the decorations consisting of -the lambrequins or scallop pattern, symmetrical in arrangement, and -converging to the centre of the plate or dish. The ornament was based -upon Chinese examples, influenced by the contemporary woven fabrics of -France. The decorations were usually in blue and with overglaze -painting, i.e., after the white enamel was fired, finer and more -delicate detail being obtained by this process, but at the cost of the -purity and liquid softness of colour which is so characteristic of Delft -and Oriental underglaze painting. - -In Rouen ware, the ground is generally white, but some fine examples at -South Kensington have a soft yellow ground, a rich Indian yellow being -sometimes introduced with the blue decoration. It was under the -directions of Louis Poterat, 1673, that this most beautiful faience was -perfected. - -Bernard Palissy, 1510-90, by repeated experiments discovered the -stanniferous or tin enamel. His first productions were Jasper ware, warm -and brilliant in colour and richly enamelled. In the second period, -rustic dishes elaborately decorated with carefully modelled fishes, -reptiles, and plants or natural foliage, covered with an enamel of great -brilliancy and purity, were the chief productions. The later pottery of -Palissy consisted of salt cellars, inkstands, ewers, &c., the elaborate -figure decorations of which were probably executed by some contemporary -artist. - -Henri-Deux or St. Porchards ware, now more properly described as Oiron -ware, originated at St. Porchard in 1524, perhaps by the hand, certainly -under the patronage of Hélène de Hangest, widow of A. Gouffier, a former -Governor under Francis I. This Oiron ware, of a pale straw colour, is -enriched with inlays of yellow, blue, green, and brown coloured pastes, -the interlacing and arabesque ornamentation carried out under the -direction of Jehan Bernart and François Charpentier, being similar in -type to the contemporary bookbinding of Grolier and was probably -executed with similar tools. - -Many early examples of Staffordshire slip ware are to be found in -England, consisting chiefly of candlesticks, cups, tygs, posset pots, -piggins and plates, the slip decorations being in yellow, white and -brown. This ware was made at Wrotham as early as 1649, and by Thomas -Toft, at Shilton, 1660 (fig. 9). Marbled, combed and tortoise-shell ware -were formed by using colour slips or clays. Agate and onyx ware were -formed by layers of different coloured clays, crossed, cut, and pressed -into moulds. These methods were perfected by Thomas Wheildon, 1740-98, -and Josiah Wedgwood, 1730-95, who perfected both the Queen’s and the -variegated ware. Queen’s ware of a creamy colour was made chiefly for -dinner and dessert services, being decorated with painted flowers in -enamel. - -In 1781, Wedgwood introduced his famous Jasper ware, and Jasper dip or -washed Jasper. This latter ware was dipped into admixtures of metallic -oxides, producing blue, lilac, pink, sage green, olive, yellow, and -black colours as desired. The decorations in low relief, are of the -purest white (fig. 10) and in the traditional classic style, the figures -being arranged as cameo medallions, or in bands with the scroll, the -festoon, and the vine in delicate relief. Many of these beautiful cameos -were designed or modelled by Flaxman, 1755-1826; Pacetti and Angelini, -1787; Bacon, 1740-99; Hackwood, 1770; Roubiliac, 1695-1762; Stothard, -1755-1834; Tassie, 1735-99; and Webber, 1782. - -Stone-wares differ from earthenwares, owing to the presence of a larger -percentage of silicia in the plastic material, which, being fired at a -greater degree of heat, vitrifies the body or paste into a kind of -glass, thus ensuring a closeness and hardness of material not possessed -by ordinary earthenware. Stoneware is usually glazed during the firing -by throwing common salt into the kiln, which being volatilized, re-acts -upon the silicia in the body, forming with it a silicate of soda or -glass, having a minute granular texture. The usefulness and the artistic -character of stoneware was perfected by the Flemish and German potters -of the 16th century. - -The principal varieties of this ware are the grey and white “Canette” of -Siegburg, near Bonn, and the pale brown or grey ware of Raeren, near -Aix-la-Chapelle, with its incised and stamped enrichments, sometimes -with blue decoration. Frechen, near Cologne, probably supplied the -“Bellarmines” or “Grey beards,” largely imported into England under the -name of “Cologne Pots.” Examples of this Frechen ware were frequently -ornamented with a raised scroll of oak leaves. Grenzhausen, in Nassau, -produced a beautiful grey ware, having delicately moulded reliefs filled -in with blue and purple. Many grey jugs ornamented with the initials of -William III., Queen Anne, and George I., were imported into England from -the Nassau kilns. - -A peculiar kind of stoneware, also termed “Cologne ware” was produced at -Fulham by John Dwight, about 1670. Some fine jugs and a few cleverly -modelled unglazed statuettes, believed to have been made at this place, -are to be seen in the British Museum (fig. 11). - -Another peculiar red stoneware, porcelain, or Red China as it was -called, was made near Burslem by the Brothers Elers, 1688-1710, the -ornamentation being obtained by pressing sharp intaglio copper moulds -upon pieces of clay attached to the shaped ware. Fine examples, -characterised by beauty of outline and delicacy of enrichments are -exhibited in the Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street. Astbury, 1710-39, -continued the traditions of Elers, producing a fine white stoneware, -which largely influenced the Staffordshire pottery of that period. A -stoneware was also made at Nottingham from 1700 to 1750. - -Porcelain is technically known under the terms “hard paste” (“pâte -dure”) and “soft” (“pâte tendre”). Hard porcelain is made from clays -containing much aluminia and felspar or decomposed granite, having but -little plasticity, which necessarily influenced the shape or profile of -the vessel. The beauty of form, which is so typical of the Greek -earthenware vase, is absent in porcelain, where the cylindrical or -octagonal form is principally used. “Pâte tendre” is a soft and vitreous -porcelain, having a great affinity for the beautiful coloured glazes and -enamels used in the early examples of Sèvres. - -Porcelain was known in China about 200 B.C., and it was in common use -during the 16th century. During the Ming dynasty, 1568-1640, porcelain -reached its highest development in the perfection of its body, -ornamentation, colour and glazes, blue and turquoise being the chief -colours of this period; this limited range of colour was owing to the -intense heat required to fuse the felspar glaze upon the hard porcelain. - -It is uncertain at what date Chinese porcelain was first brought to -Europe. Amongst the earliest known pieces in England are some bowls -given by Philip of Austria to Sir Thomas Trenchard in 1506. But whatever -the date, it was inevitable that attempts should be made to imitate this -beautiful ceramic. Florentine or Medician porcelain was made 1575-80. It -was not however until 1690 or 1700, that a similar manufacture was -established at Rouen and St. Cloud. In 1709, Bottcher commenced making -hard porcelain at Meissen, in Saxony, subsequently producing some -excellent examples about 1715. This was the commencement of the -well-known Dresden china. In 1768, the manufacture of hard porcelain was -adopted at Sèvres, replacing that of “pâte tendre” which had been in use -from 1670. Both “pâte dure” and “pâte tendre” were made at Buen Retiro -in Madrid, A.D. 1759, all the porcelain manufactured for the first 20 -years being kept for the exclusive use of the Royal family. There are -some finely modelled Buen Retiro tiles in the Royal Palace at Madrid. - -About the year 1740 the manufacture of porcelain was established at Bow, -Chelsea, Derby, Plymouth, Bristol, and Worcester. The shapes and -ornamentation of these English porcelains, having no traditions beyond -the oriental influence, were of a low artistic order, being simply -copies of natural forms, without any controlling influence as regards -design or harmonious arrangements. A lavish use of gilding was also -characteristic of this period, the ornament being very largely -misapplied. This continued to grow worse until the middle of the last -century, when it reached its culminating point of absurdity and -extravagance of form and decorations. The best examples of English -porcelain of this period are obviously copies of oriental porcelain, -chiefly Persian and Chinese. A great advance in the technic of the -porcelain produced in this country took place after the discovery of -Kaolin, in Cornwall, by William Cookworthy, 1755. - -Transfer printing over the glaze was adopted at Worcester about 1757, -the transfers being taken from copper plates engraved by Robert Hancock, -a pupil of Ravenet, who was employed at the Battersea enamel works, -about 1750. Sadler and Green in 1756 also adopted over glaze printing on -the Liverpool delft. About 1770, under glaze printing on the biscuit -ware superseded the over glaze process. - -Of early English porcelains, those of Derby are, perhaps, the most -refined in form and in treatment of decoration, the plates, cups, and -saucers having borders of blue or turquoise, with enrichments of -festoons, leaves, and flowers; many of the cups were pressed with -fluted, ribbed, or imbricated patterns. The Derby works were founded in -1757 by William Duesbury, who in 1769 purchased the Chelsea works and -carried on the two simultaneously until 1784, when the Chelsea plant was -transferred to Derby. From 1769-73 the ware called “Chelsea-Derby” was -produced, and between 1773-82 “Crown-Derby” was introduced. - -Porcelain of an excellent quality was made at Nantgario about 1813, and -at Swansea 1814-17, the decorations in enamel colours consisting of a -natural rendering of flowers, birds, butterflies, and shells. - -Porcelain was also made about 1800 at the Herculaneum potteries at -Liverpool. Rockingham, in Yorkshire, produced during the years 1759-88 a -brown china, which, however, was but a fine earthenware, of a hard and -compact body, covered with a rich brown or chocolate glaze. In 1820, -porcelain was made at Rockingham, comprising dinner and dessert -services, richly enamelled and gilt, together with vases, flower -baskets, and busts in white biscuit ware. In 1832, a dessert service of -200 pieces was made for William IV. at a cost of £5,000, the decorations -consisting of natural fruit and flowers, with landscapes and the royal -arms in enamel colours. - -In some of the earlier Rockingham ware the outlines of the flowers and -butterflies were in transfer printing, and the colouring was added by -hand. - -The illustrations given on plates 21, 27, 28 and 29, show the -universality of the potter’s art, which may be traced through many -beautiful examples differentiated by racial customs and material. - -The beauty of form in the Greek vase (plate 27) was but the natural -outcome of a fine earthenware in the hands of an artistic people, with -traditions and architecture of the highest order. In Persian pottery, -form is subservient to colour, blue, turquoise and white being used in -charming combination, together with a frank yet decorative treatment of -natural forms. - -[Illustration] - -The Hispano-Moresque and Italian Maiolica (plate 29) are remarkable for -the technical excellence of their white enamel, rich blue, yellow and -orange, the iridescence of their gold and ruby lustre, and their high -technical skill in painting. - -English earthenware of the 17th and 18th centuries, though traditional, -showed a remarkable diversity in treatment and conception. The -picturesque platter of the Toft school, with its quaint enrichment of -trailing lines and heraldic forms in coloured slip, the fine red -stoneware of Elers, with its graceful enrichments in delicate relief, -and the varied and beautiful jasper ware of Wedgwood mark a distinct -phase of the potter’s art, and bear a tribute to the vitality and -personality of the founders of the “_Potteries_.” - -[Illustration: - -MAIOLICA. Plate 29. -] - - - - -MAIOLICA. - - -Maiolica or Italian faience is an earthenware, coated with a -stanniferous or tin glaze, termed enamel. This is formed by the addition -of oxide of tin to a silicious glaze or slip, thus rendering it white -and opaque, hence its name, enamel. - -The origin of this beautiful ceramic art may be traced to Persia. From -Persia the art was carried by the Arabians to Fustat, or old Cairo, -which was destroyed 1168 A.D., and amongst the ruins many fragments of -gold and copper lustered ware have been found. This enamelled ware was -introduced into Spain in the 13th century, and perfected there by the -Moors, giving rise to the HISPANO-MORESQUE ware. This ware was enriched -with central heraldic arms, surrounded by concentric bands of foliage, -arabesques, or inscriptions in blue, with a copper lustre. This -Hispano-Moresque ware was manufactured chiefly at Malaga, Talavera, -Triana and Valencia, and dates from the Moorish occupation of Granada -A.D. 1235-1492. - -In the island of Majorca, from which this beautiful ware derives its -name, fine examples were manufactured at an early date by Persian and -Arabian potters. After the conquest of Majorca by the Pisans, A.D. 1115, -many of these examples were introduced into Italy, the art being -subsequently cultivated in some of the smaller central states. The early -ITALIAN MAIOLICA was usually covered with a thin white “slip” or engobe -of clay which served as a ground for the coloured patterns. It was then -coated with a lead glaze and was known as mezza or mixed maiolica. In -some examples the design was scratched or engraved through the upper -layer or white engobe, showing the darker body underneath. This type of -ware, known as “sgraffito” was also glazed with the lead glaze, forming, -when fired, the beautiful iridescent lustre. - -No remains of a tin enamel of Italian workmanship have been found in -Italy prior to the time of Luca della Robbia, 1400-1481, who discovered -an enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence. The secret of its -composition was kept by him, his nephew Andrea, and his great-nephews -Giovanni, Luca and Girolamo, until 1507. The Mezza Maiolica was then -superseded by the true Maiolica or the tin enamelled wares of -Caffaggiolo, Castel Uurante, Urbino, Pesaro, Faenza, Forli, Diruta, -Siena and Gubbio, with their remarkable brilliance of blues, greens, -yellows and orange. The Gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and -golden lustre and was signed by Maestro Georgio (Georgio Andreoli, -1492-1537). The same artist also lustred many wares made by the potters -of Urbino and Castel Durante. Other examples of Urbino ware are signed -by Niccola da Urbino, 1490-1530, Orazio Fontano, 1540-70, Francesco -Xanto Avelli, 1530-40. Faenza ware was produced at the Casa Pirota -Botega, and Siena ware was signed by Maestro Benedetto. - -The chief characteristics of Caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and figures -in white, grey or yellow on a rich dark blue ground. Urbino has small -medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on a white -ground, called Raffaelesque, being from designs by Raffaelle del Colle. -Faenza has a yellow ground with blue arabesques. - -In brief, the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent tin -enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited, consisting of -blue, turquoise, yellow and orange. These colours are of great depth and -translucency, and are only equalled by the blues and turquoise of China, -Persia and India. - -Gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting called -“_Gadroons_,” a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful ruby -lustre of Maestro Giorgio. This Gubbio tradition was continued by -Giorgio’s son, Vincentio, called Maestro Cencio, and many beautiful -lustre works are signed by him. - -This lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of smoke -during the firing in the kiln; the smoke, being carbon in a highly -divided state, reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or glaze, -forming a thin film of metal upon the surface, the beautiful iridescent -lustre resulting from the relative thickness of the film. - -Castel Durante was frequently enriched, on white or grey borders, with -delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel, a process called -“_Lavoro di sopra bianco_” or “_bianco sopra bianco_.” - -Faenza Maiolica has, frequently, the whole surface of the ground covered -with a dark blue enamel, enriched with dancing amorini and arabesques in -blue, heightened with white “_Sopra Azzurro_.” - -A frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small medallions -painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions, and doubtless -intended as lover’s presents. They are known as “_Amatorii Maiolica_.” - - - - -TERRA COTTA. - - -Terra Cotta is usually made from pure clay, which will burn to a white -or yellow colour, or from impure, which will burn to a red colour, owing -to the presence of oxide of iron. Pure clay is a hydrous silicate of -alumina, containing 47 parts per cent. of silica, 40 of alumina, and 13 -of water. Clay, in this proportion, is the Kaoline or china clay. Fire -clay, which is found in the coal measures, has a larger proportion of -silica than Kaoline, and from it much of the terra cotta is made. When -first dug out, it is hard and compact, and of a greenish grey colour, -deepening to black. It is often weathered before using. This causes it -to “fall” and facilitates grinding. Old fire clay, previously burnt -(“grog” as it is called) is added to the new clay to counteract the -excessive shrinkage to which all close-grained clays are liable. The -coarser the clay, the less the shrinkage. The colour of the clay varies -according to the quantity of lime, iron, or bitumen it contains. Pure -clay contracts as much as one-eighth from the size of the mould; one -half of this contraction takes place in drying, the other half in -burning. Clay mixed with “grog” will contract about one-twelfth. - -[Illustration] - -The moulds for terra cotta are usually piece moulds, made of plaster of -Paris, which absorbs much of the moisture of the clay. Sheet clay about -two inches thick is used. This is carefully pressed into the mould and -supported by webs of clay of the same thickness. It is essential to the -clay to be uniform throughout, or the shrinkage would be unequal. It is -then placed upon a flue to dry from two to six hours, when the clay will -have contracted sufficiently to allow the mould to be taken off. It is -then dried for a further period and burnt in a kiln. For fine work, the -kiln is “muffled”--the “muffle” being a lining of bricks to keep the -clay from actual contact with fire and smoke. The dry, or semi-dry -process, is the pressing of clay-powder into metal moulds, which -obviates the excessive shrinkage of the wet process. Encaustic tiles are -made in this way, the ornament being run into the incised pattern with -“slip.” Many tiles are decorated in the same way as ordinary -earthenware, that is, painted and glazed. - -Terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity, especially by -the Assyrians, whose clay tablets or books throw so much light upon -Assyrian history. With the Greek, terra cotta was extensively used for -“antefixa,” and the many beautiful Tanagra figures now treasured in our -museums show the exquisite modelling by the Greeks, in such a material -as terra cotta. - -[Illustration: TERRA COTTA BY ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA.] - -This material was used by the Etruscans for their sarcophagi and -recumbent figures. The Pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta. It -was used for votive statues and offerings, and for lamps, some of which -were dipped in molten glass. - -During the revival of art in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, terra -cotta was extensively used by the Della Robbia family. LUCA DELLA -ROBBIA, 1400-82, produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs coated with -the white tin enamel and enriched with coloured enamels. Among his -numerous works were the following:--The marble _Cantoria_ in the -cathedral; five bas-reliefs in marble on the Campanile at Florence; his -two first terra cotta reliefs in the tympanans of the doorway, and the -doors of the sacristry of the cathedral at Florence (1443-46); with the -two kneeling angels holding candelabra; the splendid monument to -L’Evêque Federighi (1455) with its beautiful recumbent figure, in the -church of S. Trinità, Florence; and the many fine medallions enriched -with heraldic forms executed for the church of Or San Michele and the -palace Quarateri in Florence. Fine examples are the medallions with the -arms of King Renè D’Anjou, now in the South Kensington museum. - -In Santa Croce at Florence, there are a series of medallions of the four -evangelists and the twelve apostles, and in the South Kensington museum -there are twelve medallions representing the months. Many splendid -examples of Luca della Robbia’s work are now treasured in the national -museums. - -Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525) the nephew of Luca carried on the -traditions with rare selective power and artistic skill; among his early -works are the medallions for L’Hospital des Innocent, or the Children’s -Hospital. The Adoration and the Annunciation were familiar subjects with -Andrea, the illustrations given of the Annunciation in the Children’s -Hospital, and the Virgin and child in the national museum at Florence -being typical examples of his work. There is a splendid “Adoration” by -Andrea in the South Kensington museum. - -[Illustration: ENAMELLED TERRA COTTA ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA.] - -Giovanni della Robbia (1469-1527) son of Andrea continued this splendid -tradition: his principal works being the Lavabo in S. Maria Novella, the -tabernacle in S. Apostles, and the virgin and saints in Santa Croce, all -in Florence. Many other beautiful works still remain which attest to the -remarkable traditions of craftsmanship of the Della Robbia family. - -Girolamo, brother of Giovanni, carried this tradition into France under -Francis I. - - - - -ENAMELS. - - -Of the many decorative arts, enamelling is one of the most beautiful, -having a singular charm of limpid or opalescent colour of great purity, -richness and durability, and being capable of a most refined and varied -treatment for the enrichment of metals. - -Enamel is a vitreous or glass compound, translucent, semi-translucent or -opaque, owing its colouring properties to mineral oxides, or sulphides, -a fine opaque white being produced by oxide of tin. These enamels -require different degrees of heat in order to fuse them and to cause -their adhesion to the metal. Enamels are divided into three classes, -CLOISONNÉ, CHAMPLEVÉ and PAINTED ENAMELS. - -CLOISONNÉ enamel is that in which the cloisons or cells are formed by -soldering thin, flat wire of metal upon a plate of copper, the cloisons, -being filled with the various enamels, in powder or in paste, then, in -order to vitrify the enamel, exposed to heat in a kiln, if upon a flat -surface, or by the aid of a blow-pipe if upon a curved surface. - -Cloisonné was in use from the early dynasties in Egypt, many fine large -pectorals having been found in the tombs. These usually have the form of -a hawk and are of gold or bronze with well-defined cloisons, which were -filled with carefully fitted coloured paste or glass, and this -undoubtedly was the origin of the true or vitreous cloisonné enamel. -Byzantine enamel is invariably cloisonné and one of the most beautiful -examples of this period is the Pala d’Oro of St. Mark’s at Venice, A.D. -976. Perhaps the Chinese and Japanese have carried this cloisonné to its -greatest perfection in softness of colour and beauty of technic. The -earliest Chinese cloisonné is of the Ming dynasty, 1368-1643; this has -heavy cast metal grounds with low toned colours and deep reds and blues. -Under the Thsing dynasty, which commenced in 1643, the colours became -brighter and the designs more refined. - -Early Japanese cloisonné or “Shippo” was doubtless derived from Chinese -or Persian sources, and it is characterised by extremely thin beaten -copper grounds and the frequent use of a dark green ground in place of -the dark blue of the Chinese cloisonné. - -The Japanese cloisonné reached its culmination during the last century, -when many splendid examples of refined and delicate enamels were -produced, remarkable for their beautiful opalescent and translucent -colour. Gold cloisons with opaque and translucent enamels were -frequently inserted in iron or silver objects by the Japanese of this -period. - -An early example of English cloisonné is the jewel of King Alfred, now -in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford: this has a rich setting of opaque and -translucent enamels. A fine Celtic cloisonné treatment may be seen in -the Ardage chalice, where the cloisons were cut out of a plate of silver -and embedded in the enamel while soft. These Celtic craftsmen also had a -beautiful treatment of enamelling by engraving or pressing a pattern in -intaglio, or sunk relief, on an enamelled ground, and then filling these -intaglios with other enamels. - -A most exquisite kind of enamel called “_Plique à Jour_,” was used by -the Byzantines; this was composed of open filigree cloisons, filled with -translucent enamels. - -CHAMPLEVÉ enamel is formed by engraving, casting or scooping out the -cloisons from a metal plate, leaving a thin wall or boundary between -each cloison, which is then filled with the various enamels as in the -cloisonné method. This Champlevé method was practised in Britain before -the Roman conquest, and was probably derived from the Phœnicians, who, -centuries before the Romans came to England, had traded with Cornwall -for tin. The beauty of colour and perfect adaptability of these early -enamelled brooches, fibulæ and trappings of horses of the early Britons -and Celts, are remarkable, showing a fine sense of colour and a harmony -of line and mass. A splendid bronze Celtic shield (fig. 4, plate 13), -now in the British Museum, is enriched with fine red bosses of enamel. -These Champlevé enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy -appearance caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during -firing. Champlevé enamels were used with rare skill and refinement to -enhance the beautiful art of the goldsmith during the Middle Ages; the -Chalice, the Paten, the Reliquary, the Thurible, the Crozier, and the -bookcovers of the Churches, especially, were enriched with beautiful -enamels. Classed among the Champlevé enamels is that method called -JEWELLER’S ENAMEL or “_Baisse Taille_,” in which the plate is engraved -in low relief or beaten up in repoussé and then flooded with translucent -enamel. The Lynn cup of the time of Richard II. is one of the oldest -pieces of corporation plate and is covered with fine translucent blue -and green enamels. - -In India, where fine colour is a splendid tradition, Champlevé enamel -soon attained a remarkable perfection of technic and purity and -brilliance of colour almost unknown to the Western nations. The -Champlevé enamels of JAIPUR have most beautiful lustrous and transparent -blues, greens and reds laid on a pure gold ground. PERTUBGHUR is -renowned for the fine green or turquoise enamel fired upon a plate of -gold; while the enamel was still soft a plate of pierced gold was -pressed into the enamel. This pierced plate was afterwards engraved with -incidents of history or hunting. In RATAIN, in Central India, a similar -enamel is made having a fine blue in place of the Pertubghur green. - -The fine monumental brasses, of which many still remain in our English -cathedrals and churches, are a survival of the Champlevé process, the -cloisons, being usually filled with a black NIELLO, but occasionally the -heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels. During the 11th and -12th centuries, LIMOGES was renowned for its fine Champlevé enamels, but -early in the 15th century PAINTED ENAMELS were introduced and Limoges -became the centre of this art, called late Limoges or GRISAILLE ENAMEL. -The enamel colours were now used as a pigment, and were painted and -fired upon a copper plate. The enrichments in grisaille, or grey and -white, were used upon a black, violet or dark blue ground, the grisaille -afterwards being enriched with details of fine gold lines. These Limoges -enamels have a splendid technic, but they lack the charms of the -luminous colour and judicious use of enamels of the early Champlevé -period. The most renowned masters of the painted enamels of Limoges were -Penicand, 1503, Courtois, 1510, Pierre Raymond, 1530-1570, and Leonard -Limousin, 1532-1574. About 1600-1650, Jean Toutin and his pupil Petitot -produced some fine painted miniatures in opaque enamels upon gold, -remarkable for delicacy and perfection of enamelling. In 1750, painted -enamel was introduced into England and produced for about 30 years at -Battersea by Janssen. The enrichment consisted of flowers painted in -natural colours on a white ground. A similar enamel was also produced at -Bilston in Staffordshire. - -[Illustration] - -The finest enamels undoubtedly are those in which the enamel is used in -small quantities, such as in the Celtic jewellery, the bookcovers, and -the Church and Corporation plate of the Gothic and early Renascence -period, and the early Byzantine cloisonné, such as the Hamilton brooch -in the British Museum, and the Pala d’Oro of St. Mark’s, Venice, which -was made at Constantinople for the Doge Orseolo in 976 A.D., and has 83 -panels of fine cloisonné enamel set in a framework of gold. - -[Illustration] - -The “_Plique à jour_,” the “_Baisse taille_” and the Pertubghur enamels -are fine examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency or -opalescence and richness of colour. - -The Japanese cloisonné with its literal treatment of natural forms, and -the painted enamel portraits of Francis I. and contemporary princes by -Leonard Limousin, clever as they undoubtedly are, lack the depth and -purity of colour obtained by the early methods. Frequently, however, the -Penicauds, Nardou, and Jean I. and II. obtained some richness in the -painted enamels by the use of “_Paillons_” or pieces of metallic foil -which were afterwards flooded with translucent enamel. - -[Illustration: - -GLASS. Plate 30. -] - - - - -GLASS. - - -The purity of glass, its adaptability to colour, and its remarkable -ductility while hot for blowing, twisting or drawing into threads, -differentiates it from all other materials and methods of treatment. Its -tradition dates from the remote past, for glass-blowing is represented -on the tombs at Thebes, B.C. 2500. It was also used in Egypt for -vitreous pastes for bronze and gold cloisonné jewellery, and for the -small bottles or Stibium, with chevron patterns, in yellow, turquoise -and white on a coloured ground. Similar patterns, colours and forms were -used by Phœnicia and her colonies, the usual forms being the Alabastra -and Amphorae. Many remains of bowls were found in Assyria, one (now in -the British museum) of transparent green glass, having the name of -Sargon, B.C. 722. Greece seems to have imported most of her glass from -Phœnicia, but the Romans carried on the tradition, producing fine MOSAIC -or MILLEFIORI. This was made by fusing rods of white and coloured glass -together, then drawing it out to fine threads and slicing it -transversely; the section is then placed in a mould and a bubble blown, -uniting the mosaic, which is then blown into various shapes. The Romans -also used the interlacing of white and coloured rods called LATICINIO, -but they excelled in the CAMEO GLASS, of which the Portland vase is the -finest known example. This vase is of dark blue glass, covered with -white opaque glass, which was ground away with the wheel, leaving the -figures in delicate relief. It was found in 1644 in the sarcophagus of -Alexander Severus, A.D. 325, the subject of its relief being the myth of -Peleus and Thetis. Another Roman example of cameo glass in the British -museum is the Auldjo vase or Oinochoè with beautiful reliefs of vine -leaves. Frequently these reliefs were blown or pressed into moulds, and -a good example of this treatment is in the South Kensington museum (fig. -6). The tradition then declined until the 14th century, when the -Venetians in the island of Murano, perfected the art of glass making. - -The earliest examples of VENETIAN GLASS were massive, richly gilt and -enamelled in colours; one fine example in the British museum is signed -by its maker, “Magister Aldrevandini.” In the 15th and 16th centuries -the most delicate and beautiful blown glass was made, often uncoloured -and with enrichments of knots and wings in blown and shaped blue glass. -The Venetians used with equal skill all the old methods of glassmaking; -the MILLEFIORI; the LATICINIO or threads of opaque white enclosing -pattern; RETICELLI, a network of white lines enclosing at the -intersections a bubble of air; and the beautiful VITRO DI TRINA, -filigree or lace glass, formed by canes or threads of white or coloured -glass being placed in a mould, a bubble being then blown in, and the -glass afterwards taken from the mould and blown or twisted to the shape -required. The artistic bronze mirrors of ancient and mediæval times now -give way to the glass mirrors of the Venetians, A.D. 1500. - -[Illustration: - -STAINED GLASS. Plate 31. -] - - - - -STAINED GLASS - - -with its depth and translucency, owes its intrinsic qualities to -metallic oxides, such as cobalt, giving fine blues, silver, pale and -deep yellows, pink from iron and antimony, and ruby from gold and -copper, which also yields fine greens. When these oxides are mixed with -the glass, in its fused state, it is termed _pot metal_, but if the -coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only, it is -termed _flashed_ or _cased glass_. Ruby, owing to its depth of colour, -is usually cased glass. Fine blues are often flashed, and splendid -effects are produced by flashing ruby over yellow, or blue pot metal -glass. Cased glass is of the greatest value owing to the variety of tint -that can be produced on a single sheet of glass, and also that the -colour may be removed by grinding or by the use of fluoric acid. - -The rationale of the glass painter is--1st, The scheme of composition -and colour shown on a small scale. 2nd, A full sized cartoon in charcoal -or monochrome, with all the details carefully drawn, and showing the -lead lines and positions of the iron stanchions for strengthening the -window. 3rd, A tracing on cloth showing the lead lines only, called the -cut line, on which is cut the selected pieces of glass. 4th, Tracing all -details from the cartoon, with brown enamel on each piece of glass, the -pieces after firing being then fixed in the leading, and kept together -with H shaped leads. A diagram is given here showing the leading of an -example of 13th century glass. - -[Illustration] - -The brown enamel, which is used entirely for outline, detail or shading, -is a fusible glass in combination with opaque manganic or ferric oxide, -and tar oil. With this enamel, smear shading or stipple shading is -worked. This may be removed as required, before firing, by means of a -pointed stick or quill, so as to give the details of embroidery, or of -heraldic forms. - -Silver stain (oxide of silver) introduced at the beginning of the 14th -century is largely used in stained glass, and usually on the back -thereof. According to the different degrees of heat in the firing, a -pale yellow or deep orange of great transparency is produced. - -Coloured glass was made by the Egyptians 4000 years ago, but the -earliest stained glass windows recorded, were those of Brionde A.D. 525. -None however are known to be in existence prior to those of St. Denis -A.D. 1108. Other examples are found in Norman windows, with small -medallions of figures and ornament of a decided Byzantine type, -extremely deep in colour, being, by its style of treatment, termed -mosaic glass. The 13th century, or early Gothic period, has single -lancet lights, with medallions containing small figures surrounded by -the typical 13th century foliage; or the windows were entirely of -ornament in _grisaille_, arranged symmetrically, having narrow bands of -ruby or blue, with wide borders. These _grisaille_ windows are of a -greenish white glass, with the ornament in outline, and the ground -hatched with brown enamel in fine cross lines (fig. 1-2). The north -transept window at York cathedral, called the five sisters, is typical -of this grisaille glass. The finest examples however, are at Salisbury -and Chartres cathedrals. Later in the period, single figures were -introduced under a simple canopy or gabling, plain or crocketed, with an -ordinary trefoil arch. - -[Illustration: 13TH CENTURY GLASS. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.] - -“Quarry glass,” square or diamond in shape, with brown enamel details, -was frequently used, where simple masses were desired. - -In the 14th century, the figures were larger and placed under canopies -in each light of the mullioned windows, such figures in rich colours -forming a bright belt across the window, surmounted by the canopies, -cusped and crocketed, and in strong yellow pot metal, or yellow-cased -glass. The borders were narrow, with a somewhat natural rendering of the -rose, the maple and the oak. - -In the 15th century, a further change took place, figures became more -numerous and the canopy or shrine larger, and chiefly in white glass, -with the crockets and finials tipped with yellow stain. The coloured -border of the earlier glass is entirely absent, its place being taken by -the shaft of the canopy, and the crockets, finials and ornaments are -square in treatment and based chiefly on the vine leaf. - -[Illustration] - -Fairford church, perhaps, contains the finest series of late Gothic -glass A.D. 1500-30. Like the contemporary architecture of the 16th -century, the Renascence now influenced stained glass. The canopy still -survived, but was horizontal or pedimental in form, with purely -classical columns and details. Good examples of this period are the -windows of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge (1520), where rich -Renascence work is introduced into late Gothic mullioned windows. About -1540, transparent enamels were introduced with skill and reticence, but -gradually glass painters began to vie with pictorial oil painting in -effects of light and shade, the ground work or material losing that -beautiful translucent or transmitted colour, which is the chief glory of -stained glass. An example showing the degradation of this art is the -west window of New College, Oxford, painted by Jervas, 1777, from -designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds. - -The ornamentation of stained glass naturally followed contemporary -architecture in the treatment of style, differentiated only by the -technical necessities of material. For instance, in the early English -glass (plate 31), the details of the ornament have the characteristic -spiral arrangement and the trefoil foliage of contemporary architectural -ornament, only the foliage is treated more in profile, as being more -suited to the technical necessities of leading and brush work. - -Most of the detail, however, shows a strong affinity to French -contemporary ornament, this doubtless was owing to the influence of -French craftsmanship and tradition in the stained glass of that period. - -In the 14th century, the English craftsman attained a thorough mastery -over his materials, and consequently the type of ornament followed -English contemporary architecture more closely. - -To sum up, stained glass changed through the different periods from the -rich coloured mosaic of the Normans--the equally rich coloured -medallions and grisaille glass of the early Gothic--the decorated -Gothic, with glass in lighter colours, and a prevalence of yellow stain, -culminating in the later Gothic period, when largeness of mass, -lightness, and silvery colour, were the characteristics. A beautiful -treatment of stained glass, dating from the 15th century was used by the -Arabians; this glass, which has a singular gem-like quality, and without -enamel or stain, was let into a framework of plaster, which had been cut -and pierced with geometrical or floral patterns. - -Modern stained glass has attained a high degree of perfection in design -and material under Burne Jones, Walter Crane, Frederic Shields and Henry -Holiday, with glass such as that produced by Morris, Powell and Sparrow, -and the American opalescent glass of La Farge and Tiffany. - -The individuality of their work, appropriateness of treatment, based -upon the splendid tradition of the past, mark a distinct epoch in -history of stained glass. - -Splendid heraldic glass by A. W. Pugin may be seen in the Houses of -Parliament, Westminster; and in the hall and staircase of the Rochdale -Town Hall, there is a fine series of windows by Heaton, Butler, and -Baine, remarkable for dignity of style and unity of conception. - -[Illustration: - -GOLD AND SILVER. Plate 32. -] - - - - -GOLD AND SILVER. - - -Of all treasure trove, those of gold and silver are the most valuable, -showing us the riches, culture and the decorative arts of the people who -centuries ago used these beautiful objects of jewellery or of utility. -One of the earliest and most valuable of these treasures was found in -1859 with the mummy of Queen Aah-Hotep, 1800 B.C. (Cairo Museum), and -consisted of: bracelets, armlets, rings, chains, a diadem (fig. 1), a -small model of a twelve-oared war galley, and a poniard, all of -exquisite workmanship, and of pure gold, enriched with jasper and -turquoise vitreous pastes. At Petrossa in 1837 (Bukarest Museum), -twenty-two beautiful gold objects were found, but only twelve were -recovered, consisting of two neck-rings or Torques; a large salver, -hammered and chased; a ewer; a bowl with figures in repoussé; four -fibula enriched with precious stones; a gorget; and two double-handled -cups (fig. 4) all of which are Byzantine work of the 5th century. At -Guarrazar in Spain, ten gold votive crowns of Gothic workmanship were -found; one inscribed with the name of King Suintila, 630 A.D., is now in -the museum at Madrid, the others in the Hôtel Cluny, Paris, the largest -having the name of King Rescesvinthus, 670 A.D. in pendive letters (fig. -3). Of silversmith’s work, the most important is the “Treasure of -Hildesheim,” found in 1868 (now in the Berlin Museum) consisting of -thirty objects, cups, vases, and dishes, beautiful in contour and -admirably enriched with delicate repoussé work of the Greco-Roman period -(fig. 5). The British Museum contains many fine examples of Greek and -Etruscan goldsmith’s art; some early Greek work has the typical Mycenæ -spiral enrichment. Beautiful Greek plaques of the 4th and 5th centuries -B.C. were obtained by pressing the gold into stone moulds, and were -afterwards enriched with threads of gold or “filigree,” which developed -later into the Byzantine filigree work. - -The beautiful Etruscan Fibulæ are enriched with minute globules of gold -soldered on, a process brought to a remarkable degree of perfection by -the Etruscans in the 7th, 6th and 5th centuries B.C. Of the gold and -silver vessels used by Solomon in the temple, we have the description in -the Books of Kings and Chronicles, but no trace of the originals, except -that on the Arch of Titus, 79 A.D., we find a representation of the -seven-branched golden candlestick (fig. 9). Of the Mediæval period, many -fine examples of church and corporation plate are still treasured in our -museums. They are of great intrinsic value, of beautiful workmanship, -chased and engraved, and enriched with cast and repoussé work and the -choicest enamels. Of the craftsman or goldsmith we know but little, but -his delicacy of touch, his just appreciation of appropriateness of -treatment to his material, and the singular grace and charm of his -design are a tribute to his culture and personality. Cellini produced -many beautiful works, yet perhaps not more beautiful than his many -contemporary goldsmiths. In our museums there are some charming -specimens of engraving upon silver, filled in with black enamel called -Niello, by Maso Finiguerre, about 1450, who produced some early prints -from an engraved plate. - -[Illustration: - -BRONZES. Plate 33. -] - - - - -BRONZE. - - -Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use from a remote period -in the history of the arts. Its adaptability for casting, its -durability, utility and colour have rendered this material one of the -most useful and valuable. Of the many fine examples of the early -Egyptian and Assyrian bronze now in the British Museum, the most -beautiful are the bronzes of Siris, two fragments of armour, with -reliefs in repoussé (fig. 4). The many Greek statues in the round, of -their Gods and heroes, show the most skilful technique and beauty of -form. The Etruscans were clever workers in this material, and they used -a most expressive treatment of incised lines, which differentiates their -decorative bronzes from those of Greece, with their delicate low -reliefs. The bronze mirrors (fig. 2) and the Cista are typical examples -of the Etruscan treatment. The finest known cista is that called the -“Ficoroni Cista,” by Morios Plantios (3rd century B.C.) and is now in -the Collegio Romano; a description, with illustrations of this example -is in the “_Magazine of Art_,” April, 1884. Descriptions of this cista -and of the many fine examples in the British Museum are given in -“_Murray’s Handbook of Greek Archæology_.” Of small decorative bronzes, -Naples Museum alone has over 13,000 examples, consisting of candelabra, -tripods, tables, chairs and couches, which, eighteen centuries ago, were -used by the wealthy Roman citizens. Of bronze equestrian statues, the -most renowned are those of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, A.D. 175; -Bartolomeo Coleone, at Venice, A.D. 1488, by Andrea Verrocchio; and -Alessandro Leopardo; and that of Gattamelata, at Padua, 1453 A.D., by -Donatello. - -A remarkable bronze figure of the Renascence period is that of Perseus, -by Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1570, at Florence, and the figure of Neptune -on the fountain at Bologna by Giovanni da Bologna, 1524-90. - -The bronze doors of San Zenone, at Verona, (see plates 1 and 3 in -“_Aratra Pentelici_” by John Ruskin), and those of the Baptistery, at -Florence, by Andrea Pisano and Ghiberti (see Renascence) are typical -examples of early Renascence bronzes. The casting of these Bronzes was -by the “Cire Perdu” method, that is, by forming a core of firm material -nearly the size and shape required, then covering with sheet wax and -finishing with the detail required, with sticks of wax projecting to -form vents for the escape of steam in casting. The wax is then brushed -over with a composition of fine clay and ground crucibles to some -thickness and the mould thus formed is connected with the inner one by -bronze rods. The wax is then melted out, leaving a cavity Into which the -liquid bronze is poured, the core and mould being afterwards removed. -Bronze is also cast in piece moulds taken from the model; the piece -mould is then lined with sheet clay and put together and the core run -in. The clay is then removed and the bronze run in as in the former -process. The sand process for casting has now reached a high degree of -perfection in which the core and mould are formed by pressure in a fine -tenacious sand. - -[Illustration: - -WROUGHT IRON. Plate 34. -] - - - - -WROUGHT IRON. - - -The decorative qualities of iron, with its strength, durability and -comparative cheapness, have rendered it one of the most useful metals in -the applied arts. Used from an early period for implements of war and -the chase, it gradually became associated with architecture and -furniture, reaching in the 15th and 16th centuries a remarkable degree -of beauty and skilful craftsmanship that has never been excelled. Many -fine Norman hinges of wrought iron are still in existence, having a -straight central bar or strap, with small scroll terminations; these -central straps were strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces, -terminating in small serpent forms, probably a survival of the Viking -traditions. This form of hinge was succeeded by the Early Gothic hinge, -which was a series of spirals springing from the straight bar or strap, -the spiral being welded or fastened with collars; these spirals were -enriched with the three-lobed foliage or trefoil, typical of the Early -Gothic period; fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of -Notre Dame, Paris, where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with -birds, dragons and small rosettes in stamped iron. This stamped -characteristic may be seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of -Leighton Buzzard Church, Eaton Bray Church, Bedfordshire, and the -Eleanor grill in Westminster Abbey, by Thomas de Leghton, in 1294. In -the 14th and 15th centuries, when panelled doors took the place of the -earlier doors, this Early Gothic style of hinge was not needed (fig. 5) -so that we find no trace of it in that period, but the art of wrought -iron was continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock -plates of the most varied and delicate workmanship, which enriched the -beautiful Gothic chests of the 14th and 15th centuries. The simple -wrought screen, which was so largely used in the 13th century was now -elaborated, especially in Italy, and fine examples of quatre-foil -grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage, -cupids and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the -cathedrals of Orvieto, Prato and Siena, dating from about 1337 to 1350, -and at Santa Croce, Florence, 1371; but it was in Spain and France that -the screen reached its culmination. The Spanish screens or “Réjas” in -the cathedrals of Seville, Toledo and Granada have a fine range of -turned and chiselled vertical bars some 30 to 50 feet high, with an -elaborate frieze and cresting. - -Beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in France about 1658, -for the Louvre and the Royal Chateaux of Anet and Econeu. There are some -fine wrought gates at Hampton Court by Jean Tijon, who published some -drawings of them in 1693, and many good simple gates of the last century -are still in position in many parts of the country. - -The wrought iron gate piers in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, with their -architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and massive -buttresses, in filed, bolted and riveted, are splendid examples of -Flemish workmanship, and are probably by Quintin Matsys (1450-1529). - - - - -FURNITURE. - - -The adaptability and universality of wood for domestic and public -purposes, its susceptibility to carving and enrichment, its beautiful -texture, grain and colour, have made it one of the most useful of -materials in the constructive and decorative arts. - -The many chairs, tables and chests of ancient times, and the beautiful -choir stalls, cabinets and screens of the middle ages are a tribute to -the vitality, inventiveness and artistic perception of the old -craftsman. - -[Illustration] - -The universality of the chair has tended to preserve the form through -many centuries. The chair has undergone various modifications, from the -ornate Egyptian one to the Assyrian example with the supports of -fir-cones. In the Greek example, the beauty and simplicity of profile is -remarkable, while the Chair of St. Peter, 1st century A.D., is purely -architectonic with enrichments of gold and ivory. - -[Illustration] - -The Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey, of the time of Edward I., is -one of the earliest in England, offering a strong contrast to the chairs -of the 18th century by Chippendale and Sheraton. - -[Illustration] - -A Venetian chair of the 16th century shows a skilful but inappropriate -treatment. - -The Arabians at Cairo, in the 15th century, produced some beautiful -geometrical wood panelling, frequently inlaid with ebony and ivory, and -having a marvellous intricacy of line and detail. - -In Italy, during the 16th century, many beautifully carved cassone or -chests, in walnut, enriched with gilding, were produced, similar to the -one here figured from South Kensington Museum. - -In Italy the beautiful carved choir stalls of the 16th century were -frequently enriched with INTARSIA, a light wood inlay upon a dark -ground, this intarsia being afterwards slightly etched and black rubbed -in, or scorched with hot sand or irons. The choir stalls at St. Organo, -Verona, and the Certosa, at Pavia, are fine examples of Intarsia. - -[Illustration: CASSONE OR CHEST S K M ITALIAN 16^{TH} CENTURY] - -In the Renascence of France we meet with many examples of beautiful -furniture, great skill, taste and ingenuity being brought to bear upon -this work. Jean Goujon, Bachelier and Philibert de l’Orme were famed for -their wood carvings in the 16th century. - -In 1642, André Charles Boule introduced a veneered work composed of thin -tortoise-shell and brass, frequently chased or engraved; this is now -termed BOULE work. In some of the later work the shell is laid on a -vermilion or gold ground, which greatly enhances its effect. In the 18th -century, Boule work was still made in France, but new methods and new -men came to the front, amongst others were Riesener and David Roentgen, -who produced splendid MARQUETRY of flowers, festoons and diaper patterns -inlaid in various coloured woods. Both these men worked in mahogany and -ebony, and their lighter marquetry was frequently shaded by scorching -with hot sand. These pieces of furniture were usually enriched with -gilt, bronze or metal mountings by Gouthière, a contemporary craftsman. -A beautiful mode of enriching woodwork was introduced by Vernis Martin, -1706-70; this was the use of a gold and green lac, which was transparent -and brilliant, and similar to the beautiful lac work of Japan. - -[Illustration] - -Of English men of this period, Thomas Chippendale produced some good -furniture and published a book of designs in 1764, which undoubtedly -influenced much of the furniture of that period; Mathias Lock was -another noted cabinet maker. In 1789, A. Hepplewhite published a book on -furniture, and, in 1795, Thomas Sheraton published a work on the same -subject. - -[Illustration: OAK SCREEN. 16^{TH} CENTURY. FRENCH SOUTH KENSINGTON -MUSEUM] - -The beautiful panelling and carved mantels of the many fine halls of the -time of Elizabeth and James are characteristic of English work. -Contemporary with this are the beautiful English panelled chests with -quaint imagery and enrichments, and the curious Jacobean bed-foot with -its pierced pedestal and baluster pillar. - -With Grinling Gibbons, who died in 1721, wood carving reached its -culmination for delicacy and skilful craftsmanship. - -[Illustration: - -TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 35. -] - - - - -TEXTILES. - - -The utility, universality, construction, texture, ornamentation and -colour of textile fabrics are full of interest and suggestiveness, for -in the remarkable development of textile fabrics we may trace the -continuity of style and tradition, the intermingling of races and -customs, and the grafting of religious ideas with the wealth and -luxuriance of the past. - -All fabrics wrought in the loom are called textiles. They are broadly -divided into three classes: 1st, plain fabrics in which the warp and -weft alternate equally; 2nd, those fabrics in which a pattern is -produced by the warp and weft intermingling in different proportions or -colours, figured cloths and tapestries being included in this class; -3rd, those fabrics in which the plain textile NO. 1 is enriched with the -needle or by printing, termed embroideries or printed fabrics. - -Owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile fabrics -are in existence. The oldest examples are found in the tombs of Egypt, -where, owing to the dryness of the climate, some fabrics of the early -dynasties still remain. They are usually of fine linen and without -enrichment, yet upon the same tombs are many painted patterns that -undoubtedly show a woven origin. The oldest figured fabrics found in -Egypt are of the 6th century A.D., and they show a remarkable similarity -to the early patterns of Persia and Byzantium, for it was in India, -Persia and Arabia that textiles reached their perfection of workmanship -and their wealth of material. This splendid tradition was carried from -Persia and India to Byzantium in the 5th century, and in the 8th century -the Arabians absorbed and assimilated the arts of Persia, India, Egypt -and Spain and brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the -14th and 15th centuries. - -The ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and -periods are characterised by well-defined forms, differentiated by -racial influence, climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of -the people. Yet the traditional Eastern origin may be traced through -many textile designs, for there is no doubt that India, Persia and -Arabia influenced the designs of textile fabrics more than any other -nations. This was due no doubt partly to the Eastern weavers carrying -their art and traditions with them to various parts of Europe, and also -to the exportation of their splendid fabrics, but principally to the -beautiful and interesting designs which were perfectly adapted to the -process of weaving. It is due no doubt to this frank adaptation of -natural forms and their appropriateness to the technical necessities of -woven fabrics, that has rendered this Eastern influence so persistent -through many centuries in different parts of Europe. It is remarkable -that even in Italy during the whole of the Renascence period, with the -characteristic scroll forms and acanthus foliation of its architecture -and decorative arts, the textiles are quite distinct in style, having -the characteristics of the Sicilian, Persian and Indian ornament. - -Among the earliest figured fabrics must be placed those of Assyria, of -which representations may be seen in Layard’s Book on Nineveh. The -patterns consisted of symmetrically placed winged figures with the Hom -or Tree of Life and the rosette, which was used as a symbol by Zoraster. -It is probable that many of these patterns were embroidered, as the -Babylonians were reported to be skilful in the art of embroidery, but it -is also certain that some of the patterns were woven. The figured -fabrics found in Egypt only date from the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., -and show a marked Byzantine and Persian influence (figs. 1-7, plate 35). -Characteristic Byzantine examples have medallions and symmetrically -placed figures and ornament of the “Hom.” At Alexandria and Antioch, -many fine green and gold silk fabrics with ornament in brown outline -were produced from the 6th to the 10th centuries. - -Under the Saracens, textile fabrics reached their highest development; -splendour of colour, beauty and perfection of material and the -singularly interesting beauty of the designs being the chief -characteristics. - -The conquest of Persia, in 632 A.D., by Abu Bekr, the successor of -Mahomet, the establishment of Bagdad in 762 as the capital of the -Arabian Khalifs, and the invasion of India, in 711, gave a remarkable -impetus to the decorative arts, more especially the arts of dyeing, -weaving and embroidery. These arts culminated in the splendid period of -the Fatimy Khalifs, 909-1171 A.D. Though Mahomet forbade his followers -to wear silk, it was largely used by the Saracens and, to evade the -injunction, cotton was frequently interwoven with it, and, in India -especially, the fabrics often have a cotton warp as a foundation for the -weft patterns of coloured silks and gold thread. Many fine examples of -Saracenic fabrics of the 11th to the 15th centuries are now in our -national museums. The larger portion are from Sicily, and are termed -Sicilian or Siculo-Saracenic. They have bands of birds, animals, foliage -and inscriptions in blue, green and gold on a red ground. If wholly of -silk the fabric was termed _Holosericum_, and if of silk and gold, -_Chrysoclavum fundatum_. Drawn gold thread was not used in early -fabrics, but gold leaf laid on paper or skin and then rolled round a -fine thread of silk was largely used by the Saracenic weavers. The -patterns in some of the later Sicilian fabrics of the 13th and 14th -centuries have a purple ground in twilled silk, with birds and foliage -formed by a weft of gold thread. These patterns were usually symmetrical -in arrangement, no doubt partly due to the traditional art of Assyria, -but also to the simple necessities of weaving, for in the early looms -the turnover of the pattern was frequently used. The Saracenic fabrics -produced in Spain are called Hispano-Moresque and are distinguished by -splendid crimson or dark blue conventional patterns of silk upon a -yellow ground of a fine quality, and a frequent use of strips of gilded -parchment in place of the rolled gilt thread. In this period, many fine -velvets raised on a satin ground with gold - -[Illustration: - -Plate 36. - -SICILIAN FABRIC IN GOLD THREAD ON PURPLE GROUND. 13^{TH} CENTURY. BOCK -COLLECTION. MANCHESTER] - -[Illustration: - -Plate 37. - -PRINTED COTTON. INDIAN 18^{TH} CENT. S.K.M.] - -and silver threads, were made. In the 12th century, Roger II., the -Norman King of Northern Sicily, took Corinth and Argos, and carried many -weavers and embroiderers from Greece to Sicily, and established them at -Palermo, where they quickly assimilated the Sicilian style and produced -many fine fabrics during the 13th and 14th centuries. - -The crusades now began to influence the arts; in 1098, Antioch was taken -and the spoil distributed through Europe; in 1204, Constantinople was -taken by Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and the Venetian Doge, Dandolo, and -the vast spoil of textiles distributed. It was doubtless under the -influence of the crusades that the Sicilian weavers of the 13th and 14th -centuries produced the many beautiful fabrics enriched with winged -lions, foliated crosses and crowns, rayed stars, harts and birds linked -together, and with the introduction of armorial bearings. Early in the -14th century, this splendid tradition was introduced into Italy, and at -Lucca many beautiful fabrics were produced, having the same -characteristics and technique as the Sicilian fabrics. - -The cloak upon the recumbent bronze figure of Richard II. in Westminster -Abbey has a pattern of foliage with couchant harts and rayed stars, and -was most probably copied from the original silk made for Richard at -Lucca or Palermo. - -The beautiful materials and designs of Indian textile fabrics are -indicative of the love of nature and the splendour of colour of a remote -antiquity. Though influenced at various times by Greek, Persian and -Arabian traditions, India still preserved an indigenous ornamental art -of remarkable freshness and vitality, the designers choosing their own -flora and fauna with rare selective power and adaptive qualities. With -an instinctive feeling for ornamental art, aided by the splendid -colourings of the native dyes, they produced textile fabrics of silks, -brocades, and gold and silver lace remarkable for richness and -perfection of material, beauty of design and harmony of colour. The -Indian pine is a familiar form of enrichment differentiated from the -cypress of Persia (fig. 1, plate 22), by the spiral at the apex. This -typical pine is treated with a wonderful diversity of detail (figs. 4, 5 -and 6, plate 23). The splendid carpets of India were doubtless -influenced by the Persian tradition and they follow the same methods and -ornamental arrangements, adapting, conventionalizing and emphasising -plants, flowers and seeds, and rendering them with a fine feeling for -form and colour. Block printing was largely used for silks and cottons, -and many splendid examples are now treasured in our museums; an -illustration of a printed cotton Palampore from South Kensington is -given here, showing the beautiful floral treatment, diversity of detail, -and contrast of line and mass. The gold and silver Brocades or “Kincobs” -of Ahmedabad and Benares, with patterns of animals, flowers and foliage -richly spangled; the delicate muslins of Dacca, the gold and silver -primed muslins of Jaipur, and the woollen - -[Illustration: - -Plate 38. - -PERSIAN CARPET. 16^{TH} CENTURY. S.K.M] - -shawls of Kashmir, with the well-known pine pattern, are splendid -examples of richness of material, delicacy and skilfulness of technic, -and beauty and appropriateness of ornamentation. - -The Pile carpets of Persia, especially those of Kurdistan, Khorassan, -Kirman, and Ferahan, are the finest in the world, being magnificent in -colour and having bold conventional patterns of their beautiful flora, -with birds and animals interspersed with the ornament, giving a -largeness of mass and interest and vitality of detail. The illustration -on the opposite page is from a fine 16th century Persian carpet, and is -a good example of their methods and traditions. The hyacinth, tulip, -iris and the pink, are frequently introduced, together with the hom or -tree of life. An illustration is given (fig. 2, plate 22) of a Genoa -fabric but of Persian design, showing the typical “pink” with its -simplicity and beauty of line. This traditional art of Persia had a most -marked influence upon the textile fabrics of Europe from the 12th to the -17th centuries. This was no doubt due to many causes, but the perfect -adaptability to the process of weaving, the interest, inventiveness and -beauty of the ornament, and the singular frank treatment of form and -colour, doubtless appealed to the craftsmen of Europe, and hence we find -many Persian designs produced in Sicily, Spain, Italy, France and -Flanders. - -[Illustration: DOUBLE MULLION PATTERN, ITALIAN.] - -The finest silk velvets and damasks produced from the looms of Florence -show a distinct Persian influence in their bold artichoke and -pomegranate patterns of the 16th and 17th centuries. In Genoa, similar -patterns in many coloured velvets were produced, and it is singular how -largely this persistency of type prevails in all countries. - -[Illustration: SILK ITALIAN 16th CENTURY] - -In 1480, Louis XI. introduced the art into France, when looms were -established at Tours, and in 1520 they were established at Lyons by -Francis I., and the art of weaving rapidly spread. The earliest fabrics -of these looms have patterns similar to the Persian and Italian fabrics; -but soon the vase pattern, which no doubt had its origin in Byzantine -textiles and which had been used by the Persians and Italians, began to -influence French designs. However, this rapidly gave place towards the -middle of the 17th century to the imitations of ribbons and laces in -textile fabrics, together with a more naturalistic treatment of floral -forms, and the beauty, suggestiveness and interest of the early patterns -now gave way to prettiness, affectation and a naturalistic treatment -which culminated in the period of Madame Pompadour. - -The remarkable invention of perforated cards for facilitating the -weaving of figured fabrics was introduced by Bonchon, 1725, and -continued by Falcon in 1728, by Vancanson in 1745, and perfected by -Joseph Marie Jacquard, 1752-1834. - -The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 by Louis the XIV., caused -large numbers of weavers to come to England, bringing their art and -tradition with them, and many established themselves at Spitalfields -which soon rose to some importance. The patterns, necessarily, were -purely French in treatment, consisting of natural arrangements of -flowers; a sketch is here given of a Spitalfields design for silk -damask. - -[Illustration: FLOWER VASE PATTERN] - -The textile fabrics of Flanders reached a high degree of perfection in -the 16th and 17th centuries, Bruges being famous for its silk damasks -and velvets, the patterns showing the traditional Persian or the -pomegranate and artichoke type of the Florentine textiles. Block -printing had been introduced into Flanders in the 15th century and many -fine patterns with Indian motives were produced up to the 17th century. - -[Illustration: DESIGN FOR A SPITALSFIELD SILK FABRIC DATED 1739 SKM] - -At Ypres, fine diapered linen was manufactured, and Ghent was famous for -its woollens, but the remarkable prosperity of Flanders was destroyed by -the Spanish occupation (1556-1648). - -[Illustration: SINGLE MULLION PATTERN] - -Then large numbers of Flemish weavers came to England and settled in -many parts of the country, bringing their traditions and craftsmanship, -which have undoubtedly had a most marked influence upon the production -of cotton and woollen textile fabrics in England. - -Tapestry, of which many fine examples of the 16th and 17th centuries are -treasured in our museums and palaces, differs from most woven fabrics in -its method of production, which consists of interweaving and knotting -short pieces of coloured wefts, which form the pattern, to a strong -warp, a ground weft being thrown across each pick to bind the material -well together; - -[Illustration: - -TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 39. -] - -this is almost the same method as that used in the manufacture of the -Indian and Persian carpets. It was during the 14th and 15th centuries, -at Arras in Flanders, that storied tapestries were brought to their -culmination and the tapestry workers became a most powerful guild. From -about 1480, Brussels produced many magnificent hangings from designs by -the great masters of the Italian Renascence. Raphael’s famous cartoons -which are now in the South Kensington Museum are the original designs -for the ten tapestries manufactured at Brussels for Pope Leo X. for the -enrichment of the Sistine chapel in the Vatican; the seven cartoons, -three being lost, were purchased by Charles I. - -Many of the great Flemish painters also designed for the Brussels -tapestries, such as Van Orley, Van Leyden and Jan Mabuse. - -Francis I. caused tapestry looms to be set up at Fontainbleau in 1339, -under the direction of the Italian, Serlio, but it was not until the -Gobelin tapestry manufactory was established in 1603 in the Faubourg -Saint Marcel by the Fleming, Marc de Comans, and François de la Planche, -that French tapestry reached any importance. Under the Minister Colbert -in 1667, the Royal Gobelin manufactory produced many fine tapestries -designed by the head of the establishment, Charles le Brun. - -About 1590, some carpets called Savonnerie were made in the Louvre, the -technique being somewhat similar to the Persian carpets but the patterns -were more pictorial and naturalistic in treatment; fine tapestries were -also produced at Beauvais and Aubusson. Tapestry had been manufactured -in England as early as the reign of Edward III., but it was not until -the time of James I. that it assumed any importance, when a tapestry -manufactory was established at Mortlake by Francis Crane. - -Some fine Flemish tapestries are in the South Kensington museum and -eight large pieces by Bernard Van Orley are in the Great Hall of Hampton -Court. The coloured cartoons by Mantegna in Hampton Court, representing -the Triumph of Cæsar, were to be reproduced in tapestry for the Duke of -Mantua. There are some fine Gobelin and Beauvais tapestries in Windsor -Castle which were gifts from the Court of France, and they all show the -most consummate technique, beauty of material and harmony of colour. - -The well-known Bayeux tapestry is embroidered in coloured wools upon a -white linen ground. It is 214 feet in length and 22 inches in width and -divided in 72 compartments with incidents representing the Norman -invasion of England by William I. - -Though reputed to be the work of Queen Matilda, the probability is that -it is the work of English hands some few years after the invasion. This -embroidery or tapestry is still preserved in the cathedral of Bayeux. - -The remarkable civilization of the Incas or Peruvians, is shown in the -many splendid objects of the industrial arts now treasured in our -museums. Of these relics of a vanished civilization, the textile - -[Illustration: - -PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 40. -] - -[Illustration: - -PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 41. -] - -fabrics are, perhaps, the most instructive and interesting. The high -technical skill of the craftsmanship, the fine spinning of the wool and -cotton, and the perfection of the dyeing of the yarn, together with the -skilful weaving of the figured cloths and tapestries are a tribute to -the vitality and civilization of a people remote from all Asiatic or -European influences. - -Many of the fabrics are of double cloth, of deep brown and pale straw -colour, and show the same colour and pattern on both sides of the cloth. -Some of the fabrics are tapestry woven, having short strands of coloured -wool inserted into the fabric by the aid of the needle, and they -somewhat resemble the Gobelin tapestry in their method of production. - -A few of these Peruvian cotton fabrics are ornamented by means of tied -or knotted work, identical with the Bandhana or knotted work termed -Chunti Cloth, of the North-west province of India. These knotted -patterns consist of simple spots arranged in square, zig-zag or curved -lines. The pattern is first marked with a red earth on the plain fabric; -then the pattern or spots are tied up tightly with cotton thread and the -whole dipped in the dye which only acts on the untied portions of the -cloth; a white pattern on a coloured ground is thus produced, both sides -being alike. - -These Peruvian textiles are remarkable for the absence of the beautiful -flora of Peru as elements for decoration. The fylfot or fret is a -frequent form of enrichment (plates 40-41.) The wave scroll so typical -of Greek work is also a remarkable element in Peruvian ornament, and -illustrates the singular development of the same ideas and aspect of -form among people so remote from each other as the Greeks and Peruvians. - -But the patterns that sharply differentiate Peruvian examples from all -other styles are the conventional treatments of figures, birds, fishes -and animals. The llama is conspicuous in many patterns, but the bird -forms are the most remarkable, having many variations of type and -treatment. Illustrations are given in plates 40 and 41, all taken from -the Smithies Loan Collection at Manchester. Other examples of these -interesting fabrics may be seen in the Smithies collection at South -Kensington, showing the wonderful diversity of the treatment of pattern -designing by a people so remote as the Peruvians. - -It is difficult to fix any date for these Peruvian examples, but as it -is known that during the reign of Inca Pachacutic (circa 1390), the -ceramic art was at its best, we may assume that the sister art of -weaving reached its perfection about the same period, and continued -until the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century. - -[Illustration: - -FRETS. Plate 42. -] - - - - -FRETS. - - -The remarkable universality of the fret, the simplicity and rhythm of -detail, its adaptability and usefulness for surface enrichment, have -made the fret one of the best known forms of ornamentation. It was used -in the surface decorations of the tombs of Egypt, the temples of Greece, -and the civic and domestic buildings of Rome. - -The Greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys was used -on the simple abacus and plain fascias of the Dorian architecture, in -bands upon the painted vases, and in a concentric form when used in the -interior of the red-figured circular cylix. The Romans, without -imparting freshness, used the same right-angled key pattern, chiefly as -borders for mosaic pavements and upon the horizontal soffits of their -architecture. The Byzantine using the same type in conjunction with the -cross and circle gave more significance to the fret. - -The Arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line together with -the right-angled key, obtaining a wonderful degree of complexity and -richness. - -The Celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one, but the recurrent angle is -rounded to a curve. - -Chinese and Japanese frets are usually right-angled, and are used in -great profusion, often in a secondary field or background. - -[Illustration: WALL MOSAIC OF COLOURED MARBLES] - -The Japanese key or “_Fret diaper_” is used in the greatest profusion; -it is used alike on silks and brocades, damascened in metal, in -cloisonné enamel and in lacquered work, and is frequently arranged in -irregular shaped compartments or medallions. - -The Greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the Japanese, who -generally use the disconnected or irregular fret. A similar irregular -fret border was used by the Peruvians (plate 41), by the Mexicans, and -by the natives of Polynesia. - -The Assyrian and Byzantine guilloche is but a curved fret, but -additional interest is given by the introduction of radiating forms in -the principal interstices of the fret (fig. 5, plate 11.) - -[Illustration: - -Plate 43. -] - - - - -CONTINUITY OF STYLE - - -in architecture and ornament has always been influenced by tradition, -racial influence, and the myths and religious beliefs of the people, and -it developed with the progress of the nation, often culminating in some -great epoch. Frequently the continuity was carried on by some -contemporary or succeeding race, modified by different conditions and -environments, yet still retaining the style in its general -characteristics, or, this thread of continuity was occasionally lost for -a time, only to spring into new life, endowed with fresh vitality and -beauty, culminating again in splendour. Then fresh religious ideas and -conditions engrafted their symbolism and traditions upon the style, thus -forming a new period in the history of art. - -Ornament is the expression of the people or of the priestcraft, and in -its primitive state was used symbolically. The ornament of Polynesia and -Melanesia probably shows this primitive state of ornamentation. Isolated -as these islanders were from the influence of Eastern or Western art, -and with but little communication among the various islands, the -ornamental art of these people has its own traditions and -characteristics, each province or group of islands showing different -ideas and details in proportion to its culture or state of civilization, -New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia the lowest, -while with the Marquesans the ornament is almost pure picture writings. -The illustration of the beautiful paddle in the Heape collection, with -its geometric ornamentation, shows the continuity and ornamental -development of the representation of the human figure, which was -originally chosen by the priesthood for its significance or divinity. - -In Europe and Asia all trace of this primitive stage has ceased to -exist. The development and continuity of ideas and customs, the -traditions of style and craftsmanship carried on through many centuries -of the world’s history have obliterated the early or primitive style of -ornament, chosen first for its significance or emblematic character. - -Some remarkable examples of pottery and woven textile fabrics have been -recently found in the ancient cemeteries of Peru--relics of the -Incas--long anterior to the Spanish conquest. Many fine examples of -these woven textiles of cotton and wool are now in the South Kensington -museum, forming the Smithies collection, and, as in the ornament of -Polynesia, floral forms are entirely absent, the ornament consisting of -conventional representations of the human figure, with the owl, condor -and the toucan, mingled with the wave scroll and the fret, elements -doubtless chosen for their significance. - -Many beautiful illustrations could be chosen from the history of -ornament, showing this continuity and persistency of line and form and -its remarkable influence upon contemporary and succeeding races. - -Perhaps the form and enrichment of the Architectural Capital offer one -of the most interesting and instructive fields of study in the history -and evolution of architecture. The remarkable persistency of the capital -as a distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many -centuries, though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial -influences, yet still preserving a remarkable similarity of form and -enrichment among the various nations of the earth. - -The function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the columns -the weight of the entablature or archivolt, and the beauty and -appropriateness of the capital depends:-- - -First, upon this functional treatment of strength; - -Second, upon the beauty of profile or mass; - -Third, upon the enrichment and proportion of the capital. - -The dignified Doric capital of the Greeks illustrates these functions -and conditions by its perfect adaptability, simple functional strength, -beauty of profile, appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and -harmony of parts, qualities which are essential to beauty of -architecture. In the Parthenon, B.C. 438, we have the finest treatment -of this capital--a treatment full of dignity, reserve, and unison of -profile (plate 6). The many examples of the Doric Order in Greece and -her colonies attest to the esteem in which this order was held by the -Greeks. The Indian capital (plate 24) exhibits the same functional -treatment by the use of brackets or modillions, which undoubtedly are a -survival of a wooden construction, and which are typical of Eastern -architecture. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN CAPITAL FROM PHILÆ.] - -The remarkable persistency of the profile, and enrichment of the capital -extending through a period of 4,000 years, may be illustrated by a -series of diagrams of typical examples. The profile of the capital has -not varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here given, and the -enrichment of the bell is remarkable for its persistency, though -differentiated by racial influences. The Corinthian capital, with its -volutes and acanthus foliage, is but the architectural continuity of the -Egyptian capital. The only pure Greek example of this order is from the -monument of Lysicrates, but the Romans continued the tradition, -assimilating and elaborating until they produced the magnificent -capitals of the portico of the Pantheon and the temple of Castor and -Pollux. In these examples the leaves are arranged in series of two rows -of eight leaves each, the volutes springing from sheaths and stems -between the leaves, which support the angle of the volutes. The example -of early French Gothic has similar characteristics and illustrates the -continuity of style. - -The Ionic capital, though one of the most persistent in the history of -architecture, never reached the architectonic perfection of other -capitals. This was undoubtedly owing to the wooden origin being -incompatible with the necessities of stone and marble. There is a want -of unity between the volutes and ovolo of the capital; in brief, it has -neither coherence nor harmony of parts. The exquisite craftsmanship of -the capitals of the Erectheum, with their anthemion enrichment of the -greatest purity, the beauty of the ovolo and the subtility of the -volutes compensates to some extent for the lack of unison (plate 6). The -enrichment of the architectural capital is no doubt a survival of the -primitive custom of binding floral forms round the simple functional -capital, these forms being afterwards perpetuated in stone or marble. - -[Illustration: CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE PANTHEON ROME.] - -In early Corinthian examples these floral forms were frequently of -beaten metal, which, in turn, gave place to the beautiful marble foliage -of the Greeks and Romans. - -[Illustration: FRENCH. EARLY GOTHIC.] - -That the ancients used metal work in their capitals we have abundant -proof. In the descriptions of the building of Solomon’s Temple we read -of “Two chapiters of molten brass to set upon the pillars, and nets of -chequer work and wreath of chain work to set upon the top of the -pillars.” - -[Illustration: COMPOSITE CAPITAL FROM POMPEII.] - -The Composite capital is deficient in coherence and unity of parts, -having the same defects as its prototype the Ionic. The annexed -illustration from Ancient Rome gives an unusual treatment by the -introduction of the human figure in the centre of the face of the -capital. - -The Byzantine capital differs from those of the Greeks and Romans in its -marked symbolism of detail and the prevalence of the cushion form. -Functionally, this type of capital is admirable, yet it lacks the -vigorous upward growth of the Egyptian and early Gothic capitals. - -The Byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity and variety of -detail, such as interlacing circles and crosses with their mystic -symbolism, basket work, chequered details, and the traditional sharp -acanthus foliage of the Greeks. - -[Illustration: BYZANTINE. S^T MARKS VENICE.] - -These features are seen in the greatest profusion at S. Sophia at -Constantinople; S. Apollinare and S. Vitale at Ravenna, and S. Marco at -Venice. These splendid capitals of a splendid period are exceedingly -beautiful in fertile inventiveness of enrichment, and show the -assimilative power of the Byzantine craftsmen. The abundant use of -chequer work, wreaths of chain work, and of lily work in Byzantine -capitals, many of which are figured in Ruskin’s “Stones of Venice,” show -the continuity of style and tradition in architecture. - -[Illustration: BYZANTINE S^T MARKS VENICE.] - -The Byzantine capitals have the square abacus, usually consisting of a -simple fillet and chamfer enriched with the billet, dentil or star -pattern. The Dosseret, a singular adjunct to the capital was introduced -during this period; it was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed upon -the abacus of the capital to give additional height (plate 11). - -[Illustration: BYZANTINE CAPITAL S^T MARK’S VENICE.] - -The Byzantine influence is seen upon the Norman capitals with their -square abacus of fillet and chamfer, and the cushion profile of capital. -Some remarkable Siculo-Norman capitals are in the cloisters of the -Benedictine Monastery of Monreale in Sicily, A.D. 1174-1184. The great -fertility of inventiveness in the 200 capitals, their storiation, the -intermingling of figures, birds and animals with the classic and -Byzantine foliage makes this cloister one of the most remarkable in the -history of the world. The Arabian capital, which frequently shows the -traditional volute, differs from the typical bell-shaped form in its -marked squareness of profile with flat or low reliefs enriched with -colour. - -[Illustration: FRENCH ROMANESQUE CAPITAL.] - -The Early Gothic capital is one of the most vigorous and beautiful. The -perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving, the significance -of its detail as emblematic of the Trinity, the spiral growth of its -foliage and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are the chief -characteristics of this period. Lacking, perhaps, the delicacy or -variety of detail of the Byzantine period or the later Gothic work, it -excelled them in the appropriateness of its enrichment, which is more -beautiful in the Early English examples with their circular abacus than -in contemporary French capitals where the square abacus was prevalent. -The transition from the circular column to the square abacus was always -felt to be a difficulty, and was rarely overcome, but in the circular -abacus of the Early English capitals we have a break in the continuity -of the style of the capital. - -[Illustration: CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS MONTREALE.] - -[Illustration: CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS OF MONTREALE.] - -The English foliage of this period differs from the French in the use of -a deep mid-rib and simple trefoil leaf. The French examples have a less -pronounced mid-rib, and the leaf is convex in form and divided into -three lobes, and the foliage adheres more closely to the bell, -consequently the brilliant play of light and shade which is so -characteristic of Early English work, is generally absent from French -examples (fig. 12, plate 16). - -[Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH CAPITAL ELY CATHEDRAL.] - -[Illustration: ARABIAN CAPITAL FROM THE ALHAMORA] - -[Illustration: SOUTH-WESTMINSTER DECORATED CAPITALS] - -The Decorated Gothic capitals differ essentially from those of the Early -Gothic period, a more natural type of foliage being used, consisting of -the briony, maple, mallow and oak. This foliage was carved with singular -delicacy of touch and grace of profile, and is beautiful in its -modelling and play of light and shade, yet frequently the capitals are -trivial in conception and arrangement, lacking that architectonic -character which is so essential to all architectural constructive -features. - -[Illustration: RENASCENCE CAPITAL VENICE.] - -The perpendicular or late Gothic capital was usually octagonal in form -with square conventional foliage of the vine, showing a marked decadence -in tradition and craftsmanship (fig. 9, plate 17). - -The Renascence capital was frequently marked by a fine feeling for -profile, splendid craftsmanship, diversity of enrichment, and vitality -of conception, more especially in Italy, where the tradition of -architecture culminated in the works of such remarkable men as Leon -Battista Alberti, Bramante, Baldassare Peruzzi, San Micheli, Serlio, -Palladio, and Sansovenio. The tradition was worthily carried on in -France by Pierre Lescot, Jean Bullant, Philipert de Lorme, and De -Brosse, and in England by Inigo Jones, Wren, and Chambers. - -[Illustration: ROMAN SCROLL.] - - - - -TERMS USED IN ORNAMENTAL ART. - - -Ornament is the means by which Beauty or Significance is imparted to -Utility. It is either Symbolical or Aesthetic. Symbolic ornament -consists of elements or forms chosen for the sake of their -_significance_--Aesthetic ornament consists of forms or elements chosen -for their _Beauty_ alone, or their power of appealing to the senses. - -Of the historic styles of ornament, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Byzantine, -Scandinavian, Persian, Indian, Gothic, Polynesian, and much of the -Chinese and Japanese are symbolical, having elements and ornamental -details chosen for their significance; while in the Greek, Roman, and -Renascence ornament, the purely aesthetic motive is characteristic. - -Ornament, again, may be natural or conventional--Imitative or Inventive. -The terms “natural” and “imitative” have the same significance--viz., -the exact copying of natural forms, so that they become principal--not -secondary as perfect ornament should be. Conventional ornament is the -adaptation of natural forms to ornamental and technical requirements, -and is seen in its greatest beauty in the frank treatment by the Indians -and Persians of their flora and fauna for the decorative enrichment of -their textile fabrics, pottery, and jewellery. - -Inventive ornament is that which consists of elements not derived from -any natural source; the Moresque style is a good example of this type. - -The _elements_ of ornament are the details or forms chosen for -ornamental motives, and the _principals_ of ornament are the arrangement -of these forms and details; they comprise repetition, alternation, -symmetry, radiation, balance, proportion, variety, eurythmy, contrast, -intersection, complication, fitness, and utility. - -_Repetition_ is the use of elements in a continuous series; -_Alternation_ is the repetition of an element at intervals, with others -intervening; _Symmetry_: when the leading lines are equal or similar (or -reciprocal) on both sides; _Radiation_: when the lines spring from a -centre, for example, a bird’s wing and the flower of the daisy; -_Balance_ and _Proportion_: when the relation and harmony of parts is -based upon natural laws; _Variety_ implies difference in the details, -with respect to form or type; _Eurythmy_ signifies rhythms or harmony in -ornament; _Contrast_ is the arrangement in close proximity of colours or -forms of opposite characters, as the straight line with the curve, or -light with dark; _Intersection_ is the crossing of the leading lines, -the Arabian, Moresque and Celtic styles are examples of this principle; -_Complication_ is the effect produced by elements so arranged as to be -more or less difficult to trace with the eye alone: as in the Japanese -key and the Moresque star pattern. _Fitness_ and _utility_ as their -names imply are essentials in all good periods of ornamentation. - -[Illustration: ROMAN SCROLL.] - - * * * * * - -Text Books upon Architecture and Ornament. - - - Classic and Early Christian Architecture _Roger Smith_, 5/- - Gothic and Renascence _Roger Smith_, 5/- - Glossary of Architecture _J. Parker_, 7/6 - Handbook of Architectural Styles _Rosengarten_, 7/6 - Introduction to Gothic Architecture _J. Parker_, 5/- - Three Manuals of Gothic Ornament _J. Parker_, _each_ 1/- - Classic and Early Christian Sculpture _G. Redford_, 5/- - Gothic and Renascence Sculpture _Leader Scott_, 5/- - Handbook of Greek Sculpture, 2 vols. _Ed. Gardner_, 10/- - History of Greek Art _Tarbell_, 5/- - Analysis of Ornament _J. Wornum_, 8/- - Handbook of Ornament _Meyer_, 10/6 - -An excellent series of illustrated Handbooks upon the Industrial Arts by -writers of repute, is published by the Science and Art Department, and -may be obtained at the Bookstall of the South Kensington Museum, at a -cost of 1/-each part (paper covers), or they may be purchased through -Messrs. Chapman and Hall, at 2/6 each part, bound in cloth, they -include: - - The Industrial Arts of India _Sir G. Birdwood_ } - “ “ Spain _Juan F. Riano_ } - “ “ Denmark _J. J. Worsaae_ } - “ “ Scandinavia _Hans Hildebrand_ } - The Saracens of Egypt _Stanley Lane Poole_ } each in - Early Christian Art in Ireland _Margaret Stokes_ } two parts. - English Earthenware _A. H. Church_ } - “ Porcelain _A. H. Church_ } - French Pottery _P. Gasnault & E. Garnier_ } - Wrought Iron Work _J. Starkie Gardner_ } - - Bronzes _Drury E. Fortnum_ } - College and Corporation Plate _Wilfred Cripps_ } - Furniture _J. H. Pollen_ } - Gold and Silversmith’s Work _J. H. Pollen_ } - Glass _A. Nesbitt_ } - Ivories _W. Maskell_ } complete - Japanese Pottery _A. W. Franks_ } in - Maiolica _Drury E. Fortnum_ } one part. - Persian Art _R. Murdoch Smith_ } - Textile Fabrics _Rev. Daniel Rock_ } - Tapestry _Alfred de Champeaux_} - The Industrial Arts } - - * * * * * - -Works of Reference. - - -Architecture:-- - - Antiquities of Rome _Taylor & Cresy_. - Antiquities of Athens _Stuart & Revett_. - Analysis of Gothic Architecture _Brandon_. - Architecture for General Readers _H. H. Statham_. - Byzantine Architecture _Texies & Pullan_. - Constantinople _Salzenberg_. - Civil Architecture _Chambers_. - Decorated Window Tracery _E. Sharpe_. - Encyclopædia of Architecture _Gwilt_. - English Renascence Architecture _J. A. Gotch_. - Gothic Mouldings _F. A. Paley_. - Gothic Architecture _T. Rickman_. - Gothic Architecture in France _E. Corroyer_. - Gothic Architecture in Spain _G. E. Street_. - Gothic Foliage _J. K. Collings_. - Handbook of Architecture _J. Fergusson_. - History of Architecture _J. Fergusson_. - Indian and Eastern Architecture _J. Fergusson_. - Mansions of England _J. Nash_. - Old English Mansions _C. Richardson_. - Orders of Architecture _R. Phéne Spiers_. - Orders of Architecture _C. Norman_. - Orders of Architecture _J. M. Manch_. - Spanish Renascence _D. N. Prentice_. - Stones of Venice _J. Ruskin_. - Seven Lamps of Architecture _J. Ruskin_. - The Seven Periods of Church Architecture _E. Sharpe_. - - -Ornament and Sculpture:-- - - Art of the Old English Potter _L. M. Solon_. - Ancient Pottery _S. Birch_. - Alphabets _E. Strange_. - Alphabets _Lewis F. Day_. - Basis of Design _Walter Crane_. - Fresco Decoration in Italy _L. Gruner_. - Grammar of Ornament _Owen Jones_. - Greek and Roman Sculpture _W. G. Perry_. - Greek Vase Painting _Jane Harrison_. - Glass Painting _C. Winston_. - Stained Glass Windows _Lewis F. Day_. - Handbook of Greek Archæology _A. S. Murray_. - Primitive Greece } - Persia } - Phrygia } _George Perrot and - Sardinia and Asia Minor } C. Chipiez_. - Chaldea and Assyria } - Egypt } - - Keramic Art of Japan _Audsley & Bowles_. - Nineveh _Layard_. - Ornamental Metal Work _Digby Wyatt_. - Ornamental Art _Gruner_. - Ornamental Textiles _Fischbach_. - Ornament of Textile Fabrics _Dupont Auberville_. - Pompeii _Zahn_. - Polychromatic Ornament _Racinet_. - The Alhambra _Owen Jones_. - Alfred Stevens, his life and work _Hugh Stannus_. - -Many excellent “CANTOR LECTURES,” by experts, upon the practical -application of the Industrial Arts, will be found in the _Society of -Arts Journal_. - -The following Lectures may be studied with advantage: - -April, 1891 Cloisonné _Clement Heaton_. - -Feb., 1894 Decorative Treatment of Artificial - Foliage _Hugh Stannus_. - -April, 1891 Decorative Treatment of Natural - Foliage _Hugh Stannus_. - -June, 1897 Delft Ware _J. W. L. Glaisher_. - -March, 1891 Enamels _J. Starkie Gardner_. - -Jan., 1892 Indian Art _Sir G. Birdwood_. - -Feb., 1892 Japanese Pottery _E. Hart_. - -Feb., 1891 Lithography _W. Simpson_. - -Jan., 1897 Material and Design in Pottery _William Burton_. - -April, 1891 Plaster Work _A. Robinson_. - -Feb., 1891 Storiation _Hugh Stannus_. - -Feb., 1891 S’graffito _Heywood Sumner_. - -March, 1899 Vitreous Enamels _C. Davenport_. - -Feb., 1898 Some Laws of Form in Applied Art _Hugh Stannus_. - -In the transactions of the Rochdale Literary Society for 1891 (_Aldine -Press_) is a most instructive and well-illustrated article on “The -Ornamental Art of Savage People,” by _Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe_, translated by -Mrs. H. C. March. - -The transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society -(1891) contains an excellent article upon “The Pagan Christian Overlap -in the North,” by _H. Colley March, M.D._ - -The illustrated articles in the transactions of the Royal Institute of -British Architects, may also be studied with advantage, they include: - -1892 Byzantine Architecture _George Aitchison_. - -1892 Casting in Metals _D. Graham, H. Longden & - H. Singer_. - -1891 Decorative Plaster Work _G. Robinson, Heywood Sumner - and Stephen Webb_. - -1897 Heraldry in English Mediæval - Architecture _W. H. St. John Hope_. - -1897 Heraldry of the Renascence in England _Alfred Gotch_. - -1898 Heraldic Drawing _J. D. Crace_. - -1894 Mosaics _C. H. Harrison & J. C. Powell_. - -1898 Sculptured Columns of the Temple at - Ephesus _A. S. Murray_. - -1891 Sculpture in relation to Architecture _G. Simonds_. - -1892 Stained Glass _H. Charpenter, J. - Powell, H. Westlake - and C. Heaton_. - -1891 Wrought Iron Work, Mediæval Period _J. Starkie Gardner_. - -1891 Wrought Iron Work, Renascence Period _J. Starkie Gardner_. - -Good articles are found in the _Magazine of Art_, they include: - -1897 Chippendale Furniture _C. Dempsey_. - -1893 Design _Walter Crane_. - -1890 Embroidered Bookcovers _S. E. Prideaux_. - -1896 Ironwork _J. Starkie Gardner_. - -1888 Language of Line _Walter Crane_. - -1882-3 Stained Glass _Lewis F. Day_. - -1883 Sheraton Furniture _E. Balfour_. - -1891 The Use of Metals in Bookbinding _S. E. Prideaux_. - -1884 The Ficoroni Dressing Case - -1896 The Influence of Architecture Style - upon Design _Walter Crane_. - -In the _Art Journal_, there is: - -1888 Ancient Glass in the British Museum _Henry Wallis_. - -1889 Antique Glass in the Naples Museum _Henry Wallis_. - -1888 Textile Fabrics in the South Kensington - Museum _Gilbert R. Redgrave_. - -1887 Meaning in Ornament _Lewis F. Day_. - -1888 The Boulaq Museum _Henry Wallis_. - -In the _Portfolio_, there is: - - 1893 Old English Pottery _A. H. Church_. - 1893 English Enamels _J. Starkie Gardner_. - 1893 English Bookbinding _W. Y. Fletcher_. - 1894 Bookbinding in France _W. Y. Fletcher_. - 1894 Italian Book Illustrations _A. W. Pollard_. - 1894 Josiah Wedgwood _A. H. Church_. - 1898 Greek Bronzes _A. S. Murray_. - 1897 Armour in England _J. Starkie Gardner_. - 1898 Foreign Armour in England _J. Starkie Gardner_. - -In the _Builder_, there are the Royal Academy Lectures upon Architecture -given by _George Aitchison, R.A._ They include: - - 1891 Roman Architecture. - 1892 Saracenic Architecture. - 1893 Byzantine Architecture. - 1894 Renascence Architecture. - 1896 Romanesque Architecture. - - - - -Index. - - -PAGE. - -Alberti, Leon, Battista, 57 - -Aldus Manutius, 54 - -Alhambra, 63 - -Amasis, 77 - -Anthemion, 7-17 - -Andreani, Andrea, 54 - -Apollodorus, 27 - -Arabesque, 53-54 - -Arch of Septimus Severus, 21 - -Architecture - Capitals, 126 - Composite, 22 - Corinthian, 10 - Decorated Gothic, 39-46-130 - Doric, 9 - Early Gothic, 38-45-129 - English Renascence, 60 - French Renascence, 58 - Ionic, 9 - Italian Renascence, 56 - Perpendicular Gothic, 46 - Tuscan, 22 - -Atrium, 23 - - -Baccio d’Agnolo, 57 - -Balducco di Pisa, 50 - -Baptistery at Pisa, 49 - -Baptistery at Florence, 50-103 - -Basilica of Trajan, 27 - -Black Figure Vases, 77 - -Boule, André, 59-107 - -Bramante, 57 - -Bronzes, 103 - -Brunelleschi, 51-57 - -Buen Retiro, 83 - -Bullant, Jean, 58 - -Busti, Agostino, 54 - - -Cachrylion, 77 - -Cambio, Arnolfo di, 49 - -Caradosso, 51 - -Caryatides, 9 - -Castor Ware, 80 - -Cellini, Benvenuto, 51 - -Celtic Ornament, 35 - -Ceramic Art, 78 - -Chairs, 106 - -Chaldea, 7 - -Champlevé Enamels, 35 - -Chinese Ornament, 71 - -Chippendale, 106 - -Chryselephantine Sculpture, 73 - -Cinque-Cento Ornament, 49-52 - -Classification of Temples, 11 - -Classification of Gothic Architecture, 36 - -Cloisonné Enamels, 91 - -Coleone, Bartolomeo, 103 - -Cologne Pots, 82 - -Column of Trajan, 27 - -Column of Marcus Aurelius, 27 - -Compluvium, 23 - -Continuity of Style, 125 - -Crockets, 45 - -Cronaca, 57 - - -Decorated Gothic Details, 46 - -Delft Ware, 80 - -Dipylon Ware, 77 - -Domus, 23 - -Donatello, 51 - -Duris, 77 - - -Early Gothic Details, 45 - -Earthenware, 79 - -Egyptian Ornament, 5 - -Elgin Marbles, 13 - -Elizabethan Ornament, 60 - -Elizabethan Mansions, 60 - -Enamels, 91 - -English Cathedrals, 40 - -English Renascence, 60 - -Epiktetos, 77 - -Euphronios, 77 - -Exekias, 77 - - -Fauces, 23 - -Flaxman, 82 - -Fontana, 57 - -Fontano, Orazio, 87 - -French Cathedrals, 40 - -Frets, 123 - -Frieze of the Parthenon, 15 - -Frieze at Phigaleia, 15 - -Frieze at Pergamos, 16 - -Frieze from Susa, 17 - - -Georgio, Maestro, 87-88 - -Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 50-103 - -Giotto, 49 - -Glass, 95-97 - -Gobelin Tapestry, 59 - -Goldsmith’s Work, 101 - -Gothic Architecture, 36 - -Goujon, Jean, 59-107 - -Gouthière, 59-107 - -Greek Architecture, 9 - -Greek Ceramics, 77 - -Grisaille Enamel, 93 - -Grisaille Glass, 98 - -Grinling Gibbons, 107 - -Grolier, 59 - - -Henri Deux Period, 58 - -Henri Deux Pottery, 81 - -Henri Quatre, 58 - -Hepplewhite, 107 - -Hieron, 77 - -Hispano-Moresque Pottery, 87 - - -Impluvium, 23 - -Indian Ornament, 69 - -Insular, 23 - -Ivories, 73 - - -Jacobean, 60 - -Japanese Ornament, 71 - -Jean, Juste, 58 - -Jeweller’s Enamel, 92 - - -Lacunaria, 25 - -Lancet Period, 38 - -Leoni, Lione, 51 - -Leoni, Pompeoni, 51 - -Lescot, Pierre, 58 - -Lombardo, Pietro, Tullio and Antonio, 54-56 - -Lotus, 7 - -Louis Quatorze, 59 - -Louis Quinze, 59 - -Louis Seize, 59 - - -Maiolica, 87 - -Mantegna, Andrea, 54 - -Marquetry, 107 - -Matteo Civitali, 51 - -Mausoleum, 16 - -Melanesia, 3 - -Michel Angelo, 52 - -Michelozzi, 57 - -Mino da Fiesole, 51 - -Mosaics, 75 - -Mycenæ or Colonial Ware, 77 - - -Nicosthenes, 77 - -Nineveh, 7 - -Norman Architecture, 37 - - -Oiron Pottery, 81 - -Opus Tesselatum, 75 - -Opus Lithostratum, 75 - -Opus Miserum, 75 - - -Painted Enamels, 91 - -Palaces in Italy, 57 - -Palissy, Bernard, 81 - -Palladio, Andrea, 56 - -Pamphæios, 77 - -Pantheon, 22 - -Pannitz, Arnold, 54 - -Parthenon, 13 - -Pastorino, 51 - -Patera, 7 - -Penni, Francesco, 53 - -Perino del Vaga, 53 - -Perpendicular Gothic, 46 - -Persian Ornament, 65 - -Peristylium, 23 - -Pethenos, 77 - -Peruvian Textiles, 118 - -Peruzzi, Baldassare, 57 - -Phaleron Ware, 77 - -Phidias, 13 - -Pisanello, 51 - -Pisano, Nicolo, 49 - - “ Giovanni, 49 - - “ Andrea, 50 - - “ Vittore, 51 - -Plaster Work, 61 - -Plique à Jour, 92 - -Polynesian Ornament, 2 - -Pompeian Ornament, 29 - -Porcelain, 79-83 - -Portland Vase, 95 - -Primaticcio, 54 - -Printing in Italy, 54 - -Pythos, 77 - - -Quercia, Jacopo della, 50 - - -Raphael, 53 - -Red Figured Ware, 77 - -Renascence Ornament, 49 - -Renascence Palaces, 57 - -Rhodian Pottery, 80 - -Riesener, 107 - -Robbia, Luca della, 51-87-90 - - “ Andrea “, 51-90 - - “ Giovanni “, 51-90 - -Roentgen, David, 107 - -Romano, Giulio, 53-54 - -Roman Ornament, 25 - -Rosette, 7 - -Rossellini, 51 - -Rouen Pottery, 81 - - -Samian Ware, 80 - -Sangallo, Antonio, 57 - - “ Giuliano, 57 - -Sansovino, Andrea, 54 - - “ Jacopo, 54 - -Scandinavian Ornament, 33 - -Serlio, 56 - -Settignano, Desiderio da, 51 - -Sgraffito, 87 - -Sheraton, Thomas, 107 - -Sicilian Fabrics, 111 - -Silversmith’s Work, 101 - -Sperandio, 51 - -Stained Glass, 97 - -Stiacciato, 51 - -Stoneware, 82 - -St. Mark’s, 31 - - “ Apollinare Nuovo, 31 - - “ “ in Classe, 31 - -St. Sophia, 31 - - “ Vitale, 31 - - “ Paul’s, 61 - -Sweynheym, Conrad, 54 - - -Tablinum, 23 - -Tapestry, 118 - -Terra Cotta, 89 - -Terms used in Ornamental Art, 131 - -Textile Fabrics, 109 - -Theatre of Marcellus, 21 - -Thermæ, 25 - -Tijon, Jean, 105 - -Toft, Thomas, 82 - -Torrigiano, 60 - -Trajan, 27 - -Trecento, 49 - -Triforium, 41 - -Triclinium, 23 - - -Udine, Giovanni da, 53 - - -Verrocchio, Andrea del, 51 - -Vestibule, 23 - -Vignola, 58 - -Vincentine, 51 - -Viridarium, 23 - -Vitruvius, 56 - - -Watteau, 59 - -Wedgwood, 82 - -Well-heads, 57 - -Wheildon, Thomas, 82 - -Wrought Iron, 105 - - -Zormorpic Ornament, 35 - - * * * * * - - _A LIST OF STANDARD BOOKS_ - - ON - - ARCHITECTURE - - AND - - THE DECORATIVE ARTS - - PUBLISHED BY - - B. T. BATSFORD, - 94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON. - - Forwarded Carriage Paid at the Discount Prices affixed. - - - NATURE IN ORNAMENT. By LEWIS F. DAY. With 123 full-page Plates and - 192 Illustrations in the Text. Third Edition, revised (Fifth - Thousand). Thick crown 8vo, in handsome cloth binding, richly gilt, - from a special design by the Author. Price 12_s._ 6_d._ Net 10_s._ - - CONTENTS:--I. Introductory. II. Ornament in Nature. III. Nature in - Ornament. IV. The Simplification of Natural Forms. V. The - Elaboration of Natural Forms. VI. Consistency in the Modification - of Nature. VII. Parallel Renderings. VIII. More Parallels. IX. - Tradition in Design. X. Treatment. XI. Animals in Ornament. XII. - The Element of the Grotesque. XIII. Still Life in Ornament. XIV. - Symbolic Ornament. - - “Amongst the best of our few good ornamental designers is Mr. Lewis - F. Day, who is the author of several books on ornamental art. - ‘Nature in Ornament’ is the latest of these, and is probably the - best. The treatise should be in the hands of every student of - ornamental design. It is profusely and admirably illustrated, and - well printed.”--_Magazine of Art._ - - “A book more beautiful for its illustrations, or one more helpful - to students of art, can hardly be imagined.”--_Queen._ - - SOME PRINCIPLES OF EVERY DAY ART.--INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS ON THE - ARTS NOT FINE. Forming a Prefatory Volume to the Series of Text - Books. Second Edition (Fourth Thousand), revised, containing 70 - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3_s._ 6_d._ Net 3_s._ - - “Authoritative as coming from a writer whose mastery of the - subjects is not to be disputed, and who is generous in imparting - the knowledge he acquired with difficulty. Mr. Day has taken much - trouble with the new edition.”--_Architect._ - - “A good artist, and a sound thinker, Mr. Day has produced a book of - sterling value.”--_Magazine of Art._ - - THE ANATOMY OF PATTERN.--Fourth Edition (Ninth Thousand), revised, - with 41 full-page Illustrations. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3_s._ - 6_d._ Net 3_s._ - - CONTENTS:--I. Introductory. II. Pattern Dissections. III. Practical - Pattern Planning. IV. The “Drop” Pattern. V. Skeleton Plans. VI. - Appropriate Pattern. - - “ ... There are few men who know the science of their profession - better or can teach it as well as Mr. Lewis Day; few also who are - more gifted as practical decorators; and in anatomising pattern in - the way he has done in this manual--a way beautiful as well as - useful--he has performed a service not only to the students of his - profession, but also to the public.”--_Academy._ - - THE PLANNING OF ORNAMENT.--Third Edition (Fifth Thousand), further - revised, with 41 full-page Illustrations, many of which have been - re-drawn. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3_s._ 6_d._ Net 3_s._ - - CONTENTS:--I. Introductory. II. The use of the Border. III. Within - the Border. IV. Some Alternatives in Design. V. On the Filling of - the Circle and other Shapes. VI. Order and Accident. - - “Contains many apt and well-drawn illustrations; it is a highly - comprehensive, compact, and intelligent treatise on a subject which - is more difficult to treat than outsiders are likely to think. It - is a capital little book, from which no tyro (it is addressed to - improvable minds) can avoid gaining a good deal.”--_Athenæum._ - - THE APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.--Third Edition (Sixth Thousand), - further revised, with 48 full-page Illustrations and 7 Woodcuts in - the Text. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3_s._ 6_d._ Net 3_s._ - - CONTENTS:--I. The Rationale of the Conventional. II. What is - implied by Repetition. III. Where to stop in Ornament. IV. Style - and Handicraft. V. The Teaching of the Tool. VI. Some - Superstitions. - - “A most worthy supplement to the former work, and a distinct gain - to the art student who has already applied his art knowledge in a - practical manner, or who hopes yet to do so.”--_Science and Art._ - - ORNAMENTAL DESIGN.--Comprising the Three Books, “ANATOMY OF - PATTERN,” “PLANNING OF ORNAMENT,” and “APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT,” - handsomely bound in one volume, cloth gilt. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ Net - 8_s._ 6_d._ - - WINDOWS.--A BOOK ABOUT STAINED AND PAINTED GLASS. By LEWIS F. DAY. - BOOK I., “THE COURSE OF CRAFTSMANSHIP”; BOOK II., “THE COURSE OF - DESIGN”; BOOK III., “BY THE WAY.” Containing 410 pages, including - 50 full-page Plates, and upwards of 200 Illustrations in the Text, - all of Old Examples. Large 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 21_s._ net. - - “Contains a more complete popular account--technical and - historical--of stained and painted glass than has previously - appeared in this country.”--_The Times._ - - “The book is a masterpiece in its way ... amply illustrated and - carefully printed; it will long remain an authority on its - subject.”--_The Art Journal._ - - “All for whom the subject of stained glass possesses an interest - and a charm, will peruse these pages with pleasure and - profit.”--_The Morning Post._ - - “Mr. Day has done a worthy piece of work in more than his usual - admirable manner ... the illustrations are all good and some the - best black-and-white drawings of stained glass yet produced.”--_The - Studio._ - -_In Preparation. To be published shortly._ - - A HANDBOOK OF EMBROIDERY.--By LEWIS F. DAY and MISS MARY BUCKLE. - Being a handbook on the Art for Designers, Needleworkers, Students, - Teachers, &c. Both artistic and practical sides of the subject are - thoroughly treated, and the work is illustrated with Photographs of - Stitches, and Historic Examples, &c. - -_Now published, the most handy, useful, and comprehensive work on the -subject._ - - ALPHABETS, OLD AND NEW.--Containing 150 complete Alphabets, 30 - Series of Numerals, Numerous Facsimiles of Ancient Dates. Selected - and arranged by LEWIS F. DAY. Preceded by a short account of the - Development of the Alphabet. With Modern Examples specially - designed by WALTER CRANE, PATTEN WILSON, A. BERESFORD PITE, the - Author, and others. Crown 8vo, art linen. Second Impression, - completing Fifth Thousand. Price 3_s._ 6_d._ net. - - “Mr. Day’s explanation of the growth of form in letters is - particularly valuable.... Many excellent alphabets are given in - illustration of his remarks.”--_The Studio._ - - “Every one who employs practical lettering will be grateful for - ‘Alphabets, Old and New.’ Mr. Day has written a scholarly and pithy - introduction, and contributes some beautiful alphabets of his own - design.”--_The Art Journal._ - - “A practical resumé of all that is to be known on the subject, - concisely and clearly stated.”--_St. James’s Gazette._ - - “It goes without saying that whatever Mr. Batsford publishes and - Mr. Day has to do with is presented in a good artistic form, - complete, and wherever that is possible, graceful.”--_The - Athenæum._ - - A HANDBOOK OF ORNAMENT.--With 300 Plates, containing about 3,000 - Illustrations of the Elements and Application of Decoration to - Objects. By F. S. MEYER, Professor at the School of Applied Art, - Karlsruhe. Second English Edition, revised by HUGH STANNUS, - F.R.I.B.A., Lecturer on Applied Art at the Royal College of Art, - South Kensington. Thick 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top. Price 12_s._ - 6_d._ Net 10_s._ - - “A library, a museum, an encyclopædia, and an art school in one. To - rival it as a book of reference, one must fill a book case. The - quality of the drawings is unusually high, the choice of examples - is singularly good.... The work is practically an epitome of a - hundred works on Design.”--_Studio._ - - “The author’s acquaintance with ornament amazes, and his three - thousand subjects are gleaned from the finest which the world - affords. As a treasury of ornament drawn to scale in all styles, - and derived from genuine concrete objects, we have nothing in - England which will not appear as poverty-stricken as compared with - Professor Meyer’s book.”--_Architect._ - - “The book is a mine of wealth even to an ordinary reader, while to - the student of art and archæology it is simply indispensable as a - reference book. We know of no one work of its kind that approaches - it for comprehensiveness and historical accuracy.”--_Science and - Art._ - - THE HISTORIC STYLES OF ORNAMENT.--Containing 1,500 examples from - all countries and all periods, exhibited on 100 Plates, mostly - printed in gold and colours. With historical and descriptive text - translated from the German of H. DOLMETSCH. Folio, handsomely bound - in cloth, gilt. Price £1 5_s._ net. - - This work has been designed to serve as a practical guide for the - purpose of showing the development of Ornament, and the application - of colour to it in various countries through the epochs of history. - The work illustrates not only Flat Ornament, but also many - DECORATIVE OBJECTS, such as METAL-WORK, POTTERY AND PORCELAIN, - LACE, ENAMEL, MOSAIC, ILLUMINATION, STAINED GLASS, JEWELLERY, - BOOKBINDING, &c. showing the application of Ornament to Industrial - Art. - -_A small remainder, just reduced in price._ - - ANIMALS IN ORNAMENT.--By Professor G. STURM. Containing 30 large - Collotype Plates, printed in tint, of Designs suitable for Friezes, - Panels, Borders, Wall-papers, Carving, and all kinds of Surface - Decoration, &c. Large folio in portfolio. Price 18_s._ net - (published £1 10_s._). - - A new and useful series of clever designs, showing how animal form - may be adapted to decorative purposes with good effect. - - A HANDBOOK OF ART SMITHING.--For the use of Practical Smiths, - Designers and others, and in Art and Technical Schools. By F. S. - MEYER, Author of “A Handbook of Ornament.” Translated from the - Second German Edition. With an Introduction by J. STARKIE GARDNER. - Containing 214 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. Price 6_s._ Net - 5_s._ - - Both the Artistic and the Practical Branches of the subject are - dealt with, and the Illustrations give selected Examples of Ancient - and Modern Ironwork. The Volume thus fills the long-existing want - of a Manual on Ornamental Ironwork, and it is hoped will prove of - value to all interested in the subject. - - “Charmingly produced.... It is really a most excellent manual, - crowded with examples of ancient work, for the most part extremely - well selected.”--_The Studio._ - - “Professor Meyer’s work is a useful historical manual on Art - Smithing, based on a scientific classification of the subject, that - will be of service to all smiths, designers, and students of - technical and art schools. The illustrations are well drawn and - numerous.”--_Building News._ - -_A Facsimile reproduction of one of the rarest and most remarkable Books -of Designs ever published in England._ - - A NEW BOOKE OF DRAWINGS OF IRON WORKE.--Invented and Designed by - JOHN TIJOU. Containing severall sortes of Iron Worke, as Gates, - Frontispieces, Balconies, Staircases, Pannells, &c., of which the - most part hath been wrought at the Royal Building of Hampton Court, - &c. ALL FOR THE USE OF THEM THAT WORKE IRON IN PERFECTION AND WITH - ART. (Sold by the Author in London, 1693.) Containing 20 folio - Plates. With an Introductory Note and Descriptions of the Plates by - J. STARKIE GARDNER. Folio, bound in boards, old style. Price 25_s._ - net. - - Only 150 copies were printed for England, and but 20 now remain. - Early application is therefore necessary to secure copies. - - An original copy is priced at £48 in a recent catalogue of Mr. - Bernard Quaritch, the renowned bookseller. - - DECORATIVE WROUGHT IRONWORK OF THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES.--By D. - J. EBBETTS. Containing 16 large Lithographic Plates, illustrating - 70 English Examples of Screens, Grilles, Panels, Balustrades, &c. - Folio, boards, cloth back. Price 12_s._ 6_d._ Net 10_s._ - -_Just Published._ - - A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE ART OF BRASS REPOUSSÉ FOR - AMATEURS.--By GAWTHORP (Art Metal Worker to H.R.H. the Prince of - Wales). Second and Enlarged Edition. With 32 Illustrations, many - from photographs of executed designs. Crown 8vo, in wrapper. Price - 1_s._ net. - - EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH MEDIÆVAL FOLIAGE AND COLOURED DECORATION.--By - JAS. K. COLLING, Architect, F.R.I.B.A. Taken from Buildings of the - XIIth to the XVth Century. Containing 76 Lithographic Plates and 79 - Woodcut Illustrations, with Text. Royal 4to, cloth, gilt top. Price - 18_s._, net 15_s._ (published at £2 2_s._). - -_Published with the Sanction of the Science and Art Department._ - - FRENCH WOOD CARVINGS FROM THE NATIONAL MUSEUMS.--A Series of - Examples printed in Collotype from Photographs specially taken from - the Carvings direct. Edited by ELEANOR ROWE. Part I. Late 15th and - Early 16th Century Examples; Part II. 16th Century; Part III. 17th - and 18th Centuries. The Three Series complete, each containing 18 - large folio Plates, with Descriptive Letterpress. Folio, in - portfolios, price 12_s._ each net, or handsomely half bound, in one - volume, price £2 5_s._ net. - - “Students of the art of Wood Carving will find a mine of - inexhaustible treasures in this series of illustrations of French - Wood Carvings.... Each plate is a work of art in itself; the - distribution of light and shade is admirably managed, and the - differences in relief are faithfully indicated, while every detail - is reproduced with a clearness that will prove invaluable to the - student.... Sections are given with several of the plates.”--_The - Queen._ - - “Needs only to be seen to be purchased by all interested in the - craft, whether archæologically or practically.”--_The Studio._ - - HINTS ON WOOD CARVING FOR BEGINNERS.--By ELEANOR ROWE, with a - Preface by J. H. POLLEN. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged, - Illustrated. 8vo, sewed. Price 1_s._ in paper covers, or bound in - cloth, price 1_s._ 6_d._ - - “The most useful and practical small book on Wood Carving we know - of.”--_Builder._ - - “ ... Is a useful little book, full of sound directions and good - suggestions.”--_Magazine of Art._ - - HINTS ON CHIP CARVING.--(Class Teaching and other Northern Styles.) - By ELEANOR ROWE, with a Preface by T. R. ABLETT. 40 Illustrations. - 8vo, sewed. Price 1_s._ in paper covers, or in cloth, price 1_s._ - 6_d._ - - “A capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most - popular.”--_Saturday Review._ - - DETAILS OF GOTHIC WOOD CARVING.--Being a Series of Drawings from - Original Work of the 14th and 15th Centuries. By FRANKLYN A. - CRALLAN. Containing 34 large Photo-lithographic Plates, - illustrating some of the finest specimens of Gothic Wood Carving - extant, with Introductory and Descriptive Text. Large 4to, in - handsome cloth portfolio, or bound in cloth gilt. Price 28_s._ Net - 24_s._ - - “The examples are carefully drawn to a large size ... well selected - and very well executed.”--_The Builder._ - - “This admirable work is one of great interest and value.... Every - variety of Gothic detail is here illustrated. Hitherto no - full-sized details have been published, so that the present work - will be invaluable to the wood carver, as the drawings possess all - the strength and vigour of the original work.”--_Education._ - - PROGRESSIVE STUDIES AND DESIGNS FOR WOOD CARVERS.--By MISS E. R. - PLOWDEN. With a Preface by MISS ROWE. Consisting of seven large - folding sheets of Illustrations (drawn full size), of a variety of - objects suitable for Wood Carving. With Descriptive Text. Second - Edition, enlarged. 4to, in portfolio. Price 5_s._ net. - - REMAINS OF ECCLESIASTICAL WOOD-WORK.--A Series of Examples of - Stalls, Screens, Book-Boards, Roofs, Pulpits, &c., containing 21 - Plates beautifully engraved on Copper, from drawings by T. TALBOT - BURY, Archt. 4to, half-bound. Price 10_s._ 6_d._, net 8_s._ 6_d._ - - HEPPLEWHITE’S CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER’S GUIDE; or Repository - of Designs for every article of Household Furniture in the newest - and most approved taste.--A complete facsimile reproduction of this - rare work, containing nearly 300 charming Designs on 128 Plates. - Small folio, bound in speckled cloth, gilt, old style. Price £2 - 10_s._ net. (1794.) _Original Copies when met with fetch from £15 - to £18._ - - “A beautiful replica, which every admirer of the author and the - period should possess.”--_The Building News._ - - CHIPPENDALE’S THE GENTLEMAN AND CABINET-MAKER’S DIRECTOR.--A - complete Facsimile of the Third and rarest Edition, containing 200 - Plates of Designs of Chairs, Sofas, Beds and Couches, Tables, - Library Book Cases, Clock Cases, Stove Grates, &c., &c. Folio, - strongly bound in half-cloth. Price £3 15_s._ net. (1762.) - - THE DECORATION OF HOUSES.--By EDITH WHARTON, and OGDEN CODMAN, - Architect. 204 pages of text, with 56 full-page Photographic Plates - of Views of Rooms, Doors, Ceilings, Fireplaces, various pieces of - Furniture, &c., from the Renaissance period. Large square 8vo, - cloth gilt. Price 12_s._ 6_d._ net. - - “ ... has illustrations which are beautiful ... because they - illustrate the sound and simple principle of decoration which the - authors put forward.... The book is one which should be in the - library of every man and woman of means, for its advice is - characterised by so much common sense as well as by the best of - taste.”--_The Queen._ - - OLD CLOCKS AND WATCHES AND THEIR MAKERS.--By F. J. BRITTEN, - Secretary of the Horological Institute. Being an Account of the - History of Clocks and Watches, with a List of 8,000 Old Makers, - with descriptive Notes. Containing over 400 Illustrations, many - from photographs, of choice and curious examples, of Clocks and - Watches of the past, including the finely-ornamented Bracket Clocks - of the XVIIth Century, and the tall cases of the XVIIIth Century. - 512 pages. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 10_s._ net. - - FLAT ORNAMENT; A PATTERN BOOK FOR DESIGNERS OF TEXTILES, - EMBROIDERIES, WALL PAPERS, INLAYS, &C., &C.--150 Plates, some - printed in colours, exhibiting upwards of 500 Examples of Textiles, - Embroideries, Paper Hangings, Tile Pavements, Intarsia Work, &c. By - DR. FISCHBACH. Imperial 4to boards, cloth back. Price 25_s._ Net - 20_s._ - - EXAMPLES OF OLD FURNITURE, ENGLISH AND FOREIGN.--Drawn and - described by ALFRED ERNEST CHANCELLOR. Containing 40 - Photo-lithographic Plates exhibiting some 100 examples of - Elizabethan, Stuart, Queen Anne, Georgian and Chippendale - furniture; and an interesting variety of Continental work. With - historical and descriptive notes. Large 4to, gilt. Price £1 5_s._ - Net £1 1_s._ - - “In publishing his admirable collection of drawings of old - furniture, Mr. Chancellor secures the gratitude of all admirers of - the consummate craftsmanship of the past. His examples are selected - from a variety of sources with fine discrimination, all having an - expression and individuality of their own--qualities that are so - conspicuously lacking in the furniture of our own day. It forms a - very acceptable work.”--_The Morning Post._ - - PLASTERING: PLAIN AND DECORATIVE.--A Practical Treatise on the Art - and Craft of Plastering and Modelling. Including full description - of the various Tools, Materials, Processes and Appliances employed. - With over 50 full-page Plates, and about 500 smaller Illustrations - in the Text. By WILLIAM MILLAR. With an Introduction of the History - of the Art, by G. T. ROBINSON, F.S.A. Second Edition. Thick 4to, - cloth, containing 600 pages of Text. Price 18_s._ net. - - “This new and in many senses remarkable treatise ... unquestionably - contains an immense amount of valuable first-hand information.... - ‘Millar on Plastering’ may be expected to be the standard authority - on the subject for many years to come.... A truly monumental - work.”--_The Builder._ - - A GRAMMAR OF JAPANESE ORNAMENT AND DESIGN.--Illustrated by 65 - Plates, many in gold and colours, representing all classes of - Natural and Conventional Forms, drawn from the originals, with - Introductory, Descriptive, and Analytical Text. By T. W. CUTLER, - F.R.I.B.A. Imperial 4to, in elegant cloth binding. Price £2 6_s._ - Net £1 18_s._ - - -_NATIVE PRINTED JAPANESE ART BOOKS._ - -JAPANESE ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF DESIGN. - - BOOK I.--Containing over 1,500 engraved Curious and most ingenious - Geometric Patterns of Circles, Medallions, &c., comprising - Conventional Details of Plants, Flowers, Leaves, Petals, also - Birds, Fans, Animals, Key Patterns, &c., &c. Oblong 12mo, fancy - covers. Price 2_s._ net. - - BOOK II.--Containing over 600 most original and effective Designs - for Diaper Ornament, giving the base lines to the design, also - Artistic Miniature Picturesque Sketches. Oblong 12mo, fancy covers. - Price 2_s._ net. - - These books exhibit the varied charm and originality of conception - of Japanese Ornament, and form an inexhaustible field of Design. - - A DELIGHTFUL SERIES OF STUDIES OF BIRDS IN MOST CHARACTERISTIC AND - LIFE-LIKE ATTITUDES, SURROUNDED WITH APPROPRIATE FOLIAGE AND - FLOWERS.--By the celebrated Japanese Artist, BAIREI KONO. In three - Books, 8vo, each containing 36 pages of highly artistic and - decorative Illustrations printed in tints. Bound in fancy paper - covers. Price 10_s._ net. - - These books are of the greatest value to Artists, Screen and China - Painters, Decorators, and Designers in all branches of Art - Manufacture, and of much interest to the admirers of Japanese Art. - - “In attitude and gesture and expression, these birds, whether - perching or soaring, swooping or brooding, are - admirable.”--_Magazine of Art._ - - JAPANESE STUDIES OF BIRDS AND FLOWERS, A NEW SERIES OF.--By - WATANABE SIETEI, the acknowledged leading living Artist in Japan. 3 - volumes, containing numerous exceedingly Artistic Sketches in - various tints, 8vo, fancy covers. Price 10_s._ net. - - “Contain a wealth of exquisite xylographic impressions, which - cannot be beaten by any European attempts.”--_The Studio._ - - THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY.--A General View for - the use of Students and others. By W. J. ANDERSON, A.R.I.B.A., - Director of Architecture, Glasgow School of Art. Second Edition, - revised and enlarged. Containing 74 full-page Plates, mostly - reproduced from Photographs, and 98 Illustrations in Text. Large - 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 12_s._ 6_d._ net. - - “A delightful and scholarly work ... very fully - illustrated.”--_Journal R.I.B.A._ - - “It is the work of a scholar taking a large view of his subject.... - The book affords easy and intelligible reading, and the arrangement - of the subject is excellent, though this was a matter of no small - difficulty.”--_The Times._ - - “Should rank amongst the best architectural writings of the - day.”--_The Edinburgh Review._ - - “We know of no book which furnishes such information and such - illustrations in so compact and attractive a form. For greater - excellence with the object in hand there is not one more - perspicuous.”--_The Building News._ - - A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE FOR THE STUDENT, CRAFTSMAN AND - AMATEUR.--Being a Comparative View of the Historical Styles from - the Earliest Period. By BANISTER FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., Professor of - Architecture in King’s College, London, and B. F. FLETCHER, - A.R.I.B.A. Containing upwards of 300 pages, with 115 Collotype - Plates, mostly reproduced from large Photographs, and other - Illustrations in the Text. Third Edition, revised. Crown 8vo, - cloth, gilt. Price 12_s._ 6_d._ Net 10_s._ - - “We shall be amazed if it is not immediately recognised and adopted - as _par excellence_ THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF THE HISTORY OF - ARCHITECTURE.”--_The Architect._ - - THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE: GREEK, ROMAN AND ITALIAN.--Selected - from Normand’s Parallels, &c. With 4 new Plates specially prepared. - Edited, with Notes, by R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Third - Edition, with 2 new Plates. Containing in all 26 Plates. 4to, - cloth. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ Net 8_s._ 6_d._ - - “A most useful work for architectural students.... Mr. Spiers has - done excellent service in editing this work, and his notes on the - plates are very appropriate and useful.”--_British Architect._ - - ARCHITECTURE AMONG THE POETS.--By H. HEATHCOTE STATHAM. With 13 - Illustrations. Square 8vo, artistically bound. Price 3_s._ 6_d._ - net. - - “This little work does for architecture in relation to English - poetry what Mr. Phil Robinson has done for the birds and beasts. - The poet’s appreciation of architecture is a delightful subject - with which Mr. Statham has become infected, not only illustrating - his points with quotations and his judgments with his reasons, but - the whole with a series of fanciful or suggestive sketches which - add considerably to the attractiveness of the book.”--_The Magazine - of Art._ - - RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT IN SPAIN.--A Series of - Examples selected from the purest executed between the years - 1500-1560. By ANDREW N. PRENTICE, A.R.I.B.A. Containing 60 - beautiful Plates, reproduced by Photo-lithography and Photo - Process, from the Author’s Drawings, of Perspective Views and - Geometrical Drawings, and Details, in Stone, Wood, and Metal. With - short Descriptive Text. Folio, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt. - Price £2 10_s._ Net £2 2_s._ - - “For the drawing and production of this book one can have no words - but praise.... It is a pleasure to have so good a record of such - admirable architectural drawing, free, firm and - delicate.”--_British Architect._ - - B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [A] “The Pagan-Christian Overlap in the North,” by H. Colley March, - M.D. (Lond.) - - [B] “The seven periods of Church Architecture,” by Edmund Sharpe. - - [C] “Gothic Architecture,” by Thomas Rickman. - -Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: - -Arch of Septimius Severus 21=> Arch of Septimus Severus 21 - -was the typical forms used=> was the typical form used {pg 23} - -from Rome to Byzantine=> from Rome to Byzantium {pg 31} - -Girolama della Robbia=> Girolamo della Robbia {pg 81} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of Historic Ornament, by Richard Glazier - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF HISTORIC ORNAMENT *** - -***** This file should be named 53373-0.txt or 53373-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/7/53373/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A Manual of Historic Ornament - -Author: Richard Glazier - -Release Date: October 26, 2016 [EBook #53373] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF HISTORIC ORNAMENT *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/cover_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="323" height="500" alt="Image unavailable: cover" /></a> -</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; -padding:1%;"> -<tr><td> - -<p class="c"><a href="#Contents">Contents.</a><br /> -<a href="#Index">Index.</a></p> - -<p class="c"><a href="#List_of_Plates">List of Plates.</a> -<br /> -<a href="#Illustrations_in_the_Text">Illustrations in the Text.</a><br /> -<span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] -clicking on the image -will bring up a larger version.)</span></p> -<p class="c">Some typographical errors have been corrected; -<a href="#transcrib">a list follows the text</a>.</p> - -<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="nind"> -<big><big><big>Historic<br /> -Ornament.</big></big></big> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_i" id="page_i"></a>{i}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/frontispiece_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/frontispiece_sml.jpg" width="379" height="611" alt="Image unavailable: Page from one of the Harleian Manuscripts. - -British Museum. - -French, Early 15th Century." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Page from one of the Harleian Manuscripts. -<br /> -British Museum. -<br /> -French, Early 15th Century.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii"></a>{ii}</span></p> - -<h1> -<small>A Manual of</small><br /> -<span class="red">HISTORIC<br /> -ORNAMENT</span></h1> - -<div class="blk"><div class="blk2"> -<p class="nind">TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION,<br /> -TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF<br /> -ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED<br /> -ARTS.<br /> -PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS<br /> -AND CRAFTSMEN.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="cb"><big><big><big>· · ·</big></big></big><br /> -BY RICHARD GLAZIER,</p> - -<div class="blk"><div class="blk2"> -<p class="nind">Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects;<br /> -Head Master of the Municipal School<br /> -of Art, Manchester.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="c"><img src="images/colophon.jpg" -width="150" -alt="Image unavailable." - /> -<br /> -With 470 illustrations by the Author.<br /> - -<big><big><big><b>· · ·</b></big></big></big><br /> - -LONDON:<br /> -B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN.<br /> -1899.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii"></a>{iii}</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Manchester:<br /> -Printed by Chorlton & Knowles, Mayfield Press.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv"></a>{iv}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Preface" id="Preface"></a>Preface.</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HIS manual has been prepared with the three-fold object of giving an -elementary knowledge of Architecture and Historic Ornament, of awakening -a responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many beautiful and -interesting remains of ancient and mediæval civilization, and lastly of -directing the attention of students and craftsmen to the beauty, -suggestiveness and vitality of the Industrial Arts of the past, and -their intimate relation to the social and religious life of the people.</p> - -<p>The advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from such a study -are manifold, for, by a careful study of these arts, we may see the -capabilities and limitations of material, the appropriateness and -application of ornament, the continuity of line and form—yet with a -marked diversity of enrichment and treatment—the interest and -significance of detail, and the customs, myths and traditions of the -past with their continuity of thought and expression.</p> - -<p>The illustrations, which have been chosen expressly for this work, are -typical examples of each period or style and are produced in line as -being the method best suited to the requirements of students, giving -definition, emphasis and the constructive qualities of design rather -than pictorial effect.</p> - -<p>In the appendix will be found a list of text books and works of -reference, which may be studied with considerable advantage by students -desiring further information upon this important subject.</p> - -<p class="r"> -RICHARD GLAZIER.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="hang"> -<span class="smcap">Manchester</span>,<br /> -1899.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v"></a>{v}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents.</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE.</small></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#ORNAMENT_OF_OCEANIA">Ornament of Oceania</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_3">3</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#EGYPTIAN_ORNAMENT">Egyptian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_5">5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#ASSYRIAN_ORNAMENT">Assyrian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#GREEK_ARCHITECTURE">Greek Architecture</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#GREEK_ORNAMENT">Greek Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#ROMAN_ARCHITECTURE">Roman Architecture</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#ROMAN_ORNAMENT">Roman Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#POMPEIAN_ORNAMENT">Pompeian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#BYZANTINE">Byzantine Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_31">31</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#SCANDINAVIAN_ORNAMENT">Scandinavian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_33">33</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#CELTIC_ORNAMENT">Celtic Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35">35</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#NORMAN_AND_GOTHIC_ARCHITECTURE">Norman and Gothic Architecture</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_36">36</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#NORMAN_DETAILS">Norman Details</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#EARLY_GOTHIC_DETAILS">Early Gothic Details</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_45">45</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#RENASCENCE_ORNAMENT">Renascence Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#FRENCH_RENASCENCE">French Renascence</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_58">58</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#ENGLISH_RENASCENCE">English Renascence</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_60">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#MAHOMETAN_MORESQUE">Mahometan and Moresque</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_63">63</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#PERSIAN_ORNAMENT">Persian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#INDIAN_ORNAMENT">Indian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_69">69</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#CHINESE_AND_JAPANESE_ORNAMENT">Chinese and Japanese Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#IVORY">Ivories</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#MOSAICS">Mosaics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_75">75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#GREEK_CERAMICS">Greek Ceramics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#CERAMIC_ART">Ceramic Art</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#MAIOLICA">Maiolica</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_87">87</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#TERRA_COTTA">Terra Cotta</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_88">88</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#ENAMELS">Enamels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_91">91</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#GLASS">Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#STAINED_GLASS">Stained Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#GOLD_AND_SILVER">Gold and Silver</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#BRONZES">Bronzes</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#WROUGHT_IRON">Wrought Iron</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#FURNITURE">Furniture</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_106">106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#TEXTILES">Textile Fabrics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#FRETS">Frets</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_123">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#CONTINUITY_OF_STYLE">Continuity of Style</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#TERMS_USED_IN_ORNAMENTAL_ART">Terms used in Ornamental Art</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi"></a>{vi}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="List_of_Plates" id="List_of_Plates"></a>List of Plates</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td class="rt"><small>PLATE</small>.</td><td> </td> -<td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_2">1</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_2">Ornament of Oceania</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_2">2</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_4">2</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_4">Egyptian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_4">4</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_6">3</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_6">Assyrian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_6">6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_8">4</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_8">Greek Architecture</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_8">8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_12">5</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_12">Greek Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_18">6</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_18">Greek Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_20">7</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_20">Roman Architecture</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_24">8</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_24">Roman Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_26">9</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_26">Roman Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_28">10</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_28">Pompeian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_30">11</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_30">Byzantine Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_32">12</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_32">Scandinavian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_32">32</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_34">13</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_34">Celtic Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_34">34</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_41">14</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_41">The Triforium and Clearstory</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_41">41</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_42">15</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_42">Norman Details</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_42">42</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_44">16</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_44">Early Gothic Details</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_46">17</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_46">Decorated & Perpendicular Gothic Details</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_48">18</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_48">Renascence Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_55">19</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_55">Renascence Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_55">55</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_62">20</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_62">Arabian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_62">62</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_64">21</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_64">Persian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_64">64</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_67">22</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_67">Persian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_67">67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_68">23</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_68">Indian Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_70">24</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_70">Chinese and Japanese Ornament</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_72">25</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_72">Ivories</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_74">26</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_74">Mosaics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_76">27</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_76">Greek Ceramics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_78">28</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_78">Ceramics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_86">29</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_86">Maiolica</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_94">30</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_94">Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_94">94</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_96">31</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_96">Stained Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_100">32</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_100">Gold and Silver</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_102">33</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_102">Bronzes</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_104">34</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_104">Wrought Iron</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_108">35</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_108">Textile Fabrics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_108">108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_111">36</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_111">Sicilian Fabric</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_112">37</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_112">Indian Palampore</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_112">112</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_114">38</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_114">Persian Carpet</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_117">39</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_117">Textile Fabrics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_119">40</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_119">Peruvian Textiles</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_120">41</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_120">Peruvian Textiles</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_120">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_122">42</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_122">Frets</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#page_124">43</a></td><td valign="top"><a href="#page_124">Polynesian Paddle</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii"></a>{vii}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Illustrations_in_the_Text" id="Illustrations_in_the_Text"></a>Illustrations in the Text.</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE.</small></td></tr> -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_3">Ornament of Oceania</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_3">3</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_9">Plan of the Parthenon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9">9</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_10">Plan of the Erectheum</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_10">10</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_14">The two Fates, from the Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_14">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_14">Doric Frieze of the Parthenon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_14">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_15">North Frieze of the Parthenon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_15">15</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_15">Frieze from Phigaleia</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_15">15</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_16">Relief from Nike Apteros</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_16">Frieze from Pergamos</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_17">Frieze from Susa</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_17">17</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_17">Greek Scroll</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_17">17</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_19">Greek Coins</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_19">19</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_21">Arch of Septimius Severus</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_21">21</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_22">Theatre of Marcellus</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_22">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_22">Plan of the Pantheon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_22">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_23">Plan of the House of Pansa</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_25">Roman Scroll</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_25">Coffered Ceiling</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_27">Frieze from Tivoli</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_31">Plan of St. Mark’s</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_31">31</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_31">Plan of St. Sophia</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_31">31</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_35">Lismore Crosier</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_37">Gothic Piers</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_37">Plan of Lincoln Cathedral</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_38">Early Gothic Window</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_38">38</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_39">Grisaille Glass, Salisbury</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_39">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_45">Gothic Crockets</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_45">45</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_45">Gothic Borders</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_45">45</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_50">Tomb of Ilaria del Carretto</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_50">50</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_51">Bas-relief, by Donatello</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_51">51</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_51">Monument to Conte Ugino</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_51">51</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_52">Italian Velvet</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_52">52</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_52">Fresco, by Michel-Angelo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_52">52</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_53">A Sibyl, by Michel-Angelo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_53">53</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_53">Arabesque Decorations</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_53">53</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_54">Renascence Scroll</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54">54</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_54">Renascence Marble Inlay</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54">54</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_56">Frieze, by Mantegna</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_56">56</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_56">An Italian Etching</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_56">56</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_57">Venetian Well-head</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_57">57</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_58">Wood Carving, period of Francis <small>I.</small></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_58">58</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_58">Decoration, period of Francis <small>II.</small></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_58">58</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_59">Relief, by Jean Goujon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_59">59</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_59">Goujon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_59">59</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_59">Frieze, by Le Pautre</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_59">59</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_59">Wood Carving, period of Louis <small>XV.</small></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_59">59</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_60">Elizabethan Frieze</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_60">60</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_60">Elizabethan Strap-work</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_60">60</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_60">Ceiling, Audley End</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_60">60</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_65">Persian Plate</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_65">65</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_85">Peruvian Pottery</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_85">85</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_89">Greek Terra Cotta</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_89">89</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_89">The Annunciation, by Andrea della Robbia</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_89">89</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_90">Relief, by Andrea della Robbia</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_90">90</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_93">Painted Enamel by Pierre Raymond</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_93">93</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_93">Battersea Enamel</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_93">93</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_97">Early Gothic Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_97">97</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_98">Early French Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_98">98</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_98">Late Gothic Glass</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_98">98</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_106">Chairs</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_106">106</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_107">Italian Carved Chest</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_107">Carved Wood Screen</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_115">Italian Fabrics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_116">Flower Vase Pattern</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_116">Spitalsfield Silk</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_116">Flemish Fabrics</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_123">Frets</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_123">123</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_126">Egyptian Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_127">Corinthian Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_127">Early French Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_127">Composite Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_128">Byzantine Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_128">French Romanesque Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_129">Siculo-Norman Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_129">Early English Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_129">Arabian Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_130">Decorated Gothic Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_130">Renascence Capital</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#page_130">Roman Scroll</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2"></a>{2}</span><a name="page_1" id="page_1"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<span class="caption">ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_1" id="plt_1">Plate 1</a></span>. -</span> -<br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_002_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_002_sml.jpg" width="379" height="606" alt="Image unavailable: ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. Plate 1." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_3" id="page_3"></a>{3}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="ORNAMENT_OF_OCEANIA" id="ORNAMENT_OF_OCEANIA"></a>ORNAMENT<br /> OF OCEANIA.</h2> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_003a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_003a_sml.jpg" width="167" height="141" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> -<p class="nind">The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is full of interest -and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental -style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions purely local and -in no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of -meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded -upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands but upon -abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a -pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_003b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_003b_sml.jpg" width="361" height="113" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into -provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and -traditions, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia -the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia.</p> - -<p>Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and -zig-zag lines; that of Australia consists almost entirely of these lines -incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. In New -Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and -curved lines, being carved in flat relief. In the province of -Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the linear -ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The Hervey -and Austral Islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of -the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the -original type and its ornamental development. These examples, together -with the circular eye pattern form the elements of the Hervey province, -of which the Heape collection contains many fine examples. In the -Solomon Island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an -inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is -distinguished by its skilful pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral -forms adapted from the human figure, fig. 1. 12., and the constant use -of the border here given.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_003c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_003c_sml.jpg" width="154" height="24" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_4" id="page_4"></a>{4}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<span class="caption">EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_2" id="plt_2">Plate 2.</a></span></span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_004_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_004_sml.jpg" width="369" height="600" alt="Image unavailable: EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5"></a>{5}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="EGYPTIAN_ORNAMENT" id="EGYPTIAN_ORNAMENT"></a>EGYPTIAN<br /> -ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 <small>B.C.</small> to 340 <small>B.C.</small>, during which -30 dynasties existed, is usually divided into three groups: (1) The -Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 <small>B.C.</small> (2) The Middle Empire, -XII.-XIX., 2466-1200; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties, -1200-340 <small>B.C.</small></p> - -<p>The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the -Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor and Tanis: and of the New Empire, Sais and -Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these early dynasties are -attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture and -decorative arts that enrich our national museums. The Great Pyramids -were built during the fourth dynasty, the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700 -<small>B.C.</small>, is 756 ft. × 756 ft., and 480 ft. high; the second, by Kephren, -3666-3633 <small>B.C.</small>, is 707 ft. × 707 ft. and 454 ft. high: and the third, -333 ft. × 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600 -<small>B.C.</small></p> - -<p>The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known, -and is probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is singular that -all the earliest sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties with which we -are acquainted, were realistic portraiture, remarkable for its fidelity -to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note, were finely -sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities, Amen Sckhet, -Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris, were represented in the later dynasties -by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather than for -their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of -the earlier period. Much of the architectural enrichment was in Cavo -Relievo, a peculiarly Egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the -figures, birds, or flowers, being sunk into the surface of the granite -or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground -or bed raised, these reliefs being invariably painted red, blue, green, -and yellow. The frieze, which, in the hands of the Greeks at a later -period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the -Egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial -arts and pursuits, weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery; -ploughing, sowing, and reaping, also hunting and fishing. The -composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined and -purely decorative, with a <i>naïveté</i> and unaffection so appropriate to -the architectonic conditions. Mingled with these incidents were the -beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 -are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of -lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the latter -being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new -life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative -work. Great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their -architectural capitals with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A -singular feature introduced during the 18th dynasty was the Hathor -Capital surmounted by a small Naos. During the Ptolemaic period, <small>B.C.</small> -300, the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical bell-shaped capital -(fig. 3).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6"></a>{6}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<span class="caption">ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. <a name="plt_3" id="plt_3"></a>Plate 3.</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_006_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_006_sml.jpg" width="366" height="598" alt="Image unavailable: ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7"></a>{7}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="ASSYRIAN_ORNAMENT" id="ASSYRIAN_ORNAMENT"></a>ASSYRIAN<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars -and conquests. Originally one nation, they became divided, and the -younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that -period under Tiglath Pileser I., <small>B.C.</small> 1100, Ashur-nasir-pal, <small>B.C.</small> -885-60, Shalmaneser II., <small>B.C.</small> 860-25, Tiglath-Pileser III., <small>B.C.</small> 745-27, -the Great Sargon, <small>B.C.</small>, 722-705, Sennacherib, <small>B.C.</small> 705-681, Esarhaddon, -<small>B.C.</small> 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, <small>B.C.</small> 668-626. In <small>B.C.</small> 609 the capital, -Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to -power under Nebuchadnezzar, <small>B.C.</small> 604-562; this city was destroyed by -Cyrus the Persian, <small>B.C.</small> 539.</p> - -<p>Assyrian art with its racial influences, religious beliefs and climatic -conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though -stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no -doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from -Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in -Chaldea, and Nineveh in Assyria, the traditional type of building was -rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks; -the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, -carved in low relief with scenes representing the King and his warriors -engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). The upper part of the wall was -in enamelled brick or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and -Bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the -archivolt. The representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of -agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian -reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea, -were modelled in low relief with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, -white and black, of fine quality and colour, one splendid example is the -Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of -Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels -were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones, -but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious -subjects (fig. 9). The portals of the doors were enriched with colossal -winged and human headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. -Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and Bud (figs. 2 and -3), the Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn or Tree of Life -(fig 8). The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only came -into use during the 7th century <small>B.C.</small>, when intercourse between the two -nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian lotus by -its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the -calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).</p> - -<p>The Anthemion or <i>Hom</i>, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with -strong lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass -(fig. 3). The <i>Hom</i> is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a -form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian and -Sicilian textile fabrics.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8"></a>{8}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">GREEK ARCHITECTURE. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_4" id="plt_4">Plate 4.</a></span> -</span> -<a href="images/image_pg_008_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_008_sml.jpg" width="606" height="373" alt="Image unavailable: GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Plate 4." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9"></a>{9}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="GREEK_ARCHITECTURE" id="GREEK_ARCHITECTURE"></a>GREEK<br /> ARCHITECTURE.</h2> - -<p>Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman -styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture; the -Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and many -examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her -colonies:—Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of -these buildings certain constructive and decorative features are -observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the -characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base, (except -in the Grecian Doric, which has no base) column and capital, and the -Entablature, which consists of the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The -proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower -diameter of the column which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts; the -height of the column always including the base and capital. The DORIC -order was used for the early Greek temples from <small>B.C.</small> 600 and culminated -in the Parthenon <small>B.C.</small> 438. The <span class="smcap">Columns</span> in this order are 4½ to 6 -diameters in height with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp -arrises; the <span class="smcap">Capital</span> is half a diameter in height and is composed of an -echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and -a large square abacus above. The <span class="smcap">Architrave</span> is plain; the <span class="smcap">Frieze</span> is -enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3 vertical channellings in the -face, termed triglyphs, alternately with square metopes which were -frequently sculptured. The <span class="smcap">Cornice</span>, composed of simple mouldings, and -enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs and metopes, -projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_009_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_009_sml.jpg" width="107" height="227" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9½ diameters in height, with -24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the <i>base</i> is half a diameter in -height and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus, -and fillet. The <span class="smcap">Capital</span> is 7/10 of a diameter high and consists of a -pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding -enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Entablature</span> is ¼ the height of the columns, the <span class="smcap">Architrave</span> of one -or more fascias, the <span class="smcap">Frieze</span> continuous and frequently enriched with -sculpture in low relief; the <span class="smcap">Cornice</span> has simple and compound mouldings -supported by a dentil band. Caryatides were occasionally introduced into -this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical -folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column. These caryatides -supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example -of this feature is the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10"></a>{10}</span></p> - -<p>The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples -however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The -<span class="smcap">Columns</span> are 10 diameters in height with 24 flutings; the <span class="smcap">Base</span> is ½ -diameter high; the <span class="smcap">Capital</span> is a little greater than a diameter in height -and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The -<span class="smcap">Entablature</span> is richer; and the <span class="smcap">Cornice</span> deeper and more elaborate than -those of the other orders.</p> - -<p>A table is here given showing the relative height in parts (a part is -1/60 of the diameter) of the entablature in some typical Grecian -examples.</p> - -<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> Architrave</td><td class="c"> Frieze</td><td class="c"> Cornice</td><td class="cdbl"> Total Entablature</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">Doric</td><td> Parthenon</td><td class="c"> 43</td><td class="c"> 43</td><td class="c"> 32</td><td class="cdbl"> 118</td></tr> -<tr><td>Theseus</td><td class="c"> 50</td><td class="c"> 48</td><td class="c"> 19</td><td class="cdbl"> 107</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">Ionic</td><td> Erechtheum</td><td class="c"> 43</td><td class="c"> 48</td><td class="c"> 47</td><td class="cdbl"> 140</td></tr> -<tr><td>Priene</td><td class="c"> 37</td><td class="c"> 49</td><td class="c"> 47</td><td class="cdbl"> 133</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">Corinthian</td><td> Lysicrates</td><td class="c"> 53</td><td class="c"> 41</td><td class="c"> 49</td><td class="cdbl"> 143</td></tr> -<tr><td>Jupiter Olympius</td><td class="c"> 40</td><td class="c"> 26</td><td class="c"> 46</td><td class="cdbl"> 112</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:—The Temples at Corinth -<small>B.C.</small> 650, Ægina <small>B.C.</small> 550, the Parthenon and the Theseum <small>B.C.</small> 438, the -Temples of Jupiter at Olympia, Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ <small>B.C.</small> 436, -Minerva at Sunium, and the Propylæa at Athens <small>B.C.</small> 431. The Parthenon is -the only octastyle temple in Greece.</p> - -<p>Ionic buildings in Greece are:—Temples at Ilyssus, Nike Apteros, and -the Erectheum. In Asia Minor, the Temples at Samos, Priene, Teos, and of -Diana at Ephesus, and of Apollo at Miletos.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_010_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_010_sml.jpg" width="132" height="154" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Corinthian buildings in Greece are:—Monument of Lysicrates, the Tower -of Winds, and Jupiter Olympius, all in Athens.</p> - -<p>During the 5th century <small>B.C.</small> the Doric order was extensively used in the -Greek colonies of Sicily. At Acragas or Agrigentum the remains of 6 fine -hexastyle and peripteral Doric Temples are found, of which the Temple of -Zeus <small>B.C.</small> 450 is the largest, being 354 by 173 feet. In this temple were -found the Telemones or Atlantes, male figures 25 feet in height, with -their arms raised, probably supporting the roof of the temple.</p> - -<p>At Selinus there are six large Doric temples, five being hexastyle and -peripteral, the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral, 372 by 175 feet. -This temple has columns 57 feet in height with an entablature of 19 -feet. At Egesta, there is a hexastyle, peripteral, Doric<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11"></a>{11}</span> temple with -the columns not fluted, and at Pæstum in Southern Italy there are two -Doric temples, the temple of Neptune, and the temple of Vesta, of the -usual hexastyle and peripteral form, but the Basilica is pseudo-dipteral -and is remarkable for its two porticos of nine columns each. All these -buildings in Sicily and Pæstum date between <small>B.C.</small> 500 and 430.</p> - -<p>Classification of Classic Temples:—</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td valign="top" rowspan="5">1st.</td><td valign="top"> The arrangements of the columns and walls</td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>a</i>) When the side walls have no colonnade</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Apteral</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>b</i>) When there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls </td><td valign="bottom"><i>Peripteral</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>c</i>) When the colonnade is attached to the side of the side walls</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Pseudo-peripteral</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>d</i>) When there is a double colonnade standing from the wall</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Dipteral</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" rowspan="6">2nd.</td><td valign="top"> The relation of the ends of the temple</td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>a</i>) When the columns do not project beyond the walls</td><td valign="bottom"><i>In Antis</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>b</i>) When a portico stood in front of the temple</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Prostyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>c</i>) When there was a portico at each end</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Amphi-prostyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>d</i>) If the portico was one column in depth</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Mono-prostyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>e</i>) If the portico was two columns in depth</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Di-prostyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" rowspan="5">3rd.</td><td valign="top"> The number of columns in the portico</td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>a</i>) If of 2 columns</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Distyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>b</i>) If of 4 columns</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Tetrastyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>c</i>) If of 6 columns</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Hexastyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>d</i>) If of 8 columns</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Octastyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" rowspan="6">4th.</td><td valign="top"> The Intercolumniation</td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>a</i>) If 1½ diameters apart</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Pycnostyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>b</i>) If 2 diameters apart</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Systyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>c</i>) If 2¼ diameters apart</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Eustyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>d</i>) If 3 diameters apart</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Diastyle</i></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top">(<i>e</i>) If 4 diameters apart</td><td valign="bottom"><i>Ærostyle</i></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12"></a>{12}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">GREEK ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_5" id="plt_5">Plate 5.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_012_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_012_sml.jpg" width="377" height="594" alt="Image unavailable: GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 5." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13"></a>{13}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="GREEK_ORNAMENT" id="GREEK_ORNAMENT"></a>GREEK<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the -same language, and worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the -Ægean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies, -which supplanted those of the Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon. The southern -portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern -by Ionians. In the course of time other Greek settlements were made on -the Black Sea and Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor; as well as at -Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum, in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna -Grecia in Italy. These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of -art at an early period than Greece itself. The ascendency in art in -Greece was enjoyed by the Dorians circa, 800 <small>B.C.</small>; after which Sparta -took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens -became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in -that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was -destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 <small>B.C.</small>; but under Pericles -(470-29 <small>B.C.</small>) Greek art reached its culmination.</p> - -<p>The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architecture, -sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic -feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality -and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and -goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the -people. Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, -the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the -beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of -Troy to their subjection by Rome, <small>B.C.</small> 140. The almost inexhaustible -store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other -European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of -the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of conception, -the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the -human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship, are here seen in -the greatest diversity of treatment and incident.</p> - -<p>The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely -represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great -personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence, upon -contemporary and later plastic art.</p> - -<p>The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the -Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, <small>B.C.</small> 454-438, was -enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the -originals are now in the British Museum, forming part of the Elgin -Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. The two -pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger -than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and -the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon for the soil of -Attica.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14"></a>{14}</span> The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British -Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture -during the Phidian age.<span class="figright" style="width: 265px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_014a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_014a_sml.jpg" width="265" height="147" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> An illustration of the “Fates” from the Western -pediment is given here, showing a perfect mastery of the human figure, -with rare selective power of composition. The appropriateness of line -and mass for its position renders it singularly beautiful and -architectonic in character. Of the 92 square metopes sculptured in high -relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin -Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between -the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or Greeks, and are fine examples of -composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_014b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_014b_sml.jpg" width="370" height="173" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the -colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in -height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject -being the Panathenæic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the -religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm -of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and -maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, its heroes and deities, -heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial oxen, and its horses and riders -are doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor’s art. Each -figure is full of life and motion, admirable in detail, having an -individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition, -appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15"></a>{15}</span></p> - -<p>The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or -statue of the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed of -plates of gold and ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture. Probably -owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of Phidias -disappeared at an early date.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_015a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_015a_sml.jpg" width="369" height="149" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the -beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, -erected by Ictinus, <small>B.C.</small> 450-430. This frieze, which shows an -extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long, and consists of -23 slabs 25½ inches in width, the incidents depicted being the battle -of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest between the Centaurs and -the Lapithæ. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon frieze is here -replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuberance of modelling.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_015b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_015b_sml.jpg" width="363" height="149" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument -of Xanthos, <small>B.C.</small> 372, so called because the female figures display moist -clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds between their feet. -These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the -work of the Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis.</p> - -<p>Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of -the Erectheum, <small>B.C.</small> 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background, and -white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16"></a>{16}</span> of about the same -date is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which -crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands. -<span class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_016a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_016a_sml.jpg" width="137" height="214" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> - -An example of Nike -or victory, adjusting her sandal is here given. These reliefs are -remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment, and the -exquisite rendering of the draped female figure. Other friezes now in -the British Museum are from the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her -husband Mausolus <small>B.C.</small> 357-348. This tomb consisted of a solid basement -of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36 columns. -The upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze, illustrating -the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the frieze of the cella was -illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus. Seventeen slabs of -the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British Museum; -they represent the battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their -composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and -richness of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon -frieze in its fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, -the sculptor of the Nereid monument executed the north frieze, while the -south was by Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.</p> - -<p> -<span class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_016b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_016b_sml.jpg" width="200" height="129" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> - -A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important feature, -was the great altar at Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II., <small>B.C.</small> 168. This -had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and 16 ft. high, enriched -with a sculptured frieze 7½ ft. high. The subject is the -Gigantomachia, or battle of the gods and giants; the treatment being -characterised by passionate energy and expression, and daring skill in -grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze -are now in the Berlin Museum.<span class="figright" style="width: 262px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_017a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_017a_sml.jpg" width="262" height="334" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span></p> - -<p>The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians and -Greeks. The continuity of incident and rhythm of movement that was -possible with the continuous frieze, together with its functional use of -banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form, hence we have -many remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment. An -early and fine example is the frieze of Archers from the palace of -Darius at Persepolis, <small>B.C.</small> 532, now in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17"></a>{17}</span> Louvre. This frieze, of -which an illustration is here given, was executed in glazed and -enamelled bricks. A dignity of conception and unity of composition were -here combined with skilful modelling of relief work, and fine colouring -of blue, turquoise and yellow. This treatment of the frieze no doubt -influenced the later work of the Greeks, who so nobly carried on this -tradition of the frieze.</p> - -<p>Greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line, refinement of -detail, radiation of parts, unity of composition and perfect symmetry. -The anthemion, which is the typical form, is derived from the -traditional lotus and bud of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs -however in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism, -having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts, yet -lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many -periods of art.</p> - -<p><span class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_017b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_017b_sml.jpg" width="216" height="145" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> - -The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele, (figs. -1, 2, and 5, <a href="#plt_4">plate 4</a>), upon the architrave of doorways (fig. 6), and -above the necking of the Ionic columns (<a href="#plt_6">plate 6</a>); or painted upon the -panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It was also used in a thousand -ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period. -The simplicity and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18"></a>{18}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">GREEK ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_6" id="plt_6">Plate 6.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_018_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_018_sml.jpg" width="392" height="620" alt="Image unavailable: GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19"></a>{19}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability, has doubtless -rendered it one of the best known types of ornament. Like the Egyptian -and Assyrian prototype the Greek anthemion is usually arranged with -alternate flower and bud, connected by a curved line or more frequently -by a double spiral. Illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a -few typical examples, where the rhythm and beauty of composition are -indicative of the culture and perfection of Greek craftsmanship.</p> - -<p>Another feature, which at a later period received considerable -development, was the scroll given on the preceding page, which is a fine -example from the roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scroll cut with -V shaped sections, springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage, the -same features being observed in the nest of foliage which supports the -tripod upon the apex of the roof (<a href="#plt_6">plate 6</a>). This scroll is formed of a -series of spirals springing from each other, the junction of the spiral -being covered by a sheath or flower; the spiral itself being often -broken by a similar sheath.</p> - -<p>This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and -Italian Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the -Gothic ornament, in which the construction line is continuous and -unbroken.</p> - -<p>The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form was frequently -used upon the architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele (fig. 5 <a href="#plt_5">plate -5</a>) where its circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with -the functional straight lines of architectural design. The extraordinary -vitality and versatility of the Greek craftsmen may be traced through a -magnificent series of coins dating from <small>B.C.</small> 700 to <small>B.C.</small> 280. The -interest of subject, beauty of composition and largeness of style, -combined with the utmost delicacy of technique, of these gold, silver -and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of -the early Greeks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_019_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_019_sml.jpg" width="305" height="94" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20"></a>{20}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_7" id="plt_7">Plate 7.</a></span> -</span> -<br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_020_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_020_sml.jpg" width="610" height="374" alt="Image unavailable: ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 7." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21"></a>{21}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="ROMAN_ARCHITECTURE" id="ROMAN_ARCHITECTURE"></a>ROMAN<br /> ARCHITECTURE.</h2> - -<p>Roman Architecture is differentiated from that of Greece by the -extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. The many fine -remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary -versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their constructive -skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other -nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the Greek -prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and -with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornament, less refined in -contour and detail.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_021_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_021_sml.jpg" width="365" height="309" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of -Septimus Severus, <small>A.D.</small> 211. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, <small>A.D.</small> -79, and the Arch of Constantine, <small>A.D.</small> 326. Trajan’s Arch, <small>A.D.</small> 114, was -destroyed by Constantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building -of his own arch.</p> - -<p>The superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed -illustration from the Theatre of Marcellus, where the lower order is of -the Doric and the upper of the Ionic. The Colosseum has a third story, -having the Corinthian order, and an attic story, with Corinthian -pilasters; the whole reaching to a height of 156 feet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22"></a>{22}</span> - -<span class="figleft" style="width: 174px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_022a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_022a_sml.jpg" width="174" height="394" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span></p> - -<p>One of the best preserved buildings of the Roman period is the Pantheon, -with its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels, enriched with bronze -ornaments. The portico, octastyle and di-prostyle, is of the Corinthian -order, beautifully proportioned and enriched. The finest example of the -Corinthian order was used in the temple of Castor and Pollux, frequently -called Jupiter Stator; some 50 examples of this Corinthian order date -from the Roman period. The <i>Tuscan</i> and <i>Composite</i> orders were added by -the Romans to the Doric, Ionic and the Corinthian, forming the five -orders of architecture. -<span class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_022b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_022b_sml.jpg" width="132" height="190" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span></p> - -<p>The following table gives the relative proportions of the typical Roman -orders, the columns in modules, and the capital, entablature, &c., in -parts:—</p> - -<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td> </td><td align="left"> </td><td class="c"> Columns.</td><td class="c"> Capital.</td><td class="c"> Architrave.</td><td class="c"> Frieze.</td><td class="c"> Cornice.</td><td class="c"> Entablature.</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">Doric.</td><td> Theatre of Marcellus</td><td class="c"> 15½</td><td class="c"> 24</td><td class="c"> 31</td><td class="c"> 46</td><td class="c"> 37</td><td class="c"> 113</td></tr> -<tr><td>Baths of Diocletian</td><td class="c"> 16</td><td class="c"> 22</td><td class="c"> 32</td><td class="c"> 45</td><td class="c"> 46</td><td class="c"> 123</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">Ionic.</td><td> Theatre of Marcellus</td><td class="c"> 18</td><td class="c"> 31</td><td class="c"> 43</td><td class="c"> 36</td><td class="c"> 66</td><td class="c"> 145</td></tr> -<tr><td>Temple of Virilis</td><td class="c"> 17½</td><td class="c"> 33¾</td><td class="c"> 38</td><td class="c"> 28</td><td class="c"> 70</td><td class="c"> 137</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">Corinthian.</td><td> Jupiter Stator</td><td class="c"> 20</td><td class="c"> 66</td><td class="c"> 43</td><td class="c"> 43</td><td class="c"> 69</td><td class="c"> 156</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pantheon</td><td class="c"> 19½</td><td class="c"> 67</td><td class="c"> 42</td><td class="c"> 39</td><td class="c"> 54</td><td class="c"> 136</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23"></a>{23}</span></p> - -<p>The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cella was -of the same width as the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces the -Romans show the greatest constructive skill and splendour of -embellishment. The skilful planning and appropriateness of decorative -treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the -practical nature of the Romans.</p> - -<p>The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature, -rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the -Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with -concrete, and supported with rows of columns or biers. The remains of -two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of -Trajan, <small>A.D.</small> 114, rectangular, 180 × 160 feet, five aisles, the centre -aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, -is typical of one class; and the basilica of Maxentinus, <small>A.D.</small> 310, with -a width of 195 feet and a length of 260 feet, is typical of a vaulted -Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle -with an intersecting vaulted roof.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_023_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_023_sml.jpg" width="167" height="298" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their -service, and the basilica church was the typical form used up to the -12th century in the Romanesque provinces.</p> - -<p>The Roman houses were of two types: the <i>Domus</i>, or houses clustered -together, and the <i>Insular</i>, houses which were surrounded by streets. -Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the <i>Insular</i> type.</p> - -<p>The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the <i>Ostium</i> or entrance, -sometimes called the <i>Vestibule</i>, which opened into the <i>Atrium</i>, which -was a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the -centre called the <i>Conpluvium</i>, under which was the <i>Impluvium</i>, or -cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers -surrounded the <i>Atrium</i>, and at the further end was the <i>Tablinum</i> or -private room, frequently leading to the <i>Peristylium</i> or private part of -the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble -fountain, with flowers, shrubs and trees, forming a <i>Viridarium</i>. -Surrounding the <i>Peristylium</i> were private rooms, one of which was the -<i>Triclinium</i> or dining room. From the <i>Peristylium</i>, <i>fauces</i> or -passages led to the <i>Porticus</i>, a colonnade which overlooked the -garden.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24"></a>{24}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<span class="caption">ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8 - -</span> -<br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_024_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_024_sml.jpg" width="379" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8" /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25"></a>{25}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="ROMAN_ORNAMENT" id="ROMAN_ORNAMENT"></a>ROMAN<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>Rome, founded by Romulus, <small>B.C.</small> 783, became by successive wars and -conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the -architecture of the Etruscans <small>B.C.</small> 567, the Samnites <small>B.C.</small> 340, and of -Corinth and Carthage <small>B.C.</small> 146. From these varied sources arose the style -termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal -entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings and -the decorative use of bronze and the terra-cotta of the Etruscans, with -the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and -Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the -Romans during the period <small>B.C.</small> 100 to 337 <small>A.D.</small></p> - -<p>Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, -consisting of the anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans -using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with -bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement and -graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_025a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_025a_sml.jpg" width="303" height="105" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 188px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_025b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_025b_sml.jpg" width="188" height="186" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines clothed with -cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals terminating in -a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved -or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foliation, such as the -vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or -griffin (fig. 1) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving -that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so characteristic -of Roman art.</p> - -<p>The Thermæ, or baths and public buildings, displayed fine decorative -ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria; or coffers, square, -hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high relief and -the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart -or the water leaf. These exhibit an effective treatment of moulded -surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases -ornamented<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26"></a>{26}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">ROMAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_9" id="plt_9">Plate 9.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_026_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_026_sml.jpg" width="375" height="603" alt="Image unavailable: ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 9." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27"></a>{27}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or -mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the mouldings -or divisions in higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and -dart enrichment (<a href="#plt_9">Plate 9.)</a></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 191px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_027_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_027_sml.jpg" width="191" height="110" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this -period were often decorated with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, <a href="#plt_9">plate 9</a>), and -were supported by cupids or by candelabra (<a href="#plt_9">plate 9</a>), or by the skulls of -oxen, as on the frieze from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, here given, -which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of worship.</p> - -<p>The architectural basilica and forum of Trajan, erected <small>A.D.</small> 114, by -Apollodorus, a Greek of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the -remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans. -Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a -rectangular pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the -dresses, armour and standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports -a column of the Tuscan order of architecture 97¼ feet high and 12 -feet in diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having -bas-reliefs representing the successive events of the Dacian War by the -Emperor Trajan.</p> - -<p>This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a -complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that period. -Another well-preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in -Rome by Marcus Aurelius <small>A.D.</small> 174, the subjects of its reliefs being the -war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns, or Tazzas, enriched with -Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage and birds and animals; -magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and candelabra, of bronze, enriched -with silver damascening, together with the choice remains of sculpture -and mosaics, all indicate the luxuriousness and love of magnificence of -the wealthy Roman citizens.</p> - -<p>In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling -combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of -foliage, repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This -elaboration of the typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded -serrations of the Acanthus, forms the chief characteristic of Roman -ornament, which is wonderfully bold, and vigorous in conception and -execution, but deficient in the refinement and delicacy of Greek art.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28"></a>{28}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_10" id="plt_10">Plate 10.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_028_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_028_sml.jpg" width="381" height="602" alt="Image unavailable: POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 10." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29"></a>{29}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="POMPEIAN_ORNAMENT" id="POMPEIAN_ORNAMENT"></a>POMPEIAN<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an -eruption of Vesuvius in the year <small>A.D.</small> 79. These cities had already -suffered from an earthquake in <small>A.D.</small> 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt -when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The younger Pliny, the -historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two -letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from -the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the -treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural -paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of -marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of -the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century <small>A.D.</small> -Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748 <small>A.D.</small>, and from -these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum -at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small -bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large -mosaics, together with a splendid collection of marble statuary.</p> - -<p>A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of -and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the -vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed -with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, -and white tesserie. The triclinium, or dining room floor was often a -magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject. -The walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado ⅙th the height -of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels -and a frieze above (<a href="#plt_10">plate 10</a>). The general scheme of colour was, the -dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black -dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The -decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, -and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, -such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon -the painted walls. A small panel painted with a classical subject -usually occupies the centre of each wall panel.</p> - -<p>The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman -relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral -form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups -grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon -which birds are placed.</p> - -<p>Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings, -were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of -small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the -anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30"></a>{30}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_11" id="plt_11">Plate 11.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_030_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_030_sml.jpg" width="391" height="609" alt="Image unavailable: BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31"></a>{31}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="BYZANTINE" id="BYZANTINE"></a>BYZANTINE.</h2> - -<p>When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of Government from Rome -to Byzantium, in the year <small>A.D.</small> 330, he inaugurated a new era in art, -viz.: the Byzantine. The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now -assimilated with the arts of Persia and Syria, but moulded and -influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal vitality, -deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the -Byzantine period.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 261px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_031_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_031_sml.jpg" width="261" height="203" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the -buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, -but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the -building of S. Sophia by Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, -during the reign of Justinian, <small>A.D.</small> 538. This building is remarkable for -its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square -plan, its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great -inventiveness and symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp -acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of -Christianity such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the -peacock also is frequently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but -groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground -mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and -domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna in -Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale, the basilica -churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, <small>A.D.</small> 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe, -<small>A.D.</small> 538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and -sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of -Torcello, <small>A.D.</small> 670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice, -marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans -here given are typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of -the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This symbolism -is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and -crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a -peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the -sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in -the sculptured ornament of this period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32"></a>{32}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_12" id="plt_12">Plate 12.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_032_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_032_sml.jpg" width="374" height="614" alt="Image unavailable: SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 12." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33"></a>{33}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="SCANDINAVIAN_ORNAMENT" id="SCANDINAVIAN_ORNAMENT"></a>SCANDINAVIAN<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery, and implements of war of the -early Viking period, found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, display no -trace of plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter consisting -wholly of interlacing animal forms, chiefly the dragon. The viking ship -found at Sandifiord in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows -traces of the “Bronze Dragon Prow,” referred to in the early -Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement of the 12th century, plant forms -are found mingled with the dragons, and figure sculpture became -important in treating of the myths of the gods; Frey, Woden, Thor and -Fyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the newer cult in -religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap.</p> - -<p>Hreiômar had three sons, Otter, Fafni and Regan. Otter was killed one -day by Loki, one of the three Scandinavian gods—Loki, Hœni and -Woden—these being seized by Hreiômar, who would only release them when -the skin of Otter should be covered with gold. Thereupon Loki seized the -dwarf Andwan, who was made to give up his treasure of gold, and a ring -of magical properties, carrying with it a curse, that the treasure -should be the death of those who held it. Loki then returned and covered -the skin of Otter with the gold (fig. 3), after which the gods were set -at liberty. Then Hreiômar was slain by his sons for the treasure. Fafni, -after seizing the latter, took the form of a dragon, and lay guarding -the plunder at Gnita Heath. Regan, his brother, in order to obtain the -treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd, -in testing his sword, broke it in twain, thereupon Regan made him a -magic sword, with which he lay in the trail of the dragon, and pierced -it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regan took out the heart of the dragon, -which Sigurd cut into slices and toasted while Regan slept. Sigurd, -burning his fingers, places them in his mouth, and tasted the blood of -Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo! he heard the voice of birds saying -that Regan was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed Regan, eat the -heart of Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse -Grani, and departed, only to be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for -this crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. 1).<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> - -<p>This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in figs. 1 and -2 the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the -fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in -Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same -subjects, dating from the 11th century. In later times the dragon -becomes more pronounced in character, until in the 14th century it fills -the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament (fig. 6).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34"></a>{34}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">CELTIC ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_13" id="plt_13">Plate 13.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_034_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_034_sml.jpg" width="367" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35"></a>{35}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="CELTIC_ORNAMENT" id="CELTIC_ORNAMENT"></a>CELTIC<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>No period in the history of Art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The -carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels and -silversmith’s work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with -capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the -clear and accurate writing of the text, are all indications of the -culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people. The incised -ornament upon the stone tumuli of the 3rd and 4th centuries <small>B.C.</small> show -simple forms such as chequers, chevrons, circles and spirals which are -used by almost all primitive people, yet even at this early stage the -Celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. -The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel -enriched with the northern “Fylfot” is a typical example of the 2nd or -3rd century, <small>A.D.</small> Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, -which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree -of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries (figs. 2 to 7), being -typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 11th century when all -trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used -from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from Byzantine -and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a marked -feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been borrowed from -the north, as Ireland had no traditions of dragons, and it is to -Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin -of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zormorpic character that -distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except -Scandinavian.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_035_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_035_sml.jpg" width="338" height="99" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical -examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period -is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with -Champlevé enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (<a href="#plt_34">plate 34</a>) and the Tara -Brooch (7th century) are splendid examples of the Christian period -dating from St. Patrick, <small>A.D.</small> 440-460. The beautiful Book of Kells, <small>A.D.</small> -650-690, the Book of Armagh, <small>A.D.</small> 807, the Book of Durrow, <small>A.D.</small> 750 -(Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham, <small>A.D.</small> 689-721, written -by Eadfrith and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, -assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftsmanship of -the early Irish people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36"></a>{36}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="NORMAN_AND_GOTHIC_ARCHITECTURE" id="NORMAN_AND_GOTHIC_ARCHITECTURE"></a>NORMAN AND<br /> GOTHIC<br /> ARCHITECTURE.</h2> - -<p>English Gothic Architecture has been broadly divided into periods for -the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most -generally accepted.</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="clear:both;"> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">By Sharpe.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="c"><small>A.D.</small></td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2" class="bdr">Romanesque—</td><td>Saxon</td><td class="rt">1066.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Norman</td><td class="rt">1066-1145.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="4" class="bdr">Gothic—</td><td>Transitional</td><td class="rt">1145-1190.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Lancet</td><td class="rt">1190-1245.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Curvilinear</td><td class="rt">1245-1360.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rectilinear</td><td class="rt">1360-1550.</td></tr> -</table> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">By Rickman.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="c"><small>A.D.</small></td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2" class="bdr">Romanesque—</td><td>Norman</td><td>1066-1189.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Early English</td><td>1189-1307.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="3" class="bdr">Gothic—</td><td>Decorated</td><td>1307-1379.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Perpendicular</td><td>1379-1483.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tudor</td><td>1483-1546.</td></tr> -</table> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">French Classification by De Caumont.</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="3" class="bdr">Romanesque—</td><td>Primordiale</td><td class="rt">5th to 10th</td><td class="c">century.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Secondaire</td><td class="rt">10th to 12th</td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tertiaire</td><td class="rt">12th</td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="3" class="bdr">Pointed—</td><td>Primitive</td><td class="rt">13th</td><td class="c">century.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Secondaire or Rayonnant</td><td class="rt">14th</td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tertiaire or Flamboyant</td><td class="rt">15th</td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded <small>A.D.</small> 1066-1170 by Norman -bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and -York, or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new -sites such as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more -magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the -older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of -Roman and Byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art -of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples.</p> - -<p>The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the -apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and -is therefore considered a typical English cathedral. Each vertical -division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On <a href="#plt_14">plate -14</a> is an illustration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, -showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. The -general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it -can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was -influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily overlapping -its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the -choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular -Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the -Triforium and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side -with the pointed arch.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Piers</span> (sometimes termed columns) of these bays have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37"></a>{37}</span> distinctive -features which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic -development. Sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took -place in the shape of the pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general -characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 259px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_037a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_037a_sml.jpg" width="259" height="86" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p class="nind">CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nave Arcading.</span> The universal use of the round arch, cylindrical or -rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face. -Capitals cubical and cushion shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with -concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 267px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_037b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_037b_sml.jpg" width="267" height="385" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Triforium.</span> In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small -arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clearstory.</span> One window with an open arcading in front, of three arches, -the centre one larger and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow -gallery in the thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof of the nave, -of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra -partite vaulting.</p> - -<p>An arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall, -under the aisle windows.</p> - -<p>Early windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply -splayed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38"></a>{38}</span> the inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb -shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few -semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine example is to -be found in Barfrestone Church, Kent.</p> - -<p>EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.</p> - -<p>The Lancet or pointed arch universal.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Capitals</span>, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch -mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the -characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in -bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch -mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a -“Dripstone,” and when used horizonally over a square headed window a -“Label.”</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Triforium</span> has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or -subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced -trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate -shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and -enriched with the <i>Dog’s tooth</i> ornament or trefoil foliage.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Clearstory</span> lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the -inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the -floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and -finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from -which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite -in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and -at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass -similar to the example given on the next page from Salisbury Cathedral. -The annexed example from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely -proportioned window and its arrangement.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_038_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_038_sml.jpg" width="186" height="395" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was frequently -used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed -singly under<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39"></a>{39}</span> triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are -fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, <a href="#plt_14">plate -14</a>). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the -north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they -are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of -the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical -adornment. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, -Chartres, and Rheims.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_039_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_039_sml.jpg" width="148" height="168" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.</p> - -<p>In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain -mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or -mallow. The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, -usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage similar to that -upon the capitals.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Triforium</span> consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches, -adorned with Geometric tracery.</p> - -<p>The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window -being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral -triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, <a href="#plt_14">plate 14</a>). -Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which -springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital -under the Clearstory string.</p> - -<p>The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric -tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with -mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the -transepts are typical of this period.</p> - -<p>PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Piers</span> of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings -carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they -frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, -or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an -angular treatment of the vine. In some instances, the upper part of the -plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is -also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular -screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Triforium</span> is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two -horizontal divisions only. The <span class="smcap">Clearstory</span>, owing to the suppression of -the Triforium becomes of more importance. The windows are large and -often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings -of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have -horizontal transoms, on which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40"></a>{40}</span> battlement ornament is displayed. The -aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered -with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in -the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, -also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use -of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic features of the -Perpendicular or Tudor period. English cathedrals show a marked contrast -in scale to contemporary French buildings. The English nave and choir is -less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. -For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with -its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 feet -in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide, -and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft. -wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, -39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough -with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York -with 45 ft. being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave.</p> - -<p>The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand, -being as follows:—Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, -and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. -wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. -wide, and 485 ft. in length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great -height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in -length.</p> - -<p>The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th -centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in -a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is, -S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and -canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the -famous <i>Scaligers</i> at Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by -the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in -France and England where Gothic architecture reached its culmination; -the abbeys and cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched -with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and -canopies with crockets, finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and -details, and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass, -are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the -middle ages.</p> - -<p>On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that -took place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the -15th century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in -the Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style -may also be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman -one (fig. 1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and -8.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41"></a>{41}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_14" id="plt_14">Plate 14.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_041_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_041_sml.jpg" width="385" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42"></a>{42}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">NORMAN DETAILS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_15" id="plt_15">Plate 15.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_042_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_042_sml.jpg" width="386" height="610" alt="Image unavailable: NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 15." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43"></a>{43}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="NORMAN_DETAILS" id="NORMAN_DETAILS"></a>NORMAN<br /> DETAILS.</h2> - -<p>Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional -semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic -period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated -with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman -work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of -the Chevron, the Cable Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge -and the beading or pearling. Characteristic features of this period also -are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the corbel-table, which was a series of -heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the -parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant; -at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of -semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or -imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of -surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6).</p> - -<p>Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known -of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and -not the rule.</p> - -<p>Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular -arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The -semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude -sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament -in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the -jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, -or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals -showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and -the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front -of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west -door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire.</p> - -<p>The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus, -enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The -capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or -segments of circles.</p> - -<p>The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary -work in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its -name—Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style, -beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of -Angouleme Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading, -displays more affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two -French capitals (figs. 9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals -and birds may be seen, showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art -of that period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44"></a>{44}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_16" id="plt_16">Plate 16.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_044_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_044_sml.jpg" width="385" height="606" alt="Image unavailable: EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 16." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45"></a>{45}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="EARLY_GOTHIC_DETAILS" id="EARLY_GOTHIC_DETAILS"></a>EARLY GOTHIC<br /> DETAILS.</h2> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Norman</span> style was succeeded by the pointed, or <span class="smcap">Gothic</span> style, -remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular -grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian -and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of -perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric character of -the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and -well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its -capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed -foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading -out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to -the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it -from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three -crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic -ornament.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_045a1_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_045a1_sml.jpg" width="360" height="76" alt="Image unavailable: A" /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="figleft" style="width: 158px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_045a2_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_045a2_sml.jpg" width="158" height="75" alt="Image unavailable: B" /></a> -</span><small>A.</small> Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. <small>B.</small> -Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and -maple, with a flowing indulating line. <small>C.</small> Perpendicular Gothic, showing -the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular -manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the -borders here given.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_045b1_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_045b1_sml.jpg" width="359" height="79" alt="Image unavailable: C" /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="figleft" style="width: 170px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_045b2_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_045b2_sml.jpg" width="170" height="66" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span>The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church, Kent (fig. 1), is -remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms -of ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early -English foliage.</p> - -<p>The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar -to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46"></a>{46}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR<br /> -GOTHIC DETAILS. <a name="plt_17" id="plt_17"></a>Plate 17. - -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_046_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_046_sml.jpg" width="392" height="601" alt="Image unavailable: DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR -GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47"></a>{47}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in -addition to the spiral forms of foliage.</p> - -<p>Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from -the early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a -rounder type of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is -so characteristic of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain -moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in -France.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_047_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_047_sml.jpg" width="200" height="186" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS.</p> - -<p>Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural -types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its -ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the -rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, -being carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and -architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in -brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with -adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply -attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but -lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early -work.</p> - -<p>Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were -now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The -ball flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the -equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style.</p> - -<p>French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more -reserve and affinity for architectural forms.</p> - -<p>This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within -half a century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style, -with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface -panelling, and the prevalent use of the four centred arch—of octagonal -capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine,—of heraldic -shields and arms, and of the four-leaved flower; all typical of the -period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48"></a>{48}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_18" id="plt_18">Plate 18.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_048_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_048_sml.jpg" width="375" height="610" alt="Image unavailable: RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 18." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49"></a>{49}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="RENASCENCE_ORNAMENT" id="RENASCENCE_ORNAMENT"></a>RENASCENCE<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The arts of Rome and Byzantium lingered in Italy until the 12th century, -losing their vitality and vigour, except at Venice, where the Byzantine -style reached a culminating point in the glorious buildings at Murano -and of St. Mark’s.</p> - -<p>Lombardy, in the north, had witnessed a singular blending of the old -classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards and -the symbolisms of the old Byzantine, thus producing the architecture -known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, -quaint imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as -a support for the columns. These are features of the early art at Lucca, -and at Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy; a beautiful -illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin’s “<i>Stones of -Venice</i>,” Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic -influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and -crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture -with this Gothic personality; hence, during the 12th and 13th centuries -in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs -and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the -imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in -conception. Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the -glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style where symmetry was to play an -important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, -of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and which, though beautiful in -proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet lacked that -symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness, and rugged personality of the -early Byzantine, Lombardic and Gothic styles.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Italian</span> Renascence is broadly divided into three periods. Tre-cento, -<small>A.D.</small> 1300 to 1400; Quattro-cento, <small>A.D.</small> 1400 to 1500; and Cinque-cento, -<small>A.D.</small> 1500 to 1600. In the Tre-cento style this intermingling of the -classic details with the Lombardic and Gothic constructions produced -such remarkable buildings as S. Maria della Spina, and the Campo Santo -at Pisa, by Giovanni Pisano 1240-1320; the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church -of Santa Croce, and the Cathedral of Florence, by Arnolfo di Cambio -(1232-1310), with its alternate courses of black and white marble, and -its Gothic arches and tracery; the beautiful Campanile by Giotto -(1276-1336) is a noble accessory to Arnolfo’s Cathedral. A charming -illustration of this Tre-cento period, from Giotto’s Campanile, is the -frontispiece to Ruskin’s “<i>Seven Lamps of Architecture</i>.”</p> - -<p>The sculpture and decorative arts of this period are marked by dignity -of conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classical traditions. -Perhaps the earliest examples known are the hexagonal pulpit in the -Baptistery at Pisa, a similar one in the Cathedral at Siena, and the -fountain at Perugia, all by Nicolo Pisano (1206-76).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50"></a>{50}</span> He was assisted in -much of his work by his son Giovanni, who also executed the pulpit in -the Cathedral at Pisa. Andrea Pisano (1273-1344), a pupil of Giovanni -executed a beautiful bronze gate or door, cast in 1332, for the -Baptistery at Florence.</p> - -<p>A fine monumental work of this period is the tomb of St. Peter the -Martyr, in the Church of St. Eustorgio at Milan, by Balducco di Pisa, -1308-47.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Quattro-cento</span> period, of which Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465), was the -great master, is remarkable for its vitality and naturalism. Ghiberti’s -chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery; the -first gate is dated 1403-24, and the second 1425-50. Both have panels -modelled in low relief, the first with incidents from the New, and the -second from the Old Testament. The frame-work of these gates has a -series of single figures in niches, with circular medallions between -them. The bronze architrave round each of the Ghiberti gates, in -addition to the one he placed round the earlier gate, by Andrea Pisano, -are rich examples of Quattro-cento design. The details are natural -fruits, flowers, and foliage, banded-together with ribbons, with the -introduction of birds, squirrels, &c. The egg-plant and pomegranate -portion (fig. 1) is a familiar example.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_050_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_050_sml.jpg" width="367" height="219" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Other masters of this period were Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438) who -executed the beautiful monument here shown, to Ilaria di Carretto, in -the cathedral at Lucca. The recumbent figure of Ilaria is sculptured in -white marble with perfect simplicity and beauty; another famous work of -Jacopo was the fountain at Siena.</p> - -<p>Luca della Robbia (1400-82) executed a beautiful organ gallery in marble -for the Cathedral at Florence, with admirable singing and dancing -figures in relief. But beautiful as this work is, Luca’s reputation -rests upon his Enamelled Terra Cotta, which he perfected<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51"></a>{51}</span> to a -remarkable degree. Modelled first in clay and coated with tin enamel -(see Maiolica), he produced a marvellous series of these reliefs, which -were invariably surrounded with the typical quattro-cento border of -modelled fruit and flowers, enamelled in bright colours. His nephew, -Andrea della Robbia (1445-1525) continued the traditions, methods, and -skill, with marked success; and also Andrea’s son Giovanni (1524) who -executed a beautiful frieze upon the façade of the hospital at Pistoja. -Andrea’s other sons, Girolamo and Luca carried the art into France under -Francis I. (1531.) Donatello (1386-1466) was remarkable for the singular -grace and sincerity of his portraiture, especially of children; the -dancing figures in relief on the panels of the singing gallery of the -Cathedral of Florence, are perfect examples of his art. Donatello also -carried the art of low flat relief called “<i>Stiacciato</i>” to the greatest -perfection. An illustration of Donatello’s work, from the high altar of -St. Antonio at Padua, is here given.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 94px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_051a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_051a_sml.jpg" width="94" height="208" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The art of the medallist, which had declined since the Roman period, now -took its position among the arts of the quattro-cento period, under -Vittore Pisano, called Pisanello (1380-1451). The vigour of his -modelling, and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary -Princes of Italy, are exceedingly fine. Among other remarkable -medallists were Sperandio of Verona (1423-90); Caradosso, of Milan -(1480-1545); Vincentine, of Vicenza (1468-1546); Benvenuto Cellini, of -Florence (1500-71); Lione Leoni (1498-1560); Pompeoni Leoni (1530-1610); -and Pastorino, of Siena (1510-91). The great dome of Arnolfo’s Cathedral -at Florence was designed by Brunelleschi (1377-1446), who was a -competitor with Ghiberti for the bronze gates of the Baptistery at -Florence. Other names of this period were Desiderio da Settignano -(1428-64,)<span class="figleft" style="width: 198px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_051b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_051b_sml.jpg" width="198" height="123" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> his masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini, in the -Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da Fiesole (1430-84); Andrea -Verrocchio (1435-88); the author of the fine equestrian statue of -Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes); Matteo Civitali -(1435-1501); and the Rossellini, a remarkable family of five brothers, -of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini (1427-79), who executed -a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di Portogallo in the Church of the -Nunziata, Florence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52"></a>{52}</span></p> - -<p style="clear:both;">The <span class="smcap">Cinque-Cento</span> period was the culmination of the Renascence, when -architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were under -<span class="figleft" style="width: 124px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_052a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_052a_sml.jpg" width="124" height="242" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> -the magnificent patronage of the Popes and Princes of Italy. Palaces, -churches, and public buildings were completed and embellished with -beautiful sculptures and decorations; hung with the most sumptuous -fabrics of the Venetian, Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with -altar paintings and mural decorations, by the most renowned of painters; -and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and -silversmiths’ art, and the loveliest of intarsia or inlaid woodwork.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_052b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_052b_sml.jpg" width="374" height="302" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Michel Angelo Buonarroti (1474-1653), by his great intellect and power, -stands above his many contemporaries. The colossal figure of <i>David</i>, -and the <i>Madonna</i> and <i>Child</i> at Bruges, are familiar examples of this -great artist’s work. The magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano de -Medici at Florence, show his noble power and conceptions of art. The -splendid decorative work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the -Vatican is another example where unity of conception<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53"></a>{53}</span> and marvellous -execution are shown in a remarkable degree. Two illustrations of this -ceiling are given—one of the panels, with the expulsion from Eden, and -one of the Sibyls or Prophets, both showing beautiful harmony of -incident and composition.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_053a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_053a_sml.jpg" width="164" height="205" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Contemporary with Michel Angelo was Raphael (1483-1520), who displayed -the highest capacity for grace and refinement in painting. His principal -mural paintings are in the stanze of the Vatican, where four rooms are -painted in fresco, almost entirely by Raphael. The Loggia of the -Vatican, by Bramante, was also decorated by Raphael and his pupils. The -then-recent discoveries of the Baths of Titus and House of Livia, with -their Roman mural painting, influenced in a remarkable degree the -decorative painting of the Cinque-Cento period. These arabesques (or, as -they were termed, Grotteschi, being found in the supposed caves or -grottos of Roman gardens), were utilised by Raphael in the decoration of -the pilasters, piers, and walls of this Loggia. The designs were painted -with a fine range of colour upon white ground, and enclosed within -borders of modelled stucco ornaments. In the panels upon the ceiling, -Raphael painted a series of 52 incidents of the Bible. These are spoken -of as “Raphael’s Bible.”</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_053_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_053_sml.jpg" width="225" height="299" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Raphael was assisted in this work of the Loggia by many contemporary -artists: Giovanni da Udine (1494-1564), Giulio Romano (1492-1546), -Francesco Penni (1488-1528), Perino del Vaga (1500-47), and Primaticcio<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54"></a>{54}</span> -(1490-1580), who completed much of the work after Raphael’s death. These -artists carried his traditions and methods to other parts of Italy. -Giulio Romano executed some fine mural decorations at the Villa Madama -in Rome; and for Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, he enriched with -beautiful decorative paintings and arabesques, the Palazzo Ducale and -the Palazzo del Te. These arabesques were upon richly coloured or -parti-coloured grounds (see plates 86-9 “<i>Grammar of Ornament</i>,” by Owen -Jones).</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 223px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_054a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_054a_sml.jpg" width="223" height="98" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>These arabesques of Raphael’s, which were excelled by later ones of -Giulio Romano, show a great inventiveness and skilful combination of -parts, but they are not to be compared with the refined and beautiful -modelling and harmonious composition of the contemporary carved work of -Andrea Sansovino (1460-1528), Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Agostino -Busti, Pietro Lombardo (1500), and his sons Tullio and Antonio. These -delicate reliefs have the traditional Roman acanthus, but treated with a -fine feeling for relief modelling, and beauty of line; vases, masks, -shields, and similar accessories are found in profusion in some examples -(fig. 3, <a href="#plt_19">plate 19</a>). The composition of the Cinque-cento ornament is -symmetrical, the details being varied and most interesting in the best -work, and whilst lacking the vigour and symbolism of the Lombardic and -Byzantine styles, it excelled them in its absolute adaptation to -architectural conditions, with perfection of design and craftsmanship.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 165px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_054b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_054b_sml.jpg" width="165" height="81" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Andrea Mantegna (1431-1517) executed nine paintings or cartoons in -tempera upon linen, representing the triumphs of Julius Cæsar, which are -a portion of the cartoons for a frieze 9 feet high and 80 feet long, -painted for Lodovico Gonzaga’s Palace of St. Sebastian at Mantua, they -were purchased by Charles I., and are now at Hampton Court. An -illustration of this frieze, from an engraving upon copper in the -British Museum, is given on page 55; they were also engraved on wood by -Andrea Andreani in 1599.</p> - -<p>Many beautiful examples of the Cinque-Cento ornament may be found in -contemporary printed and illuminated books. The advent of printing in -Italy (1465) by the Germans, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannitz at the -Benedictine Monastery of Subiaco, near Rome, gave a great impetus to -Literature, and printing rapidly progressed in Italy, more especially at -Venice, where in 1499 Aldus Manutius produced the Hypnerotomachia, or -dream of Poliphilus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55"></a>{55}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_19" id="plt_19">Plate 19.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_055_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_055_sml.jpg" width="380" height="605" alt="Image unavailable: RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 19." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56"></a>{56}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">with illustrations ascribed to Mantegna. Good reproductions of many of -these early illustrated books are given in the “<i>Italian Book -Illustrations</i>,” by A. W. Pollard, No. 12 of the Portfolio, December, -1894; and in “<i>The Decorative Illustration of Books</i>,” by Walter Crane.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_056a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_056a_sml.jpg" width="164" height="216" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publication at -Rome in 1486, of the treatise by Vitruvius, an architect of the time of -Augustus; an edition was also published at Florence in 1496, and at -Venice in 1511. In 1570, Fra Giocondo, at Venice, published “<i>The Five -Books of Architecture</i>,” by Andrea Palladio (1518-80). Another treatise -upon architecture, by Serlio (1500-52), was also published at Venice in -1537 and 1540.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_056b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_056b_sml.jpg" width="153" height="262" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Beautiful types of the Renascence decorative art were the Venetian -well-heads, situated as they were in most of the public squares of -Venice, and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces. Designed -with details of the most varied and beautiful character by such artists -as Andrea Sansovino, Pietro Lombardo, and his sons Tullio and Antonio, -the Venetian well-head became a type of beauty, diversified in its -treatment, but never losing its characteristics or its usefulness. -Venetian well-heads display a great variety of form and decoration. The -earlier examples are square or circular, with enrichments of Byzantine -character, consisting largely of interlacing, circular, and angular -lines, enclosing quaint bird and animal forms. In the later examples the -Renascence treatment is used with singular richness and appropriateness, -the grace, delicacy and diversity of detail being a tribute to the -vivacity and artistic feeling of the Venetian Republic. These -well-heads, worked mostly in white marble and evincing good judgment in -the quality of relief, now show comparatively little injury after -centuries of usefulness. Occasionally they were of bronze, of which two -fine examples are still in position in the court-yard of the Doge’s -Palace.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57"></a>{57}</span> Many of these well-heads are carefully treasured in our -European Museums, teaching us that beauty of form, and perfection and -delicacy of ornament are quite compatible with usefulness, when used by -an artistic people.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_057_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_057_sml.jpg" width="215" height="141" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The Renascence in Italy was remarkable for the many magnificent secular -buildings erected during the 15th and 16th centuries in the chief cities -in Italy.</p> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Florence</span> the palaces have a severe dignity of treatment, with bold -rusticated courses of stone-work, circular-headed windows, and -finely-proportioned cornices. The first Renascence palace was the -Riccardi (1430) by Michelozzi (1370-1440); and it was followed by the -Pitti (1435), by Brunelleschi (1377-1444), the Rucellai (1460), by Leon -Battista Alberti (1389-1472), the Strozzi (1489), by Cronaca -(1454-1509), the Gondi (1490), by Giuliano Sangallo (1443-1507), the -Guadagni and the Nicolini, by Bramante (1444-1514), the Pandolfini -(1520), by Raphael (1483-1520), and the Bartolini (1520), by Baccio -d’Agnolo (1460-1543).</p> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Rome</span> the palaces were characterised by largeness of scale and the -frequent use of Ionic and Corinthian pilasters or columns, and -square-headed windows with triangular or curved pediments. The chief -palaces in Rome are the Cancelleria (1495) and the Giraud (1506) by -Bramante (1444-1514), the Farnesina (1506), the Massimi (1510), and the -Villa Ossoli (1525), by Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), the Palma and -the Farnese, by Antonio Sangallo (1476-1546), the Borghese (1590), by -Martino Lunghi, the Laterano, by Fontana (1543-1610), and the Barberini, -by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629), Borromini (1599-1667), and Bernini -(1598-1680).</p> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Venice</span> the palaces were rich and varied; with the frequent use of -pilasters, semi-columns and circular-headed mullioned windows suggested -by the earlier Gothic palaces. The Renascence period commenced here with -the re-building of the court-yard of the Doge’s Palace (1486) by Antonio -Bregno, and completed in 1550 by Scarpagnino. Then came a beautiful -series of buildings, the chief being:—the Vendramini, the Trevisani, -and the Gradenigo Palaces, by Sante Lombardo (1504-1560); the Cornaro -Palace and the Library of St. Mark’s, by Sansovino (1479-1570), and the -Grimani Palace by San Michele (1484-1559).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58"></a>{58}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="FRENCH_RENASCENCE" id="FRENCH_RENASCENCE"></a>FRENCH<br /> RENASCENCE.</h2> - -<p>Towards the close of the 15th century, the vigorous and beautiful Gothic -architecture of France, with its rich traceried and mullioned windows, -its niches and canopies, its crocketed spires and varied treatment of -floral enrichment, lost its vitality; and was succeeded by the -Renascence style, which at first was purely Italian, but afterwards, -with the intermingling of Gothic traditions and craftsmanship, became a -distinct phase of the Renascence.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_058_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_058_sml.jpg" width="368" height="199" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>French Renascence may be broadly divided into distinctive periods: 1st. -The earlier or transitional, 1453-1515, when the influence of the -Renascence began to be felt. 2nd. 1515-47, <span class="smcap">François Premier</span>. This period -is remarkable for the number of Italians engaged by Francis I. for the -embellishment of the Château Fontainbleau, the principal being Rosso, -painter; Serlio and Vignola, architects; Primaticcio and Penni, -ornamentists, Benvenuto Cellini, with his beautiful goldsmiths’ art; and -Girolamo della Robbia, who produced enamelled Terra Cotta. The work of -these renowned craftsmen necessarily had a marked influence upon the -traditional French art. Of the architecture of this period, there is the -south-west angle of the Louvre, commenced in 1548 by Pierre Lescot -(1510-78), and enriched with sculpture by Jean Goujon (1515-72), who -also executed the sculptures that embellished the beautiful Château -Ecouen, by Jean Bullant (1515-60), and the beautiful fountain of the -Innocents at Paris, of which an illustration of one of the panels is -here given. The tomb of Louis XII., at St. Denis, by Jean Juste (1518), -is remarkable for the purity of its enrichments.</p> - -<p>3rd. <span class="smcap">Henri Deux</span> and <span class="smcap">Henri Quatre</span> period, 1547-1610, when the building of -the Tuileries was commenced in 1564 by Philibert de Lorme (1500-78), the -building of the Louvre being continued by De Carreau and Duperac; the -Luxembourg being subsequently built by De Brosse, 1610. This period was -also represented by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59"></a>{59}</span> exquisite Ceramics of Oiron or Henri Deux Ware, -and the fine geometrical interlacings and arabesques of the bookbindings -of Grolier.</p> - -<p> -<span class="figcenter" style="clear:none;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_059b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_059b_sml.jpg" width="248" height="104" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> - -<span class="figleft" style="width: 102px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_059a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_059a_sml.jpg" width="102" height="370" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span><br /> -4th period, 1610-43, under <span class="smcap">Louis Treize</span>, when considerable skill was -shown in the carved and painted shell and scroll ornament, and in the -bookbindings of Le Gascon. -</p> - -<p> -<span class="figcenter" style="clear:none;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_059c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_059c_sml.jpg" width="214" height="59" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span><br /> -5th. <span class="smcap">Louis Quatorze</span> period, 1643-1715, of which the palace of Versailles -and the Château Maison, by François Mansard (1598-1666), are typical -examples of architecture. The decorative compositions of le Pautre (see -annexed illustrations), and the richly-decorated furniture, with -marquetry in tortoise-shell and brass, by André Boule (1642-1732); the -magnificent Gobelins tapestry, so liberally encouraged by the Minister -Colbert (1667); and the beautiful Rouen pottery; are characteristic of -the industrial and decorative arts.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_059d_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_059d_sml.jpg" width="110" height="192" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>6th. <span class="smcap">Louis Quinze</span> period, 1715-74, when the Rococo style was paramount, -the vitality of the preceding periods being lost. The pastoral scenes by -the painter Watteau (1684-1721), and the inlaid furniture of Jean -François Ochen (1754-65), for Madame de Pompadour, are typical of this -period.</p> - -<p>7th. <span class="smcap">Louis Seize</span>, 1774-89. The arts of this period are more refined and -reserved in line, as evinced in the fine marquetry furniture of Riesener -and David Roentgen with the ormolu mountings by Gouthière (1740-1810), -for Marie Antoinette.</p> - -<p>The last period, <span class="smcap">Empire Style</span>, 1804-70, when purely classical forms and -Greek enrichments prevailed throughout the whole of the decorative -arts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60"></a>{60}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="ENGLISH_RENASCENCE" id="ENGLISH_RENASCENCE"></a>ENGLISH<br /> RENASCENCE.</h2> - -<p>The English Renascence period began during the reign of Henry VIII., and -was contemporary with that of France under Francis I. It was Torrigiano, -a contemporary of Michel Angelo, who about 1519 brought this new -Renascence style into repute by erecting the tomb of Henry VII., and -that of the Countess of Richmond, in Westminster Abbey.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 249px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_060a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_060a_sml.jpg" width="249" height="174" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>English Renascence was further developed by Hans Holbein (1498-1554), -who came into this country in 1526, followed by craftsmen from Flanders, -Germany and Italy. This intermingling of Flemish, German and Italian -styles with the traditional Gothic of our own country, distinguishes -English Renascence from that of France and Italy. The marked prevalence -of interlacing strap-work, which is so characteristic of Elizabethan and -Jacobean ornament, had its origin in Flemish sources.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_060b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_060b_sml.jpg" width="228" height="171" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Of English Renascence architecture, Caius College, Cambridge, (1565-74), -by Theodore Hare, of Cleves, and Longleat House (1567-79), by John -Thorp, are the earliest examples extant. The Wonderful Palace of Nonsuch -(of which no trace remains) was erected by Henry VIII. about 1530-40, -doubtless in the Renascence style, as we know that it was embellished -with beautifully enriched stucco ornaments and figures by Tolo del -Nunziato. Robert Smithson built Wollaton House in 1580. Hardwicke Hall -and Haddon Hall are of the later Elizabethan age (1592-97). Typical -buildings of the Jacobean period are Holland House (1607), Hatfield -(1611), Bolsover (1613), Audley End (1616), Crewe Hall and Aston Hall -(1620). These are all enriched with many beautiful examples<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61"></a>{61}</span> of modelled -plaster work. That at Longleat and Hardwicke being executed by Charles -Williams, and at Audley End, by Bernard Jansen (1615).</p> - -<p>English stucco-work of this period often consisted of geometrical -panelling similar in style to the Tudor fan-tracery and the pendentives -of the preceding century. These richly-moulded pendentives were -connected together by bands of pierced strap-work decorated with -arabesques in low relief. From 1615 to 1650 the panels were composed of -purely geometrical forms, such as circles, squares, lozenges and -interlacing quatre-foils, enriched with delicate arabesques, the ribs or -mouldings frequently having a repeating pattern impressed in the soft -plaster.</p> - -<p>The many fine friezes of this period were remarkable for their boldness -of conception and their skilful craftsmanship; frequently a double -frieze was used, the lower part consisting of delicate arabesques and -interlacing strap-work, while the upper part was of boldly modelled -cartouche and delicate arabesques. During the latter part of the 17th -century, owing to French influence, the stucco enrichment usually -consisted of acanthus foliage and festoons.</p> - -<p>From Charles I., (1625), to Queen Anne, (1702), the purely Italian -Renascence prevailed; the Banqueting House at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones, -(1572-1652), being a fine example of this period. St. Paul’s Cathedral -(1675-1710) by Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) and his many beautiful -churches in London, mark a distinct epoch of English Renascence; the -tradition being carried-on by Vanbrugh (1666-1736) who built Blenheim -Palace and Castle Howard. Other architects of this period were Hawksmoor -(1666-1726), Kent (1684-1754), Gibbs (1674-1754), Chambers (1726-96), -who built Somerset House, and Robert Adam (1725-92), who carried on the -traditional method of stucco enrichment, but in a more rigid and formal -classic manner. His geometrical panelling of hexagons, octagons, and -ovals, was enriched with conventional renderings of the acanthus and -olive leaf arranged in small units and repeated without variation over -the whole of the surface. These enrichments were cast in plaster or -compo and were mechanical in treatment, lacking the beautiful decorative -quality of the modelled stucco of the early 17th century. The Wellington -Monument in St. Paul’s Cathedral, by Alfred Stevens, is distinguished -from much of the modern work by its strong vitality and architectonic -treatment of the composition, and the beauty and singular grace of its -detail.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62"></a>{62}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_20" id="plt_20">Plate 20.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_062_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_062_sml.jpg" width="374" height="603" alt="Image unavailable: MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. Plate 20." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63"></a>{63}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="MAHOMETAN_MORESQUE" id="MAHOMETAN_MORESQUE"></a>MAHOMETAN &<br /> MORESQUE.</h2> - -<p>Of mediæval history as associated with the decorative arts, the rise and -development of the Arabs is the most remarkable. The wide appreciation -and liberal patronage of the arts by the Khalifs; the influence of its -religion and precepts upon contemporary and later periods of art; the -distinct individuality and geometrical arrangement of its ornamentation; -all had a most marked effect upon tradition and craftsmanship.</p> - -<p>The history commences with Mohammed, <small>A.D.</small> 570-632, who founded and -consolidated the empire, of which, under Omar, <small>A.D.</small> 635, Damascus became -the capital; in <small>A.D.</small> 638 Kufa and Bassora were founded in Persia. In -<small>A.D.</small> 641 Egypt was conquered and the Mahometan capital, Fustât, founded. -Persia was conquered in <small>A.D.</small> 642, Spain invaded in <small>A.D.</small> 711, Bagdad in -Persia became the capital of the Arabian Khalifs in <small>A.D.</small> 762, and in -<small>A.D.</small> 827 Sicily was conquered; but it was not until the dynasty of -Ibu-Tūlūn, <small>A.D.</small> 868-914, that the history of Cairene art begins, of -which the mosque of Ibu-Tūlūn in Fustât, or old Cairo, is the earliest -example. Under the Fatimy dynasty, <small>A.D.</small> 867-1171, Cairo was founded, and -the arts, receiving further encouragement, were now introduced into -Sicily and Europe. In <small>A.D.</small> 997 the Mahometan invasion of India took -place. In <small>A.D.</small> 796-965 the mosque of Cordova was built, and in <small>A.D.</small> 1236 -the kingdom of Granada was founded and the Alhambra was built by -Mohammed ben Alhamar, <small>A.D.</small> 1248, and Mahometan art, as exemplified in -the architectural decorations, arms and armour, woodwork, ivory, textile -fabrics, and illuminated books, reached its culmination under the Mamlūk -dynasty, <small>A.D.</small> 1250-1516.</p> - -<p>Thus the Arabs, from a roving tribe, became, by religious zeal and -conquests, the most powerful and wealthiest nation of mediæval times, -assimilating and influencing the customs and the arts of the different -nations and provinces.</p> - -<p>The term <span class="smcap">Mahometan Art</span> includes <span class="smcap">Arabian</span>, <span class="smcap">Moresque</span>, <span class="smcap">Persian</span>, <span class="smcap">Indian</span>, and -<span class="smcap">Sicilian</span>, all having the same characteristics yet distinguished by the -racial influence and custom. The Arabian is marked by its flowing, -interlacing, and symmetrical lines, geometrical arrangement (doubtless -derived from Byzantine sources), and its prevalence of inscriptions or -texts from the Koran. In Spain a more complex geometrical arrangement is -found, intermingled with a flowing foliage or arabesque of a purely -conventional type. This style is noticeable for its entire absence of -any natural forms and its abundant use of inscriptions, and glazed and -enamelled tiles, distinctly influenced of Persian tradition though -purely geometric and formal. These tiles cover the lower part of the -wall, the upper portion, as also the ceiling being decorated with -arabesques of modelled plaster in flat relief, of two or more planes, -enriched with red, blue, white and gold; this is typical of the Moresque -style. The Sicilian work is remarkable for its beautiful fabrics of silk -and the prevalence in its ornament of birds, animals, and heraldic -forms, showing the continuity of the traditions of Persia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64"></a>{64}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">PERSIAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_21" id="plt_21">Plate 21.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_064_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_064_sml.jpg" width="401" height="622" alt="Image unavailable: PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 21." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65"></a>{65}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="PERSIAN_ORNAMENT" id="PERSIAN_ORNAMENT"></a>PERSIAN<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The early art of Persia was similar to that of Assyria and Babylon, -having the same forms, materials, and traditions. With the accession of -the Sassanides (<small>A.D.</small> 223) came the introduction of the elliptical dome, -so typical of eastern architecture. This dome rested on pendentives -which occupied the angles of the square base. These pendentives and the -elliptical dome are distinctive features in Mahometan architecture.</p> - -<p>The industrial arts of Persia were largely influenced by the traditional -arts of Assyria and Chaldea; this tradition was carried on with rare -skill and selective power by the Persians, culminating in the splendid -period of Shah Abbas <small>A.D.</small> 1586 to 1625. The vitality, beauty, and -interest of detail, combined with perfect decorative adaptation to -material, are characteristic of the textiles, pottery, metal work, and -illuminated manuscripts of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries.</p> - -<p>The Mahometan conquest of Persia, <small>A.D.</small> 632 to 637, by Abu Bekr, the -successor of Mohammed, largely influenced the development of the arts of -the Persians, who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races, -yet preserved all the characteristics of their art; and there is no -doubt that the art of the Arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of -Persia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_065_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_065_sml.jpg" width="266" height="254" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and -colour, and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such -as the pink, hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. These -are used with perfect sincerity and frankness, and are essentially<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66"></a>{66}</span> -decorative in treatment, combining harmony of composition of mass, -beauty of form, and purity of colour. It was doubtless owing to these -qualities, together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to material, -that the Persian style so largely influenced contemporary work, and -especially the European textile fabrics of the 16th and 17th centuries. -The illustrations given are of some familiar types of Persian -adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their significance, -beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of decorative treatment. -Purely Arabian forms, as given in plate 21, are frequently associated -with the Persian floral treatment, showing the influence of the Artists -of Damascus. Many fine examples of lustred wall tiles, dating from the -10th and 11th centuries, are in the South Kensington Museum, of which -the blue, brown, and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality. They -often have Arabic inscriptions interspersed with the floral enrichments. -Examples of wall tiles of the 8th century have been found in the ruins -of Rhages.</p> - -<p>These lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or hereditary -proclivity. This art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of Babylon, -and the later frieze of Susa, page 16, with its brilliant enamel and -fine colour, was continued by the Persians, and, passing to the Arabs, -the tradition was carried to Cairo, Spain and Majorca; thence into -Italy, where enamelled lustred ware was made, differing from the -original Persian by its frequent absence of utility, which was -fundamental to the art of the Persians.</p> - -<p>Mahometan ornament has four broad divisions, viz.: Arabian, Moresque, -Indian, and Persian; and they are characterised by strongly-marked -compartments or fields which are filled with finer and more delicate -enrichments. These compartments are most pronounced in the Moresque with -its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms -(figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8, page 62). The Arabian style is somewhat similar, -but less formal. The Indian has a conventional rendering of plants, and -the introduction of the lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. 2, <a href="#plt_23">plate -23</a>); while in the Persian work there is a still less formal constructive -arrangement, with floral forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the -introduction of the human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger and -birds. Note the illustration in Textiles which is taken from a fine -carpet in the South Kensington Museum. In this carpet, animal forms, -chosen with rare selective power and judgment, are combined with the -typical floral enrichment of Persia, with the wealth of colour, -admirable spacing of detail and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and -appropriateness of treatment. These are features that distinguish the -industrial designs of Persia, and it is doubtless due to the interest -and vitality of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of -Persian art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of Europe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67"></a>{67}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<span class="caption">PERSIAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_22" id="plt_22">Plate 22.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_067_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_067_sml.jpg" width="371" height="598" alt="Image unavailable: PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 22." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68"></a>{68}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">INDIAN ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_23" id="plt_23">Plate 23.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_068_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_068_sml.jpg" width="381" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: INDIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 23." /></a> -<br /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69"></a>{69}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="INDIAN_ORNAMENT" id="INDIAN_ORNAMENT"></a>INDIAN<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The civilization of India dates from the remote past, but the oldest -remains of its art and architecture are connected with the Buddhist -religion, introduced by the prophet Sakya Muni, <small>B.C.</small> 638. This -influenced the arts of India till <small>A.D.</small> 250, when the Jaina style was -adopted. The examples of Buddhist architecture consist of Topes (which -were sacred or monumental temples, either detached or rock-cut), and -monasteries. The rock-cut temples usually consist of a nave and aisles, -and a semi-circular recess containing a statue of the seated Buddha. The -hall has square or octagonal columns, with bracket capitals (fig. 1). -The finest examples of these temples are those at Ajanta, which are -richly-decorated in colour with incidents of Hindoo mythology. The fine -temples at Ellora, which are cut entirely out from the rock, are of the -Jaina period, <small>A.D.</small> 250. The pagodas at Chedombaram are of the Brahmin -period, as is also the great hall of 1,000 pillars, which is 190×340 -feet, containing the sacred image of the god Siva.</p> - -<p>Alexander the Great conquered India <small>B.C.</small> 327, and doubtless left the -influence of the Persian tradition in India. This influence was still -further developed by the commercial intercourse of Persia and India, and -by the Arabian invasion of India in <small>A.D.</small> 711, when a Mahometan dynasty -was established, 711 to 1152. This largely controlled and influenced the -arts under the Mogul dynasty, 1525-1837, when the decorative arts and -the manufacture of the beautiful woven brocades and silks were fully -developed. The splendid carpets and rugs, printed cottons, metal work, -and fine enamels of this dynasty bear a remarkable tribute to the -vitality, originality of ideas, and the practical utility of the -industrial arts of India.</p> - -<p>Indian ornament has the typical Mahometan division of spaces, but is -more flowing and graceful than the pure Arabian style. These divisions -are filled with fine conventional floral forms, as the lotus, the date -or hom, the iris, the rosette and the pine. This pine is treated -occasionally as a single flower, but more frequently as a cluster of -flowers, which still retains the distinctive form of the pine (figs. 2, -4 and 6).</p> - -<p>Typical also of this period is the judicious treatment of the elephant, -lion, tiger, peacock, and the human figure, as accessories in the -decorative arts of India. They were applied with rare knowledge and -skill, combined with an artistic perception of applied art, showing a -very strong affinity with contemporary Persian ornament.</p> - -<p>Indian ornament has a more conventional rendering of natural forms, than -the frank treatment of Persian ornament. Block printing upon silk and -cotton fabrics reached a high degree of perfection during the last -century. The inventiveness and significance of detail; the charm of -composition of line and mass, and the beautiful colour of these printed -fabrics are a reflex of the decorative feeling for beauty by the people -of India.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70"></a>{70}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">CHINESE AND JAPANESE -ORNAMENT. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_24" id="plt_24">Plate 24.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_070_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_070_sml.jpg" width="378" height="609" alt="Image unavailable: CHINESE AND JAPANESE -ORNAMENT. Plate 24." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71"></a>{71}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="CHINESE_AND_JAPANESE_ORNAMENT" id="CHINESE_AND_JAPANESE_ORNAMENT"></a>CHINESE AND<br /> JAPANESE<br /> ORNAMENT.</h2> - -<p>The early bronzes, enamels, porcelain and textile fabrics of China are -indicative of the perfection and luxuriance of the decorative arts of -that ancient Empire. This perfection is shown by a Splendid technic and -a fine appreciation of colour and ornamentation, differentiated from the -western nations by myths, traditions, and the remarkable persistency of -a few typical forms through many centuries, doubtless owing to the -profound ancestral worship and veneration for the past. The Dragon was -represented under many aspects, frequently forming vigorous lines of -composition (fig. 3, 4). The beautiful flora of the country largely -influenced Chinese art. The peony and chrysanthemum (frequently highly -conventionalized), are typical examples, forming the elements of -decorative design. Geometric forms, such as the hexagon, octagon, and -the circle, enriched with flowers or the fret, are largely used. The -many splendid examples of bells, gongs, and incense-burners in bronze -and iron:—the carvings in wood, ivory, and jade:—the beautiful woven -silks and embroidered fabrics, and the richness and purity of their -porcelain, all testify to the versatility and vitality of the Chinese -decorative arts in the past. Their architecture was usually of wood, -distinguished by complexity and quaintness of form rather than beauty of -proportion and detail, but their pagodas or temples were of brick -encased with glazed tiles, the most remarkable of these erections being -the Nankin Pagoda of the Ming dynasty (<small>A.D.</small> 1412-31), with its imperial -yellow tiles.</p> - -<p>The arts of Japan, though doubtless owing their origin to China, are -differentiated by a keener observation of nature and a more literal -treatment of landscape, bird and animal life, and the beautiful flora of -the country—the “kiki” or chrysanthemum, the “botan” or peony, the -“kosai” or iris, the “yuri” or lily, the “kiri” or paulawina imperialis -(somewhat resembling our horse chestnut), the “ume” or plum, the “matsi” -or fir, and the “taki” or bamboo,—likewise the peacock, the crane, the -duck, the pheasant and many smaller beautiful birds, together with -reptiles, insects, and fishes; all are elements in the decorative arts, -being rendered with remarkable fidelity and delicacy of touch, united -with a fine feeling for composition of line. It is this literal -treatment of natural types, the marvellous technic and especially the -significance of the forms chosen that constitutes the charm of the -earlier Japanese art. It is singular that the materials used by the -Japanese should be of little intrinsic value. Having no jewellery, they -use little of the precious metals; iron, bronze, enamels, wood and lac, -being the chief materials utilised in the decorative arts of Japan.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72"></a>{72}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">IVORIES. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_25" id="plt_25">Plate 25.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_072_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_072_sml.jpg" width="373" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: IVORIES. Plate 25." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73"></a>{73}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="IVORY" id="IVORY"></a>IVORY,</h2> - -<p class="nind">doubtless owing to its beautiful texture, colour and adaptability for -delicate carving, has been in use from a remote period. Egypt, Assyria, -and India have each contributed many beautiful examples of fine -craftsmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the centuries -preceding the Christian Era. Of Solomon we read in I Kings, 18, x: -“Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory and overlaid it with the -best gold.” This traditional use of ivory was most probably derived from -Egypt, the source of so many of the decorative arts.</p> - -<p>In the Periclean age of Greece, ivory was used for the figure of Athene -Parthenos by Pheidias, placed inside the Parthenon. This statue of the -standing goddess, 40 feet high, was of gold and ivory (called -<i>chryselephantine sculpture</i>), the drapery being of beaten gold and the -exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory. A -seated <i>chryselephantine</i> figure of Jupiter, about 58 feet high, in the -temple of Olympia, was also by Pheidias. Pausanias the Roman traveller -enumerates some ten <i>chryselephantine</i> statues which he saw in his -travels, <small>A.D.</small> 140.</p> - -<p>The Roman period is noted for the many beautiful Consular diptychs, -which may now be seen in our national museums. They consist of two ivory -leaves usually 12 by 5 inches, the inside having a slightly sunk plane -covered with wax for writing upon, the outside being enriched with -delicate carved reliefs (figs. 7, 8, and 9). These diptychs were given -by new consuls on their appointment, to their friends and officers of -the state. The consul is usually represented seated on the cushioned -curule chair, or chair of state, and his name is generally written -across the top of one leaf.</p> - -<p>The Byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory, of -which an illustration is given in fig. 6; the ivory throne of Maximian, -Archbishop of Ravenna, <small>A.D.</small> 546-556, is also of this period. A beautiful -treatment of ivory was used in the 13th and 14th centuries by the -Saracens of Egypt; they frequently worked a fine geometric inlay of -ivory upon ebony; in other examples ivory panels were pentagonal, -hexagonal, or star-shaped, and carved with delicate arabesques, the -framing of the panels being of cedar or ebony. In India ivory carving -reached a high degree of perfection, especially in the many ivory combs, -with pierced and relief work representing the figure of Buddha -surrounded with foliage and richly caparisoned elephants.</p> - -<p>In the Carlovingian period, 8th to 10th centuries, ivory was largely -used for coffers or small chests. During the early Gothic period in -Italy and France, ivory crucifixes, pastoral staffs, croziers, -statuettes and triptychs were made in large numbers; and the ivory combs -and mirror cases of the Renascence period have fine reliefs of legendary -or allegorical subjects. Of pictorial ivories the modern Japanese -craftsmen show the highest technical skill, combined with a keen -perception of nature and movement, yet their ivories lack the beauty and -dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of the early and -Mediæval ivories.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74"></a>{74}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">MOSAICS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_26" id="plt_26">Plate 26.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_074_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_074_sml.jpg" width="372" height="603" alt="Image unavailable: MOSAICS. Plate 26." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75"></a>{75}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="MOSAICS" id="MOSAICS"></a>MOSAICS.</h2> - -<p>The durability, range of colour, and appropriateness of material and -treatment to architectural conditions, has placed the art of Mosaic as -the chief decorative enrichment of architecture. Its antiquity is -unquestionable, for in the Book of Esther, i, 6, we read “of a pavement -of red, and blue, and white, and black marble.”</p> - -<p>Mosaic is the art of forming patterns by means of pieces of -variously-coloured materials, fitted together, and is broadly divided -into three classes: (1) <span class="smcap">Opus Tesselatum</span>, or clay mosaic; (2) <span class="smcap">Opus -Lithostratum</span>, or stone mosaic; (3) <span class="smcap">Opus Miserum</span>, or glass mosaic. These -divisions are again sub-divided into: (1) <i>Opus Figlinum</i>, or ceramic -mosaic, formed of a vitreous composition and coloured with metallic -oxides; (2) <i>Opus Signinum</i>, small pieces of tile; (3) <i>Opus -Vermiculatum</i>, sub-divided into (a) <i>Majus</i>, black and white marble, (b) -<i>Medium</i>, in which all materials and colours were used, and (c) <i>Minus</i>, -of minute tesseræ, principally used for furniture inlay; (4) <i>Opus -Sculpturatum</i>, slabs of marble hollowed out and filled in with grey or -black marble; (5) <i>Opus Alexandrinum</i>, inlay of porphyry and serpentine; -and (6) <i>Opus Sectile</i>, formed of different laminæ or slices of marble -of various colours.</p> - -<p>It was in Rome that the art of Mosaic was brought to its greatest -perfection, during the 1st and 2nd centuries, <small>A.D.</small>, and many splendid -examples of this period are now in the museums of the Vatican and at -Naples. The finest example came from the House of the Faun, Pompeii, and -represents the battle of Issus, between Alexander and Darius. This -mosaic, of the 3rd century <small>B.C.</small>, is probably a copy of a Greek painting.</p> - -<p>Many fine Roman mosaics have been found in England at Cirencester, -London, Lincoln (fig. 6), Leicester, and at Brading in the Isle of -Wight.</p> - -<p>The tradition was carried on in Italy at Ravenna and Venice, where the -<i>Opus Miserum</i> reached its culmination. Of the Ravenna mosaics, those of -the Baptistery, <small>A.D.</small> 450, and of S. Apollinare are typical examples of -the earlier Byzantine mosaics, having dark green and gold back-grounds -with tesseræ about ⅜ inch square. The beautiful frieze of male and -female saints in S. Apollinare extends along both sides of the nave, and -is 10 feet high. The vaulting and domes of St. Mark are entirely covered -with the characteristic 11th century Byzantine gold ground mosaic, -formed by fusing two pieces of glass together with gold leaf between. At -Santa Sophia, Constantinople, other fine mosaics exist of the 6th and -7th centuries. In Italy under the Cosmati (a family of mosaicists of the -13th and 14th centuries), fine geometrical inlaid mosaics were used for -the enrichment of marble tombs and altars; some good examples of this -style are in Westminster Abbey on the tomb of Edward the Confessor -(finished under Henry III, <small>A.D.</small> 1270).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76"></a>{76}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">GREEK CERAMICS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_27" id="plt_27">Plate 27.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_076_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_076_sml.jpg" width="379" height="611" alt="Image unavailable: GREEK CERAMICS. Plate 27." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77"></a>{77}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="GREEK_CERAMICS" id="GREEK_CERAMICS"></a>GREEK<br /> CERAMICS.</h2> - -<p>It is difficult in the 19th century to realise the importance of vases -in ancient life. To the Greeks a vase was a receptacle for food, liquid, -or storage, and for the adornment of the home. It was used in the daily -life of the living and buried with the dead. Most of the finer Greek -vases have been found in Etruscan tombs, but of Greek workmanship, -imported from Greece or Grecian Colonies. Some black unglazed Etruscan -vases have been found, but painted vases of Etruscan origin are rare.</p> - -<p>Early Greek pottery, dating probably from the 10th century <small>B.C.</small>, has -been found in Greece, the Colonies of Rhodes, Cyrene in Africa, and -Naucratis in the delta of Egypt—these, showing an historic development, -are arranged in groups, each with its distinctive characteristic:—(1st) -Primitive vases, simple in shape, handles small or absent, decorations -in simple line, punctured or incised, or in raised slip. (2nd) <span class="smcap">Mycenæ</span> or -<span class="smcap">Colonial</span> (<small>B.C.</small> 900-700) vases, often covered with a creamy slip; the -designs painted in brown and black, being derived from geometric -patterns with marine and animal forms. (3rd) <span class="smcap">Dipylon</span> or <span class="smcap">Geometric</span> (<small>B.C.</small> -700), with fret pattern enrichment, and panels with rude figures of men -and animals in black and brown. (4th) <span class="smcap">Phaleron Ware</span> (<small>B.C.</small> 700-550), with -continuous bands of animals, probably derived from Phœnicia or Assyria -(fig. 4). Among the animals depicted, are placed portions of the fret -pattern, a survival of the previous style. The details are incised -through the black or brown figure, showing the colour of the clay body. -A development of this Phaleron Ware was the introduction of the rosette, -taking the place of the fret pattern, between the figures or the -animals. (5th) <span class="smcap">Black Figure Period</span> (<small>B.C.</small> 600-480), vases, fine in -profile, and with good handles, the body of the vase, in red ware, being -painted with subjects of Grecian mythology in black, and the details -incised; the faces, arms, and legs of the female figures afterwards -painted in white or red slip, and fired at a lower heat. The <span class="smcap">Amphora</span> -(fig. 5) was the chief form of this black figure period, some fine -examples are signed by Exekias and Amasis. (6th) the Transitional period -(<small>B.C.</small> 500-470), when the black silhouette figures on a red ground gave -way to the <span class="smcap">Red Figure Period</span> on a black ground. Artists of this style -were Epiktetos, Pamphæios, Nicosthenes, and Pythos. Many of the vases by -Nicosthenes resemble contemporary metal work in their shape and handles. -The 7th group (<small>B.C.</small> 470-336), also red figures on the black ground, was -the period when Greek fictiles reached their highest perfection, the -chief form employed being the <span class="smcap">Kylix</span>. A fine series of these <i>Kylikes</i>, -signed by Cachrylion, Euphronios, Duris, Pethenos, and Hieron, are in -the British Museum.</p> - -<p>A vase produced specially for funeral purposes was the <span class="smcap">Athenian -Lekythos</span>, the body of which was covered with white slip, then painted in -polychrome with subjects of singular appropriateness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78"></a>{78}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">CERAMICS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_28" id="plt_28">Plate 28.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_078_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_078_sml.jpg" width="361" height="594" alt="Image unavailable: CERAMICS. Plate 28." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79"></a>{79}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="CERAMIC_ART" id="CERAMIC_ART"></a>CERAMIC<br /> ART.</h2> - -<p>The antiquity of Ceramic Art and its scientific and artistic qualities, -render this subject one of considerable interest to art students.</p> - -<p>The plasticity of clay and its hardening qualities under the influence -of intense heat, its adaptability to the most refined and appropriate -forms, its affinity for the beautiful glazes and enamels so often -associated with pottery, and its splendid traditions of craftsmanship, -of colour, form and decorations, so beautiful and varied in -character,—all combine to invest the subject with a charm or -fascination of its own. Intrinsically valueless in its natural state, it -is capable of being rendered almost priceless by scientific workmanship -and artistic skill. The history of this material, and of its easy -adaptation to the most refined and intricate, as well as the simplest of -forms, affords invaluable lessons for present day artistic students.</p> - -<p>Pottery clay may be classified under three divisions or headings: (1) -<span class="smcap">Earthenware.</span> (2) <span class="smcap">Stoneware.</span> (3) <span class="smcap">Porcelain.</span> Under the first are grouped -the largest number of Ceramic Wares. The pottery of Egypt, the faience -of Assyria and Persia, the Greek and Etruscan vases, the famous red ware -from the Isle of Samoa, and its counterpart the Roman Samian ware, the -beautiful maiolica of Spain and Italy, the pottery of Rouen, St. -Porchaire, Delft, and most of our English pottery are earthenwares; the -paste or body consists of natural clays selected for their plasticity, -their hardening qualities, their fusibility or their colour, and when -burnt have a porous opaque body, usually dull in colour. This dulness -was usually overcome by coating the ware with a slip of fine white clay, -which, whilst not possessing inherent qualities to form pottery by -itself, would adhere to the coarser coloured body of the earthenware, -thereby forming a smooth white ground. The early Greek vases of -Nancrates, the later Lekythos of the Greeks, the faience of Persia, the -Mezza Maiolica and the Sgraffito of the early Italian Renascence, and -our English slip ware are examples of this method of giving a smooth -white surface to coarse coloured earthenware. A similar result to the -slip covering was also produced by the use of a silicious glaze, -rendered white and opaque by the addition of oxide of tin. Early -Assyrian faience, Della Robbia ware, the Maiolica of Spain and Italy, -and the wares of Delft and Rouen are earthenwares coated with a tin -enamel.</p> - -<p>The silicious glaze here referred to is prepared by fusing silicious -materials with soda or potash, and is known as Vitreous, or glass glaze. -Plumbeous, or lead glaze, is produced by the addition of oxide of lead -to the silicious glaze, rendering it more fusible, and still -transparent. A white opaque enamel formed by using oxide of tin with the -vitreous glaze, is termed Stanniferous, or tin enamel. These different -processes of covering the porous body of the earthenware largely -influenced the decorations and scheme of colouring.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80"></a>{80}</span></p> - -<p>The beautiful faience of Damascus and Rhodes is covered with the -silicious slip or glaze, the colours being rich blues, produced by -cobalt, turquoise and green, by cobalt and copper, and purple by the use -of manganese; and then covered with an Alkaline glaze.</p> - -<p>In the Rhodian Ware the same scheme of colour prevails, except that the -purple is replaced by a fine opaque red of great body, called Rhodian -red, produced from Armenian bole. On the Italian Maiolica, with its tin -enamel and plumbeous glaze, there are fine blue, turquoise and green, -but red is very poor in colour, and is generally replaced by rich yellow -from antimony, and orange from iron. This white tin enamel was -undoubtedly introduced into Europe by the Moors, as some tiles in the -Alhambra date from 1273-1302.</p> - -<p>A large number of bowls and dishes, called Samian Ware, of Roman -importation, have been found in England. The paste is usually of a fine -sealing wax red, with a good glaze. These bowls are enriched with a -series of horizontal bands, containing the festoon, the scroll, birds, -animals, and figures. The bands or friezes are often divided by the -traditional egg and tongue moulding (fig. 1). Clay moulds, impressed -with stamps, were made and then fired. The red paste having been pressed -into the mould, the interior was smoothly turned in the lathe. A mould -of this character was found at York in 1874, so it is possible that some -of this ware was made in England, by Roman potters. Roman pottery has -also been found at Castor, near Peterborough, doubtless made at the -former place, kilns for firing having been found on the same site. This -Castor ware is usually brown, with a black glaze, being ornamented with -indented tool marks, and raised slip patterns of pipe clay (fig. 3). -Many Roman dishes and vases of a dark grey colour, ornamented with -incised lines and raised bosses of clay, have been found in the Upchurch -Marshes in Kent. Little artistic pottery of the mediæval period however -is known to exist. Early in the 13th century beautiful encaustic tiles -were made for the great monasteries, abbeys and cathedrals.</p> - -<p>About 1500, the production of tiles was introduced into Holland, -quantities of small blue and white ones decorated with scriptural -subjects, being made at Delft, and thence exported to England for the -lining of fire places, &c. Some fine painted tiles or “Azulejos” were -made at Valencia about the 17th century.</p> - -<p>In the 16th century, the porcelain of China was introduced into Europe -by the Dutch and Portuguese traders, and much of the Delft and Rouen -ware subsequently produced, was in imitation of this oriental porcelain. -“Delft” ware which takes its name from the small town of that name in -Holland, dating from 1500 <small>A.D.</small>, is a ceramic coated with stanniferous -enamel, decorated with a full and liquid brush upon the absorbent enamel -ground, and then glazed with a plumbeous glaze. Some of this Delft ware -is very fine in quality, the cobalt blues under the glaze being -remarkably soft and rich in colour. Early examples were decorated with -historical<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81"></a>{81}</span> subjects, often containing numerous figures, the middle -period being notable for its imitation of Chinese porcelain, and the -application of coloured enamels on coloured grounds. Vast quantities of -this kind of ware were manufactured up to 1760 and exported to all parts -of Europe. The production of Delft ware was first introduced into -England at Lambeth by some Dutch potters in 1676, being subsequently -extended to Fulham, Bristol and Liverpool.</p> - -<p>The use of stanniferous enamel was introduced into France by Girolamo -della Robbia, son of Andrea della Robbia, during the reign of Francis -I., 1516, and enamelled ware similar to the later productions of Urbino -was made at Nevers, where also was produced a fine ware decorated with -Persian <i>Motifs</i> in yellow and blue. At Rouen, also, a fine earthenware -covered with tin enamel was manufactured, the decorations consisting of -the lambrequins or scallop pattern, symmetrical in arrangement, and -converging to the centre of the plate or dish. The ornament was based -upon Chinese examples, influenced by the contemporary woven fabrics of -France. The decorations were usually in blue and with overglaze -painting, i.e., after the white enamel was fired, finer and more -delicate detail being obtained by this process, but at the cost of the -purity and liquid softness of colour which is so characteristic of Delft -and Oriental underglaze painting.</p> - -<p>In Rouen ware, the ground is generally white, but some fine examples at -South Kensington have a soft yellow ground, a rich Indian yellow being -sometimes introduced with the blue decoration. It was under the -directions of Louis Poterat, 1673, that this most beautiful faience was -perfected.</p> - -<p>Bernard Palissy, 1510-90, by repeated experiments discovered the -stanniferous or tin enamel. His first productions were Jasper ware, warm -and brilliant in colour and richly enamelled. In the second period, -rustic dishes elaborately decorated with carefully modelled fishes, -reptiles, and plants or natural foliage, covered with an enamel of great -brilliancy and purity, were the chief productions. The later pottery of -Palissy consisted of salt cellars, inkstands, ewers, &c., the elaborate -figure decorations of which were probably executed by some contemporary -artist.</p> - -<p>Henri-Deux or St. Porchards ware, now more properly described as Oiron -ware, originated at St. Porchard in 1524, perhaps by the hand, certainly -under the patronage of Hélène de Hangest, widow of A. Gouffier, a former -Governor under Francis I. This Oiron ware, of a pale straw colour, is -enriched with inlays of yellow, blue, green, and brown coloured pastes, -the interlacing and arabesque ornamentation carried out under the -direction of Jehan Bernart and François Charpentier, being similar in -type to the contemporary bookbinding of Grolier and was probably -executed with similar tools.</p> - -<p>Many early examples of Staffordshire slip ware are to be found in -England, consisting chiefly of candlesticks, cups, tygs, posset pots,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82"></a>{82}</span> -piggins and plates, the slip decorations being in yellow, white and -brown. This ware was made at Wrotham as early as 1649, and by Thomas -Toft, at Shilton, 1660 (fig. 9). Marbled, combed and tortoise-shell ware -were formed by using colour slips or clays. Agate and onyx ware were -formed by layers of different coloured clays, crossed, cut, and pressed -into moulds. These methods were perfected by Thomas Wheildon, 1740-98, -and Josiah Wedgwood, 1730-95, who perfected both the Queen’s and the -variegated ware. Queen’s ware of a creamy colour was made chiefly for -dinner and dessert services, being decorated with painted flowers in -enamel.</p> - -<p>In 1781, Wedgwood introduced his famous Jasper ware, and Jasper dip or -washed Jasper. This latter ware was dipped into admixtures of metallic -oxides, producing blue, lilac, pink, sage green, olive, yellow, and -black colours as desired. The decorations in low relief, are of the -purest white (fig. 10) and in the traditional classic style, the figures -being arranged as cameo medallions, or in bands with the scroll, the -festoon, and the vine in delicate relief. Many of these beautiful cameos -were designed or modelled by Flaxman, 1755-1826; Pacetti and Angelini, -1787; Bacon, 1740-99; Hackwood, 1770; Roubiliac, 1695-1762; Stothard, -1755-1834; Tassie, 1735-99; and Webber, 1782.</p> - -<p>Stone-wares differ from earthenwares, owing to the presence of a larger -percentage of silicia in the plastic material, which, being fired at a -greater degree of heat, vitrifies the body or paste into a kind of -glass, thus ensuring a closeness and hardness of material not possessed -by ordinary earthenware. Stoneware is usually glazed during the firing -by throwing common salt into the kiln, which being volatilized, re-acts -upon the silicia in the body, forming with it a silicate of soda or -glass, having a minute granular texture. The usefulness and the artistic -character of stoneware was perfected by the Flemish and German potters -of the 16th century.</p> - -<p>The principal varieties of this ware are the grey and white “Canette” of -Siegburg, near Bonn, and the pale brown or grey ware of Raeren, near -Aix-la-Chapelle, with its incised and stamped enrichments, sometimes -with blue decoration. Frechen, near Cologne, probably supplied the -“Bellarmines” or “Grey beards,” largely imported into England under the -name of “Cologne Pots.” Examples of this Frechen ware were frequently -ornamented with a raised scroll of oak leaves. Grenzhausen, in Nassau, -produced a beautiful grey ware, having delicately moulded reliefs filled -in with blue and purple. Many grey jugs ornamented with the initials of -William III., Queen Anne, and George I., were imported into England from -the Nassau kilns.</p> - -<p>A peculiar kind of stoneware, also termed “Cologne ware” was produced at -Fulham by John Dwight, about 1670. Some fine jugs and a few cleverly -modelled unglazed statuettes, believed to have been made at this place, -are to be seen in the British Museum (fig. 11).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83"></a>{83}</span></p> - -<p>Another peculiar red stoneware, porcelain, or Red China as it was -called, was made near Burslem by the Brothers Elers, 1688-1710, the -ornamentation being obtained by pressing sharp intaglio copper moulds -upon pieces of clay attached to the shaped ware. Fine examples, -characterised by beauty of outline and delicacy of enrichments are -exhibited in the Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street. Astbury, 1710-39, -continued the traditions of Elers, producing a fine white stoneware, -which largely influenced the Staffordshire pottery of that period. A -stoneware was also made at Nottingham from 1700 to 1750.</p> - -<p>Porcelain is technically known under the terms “hard paste” (“pâte -dure”) and “soft” (“pâte tendre”). Hard porcelain is made from clays -containing much aluminia and felspar or decomposed granite, having but -little plasticity, which necessarily influenced the shape or profile of -the vessel. The beauty of form, which is so typical of the Greek -earthenware vase, is absent in porcelain, where the cylindrical or -octagonal form is principally used. “Pâte tendre” is a soft and vitreous -porcelain, having a great affinity for the beautiful coloured glazes and -enamels used in the early examples of Sèvres.</p> - -<p>Porcelain was known in China about 200 <small>B.C.</small>, and it was in common use -during the 16th century. During the Ming dynasty, 1568-1640, porcelain -reached its highest development in the perfection of its body, -ornamentation, colour and glazes, blue and turquoise being the chief -colours of this period; this limited range of colour was owing to the -intense heat required to fuse the felspar glaze upon the hard porcelain.</p> - -<p>It is uncertain at what date Chinese porcelain was first brought to -Europe. Amongst the earliest known pieces in England are some bowls -given by Philip of Austria to Sir Thomas Trenchard in 1506. But whatever -the date, it was inevitable that attempts should be made to imitate this -beautiful ceramic. Florentine or Medician porcelain was made 1575-80. It -was not however until 1690 or 1700, that a similar manufacture was -established at Rouen and St. Cloud. In 1709, Bottcher commenced making -hard porcelain at Meissen, in Saxony, subsequently producing some -excellent examples about 1715. This was the commencement of the -well-known Dresden china. In 1768, the manufacture of hard porcelain was -adopted at Sèvres, replacing that of “pâte tendre” which had been in use -from 1670. Both “pâte dure” and “pâte tendre” were made at Buen Retiro -in Madrid, <small>A.D.</small> 1759, all the porcelain manufactured for the first 20 -years being kept for the exclusive use of the Royal family. There are -some finely modelled Buen Retiro tiles in the Royal Palace at Madrid.</p> - -<p>About the year 1740 the manufacture of porcelain was established at Bow, -Chelsea, Derby, Plymouth, Bristol, and Worcester. The shapes and -ornamentation of these English porcelains, having no traditions beyond -the oriental influence, were of a low artistic order,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84"></a>{84}</span> being simply -copies of natural forms, without any controlling influence as regards -design or harmonious arrangements. A lavish use of gilding was also -characteristic of this period, the ornament being very largely -misapplied. This continued to grow worse until the middle of the last -century, when it reached its culminating point of absurdity and -extravagance of form and decorations. The best examples of English -porcelain of this period are obviously copies of oriental porcelain, -chiefly Persian and Chinese. A great advance in the technic of the -porcelain produced in this country took place after the discovery of -Kaolin, in Cornwall, by William Cookworthy, 1755.</p> - -<p>Transfer printing over the glaze was adopted at Worcester about 1757, -the transfers being taken from copper plates engraved by Robert Hancock, -a pupil of Ravenet, who was employed at the Battersea enamel works, -about 1750. Sadler and Green in 1756 also adopted over glaze printing on -the Liverpool delft. About 1770, under glaze printing on the biscuit -ware superseded the over glaze process.</p> - -<p>Of early English porcelains, those of Derby are, perhaps, the most -refined in form and in treatment of decoration, the plates, cups, and -saucers having borders of blue or turquoise, with enrichments of -festoons, leaves, and flowers; many of the cups were pressed with -fluted, ribbed, or imbricated patterns. The Derby works were founded in -1757 by William Duesbury, who in 1769 purchased the Chelsea works and -carried on the two simultaneously until 1784, when the Chelsea plant was -transferred to Derby. From 1769-73 the ware called “Chelsea-Derby” was -produced, and between 1773-82 “Crown-Derby” was introduced.</p> - -<p>Porcelain of an excellent quality was made at Nantgario about 1813, and -at Swansea 1814-17, the decorations in enamel colours consisting of a -natural rendering of flowers, birds, butterflies, and shells.</p> - -<p>Porcelain was also made about 1800 at the Herculaneum potteries at -Liverpool. Rockingham, in Yorkshire, produced during the years 1759-88 a -brown china, which, however, was but a fine earthenware, of a hard and -compact body, covered with a rich brown or chocolate glaze. In 1820, -porcelain was made at Rockingham, comprising dinner and dessert -services, richly enamelled and gilt, together with vases, flower -baskets, and busts in white biscuit ware. In 1832, a dessert service of -200 pieces was made for William IV. at a cost of £5,000, the decorations -consisting of natural fruit and flowers, with landscapes and the royal -arms in enamel colours.</p> - -<p>In some of the earlier Rockingham ware the outlines of the flowers and -butterflies were in transfer printing, and the colouring was added by -hand.</p> - -<p>The illustrations given on <a href="#plt_21">plates 21</a>, <a href="#plt_27">27</a>, <a href="#plt_28">28</a> and <a href="#plt_29">29</a>, show the -universality of the potter’s art, which may be traced through many -beautiful examples differentiated by racial customs and material.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85"></a>{85}</span></p> - -<p>The beauty of form in the Greek vase (<a href="#plt_27">plate 27</a>) was but the natural -outcome of a fine earthenware in the hands of an artistic people, with -traditions and architecture of the highest order. In Persian pottery, -form is subservient to colour, blue, turquoise and white being used in -charming combination, together with a frank yet decorative treatment of -natural forms.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 187px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_085_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_085_sml.jpg" width="187" height="172" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The Hispano-Moresque and Italian Maiolica (<a href="#plt_29">plate 29</a>) are remarkable for -the technical excellence of their white enamel, rich blue, yellow and -orange, the iridescence of their gold and ruby lustre, and their high -technical skill in painting.</p> - -<p>English earthenware of the 17th and 18th centuries, though traditional, -showed a remarkable diversity in treatment and conception. The -picturesque platter of the Toft school, with its quaint enrichment of -trailing lines and heraldic forms in coloured slip, the fine red -stoneware of Elers, with its graceful enrichments in delicate relief, -and the varied and beautiful jasper ware of Wedgwood mark a distinct -phase of the potter’s art, and bear a tribute to the vitality and -personality of the founders of the “<i>Potteries</i>.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86"></a>{86}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">MAIOLICA. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_29" id="plt_29">Plate 29.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_086_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_086_sml.jpg" width="373" height="612" alt="Image unavailable: MAIOLICA. Plate 29." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87"></a>{87}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="MAIOLICA" id="MAIOLICA"></a>MAIOLICA.</h2> - -<p>Maiolica or Italian faience is an earthenware, coated with a -stanniferous or tin glaze, termed enamel. This is formed by the addition -of oxide of tin to a silicious glaze or slip, thus rendering it white -and opaque, hence its name, enamel.</p> - -<p>The origin of this beautiful ceramic art may be traced to Persia. From -Persia the art was carried by the Arabians to Fustat, or old Cairo, -which was destroyed 1168 <small>A.D.</small>, and amongst the ruins many fragments of -gold and copper lustered ware have been found. This enamelled ware was -introduced into Spain in the 13th century, and perfected there by the -Moors, giving rise to the <span class="smcap">Hispano-Moresque</span> ware. This ware was enriched -with central heraldic arms, surrounded by concentric bands of foliage, -arabesques, or inscriptions in blue, with a copper lustre. This -Hispano-Moresque ware was manufactured chiefly at Malaga, Talavera, -Triana and Valencia, and dates from the Moorish occupation of Granada -<small>A.D.</small> 1235-1492.</p> - -<p>In the island of Majorca, from which this beautiful ware derives its -name, fine examples were manufactured at an early date by Persian and -Arabian potters. After the conquest of Majorca by the Pisans, <small>A.D.</small> 1115, -many of these examples were introduced into Italy, the art being -subsequently cultivated in some of the smaller central states. The early -<span class="smcap">Italian Maiolica</span> was usually covered with a thin white “slip” or engobe -of clay which served as a ground for the coloured patterns. It was then -coated with a lead glaze and was known as mezza or mixed maiolica. In -some examples the design was scratched or engraved through the upper -layer or white engobe, showing the darker body underneath. This type of -ware, known as “sgraffito” was also glazed with the lead glaze, forming, -when fired, the beautiful iridescent lustre.</p> - -<p>No remains of a tin enamel of Italian workmanship have been found in -Italy prior to the time of Luca della Robbia, 1400-1481, who discovered -an enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence. The secret of its -composition was kept by him, his nephew Andrea, and his great-nephews -Giovanni, Luca and Girolamo, until 1507. The Mezza Maiolica was then -superseded by the true Maiolica or the tin enamelled wares of -Caffaggiolo, Castel Uurante, Urbino, Pesaro, Faenza, Forli, Diruta, -Siena and Gubbio, with their remarkable brilliance of blues, greens, -yellows and orange. The Gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and -golden lustre and was signed by Maestro Georgio (Georgio Andreoli, -1492-1537). The same artist also lustred many wares made by the potters -of Urbino and Castel Durante. Other examples of Urbino ware are signed -by Niccola da Urbino, 1490-1530, Orazio Fontano, 1540-70, Francesco -Xanto Avelli, 1530-40. Faenza ware was produced at the Casa Pirota -Botega, and Siena ware was signed by Maestro Benedetto.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_88" id="page_88"></a>{88}</span></p> - -<p>The chief characteristics of Caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and figures -in white, grey or yellow on a rich dark blue ground. Urbino has small -medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on a white -ground, called Raffaelesque, being from designs by Raffaelle del Colle. -Faenza has a yellow ground with blue arabesques.</p> - -<p>In brief, the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent tin -enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited, consisting of -blue, turquoise, yellow and orange. These colours are of great depth and -translucency, and are only equalled by the blues and turquoise of China, -Persia and India.</p> - -<p>Gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting called -“<i>Gadroons</i>,” a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful ruby -lustre of Maestro Giorgio. This Gubbio tradition was continued by -Giorgio’s son, Vincentio, called Maestro Cencio, and many beautiful -lustre works are signed by him.</p> - -<p>This lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of smoke -during the firing in the kiln; the smoke, being carbon in a highly -divided state, reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or glaze, -forming a thin film of metal upon the surface, the beautiful iridescent -lustre resulting from the relative thickness of the film.</p> - -<p>Castel Durante was frequently enriched, on white or grey borders, with -delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel, a process called -“<i>Lavoro di sopra bianco</i>” or “<i>bianco sopra bianco</i>.”</p> - -<p>Faenza Maiolica has, frequently, the whole surface of the ground covered -with a dark blue enamel, enriched with dancing amorini and arabesques in -blue, heightened with white “<i>Sopra Azzurro</i>.”</p> - -<p>A frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small medallions -painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions, and doubtless -intended as lover’s presents. They are known as “<i>Amatorii Maiolica</i>.”</p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="TERRA_COTTA" id="TERRA_COTTA"></a>TERRA<br /> COTTA.</h2> - -<p>Terra Cotta is usually made from pure clay, which will burn to a white -or yellow colour, or from impure, which will burn to a red colour, owing -to the presence of oxide of iron. Pure clay is a hydrous silicate of -alumina, containing 47 parts per cent. of silica, 40 of alumina, and 13 -of water. Clay, in this proportion, is the Kaoline or china clay. Fire -clay, which is found in the coal measures, has a larger proportion of -silica than Kaoline, and from it much of the terra cotta is made. When -first dug out, it is hard and compact, and of a greenish grey colour, -deepening to black. It is often weathered before using. This causes it -to “fall” and facilitates grinding. Old fire clay, previously burnt -(“grog” as it is called) is added to the new clay to counteract the -excessive shrinkage to which all close-grained clays are liable. The -coarser the clay, the less the shrinkage. The colour of the clay varies<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_89" id="page_89"></a>{89}</span> -according to the quantity of lime, iron, or bitumen it contains. Pure -clay contracts as much as one-eighth from the size of the mould; one -half of this contraction takes place in drying, the other half in -burning. Clay mixed with “grog” will contract about one-twelfth.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 104px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_089a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_089a_sml.jpg" width="104" height="170" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The moulds for terra cotta are usually piece moulds, made of plaster of -Paris, which absorbs much of the moisture of the clay. Sheet clay about -two inches thick is used. This is carefully pressed into the mould and -supported by webs of clay of the same thickness. It is essential to the -clay to be uniform throughout, or the shrinkage would be unequal. It is -then placed upon a flue to dry from two to six hours, when the clay will -have contracted sufficiently to allow the mould to be taken off. It is -then dried for a further period and burnt in a kiln. For fine work, the -kiln is “muffled”—the “muffle” being a lining of bricks to keep the -clay from actual contact with fire and smoke. The dry, or semi-dry -process, is the pressing of clay-powder into metal moulds, which -obviates the excessive shrinkage of the wet process. Encaustic tiles are -made in this way, the ornament being run into the incised pattern with -“slip.” Many tiles are decorated in the same way as ordinary -earthenware, that is, painted and glazed.</p> - -<p>Terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity, especially by -the Assyrians, whose clay tablets or books throw so much light upon -Assyrian history. With the Greek, terra cotta was extensively used for -“antefixa,” and the many beautiful Tanagra figures now treasured in our -museums show the exquisite modelling by the Greeks, in such a material -as terra cotta.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_089b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_089b_sml.jpg" width="360" height="196" alt="Image unavailable: TERRA COTTA BY ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">TERRA COTTA BY ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_90" id="page_90"></a>{90}</span></p> - -<p>This material was used by the Etruscans for their sarcophagi and -recumbent figures. The Pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta. It -was used for votive statues and offerings, and for lamps, some of which -were dipped in molten glass.</p> - -<p>During the revival of art in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, terra -cotta was extensively used by the Della Robbia family. <span class="smcap">Luca della -Robbia</span>, 1400-82, produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs coated with -the white tin enamel and enriched with coloured enamels. Among his -numerous works were the following:—The marble <i>Cantoria</i> in the -cathedral; five bas-reliefs in marble on the Campanile at Florence; his -two first terra cotta reliefs in the tympanans of the doorway, and the -doors of the sacristry of the cathedral at Florence (1443-46); with the -two kneeling angels holding candelabra; the splendid monument to -L’Evêque Federighi (1455) with its beautiful recumbent figure, in the -church of S. Trinità, Florence; and the many fine medallions enriched -with heraldic forms executed for the church of Or San Michele and the -palace Quarateri in Florence. Fine examples are the medallions with the -arms of King Renè D’Anjou, now in the South Kensington museum.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_090_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_090_sml.jpg" width="120" height="214" alt="Image unavailable: ENAMELLED TERRA COTTA ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ENAMELLED TERRA COTTA ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA.</span> -</div> - -<p>In Santa Croce at Florence, there are a series of medallions of the four -evangelists and the twelve apostles, and in the South Kensington museum -there are twelve medallions representing the months. Many splendid -examples of Luca della Robbia’s work are now treasured in the national -museums.</p> - -<p>Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525) the nephew of Luca carried on the -traditions with rare selective power and artistic skill; among his early -works are the medallions for L’Hospital des Innocent, or the Children’s -Hospital. The Adoration and the Annunciation were familiar subjects with -Andrea, the illustrations given of the Annunciation in the Children’s -Hospital, and the Virgin and child in the national museum at Florence -being typical examples of his work. There is a splendid “Adoration” by -Andrea in the South Kensington museum.</p> - -<p>Giovanni della Robbia (1469-1527) son of Andrea continued this splendid -tradition: his principal works being the Lavabo in S. Maria Novella, the -tabernacle in S. Apostles, and the virgin and saints in Santa Croce, all -in Florence. Many other beautiful works still remain which attest to the -remarkable traditions of craftsmanship of the Della Robbia family.</p> - -<p>Girolamo, brother of Giovanni, carried this tradition into France under -Francis I.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_91" id="page_91"></a>{91}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="ENAMELS" id="ENAMELS"></a>ENAMELS.</h2> - -<p>Of the many decorative arts, enamelling is one of the most beautiful, -having a singular charm of limpid or opalescent colour of great purity, -richness and durability, and being capable of a most refined and varied -treatment for the enrichment of metals.</p> - -<p>Enamel is a vitreous or glass compound, translucent, semi-translucent or -opaque, owing its colouring properties to mineral oxides, or sulphides, -a fine opaque white being produced by oxide of tin. These enamels -require different degrees of heat in order to fuse them and to cause -their adhesion to the metal. Enamels are divided into three classes, -<span class="smcap">Cloisonné</span>, <span class="smcap">Champlevé</span> and <span class="smcap">Painted Enamels</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cloisonné</span> enamel is that in which the cloisons or cells are formed by -soldering thin, flat wire of metal upon a plate of copper, the cloisons, -being filled with the various enamels, in powder or in paste, then, in -order to vitrify the enamel, exposed to heat in a kiln, if upon a flat -surface, or by the aid of a blow-pipe if upon a curved surface.</p> - -<p>Cloisonné was in use from the early dynasties in Egypt, many fine large -pectorals having been found in the tombs. These usually have the form of -a hawk and are of gold or bronze with well-defined cloisons, which were -filled with carefully fitted coloured paste or glass, and this -undoubtedly was the origin of the true or vitreous cloisonné enamel. -Byzantine enamel is invariably cloisonné and one of the most beautiful -examples of this period is the Pala d’Oro of St. Mark’s at Venice, <small>A.D.</small> -976. Perhaps the Chinese and Japanese have carried this cloisonné to its -greatest perfection in softness of colour and beauty of technic. The -earliest Chinese cloisonné is of the Ming dynasty, 1368-1643; this has -heavy cast metal grounds with low toned colours and deep reds and blues. -Under the Thsing dynasty, which commenced in 1643, the colours became -brighter and the designs more refined.</p> - -<p>Early Japanese cloisonné or “Shippo” was doubtless derived from Chinese -or Persian sources, and it is characterised by extremely thin beaten -copper grounds and the frequent use of a dark green ground in place of -the dark blue of the Chinese cloisonné.</p> - -<p>The Japanese cloisonné reached its culmination during the last century, -when many splendid examples of refined and delicate enamels were -produced, remarkable for their beautiful opalescent and translucent -colour. Gold cloisons with opaque and translucent enamels were -frequently inserted in iron or silver objects by the Japanese of this -period.</p> - -<p>An early example of English cloisonné is the jewel of King Alfred, now -in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford: this has a rich setting of opaque and -translucent enamels. A fine Celtic cloisonné treatment may be seen in -the Ardage chalice, where the cloisons were cut out of a plate of silver -and embedded in the enamel while soft. These Celtic craftsmen also had a -beautiful treatment of enamelling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_92" id="page_92"></a>{92}</span> by engraving or pressing a pattern in -intaglio, or sunk relief, on an enamelled ground, and then filling these -intaglios with other enamels.</p> - -<p>A most exquisite kind of enamel called “<i>Plique à Jour</i>,” was used by -the Byzantines; this was composed of open filigree cloisons, filled with -translucent enamels.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Champlevé</span> enamel is formed by engraving, casting or scooping out the -cloisons from a metal plate, leaving a thin wall or boundary between -each cloison, which is then filled with the various enamels as in the -cloisonné method. This Champlevé method was practised in Britain before -the Roman conquest, and was probably derived from the Phœnicians, who, -centuries before the Romans came to England, had traded with Cornwall -for tin. The beauty of colour and perfect adaptability of these early -enamelled brooches, fibulæ and trappings of horses of the early Britons -and Celts, are remarkable, showing a fine sense of colour and a harmony -of line and mass. A splendid bronze Celtic shield (fig. 4, <a href="#plt_13">plate 13</a>), -now in the British Museum, is enriched with fine red bosses of enamel. -These Champlevé enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy -appearance caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during -firing. Champlevé enamels were used with rare skill and refinement to -enhance the beautiful art of the goldsmith during the Middle Ages; the -Chalice, the Paten, the Reliquary, the Thurible, the Crozier, and the -bookcovers of the Churches, especially, were enriched with beautiful -enamels. Classed among the Champlevé enamels is that method called -<span class="smcap">Jeweller’s Enamel</span> or “<i>Baisse Taille</i>,” in which the plate is engraved -in low relief or beaten up in repoussé and then flooded with translucent -enamel. The Lynn cup of the time of Richard II. is one of the oldest -pieces of corporation plate and is covered with fine translucent blue -and green enamels.</p> - -<p>In India, where fine colour is a splendid tradition, Champlevé enamel -soon attained a remarkable perfection of technic and purity and -brilliance of colour almost unknown to the Western nations. The -Champlevé enamels of <span class="smcap">Jaipur</span> have most beautiful lustrous and transparent -blues, greens and reds laid on a pure gold ground. <span class="smcap">Pertubghur</span> is -renowned for the fine green or turquoise enamel fired upon a plate of -gold; while the enamel was still soft a plate of pierced gold was -pressed into the enamel. This pierced plate was afterwards engraved with -incidents of history or hunting. In <span class="smcap">Ratain</span>, in Central India, a similar -enamel is made having a fine blue in place of the Pertubghur green.</p> - -<p>The fine monumental brasses, of which many still remain in our English -cathedrals and churches, are a survival of the Champlevé process, the -cloisons, being usually filled with a black <span class="smcap">Niello</span>, but occasionally the -heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels. During the 11th and -12th centuries, <span class="smcap">Limoges</span> was renowned for its fine Champlevé enamels, but -early in the 15th<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_93" id="page_93"></a>{93}</span> century <span class="smcap">Painted Enamels</span> were introduced and Limoges -became the centre of this art, called late Limoges or <span class="smcap">Grisaille Enamel</span>. -<span class="figleft" style="width: 210px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_093a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_093a_sml.jpg" width="210" height="134" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</span> -The enamel colours were now used as a pigment, and were painted and -fired upon a copper plate. The enrichments in grisaille, or grey and -white, were used upon a black, violet or dark blue ground, the grisaille -afterwards being enriched with details of fine gold lines. These Limoges -enamels have a splendid technic, but they lack the charms of the -luminous colour and judicious use of enamels of the early Champlevé -period. The most renowned masters of the painted enamels of Limoges were -Penicand, 1503, Courtois, 1510, Pierre Raymond, 1530-1570, and Leonard -Limousin, 1532-1574. About 1600-1650, Jean Toutin and his pupil Petitot -produced some fine painted miniatures in opaque enamels upon gold, -remarkable for delicacy and perfection of enamelling. In 1750, painted -enamel was introduced into England and produced for about 30 years at -Battersea by Janssen. The enrichment consisted of flowers painted in -natural colours on a white ground. A similar enamel was also produced at -Bilston in Staffordshire.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_093b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_093b_sml.jpg" width="159" height="143" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The finest enamels undoubtedly are those in which the enamel is used in -small quantities, such as in the Celtic jewellery, the bookcovers, and -the Church and Corporation plate of the Gothic and early Renascence -period, and the early Byzantine cloisonné, such as the Hamilton brooch -in the British Museum, and the Pala d’Oro of St. Mark’s, Venice, which -was made at Constantinople for the Doge Orseolo in 976 <small>A.D.</small>, and has 83 -panels of fine cloisonné enamel set in a framework of gold.</p> - -<p>The “<i>Plique à jour</i>,” the “<i>Baisse taille</i>” and the Pertubghur enamels -are fine examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency or -opalescence and richness of colour.</p> - -<p>The Japanese cloisonné with its literal treatment of natural forms, and -the painted enamel portraits of Francis I. and contemporary princes by -Leonard Limousin, clever as they undoubtedly are, lack the depth and -purity of colour obtained by the early methods. Frequently, however, the -Penicauds, Nardou, and Jean I. and II. obtained some richness in the -painted enamels by the use of “<i>Paillons</i>” or pieces of metallic foil -which were afterwards flooded with translucent enamel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_94" id="page_94"></a>{94}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">GLASS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_30" id="plt_30">Plate 30.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_094_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_094_sml.jpg" width="377" height="611" alt="Image unavailable: GLASS. Plate 30." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_95" id="page_95"></a>{95}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="GLASS" id="GLASS"></a>GLASS.</h2> - -<p>The purity of glass, its adaptability to colour, and its remarkable -ductility while hot for blowing, twisting or drawing into threads, -differentiates it from all other materials and methods of treatment. Its -tradition dates from the remote past, for glass-blowing is represented -on the tombs at Thebes, <small>B.C.</small> 2500. It was also used in Egypt for -vitreous pastes for bronze and gold cloisonné jewellery, and for the -small bottles or Stibium, with chevron patterns, in yellow, turquoise -and white on a coloured ground. Similar patterns, colours and forms were -used by Phœnicia and her colonies, the usual forms being the Alabastra -and Amphorae. Many remains of bowls were found in Assyria, one (now in -the British museum) of transparent green glass, having the name of -Sargon, <small>B.C.</small> 722. Greece seems to have imported most of her glass from -Phœnicia, but the Romans carried on the tradition, producing fine <span class="smcap">Mosaic</span> -or <span class="smcap">Millefiori</span>. This was made by fusing rods of white and coloured glass -together, then drawing it out to fine threads and slicing it -transversely; the section is then placed in a mould and a bubble blown, -uniting the mosaic, which is then blown into various shapes. The Romans -also used the interlacing of white and coloured rods called <span class="smcap">Laticinio</span>, -but they excelled in the <span class="smcap">Cameo Glass</span>, of which the Portland vase is the -finest known example. This vase is of dark blue glass, covered with -white opaque glass, which was ground away with the wheel, leaving the -figures in delicate relief. It was found in 1644 in the sarcophagus of -Alexander Severus, <small>A.D.</small> 325, the subject of its relief being the myth of -Peleus and Thetis. Another Roman example of cameo glass in the British -museum is the Auldjo vase or Oinochoè with beautiful reliefs of vine -leaves. Frequently these reliefs were blown or pressed into moulds, and -a good example of this treatment is in the South Kensington museum (fig. -6). The tradition then declined until the 14th century, when the -Venetians in the island of Murano, perfected the art of glass making.</p> - -<p>The earliest examples of <span class="smcap">Venetian Glass</span> were massive, richly gilt and -enamelled in colours; one fine example in the British museum is signed -by its maker, “Magister Aldrevandini.” In the 15th and 16th centuries -the most delicate and beautiful blown glass was made, often uncoloured -and with enrichments of knots and wings in blown and shaped blue glass. -The Venetians used with equal skill all the old methods of glassmaking; -the <span class="smcap">Millefiori</span>; the <span class="smcap">Laticinio</span> or threads of opaque white enclosing -pattern; <span class="smcap">Reticelli</span>, a network of white lines enclosing at the -intersections a bubble of air; and the beautiful <span class="smcap">Vitro di Trina</span>, -filigree or lace glass, formed by canes or threads of white or coloured -glass being placed in a mould, a bubble being then blown in, and the -glass afterwards taken from the mould and blown or twisted to the shape -required. The artistic bronze mirrors of ancient and mediæval times now -give way to the glass mirrors of the Venetians, <small>A.D.</small> 1500.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_96" id="page_96"></a>{96}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">STAINED GLASS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_31" id="plt_31">Plate 31.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_096_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_096_sml.jpg" width="379" height="609" alt="Image unavailable: STAINED GLASS. Plate 31." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_97" id="page_97"></a>{97}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="STAINED_GLASS" id="STAINED_GLASS"></a>STAINED<br /> GLASS</h2> - -<p class="nind">with its depth and translucency, owes its intrinsic qualities to -metallic oxides, such as cobalt, giving fine blues, silver, pale and -deep yellows, pink from iron and antimony, and ruby from gold and -copper, which also yields fine greens. When these oxides are mixed with -the glass, in its fused state, it is termed <i>pot metal</i>, but if the -coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only, it is -termed <i>flashed</i> or <i>cased glass</i>. Ruby, owing to its depth of colour, -is usually cased glass. Fine blues are often flashed, and splendid -effects are produced by flashing ruby over yellow, or blue pot metal -glass. Cased glass is of the greatest value owing to the variety of tint -that can be produced on a single sheet of glass, and also that the -colour may be removed by grinding or by the use of fluoric acid.</p> - -<p>The rationale of the glass painter is—1st, The scheme of composition -and colour shown on a small scale. 2nd, A full sized cartoon in charcoal -or monochrome, with all the details carefully drawn, and showing the -lead lines and positions of the iron stanchions for strengthening the -window. 3rd, A tracing on cloth showing the lead lines only, called the -cut line, on which is cut the selected pieces of glass. 4th, Tracing all -details from the cartoon, with brown enamel on each piece of glass, the -pieces after firing being then fixed in the leading, and kept together -with H shaped leads. A diagram is given here showing the leading of an -example of 13th century glass.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 115px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_097_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_097_sml.jpg" width="115" height="129" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The brown enamel, which is used entirely for outline, detail or shading, -is a fusible glass in combination with opaque manganic or ferric oxide, -and tar oil. With this enamel, smear shading or stipple shading is -worked. This may be removed as required, before firing, by means of a -pointed stick or quill, so as to give the details of embroidery, or of -heraldic forms.</p> - -<p>Silver stain (oxide of silver) introduced at the beginning of the 14th -century is largely used in stained glass, and usually on the back -thereof. According to the different degrees of heat in the firing, a -pale yellow or deep orange of great transparency is produced.</p> - -<p>Coloured glass was made by the Egyptians 4000 years ago, but the -earliest stained glass windows recorded, were those of Brionde <small>A.D.</small> 525. -None however are known to be in existence prior to those of St. Denis -<small>A.D.</small> 1108. Other examples are found in Norman windows, with small -medallions of figures and ornament of a decided Byzantine type, -extremely deep in colour, being, by its style of treatment, termed -mosaic glass. The 13th century, or early Gothic period, has single -lancet lights, with medallions containing small figures surrounded by -the typical 13th century foliage; or the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_98" id="page_98"></a>{98}</span> windows were entirely of -ornament in <i>grisaille</i>, arranged symmetrically, having narrow bands of -ruby or blue, with wide borders. These <i>grisaille</i> windows are of a -greenish white glass, with the ornament in outline, and the ground -hatched with brown enamel in fine cross lines (fig. 1-2).<span class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_098a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_098a_sml.jpg" width="144" height="119" alt="Image unavailable: 13TH CENTURY GLASS. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">13TH CENTURY GLASS. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.</span> -</span> - - The north -transept window at York cathedral, called the five sisters, is typical -of this grisaille glass. The finest examples however, are at Salisbury -and Chartres cathedrals. Later in the period, single figures were -introduced under a simple canopy or gabling, plain or crocketed, with an -ordinary trefoil arch.</p> - -<p>“Quarry glass,” square or diamond in shape, with brown enamel details, -was frequently used, where simple masses were desired.</p> - -<p>In the 14th century, the figures were larger and placed under canopies -in each light of the mullioned windows, such figures in rich colours -forming a bright belt across the window, surmounted by the canopies, -cusped and crocketed, and in strong yellow pot metal, or yellow-cased -glass. The borders were narrow, with a somewhat natural rendering of the -rose, the maple and the oak.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 137px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_098b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_098b_sml.jpg" width="137" height="150" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>In the 15th century, a further change took place, figures became more -numerous and the canopy or shrine larger, and chiefly in white glass, -with the crockets and finials tipped with yellow stain. The coloured -border of the earlier glass is entirely absent, its place being taken by -the shaft of the canopy, and the crockets, finials and ornaments are -square in treatment and based chiefly on the vine leaf.</p> - -<p>Fairford church, perhaps, contains the finest series of late Gothic -glass <small>A.D.</small> 1500-30. Like the contemporary architecture of the 16th -century, the Renascence now influenced stained glass. The canopy still -survived, but was horizontal or pedimental in form, with purely -classical columns and details. Good examples of this period are the -windows of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge (1520), where rich -Renascence work is introduced into late Gothic mullioned windows. About -1540, transparent enamels were introduced with skill and reticence, but -gradually glass painters began to vie with pictorial oil painting in -effects of light and shade, the ground work or material losing that -beautiful translucent or transmitted colour, which is the chief glory of -stained glass. An example showing the degradation of this art is the -west window of New College, Oxford, painted by Jervas, 1777, from -designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_99" id="page_99"></a>{99}</span></p> - -<p>The ornamentation of stained glass naturally followed contemporary -architecture in the treatment of style, differentiated only by the -technical necessities of material. For instance, in the early English -glass (<a href="#plt_31">plate 31</a>), the details of the ornament have the characteristic -spiral arrangement and the trefoil foliage of contemporary architectural -ornament, only the foliage is treated more in profile, as being more -suited to the technical necessities of leading and brush work.</p> - -<p>Most of the detail, however, shows a strong affinity to French -contemporary ornament, this doubtless was owing to the influence of -French craftsmanship and tradition in the stained glass of that period.</p> - -<p>In the 14th century, the English craftsman attained a thorough mastery -over his materials, and consequently the type of ornament followed -English contemporary architecture more closely.</p> - -<p>To sum up, stained glass changed through the different periods from the -rich coloured mosaic of the Normans—the equally rich coloured -medallions and grisaille glass of the early Gothic—the decorated -Gothic, with glass in lighter colours, and a prevalence of yellow stain, -culminating in the later Gothic period, when largeness of mass, -lightness, and silvery colour, were the characteristics. A beautiful -treatment of stained glass, dating from the 15th century was used by the -Arabians; this glass, which has a singular gem-like quality, and without -enamel or stain, was let into a framework of plaster, which had been cut -and pierced with geometrical or floral patterns.</p> - -<p>Modern stained glass has attained a high degree of perfection in design -and material under Burne Jones, Walter Crane, Frederic Shields and Henry -Holiday, with glass such as that produced by Morris, Powell and Sparrow, -and the American opalescent glass of La Farge and Tiffany.</p> - -<p>The individuality of their work, appropriateness of treatment, based -upon the splendid tradition of the past, mark a distinct epoch in -history of stained glass.</p> - -<p>Splendid heraldic glass by A. W. Pugin may be seen in the Houses of -Parliament, Westminster; and in the hall and staircase of the Rochdale -Town Hall, there is a fine series of windows by Heaton, Butler, and -Baine, remarkable for dignity of style and unity of conception.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">GOLD AND SILVER. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_32" id="plt_32">Plate 32.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_100_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_100_sml.jpg" width="378" height="607" alt="Image unavailable: GOLD AND SILVER. Plate 32." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="GOLD_AND_SILVER" id="GOLD_AND_SILVER"></a>GOLD AND<br /> SILVER.</h2> - -<p>Of all treasure trove, those of gold and silver are the most valuable, -showing us the riches, culture and the decorative arts of the people who -centuries ago used these beautiful objects of jewellery or of utility. -One of the earliest and most valuable of these treasures was found in -1859 with the mummy of Queen Aah-Hotep, 1800 <small>B.C.</small> (Cairo Museum), and -consisted of: bracelets, armlets, rings, chains, a diadem (fig. 1), a -small model of a twelve-oared war galley, and a poniard, all of -exquisite workmanship, and of pure gold, enriched with jasper and -turquoise vitreous pastes. At Petrossa in 1837 (Bukarest Museum), -twenty-two beautiful gold objects were found, but only twelve were -recovered, consisting of two neck-rings or Torques; a large salver, -hammered and chased; a ewer; a bowl with figures in repoussé; four -fibula enriched with precious stones; a gorget; and two double-handled -cups (fig. 4) all of which are Byzantine work of the 5th century. At -Guarrazar in Spain, ten gold votive crowns of Gothic workmanship were -found; one inscribed with the name of King Suintila, 630 <small>A.D.</small>, is now in -the museum at Madrid, the others in the Hôtel Cluny, Paris, the largest -having the name of King Rescesvinthus, 670 <small>A.D.</small> in pendive letters (fig. -3). Of silversmith’s work, the most important is the “Treasure of -Hildesheim,” found in 1868 (now in the Berlin Museum) consisting of -thirty objects, cups, vases, and dishes, beautiful in contour and -admirably enriched with delicate repoussé work of the Greco-Roman period -(fig. 5). The British Museum contains many fine examples of Greek and -Etruscan goldsmith’s art; some early Greek work has the typical Mycenæ -spiral enrichment. Beautiful Greek plaques of the 4th and 5th centuries -<small>B.C.</small> were obtained by pressing the gold into stone moulds, and were -afterwards enriched with threads of gold or “filigree,” which developed -later into the Byzantine filigree work.</p> - -<p>The beautiful Etruscan Fibulæ are enriched with minute globules of gold -soldered on, a process brought to a remarkable degree of perfection by -the Etruscans in the 7th, 6th and 5th centuries <small>B.C.</small> Of the gold and -silver vessels used by Solomon in the temple, we have the description in -the Books of Kings and Chronicles, but no trace of the originals, except -that on the Arch of Titus, 79 <small>A.D.</small>, we find a representation of the -seven-branched golden candlestick (fig. 9). Of the Mediæval period, many -fine examples of church and corporation plate are still treasured in our -museums. They are of great intrinsic value, of beautiful workmanship, -chased and engraved, and enriched with cast and repoussé work and the -choicest enamels. Of the craftsman or goldsmith we know but little, but -his delicacy of touch, his just appreciation of appropriateness of -treatment to his material, and the singular grace and charm of his -design are a tribute to his culture and personality. Cellini produced -many beautiful works, yet perhaps not more beautiful than his many -contemporary goldsmiths. In our museums there are some charming -specimens of engraving upon silver, filled in with black enamel called -Niello, by Maso Finiguerre, about 1450, who produced some early prints -from an engraved plate.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">BRONZES. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_33" id="plt_33">Plate 33.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_102_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_102_sml.jpg" width="383" height="620" alt="Image unavailable: BRONZES. Plate 33." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="BRONZES" id="BRONZES"></a>BRONZE.</h2> - -<p>Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use from a remote period -in the history of the arts. Its adaptability for casting, its -durability, utility and colour have rendered this material one of the -most useful and valuable. Of the many fine examples of the early -Egyptian and Assyrian bronze now in the British Museum, the most -beautiful are the bronzes of Siris, two fragments of armour, with -reliefs in repoussé (fig. 4). The many Greek statues in the round, of -their Gods and heroes, show the most skilful technique and beauty of -form. The Etruscans were clever workers in this material, and they used -a most expressive treatment of incised lines, which differentiates their -decorative bronzes from those of Greece, with their delicate low -reliefs. The bronze mirrors (fig. 2) and the Cista are typical examples -of the Etruscan treatment. The finest known cista is that called the -“Ficoroni Cista,” by Morios Plantios (3rd century <small>B.C.</small>) and is now in -the Collegio Romano; a description, with illustrations of this example -is in the “<i>Magazine of Art</i>,” April, 1884. Descriptions of this cista -and of the many fine examples in the British Museum are given in -“<i>Murray’s Handbook of Greek Archæology</i>.” Of small decorative bronzes, -Naples Museum alone has over 13,000 examples, consisting of candelabra, -tripods, tables, chairs and couches, which, eighteen centuries ago, were -used by the wealthy Roman citizens. Of bronze equestrian statues, the -most renowned are those of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, <small>A.D.</small> 175; -Bartolomeo Coleone, at Venice, <small>A.D.</small> 1488, by Andrea Verrocchio; and -Alessandro Leopardo; and that of Gattamelata, at Padua, 1453 <small>A.D.</small>, by -Donatello.</p> - -<p>A remarkable bronze figure of the Renascence period is that of Perseus, -by Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1570, at Florence, and the figure of Neptune -on the fountain at Bologna by Giovanni da Bologna, 1524-90.</p> - -<p>The bronze doors of San Zenone, at Verona, (see <a href="#plt_1">plates 1</a> and <a href="#plt_3">3</a> in -“<i>Aratra Pentelici</i>” by John Ruskin), and those of the Baptistery, at -Florence, by Andrea Pisano and Ghiberti (see Renascence) are typical -examples of early Renascence bronzes. The casting of these Bronzes was -by the “Cire Perdu” method, that is, by forming a core of firm material -nearly the size and shape required, then covering with sheet wax and -finishing with the detail required, with sticks of wax projecting to -form vents for the escape of steam in casting. The wax is then brushed -over with a composition of fine clay and ground crucibles to some -thickness and the mould thus formed is connected with the inner one by -bronze rods. The wax is then melted out, leaving a cavity Into which the -liquid bronze is poured, the core and mould being afterwards removed. -Bronze is also cast in piece moulds taken from the model; the piece -mould is then lined with sheet clay and put together and the core run -in. The clay is then removed and the bronze run in as in the former -process. The sand process for casting has now reached a high degree of -perfection in which the core and mould are formed by pressure in a fine -tenacious sand.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">WROUGHT IRON. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_34" id="plt_34">Plate 34.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_104_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_104_sml.jpg" width="382" height="624" alt="Image unavailable: WROUGHT IRON. Plate 34." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="WROUGHT_IRON" id="WROUGHT_IRON"></a>WROUGHT<br /> IRON.</h2> - -<p>The decorative qualities of iron, with its strength, durability and -comparative cheapness, have rendered it one of the most useful metals in -the applied arts. Used from an early period for implements of war and -the chase, it gradually became associated with architecture and -furniture, reaching in the 15th and 16th centuries a remarkable degree -of beauty and skilful craftsmanship that has never been excelled. Many -fine Norman hinges of wrought iron are still in existence, having a -straight central bar or strap, with small scroll terminations; these -central straps were strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces, -terminating in small serpent forms, probably a survival of the Viking -traditions. This form of hinge was succeeded by the Early Gothic hinge, -which was a series of spirals springing from the straight bar or strap, -the spiral being welded or fastened with collars; these spirals were -enriched with the three-lobed foliage or trefoil, typical of the Early -Gothic period; fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of -Notre Dame, Paris, where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with -birds, dragons and small rosettes in stamped iron. This stamped -characteristic may be seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of -Leighton Buzzard Church, Eaton Bray Church, Bedfordshire, and the -Eleanor grill in Westminster Abbey, by Thomas de Leghton, in 1294. In -the 14th and 15th centuries, when panelled doors took the place of the -earlier doors, this Early Gothic style of hinge was not needed (fig. 5) -so that we find no trace of it in that period, but the art of wrought -iron was continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock -plates of the most varied and delicate workmanship, which enriched the -beautiful Gothic chests of the 14th and 15th centuries. The simple -wrought screen, which was so largely used in the 13th century was now -elaborated, especially in Italy, and fine examples of quatre-foil -grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage, -cupids and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the -cathedrals of Orvieto, Prato and Siena, dating from about 1337 to 1350, -and at Santa Croce, Florence, 1371; but it was in Spain and France that -the screen reached its culmination. The Spanish screens or “Réjas” in -the cathedrals of Seville, Toledo and Granada have a fine range of -turned and chiselled vertical bars some 30 to 50 feet high, with an -elaborate frieze and cresting.</p> - -<p>Beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in France about 1658, -for the Louvre and the Royal Chateaux of Anet and Econeu. There are some -fine wrought gates at Hampton Court by Jean Tijon, who published some -drawings of them in 1693, and many good simple gates of the last century -are still in position in many parts of the country.</p> - -<p>The wrought iron gate piers in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, with their -architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and massive -buttresses, in filed, bolted and riveted, are splendid examples of -Flemish workmanship, and are probably by Quintin Matsys (1450-1529).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="FURNITURE" id="FURNITURE"></a>FURNITURE.</h2> - -<p>The adaptability and universality of wood for domestic and public -purposes, its susceptibility to carving and enrichment, its beautiful -texture, grain and colour, have made it one of the most useful of -materials in the constructive and decorative arts.</p> - -<p>The many chairs, tables and chests of ancient times, and the beautiful -choir stalls, cabinets and screens of the middle ages are a tribute to -the vitality, inventiveness and artistic perception of the old -craftsman.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_106a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_106a_sml.jpg" width="354" height="116" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The universality of the chair has tended to preserve the form through -many centuries. The chair has undergone various modifications, from the -ornate Egyptian one to the Assyrian example with the supports of -fir-cones. In the Greek example, the beauty and simplicity of profile is -remarkable, while the Chair of St. Peter, 1st century <small>A.D.</small>, is purely -architectonic with enrichments of gold and ivory.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 219px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_106b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_106b_sml.jpg" width="219" height="118" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey, of the time of Edward I., is -one of the earliest in England, offering a strong contrast to the chairs -of the 18th century by Chippendale and Sheraton.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_106c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_106c_sml.jpg" width="85" height="231" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>A Venetian chair of the 16th century shows a skilful but inappropriate -treatment.</p> - -<p>The Arabians at Cairo, in the 15th century, produced some beautiful -geometrical wood panelling, frequently inlaid with ebony and ivory, and -having a marvellous intricacy of line and detail.</p> - -<p>In Italy, during the 16th century, many beautifully carved cassone or -chests, in walnut, enriched with gilding, were produced, similar to the -one here figured from South Kensington Museum.</p> - -<p>In Italy the beautiful carved choir stalls of the 16th century were -frequently enriched with <span class="smcap">Intarsia</span>, a light wood inlay upon a dark -ground, this intarsia being<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> afterwards slightly etched and black rubbed -in, or scorched with hot sand or irons. The choir stalls at St. Organo, -Verona, and the Certosa, at Pavia, are fine examples of Intarsia.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_107a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_107a_sml.jpg" width="216" height="86" alt="Image unavailable: CASSONE OR CHEST S K M ITALIAN 16TH CENTURY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CASSONE OR CHEST S K M ITALIAN 16TH CENTURY</span> -</div> - -<p>In the Renascence of France we meet with many examples of beautiful -furniture, great skill, taste and ingenuity being brought to bear upon -this work. Jean Goujon, Bachelier and Philibert de l’Orme were famed for -their wood carvings in the 16th century.</p> - -<p>In 1642, André Charles Boule introduced a veneered work composed of thin -tortoise-shell and brass, frequently chased or engraved; this is now -termed <span class="smcap">Boule</span> work. In some of the later work the shell is laid on a -vermilion or gold ground, which greatly enhances its effect. In the 18th -century, Boule work was still made in France, but new methods and new -men came to the front, amongst others were Riesener and David Roentgen, -who produced splendid <span class="smcap">Marquetry</span> of flowers, festoons and diaper patterns -inlaid in various coloured woods. Both these men worked in mahogany and -ebony, and their lighter marquetry was frequently shaded by scorching -with hot sand. These pieces of furniture were usually enriched with -gilt, bronze or metal mountings by Gouthière, a contemporary craftsman. -A beautiful mode of enriching woodwork was introduced by Vernis Martin, -1706-70; this was the use of a gold and green lac, which was transparent -and brilliant, and similar to the beautiful lac work of Japan.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 40px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_107b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_107b_sml.jpg" width="40" height="224" alt="Image unavailable." /></a> -</div> - -<p>Of English men of this period, Thomas Chippendale produced some good -furniture and published a book of designs in 1764, which undoubtedly -influenced much of the furniture of that period; Mathias Lock was -another noted cabinet maker. In 1789, A. Hepplewhite published a book on -furniture, and, in 1795, Thomas Sheraton published a work on the same -subject.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_107c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_107c_sml.jpg" width="151" height="256" alt="Image unavailable: OAK SCREEN. 16TH CENTURY. FRENCH SOUTH KENSINGTON -MUSEUM" /></a> - -</div> - -<p>The beautiful panelling and carved mantels of the many fine halls of the -time of Elizabeth and James are characteristic of English work. -Contemporary with this are the beautiful English panelled chests with -quaint imagery and enrichments, and the curious Jacobean bed-foot with -its pierced pedestal and baluster pillar.</p> - -<p>With Grinling Gibbons, who died in 1721, wood carving reached its -culmination for delicacy and skilful craftsmanship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">TEXTILE FABRICS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_35" id="plt_35">Plate 35.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_108_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_108_sml.jpg" width="372" height="611" alt="Image unavailable: TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 35." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="TEXTILES" id="TEXTILES"></a>TEXTILES.</h2> - -<p>The utility, universality, construction, texture, ornamentation and -colour of textile fabrics are full of interest and suggestiveness, for -in the remarkable development of textile fabrics we may trace the -continuity of style and tradition, the intermingling of races and -customs, and the grafting of religious ideas with the wealth and -luxuriance of the past.</p> - -<p>All fabrics wrought in the loom are called textiles. They are broadly -divided into three classes: 1st, plain fabrics in which the warp and -weft alternate equally; 2nd, those fabrics in which a pattern is -produced by the warp and weft intermingling in different proportions or -colours, figured cloths and tapestries being included in this class; -3rd, those fabrics in which the plain textile <span class="smcap">No.</span> 1 is enriched with the -needle or by printing, termed embroideries or printed fabrics.</p> - -<p>Owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile fabrics -are in existence. The oldest examples are found in the tombs of Egypt, -where, owing to the dryness of the climate, some fabrics of the early -dynasties still remain. They are usually of fine linen and without -enrichment, yet upon the same tombs are many painted patterns that -undoubtedly show a woven origin. The oldest figured fabrics found in -Egypt are of the 6th century <small>A.D</small>., and they show a remarkable similarity -to the early patterns of Persia and Byzantium, for it was in India, -Persia and Arabia that textiles reached their perfection of workmanship -and their wealth of material. This splendid tradition was carried from -Persia and India to Byzantium in the 5th century, and in the 8th century -the Arabians absorbed and assimilated the arts of Persia, India, Egypt -and Spain and brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the -14th and 15th centuries.</p> - -<p>The ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and -periods are characterised by well-defined forms, differentiated by -racial influence, climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of -the people. Yet the traditional Eastern origin may be traced through -many textile designs, for there is no doubt that India, Persia and -Arabia influenced the designs of textile fabrics more than any other -nations. This was due no doubt partly to the Eastern weavers carrying -their art and traditions with them to various parts of Europe, and also -to the exportation of their splendid fabrics, but principally to the -beautiful and interesting designs which were perfectly adapted to the -process of weaving. It is due no doubt to this frank adaptation of -natural forms and their appropriateness to the technical necessities of -woven fabrics, that has rendered this Eastern influence so persistent -through many centuries in different parts of Europe. It is remarkable -that even in Italy during the whole of the Renascence period, with the -characteristic scroll forms and acanthus foliation of its architecture -and decorative arts, the textiles are quite distinct in style, having -the characteristics of the Sicilian, Persian and Indian ornament.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span></p> - -<p>Among the earliest figured fabrics must be placed those of Assyria, of -which representations may be seen in Layard’s Book on Nineveh. The -patterns consisted of symmetrically placed winged figures with the Hom -or Tree of Life and the rosette, which was used as a symbol by Zoraster. -It is probable that many of these patterns were embroidered, as the -Babylonians were reported to be skilful in the art of embroidery, but it -is also certain that some of the patterns were woven. The figured -fabrics found in Egypt only date from the 5th and 6th centuries <small>A.D.</small>, -and show a marked Byzantine and Persian influence (figs. 1-7, <a href="#plt_35">plate 35</a>). -Characteristic Byzantine examples have medallions and symmetrically -placed figures and ornament of the “Hom.” At Alexandria and Antioch, -many fine green and gold silk fabrics with ornament in brown outline -were produced from the 6th to the 10th centuries.</p> - -<p>Under the Saracens, textile fabrics reached their highest development; -splendour of colour, beauty and perfection of material and the -singularly interesting beauty of the designs being the chief -characteristics.</p> - -<p>The conquest of Persia, in 632 <small>A.D.</small>, by Abu Bekr, the successor of -Mahomet, the establishment of Bagdad in 762 as the capital of the -Arabian Khalifs, and the invasion of India, in 711, gave a remarkable -impetus to the decorative arts, more especially the arts of dyeing, -weaving and embroidery. These arts culminated in the splendid period of -the Fatimy Khalifs, 909-1171 <small>A.D.</small> Though Mahomet forbade his followers -to wear silk, it was largely used by the Saracens and, to evade the -injunction, cotton was frequently interwoven with it, and, in India -especially, the fabrics often have a cotton warp as a foundation for the -weft patterns of coloured silks and gold thread. Many fine examples of -Saracenic fabrics of the 11th to the 15th centuries are now in our -national museums. The larger portion are from Sicily, and are termed -Sicilian or Siculo-Saracenic. They have bands of birds, animals, foliage -and inscriptions in blue, green and gold on a red ground. If wholly of -silk the fabric was termed <i>Holosericum</i>, and if of silk and gold, -<i>Chrysoclavum fundatum</i>. Drawn gold thread was not used in early -fabrics, but gold leaf laid on paper or skin and then rolled round a -fine thread of silk was largely used by the Saracenic weavers. The -patterns in some of the later Sicilian fabrics of the 13th and 14th -centuries have a purple ground in twilled silk, with birds and foliage -formed by a weft of gold thread. These patterns were usually symmetrical -in arrangement, no doubt partly due to the traditional art of Assyria, -but also to the simple necessities of weaving, for in the early looms -the turnover of the pattern was frequently used. The Saracenic fabrics -produced in Spain are called Hispano-Moresque and are distinguished by -splendid crimson or dark blue conventional patterns of silk upon a -yellow ground of a fine quality, and a frequent use of strips of gilded -parchment in place of the rolled gilt thread. In this period, many fine -velvets raised on a satin ground with gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption"><span class="lft"><a name="plt_36" id="plt_36">Plate 36</a></span>.</span> -<br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_111_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_111_sml.jpg" width="366" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: Plate 36." - /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption"><span class="lft"><a name="plt_37" id="plt_37">Plate 37</a></span>. -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_112_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_112_sml.jpg" width="302" height="608" alt="Image unavailable: Plate 37. PRINTED COTTON. INDIAN 18TH CENT. S.K.M." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">and silver threads, were made. In the 12th century, Roger II., the -Norman King of Northern Sicily, took Corinth and Argos, and carried many -weavers and embroiderers from Greece to Sicily, and established them at -Palermo, where they quickly assimilated the Sicilian style and produced -many fine fabrics during the 13th and 14th centuries.</p> - -<p>The crusades now began to influence the arts; in 1098, Antioch was taken -and the spoil distributed through Europe; in 1204, Constantinople was -taken by Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and the Venetian Doge, Dandolo, and -the vast spoil of textiles distributed. It was doubtless under the -influence of the crusades that the Sicilian weavers of the 13th and 14th -centuries produced the many beautiful fabrics enriched with winged -lions, foliated crosses and crowns, rayed stars, harts and birds linked -together, and with the introduction of armorial bearings. Early in the -14th century, this splendid tradition was introduced into Italy, and at -Lucca many beautiful fabrics were produced, having the same -characteristics and technique as the Sicilian fabrics.</p> - -<p>The cloak upon the recumbent bronze figure of Richard II. in Westminster -Abbey has a pattern of foliage with couchant harts and rayed stars, and -was most probably copied from the original silk made for Richard at -Lucca or Palermo.</p> - -<p>The beautiful materials and designs of Indian textile fabrics are -indicative of the love of nature and the splendour of colour of a remote -antiquity. Though influenced at various times by Greek, Persian and -Arabian traditions, India still preserved an indigenous ornamental art -of remarkable freshness and vitality, the designers choosing their own -flora and fauna with rare selective power and adaptive qualities. With -an instinctive feeling for ornamental art, aided by the splendid -colourings of the native dyes, they produced textile fabrics of silks, -brocades, and gold and silver lace remarkable for richness and -perfection of material, beauty of design and harmony of colour. The -Indian pine is a familiar form of enrichment differentiated from the -cypress of Persia (fig. 1, <a href="#plt_22">plate 22</a>), by the spiral at the apex. This -typical pine is treated with a wonderful diversity of detail (figs. 4, 5 -and 6, <a href="#plt_23">plate 23</a>). The splendid carpets of India were doubtless -influenced by the Persian tradition and they follow the same methods and -ornamental arrangements, adapting, conventionalizing and emphasising -plants, flowers and seeds, and rendering them with a fine feeling for -form and colour. Block printing was largely used for silks and cottons, -and many splendid examples are now treasured in our museums; an -illustration of a printed cotton Palampore from South Kensington is -given here, showing the beautiful floral treatment, diversity of detail, -and contrast of line and mass. The gold and silver Brocades or “Kincobs” -of Ahmedabad and Benares, with patterns of animals, flowers and foliage -richly spangled; the delicate muslins of Dacca, the gold and silver -primed muslins of Jaipur, and the woollen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption"><span class="lft"><a name="plt_38" id="plt_38">Plate 38</a></span>.</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_114_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_114_sml.jpg" width="404" height="613" alt="Image unavailable: Plate 38." - - /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">shawls of Kashmir, with the well-known pine pattern, are splendid -examples of richness of material, delicacy and skilfulness of technic, -and beauty and appropriateness of ornamentation.</p> - -<p>The Pile carpets of Persia, especially those of Kurdistan, Khorassan, -Kirman, and Ferahan, are the finest in the world, being magnificent in -colour and having bold conventional patterns of their beautiful flora, -with birds and animals interspersed with the ornament, giving a -largeness of mass and interest and vitality of detail. The illustration -on the opposite page is from a fine 16th century Persian carpet, and is -a good example of their methods and traditions. The hyacinth, tulip, -iris and the pink, are frequently introduced, together with the hom or -tree of life. An illustration is given (fig. 2, <a href="#plt_22">plate 22</a>) of a Genoa -fabric but of Persian design, showing the typical “pink” with its -simplicity and beauty of line. This traditional art of Persia had a most -marked influence upon the textile fabrics of Europe from the 12th to the -17th centuries. This was no doubt due to many causes, but the perfect -adaptability to the process of weaving, the interest, inventiveness and -beauty of the ornament, and the singular frank treatment of form and -colour, doubtless appealed to the craftsmen of Europe, and hence we find -many Persian designs produced in Sicily, Spain, Italy, France and -Flanders.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_115a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_115a_sml.jpg" width="115" height="166" alt="Image unavailable: DOUBLE MULLION PATTERN, ITALIAN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">DOUBLE MULLION PATTERN, ITALIAN.</span> -</div> - -<p>The finest silk velvets and damasks produced from the looms of Florence -show a distinct Persian influence in their bold artichoke and -pomegranate patterns of the 16th and 17th centuries. In Genoa, similar -patterns in many coloured velvets were produced, and it is singular how -largely this persistency of type prevails in all countries.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<a href="images/image_pg_115b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_115b_sml.jpg" width="113" height="184" alt="Image unavailable: SILK ITALIAN 16th CENTURY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SILK ITALIAN 16th CENTURY</span> -</div> - -<p>In 1480, Louis XI. introduced the art into France, when looms were -established at Tours, and in 1520 they were established at Lyons by -Francis I., and the art of weaving rapidly spread. The earliest fabrics -of these looms have patterns similar to the Persian and Italian fabrics; -but soon the vase pattern, which no doubt had its origin in Byzantine -textiles and which had been used by the Persians and Italians, began to -influence French designs. However, this rapidly gave place towards the -middle of the 17th century to the imitations of ribbons and laces in -textile fabrics, together with a more naturalistic treatment of floral -forms, and the beauty, suggestiveness and interest of the early patterns -now gave way to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span> prettiness, affectation and a naturalistic treatment -which culminated in the period of Madame Pompadour.</p> - -<p>The remarkable invention of perforated cards for facilitating the -weaving of figured fabrics was introduced by Bonchon, 1725, and -continued by Falcon in 1728, by Vancanson in 1745, and perfected by -Joseph Marie Jacquard, 1752-1834.</p> - -<p>The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 by Louis the XIV., caused -large numbers of weavers to come to England, bringing their art and -tradition with them, and many established themselves at Spitalfields -which soon rose to some importance. The patterns, necessarily, were -purely French in treatment, consisting of natural arrangements of -flowers; a sketch is here given of a Spitalfields design for silk -damask.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 133px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_116a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_116a_sml.jpg" width="133" height="188" alt="Image unavailable: FLOWER VASE PATTERN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">FLOWER VASE PATTERN</span> -</div> - -<p>The textile fabrics of Flanders reached a high degree of perfection in -the 16th and 17th centuries, Bruges being famous for its silk damasks -and velvets, the patterns showing the traditional Persian or the -pomegranate and artichoke type of the Florentine textiles. Block -printing had been introduced into Flanders in the 15th century and many -fine patterns with Indian motives were produced up to the 17th century.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_116b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_116b_sml.jpg" width="143" height="172" alt="Image unavailable: DESIGN FOR A SPITALSFIELD SILK FABRIC DATED 1739 SKM" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">DESIGN FOR A SPITALSFIELD SILK FABRIC DATED 1739 SKM</span> -</div> - -<p>At Ypres, fine diapered linen was manufactured, and Ghent was famous for -its woollens, but the remarkable prosperity of Flanders was destroyed by -the Spanish occupation (1556-1648).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_116c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_116c_sml.jpg" width="100" height="187" alt="Image unavailable: SINGLE MULLION PATTERN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SINGLE MULLION PATTERN</span> -</div> - -<p>Then large numbers of Flemish weavers came to England and settled in -many parts of the country, bringing their traditions and craftsmanship, -which have undoubtedly had a most marked influence upon the production -of cotton and woollen textile fabrics in England.</p> - -<p>Tapestry, of which many fine examples of the 16th and 17th centuries are -treasured in our museums and palaces, differs from most woven fabrics in -its method of production, which consists of interweaving and knotting -short pieces of coloured wefts, which form the pattern, to a strong -warp, a ground weft being thrown across each pick to bind the material -well together;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">TEXTILE FABRICS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_39" id="plt_39">Plate 39.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_117_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_117_sml.jpg" width="370" height="602" alt="Image unavailable: TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 39." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">this is almost the same method as that used in the manufacture of the -Indian and Persian carpets. It was during the 14th and 15th centuries, -at Arras in Flanders, that storied tapestries were brought to their -culmination and the tapestry workers became a most powerful guild. From -about 1480, Brussels produced many magnificent hangings from designs by -the great masters of the Italian Renascence. Raphael’s famous cartoons -which are now in the South Kensington Museum are the original designs -for the ten tapestries manufactured at Brussels for Pope Leo X. for the -enrichment of the Sistine chapel in the Vatican; the seven cartoons, -three being lost, were purchased by Charles I.</p> - -<p>Many of the great Flemish painters also designed for the Brussels -tapestries, such as Van Orley, Van Leyden and Jan Mabuse.</p> - -<p>Francis I. caused tapestry looms to be set up at Fontainbleau in 1339, -under the direction of the Italian, Serlio, but it was not until the -Gobelin tapestry manufactory was established in 1603 in the Faubourg -Saint Marcel by the Fleming, Marc de Comans, and François de la Planche, -that French tapestry reached any importance. Under the Minister Colbert -in 1667, the Royal Gobelin manufactory produced many fine tapestries -designed by the head of the establishment, Charles le Brun.</p> - -<p>About 1590, some carpets called Savonnerie were made in the Louvre, the -technique being somewhat similar to the Persian carpets but the patterns -were more pictorial and naturalistic in treatment; fine tapestries were -also produced at Beauvais and Aubusson. Tapestry had been manufactured -in England as early as the reign of Edward III., but it was not until -the time of James I. that it assumed any importance, when a tapestry -manufactory was established at Mortlake by Francis Crane.</p> - -<p>Some fine Flemish tapestries are in the South Kensington museum and -eight large pieces by Bernard Van Orley are in the Great Hall of Hampton -Court. The coloured cartoons by Mantegna in Hampton Court, representing -the Triumph of Cæsar, were to be reproduced in tapestry for the Duke of -Mantua. There are some fine Gobelin and Beauvais tapestries in Windsor -Castle which were gifts from the Court of France, and they all show the -most consummate technique, beauty of material and harmony of colour.</p> - -<p>The well-known Bayeux tapestry is embroidered in coloured wools upon a -white linen ground. It is 214 feet in length and 22 inches in width and -divided in 72 compartments with incidents representing the Norman -invasion of England by William I.</p> - -<p>Though reputed to be the work of Queen Matilda, the probability is that -it is the work of English hands some few years after the invasion. This -embroidery or tapestry is still preserved in the cathedral of Bayeux.</p> - -<p>The remarkable civilization of the Incas or Peruvians, is shown in the -many splendid objects of the industrial arts now treasured in our -museums. Of these relics of a vanished civilization, the textile<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">PERUVIAN TEXTILES. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_40" id="plt_40">Plate 40.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_119_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_119_sml.jpg" width="368" height="602" alt="Image unavailable: PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 40." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">PERUVIAN TEXTILES. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_41" id="plt_41">Plate 41.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_120_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_120_sml.jpg" width="373" height="606" alt="Image unavailable: PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 41." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">fabrics are, perhaps, the most instructive and interesting. The high -technical skill of the craftsmanship, the fine spinning of the wool and -cotton, and the perfection of the dyeing of the yarn, together with the -skilful weaving of the figured cloths and tapestries are a tribute to -the vitality and civilization of a people remote from all Asiatic or -European influences.</p> - -<p>Many of the fabrics are of double cloth, of deep brown and pale straw -colour, and show the same colour and pattern on both sides of the cloth. -Some of the fabrics are tapestry woven, having short strands of coloured -wool inserted into the fabric by the aid of the needle, and they -somewhat resemble the Gobelin tapestry in their method of production.</p> - -<p>A few of these Peruvian cotton fabrics are ornamented by means of tied -or knotted work, identical with the Bandhana or knotted work termed -Chunti Cloth, of the North-west province of India. These knotted -patterns consist of simple spots arranged in square, zig-zag or curved -lines. The pattern is first marked with a red earth on the plain fabric; -then the pattern or spots are tied up tightly with cotton thread and the -whole dipped in the dye which only acts on the untied portions of the -cloth; a white pattern on a coloured ground is thus produced, both sides -being alike.</p> - -<p>These Peruvian textiles are remarkable for the absence of the beautiful -flora of Peru as elements for decoration. The fylfot or fret is a -frequent form of enrichment (<a href="#plt_40">plates 40</a>-<a href="#plt_41">41</a>.) The wave scroll so typical -of Greek work is also a remarkable element in Peruvian ornament, and -illustrates the singular development of the same ideas and aspect of -form among people so remote from each other as the Greeks and Peruvians.</p> - -<p>But the patterns that sharply differentiate Peruvian examples from all -other styles are the conventional treatments of figures, birds, fishes -and animals. The llama is conspicuous in many patterns, but the bird -forms are the most remarkable, having many variations of type and -treatment. Illustrations are given in <a href="#plt_40">plates 40</a> and <a href="#plt_41">41</a>, all taken from -the Smithies Loan Collection at Manchester. Other examples of these -interesting fabrics may be seen in the Smithies collection at South -Kensington, showing the wonderful diversity of the treatment of pattern -designing by a people so remote as the Peruvians.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to fix any date for these Peruvian examples, but as it -is known that during the reign of Inca Pachacutic (circa 1390), the -ceramic art was at its best, we may assume that the sister art of -weaving reached its perfection about the same period, and continued -until the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption">FRETS. <span class="lft"><a name="plt_42" id="plt_42">Plate 42.</a></span> -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_122_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_122_sml.jpg" width="376" height="616" alt="Image unavailable: FRETS. Plate 42." /></a> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="FRETS" id="FRETS"></a>FRETS.</h2> - -<p>The remarkable universality of the fret, the simplicity and rhythm of -detail, its adaptability and usefulness for surface enrichment, have -made the fret one of the best known forms of ornamentation. It was used -in the surface decorations of the tombs of Egypt, the temples of Greece, -and the civic and domestic buildings of Rome.</p> - -<p>The Greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys was used -on the simple abacus and plain fascias of the Dorian architecture, in -bands upon the painted vases, and in a concentric form when used in the -interior of the red-figured circular cylix. The Romans, without -imparting freshness, used the same right-angled key pattern, chiefly as -borders for mosaic pavements and upon the horizontal soffits of their -architecture. The Byzantine using the same type in conjunction with the -cross and circle gave more significance to the fret.</p> - -<p>The Arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line together with -the right-angled key, obtaining a wonderful degree of complexity and -richness.</p> - -<p>The Celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one, but the recurrent angle is -rounded to a curve.</p> - -<p>Chinese and Japanese frets are usually right-angled, and are used in -great profusion, often in a secondary field or background.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_123_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_123_sml.jpg" width="138" height="138" alt="Image unavailable: WALL MOSAIC OF COLOURED MARBLES" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">WALL MOSAIC OF COLOURED MARBLES</span> -</div> - -<p>The Japanese key or “<i>Fret diaper</i>” is used in the greatest profusion; -it is used alike on silks and brocades, damascened in metal, in -cloisonné enamel and in lacquered work, and is frequently arranged in -irregular shaped compartments or medallions.</p> - -<p>The Greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the Japanese, who -generally use the disconnected or irregular fret. A similar irregular -fret border was used by the Peruvians (<a href="#plt_41">plate 41</a>), by the Mexicans, and -by the natives of Polynesia.</p> - -<p>The Assyrian and Byzantine guilloche is but a curved fret, but -additional interest is given by the introduction of radiating forms in -the principal interstices of the fret (fig. 5, plate 11.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"><span class="caption"><span class="lft"><a name="plt_43" id="plt_43">Plate 43</a></span>. - -</span><br /> -<a href="images/image_pg_124_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_124_sml.jpg" width="303" height="605" alt="Image unavailable: Plate 43." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="CONTINUITY_OF_STYLE" id="CONTINUITY_OF_STYLE"></a>CONTINUITY<br /> OF STYLE</h2> - -<p class="nind">in architecture and ornament has always been influenced by tradition, -racial influence, and the myths and religious beliefs of the people, and -it developed with the progress of the nation, often culminating in some -great epoch. Frequently the continuity was carried on by some -contemporary or succeeding race, modified by different conditions and -environments, yet still retaining the style in its general -characteristics, or, this thread of continuity was occasionally lost for -a time, only to spring into new life, endowed with fresh vitality and -beauty, culminating again in splendour. Then fresh religious ideas and -conditions engrafted their symbolism and traditions upon the style, thus -forming a new period in the history of art.</p> - -<p>Ornament is the expression of the people or of the priestcraft, and in -its primitive state was used symbolically. The ornament of Polynesia and -Melanesia probably shows this primitive state of ornamentation. Isolated -as these islanders were from the influence of Eastern or Western art, -and with but little communication among the various islands, the -ornamental art of these people has its own traditions and -characteristics, each province or group of islands showing different -ideas and details in proportion to its culture or state of civilization, -New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia the lowest, -while with the Marquesans the ornament is almost pure picture writings. -The illustration of the beautiful paddle in the Heape collection, with -its geometric ornamentation, shows the continuity and ornamental -development of the representation of the human figure, which was -originally chosen by the priesthood for its significance or divinity.</p> - -<p>In Europe and Asia all trace of this primitive stage has ceased to -exist. The development and continuity of ideas and customs, the -traditions of style and craftsmanship carried on through many centuries -of the world’s history have obliterated the early or primitive style of -ornament, chosen first for its significance or emblematic character.</p> - -<p>Some remarkable examples of pottery and woven textile fabrics have been -recently found in the ancient cemeteries of Peru—relics of the -Incas—long anterior to the Spanish conquest. Many fine examples of -these woven textiles of cotton and wool are now in the South Kensington -museum, forming the Smithies collection, and, as in the ornament of -Polynesia, floral forms are entirely absent, the ornament consisting of -conventional representations of the human figure, with the owl, condor -and the toucan, mingled with the wave scroll and the fret, elements -doubtless chosen for their significance.</p> - -<p>Many beautiful illustrations could be chosen from the history of -ornament, showing this continuity and persistency of line and form and -its remarkable influence upon contemporary and succeeding races.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps the form and enrichment of the Architectural Capital offer one -of the most interesting and instructive fields of study in the history -and evolution of architecture. The remarkable persistency of the capital -as a distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many -centuries, though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial -influences, yet still preserving a remarkable similarity of form and -enrichment among the various nations of the earth.</p> - -<p>The function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the columns -the weight of the entablature or archivolt, and the beauty and -appropriateness of the capital depends:—</p> - -<p>First, upon this functional treatment of strength;</p> - -<p>Second, upon the beauty of profile or mass;</p> - -<p>Third, upon the enrichment and proportion of the capital.</p> - -<p>The dignified Doric capital of the Greeks illustrates these functions -and conditions by its perfect adaptability, simple functional strength, -beauty of profile, appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and -harmony of parts, qualities which are essential to beauty of -architecture. In the Parthenon, B.C. 438, we have the finest treatment -of this capital—a treatment full of dignity, reserve, and unison of -profile (<a href="#plt_6">plate 6</a>). The many examples of the Doric Order in Greece and -her colonies attest to the esteem in which this order was held by the -Greeks. The Indian capital (<a href="#plt_24">plate 24</a>) exhibits the same functional -treatment by the use of brackets or modillions, which undoubtedly are a -survival of a wooden construction, and which are typical of Eastern -architecture.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 156px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_126_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_126_sml.jpg" width="156" height="173" alt="Image unavailable: EGYPTIAN CAPITAL FROM PHILÆ." /></a> -</div> - -<p>The remarkable persistency of the profile, and enrichment of the capital -extending through a period of 4,000 years, may be illustrated by a -series of diagrams of typical examples. The profile of the capital has -not varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here given, and the -enrichment of the bell is remarkable for its persistency, though -differentiated by racial influences. The Corinthian capital, with its -volutes and acanthus foliage, is but the architectural continuity of the -Egyptian capital. The only pure Greek example of this order is from the -monument of Lysicrates, but the Romans continued the tradition, -assimilating and elaborating until they produced the magnificent -capitals of the portico of the Pantheon and the temple of Castor and -Pollux. In these examples the leaves are arranged in series of two rows -of eight leaves each, the volutes springing from sheaths and stems -between the leaves, which support the angle of the volutes. The example -of early French Gothic has similar characteristics and illustrates the -continuity of style.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span></p> - -<p>The Ionic capital, though one of the most persistent in the history of -architecture, never reached the architectonic perfection of other -capitals. This was undoubtedly owing to the wooden origin being -incompatible with the necessities of stone and marble. There is a want -of unity between the volutes and ovolo of the capital; in brief, it has -neither coherence nor harmony of parts. The exquisite craftsmanship of -the capitals of the Erectheum, with their anthemion enrichment of the -greatest purity, the beauty of the ovolo and the subtility of the -volutes compensates to some extent for the lack of unison (<a href="#plt_6">plate 6</a>). The -enrichment of the architectural capital is no doubt a survival of the -primitive custom of binding floral forms round the simple functional -capital, these forms being afterwards perpetuated in stone or marble.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_127a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_127a_sml.jpg" width="185" height="151" alt="Image unavailable: CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE PANTHEON ROME." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE PANTHEON ROME.</span> -</div> - -<p>In early Corinthian examples these floral forms were frequently of -beaten metal, which, in turn, gave place to the beautiful marble foliage -of the Greeks and Romans.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 189px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_127b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_127b_sml.jpg" width="189" height="171" alt="Image unavailable: FRENCH. EARLY GOTHIC." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">FRENCH. EARLY GOTHIC.</span> -</div> - -<p>That the ancients used metal work in their capitals we have abundant -proof. In the descriptions of the building of Solomon’s Temple we read -of “Two chapiters of molten brass to set upon the pillars, and nets of -chequer work and wreath of chain work to set upon the top of the -pillars.”</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_127c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_127c_sml.jpg" width="163" height="154" alt="Image unavailable: COMPOSITE CAPITAL FROM POMPEII." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">COMPOSITE CAPITAL FROM POMPEII.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Composite capital is deficient in coherence and unity of parts, -having the same defects as its prototype the Ionic. The annexed -illustration from Ancient Rome gives an unusual treatment by the -introduction of the human figure in the centre of the face of the -capital.</p> - -<p>The Byzantine capital differs from those of the Greeks and Romans in its -marked symbolism of detail and the prevalence of the cushion form. -Functionally, this type of capital is admirable, yet it lacks the -vigorous upward growth of the Egyptian and early Gothic capitals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span></p> - -<p>The Byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity and variety of -detail, such as interlacing circles and crosses with their mystic -symbolism, basket work, chequered details, and the traditional sharp -acanthus foliage of the Greeks.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_128a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_128a_sml.jpg" width="146" height="138" alt="Image unavailable: BYZANTINE. ST MARKS VENICE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">BYZANTINE. S<sup>T</sup> MARKS VENICE.</span> -</div> - -<p>These features are seen in the greatest profusion at S. Sophia at -Constantinople; S. Apollinare and S. Vitale at Ravenna, and S. Marco at -Venice. These splendid capitals of a splendid period are exceedingly -beautiful in fertile inventiveness of enrichment, and show the -assimilative power of the Byzantine craftsmen. The abundant use of -chequer work, wreaths of chain work, and of lily work in Byzantine -capitals, many of which are figured in Ruskin’s “Stones of Venice,” show -the continuity of style and tradition in architecture.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_128b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_128b_sml.jpg" width="129" height="109" alt="Image unavailable: BYZANTINE ST MARKS VENICE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">BYZANTINE S<sup>T</sup> MARKS VENICE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Byzantine capitals have the square abacus, usually consisting of a -simple fillet and chamfer enriched with the billet, dentil or star -pattern. The Dosseret, a singular adjunct to the capital was introduced -during this period; it was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed upon -the abacus of the capital to give additional height (<a href="#plt_11">plate 11</a>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_128c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_128c_sml.jpg" width="161" height="125" alt="Image unavailable: BYZANTINE CAPITAL ST MARK’S VENICE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">BYZANTINE CAPITAL S<sup>T</sup> MARK’S VENICE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Byzantine influence is seen upon the Norman capitals with their -square abacus of fillet and chamfer, and the cushion profile of capital. -Some remarkable Siculo-Norman capitals are in the cloisters of the -Benedictine Monastery of Monreale in Sicily, <small>A.D.</small> 1174-1184. The great -fertility of inventiveness in the 200 capitals, their storiation, the -intermingling of figures, birds and animals with the classic and -Byzantine foliage makes this cloister one of the most remarkable in the -history of the world. The Arabian capital, which frequently shows the -traditional volute, differs from the typical bell-shaped form in its -marked squareness of profile with flat or low reliefs enriched with -colour.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_128d_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_128d_sml.jpg" width="164" height="153" alt="Image unavailable: FRENCH ROMANESQUE CAPITAL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">FRENCH ROMANESQUE CAPITAL.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Early Gothic capital is one of the most vigorous and beautiful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span> The -perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving, the significance -of its detail as emblematic of the Trinity, the spiral growth of its -foliage and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are the chief -characteristics of this period. Lacking, perhaps, the delicacy or -variety of detail of the Byzantine period or the later Gothic work, it -excelled them in the appropriateness of its enrichment, which is more -beautiful in the Early English examples with their circular abacus than -in contemporary French capitals where the square abacus was prevalent. -The transition from the circular column to the square abacus was always -felt to be a difficulty, and was rarely overcome, but in the circular -abacus of the Early English capitals we have a break in the continuity -of the style of the capital.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 204px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_129a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_129a_sml.jpg" width="204" height="149" alt="Image unavailable: CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS MONTREALE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS MONTREALE.</span> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_129b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_129b_sml.jpg" width="201" height="148" alt="Image unavailable: CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS OF MONTREALE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS OF MONTREALE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The English foliage of this period differs from the French in the use of -a deep mid-rib and simple trefoil leaf. The French examples have a less -pronounced mid-rib, and the leaf is convex in form and divided into -three lobes, and the foliage adheres more closely to the bell, -consequently the brilliant play of light and shade which is so -characteristic of Early English work, is generally absent from French -examples (fig. 12, <a href="#plt_16">plate 16</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_129c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_129c_sml.jpg" width="321" height="172" alt="Image unavailable: EARLY ENGLISH CAPITAL ELY CATHEDRAL." /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 133px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_130a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_130a_sml.jpg" width="133" height="127" alt="Image unavailable: SOUTH-WESTMINSTER DECORATED CAPITALS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SOUTH-WESTMINSTER DECORATED CAPITALS</span> -</div> - -<p>The Decorated Gothic capitals differ essentially from those of the Early -Gothic period, a more natural type of foliage being used, consisting of -the briony, maple, mallow and oak. This foliage was carved with singular -delicacy of touch and grace of profile, and is beautiful in its -modelling and play of light and shade, yet frequently the capitals are -trivial in conception and arrangement, lacking that architectonic -character which is so essential to all architectural constructive -features.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> -<a href="images/image_pg_130b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_130b_sml.jpg" width="177" height="130" alt="Image unavailable: RENASCENCE CAPITAL VENICE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">RENASCENCE CAPITAL VENICE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The perpendicular or late Gothic capital was usually octagonal in form -with square conventional foliage of the vine, showing a marked decadence -in tradition and craftsmanship (fig. 9, <a href="#plt_17">plate 17</a>).</p> - -<p>The Renascence capital was frequently marked by a fine feeling for -profile, splendid craftsmanship, diversity of enrichment, and vitality -of conception, more especially in Italy, where the tradition of -architecture culminated in the works of such remarkable men as Leon -Battista Alberti, Bramante, Baldassare Peruzzi, San Micheli, Serlio, -Palladio, and Sansovenio. The tradition was worthily carried on in -France by Pierre Lescot, Jean Bullant, Philipert de Lorme, and De -Brosse, and in England by Inigo Jones, Wren, and Chambers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_130c_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_130c_sml.jpg" width="350" height="179" alt="Image unavailable: ROMAN SCROLL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ROMAN SCROLL.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span></p> - -<h2 class="sect"><a name="TERMS_USED_IN_ORNAMENTAL_ART" id="TERMS_USED_IN_ORNAMENTAL_ART"></a>TERMS USED IN<br /> ORNAMENTAL<br /> ART.</h2> - -<p>Ornament is the means by which Beauty or Significance is imparted to -Utility. It is either Symbolical or Aesthetic. Symbolic ornament -consists of elements or forms chosen for the sake of their -<i>significance</i>—Aesthetic ornament consists of forms or elements chosen -for their <i>Beauty</i> alone, or their power of appealing to the senses.</p> - -<p>Of the historic styles of ornament, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Byzantine, -Scandinavian, Persian, Indian, Gothic, Polynesian, and much of the -Chinese and Japanese are symbolical, having elements and ornamental -details chosen for their significance; while in the Greek, Roman, and -Renascence ornament, the purely aesthetic motive is characteristic.</p> - -<p>Ornament, again, may be natural or conventional—Imitative or Inventive. -The terms “natural” and “imitative” have the same significance—viz., -the exact copying of natural forms, so that they become principal—not -secondary as perfect ornament should be. Conventional ornament is the -adaptation of natural forms to ornamental and technical requirements, -and is seen in its greatest beauty in the frank treatment by the Indians -and Persians of their flora and fauna for the decorative enrichment of -their textile fabrics, pottery, and jewellery.</p> - -<p>Inventive ornament is that which consists of elements not derived from -any natural source; the Moresque style is a good example of this type.</p> - -<p>The <i>elements</i> of ornament are the details or forms chosen for -ornamental motives, and the <i>principals</i> of ornament are the arrangement -of these forms and details; they comprise repetition, alternation, -symmetry, radiation, balance, proportion, variety, eurythmy, contrast, -intersection, complication, fitness, and utility.</p> - -<p><i>Repetition</i> is the use of elements in a continuous series; -<i>Alternation</i> is the repetition of an element at intervals, with others -intervening; <i>Symmetry</i>: when the leading lines are equal or similar (or -reciprocal) on both sides; <i>Radiation</i>: when the lines spring from a -centre, for example, a bird’s wing and the flower of the daisy; -<i>Balance</i> and <i>Proportion</i>: when the relation and harmony of parts is -based upon natural laws; <i>Variety</i> implies difference in the details, -with respect to form or type; <i>Eurythmy</i> signifies rhythms or harmony in -ornament; <i>Contrast</i> is the arrangement in close proximity of colours or -forms of opposite characters, as the straight line with the curve, or -light with dark; <i>Intersection</i> is the crossing of the leading lines, -the Arabian, Moresque and Celtic styles are examples of this principle; -<i>Complication</i> is the effect produced by elements so arranged as to be -more or less difficult to trace with the eye alone: as in the Japanese -key and the Moresque star pattern. <i>Fitness</i> and <i>utility</i> as their -names imply are essentials in all good periods of ornamentation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/image_pg_132_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/image_pg_132_sml.jpg" width="501" height="381" alt="Image unavailable: ROMAN SCROLL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ROMAN SCROLL.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<h3>Text Books upon Architecture<br /> and Ornament.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="clear:both;"> -<tr><td align="left">Classic and Early Christian Architecture </td><td align="left"><i>Roger Smith</i>,</td><td align="left">5/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic and Renascence</td><td align="left"><i>Roger Smith</i>,</td><td align="left">5/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Glossary of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. Parker</i>,</td><td align="left">7/6</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Handbook of Architectural Styles</td><td align="left"><i>Rosengarten</i>,</td><td align="left">7/6</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Introduction to Gothic Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. Parker</i>,</td><td align="left">5/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Three Manuals of Gothic Ornament</td><td align="left"><i>J. Parker</i>, <i>each</i></td><td align="left">1/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Classic and Early Christian Sculpture</td><td align="left"><i>G. Redford</i>,</td><td align="left">5/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic and Renascence Sculpture</td><td align="left"><i>Leader Scott</i>,</td><td align="left">5/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Handbook of Greek Sculpture, 2 vols.</td><td align="left"><i>Ed. Gardner</i>,</td><td align="left">10/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Greek Art</td><td align="left"><i>Tarbell</i>,</td><td align="left">5/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Analysis of Ornament</td><td align="left"><i>J. Wornum</i>,</td><td align="left">8/-</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Handbook of Ornament</td><td align="left"><i>Meyer</i>,</td><td align="left">10/6</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>An excellent series of illustrated Handbooks upon the Industrial Arts by -writers of repute, is published by the Science and Art Department, and -may be obtained at the Bookstall of the South Kensington Museum, at a -cost of 1/-each part (paper covers), or they may be purchased through -Messrs. Chapman and Hall, at 2/6 each part, bound in cloth, they -include:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">The Industrial Arts of India</td><td align="left"><i>Sir G. Birdwood</i></td><td valign="middle" rowspan="10" class="blt">—each in two parts.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> Spain</td><td align="left"><i>Juan F. Riano</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> Denmark</td><td align="left"><i>J. J. Worsaae</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> Scandinavia</td><td align="left"><i>Hans Hildebrand</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Saracens of Egypt</td><td align="left"><i>Stanley Lane Poole</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Early Christian Art in Ireland</td><td align="left"><i>Margaret Stokes</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">English Earthenware</td><td align="left"><i>A. H. Church</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="ditto">”</span> Porcelain</td><td align="left"><i>A. H. Church</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">French Pottery</td><td align="left"><i>P. Gasnault & E. Garnier</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wrought Iron Work</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i> </td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"> </td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"> </td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bronzes</td><td align="left"><i>Drury E. Fortnum</i></td><td valign="middle" rowspan="11" class="blt">—complete in one part.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">College and Corporation Plate</td><td align="left"><i>Wilfred Cripps</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Furniture</td><td align="left"><i>J. H. Pollen</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gold and Silversmith’s Work</td><td align="left"><i>J. H. Pollen</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Glass</td><td align="left"><i>A. Nesbitt</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ivories</td><td align="left"><i>W. Maskell</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Japanese Pottery</td><td align="left"><i>A. W. Franks</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Maiolica</td><td align="left"><i>Drury E. Fortnum</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Persian Art</td><td align="left"><i>R. Murdoch Smith</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Textile Fabrics</td><td align="left"><i>Rev. Daniel Rock</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Tapestry</td><td align="left"><i>Alfred de Champeaux</i></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<h3>Works of Reference.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td colspan="2"> <span class="smcap">Architecture</span>:—</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Antiquities of Rome</td><td align="left"><i>Taylor & Cresy</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Antiquities of Athens</td><td align="left"><i>Stuart & Revett</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Analysis of Gothic Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>Brandon</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Architecture for General Readers</td><td align="left"><i>H. H. Statham</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Byzantine Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>Texies & Pullan</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Constantinople</td><td align="left"><i>Salzenberg</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Civil Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>Chambers</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Decorated Window Tracery</td><td align="left"><i>E. Sharpe</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Encyclopædia of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>Gwilt</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">English Renascence Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. A. Gotch</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic Mouldings</td><td align="left"><i>F. A. Paley</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>T. Rickman</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic Architecture in France</td><td align="left"><i>E. Corroyer</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic Architecture in Spain</td><td align="left"><i>G. E. Street</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gothic Foliage</td><td align="left"><i>J. K. Collings</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Handbook of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. Fergusson</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">History of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. Fergusson</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Indian and Eastern Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. Fergusson</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Mansions of England</td><td align="left"><i>J. Nash</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Old English Mansions</td><td align="left"><i>C. Richardson</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Orders of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>R. Phéne Spiers</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Orders of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>C. Norman</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Orders of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. M. Manch</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Spanish Renascence</td><td align="left"><i>D. N. Prentice</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Stones of Venice</td><td align="left"><i>J. Ruskin</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Seven Lamps of Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>J. Ruskin</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Seven Periods of Church Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>E. Sharpe</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"> <span class="smcap">Ornament and Sculpture</span>:—</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Art of the Old English Potter</td><td align="left"><i>L. M. Solon</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ancient Pottery</td><td align="left"><i>S. Birch</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Alphabets</td><td align="left"><i>E. Strange</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Alphabets</td><td align="left"><i>Lewis F. Day</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Basis of Design</td><td align="left"><i>Walter Crane</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fresco Decoration in Italy</td><td align="left"><i>L. Gruner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Grammar of Ornament</td><td align="left"><i>Owen Jones</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greek and Roman Sculpture</td><td align="left"><i>W. G. Perry</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Greek Vase Painting</td><td align="left"><i>Jane Harrison</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Glass Painting</td><td align="left"><i>C. Winston</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Stained Glass Windows</td><td align="left"><i>Lewis F. Day</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Handbook of Greek Archæology</td><td align="left"><i>A. S. Murray</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Primitive Greece</td><td align="left"><i>George Perrot and C. Chipiez</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Persia</td><td align="left"><i>George Perrot and C. Chipiez</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Phrygia</td><td align="left"><i>George Perrot and C. Chipiez</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Chaldea and Assyria</td><td align="left"><i>George Perrot and C. Chipiez</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Egypt</td><td align="left"><i>George Perrot and C. Chipiez</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="left">Keramic Art of Japan</td><td align="left"><i>Audsley & Bowles</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Nineveh</td><td align="left"><i>Layard</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ornamental Metal Work</td><td align="left"><i>Digby Wyatt</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ornamental Art</td><td align="left"><i>Gruner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ornamental Textiles</td><td align="left"><i>Fischbach</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Ornament of Textile Fabrics</td><td align="left"><i>Dupont Auberville</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Pompeii</td><td align="left"><i>Zahn</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Polychromatic Ornament</td><td align="left"><i>Racinet</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">The Alhambra</td><td align="left"><i>Owen Jones</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Alfred Stevens, his life and work</td><td align="left"><i>Hugh Stannus</i>.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Many excellent “<span class="smcap">Cantor Lectures</span>,” by experts, upon the practical -application of the Industrial Arts, will be found in the <i>Society of -Arts Journal</i>.</p> - -<p>The following Lectures may be studied with advantage:</p> -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">April, 1891</td><td align="left">Cloisonné</td><td align="left"><i>Clement Heaton</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feb., 1894</td><td align="left">Decorative Treatment of Artificial Foliage</td><td align="left"><i>Hugh Stannus</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">April, 1891</td><td align="left">Decorative Treatment of Natural Foliage</td><td align="left"><i>Hugh Stannus</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">June, 1897</td><td align="left">Delft Ware</td><td align="left"><i>J. W. L. Glaisher</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">March, 1891</td><td align="left">Enamels</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Jan., 1892</td><td align="left">Indian Art</td><td align="left"><i>Sir G. Birdwood</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feb., 1892</td><td align="left">Japanese Pottery</td><td align="left"><i>E. Hart</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feb., 1891</td><td align="left">Lithography</td><td align="left"><i>W. Simpson</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Jan., 1897</td><td align="left">Material and Design in Pottery</td><td align="left"><i>William Burton</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">April, 1891</td><td align="left">Plaster Work</td><td align="left"><i>A. Robinson</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feb., 1891</td><td align="left">Storiation</td><td align="left"><i>Hugh Stannus</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feb., 1891</td><td align="left">S’graffito</td><td align="left"><i>Heywood Sumner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">March, 1899</td><td align="left">Vitreous Enamels</td><td align="left"><i>C. Davenport</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feb., 1898</td><td align="left">Some Laws of Form in Applied Art</td><td align="left"><i>Hugh Stannus</i>.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>In the transactions of the Rochdale Literary Society for 1891 (<i>Aldine -Press</i>) is a most instructive and well-illustrated article on “The -Ornamental Art of Savage People,” by <i>Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe</i>, translated by -Mrs. H. C. March.</p> - -<p>The transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society -(1891) contains an excellent article upon “The Pagan Christian Overlap -in the North,” by <i>H. Colley March, M.D.</i></p> - -<p>The illustrated articles in the transactions of the Royal Institute of -British Architects, may also be studied with advantage, they include:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">1892 </td><td> Byzantine Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>George Aitchison</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1892</td><td> Casting in Metals</td><td align="left"><i>D. Graham, H. Longden & H. Singer</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1891</td><td> Decorative Plaster Work</td><td align="left"><i>G. Robinson, Heywood Sumner and Stephen Webb</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1897</td><td> Heraldry in English Mediæval Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>W. H. St. John Hope</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1897</td><td> Heraldry of the Renascence in England</td><td align="left"><i>Alfred Gotch</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1898</td><td> Heraldic Drawing</td><td align="left"><i>J. D. Crace</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1894</td><td> Mosaics</td><td align="left"><i>C. H. Harrison & J. C. Powell</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1898</td><td> Sculptured Columns of the Temple at Ephesus</td><td align="left"><i>A. S. Murray</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1891</td><td> Sculpture in relation to Architecture</td><td align="left"><i>G. Simonds</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1892</td><td> Stained Glass</td><td align="left"><i>H. Charpenter, J. Powell, H. Westlake and C. Heaton</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1891</td><td> Wrought Iron Work, Mediæval Period</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1891</td><td> Wrought Iron Work, Renascence Period</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3">Good articles are found in the <i>Magazine of Art</i>, they include:</td></tr> - -<tr><td align="left">1897</td><td align="left">Chippendale Furniture</td><td align="left"><i>C. Dempsey</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1893</td><td align="left">Design</td><td align="left"><i>Walter Crane</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1890</td><td align="left">Embroidered Bookcovers</td><td align="left"><i>S. E. Prideaux</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1896</td><td align="left">Ironwork</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1888</td><td align="left">Language of Line</td><td align="left"><i>Walter Crane</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1882-3</td><td align="left"> Stained Glass</td><td align="left"><i>Lewis F. Day</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1883</td><td align="left">Sheraton Furniture</td><td align="left"><i>E. Balfour</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1891</td><td align="left">The Use of Metals in Bookbinding</td><td align="left"><i>S. E. Prideaux</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1884</td><td align="left">The Ficoroni Dressing Case</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1896</td><td align="left">The Influence of Architecture Style upon Design</td><td align="left"><i>Walter Crane</i>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3">In the <i>Art Journal</i>, there is:</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1888</td><td> Ancient Glass in the British Museum</td><td align="left"><i>Henry Wallis</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1889</td><td> Antique Glass in the Naples Museum</td><td align="left"><i>Henry Wallis</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1888</td><td> Textile Fabrics in the South Kensington Museum</td><td align="left"><i>Gilbert R. Redgrave</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1887</td><td> Meaning in Ornament</td><td align="left"><i>Lewis F. Day</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1888</td><td> The Boulaq Museum</td><td align="left"><i>Henry Wallis</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3">In the <i>Portfolio</i>, there is:</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1893</td><td> Old English Pottery</td><td align="left"><i>A. H. Church</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1893</td><td> English Enamels</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1893</td><td> English Bookbinding</td><td align="left"><i>W. Y. Fletcher</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1894</td><td> Bookbinding in France</td><td align="left"><i>W. Y. Fletcher</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1894</td><td> Italian Book Illustrations</td><td align="left"><i>A. W. Pollard</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1894</td><td> Josiah Wedgwood</td><td align="left"><i>A. H. Church</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1898</td><td> Greek Bronzes</td><td align="left"><i>A. S. Murray</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1897</td><td> Armour in England</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1898</td><td> Foreign Armour in England</td><td align="left"><i>J. Starkie Gardner</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3">In the <i>Builder</i>, there are the Royal Academy Lectures upon Architecture given by <i>George Aitchison, R.A.</i> They include:</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1891</td><td> Roman Architecture.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1892</td><td> Saracenic Architecture.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1893</td><td> Byzantine Architecture.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1894</td><td> Renascence Architecture.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1896</td><td> Romanesque Architecture.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index.</h2> - -<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></p> - -<p> - -<a name="A" id="A"></a>Alberti, Leon, Battista, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Aldus Manutius, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Alhambra, <a href="#page_63">63</a><br /> - -Amasis, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Anthemion, <a href="#page_7">7-17</a><br /> - -Andreani, Andrea, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Apollodorus, <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Arabesque, <a href="#page_53">53-54</a><br /> - -Arch of Septimus Severus, <a href="#page_21">21</a><br /> - -Architecture<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capitals, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Composite, <a href="#page_22">22</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_10">10</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_39">39-46</a>-<a href="#page_130">130</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doric, <a href="#page_9">9</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early Gothic, <a href="#page_38">38-45</a>-<a href="#page_129">129</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English Renascence, <a href="#page_60">60</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Renascence, <a href="#page_58">58</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_9">9</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renascence, <a href="#page_56">56</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perpendicular Gothic, <a href="#page_46">46</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tuscan, <a href="#page_22">22</a></span><br /> - -Atrium, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="B" id="B"></a>Baccio d’Agnolo, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Balducco di Pisa, <a href="#page_50">50</a><br /> - -Baptistery at Pisa, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -Baptistery at Florence, <a href="#page_50">50-103</a><br /> - -Basilica of Trajan, <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Black Figure Vases, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Boule, André, <a href="#page_59">59-107</a><br /> - -Bramante, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Bronzes, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br /> - -Brunelleschi, <a href="#page_51">51-57</a><br /> - -Buen Retiro, <a href="#page_83">83</a><br /> - -Bullant, Jean, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Busti, Agostino, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="C" id="C"></a>Cachrylion, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Cambio, Arnolfo di, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -Caradosso, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Caryatides, <a href="#page_9">9</a><br /> - -Castor Ware, <a href="#page_80">80</a><br /> - -Cellini, Benvenuto, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Celtic Ornament, <a href="#page_35">35</a><br /> - -Ceramic Art, <a href="#page_78">78</a><br /> - -Chairs, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br /> - -Chaldea, <a href="#page_7">7</a><br /> - -Champlevé Enamels, <a href="#page_35">35</a><br /> - -Chinese Ornament, <a href="#page_71">71</a><br /> - -Chippendale, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br /> - -Chryselephantine Sculpture, <a href="#page_73">73</a><br /> - -Cinque-Cento Ornament, <a href="#page_49">49-52</a><br /> - -Classification of Temples, <a href="#page_11">11</a><br /> - -Classification of Gothic Architecture, <a href="#page_36">36</a><br /> - -Cloisonné Enamels, <a href="#page_91">91</a><br /> - -Coleone, Bartolomeo, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br /> - -Cologne Pots, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -Column of Trajan, <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Column of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Compluvium, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Continuity of Style, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Crockets, <a href="#page_45">45</a><br /> - -Cronaca, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="D" id="D"></a>Decorated Gothic Details, <a href="#page_46">46</a><br /> - -Delft Ware, <a href="#page_80">80</a><br /> - -Dipylon Ware, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Domus, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Donatello, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Duris, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="E" id="E"></a>Early Gothic Details, <a href="#page_45">45</a><br /> - -Earthenware, <a href="#page_79">79</a><br /> - -Egyptian Ornament, <a href="#page_5">5</a><br /> - -Elgin Marbles, <a href="#page_13">13</a><br /> - -Elizabethan Ornament, <a href="#page_60">60</a><br /> - -Elizabethan Mansions, <a href="#page_60">60</a><br /> - -Enamels, <a href="#page_91">91</a><br /> - -English Cathedrals, <a href="#page_40">40</a><br /> - -English Renascence, <a href="#page_60">60</a><br /> - -Epiktetos, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Euphronios, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Exekias, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="F" id="F"></a>Fauces, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Flaxman, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -Fontana, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Fontano, Orazio, <a href="#page_87">87</a><br /> - -French Cathedrals, <a href="#page_40">40</a><br /> - -Frets, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Frieze of the Parthenon, <a href="#page_15">15</a><br /> - -Frieze at Phigaleia, <a href="#page_15">15</a><br /> - -Frieze at Pergamos, <a href="#page_16">16</a><br /> - -Frieze from Susa, <a href="#page_17">17</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="G" id="G"></a>Georgio, Maestro, <a href="#page_87">87-88</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span><br /> - -Ghiberti, Lorenzo, <a href="#page_50">50-103</a><br /> - -Giotto, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -Glass, <a href="#page_95">95-97</a><br /> - -Gobelin Tapestry, <a href="#page_59">59</a><br /> - -Goldsmith’s Work, <a href="#page_101">101</a><br /> - -Gothic Architecture, <a href="#page_36">36</a><br /> - -Goujon, Jean, <a href="#page_59">59-107</a><br /> - -Gouthière, <a href="#page_59">59-107</a><br /> - -Greek Architecture, <a href="#page_9">9</a><br /> - -Greek Ceramics, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Grisaille Enamel, <a href="#page_93">93</a><br /> - -Grisaille Glass, <a href="#page_98">98</a><br /> - -Grinling Gibbons, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Grolier, <a href="#page_59">59</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="H" id="H"></a>Henri Deux Period, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Henri Deux Pottery, <a href="#page_81">81</a><br /> - -Henri Quatre, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Hepplewhite, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Hieron, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Hispano-Moresque Pottery, <a href="#page_87">87</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="I" id="I"></a>Impluvium, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Indian Ornament, <a href="#page_69">69</a><br /> - -Insular, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Ivories, <a href="#page_73">73</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="J" id="J"></a>Jacobean, <a href="#page_60">60</a><br /> - -Japanese Ornament, <a href="#page_71">71</a><br /> - -Jean, Juste, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Jeweller’s Enamel, <a href="#page_92">92</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="L" id="L"></a>Lacunaria, <a href="#page_25">25</a><br /> - -Lancet Period, <a href="#page_38">38</a><br /> - -Leoni, Lione, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Leoni, Pompeoni, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Lescot, Pierre, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Lombardo, Pietro, Tullio and Antonio, <a href="#page_54">54-56</a><br /> - -Lotus, <a href="#page_7">7</a><br /> - -Louis Quatorze, <a href="#page_59">59</a><br /> - -Louis Quinze, <a href="#page_59">59</a><br /> - -Louis Seize, <a href="#page_59">59</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="M" id="M"></a>Maiolica, <a href="#page_87">87</a><br /> - -Mantegna, Andrea, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Marquetry, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Matteo Civitali, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Mausoleum, <a href="#page_16">16</a><br /> - -Melanesia, <a href="#page_3">3</a><br /> - -Michel Angelo, <a href="#page_52">52</a><br /> - -Michelozzi, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Mino da Fiesole, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Mosaics, <a href="#page_75">75</a><br /> - -Mycenæ or Colonial Ware, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="N" id="N"></a>Nicosthenes, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Nineveh, <a href="#page_7">7</a><br /> - -Norman Architecture, <a href="#page_37">37</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="O" id="O"></a>Oiron Pottery, <a href="#page_81">81</a><br /> - -Opus Tesselatum, <a href="#page_75">75</a><br /> - -Opus Lithostratum, <a href="#page_75">75</a><br /> - -Opus Miserum, <a href="#page_75">75</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="P" id="P"></a>Painted Enamels, <a href="#page_91">91</a><br /> - -Palaces in Italy, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Palissy, Bernard, <a href="#page_81">81</a><br /> - -Palladio, Andrea, <a href="#page_56">56</a><br /> - -Pamphæios, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Pantheon, <a href="#page_22">22</a><br /> - -Pannitz, Arnold, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Parthenon, <a href="#page_13">13</a><br /> - -Pastorino, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Patera, <a href="#page_7">7</a><br /> - -Penni, Francesco, <a href="#page_53">53</a><br /> - -Perino del Vaga, <a href="#page_53">53</a><br /> - -Perpendicular Gothic, <a href="#page_46">46</a><br /> - -Persian Ornament, <a href="#page_65">65</a><br /> - -Peristylium, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Pethenos, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Peruvian Textiles, <a href="#page_118">118</a><br /> - -Peruzzi, Baldassare, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Phaleron Ware, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Phidias, <a href="#page_13">13</a><br /> - -Pisanello, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Pisano, Nicolo, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Giovanni, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Andrea, <a href="#page_50">50</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Vittore, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Plaster Work, <a href="#page_61">61</a><br /> - -Plique à Jour, <a href="#page_92">92</a><br /> - -Polynesian Ornament, <a href="#page_2">2</a><br /> - -Pompeian Ornament, <a href="#page_29">29</a><br /> - -Porcelain, <a href="#page_79">79-83</a><br /> - -Portland Vase, <a href="#page_95">95</a><br /> - -Primaticcio, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Printing in Italy, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Pythos, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Q" id="Q"></a>Quercia, Jacopo della, <a href="#page_50">50</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="R" id="R"></a>Raphael, <a href="#page_53">53</a><br /> - -Red Figured Ware, 77<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span><br /> - -Renascence Ornament, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -Renascence Palaces, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Rhodian Pottery, <a href="#page_80">80</a><br /> - -Riesener, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Robbia, Luca della, <a href="#page_51">51-87</a>-<a href="#page_90">90</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Andrea ”, <a href="#page_51">51-90</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Giovanni ”, <a href="#page_51">51-90</a><br /> - -Roentgen, David, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Romano, Giulio, <a href="#page_53">53-54</a><br /> - -Roman Ornament, <a href="#page_25">25</a><br /> - -Rosette, <a href="#page_7">7</a><br /> - -Rossellini, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Rouen Pottery, <a href="#page_81">81</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="S" id="S"></a>Samian Ware, <a href="#page_80">80</a><br /> - -Sangallo, Antonio, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Giuliano, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Sansovino, Andrea, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -<span class="ditto">”</span> Jacopo, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Scandinavian Ornament, <a href="#page_33">33</a><br /> - -Serlio, <a href="#page_56">56</a><br /> - -Settignano, Desiderio da, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Sgraffito, <a href="#page_87">87</a><br /> - -Sheraton, Thomas, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Sicilian Fabrics, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br /> - -Silversmith’s Work, <a href="#page_101">101</a><br /> - -Sperandio, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Stained Glass, <a href="#page_97">97</a><br /> - -Stiacciato, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Stoneware, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -St. Mark’s, <a href="#page_31">31</a><br /> - -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“ Apollinare Nuovo, <a href="#page_31">31</a></span><br /> - -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“ “ in Classe, <a href="#page_31">31</a></span><br /> - -St. Sophia, <a href="#page_31">31</a><br /> - -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“ Vitale, <a href="#page_31">31</a></span><br /> - -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“ Paul’s, <a href="#page_61">61</a></span><br /> - -Sweynheym, Conrad, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="T" id="T"></a>Tablinum, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Tapestry, <a href="#page_118">118</a><br /> - -Terra Cotta, <a href="#page_89">89</a><br /> - -Terms used in Ornamental Art, <a href="#page_131">131</a><br /> - -Textile Fabrics, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br /> - -Theatre of Marcellus, <a href="#page_21">21</a><br /> - -Thermæ, <a href="#page_25">25</a><br /> - -Tijon, Jean, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -Toft, Thomas, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -Torrigiano, <a href="#page_60">60</a><br /> - -Trajan, <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Trecento, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -Triforium, <a href="#page_41">41</a><br /> - -Triclinium, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="U" id="U"></a>Udine, Giovanni da, <a href="#page_53">53</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="V" id="V"></a>Verrocchio, Andrea del, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Vestibule, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Vignola, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Vincentine, <a href="#page_51">51</a><br /> - -Viridarium, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Vitruvius, <a href="#page_56">56</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="W" id="W"></a>Watteau, <a href="#page_59">59</a><br /> - -Wedgwood, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -Well-heads, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Wheildon, Thomas, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -Wrought Iron, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Z" id="Z"></a>Zormorpic Ornament, <a href="#page_35">35</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> </p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="c"> -<i>A LIST OF STANDARD BOOKS</i><br /> -<br /> -ON<br /> - -<big><big><big>ARCHITECTURE</big></big></big><br /> -<br /> -AND<br /> - -<big><big><big>THE DECORATIVE ARTS</big></big></big><br /> -<br /> -PUBLISHED BY<br /> - -<b><big>B. T. BATSFORD,</big><br /> -94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.</b><br /> -<br /> -Forwarded Carriage Paid at the Discount Prices affixed.<br /> -</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>NATURE IN ORNAMENT. By <span class="smcap">Lewis F. Day</span>. With 123 full-page Plates and -192 Illustrations in the Text. Third Edition, revised (Fifth -Thousand). Thick crown 8vo, in handsome cloth binding, richly gilt, -from a special design by the Author. Price 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 10<i>s.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—I. Introductory. II. Ornament in Nature. III. Nature in -Ornament. IV. The Simplification of Natural Forms. V. The -Elaboration of Natural Forms. VI. Consistency in the Modification -of Nature. VII. Parallel Renderings. VIII. More Parallels. IX. -Tradition in Design. X. Treatment. XI. Animals in Ornament. XII. -The Element of the Grotesque. XIII. Still Life in Ornament. XIV. -Symbolic Ornament.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Amongst the best of our few good ornamental designers is Mr. Lewis -F. Day, who is the author of several books on ornamental art. -‘Nature in Ornament’ is the latest of these, and is probably the -best. The treatise should be in the hands of every student of -ornamental design. It is profusely and admirably illustrated, and -well printed.”—<i>Magazine of Art.</i></p> - -<p>“A book more beautiful for its illustrations, or one more helpful -to students of art, can hardly be imagined.”—<i>Queen.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>SOME PRINCIPLES OF EVERY DAY ART.—<span class="smcap">Introductory Chapters on the -Arts not Fine.</span> Forming a Prefatory Volume to the Series of Text -Books. Second Edition (Fourth Thousand), revised, containing 70 -Illustrations. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 3<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Authoritative as coming from a writer whose mastery of the -subjects is not to be disputed, and who is generous in imparting -the knowledge he acquired with difficulty. Mr. Day has taken much -trouble with the new edition.”—<i>Architect.</i></p> - -<p>“A good artist, and a sound thinker, Mr. Day has produced a book of -sterling value.”—<i>Magazine of Art.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE ANATOMY OF PATTERN.—Fourth Edition (Ninth Thousand), revised, -with 41 full-page Illustrations. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3<i>s.</i> -6<i>d.</i> Net 3<i>s.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—I. Introductory. II. Pattern Dissections. III. Practical -Pattern Planning. IV. The “Drop” Pattern. V. Skeleton Plans. VI. -Appropriate Pattern.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“ ... There are few men who know the science of their profession -better or can teach it as well as Mr. Lewis Day; few also who are -more gifted as practical decorators; and in anatomising pattern in -the way he has done in this manual—a way beautiful as well as -useful—he has performed a service not only to the students of his -profession, but also to the public.”—<i>Academy.</i></p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE PLANNING OF ORNAMENT.—Third Edition (Fifth Thousand), further -revised, with 41 full-page Illustrations, many of which have been -re-drawn. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 3<i>s.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—I. Introductory. II. The use of the Border. III. Within -the Border. IV. Some Alternatives in Design. V. On the Filling of -the Circle and other Shapes. VI. Order and Accident.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Contains many apt and well-drawn illustrations; it is a highly -comprehensive, compact, and intelligent treatise on a subject which -is more difficult to treat than outsiders are likely to think. It -is a capital little book, from which no tyro (it is addressed to -improvable minds) can avoid gaining a good deal.”—<i>Athenæum.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.—Third Edition (Sixth Thousand), -further revised, with 48 full-page Illustrations and 7 Woodcuts in -the Text. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—I. The Rationale of the Conventional. II. What is -implied by Repetition. III. Where to stop in Ornament. IV. Style -and Handicraft. V. The Teaching of the Tool. VI. Some -Superstitions.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“A most worthy supplement to the former work, and a distinct gain -to the art student who has already applied his art knowledge in a -practical manner, or who hopes yet to do so.”—<i>Science and Art.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>ORNAMENTAL DESIGN.—Comprising the Three Books, “<span class="smcap">Anatomy of -Pattern</span>,” “<span class="smcap">Planning of Ornament</span>,” and “<span class="smcap">Application of Ornament</span>,” -handsomely bound in one volume, cloth gilt. Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net -8<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>WINDOWS.—A BOOK ABOUT STAINED AND PAINTED GLASS. By <span class="smcap">Lewis F. Day</span>. -<span class="smcap">Book I.</span>, “<span class="smcap">The Course of Craftsmanship</span>”; <span class="smcap">Book II.</span>, “<span class="smcap">The Course of -Design</span>”; <span class="smcap">Book III.</span>, “<span class="smcap">By the Way</span>.” Containing 410 pages, including -50 full-page Plates, and upwards of 200 Illustrations in the Text, -all of Old Examples. Large 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 21<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Contains a more complete popular account—technical and -historical—of stained and painted glass than has previously -appeared in this country.”—<i>The Times.</i></p> - -<p>“The book is a masterpiece in its way ... amply illustrated and -carefully printed; it will long remain an authority on its -subject.”—<i>The Art Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“All for whom the subject of stained glass possesses an interest -and a charm, will peruse these pages with pleasure and -profit.”—<i>The Morning Post.</i></p> - -<p>“Mr. Day has done a worthy piece of work in more than his usual -admirable manner ... the illustrations are all good and some the -best black-and-white drawings of stained glass yet produced.”—<i>The -Studio.</i></p></div> - -<p class="c"><i>In Preparation. To be published shortly.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A HANDBOOK OF EMBROIDERY.—By <span class="smcap">Lewis F. Day</span> and <span class="smcap">Miss Mary Buckle</span>. -Being a handbook on the Art for Designers, Needleworkers, Students, -Teachers, &c. Both artistic and practical sides of the subject are -thoroughly treated, and the work is illustrated with Photographs of -Stitches, and Historic Examples, &c.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span></p> - -<p><i>Now published, the most handy, useful, and comprehensive work on the -subject.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>ALPHABETS, OLD AND NEW.—Containing 150 complete Alphabets, 30 -Series of Numerals, Numerous Facsimiles of Ancient Dates. Selected -and arranged by <span class="smcap">Lewis F. Day</span>. Preceded by a short account of the -Development of the Alphabet. With Modern Examples specially -designed by <span class="smcap">Walter Crane</span>, <span class="smcap">Patten Wilson</span>, <span class="smcap">A. Beresford Pite</span>, the -Author, and others. Crown 8vo, art linen. Second Impression, -completing Fifth Thousand. Price 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Mr. Day’s explanation of the growth of form in letters is -particularly valuable.... Many excellent alphabets are given in -illustration of his remarks.”—<i>The Studio.</i></p> - -<p>“Every one who employs practical lettering will be grateful for -‘Alphabets, Old and New.’ Mr. Day has written a scholarly and pithy -introduction, and contributes some beautiful alphabets of his own -design.”—<i>The Art Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“A practical resumé of all that is to be known on the subject, -concisely and clearly stated.”—<i>St. James’s Gazette.</i></p> - -<p>“It goes without saying that whatever Mr. Batsford publishes and -Mr. Day has to do with is presented in a good artistic form, -complete, and wherever that is possible, graceful.”—<i>The -Athenæum.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A HANDBOOK OF ORNAMENT.—With 300 Plates, containing about 3,000 -Illustrations of the Elements and Application of Decoration to -Objects. By <span class="smcap">F. S. Meyer</span>, Professor at the School of Applied Art, -Karlsruhe. Second English Edition, revised by <span class="smcap">Hugh Stannus</span>, -F.R.I.B.A., Lecturer on Applied Art at the Royal College of Art, -South Kensington. Thick 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top. Price 12<i>s.</i> -6<i>d.</i> Net 10<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“A library, a museum, an encyclopædia, and an art school in one. To -rival it as a book of reference, one must fill a book case. The -quality of the drawings is unusually high, the choice of examples -is singularly good.... The work is practically an epitome of a -hundred works on Design.”—<i>Studio.</i></p> - -<p>“The author’s acquaintance with ornament amazes, and his three -thousand subjects are gleaned from the finest which the world -affords. As a treasury of ornament drawn to scale in all styles, -and derived from genuine concrete objects, we have nothing in -England which will not appear as poverty-stricken as compared with -Professor Meyer’s book.”—<i>Architect.</i></p> - -<p>“The book is a mine of wealth even to an ordinary reader, while to -the student of art and archæology it is simply indispensable as a -reference book. We know of no one work of its kind that approaches -it for comprehensiveness and historical accuracy.”—<i>Science and -Art.</i></p></div></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE HISTORIC STYLES OF ORNAMENT.—Containing 1,500 examples from -all countries and all periods, exhibited on 100 Plates, mostly -printed in gold and colours. With historical and descriptive text -translated from the German of <span class="smcap">H. Dolmetsch</span>. Folio, handsomely bound -in cloth, gilt. Price £1 5<i>s.</i> net.</p> -</div> -<div class="blockquot"><p>This work has been designed to serve as a practical guide for the -purpose of showing the development of Ornament, and the application -of colour to it in various countries through the epochs of history. -The work illustrates not only Flat Ornament, but also many -<span class="smcap">Decorative Objects</span>, such as <span class="smcap">Metal-Work</span>, <span class="smcap">Pottery and Porcelain</span>, -<span class="smcap">Lace</span>, <span class="smcap">Enamel</span>, <span class="smcap">Mosaic</span>, <span class="smcap">Illumination</span>, <span class="smcap">Stained Glass</span>, <span class="smcap">Jewellery</span>, -<span class="smcap">Bookbinding</span>, &c. showing the application of Ornament to Industrial -Art.</p></div> - -<p class="c"><i>A small remainder, just reduced in price.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>ANIMALS IN ORNAMENT.—By Professor <span class="smcap">G. Sturm</span>. Containing 30 large -Collotype Plates, printed in tint, of Designs suitable for Friezes, -Panels, Borders, Wall-papers, Carving, and all kinds of Surface -Decoration, &c. Large folio in portfolio. Price 18<i>s.</i> net -(published £1 10<i>s.</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A new and useful series of clever designs, showing how animal form -may be adapted to decorative purposes with good effect.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A HANDBOOK OF ART SMITHING.—For the use of Practical Smiths, -Designers and others, and in Art and Technical Schools. By <span class="smcap">F. S. -Meyer</span>, Author of “A Handbook of Ornament.” Translated from the -Second German Edition. With an Introduction by <span class="smcap">J. Starkie Gardner</span>. -Containing 214 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. Price 6<i>s.</i> Net -5<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Both the Artistic and the Practical Branches of the subject are -dealt with, and the Illustrations give selected Examples of Ancient -and Modern Ironwork. The Volume thus fills the long-existing want -of a Manual on Ornamental Ironwork, and it is hoped will prove of -value to all interested in the subject.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Charmingly produced.... It is really a most excellent manual, -crowded with examples of ancient work, for the most part extremely -well selected.”—<i>The Studio.</i></p> - -<p>“Professor Meyer’s work is a useful historical manual on Art -Smithing, based on a scientific classification of the subject, that -will be of service to all smiths, designers, and students of -technical and art schools. The illustrations are well drawn and -numerous.”—<i>Building News.</i></p></div> - -<p class="c"><i>A Facsimile reproduction of one of the rarest and most remarkable Books -of Designs ever published in England.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A NEW BOOKE OF DRAWINGS OF IRON WORKE.—Invented and Designed by -<span class="smcap">John Tijou</span>. Containing severall sortes of Iron Worke, as Gates, -Frontispieces, Balconies, Staircases, Pannells, &c., of which the -most part hath been wrought at the Royal Building of Hampton Court, -&c. <span class="smcap">All for the use of them that worke iron in perfection and with -art.</span> (Sold by the Author in London, 1693.) Containing 20 folio -Plates. With an Introductory Note and Descriptions of the Plates by -<span class="smcap">J. Starkie Gardner</span>. Folio, bound in boards, old style. Price 25<i>s.</i> -net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Only 150 copies were printed for England, and but 20 now remain. -Early application is therefore necessary to secure copies.</p> - -<p>An original copy is priced at £48 in a recent catalogue of Mr. -Bernard Quaritch, the renowned bookseller.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>DECORATIVE WROUGHT IRONWORK OF THE 17<small>TH</small> AND 18<small>TH</small> CENTURIES.—By <span class="smcap">D. -J. Ebbetts</span>. Containing 16 large Lithographic Plates, illustrating -70 English Examples of Screens, Grilles, Panels, Balustrades, &c. -Folio, boards, cloth back. Price 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 10<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<p class="c"><i>Just Published.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE ART OF BRASS REPOUSSÉ FOR -AMATEURS.—By <span class="smcap">Gawthorp</span> (Art Metal Worker to H.R.H. the Prince of -Wales). Second and Enlarged Edition. With 32 Illustrations, many -from photographs of executed designs. Crown 8vo, in wrapper. Price -1<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH MEDIÆVAL FOLIAGE AND COLOURED DECORATION.—By -<span class="smcap">Jas. K. Colling</span>, Architect, F.R.I.B.A. Taken from Buildings of the -XIIth to the XVth Century. Containing 76 Lithographic Plates and 79 -Woodcut Illustrations, with Text. Royal 4to, cloth, gilt top. Price -18<i>s.</i>, net 15<i>s.</i> (published at £2 2<i>s.</i>).</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span></p> - -<p><i>Published with the Sanction of the Science and Art Department.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>FRENCH WOOD CARVINGS FROM THE NATIONAL MUSEUMS.—A Series of -Examples printed in Collotype from Photographs specially taken from -the Carvings direct. Edited by <span class="smcap">Eleanor Rowe</span>. Part I. Late 15th and -Early 16th Century Examples; Part II. 16th Century; Part III. 17th -and 18th Centuries. The Three Series complete, each containing 18 -large folio Plates, with Descriptive Letterpress. Folio, in -portfolios, price 12<i>s.</i> each net, or handsomely half bound, in one -volume, price £2 5<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Students of the art of Wood Carving will find a mine of -inexhaustible treasures in this series of illustrations of French -Wood Carvings.... Each plate is a work of art in itself; the -distribution of light and shade is admirably managed, and the -differences in relief are faithfully indicated, while every detail -is reproduced with a clearness that will prove invaluable to the -student.... Sections are given with several of the plates.”—<i>The -Queen.</i></p> - -<p>“Needs only to be seen to be purchased by all interested in the -craft, whether archæologically or practically.”—<i>The Studio.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>HINTS ON WOOD CARVING FOR BEGINNERS.—By <span class="smcap">Eleanor Rowe</span>, with a -Preface by <span class="smcap">J. H. Pollen</span>. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged, -Illustrated. 8vo, sewed. Price 1<i>s.</i> in paper covers, or bound in -cloth, price 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“The most useful and practical small book on Wood Carving we know -of.”—<i>Builder.</i></p> - -<p>“ ... Is a useful little book, full of sound directions and good -suggestions.”—<i>Magazine of Art.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>HINTS ON CHIP CARVING.—(Class Teaching and other Northern Styles.) -By <span class="smcap">Eleanor Rowe</span>, with a Preface by <span class="smcap">T. R. Ablett</span>. 40 Illustrations. -8vo, sewed. Price 1<i>s.</i> in paper covers, or in cloth, price 1<i>s.</i> -6<i>d.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“A capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most -popular.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>DETAILS OF GOTHIC WOOD CARVING.—Being a Series of Drawings from -Original Work of the 14th and 15th Centuries. By <span class="smcap">Franklyn A. -Crallan</span>. Containing 34 large Photo-lithographic Plates, -illustrating some of the finest specimens of Gothic Wood Carving -extant, with Introductory and Descriptive Text. Large 4to, in -handsome cloth portfolio, or bound in cloth gilt. Price 28<i>s.</i> Net -24<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“The examples are carefully drawn to a large size ... well selected -and very well executed.”—<i>The Builder.</i></p> - -<p>“This admirable work is one of great interest and value.... Every -variety of Gothic detail is here illustrated. Hitherto no -full-sized details have been published, so that the present work -will be invaluable to the wood carver, as the drawings possess all -the strength and vigour of the original work.”—<i>Education.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>PROGRESSIVE STUDIES AND DESIGNS FOR WOOD CARVERS.—By <span class="smcap">Miss E. R. -Plowden</span>. With a Preface by <span class="smcap">Miss Rowe</span>. Consisting of seven large -folding sheets of Illustrations (drawn full size), of a variety of -objects suitable for Wood Carving. With Descriptive Text. Second -Edition, enlarged. 4to, in portfolio. Price 5<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>REMAINS OF ECCLESIASTICAL WOOD-WORK.—A Series of Examples of -Stalls, Screens, Book-Boards, Roofs, Pulpits, &c., containing 21 -Plates beautifully engraved on Copper, from drawings by <span class="smcap">T. Talbot -Bury</span>, Archt. 4to, half-bound. Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, net 8<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>HEPPLEWHITE’S CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER’S GUIDE; or Repository -of Designs for every article of Household Furniture in the newest -and most approved taste.—A complete facsimile reproduction of this -rare work, containing nearly 300 charming Designs on 128 Plates. -Small folio, bound in speckled cloth, gilt, old style. Price £2 -10<i>s.</i> net. (1794.) <i>Original Copies when met with fetch from £15 -to £18.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“A beautiful replica, which every admirer of the author and the -period should possess.”—<i>The Building News.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>CHIPPENDALE’S THE GENTLEMAN AND CABINET-MAKER’S DIRECTOR.—A -complete Facsimile of the Third and rarest Edition, containing 200 -Plates of Designs of Chairs, Sofas, Beds and Couches, Tables, -Library Book Cases, Clock Cases, Stove Grates, &c., &c. Folio, -strongly bound in half-cloth. Price £3 15<i>s.</i> net. (1762.)</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE DECORATION OF HOUSES.—By <span class="smcap">Edith Wharton</span>, and <span class="smcap">Ogden Codman</span>, -Architect. 204 pages of text, with 56 full-page Photographic Plates -of Views of Rooms, Doors, Ceilings, Fireplaces, various pieces of -Furniture, &c., from the Renaissance period. Large square 8vo, -cloth gilt. Price 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“ ... has illustrations which are beautiful ... because they -illustrate the sound and simple principle of decoration which the -authors put forward.... The book is one which should be in the -library of every man and woman of means, for its advice is -characterised by so much common sense as well as by the best of -taste.”—<i>The Queen.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>OLD CLOCKS AND WATCHES AND THEIR MAKERS.—By <span class="smcap">F. J. Britten</span>, -Secretary of the Horological Institute. Being an Account of the -History of Clocks and Watches, with a List of 8,000 Old Makers, -with descriptive Notes. Containing over 400 Illustrations, many -from photographs, of choice and curious examples, of Clocks and -Watches of the past, including the finely-ornamented Bracket Clocks -of the XVIIth Century, and the tall cases of the XVIIIth Century. -512 pages. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 10<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>FLAT ORNAMENT; <span class="smcap">A Pattern Book for Designers of Textiles, -Embroideries, Wall Papers, Inlays, &c., &c.</span>—150 Plates, some -printed in colours, exhibiting upwards of 500 Examples of Textiles, -Embroideries, Paper Hangings, Tile Pavements, Intarsia Work, &c. By -<span class="smcap">Dr. Fischbach</span>. Imperial 4to boards, cloth back. Price 25<i>s.</i> Net -20<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>EXAMPLES OF OLD FURNITURE, <span class="smcap">English and Foreign</span>.—Drawn and -described by <span class="smcap">Alfred Ernest Chancellor</span>. Containing 40 -Photo-lithographic Plates exhibiting some 100 examples of -Elizabethan, Stuart, Queen Anne, Georgian and Chippendale -furniture; and an interesting variety of Continental work. With -historical and descriptive notes. Large 4to, gilt. Price £1 5<i>s.</i> -Net £1 1<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“In publishing his admirable collection of drawings of old -furniture, Mr. Chancellor secures the gratitude of all admirers of -the consummate craftsmanship of the past. His examples are selected -from a variety of sources with fine discrimination, all having an -expression and individuality of their own—qualities that are so -conspicuously lacking in the furniture of our own day. It forms a -very acceptable work.”—<i>The Morning Post.</i></p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>PLASTERING: PLAIN AND DECORATIVE.—A Practical Treatise on the Art -and Craft of Plastering and Modelling. Including full description -of the various Tools, Materials, Processes and Appliances employed. -With over 50 full-page Plates, and about 500 smaller Illustrations -in the Text. By <span class="smcap">William Millar</span>. With an Introduction of the History -of the Art, by <span class="smcap">G. T. Robinson</span>, F.S.A. Second Edition. Thick 4to, -cloth, containing 600 pages of Text. Price 18<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“This new and in many senses remarkable treatise ... unquestionably -contains an immense amount of valuable first-hand information.... -‘Millar on Plastering’ may be expected to be the standard authority -on the subject for many years to come.... A truly monumental -work.”—<i>The Builder.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A GRAMMAR OF JAPANESE ORNAMENT AND DESIGN.—Illustrated by 65 -Plates, many in gold and colours, representing all classes of -Natural and Conventional Forms, drawn from the originals, with -Introductory, Descriptive, and Analytical Text. By <span class="smcap">T. W. Cutler</span>, -F.R.I.B.A. Imperial 4to, in elegant cloth binding. Price £2 6<i>s.</i> -Net £1 18<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<p><i>NATIVE PRINTED JAPANESE ART BOOKS.</i></p> - -<p>JAPANESE ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF DESIGN.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Book I.</span>—Containing over 1,500 engraved Curious and most ingenious -Geometric Patterns of Circles, Medallions, &c., comprising -Conventional Details of Plants, Flowers, Leaves, Petals, also -Birds, Fans, Animals, Key Patterns, &c., &c. Oblong 12mo, fancy -covers. Price 2<i>s.</i> net.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Book II.</span>—Containing over 600 most original and effective Designs -for Diaper Ornament, giving the base lines to the design, also -Artistic Miniature Picturesque Sketches. Oblong 12mo, fancy covers. -Price 2<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>These books exhibit the varied charm and originality of conception -of Japanese Ornament, and form an inexhaustible field of Design.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">A DELIGHTFUL SERIES OF STUDIES OF BIRDS in most Characteristic and -Life-like Attitudes, surrounded with appropriate Foliage and -Flowers.</span>—By the celebrated Japanese Artist, <span class="smcap">Bairei Kono</span>. In three -Books, 8vo, each containing 36 pages of highly artistic and -decorative Illustrations printed in tints. Bound in fancy paper -covers. Price 10<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>These books are of the greatest value to Artists, Screen and China -Painters, Decorators, and Designers in all branches of Art -Manufacture, and of much interest to the admirers of Japanese Art.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“In attitude and gesture and expression, these birds, whether -perching or soaring, swooping or brooding, are -admirable.”—<i>Magazine of Art.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>JAPANESE STUDIES OF BIRDS AND FLOWERS, A NEW SERIES OF.—By -<span class="smcap">Watanabe Sietei</span>, the acknowledged leading living Artist in Japan. 3 -volumes, containing numerous exceedingly Artistic Sketches in -various tints, 8vo, fancy covers. Price 10<i>s.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“Contain a wealth of exquisite xylographic impressions, which -cannot be beaten by any European attempts.”—<i>The Studio.</i></p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY.—A General View for -the use of Students and others. By <span class="smcap">W. J. Anderson</span>, A.R.I.B.A., -Director of Architecture, Glasgow School of Art. Second Edition, -revised and enlarged. Containing 74 full-page Plates, mostly -reproduced from Photographs, and 98 Illustrations in Text. Large -8vo, cloth gilt. Price 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“A delightful and scholarly work ... very fully -illustrated.”—<i>Journal R.I.B.A.</i></p> - -<p>“It is the work of a scholar taking a large view of his subject.... -The book affords easy and intelligible reading, and the arrangement -of the subject is excellent, though this was a matter of no small -difficulty.”—<i>The Times.</i></p> - -<p>“Should rank amongst the best architectural writings of the -day.”—<i>The Edinburgh Review.</i></p> - -<p>“We know of no book which furnishes such information and such -illustrations in so compact and attractive a form. For greater -excellence with the object in hand there is not one more -perspicuous.”—<i>The Building News.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE for the Student, Craftsman and -Amateur.</span>—Being a Comparative View of the Historical Styles from -the Earliest Period. By <span class="smcap">Banister Fletcher</span>, F.R.I.B.A., Professor of -Architecture in King’s College, London, and <span class="smcap">B. F. Fletcher</span>, -A.R.I.B.A. Containing upwards of 300 pages, with 115 Collotype -Plates, mostly reproduced from large Photographs, and other -Illustrations in the Text. Third Edition, revised. Crown 8vo, -cloth, gilt. Price 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 10<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“We shall be amazed if it is not immediately recognised and adopted -as <i>par excellence</i> <span class="smcap">The Student’s Manual of the History of -Architecture</span>.”—<i>The Architect.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE: GREEK, ROMAN AND ITALIAN.—Selected -from Normand’s Parallels, &c. With 4 new Plates specially prepared. -Edited, with Notes, by <span class="smcap">R. Phené Spiers</span>, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Third -Edition, with 2 new Plates. Containing in all 26 Plates. 4to, -cloth. Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> Net 8<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“A most useful work for architectural students.... Mr. Spiers has -done excellent service in editing this work, and his notes on the -plates are very appropriate and useful.”—<i>British Architect.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>ARCHITECTURE AMONG THE POETS.—By <span class="smcap">H. Heathcote Statham</span>. With 13 -Illustrations. Square 8vo, artistically bound. Price 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -net.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“This little work does for architecture in relation to English -poetry what Mr. Phil Robinson has done for the birds and beasts. -The poet’s appreciation of architecture is a delightful subject -with which Mr. Statham has become infected, not only illustrating -his points with quotations and his judgments with his reasons, but -the whole with a series of fanciful or suggestive sketches which -add considerably to the attractiveness of the book.”—<i>The Magazine -of Art.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT IN SPAIN.—A Series of -Examples selected from the purest executed between the years -1500-1560. By <span class="smcap">Andrew N. Prentice</span>, A.R.I.B.A. Containing 60 -beautiful Plates, reproduced by Photo-lithography and Photo -Process, from the Author’s Drawings, of Perspective Views and -Geometrical Drawings, and Details, in Stone, Wood, and Metal. With -short Descriptive Text. Folio, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt. -Price £2 10<i>s.</i> Net £2 2<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot2"><p>“For the drawing and production of this book one can have no words -but praise.... It is a pleasure to have so good a record of such -admirable architectural drawing, free, firm and -delicate.”—<i>British Architect.</i></p></div> - -<p class="c"> -B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.<br /> -</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> “The Pagan-Christian Overlap in the North,” by H. Colley -March, M.D. (Lond.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> “The seven periods of Church Architecture,” by Edmund -Sharpe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> “Gothic Architecture,” by Thomas Rickman.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><a name="transcrib" id="transcrib"></a></p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="padding:2%;border:3px dotted gray;"> -<tr><th align="center">Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:</th></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Arch of Septimius Severus 21=> Arch of Septimus Severus 21</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">was the typical forms used=> was the typical form used {pg 23}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">from Rome to Byzantine=> from Rome to Byzantium {pg 31}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Girolama della Robbia=> Girolamo della Robbia {pg 81}</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="323" height="500" alt="Image unavailable." /> -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of Historic Ornament, by Richard Glazier - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF HISTORIC ORNAMENT *** - -***** This file should be named 53373-h.htm or 53373-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/7/53373/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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