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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa609c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53314 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53314) diff --git a/old/53314-0.txt b/old/53314-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a136d64..0000000 --- a/old/53314-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18194 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of America, by Robert Mackenzie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: America - A history - -Author: Robert Mackenzie - -Release Date: October 18, 2016 [EBook #53314] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICA *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - BY THE SAME AUTHOR. - - _Tenth Thousand._ - - THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A History. By ROBERT MACKENZIE. Crown - 8vo, Cloth Antique. Price 7s. 6d. - - Presenting in a handy form a history of the great events - and movements of the present century, in our own country, - throughout the British Empire, on the Continent of Europe, and - in America. - - _THE TIMES._--“A valuable addition to the library.” - - _THE SCOTSMAN._--“The central idea of the work and the chief - aim of the writer is displayed in his very evident design to - trace the growth of free institutions in the different States - of Europe, and particularly in England.… No more instructive - or more useful book could be put into the hands of the rising - generation of the present day. The book is written in a terse - and pointed style. The movement is rapid throughout; and though - the scene frequently changes, its central thought--that of the - education of the race in the spirit of freedom--is never lost - sight of for a moment.” - - _DAILY REVIEW._--“Written with rare power and skill; - from beginning to end the book is highly interesting and - instructive. It is a political guide as well as a history, and - a safer guide with a more captivating manner will not easily be - found.” - - T. NELSON AND SONS, LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK. - - - - - AMERICA. - - A History. - - I.--THE UNITED STATES. - II.--DOMINION OF CANADA. - III.--SOUTH AMERICA, &c. - - _By ROBERT MACKENZIE_ - - [Illustration] - - London: - T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW. - EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK. - - 1882. - - [_All Rights Reserved._] - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - THE UNITED STATES. - - BOOK FIRST. - - I. DISCOVERY, 11 - - II. COLONIZATION, 18 - - III. VIRGINIA, 22 - - IV. NEW ENGLAND, 28 - - V. THE NEW ENGLAND PERSECUTIONS, 38 - - VI. WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND, 43 - - VII. THE INDIANS, 46 - - VIII. NEW YORK, 48 - - IX. PENNSYLVANIA, 51 - - X. GEORGIA, 54 - - XI. SLAVERY, 58 - - XII. EARLY GOVERNMENT, 64 - - BOOK SECOND. - - I. GEORGE WASHINGTON, 67 - - II. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 71 - - III. THE VALLEY OF THE OHIO, 73 - - IV. AMERICA ON THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION, 81 - - V. BUNKER HILL, 96 - - VI. INDEPENDENCE, 104 - - VII. AT WAR, 107 - - VIII. SYMPATHY BEYOND THE SEA, 112 - - IX. THE WAR CONTINUES, 114 - - X. THE SURRENDER AT SARATOGA, 117 - - XI. HELP FROM EUROPE, 119 - - XII. MAJOR ANDRÉ, 123 - - XIII. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR, 127 - - XIV. THE THIRTEEN STATES BECOME A NATION, 132 - - XV. THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, 141 - - BOOK THIRD. - - I. KING COTTON, 154 - - II. SLAVERY, 158 - - III. MISSOURI, 164 - - IV. HOPE FOR THE NEGRO, 166 - - V. TEXAS, 170 - - VI. THE WAR WITH MEXICO, 173 - - VII. CALIFORNIA, 176 - - VIII. KANSAS, 179 - - IX. THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY, 183 - - X. JOHN BROWN, 186 - - XI. EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND SIXTY, 190 - - XII. SECESSION, 196 - - XIII. THE TWO PRESIDENTS, 200 - - BOOK FOURTH. - - I. THE FIRST BLOW STRUCK, 204 - - II. THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN, 211 - - III. “ON TO RICHMOND,” 213 - - IV. LIBERTY TO THE CAPTIVE, 224 - - V. CONFEDERATE SUCCESSES, 228 - - VI. THE WAR CONTINUES, 231 - - VII. GETTYSBURG, 236 - - VIII. THE LAST CAMPAIGN, 242 - - IX. THE MURDER OF THE PRESIDENT, 256 - - X. THE LOSSES AND THE GAINS OF THE WAR, 259 - - XI. AFTER THE WAR, 262 - - XII. HOW THE AMERICANS CARED FOR THEIR SOLDIERS, 267 - - BOOK FIFTH. - - I. REUNITED AMERICA, 270 - - II. ENGLAND AND AMERICA, 278 - - III. INDUSTRIAL AMERICA, 283 - - IV. EDUCATION IN AMERICA, 293 - - V. EUROPE AND AMERICA, 299 - - POSTSCRIPT--PRESIDENT GARFIELD, 303 - - THE DOMINION OF CANADA. - - I. THE DAWN OF CANADIAN HISTORY, 311 - - II. SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN, 317 - - III. THE JESUITS IN CANADA, 324 - - IV. THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI, 333 - - V. THE AMERICAN CONTINENT GAINED BY THE BRITISH, 337 - - VI. COLONIZATION BY FRANCE AND BY ENGLAND, 348 - - VII. AFTER THE CONQUEST, 354 - - VIII. CANADA DURING THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 361 - - IX. CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT, 364 - - X. THE WAR OF 1812, 368 - - XI. DOMESTIC STRIFE, 373 - - XII. THE CANADIAN REVOLUTION, 380 - - XIII. CONFEDERATION, 394 - - XIV. THE MARITIME PROVINCES, 399 - - XV. THE PROVINCES OF THE NORTH-WEST, 409 - - XVI. THE PROGRESS OF THE CANADIAN NATION, 426 - - SOUTH AMERICA. - - I. DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST, 439 - - II. THE INDIANS OF SPANISH AMERICA, 466 - - III. SPANISH GOVERNMENT OF THE NEW WORLD, 479 - - IV. REVOLUTION, 494 - - V. INDEPENDENCE, 511 - - VI. THE CHURCH OF ROME IN SPANISH AMERICA, 534 - - VII. BRAZIL, 544 - - - - -THE UNITED STATES. - - - - -Book First. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DISCOVERY. - - -It was late in the history of the world before Europe and America -became known to each other. During the first fifteen centuries of the -Christian era Europe was unaware of the vast continent which lay beyond -the sea. Asia had ceased to influence her. Africa had not begun. Her -history was waiting for the mighty influence which America was to -exercise in her affairs through all the future ages. - -Men had been slow to establish completely their dominion over the sea. -They learned very early to build ships. They availed themselves very -early of the surprising power which the helm exerts over the movements -of a ship. But, during many ages, they found no surer guidance upon -the pathless sea than that which the position of the sun and the stars -afforded. When clouds intervened to deprive them of this uncertain -direction, they were helpless. They were thus obliged to keep the land -in view, and content themselves with creeping timidly along the coast. - -But at length there was discovered a stone which the wise Creator had -endowed with strange properties. It was observed that a needle brought -once into contact with that stone pointed ever afterwards steadfastly -to the north. Men saw that with a needle thus influenced they could -guide themselves at sea as surely as on land. The Mariners’ Compass -untied the bond which held sailors to the coast, and gave them liberty -to push out into the sea. - -Just when sailors were slowly learning to put confidence in the -mariners’ compass, there arose in Europe a vehement desire for the -discovery of unknown countries. A sudden interest sprang up in all that -was distant and unexplored. The strange fables told by travellers were -greedily received. The human mind was beginning to cast off the torpor -of the Middle Ages. As intelligence increased, men became increasingly -eager to ascertain the form and extent of the world in which they -dwelt, and to acquaint themselves with those unknown races who were -their fellow-inhabitants. - -Portugal and Spain, looking out upon the boundless sea, were powerfully -stirred by the new impulse. The Courts of Lisbon and Madrid swarmed -with adventurers who had made discoveries, or who wished the means -to make them. Conspicuous among these was an enthusiast, who during -eighteen years had not ceased to importune incredulous monarchs for -ships and men that he might open up the secrets of the sea. He was a -tall man, of grave and gentle manners, and noble though saddened look. -His eye was gray, “apt to enkindle” when he spoke of those discoveries -in the making of which he felt himself to be Heaven’s chosen agent. -He had known hardship and sorrow in his youth, and at thirty his hair -was white. He was the son of a Genoese wool-comber, and his name was -Christopher Columbus. In him the universal passion for discovery rose -to the dignity of an inspiration. - -No sailor of our time would cross the Atlantic in such ships as were -given to Columbus. In size they resembled the smaller of our river and -coasting vessels. Only one of them was decked. The others were open, -save at the prow and stern, where cabins were built for the crew. The -sailors went unwillingly and in much fear--compelled by an order from -the King. With such ships and such men Columbus left the land behind -him and pushed out into these unknown waters. To him there were no -dangers, no difficulties--God, who had chosen him to do this work, -would sustain him for its accomplishment. He sailed on the 3rd of -August 1492. On the 12th of October, in the dim light of early morning, -he gazed out from the deck of his little ship upon the shores of a new -world. His victory was gained; his work was done. How great it was he -himself never knew. He died in the belief that he had merely discovered -a shorter route to India. He never enjoyed that which would have been -the best recompense for all his toil--the knowledge that he had added a -vast continent to the possessions of civilized men. - -The revelation by Columbus of the amazing fact that there were lands -beyond the great ocean, inhabited by strange races of human beings, -roused to a passionate eagerness the thirst for fresh discoveries. -The splendours of the newly-found world were indeed difficult to be -resisted. Wealth beyond the wildest dreams of avarice could be had, it -was said, for the gathering. The sands of every river sparkled with -gold. The very colour of the ground showed that gold was profusely -abundant. The meanest of the Indians ornamented himself with gold and -jewels. The walls of the houses glittered with pearls. There was a -fountain, if one might but find it, whose waters bestowed perpetual -youth upon the bather. The wildest romances were greedily received, and -the Old World, with its familiar and painful realities, seemed mean and -hateful beside the fabled glories of the New. - -Europe then enjoyed a season of unusual calm--a short respite from the -habitual toil of war--as if to afford men leisure to enter on their new -possession. The last of the Moors had taken his last look at Granada, -and Spain had rest from her eight centuries of war. In England, the -Wars of the Roses had ceased. After thirty years of hard fighting and -huge waste of life and property, the fortunate English had been able to -determine which branch of a certain old family was to rule over them. -Henry VII., with his clear, cold head, and his heavy hand, was guiding -his people somewhat forcibly towards the victories of peace. Even -France tasted the joy of repose. The Reformation was at hand. While -Columbus was holding his uncertain way across the great Atlantic, a boy -called Martin Luther was attending school in a small German town. The -time was not far off, but as yet the mind of Europe was not engrossed -by those religious strifes which were soon to convulse it. - -The men whose trade was fighting turned gladly in this idle time to -the world where boundless wealth was to be wrung from the grasp of -unwarlike barbarians. England and France had missed the splendid prize -which Columbus had won for Spain. They hastened now to secure what they -could. A merchant of Bristol, John Cabot, obtained permission from the -King of England to make discoveries in the northern parts of America. -Cabot was to bear all expenses, and the King was to receive one-fifth -of the gains of the adventure. Taking with him his son Sebastian, John -Cabot sailed straight westward across the Atlantic. [Sidenote: 1497 -A.D.] He reached the American continent, of which he was the undoubted -discoverer. The result to him was disappointing. He landed on the coast -of Labrador. Being in the same latitude as England, he reasoned that -he should find the same genial climate. To his astonishment he came -upon a region of intolerable cold, dreary with ice and snow. John Cabot -had not heard of the Gulf Stream and its marvellous influences. He did -not know that the western shores of northern Europe are rescued from -perpetual winter, and warmed up to the enjoyable temperature which -they possess, by an enormous river of hot water flowing between banks -of cold water eastward from the Gulf of Mexico. The Cabots made many -voyages afterwards, and explored the American coast from extreme north -to extreme south. - -The French turned their attention to the northern parts of the New -World. The rich fisheries of Newfoundland attracted them. A Frenchman -sailed up the great St. Lawrence river. After some failures a French -settlement was established there, and for a century and a half the -French peopled Canada, until the English relieved them of the ownership. - -Spanish adventurers never rested from their eager search after the -treasures of the new continent. An aged warrior called Ponce de -Leon fitted out an expedition at his own cost. He had heard of the -marvellous fountain whose waters would restore to him the years of -his wasted youth. He searched in vain. The fountain would not reveal -itself to the foolish old man, and he had to bear without relief the -burden of his profitless years. But he found a country hitherto unseen -by Europeans, which was clothed with magnificent forests, and seemed -to bloom with perpetual flowers. He called it Florida. He attempted -to found a colony in the paradise he had discovered. But the natives -attacked him, slew many of his men, and drove the rest to their ships, -carrying with them their chief, wounded to death by the arrow of an -Indian. - - * * * * * - -Ferdinand de Soto had been with Pizarro in his expedition to Peru, -and returned to Spain enriched by his share of the plunder. He did -not doubt that in the north were cities as rich and barbarians as -confiding. An expedition to discover new regions, and plunder their -inhabitants, was fitted out under his command. No one doubted that -success equal to that of Cortes and Pizarro would attend this new -adventure. The youth of Spain were eager to be permitted to go, and -they sold houses and lands to buy them the needful equipment. Six -hundred men, in the prime of life, were chosen from the crowd of -applicants, and the expedition sailed, high in courage, splendid in -aspect, boundless in expectation. [Sidenote: 1539 A.D.] They landed on -the coast of Florida, and began their march into the wilderness. They -had fetters for the Indians whom they meant to take captive. They had -bloodhounds, lest these captives should escape. The camp swarmed with -priests, and as they marched the festivals and processions enjoined by -the Church were devoutly observed. - -From the outset it was a toilsome and perilous enterprise; but to the -Spaniard of that time danger was a joy. The Indians were warlike, and -generally hostile. De Soto had pitched battles to fight and heavy -losses to bear. Always he was victorious, but he could ill afford the -cost of many such victories. The captive Indians amused him with tales -of regions where gold abounded. They had learned that ignorance on that -subject was very hazardous. De Soto had stimulated their knowledge -by burning to death some who denied the existence of gold in that -country. The Spaniards wandered slowly northwards. They looked eagerly -for some great city, the plunder of whose palaces and temples would -enrich them all. They found nothing better than occasionally an Indian -town, composed of a few miserable huts. It was all they could do to get -needful food. At length they came to a magnificent river. European eyes -had seen no such river till now. It was about a mile in breadth, and -its mass of water swept downward to the sea with a current of amazing -strength. It was the Mississippi. The Spaniards built vessels and -ferried themselves to the western bank. - -There they resumed their wanderings. De Soto would not yet admit that -he had failed. He still hoped that the plunder of a rich city would -reward his toils. For many months the Spaniards strayed among the -swamps and dense forests of that dreary region. The natives showed -at first some disposition to be helpful. But the Spaniards, in their -disappointment, were pitiless and savage. They amused themselves by -inflicting pain upon the prisoners. They cut off their hands; they -hunted them with bloodhounds; they burned them at the stake. The -Indians became dangerous. De Soto hoped to awe them by claiming to be -one of the gods, but the imposture was too palpable. “How can a man be -God when he cannot get bread to eat?” asked a sagacious savage. It was -now three years since De Soto had landed in America. The utter failure -of the expedition would no longer conceal, and the men wished to return -home. Broken in spirit and in frame, De Soto caught fever and died. -His soldiers felled a tree and scooped room within its trunk for the -body of the ill-fated adventurer. They could not bury their chief on -land, lest the Indians should dishonour his remains. In the silence -of midnight the rude coffin was sunk in the Mississippi, and the -discoverer of the great river slept beneath its waters. The Spaniards -promptly resolved now to make their way to Cuba. They had tools, and -wood was abundant. They slew their horses for flesh; they plundered -the Indians for bread; they struck the fetters from their prisoners to -reinforce their scanty supply of iron. They built ships enough to float -them down the Mississippi. Three hundred ragged and disheartened men -were all that remained of the brilliant company whose hopes had been so -high, whose good fortune had been so much envied. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -COLONIZATION. - - -For many years European adventurers continued to resort to the American -coast in the hope of finding the way to immediate wealth. Some feeble -attempts had been made to colonize. Here and there a few families had -been planted, but hunger or the Indians always extinguished those -infant settlements. The great idea of colonizing America was slow to -take possession of European minds. The Spaniard sought for Indians -to plunder. The Englishman believed in gold-mines and the north-west -passage to India. It was not till America had been known for a hundred -years that men began to think of finding a home beyond the Atlantic. - -The courage and endurance of the early voyagers excite our wonder. -Few of them sailed in ships so large as a hundred tons burden. The -merchant ships of that time were very small. The royal navies of Europe -contained large vessels, but commerce was too poor to employ any but -the smallest. The commerce of imperial Rome employed ships which even -now would be deemed large. St. Paul was wrecked in a ship of over -five hundred tons burden. Josephus sailed in a ship of nearly one -thousand tons. Europe contented herself, as yet, with vessels of a very -different class. A ship of forty or fifty tons was deemed sufficient by -the daring adventurers who sought to reach the Land of Promise beyond -the great sea. Occasionally toy-ships of twenty or twenty-five tons -were used. The brother of Sir Walter Raleigh crossed the Atlantic in -such a ship, and perished in it as he attempted to return to England. - - * * * * * - -It was not a pleasant world which the men and women of Europe had -to live in during the sixteenth century. Fighting was the constant -occupation of the Kings of that time. A year of peace was a rare -and somewhat wearisome exception. Kings habitually, at their own -unquestioned pleasure, gathered their subjects together, and marched -them off to slay and plunder their neighbours. Civil wars were -frequent. In these confused strifes men slew their acquaintances and -friends as the only method they knew of deciding who was to fill the -throne. Feeble Commerce was crushed under the iron heel of War. No -such thing as security for life or property was expected. The fields -of the husbandman were trodden down by the march of armies. Disbanded -or deserted soldiers wandered as “masterless men” over the country, -and robbed and murdered at their will. Highwaymen abounded--although -highways could scarcely be said to exist. Epidemic diseases of strange -type, the result of insufficient feeding and the poisonous air of -undrained lands and filthy streets, desolated all European countries. -Under what hardships and miseries the men of the sixteenth century -passed their days, it is scarcely possible for us now to conceive. - -The English Parliament once reminded James I. of certain “undoubted -rights” which they possessed. The King told them, in reply, that he -“did not like this style of talking, but would rather hear them say -that all their privileges were derived by the grace and permission of -the sovereign.” Europe, during the sixteenth century, had no better -understanding of the matter than James had. It was not supposed that -the King was made for the people; it seemed rather to be thought that -the people were made for the King. Here and there some man wiser than -ordinary perceived the truth, so familiar to us, that a King is merely -a great officer appointed by the people to do certain work for them. -There was a Glasgow professor who taught in those dark days that the -authority of the King was derived from the people, and ought to be -used for their good. Two of his pupils were John Knox the reformer, -and George Buchanan the historian, by whom this doctrine, so great and -yet so simple, was clearly perceived and firmly maintained. But to the -great mass of mankind it seemed that the King had divine authority to -dispose of his subjects and their property according to his pleasure. -Poor patient humanity still bowed in lowly reverence before its Kings, -and bore, without wondering or murmuring, all that it pleased them to -inflict. No stranger superstition has ever possessed the human mind -than this boundless mediæval veneration for the King--a veneration -which follies the most abject, vices the most enormous, were not able -to quench. - -But as this unhappy century draws towards its close, the elements of a -most benign change are plainly seen at work. The Bible has been largely -read. The Bible is the book of all ages and of all circumstances. But -never, surely, since its first gift to man was it more needful to any -age than to that which now welcomed its restoration with wonder and -delight. It took deep hold on the minds of men. It exercised a silent -influence which gradually changed the aspect of society. The narrative -portions of Scripture were especially acceptable to the untutored -intellect of that time; and thus the Old Testament was preferred to -the New. This preference led to some mistakes. Rules which had been -given to an ancient Asiatic people were applied in circumstances for -which they were never intended or fitted. It is easy to smile at -these mistakes. But it is impossible to over-estimate the social and -political good which we now enjoy as a result of this incessant reading -of the Bible by the people of the sixteenth century. - -In nearly all European countries the King claimed to regulate the -religious belief of his subjects. Even in England that power was still -claimed. The people were beginning to suspect that they were entitled -to think for themselves--a suspicion which grew into an indignant -certainty, and widened and deepened till it swept from the throne the -unhappy House of Stuart. - -A little way into the seventeenth century America became the refuge of -those who would not receive their faith at the bidding of the King. -The best part of American colonization resulted from the foolish and -insolent oppressions of Europe. At the beginning, however, it was not -so. It was from an impulse of vagrant blackguardism that the first -American colony sprang. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -VIRGINIA. - - -Sir Walter Raleigh spent a large fortune in attempting to colonize -Virginia. He succeeded in directing the attention of his countrymen -to the region which had kindled his own enthusiasm, but his colonies -never prospered. Sometimes the colonists returned home disgusted by the -hardships of the wilderness. Once they were massacred by the Indians. -When help came from England the infant settlement was in ruins. The -bones of unburied men lay about the fields; wild deer strayed among the -untenanted houses. Once a colony wholly disappeared. To this day its -fate is unknown. - -Sir Walter was enduring his long captivity in the Tower, writing his -“History of the World,” and moaning piteously over the havoc which -prison-damps wrought upon his handsome frame. The time had now come, -and his labours were about to bear fruit. The history of Virginia -was about to open. It opened with meagre promise. [Sidenote: 1606 -A.D.] A charter from the King established a Company whose function -was to colonize--whose privilege was to trade. The Company sent out -an expedition which sailed in three small vessels. It consisted of -one hundred and five men. Of these one-half were gentlemen of broken -fortune; some were tradesmen; others were footmen. Only a very few -were farmers, or mechanics, or persons in any way fitted for the life -they sought. Morally the aspect of the expedition was even more -discouraging. “An hundred dissolute persons” were on board the ships. -The respectable portions of the expedition must have gone into very -little room. - -But, happily for Virginia, there sailed with these reprobate founders -of a new empire a man whom Providence had highly gifted with fitness to -govern his fellow-men. His name was John Smith. No writer of romance -would have given his hero this name; but, in spite of his name, the -man was truly heroic. He was still under thirty, a strong-limbed, -deep-chested, massively-built man. From boyhood he had been a -soldier--roaming over the world in search of adventures, wherever hard -blows were being exchanged. He was mighty in single combat. Once, while -opposing armies looked on, he vanquished three Turks, and, like David, -cut off their heads, and bore them to his tent. Returning to England -when the passion for colonizing was at its height, he caught at once -the prevailing impulse. He joined the Virginian expedition; ultimately -he became its chief. His fitness was so manifest, that no reluctance on -his own part, no jealousies on that of his companions, could bar him -from the highest place. Men became Kings of old by the same process -which now made Smith a chief. - -The “dissolute persons” sailed in their ships up the James river. -Landing there, they proceeded to construct a little town, which they -named Jamestown, in honour of the King. This was the first colony which -struck its roots in American soil. The colonists were charmed with -the climate and with the luxuriant beauty of the wilderness on whose -confines they had settled. But as yet it was only a wilderness. The -forest had to be cleared that food might be grown. The exiled gentlemen -laboured manfully, but under grievous discouragements. “The axes so oft -blistered their tender fingers, that many times every third blow had a -loud oath to drown the echo.” Smith was a man upon whose soul there lay -a becoming reverence for sacred things. He devised how to have every -man’s oaths numbered; “and at night, for every oath, to have a can of -water poured down his sleeve.” Under this treatment the evil assuaged. - -The emigrants had landed in early spring. Summer came with its burning -heat; supplies of food ran low. “Had we been as free from all sins -as from gluttony and drunkenness,” Smith wrote, “we might have been -canonized as saints.” The colonists sickened and died. From those poor -blistered fingers dropped for ever the unaccustomed axe. Before autumn -every second man had died. But the hot Virginian sun, which proved so -deadly to the settlers, ripened the wheat they had sowed in the spring, -and freed the survivors from the pressure of want. Winter brought them -a healthier temperature and abundant supplies of wild-fowl and game. - -When the welfare of the colony was in some measure secured, Smith set -forth with a few companions to explore the interior of the country. He -and his followers were captured by the Indians, and the followers were -summarily butchered. Smith’s composure did not fail him in the worst -extremity. He produced his pocket-compass, and interested the savages -by explaining its properties. He wrote a letter in their sight--to -their infinite wonder. They spared him, and made a show of him in all -the settlements round about. He was to them an unfathomable mystery. -He was plainly superhuman. Whether his power would bring to them good -or evil, they were not able to determine. After much hesitation they -chose the course which prudence seem to counsel. They resolved to -extinguish powers so formidable, regarding whose use they could obtain -no guarantee. Smith was bound and stretched upon the earth, his head -resting upon a great stone. The mighty club was uplifted to dash out -his brains. But Smith was a man who won golden opinions of all. The -Indian chief had a daughter, Pocahontas, a child of ten or twelve -years. She could not bear to see the pleasing Englishman destroyed. -As Smith lay waiting the fatal stroke, she caught him in her arms -and interposed herself between him and the club. Her intercession -prevailed, and Smith was set free. - -Five years later, “an honest and discreet” young Englishman called -John Rolfe loved this young Indian girl. He had a sore mental struggle -about uniting himself with “one of barbarous breeding and of a cursed -race.” But love triumphed. He laboured for her conversion, and had the -happiness of seeing her baptized in the little church of Jamestown. -Then he married her. After a time he took her home to England. Her -appearance was pleasing; her mind was acute; her piety was sincere; her -manners bore picturesque evidence of her forest upbringing. The English -King and Court regarded her with lively interest as the first-fruits -of the wilderness. Great hopes were founded on this union of the two -races. She is the brightest picture--this young Virginian wife and -mother--which the history of the doomed native races presents to us. -But she did not live to revisit her native land. Death parted her very -early from her husband and her child. - -When Smith returned from captivity the colony was on the verge of -extinction. Only thirty-eight persons were left, and they were -preparing to depart. With Smith, hope returned to the despairing -settlers. They resumed their work, confident in the resources of their -chief. Fresh arrivals from England cheered them. The character of -these reinforcements had not as yet improved. “Vagabond gentlemen” -formed still a large majority of the settlers--many of them, we are -told, “packed off to escape worse destinies at home.” The colony, thus -composed, had already gained a very bad reputation: so bad that some, -rather than be sent there, “chose to be hanged, _and were_.” Over -these most undesirable subjects Smith ruled with an authority which no -man dared or desired to question. But he was severely injured by an -accidental explosion of gunpowder. Surgical aid was not in the colony. -Smith required to go to England, and once more hungry ruin settled -down upon Virginia. [Sidenote: 1610 A.D.] In six months the five -hundred men whom Smith had left dwindled to sixty. These were already -embarked and departing, when they were met by Lord Delaware, the new -governor. Once more the colony was saved. - -Years of quiet growth succeeded. Emigrants--not wholly now of the -dissolute sort--flowed steadily in. Bad people bore rule in England -during most of the seventeenth century, and they sold the good people -to be slaves in Virginia. The victims of the brutal Judge Jeffreys--the -Scotch Covenanters taken at Bothwell Bridge--were shipped off to this -profitable market. In 1688 the population of Virginia had increased -to 50,000. The little wooden capital swelled out. Other little wooden -towns established themselves. Deep in the unfathomed wilderness rose -the huts of adventurous settlers, in secluded nooks, by the banks of -nameless Virginian streams. A semblance of roads connected the youthful -communities. The Indians were relentlessly suppressed. The Virginians -bought no land; they took what they required--slaying or expelling -the former occupants. Perhaps there were faults on both sides. Once -the Indians planned a massacre so cunningly that over three hundred -Englishmen perished before the bloody hand of the savages could be -stayed. - -The early explorers of Virginia found tobacco in extensive use -among the Indians. It was the chief medicine of the savages. Its -virtues--otherwise unaccountable--were supposed to proceed from a -spiritual presence whose home was in the plant. Tobacco was quickly -introduced into England, where it rose rapidly into favour. Men who had -heretofore smoked only hemp knew how to prize tobacco. King James wrote -vehemently against it. He issued a proclamation against trading in an -article which was corrupting to mind and body. He taxed it heavily when -he could not exclude it. The Pope excommunicated all who smoked in -churches. But, in defiance of law and reason, the demand for tobacco -continued to increase. - -The Virginians found their most profitable occupation in supplying -this demand. So eager were they, that tobacco was grown in the squares -and streets of Jamestown. In the absence of money tobacco became the -Virginian currency. Accounts were kept in tobacco. The salaries of -members of Assembly, the stipends of clergymen, were paid in tobacco; -offences were punished by fines expressed in tobacco. Absence from -church cost the delinquent fifty pounds; refusing to have his child -baptized, two thousand pounds; entertaining a Quaker, five thousand -pounds. When the stock of tobacco was unduly large, the currency was -debased, and much inconvenience resulted. The Virginians corrected this -evil in their monetary system by compelling every planter to burn a -certain proportion of his stock. - -Within a few years of the settlement the Virginians had a written -Constitution, according to which they were ruled. They had a Parliament -chosen by the burghs, and a Governor sent them from England. The -Episcopal Church was established among them, and the colony divided -into parishes. A college was erected for the use not only of the -English, but also of the most promising young Indians. But they never -became an educated people. The population was widely scattered, so that -schools were almost impossible. In respect of education, Virginia fell -far behind her sisters in the North. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -NEW ENGLAND. - - -A little more than two centuries ago New England was one vast forest. -Here and there a little space was cleared, a little corn was raised; a -few Indian families made their temporary abode. The savage occupants -of the land spent their profitless lives to no better purpose than -in hunting and fighting. The rivers which now give life to so much -cheerful industry flowed uselessly to the sea. Providence had prepared -a home which a great people might fitly inhabit. Let us see whence -and how the men were brought who were the destined possessors of its -opulence. - -The Reformation had taught that every man is entitled to read his Bible -for himself, and guide his life by the light he obtains from it. But -the lesson was too high to be soon learned. Protestant princes no more -than Popish could permit their subjects to think for themselves. James -I. had just ascended the English throne. His were the head of a fool -and the heart of a tyrant. He would allow no man to separate himself -from the Established Church. He would “harry out of the land” all who -attempted such a thing; and he was as good as his word. Men would -separate from the Church, and the King stretched out his pitiless hand -to crush them. - -On the northern border of Nottinghamshire stands the little town of -Scrooby. Here there were some grave and well-reputed persons, to whom -the idle ceremonies of the Established Church were an offence. They -met in secret at the house of one of their number, a gentleman named -Brewster. They were ministered to in all scriptural simplicity by the -pastor of their choice--Mr. Robinson, a wise and good man. But their -secret meetings were betrayed to the authorities, and their lives were -made bitter by the persecutions that fell upon them. They resolved to -leave their own land and seek among strangers that freedom which was -denied them at home. - -They embarked with all their goods for Holland. But when the ship was -about to sail, soldiers came upon them, plundered them, and drove them -on shore. They were marched to the public square of Boston, and there -the Fathers of New England endured such indignities as an unbelieving -rabble could inflict. After some weeks in prison they were suffered to -return home. - -Next spring they tried again to escape. This time a good many were on -board, and the others were waiting for the return of the boat which -would carry them to the ship. Suddenly dragoons were seen spurring -across the sands. The shipmaster pulled up his anchor and pushed out to -sea with those of his passengers whom he had. The rest were conducted -to prison. After a time they were set at liberty, and in little groups -they made their way to Holland. Mr. Robinson and his congregation were -reunited, and the first stage of the weary pilgrimage from the Old -England to the New was at length accomplished. - -Eleven quiet and not unprosperous years were spent in Holland. The -Pilgrims worked with patient industry at their various handicrafts. -[Sidenote: 1609 A.D.] They quickly gained the reputation of doing -honestly and effectively whatever they professed to do, and thus they -found abundant employment. Mr. Brewster established a printing-press, -and printed books about liberty, which, as he had the satisfaction of -knowing, greatly enraged the foolish King James. The little colony -received additions from time to time as oppression in England became -more intolerable. - -The instinct of separation was strong within the Pilgrim heart. They -could not bear the thought that their little colony was to mingle with -the Dutchmen and lose its independent existence. But already their sons -and daughters were forming alliances which threatened this result. The -Fathers considered long and anxiously how the danger was to be averted. -They determined again to go on pilgrimage. They would seek a home -beyond the Atlantic, where they could dwell apart and found a State in -which they should be free to think. - -[Sidenote: 1620 A.D.] On a sunny morning in July the Pilgrims kneel -upon the sea-shore at Delfthaven, while the pastor prays for the -success of their journey. Out upon the gleaming sea a little ship lies -waiting. Money has not been found to transplant the whole colony, and -only a hundred have been sent. The remainder will follow when they -can. These hundred depart amid tears and prayers and fond farewells. -Mr. Robinson dismissed them with counsels which breathed a pure and -high-toned wisdom. He urged them to keep their minds ever open for the -reception of new truths. “The Lord,” he said, “has more truth to break -forth out of his holy Word. I cannot sufficiently bewail the condition -of the Reformed Churches, who are come to a period in religion, -and will go at present no further than the instruments of their -reformation. Luther and Calvin were great and shining lights in their -times, yet they penetrated not into the whole counsel of God, but, were -they now living, would be as willing to embrace further light as that -which they first received. I beseech you, remember that you be ready to -receive whatever truth shall be made known to you from the written Word -of God.” - -Sixty-eight years later, another famous departure from the coast of -Holland took place. It was that of William, Prince of Orange, coming to -deliver England from tyranny, and give a new course to English history. -A powerful fleet and army sailed with the prince. The chief men of the -country accompanied him to his ships. Public prayers for his safety -were offered up in all the churches. Insignificant beside this seems -at first sight the unregarded departure of a hundred working-men and -women. It was in truth, however, not less, but even more memorable. For -these poor people went forth to found a great empire, destined to leave -as deep and as enduring a mark upon the world’s history as Rome or even -as England has done. - -The _Mayflower_, in which the Pilgrims made their voyage, was a ship -of one hundred and sixty tons. The weather proved stormy and cold; the -voyage unexpectedly long. It was early in September when they sailed; -it was not till the 11th November that the _Mayflower_ dropped her -anchor in the waters of Cape Cod Bay. - -It was a bleak-looking and discouraging coast which lay before them. -Nothing met the eye but low sand-hills, covered with ill-grown wood -down to the margin of the sea. The Pilgrims had now to choose a place -for their settlement. About this they hesitated so long that the -captain threatened to put them all on shore and leave them. Little -expeditions were sent to explore. At first no suitable locality could -be found. The men had great hardships to endure. The cold was so -excessive that the spray froze upon their clothes, and they resembled -men cased in armour. At length a spot was fixed upon. The soil appeared -to be good, and abounded in “delicate springs” of water. On the 23rd -December the Pilgrims landed, stepping ashore upon a huge boulder of -granite, which is still reverently preserved by their descendants. Here -they resolved to found their settlement, which they agreed to call New -Plymouth. - -The winter was severe, and the infant colony was brought very near -to extinction. They had been badly fed on board the _Mayflower_, and -for some time after going on shore there was very imperfect shelter -from the weather. Sickness fell heavily on the worn-out Pilgrims. -Every second day a grave had to be dug in the frozen ground. By the -time spring came in there were only fifty survivors, and these sadly -enfeebled and dispirited. - -But all through this dismal winter the Pilgrims laboured at their heavy -task. The care of the sick, the burying of the dead, sadly hindered -their work; but the building of their little town went on. They found -that nineteen houses would contain their diminished numbers. These they -built. Then they surrounded them with a palisade. Upon an eminence -beside their town they erected a structure which served a double -purpose. Above, it was a fort, on which they mounted six cannon; below, -it was their church. Hitherto the Indians had been a cause of anxiety, -but had done them no harm. Now they felt safe. Indeed there had never -been much risk. A recent epidemic had swept off nine-tenths of the -Indians who inhabited that region, and the discouraged survivors could -ill afford to incur the hostility of their formidable visitors. - -The Pilgrims had been careful to provide for themselves a government. -They had drawn up and signed, in the cabin of the _Mayflower_, a -document forming themselves into a body politic, and promising -obedience to all laws framed for the general good. Under this -constitution they appointed John Carver to be their governor. They -dutifully acknowledged King James, but they left no very large place -for his authority. They were essentially a self-governing people. They -knew what despotism was, and they were very sure that democracy could -by no possibility be so bad. - -The welcome spring came at length, and “the birds sang in the woods -most pleasantly.” The health of the colony began somewhat to improve, -but there was still much suffering to endure. The summer passed not -unprosperously. They had taken possession of the deserted clearings of -the Indians, and had no difficulty in providing themselves with food. -But in the autumn came a ship with a new company of Pilgrims. This -was very encouraging; but unhappily the ship brought no provisions, -and the supplies of the colonists were not sufficient for this -unexpected addition. For six months there was only half allowance to -each. Such straits recurred frequently during the first two or three -years. Often the colonists knew not at night “where to have a bit in -the morning.” Once or twice the opportune arrival of a ship saved -them from famishing. They suffered much, but their cheerful trust in -Providence and in their own final triumph never wavered. They faced the -difficulties of their position with undaunted hearts. Slowly but surely -the little colony struck its roots and began to grow. - - * * * * * - -The years which followed the coming of the Pilgrims were years through -which good men in England found it bitter to live. Charles I. was upon -the throne; Laud was Archbishop of Canterbury. Bigotry as blind and -almost as cruel as England had ever seen thus sat in her high places. -Dissent from the Popish usages, which prevailed more and more in the -Church, was at the peril of life. A change was near. John Hampden was -farming his lands in Buckinghamshire. A greater than he--his cousin, -Oliver Cromwell--was leading his quiet rural life at Huntingdon, not -without many anxious and indignant thoughts about the evils of his -time. John Milton was peacefully writing his minor poems, and filling -his mind with the learning of the ancients. The Men had come, and the -Hour was at hand. But as yet King Charles and Archbishop Laud had it -all their own way. They fined and imprisoned every man who ventured -to think otherwise than they wished him to think: they slit his nose, -they cut off his ears, they gave him weary hours in the pillory. They -ordered that men should not leave the kingdom without the King’s -permission. Eight ships lay in the Thames, with their passengers on -board, when that order was given forth. The soldiers cleared the ships, -and the poor emigrants were driven back, in poverty and despair, to -endure the misery from which they were so eager to escape. - -New England was the refuge to which the wearied victims of this -senseless tyranny looked. The Pilgrims wrote to their friends at home, -and every letter was regarded with the interest due to a “sacred -script.” They had hardships to tell of at first; then they had -prosperity and comfort; always they had liberty. New England seemed a -paradise to men who were denied permission to worship God according -to the manner which they deemed right. Every summer a few ships -were freighted for the settlements. Many of the silenced ministers -came. Many of their congregations came, glad to be free, at whatever -sacrifice, from the tyranny which disgraced their native land. The -region around New Plymouth became too narrow for the population. From -time to time a little party would go forth, with a minister at its -head. With wives and children and baggage they crept slowly through -the swampy forest. By a week or two of tedious journeying they reached -some point which pleased their fancy, or to which they judged that -Providence had sent them. There they built their little town, with its -wooden huts, its palisade, its fort, on which one or two guns were -ultimately mounted. Thus were founded many of the cities of New England. - -For some years the difficulties which the colonists encountered were -almost overwhelming. There seemed at times even to be danger that -death by starvation would end the whole enterprise. But they were -a stout-hearted, patient, industrious people, and labour gradually -brought comfort. The virgin soil began to yield them abundant harvests. -They fished with such success that they manured their fields with -the harvest of the sea. They spun and they weaved. They felled the -timber of their boundless forests. They built ships, and sent away -to foreign countries the timber, the fish, the furs which were not -required at home. [Sidenote: 1643 A.D.] Ere many years a ship built -in Massachusetts sailed for London, followed by “many prayers of the -churches.” Their infant commerce was not without its troubles. They had -little or no coin, and Indian corn was made a legal tender. Bullets -were legalized in room of the farthings which, with their other coins, -had vanished to pay for foreign goods. But no difficulty could long -resist their steady, undismayed labour. - -They were a noble people who had thus begun to strike their roots in -the great forests of New England. Their peculiarities may indeed amuse -us. The Old Testament was their statute-book, and they deemed that the -institutions of Moses were the best model for those of New England. -They made attendance on public worship compulsory. They christened -their children by Old Testament names. They regulated female attire by -law. They considered long hair unscriptural, and preached against veils -and wigs. - -The least wise among us can smile at the mistakes into which the -Puritan Fathers of New England fell. But the most wise of all ages -will most profoundly reverence the purity, the earnestness, the -marvellous enlightenment of these men. From their incessant study of -the Bible they drew a love of human liberty unsurpassed in depth and -fervour. Coming from under despotic rule, they established at once -a government absolutely free. They felt--what Europe has not even -yet fully apprehended--that the citizens of a State should be able -to guide the affairs of that State without helpless dependence upon -a few great families; that the members of a Church ought to guide -the affairs of that Church, waiting for the sanction of no patron, -however noble and good. It was one of their fundamental laws that all -strangers professing the Christian religion and driven from their -homes by persecutors, should be succoured at the public charge. The -education of children was almost their earliest care. The Pilgrims bore -with them across the sea a deep persuasion that their infant State -could not thrive without education. Three years after the landing, -it was reported of them among the friends they had left in London, -that “their children were not catechised, nor taught to read.” The -colonists felt keenly this reproach. They utterly denied its justice. -They owned, indeed, that they had not yet attained to a school, much -as they desired it. But all parents did their best, each in the -education of his own children. In a very few years schools began to -appear. Such endowment as could be afforded was freely given. Some -tolerably qualified brother was fixed upon, and “entreated to become -schoolmaster.” And thus gradually the foundations were laid of the -noble school system of New England. Soon a law was passed that every -town containing fifty householders must have a common school; every -town of a hundred householders must have a grammar school. Harvard -College was established within fifteen years of the landing. - -The founders of New England were men who had known at home the value -of letters. Brewster carried with him a library of two hundred and -seventy-five volumes, and his was not the largest collection in the -colony. The love of knowledge was deep and universal. New England has -never swerved from her early loyalty to the cause of education. - -Every colonist was necessarily a soldier. The State provided him with -arms, if poor; required him to provide himself, if rich. His weapons -were sword, pike, and matchlock, with a forked stick on which to rest -his artillery in taking aim. The people were carefully trained to -the use of arms. In the devout spirit of the time, their drills were -frequently opened and closed with prayer. - -Twenty-three years after the landing of the Pilgrims the population -of New England had grown to twenty-four thousand. Forty-nine little -wooden towns, with their wooden churches, wooden forts, and wooden -ramparts, were dotted here and there over the land. There were four -separate colonies, which hitherto had maintained separate governments. -They were Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven. There -appeared at first a disposition in the Pilgrim mind to scatter widely, -and remain apart in small self-governing communities. For some years -every little band which pushed deeper into the wilderness settled -itself into an independent State, having no political relations -with its neighbours. But this isolation could not continue. The -wilderness had other inhabitants, whose presence was a standing menace. -Within “striking distance” there were Indians enough to trample out -the solitary little English communities. On their frontiers were -Frenchmen and Dutchmen--natural enemies, as all men in that time -were to each other. [Sidenote: 1643 A.D.] For mutual defence and -encouragement, the four colonies joined themselves into the United -Colonies of New England. This was the first confederation in a land -where confederations of unprecedented magnitude were hereafter to be -established. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE NEW ENGLAND PERSECUTIONS. - - -The Puritans left their native England and came to the “outside of the -world,” as they called it, that they might enjoy liberty to worship -God according to the way which they deemed right. They had discovered -that they themselves were entitled to toleration. They felt that the -restraints laid upon themselves were very unjust and very grievous. But -their light as yet led them no further. They had not discovered that -people who differed from them were as well entitled to be tolerated -as they themselves were. We have no right to blame them for their -backwardness. Simple as it seems, men have not all found out, even yet, -that every one of them is fully entitled to think for himself. - -[Sidenote: 1631 A.D.] And thus it happened that, before the Pilgrims -had enjoyed for many years the cheerful liberty of their new home, -doctrines raised their heads among them which they felt themselves -bound to suppress. One February day there stepped ashore at Boston a -young man upon whose coming great issues depended. His name was Roger -Williams. He was a clergyman--“godly and zealous”--a man of rare virtue -and power. Cromwell admitted him, in later years, to a considerable -measure of intimacy. He was the friend of John Milton--in the bright -days of the poet’s youth, ere yet “the ever-during dark” surrounded -him. From him Milton acquired his knowledge of the Dutch language. -He carried with him to the New World certain strange opinions. Long -thought had satisfied him that in regard to religious belief and -worship man is responsible to God alone. No man, said Williams, is -entitled to lay compulsion upon another man in regard to religion. -The civil power has to do only with the “bodies and goods and outward -estates” of men; in the domain of conscience God is the only ruler. -New England was not able to receive these sentiments. Williams became -minister at Salem, where he was held in high account. In time his -opinions drew down upon him the unfavourable notice of the authorities. -The General Court of Massachusetts brought him to trial for the errors -of his belief. His townsmen and congregation deserted him. His wife -reproached him bitterly with the evil he was bringing upon his family. -Mr. Williams could do no otherwise. He must testify with his latest -breath, if need be, against the “soul oppression” which he saw around -him. The court heard him, discovered error in his opinions, declared -him guilty, and pronounced upon him sentence of banishment. - -All honour to this good and brave, if somewhat eccentric man. He of all -the men of his time saw most clearly the beauty of absolute freedom in -matters of conscience. He went forth from Salem. He obtained a grant -of land from the Indians, and he founded the State of Rhode Island. -Landing one day from a boat in which he explored his new possessions, -he climbed a gentle slope, and rested with his companions beside a -spring. It seemed to him that the capital of his infant State ought -to be here. He laid the foundations of his city, which he named -Providence, in grateful recognition of the Power which had guided -his uncertain steps. His settlement was to be “a shelter for persons -distressed for conscience.” Most notably has it been so. Alone of all -the States of Christendom, Rhode Island has no taint of persecution -in her statute-book or in her history. Massachusetts continued to -drive out her heretics; Rhode Island took them in. They might err in -their interpretation of Scripture. Pity for themselves if they did -so. But while they obeyed the laws, they might interpret Scripture -according to the light they had. Many years after, Mr. Williams -became President of the colony which he had founded. The neighbouring -States were at that time sharply chastising the Quakers with lash and -branding-iron and gibbet. Rhode Island was invited to join in the -persecution. Mr. Williams replied that he had no law whereby to punish -any for their belief “as to salvation and an eternal condition.” He -abhorred the doctrines of the Quakers. In his seventy-third year he -rowed thirty miles in an open boat to wage a public debate with some -of the advocates of the system. Thus and thus only could he resist -the progress of opinions which he deemed pernicious. In beautiful -consistency and completeness stands out to the latest hour of his long -life this good man’s loyalty to the absolute liberty of the human -conscience. - -[Sidenote: 1651 A.D.] And thus, too, it happened that when seven or -eight men began to deny that infants should be baptized, New England -never doubted that she did right in forcibly trampling out their -heresy. The heretics had started a meeting of their own, where they -might worship God apart from those who baptized their infants. One -Sabbath morning the constable invaded their worship and forcibly bore -them away to church. Their deportment there was not unsuitable to the -manner of their inbringing. They audaciously clapped on their hats -while the minister prayed, and made no secret that they deemed it sin -to join in the services of those who practised infant baptism. For this -“separation of themselves from God’s people” they were put on trial. -They were fined, and some of the more obdurate among them were ordered -to be “well whipped.” We have no reason to doubt that this order was -executed in spirit as well as in letter. And then a law went forth that -every man who openly condemned the baptizing of infants should suffer -banishment. Thus resolute were the good men of New England that the -right which they had come so far to enjoy should not be enjoyed by -any one who saw a different meaning from theirs in any portion of the -Divine Word. - -[Sidenote: 1656 A.D.] Thus, too, when Massachusetts had reason to -apprehend the coming of certain followers of the Quaker persuasion, -she was smitten with a great fear. A fast-day was proclaimed, that -the alarmed people might “seek the face of God in reference to the -abounding of errors, especially those of the Ranters and Quakers.” As -they fasted, a ship was nearing their shores with certain Quaker women -on board. These unwelcome visitors were promptly seized and lodged in -prison; their books were burned by the hangman; they themselves were -sent away home by the ships which brought them. All ship-masters were -strictly forbidden to bring Quakers to the colony. A poor woman, the -wife of a London tailor, left her husband and her children, to bring, -as she said, a message from the Lord to New England. Her trouble was -but poorly bestowed; for they to whom her message came requited her -with twenty stripes and instant banishment. The banished Quakers -took the earliest opportunity of finding their way back. Laws were -passed dooming to death all who ventured to return. A poor fanatic -was following his plough in distant Yorkshire, when the word of the -Lord came to him saying, “Go to Boston.” He went, and the ungrateful -men of Boston hanged him. Four persons in all suffered death. Many -were whipped; some had their ears cut off. [Sidenote: 1661 A.D.] But -public opinion, which has always been singularly humane in America, -began to condemn these foolish cruelties. And the Quakers had friends -at home--friends who had access at Court. There came a letter in the -King’s name directing that the authorities of New England should -“forbear to proceed further against the Quakers.” That letter came by -the hands of a Quaker who was under sentence of death if he dared to -return. The authorities could not but receive it--could not but give -effect to it. The persecution ceased; and with it may be said to close, -in America, all forcible interference with the right of men to think -for themselves. - -The Quakers, as they are known to us, are of all sects the least -offensive. A persecution of this serene, thoughtful, self-restrained -people, may well surprise us. But, in justice to New England, it must -be told that the first generation of Quakers differed extremely from -succeeding generations. They were a fanatical people--extravagant, -disorderly, rejecters of lawful authority. A people more intractable, -more unendurable by any government, never lived. They were guided by -an “inner light,” which habitually placed them at variance with the -laws of the country in which they lived, as well as with the most -harmless social usages. George Fox declared that “the Lord forbade -him to put off his hat to any man.” His followers were inconveniently -and provokingly aggressive. They invaded public worship. They openly -expressed their contempt for the religion of their neighbours. They -perpetually came with “messages from the Lord,” which it was not -pleasant to listen to. They appeared in public places very imperfectly -attired, thus symbolically to express and to rebuke the spiritual -nakedness of the time. After a little, when their zeal allied itself -with discretion, they became a most valuable element in American -society. But we can scarcely wonder that they created alarm at first. -The men of New England took a very simple view of the subject. They -had bought and paid for every acre of soil which they occupied. Their -country was a homestead from which they might exclude whom they -chose. They would not receive men whose object was to overthrow all -their institutions, civil and religious. It was a mistake, but a most -natural mistake. Long afterwards, when New England saw her error, -she nobly made what amends she could, by giving compensation to the -representatives of those Quakers who had suffered in the evil times. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. - - -When the Pilgrims left their native land, the belief in witchcraft was -universal. England, in much fear, busied herself with the slaughter -of friendless old women who were suspected of an alliance with Satan. -King James had published his book on Demonology a few years before, in -which he maintained that to forbear from putting witches to death was -an “odious treason against God.” England was no wiser than her King. -All during James’s life, and long after he had ceased from invading the -kingdom of Satan, the yearly average of executions for witchcraft was -somewhere about five hundred. - -The Pilgrims carried with them across the Atlantic the universal -delusion, which their way of life was fitted to strengthen. They lived -on the verge of vast and gloomy forests. The howl of the wolf and the -scream of the panther sounded nightly around their cabins. Treacherous -savages lurked in the woods watching the time to plunder and to slay. -Every circumstance was fitted to increase the susceptibility of the -mind to gloomy and superstitious impressions. But for the first quarter -of a century, while every ship brought news of witch-killing at home, -no Satanic outbreak disturbed the settlers. The sense of brotherhood -was yet too strong among them. Men who have braved great dangers and -endured great hardships together, do not readily come to look upon -each other as the allies and agents of the Evil One. - -In 1645 four persons were put to death for witchcraft. During the next -half century there occur at intervals solitary cases, when some unhappy -wretch falls a victim to the lurking superstition. It was in 1692 that -witch-slaying burst forth in its epidemic form, and with a fury which -has seldom been witnessed elsewhere. - -In the State of Massachusetts there is a little town, then called -Salem, sitting pleasantly in a plain between two rivers; and in the -town of Salem there dwelt at that time a minister whose name was Paris. -In the month of February the daughter and niece of Mr. Paris became -ill. It was a dark time for Massachusetts; for the colony was at war -with the French and Indians, and was suffering cruelly from their -ravages. The doctors sat in solemn conclave on the afflicted girls, and -pronounced them bewitched. Mr. Paris, not doubting that it was even so, -bestirred himself to find the offenders. Suspicion fell upon three old -women, who were at once seized. And then, with marvellous rapidity, the -mania spread. The rage and fear of the distracted community swelled -high. Every one suspected his neighbour. Children accused their -parents; parents accused their children. The prisons could scarcely -contain the suspected. The town of Falmouth hanged its minister, a man -of intelligence and worth. Some near relations of the Governor were -denounced. Even the beasts were not safe. A dog was solemnly put to -death for the part he had taken in some satanic festivity. - -For more than twelve months this mad panic raged in the New England -States. It is just to say that the hideous cruelties which were -practised in Europe were not resorted to in the prosecution of American -witches. Torture was not inflicted to wring confession from the victim. -The American test was more humane, and not more foolish, than the -European. Those suspected persons who denied their guilt, were judged -guilty and hanged; those who confessed were, for the most part, set -free. Many hundreds of innocent persons, who scorned to purchase life -by falsehood, perished miserably under the fury of an excited people. - -The fire had been kindled in a moment; it was extinguished as suddenly. -The Governor of Massachusetts only gave effect to the reaction -which had occurred in the public mind, when he abruptly stopped all -prosecutions against witches, dismissed all the suspected, pardoned all -the condemned. The House of Assembly proclaimed a fast--entreating that -God would pardon the errors of his people “in a late tragedy raised by -Satan and his instruments.” One of the judges stood up in church in -Boston, with bowed down head and sorrowful countenance, while a paper -was read, in which he begged the prayers of the congregation, that -the innocent blood which he had erringly shed might not be visited on -the country or on him. The Salem jury asked forgiveness of God and -the community for what they had done under the power of “a strong and -general delusion.” Poor Mr. Paris was now at a sad discount. He made -public acknowledgment of his error. But at his door lay the origin of -all this slaughter of the unoffending. His part in the tragedy could -not be forgiven. The people would no longer endure his ministry, and -demanded his removal. Mr. Paris resigned his charge, and went forth -from Salem a broken man. - -If the error of New England was great and most lamentable, her -repentance was prompt and deep. Five-and-twenty years after she had -clothed herself in sackcloth, old women were still burned to death for -witchcraft in Great Britain. The year of blood was never repeated in -America. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE INDIANS. - - -The great continent on which the Pilgrims had landed was the home of -innumerable tribes of Indians. They had no settled abode. The entire -nation wandered hither and thither as their fancy or their chances of -successful hunting directed. When the wood was burned down in their -neighbourhood, or the game became scarce, they abandoned their villages -and moved off to a more inviting region. They had their great warriors, -their great battles, their brilliant victories, their crushing -defeats--all as uninteresting to mankind as the wars of the kites and -crows. They were a race of tall, powerful men--copper-coloured, with -hazel eye, high cheek-bone, and coarse black hair. In manner they -were grave, and not without a measure of dignity. They had courage, -but it was of that kind which is greater in suffering than in doing. -They were a cunning, treacherous, cruel race, among whom the slaughter -of women and children took rank as a great feat of arms. They had -almost no laws, and for religious beliefs a few of the most grovelling -superstitions. They worshipped the Devil because he was wicked, and -might do them an injury. Civilization could lay no hold upon them. They -quickly learned to use the white man’s musket; they never learned to -use the tools of the white man’s industry. They developed a love for -intoxicating drink passionate and irresistible beyond all example. -The settlers behaved to them as Christian men should. They took no -land from them; what land they required they bought and paid for. -Every acre of New England soil was come by with scrupulous honesty. -The friendship of the Indians was anxiously cultivated--sometimes from -fear, oftener from pity. But nothing could stay their progress towards -extinction. Inordinate drunkenness and the gradual limitation of their -hunting-grounds told fatally on their numbers. And occasionally the -English were forced to march against some tribe which refused to be at -peace, and to inflict a defeat which left few survivors. - -[Sidenote: 1646 A.D.] Early in the history of New England, efforts -were made to win the Indians to the Christian faith. The Governor of -Massachusetts appointed ministers to carry the gospel to the savages. -Mr. John Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians, was a minister near Boston. -Moved by the pitiful condition of the natives, he acquired the language -of some of the tribes in his neighbourhood. He went and preached to -them in their own tongue. He printed books for them. The savages -received his words. Many of them listened to his sermons in tears. -Many professed faith in Christ, and were gathered into congregations. -He gave them a simple code of laws. It was even attempted to establish -a college for training native teachers; but this had to be abandoned. -The slothfulness of the Indian youth, and their devouring passion for -strong liquors, unfitted them for the ministry. These vices seemed -incurable in the Indian character. No persuasion could induce them to -labour. They could be taught to rest on the Sabbath; they could not -be taught to work on the other six days. And even the best of them -would sell all they had for spirits. These were grave hindrances; but, -in spite of them, Christianity made considerable progress among the -Indians. The hold which it then gained was never altogether lost. And -it was observed that in all the misunderstandings which arose between -the English and the natives, the converts steadfastly adhered to their -new friends. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -NEW YORK. - - -During the first forty years of its existence, the great city which -we call New York was a Dutch settlement, known among men as New -Amsterdam. [Sidenote: 1609 A.D.] That region had been discovered for -the Dutch East India Company by Henry Hudson, who was still in search, -as Columbus had been, of a shorter route to the East. The Dutch have -never displayed any aptitude for colonizing. But they were unsurpassed -in mercantile discernment, and they set up trading stations with much -judgment. Three or four years after the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, -the Dutch West India Company determined to enter into trading relations -with the Indians along the line of the Hudson river. They sent out -a few families, who planted themselves at the southern extremity of -Manhattan Island. A wooden fort was built, around which clustered a -few wooden houses--just as in Europe the baron’s castle arose and the -huts of the baron’s dependants sheltered beside it. The Indians sold -valuable furs for scanty payment in blankets, beads, muskets, and -intoxicating drinks. The prudent Dutchmen grew rich, and were becoming -numerous. [Sidenote: 1643 A.D.] But a fierce and prolonged war with the -Indians broke out. The Dutch, having taken offence at something done by -the savages, expressed their wrath by the massacre of an entire tribe. -All the Indians of that region made common cause against the dangerous -strangers. All the Dutch villages were burned down. Long Island became -a desert. The Dutchmen were driven in to the southern tip of the island -on which New York stands. They ran a palisade across the island in the -line of what is now Wall Street. To-day, Wall Street is the scene of -the largest monetary transactions ever known among men. The hot fever -of speculation rages there incessantly, with a fury unknown elsewhere. -But then, it was the line within which a disheartened and diminishing -band of colonists strove to maintain themselves against a savage foe. - -[Sidenote: 1645 A.D.] The war came to an end as wars even then required -to do. For twenty years the colony continued to nourish under the -government of a sagacious Dutchman called Petrus Stuyvesant. Petrus -had been a soldier, and had lost a leg in the wars. He was a brave and -true-hearted man, but withal despotic. When his subjects petitioned for -some part in the making of laws, he was astonished at their boldness. -He took it upon him to inspect the merchants’ books. He persecuted the -Lutherans and “the abominable sect of Quakers.” - -It cannot be said that his government was faultless. The colony -prospered under it, however, and a continued immigration from Europe -increased its importance. But in the twentieth year, certain English -ships of war sailed up the bay, and, without a word of explanation, -anchored near the settlement. Governor Petrus was from home, but they -sent for him, and he came with speed. He hastened to the fort and -looked out into the bay. There lay the ships--grim, silent, ominously -near. Appalled by the presence of his unexpected visitors, the Governor -sent to ask wherefore they had come. His alarm was well founded; for -Charles II. of England had presented to his brother James of York a -vast stretch of territory, including the region which the Dutch had -chosen for their settlement. It was not his to give, but that signified -nothing either to Charles or to James. These ships had come to take -possession in the Duke of York’s name. A good many of the colonists -were English, and they were well pleased to be under their own -Government. They would not fight. The Dutch remembered the Governor’s -tyrannies, and they would not fight. Governor Petrus was prepared to -fight single-handed. He had the twenty guns of the fort loaded, and -was resolute to fire upon the ships. So at least he professed. But the -inhabitants begged him, in mercy to them, to forbear; and he suffered -himself to be led by two clergymen away from the loaded guns. It was -alleged, to his disparagement, afterwards, that he had “allowed himself -to be persuaded by ministers and other chicken-hearted persons.” Be -that as it may, King Charles’s errand was done. The little town of -fifteen hundred inhabitants, with all the neighbouring settlements, -passed quietly under English rule. And the future Empire City was named -New York, in honour of one of the meanest tyrants who ever disgraced -the English throne. With the settlements on the Hudson there fell also -into the hands of the English those of New Jersey, which the Dutch had -conquered from the Swedes. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PENNSYLVANIA. - - -It was not till the year 1682 that the uneventful but quietly -prosperous career of Pennsylvania began. The Stuarts were again upon -the throne of England. They had learned nothing from their exile; and -now, with the hour of their final rejection at hand, they were as -wickedly despotic as ever. - -William Penn was the son of an admiral who had gained victories for -England, and enjoyed the favour of the royal family as well as of the -eminent statesmen of his time. The highest honours of the State would -in due time have come within the young man’s reach, and the brightest -hopes of his future were reasonably entertained by his friends. To the -dismay of all, Penn became a Quaker. It was an unspeakable humiliation -to the well-connected admiral. He turned his son out of doors, trusting -that hunger would subdue his intractable spirit. After a time, however, -he relented, and the youthful heretic was restored to favour. His -father’s influence could not shield him from persecution. Penn had -suffered fine, and had lain in the Tower for his opinions. - -Ere long the admiral died, and Penn succeeded to his possessions. It -deeply grieved him that his brethren in the faith should endure such -wrongs as were continually inflicted upon them. He could do nothing at -home to mitigate the severities under which they groaned, therefore -he formed the great design of leading them forth to a new world. -King Charles owed to the admiral a sum of £16,000, and this doubtful -investment had descended from the father to the son. Penn offered to -take payment in land, and the King readily bestowed upon him a vast -region stretching westward from the river Delaware. Here Penn proposed -to found a State free and self-governing. It was his noble ambition -“to show men as free and as happy as they can be.” He proclaimed to -the people already settled in his new dominions that they should be -governed by laws of their own making. “Whatever sober and free men can -reasonably desire,” he told them, “for the security and improvement of -their own happiness, I shall heartily comply with.” He was as good as -his word. The people appointed representatives, by whom a Constitution -was framed. Penn confirmed the arrangements which the people chose to -adopt. - -Penn dealt justly and kindly with the Indians, and they requited him -with a reverential love such as they evinced to no other Englishman. -The neighbouring colonies waged bloody wars with the Indians -who lived around them--now inflicting defeats which were almost -exterminating--now sustaining hideous massacres. Penn’s Indians were -his children and most loyal subjects. No drop of Quaker blood was ever -shed by Indian hand in the Pennsylvanian territory. Soon after Penn’s -arrival he invited the chief men of the Indian tribes to a conference. -The meeting took place beneath a huge elm-tree. The pathless forest has -long given way to the houses and streets of Philadelphia, but a marble -monument points out to strangers the scene of this memorable interview. -Penn, with a few companions, unarmed, and dressed according to the -simple fashion of their sect, met the crowd of formidable savages. -They met, he assured them, as brothers “on the broad pathway of good -faith and good will.” No advantage was to be taken on either side. All -was to be “openness and love;” and Penn meant what he said. Strong in -the power of truth and kindness, he bent the fierce savages of the -Delaware to his will. They vowed “to live in love with William Penn and -his children as long as the moon and the sun shall endure.” They kept -their vow. Long years after, they were known to recount to strangers, -with deep emotion, the words which Penn had spoken to them under the -old elm-tree of Shakamaxon. - -The fame of Penn’s settlement went abroad in all lands. Men wearied -with the vulgar tyranny of Kings heard gladly that the reign of freedom -and tranquillity was established on the banks of the Delaware. An -asylum was opened “for the good and oppressed of every nation.” Of -these there was no lack. Pennsylvania had nothing to attract such -“dissolute persons” as had laid the foundations of Virginia. But grave -and God-fearing men from all the Protestant countries sought a home -where they might live as conscience taught them. The new colony grew -apace. Its natural advantages were tempting. Penn reported it as “a -good land, with plentiful springs, the air clear and fresh, and an -innumerable quantity of wild-fowl and fish; what Abraham, Isaac, and -Jacob would be well-contented with.” During the first year, twenty-two -vessels arrived, bringing two thousand persons. In three years, -Philadelphia was a town of six hundred houses. It was half a century -from its foundation before New York attained equal dimensions. - -When Penn, after a few years, revisited England, he was able truly to -relate that “things went on sweetly with Friends in Pennsylvania; that -they increased finely in outward things and in wisdom.” - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -GEORGIA. - - -The thirteen States which composed the original Union were, Virginia, -Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Delaware, -Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, South -Carolina, and Georgia. - -[Sidenote: 1732 A.D.] Of these the latest born was Georgia. Only fifty -years had passed since Penn established the Quaker State on the banks -of the Delaware. But changes greater than centuries have sometimes -wrought had taken place. The Revolution had vindicated the liberties -of the British people. The tyrant house of Stuart had been cast out, -and with its fall the era of despotic government had closed. The real -governing power was no longer the King, but the Parliament. - -Among the members of Parliament during the rule of Sir Robert Walpole -was one almost unknown to us now, but deserving of honour beyond most -men of his time. His name was James Oglethorpe. He was a soldier, and -had fought against the Turks and in the great Marlborough wars against -Louis XIV. In advanced life he became the friend of Samuel Johnson. -Dr. Johnson urged him to write some account of his adventures. “I know -no one,” he said, “whose life would be more interesting: if I were -furnished with materials I should be very glad to write it.” Edmund -Burke considered him “a more extraordinary person than any he had ever -read of.” John Wesley “blessed God that ever he was born.” Oglethorpe -attained the great age of ninety-six, and died in the year 1785. The -year before his death he attended the sale of Dr. Johnson’s books, and -was there met by Samuel Rogers the poet. “Even then,” says Rogers, “he -was the finest figure of a man you ever saw; but very, very old--the -flesh of his face like parchment.” - -In Oglethorpe’s time it was in the power of a creditor to imprison, -according to his pleasure, the man who owed him money and was not able -to pay it. It was a common circumstance that a man should be imprisoned -during a long series of years for a trifling debt. Oglethorpe had a -friend upon whom this hard fate had fallen. His attention was thus -painfully called to the cruelties which were inflicted upon the -unfortunate and helpless. He appealed to Parliament, and after inquiry -a partial remedy was obtained. The benevolent exertions of Oglethorpe -procured liberty for multitudes who but for him might have ended their -lives in captivity. - -This, however, did not content him. Liberty was an incomplete gift to -men who had lost, or perhaps had scarcely ever possessed, the faculty -of earning their own maintenance. Oglethorpe devised how he might carry -these unfortunates to a new world, where, under happier auspices, they -might open a fresh career. [Sidenote: 1732 A.D.] He obtained from King -George II. a charter by which the country between the Savannah and the -Alatamaha, and stretching westward to the Pacific, was erected into -the province of Georgia. It was to be a refuge for the deserving poor, -and next to them for Protestants suffering persecution. Parliament -voted £10,000 in aid of the humane enterprise, and many benevolent -persons were liberal with their gifts. In November the first exodus -of the insolvent took place. Oglethorpe sailed with one hundred and -twenty emigrants, mainly selected from the prisons--penniless, but -of good repute. He surveyed the coasts of Georgia, and chose a site -for the capital of his new State. He pitched his tent where Savannah -now stands, and at once proceeded to mark out the line of streets and -squares. - -Next year the colony was joined by about a hundred German Protestants, -who were then under persecution for their beliefs. The colonists -received this addition to their numbers with joy. A place of residence -had been chosen for them which the devout and thankful strangers -named Ebenezer. They were charmed with their new abode. The river and -the hills, they said, reminded them of home. They applied themselves -with steady industry to the cultivation of indigo and silk; and they -prospered. - -The fame of Oglethorpe’s enterprise spread over Europe. All struggling -men against whom the battle of life went hard looked to Georgia as -a land of promise. They were the men who most urgently required to -emigrate; but they were not always the men best fitted to conquer the -difficulties of the immigrant’s life. The progress of the colony was -slow. The poor persons of whom it was originally composed were honest -but ineffective, and could not in Georgia more than in England find out -the way to become self-supporting. Encouragements were given which drew -from Germany, from Switzerland, and from the Highlands of Scotland, men -of firmer texture of mind--better fitted to subdue the wilderness and -bring forth its treasures. - -[Sidenote: 1736 A.D.] With Oglethorpe there went out, on his second -expedition to Georgia, the two brothers John and Charles Wesley. -Charles went as secretary to the Governor. John was even then, although -a very young man, a preacher of unusual promise. He burned to spread -the gospel among the settlers and their Indian neighbours. He spent two -years in Georgia, and these were unsuccessful years. His character was -unformed; his zeal out of proportion to his discretion. The people felt -that he preached “personal satires” at them. He involved himself in -quarrels, and at last had to leave the colony secretly, fearing arrest -at the instance of some whom he had offended. He returned to begin his -great career in England, with the feeling that his residence in Georgia -had been of much value to himself, but of very little to the people -whom he sought to benefit. - -Just as Wesley reached England, his fellow-labourer George Whitefield -sailed for Georgia. There were now little settlements spreading -inland, and Whitefield visited these, bearing to them the word of -life. He founded an Orphan-House at Savannah, and supported it by -contributions--obtained easily from men under the power of his -unequalled eloquence. He visited Georgia very frequently, and his love -for that colony remained with him to the last. - -Slavery was, at the outset, forbidden in Georgia. It was opposed to the -gospel, Oglethorpe said, and therefore not to be allowed. He foresaw, -besides, what has been so bitterly experienced since, that slavery must -degrade the poor white labourer. But soon a desire sprung up among -the less scrupulous of the settlers to have the use of slaves. Within -seven years from the first landing, slave-ships were discharging their -cargoes at Savannah. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -SLAVERY. - - -In the month of December 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers landed from the -_Mayflower_. Their landing takes rank among our great historical -transactions. The rock which first received their footsteps is a -sacred spot, to which the citizens of great and powerful States make -reverential pilgrimages. And right it should be so; for the vast -influence for good which New England exerts, and must ever exert, in -the world’s affairs, has risen upon the foundation laid by these sickly -and storm-wearied Pilgrims. - -A few months previously another landing had taken place, destined in -the fulness of time to bear the strangest of fruits. In the month of -August a Dutch ship of war sailed up the James river and put twenty -negroes ashore upon the Virginian coast. It was a wholly unnoticed -proceeding. No name or lineage had these sable strangers. No one cared -to know from what tribe they sprang, or how it fared with them in their -sorrowful journeying. Yet these men were Pilgrim Fathers too. They were -the first negro slaves in a land whose history, during the next century -and a half, was to receive a dark, and finally a bloody, colouring from -the fact of Negro Slavery. - - * * * * * - -The negro slave trade was an early result of the discovery of -America. To utilize the vast possessions which Columbus had bestowed -upon her, Spain deemed that compulsory labour was indispensable. -The natives of the country naturally fell the first victims to this -necessity. Terrible desolations were wrought among the poor Indians. -Proud and melancholy, they could not be reconciled to their bondage. -They perished by thousands under the merciless hand of their new -task-masters. - -[Sidenote: 1542 A.D.] Charles V. heard with remorse of this ruin of the -native races. Indian slavery was at once and peremptorily forbidden. -But labourers must be obtained, or those splendid possessions would -relapse into wilderness. Spanish merchants traded to the coasts of -Africa, where they bought gold dust and ivory for beads and ribands -and scarlet cloaks. They found there a harmless idle people, whose -simple wants were supplied without effort on their part; and who, in -the absence of inducement, neither laboured nor fought. The Spaniards -bethought them of these men to cultivate their fields, to labour in -their mines. They were gentle and tractable; they were heathens, and -therefore the proper inheritance of good Catholics; by baptism and -instruction in the faith their souls would be saved from destruction. -Motives of the most diverse kinds urged the introduction of the negro. -At first the traffic extended no further than to criminals. Thieves and -murderers, who must otherwise have been put to death, enriched their -chiefs by the purchase-money which the Spaniards were eager to pay. But -on all that coast no rigour of law could produce offenders in numbers -sufficient to meet the demand. Soon the limitation ceased. Unoffending -persons were systematically kidnapped and sold. The tribes went to -war in the hope of taking prisoners whom they might dispose of to the -Spaniards. - -England was not engaged in that traffic at its outset. Ere long her -hands were as deeply tainted with its guilt as those of any other -country. But for a time her intercourse with Africa was for blameless -purposes of commerce. And while that continued the English were -regarded with confidence by the Africans. [Sidenote: 1557 A.D.] At -length one John Lok, a shipmaster, stole five black men and brought -them to London. The next Englishman who visited Africa found that that -theft had damaged the good name of his countrymen. His voyage was -unprofitable, for the natives feared him. When this was told in London -the mercantile world was troubled, for the African trade was a gainful -one. The five stolen men were conveyed safely home again. - -This was the opening of our African slave-trade. Then, for the first -time, did our fathers feel the dark temptation, and thus hesitatingly -did they at first yield to its power. The traffic in gold dust and -ivory continued. Every Englishman who visited the African coast had -occasion to know how actively and how profitably Spain, and Portugal -too, traded in slaves. He knew that on all that rich coast there was no -merchandise so lucrative as the unfortunate people themselves. It was -not an age when such seductions could be long withstood. The English -traders of that day were not the men to be held back from a gainful -traffic by mere considerations of humanity. - -[Sidenote: 1562 A.D.] Sir John Hawkins made the first English venture -in slave-trading. He sailed with three vessels to Sierra Leone. There, -by purchase or by violence, he possessed himself of three hundred -negroes. With this freight he crossed the Atlantic, and at St. Domingo -he sold the whole to a great profit. The fame of his gains caused -sensation in England, and he was encouraged to undertake a second -expedition. Queen Elizabeth and many of her courtiers took shares in -the venture. After many difficulties, Hawkins collected five hundred -negroes. His voyage was a troublous one. He was beset with calms; water -ran short, and it was feared that a portion of the cargo must have been -flung overboard. “Almighty God, however,” says this devout man-stealer, -“who never suffers his elect to perish,” brought him to the West Indies -without loss of a man. But there had arrived before him a rigorous -interdict from the King of Spain against the admission of foreign -vessels to any of his West Indian ports. Hawkins was too stout-hearted -to suffer such frustration of his enterprise. After some useless -negotiation, he landed a hundred men with two pieces of cannon; landed -and sold his negroes; paid the tax which he himself had fixed; and soon -in quiet England divided his gains with his royal and noble patrons. -Thus was the slave-trade established in England. Three centuries after, -we look with horror and remorse upon the results which have followed. - -In most of the colonies there was unquestionably a desire for -the introduction of the negro. But ere many years the colonists -became aware that they were rapidly involving themselves in grave -difficulties. The increase of the coloured population alarmed them. -Heavy debts, incurred for the purchase of slaves, disordered their -finances. The production of tobacco, indigo, and other articles of -Southern growth, exceeded the demand, and prices fell ruinously low. -There were occasionally proposals made--although not very favourably -entertained--with a view to emancipation. But the opposition of the -colonists to the African slave-trade was very decided. Very frequent -attempts to limit the traffic were made even in the Southern colonies, -where slave labour was most valuable. [Sidenote: 1787 A.D.] Soon after -the Revolution, several Slave-owning States prohibited the importation -of slaves. The Constitution provided that Congress might suppress the -slave-trade after the lapse of twenty years. But for the resistance of -South Carolina and Georgia the prohibition would have been immediate. -[Sidenote: 1807 A.D.] And at length, at the earliest moment when it was -possible, Congress gave effect to the general sentiment by enacting -“that no slaves be imported into any of the thirteen United Colonies.” - -And why had this not been done earlier? If the colonists were sincere -in their desire to suppress this base traffic, why did they not -suppress it? The reason is not difficult to find. England would -not permit them. England forced the slave-trade upon the reluctant -colonists. The English Parliament watched with paternal care over -the interests of this hideous traffic. During the first half of the -eighteenth century Parliament was continually legislating to this -effect. Every restraint upon the largest development of the trade was -removed with scrupulous care. Everything that diplomacy could do to -open new markets was done. When the colonists sought by imposing a -tax to check the importation of slaves, that tax was repealed. Land -was given free, in the West Indies, on condition that the settler -should keep four negroes for every hundred acres. Forts were built -on the African coast for the protection of the trade. So recently as -the year 1749 an Act was passed bestowing additional encouragements -upon slave-traders, and emphatically asserting “the slave-trade is -very advantageous to Great Britain.” There are no passages in all our -history so humiliating as these. - -It is marvellous that such things were done--deliberately, and with all -the solemnities of legal sanction--by men not unacquainted with the -Christian religion, and humane in all the ordinary relations of life. -The Popish Inquisition inflicted no suffering more barbarously cruel -than was endured by the victim of the slave-trader. Hundreds of men -and women, with chains upon their limbs, were packed closely together -into the holds of small vessels. There, during weeks of suffering, they -remained, enduring fierce tropical heat, often deprived of water and of -food. They were all young and strong, for the fastidious slave-trader -rejected men over thirty as uselessly old. But the strength of the -strongest sunk under the horrors of this voyage. Often it happened that -the greater portion of the cargo had to be flung overboard. Under the -most favourable circumstances, it was expected that one slave in every -five would perish. In every cargo of five hundred, one hundred would -suffer a miserable death. And the public sentiment of England fully -sanctioned a traffic of which these horrors were a necessary part. - -At one time the idea was prevalent in the colonies that it was contrary -to Scripture to hold a baptized person in slavery. The colonists did -not on that account liberate their slaves. They escaped the difficulty -in the opposite direction. They withheld baptism and religious -instruction. England took some pains to put them right on this -question. The bishops of the Church and the law-officers of the Crown -issued authoritative declarations, asserting the entire lawfulness of -owning Christians. The colonial legislatures followed with enactments -to the same effect. The colonists, thus reassured, gave consent that -the souls of their unhappy dependants should be cared for. - -Up to the Revolution it was estimated that three hundred thousand -negroes had been brought into the country direct from Africa. The -entire coloured population was supposed to amount to nearly half a -million. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -EARLY GOVERNMENT. - - -There was at the outset considerable diversity of pattern among the -governments of the colonies. As time wore on, the diversity lessened, -and one great type becomes visible in all. There is a Governor -appointed by the King. There is a Parliament chosen by the people. -Parliament holds the purse-strings. The Governor applies for what -moneys the public service seems to him to require. Parliament, as a -rule, grants his demands; but not without consideration, and a distinct -assertion of its right to refuse should cause appear. As the Revolution -drew near, the function of the Governor became gradually circumscribed -by the pressure of the Assemblies. When the Governor, as representing -the King, fell into variance with the popular will, the representatives -of the people assumed the whole business of government. The most loyal -of the colonies resolutely defied the encroachments of the King or his -Governor. They had a pleasure and a pride in their connection with -England; but they were at the same time essentially a self-governing -people. From the government which existed before the Revolution it was -easy for them to step into a federal union. The colonists had all their -interests and all their grievances in common. It was natural for them, -when trouble arose, to appoint representatives who should deliberate -regarding their affairs. These representatives required an executive -to give practical effect to their resolutions. The officer who was -appointed for that purpose was called, not King, but President; and was -chosen, not for life, but for four years. By this simple and natural -process arose the American Government. - -At first Virginia was governed by two Councils, one of which was -English and the other Colonial. Both were entirely under the King’s -control. In a very few years the representative system was introduced, -and a popular assembly, over whose proceedings the Governor retained -the right of veto, regulated the affairs of the colony. Virginia was -the least democratic of the colonies. Her leanings were always towards -monarchy. She maintained her loyalty to the Stuarts. Charles II. -ruled her in his exile, and was crowned in a robe of Virginian silk, -presented by the devoted colonists. The baffled Cavaliers sought refuge -in Virginia from the hateful triumph of Republicanism. Virginia refused -to acknowledge the Commonwealth, and had to be subjected by force. When -the exiled House was restored, her joy knew no bounds. - -The New England States were of different temper and different -government. While yet on board the _Mayflower_, the Pilgrims, as -we have seen, formed themselves into a body politic, elected their -Governor, and bound themselves to submit to his authority, “confiding -in his prudence that he would not adventure upon any matter of moment -without consent of the rest.” Every church member was an elector. For -sixty years this democratic form of government was continued, till the -despotic James II. overturned it in the closing years of his unhappy -reign. The Pilgrims carried with them from England a bitter feeling -of the wrongs which Kings had inflicted on them, and they arrived in -America a people fully disposed to govern themselves. They cordially -supported Cromwell. Cromwell, on his part, so highly esteemed the -people of New England, that he invited them to return to Europe, and -offered them settlements in Ireland. They delayed for two years to -proclaim Charles II. when he was restored to the English throne. They -sheltered the regicides who fled from the King’s vengeance. They hailed -the Revolution, by which the Stuarts were expelled and constitutional -monarchy set up in England. Of all the American colonies, those of New -England were the most democratic, and the most intolerant of royal -interference with their liberties. - -New York was bestowed upon the Duke of York, who for a time appointed -the Governor. Pennsylvania was a grant to Penn, who exercised the -same authority. Ultimately, however, in all cases, the appointment of -Governor rested with the King, while the representatives were chosen by -the people. - - - - -Book Second. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -GEORGE WASHINGTON. - - -In the year 1740 there fell out a great European war. There was some -doubt who should fill the Austrian throne. The emperor had just died, -leaving no son or brother to inherit his dignities. His daughter, Maria -Theresa, stepped into her father’s place, and soon made it apparent -that she was strong enough to maintain what she had done. Two or three -Kings thought they had a better right than she to the throne. The other -Kings ranged themselves on this side or on that. The idea of looking -on while foolish neighbours destroyed themselves by senseless war, had -not yet been suggested. Every King took part in a great war, and sent -his people forth to slay and be slain, quite as a matter of course. So -they raised great armies, fought great battles, burned cities, wasted -countries, inflicted and endured unutterable miseries, all to settle -the question about this lady’s throne. But the lady was of a heroic -spirit, well worthy to govern, and she held her own, and lived and died -an empress. - -During these busy years, a Virginian mother, widowed in early life, -was training up her eldest son in the fear of God--all unaware, as -she infused the love of goodness and duty into his mind, that she was -giving a colour to the history of her country throughout all its -coming ages. That boy’s name was George Washington. He was born in -1732. His father--a gentleman of good fortune, with a pedigree which -can be traced beyond the Norman Conquest--died when his son was eleven -years of age. Upon George’s mother devolved the care of his upbringing. -She was a devout woman, of excellent sense and deep affections; but -a strict disciplinarian, and of a temper which could brook no shadow -of insubordination. Under her rule--gentle, and yet strong--George -learned obedience and self-control. In boyhood he gave remarkable -promise of those excellences which distinguished his mature years. His -schoolmates recognized the calm judicial character of his mind, and -he became in all their disputes the arbiter from whose decision there -was no appeal. He inherited his mother’s love of command, happily -tempered by a lofty disinterestedness and a love of justice, which -seemed to render it impossible that he should do or permit aught that -was unfair. His person was large and powerful. His face expressed the -thoughtfulness and serene strength of his character. He excelled in all -athletic exercises. His youthful delight in such pursuits developed his -physical capabilities to the utmost, and gave him endurance to bear the -hardships which lay before him. - -Young gentlemen of Virginia were not educated then so liberally as -they have been since. It was presumed that Washington would be a mere -Virginian proprietor and farmer, as his father had been; and his -education was no higher than that position then demanded. He never -learned any language but his own. The teacher of his early years -was also the sexton of the parish. And even when he was taken to an -institution of a more advanced description, he attempted no higher -study than the keeping of accounts and the copying of legal and -mercantile papers. A few years later, it was thought he might enter the -civil or military service of his country; and he was put to the study -of mathematics and land-surveying. - -George Washington did nothing by halves. In youth, as in manhood, he -did thoroughly what he had to do. His school exercise books are models -of neatness and accuracy. His plans and measurements made while he -studied land-surveying were as scrupulously exact as if great pecuniary -interests depended upon them. In his eighteenth year he was employed -by Government as surveyor of public lands. Many of his surveys were -recorded in the county offices, and remain to this day. Long experience -has established their unvarying accuracy. In all disputes to which they -have any relevancy, their evidence is accepted as decisive. During the -years which preceded the Revolution he managed his estates, packed and -shipped his own tobacco and flour, kept his own books, conducted his -own correspondence. His books may still be seen. Perhaps no clearer or -more accurate record of business transactions has been kept in America -since the Father of American Independence rested from book-keeping. -The flour which he shipped to foreign ports came to be known as his, -and the Washington brand was habitually exempted from inspection. A -most reliable man; his words and his deeds, his professions and his -practice, are ever found in most perfect harmony. By some he has -been regarded as a stolid, prosaic person, wanting in those features -of character which captivate the minds of men. It was not so. In an -earlier age George Washington would have been a true knight-errant with -an insatiable thirst for adventure and a passionate love of battle. -He had in high degree those qualities which make ancient knighthood -picturesque. But higher qualities than these bore rule within him. He -had wisdom beyond most, giving him deep insight into the wants of his -time. He had clear perceptions of the duty which lay to his hand. What -he saw to be right, the strongest impulses of his soul constrained him -to do. A massive intellect and an iron strength of will were given to -him, with a gentle, loving heart, with dauntless courage, with purity -and loftiness of aim. He had a work of extraordinary difficulty to -perform. History rejoices to recognize in him a revolutionary leader -against whom no questionable transaction has ever been alleged. - -The history of America presents, in one important feature, a very -striking contrast to the history of nearly all older countries. In -the old countries, history gathers round some one grand central -figure--some judge, or priest, or king--whose biography tells all -that has to be told concerning the time in which he lived. That one -predominating person--David, Alexander, Cæsar, Napoleon--is among his -people what the sun is in the planetary system. All movement originates -and terminates in him, and the history of the people is merely a record -of what he has chosen to do or caused to be done. In America it has not -been so. The American system leaves no room for predominating persons. -It affords none of those exhibitions of solitary, all-absorbing -grandeur which are so picturesque, and have been so pernicious. Her -history is a history of her people, and of no conspicuous individuals. -Once only in her career is it otherwise. During the lifetime of George -Washington her history clings very closely to him; and the biography -of her great chief becomes in a very unusual degree the history of the -country. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. - - -While Washington’s boyhood was being passed on the banks of the -Potomac, a young man, destined to help him in gaining the independence -of the country, was toiling hard in the city of Philadelphia to earn an -honest livelihood. His name was Benjamin Franklin; his avocations were -manifold. He kept a small stationer’s shop; he edited a newspaper; he -was a bookbinder; he made ink; he sold rags, soap, and coffee. He was -also a printer, employing a journeyman and an apprentice to aid him in -his labours. He was a thriving man; but he was not ashamed to convey -along the streets, in a wheelbarrow, the paper which he bought for the -purposes of his trade. As a boy he had been studious and thoughtful; -as a man he was prudent, sagacious, trustworthy. His prudence was, -however, somewhat low-toned and earthly. He loved and sought to marry a -deserving young woman, who returned his affection. There was in those -days a debt of one hundred pounds upon his printing-house. He demanded -that the father of the young lady should pay off this debt. The father -was unable to do so. Whereupon the worldly Benjamin decisively broke -off the contemplated alliance. - -When he had earned a moderate competency he ceased to labour at his -business. Henceforth he laboured to serve his fellow-men. Philadelphia -owes to Franklin her university, her hospital, her fire-brigade, her -first and greatest library. - -He earned renown as a man of science. It had long been his thought that -lightning and electricity were the same; but he found no way to prove -the truth of his theory. [Sidenote: 1752 A.D.] At length he made a -kite fitted suitably for his experiment. He stole away from his house -during a thunder-storm, having told no one but his son, who accompanied -him. The kite was sent up among the stormy clouds, and the anxious -philosopher waited. For a time no response to his eager questioning was -granted, and Franklin’s countenance fell. But at length he felt the -welcome shock, and his heart thrilled with the high consciousness that -he had added to the sum of human knowledge. - -[Sidenote: 1766 A.D.] When the troubles arose in connection with the -Stamp Act, Franklin was sent to England to defend the rights of the -colonists. The vigour of his intellect, the matured wisdom of his -opinions, gained for him a wonderful supremacy over the men with whom -he was brought into contact. He was examined before Parliament. Edmund -Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined by a -parcel of schoolboys, so conspicuously was the witness superior to his -interrogators. - -[Sidenote: 1777 A.D.] Franklin was an early advocate of independence, -and aided in preparing the famous Declaration. In all the councils of -that eventful time he bore a leading part. He was the first American -Ambassador to France; and the good sense and vivacity of the old -printer gained for him high favour in the fashionable world of Paris. -He lived to aid in framing the Constitution under which America has -enjoyed prosperity so great. [Sidenote: 1799 A.D.] Soon after he passed -away. A few months before his death he wrote to Washington:--“I am now -finishing my eighty-fourth year, and probably with it my career in this -life; but in whatever state of existence I am placed hereafter, if I -retain any memory of what has passed here, I shall with it retain the -esteem, respect, and affection with which I have long regarded you.” - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE VALLEY OF THE OHIO. - - -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which gave a brief repose to Europe, left -unsettled the contending claims of France and England upon American -territory. [Sidenote: 1748 A.D.] France had possessions in Canada -and also in Louisiana, at the extreme south, many hundreds of miles -away. She claimed the entire line of the Mississippi river, with its -tributaries; and she had given effect to her pretensions by erecting -forts at intervals to connect her settlements in the north with those -in the south. Her claim included the Valley of the Ohio. This was a -vast and fertile region, whose value had just been discovered by the -English. It was yet unpeopled; but its vegetation gave evidence of -wealth unknown to the colonists in the eastern settlements. The French, -to establish their claim, sent three hundred soldiers into the valley, -and nailed upon the trees leaden plates which bore the royal arms of -France. They strove by gifts and persuasion to gain over the natives, -and expelled the English traders who had made their adventurous way -into those recesses. The English, on their part, were not idle. A -great trading company was formed, which, in return for certain grants -of land, became bound to colonize the valley, to establish trading -relations with the Indians, and to maintain a competent military force. -This was in the year 1749. In that age there was but one solution of -such difficulties. Governments had not learned to reason; they could -only fight. Early in 1751 both parties were actively preparing for war. -That war went ill with France. When the sword was sheathed in 1759, she -had lost not only Ohio, but the whole of Canada. - -[Sidenote: 1754 A.D.] When the fighting began it was conducted on -the English side wholly by the colonists. Virginia raised a little -army. Washington, then a lad of twenty-one, was offered the command, -so great was the confidence already felt in his capacity. It was war -in miniature as yet. The object of Washington in the campaign was to -reach a certain fort on the Ohio, and hold it as a barrier against -French encroachment. He had his artillery to carry with him, and to -render that possible he had to make a road through the wilderness. He -struggled heroically with the difficulties of his position, but he -could not advance at any better speed than two miles a-day; and he was -not destined to reach the fort on the Ohio. After toiling on as he best -might for six weeks, he learned that the French were seeking him with -a force far outnumbering his. He halted, and hastily constructed a -rude intrenchment, which he called Fort Necessity, because his men had -nearly starved while they worked at it. He had three hundred Virginians -with him, and some Indians. The Indians deserted so soon as occasion -arose for their services. The French attack was not long withheld. -Early one summer morning a sentinel came in bleeding from a French -bullet. All that day the fight lasted. At night the French summoned -Washington to surrender. The garrison were to march out with flag and -drum, leaving only their artillery. Washington could do no better, and -he surrendered. Thus ended the first campaign in the war which was to -drive France from Ohio and Canada. Thus opened the military career -of the man who was to drive England from the noblest of her colonial -possessions. - -But now the English Government awoke to the necessity of vigorous -measures to rescue the endangered Valley of the Ohio. A campaign -was planned which was to expel the French from Ohio, and wrest from -them some portions of their Canadian territory. The execution of this -great design was intrusted to General Braddock, with a force which -it was deemed would overbear all resistance. Braddock was a veteran -who had seen the wars of forty years. Among the fields on which he -had gained his knowledge of war was Culloden, where he had borne a -part in trampling out the rebellion of the Scotch. He was a brave and -experienced soldier, and a likely man, it was thought, to do the work -assigned to him. But that proved a sad miscalculation. Braddock had -learned the rules of war; but he had no capacity to comprehend its -principles. In the pathless forests of America he could do nothing -better than strive to give literal effect to those maxims which he had -found applicable in the well-trodden battle-grounds of Europe. - -The failure of Washington in his first campaign had not deprived him -of public confidence. Braddock heard such accounts of his efficiency -that he invited him to join his staff. Washington, eager to efface the -memory of his defeat, gladly accepted the offer. - -[Sidenote: 1755 A.D.] The troops disembarked at Alexandria. The -colonists, little used to the presence of regular soldiers, were -greatly emboldened by their splendid aspect and faultless discipline, -and felt that the hour of final triumph was at hand. After some delay, -the army, with such reinforcements as the province afforded, began -its march. Braddock’s object was to reach Fort Du Quesne, the great -centre of French influence on the Ohio. It was this same fort of which -Washington endeavoured so manfully to possess himself in his disastrous -campaign of last year. - -Fort Du Quesne had been built by the English, and taken from them -by the French. It stood at the confluence of the Alleghany and -Monongahela; which rivers, by their union at this point, form the Ohio. -It was a rude piece of fortification, but the circumstances admitted -of no better. The fort was built of the trunks of trees; wooden huts -for the soldiers surrounded it. A little space had been cleared in the -forest, and a few patches of wheat and Indian corn grew luxuriantly in -that rich soil. The unbroken forest stretched all around. Three years -later the little fort was retaken by the English, and named Fort Pitt. -Then in time it grew to be a town, and was called Pittsburg. And men -found in its neighbourhood boundless wealth of iron and of coal. To-day -a great and fast-growing city stands where, a century ago, the rugged -fort with its cluster of rugged huts were the sole occupants. And the -rivers, then so lonely, are ploughed by many keels; and the air is dark -with the smoke of innumerable furnaces. The judgment of the sagacious -Englishmen who deemed this a locality which they would do well to get -hold of, has been amply borne out by the experience of posterity. - -Braddock had no doubt that the fort would yield to him directly he -showed himself before it. Benjamin Franklin looked at the project with -his shrewd, cynical eye. He told Braddock that he would assuredly -take the fort if he could only reach it; but that the long slender -line which his army must form in its march “would be cut like thread -into several pieces” by the hostile Indians. Braddock “smiled at his -ignorance.” Benjamin offered no further opinion. It was his duty to -collect horses and carriages for the use of the expedition, and he did -what was required of him in silence. - -The expedition crept slowly forward, never achieving more than three -or four miles in a day; stopping, as Washington said, “to level every -mole-hill, to erect a bridge over every brook.” It left Alexandria on -the 20th April. On the 9th July Braddock, with half his army, was near -the fort. There was yet no evidence that resistance was intended. No -enemy had been seen; the troops marched on as to assured victory. So -confident was their chief, that he refused to employ scouts, and did -not deign to inquire what enemy might be lurking near. - -The march was along a road twelve feet wide, in a ravine, with high -ground in front and on both sides. Suddenly the Indian war-whoop -burst from the woods. A murderous fire smote down the troops. The -provincials, not unused to this description of warfare, sheltered -themselves behind trees and fought with steady courage. Braddock, -clinging to his old rules, strove to maintain his order of battle on -the open ground. A carnage, most grim and lamentable, was the result. -His undefended soldiers were shot down by an unseen foe. For three -hours the struggle lasted; then the men broke and fled in utter rout -and panic. Braddock, vainly fighting, fell mortally wounded, and was -carried off the field by some of his soldiers. The poor pedantic man -never got over his astonishment at a defeat so inconsistent with the -established rules of war. “Who would have thought it?” he murmured, -as they bore him from the field. He scarcely spoke again, and died in -two or three days. Nearly eight hundred men, killed and wounded, were -lost in this disastrous encounter--about one-half of the entire force -engaged. - -All the while England and France were nominally at peace. But now war -was declared. The other European powers fell into their accustomed -places in the strife, and the flames of war spread far and wide. On -land and on sea the European people strove to shed blood and destroy -property, and thus produce human misery to the largest possible -extent. At the outset every fight brought defeat and shame to England. -English armies under incapable leaders were sent out to America and -ignominiously routed by the French. On the continent of Europe the -uniform course of disaster was scarcely broken by a single victory. -Even at sea, England seemed to have fallen from her high estate, and -her fleets turned back from the presence of an enemy. - -The rage of the people knew no bounds. The admiral who had not fought -the enemy when he should have done so, was hanged. The Prime Minister -began to tremble for his neck. One or two disasters more, and the -public indignation might demand a greater victim than an unfortunate -admiral. The Ministry resigned, and William Pitt, afterwards Earl of -Chatham, came into power. - -And then, all at once, the scene changed, and there began a career -of triumph more brilliant than even England had ever known. The -French fleets were destroyed; French possessions all over the world -were seized; French armies were defeated. Every post brought news of -victory. For once the English people, greedy as they are of military -glory, were satisfied. - -[Sidenote: 1759 A.D.] One of the most splendid successes of Pitt’s -administration was gained in America. The colonists had begun to lose -respect for the English army and the English Government, but Pitt -quickly regained their confidence. They raised an army of 50,000 men to -help his schemes for the extinction of French power. A strong English -force was sent out, and a formidable invasion of Canada was organized. - -Most prominent among the strong points held by the French was the city -of Quebec. Thither in the month of June came a powerful English fleet, -with an army under the command of General Wolfe. Captain James Cook, -the famous navigator, who discovered so many of the sunny islands -of the Pacific, was master of one of the ships. Quebec stands upon -a peninsula formed by the junction of the St. Charles and the St. -Lawrence rivers. The lower town was upon the beach; the upper was on -the cliffs, which at that point rise precipitously to a height of two -hundred feet. Wolfe tried the effect of a bombardment. He laid the -lower town in ruins very easily, but the upper town was too remote from -his batteries to sustain much injury. It seemed as if the enterprise -would prove too much for the English, and the sensitive Wolfe was -thrown by disappointment and anxiety into a violent fever. But he -was not the man to be baffled. The shore for miles above the town was -carefully searched. An opening was found whence a path wound up the -cliffs. Here Wolfe would land his men, and lead them to the Heights of -Abraham. Once there, they would defeat the French and take Quebec, or -die where they stood. - -On a starlight night in September the soldiers were embarked in boats -which dropped down the river to the chosen landing-place. As the boat -which carried Wolfe floated silently down, he recited to his officers -Gray’s “Elegy in a Country Churchyard,” then newly received from -England; and he exclaimed at its close, “I would rather be the author -of that poem than take Quebec to-morrow.” He was a man of feeble bodily -frame, but he wielded the power which genius in its higher forms -confers. Amid the excitements of impending battle he could walk, with -the old delight, in the quiet paths of literature. - -The soldiers landed and clambered, as they best might, up the rugged -pathway. All through the night armed men stepped silently from the -boats and silently scaled those formidable cliffs. The sailors -contrived to drag up a few guns. When morning came, the whole army -stood upon the Heights of Abraham ready for the battle. - -[Sidenote: 1759 A.D.] Montcalm, the French commander, was so utterly -taken by surprise that he refused at first to believe the presence -of the English army. He lost no time in marching forth to meet his -unexpected assailants. The conflict which followed was fierce but not -prolonged. The French were soon defeated and put to flight; Quebec -surrendered. But Montcalm did not make that surrender, nor did Wolfe -receive it. Both generals fell in the battle. Wolfe died happy that the -victory was gained. Montcalm was thankful that death spared him the -humiliation of giving up Quebec. They died as enemies; but the men of -a new generation, thinking less of the accidents which made them foes -than of the noble courage and devotedness which united them, placed -their names together upon the monument which marks out to posterity the -scene of this decisive battle. - -France did not quietly accept her defeat. Next year she made an attempt -to regain Quebec. It was all in vain. In due time the success of the -English resulted in a treaty of peace, under which France ceded to -England all her claims upon Canada. Spain at the same time relinquished -Florida. England had now undisputed possession of the western -continent, from the region of perpetual winter to the Gulf of Mexico. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -AMERICA ON THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. - - -A century and a half had now passed since the first colony had been -planted on American soil. The colonists were fast ripening into -fitness for independence. They had increased with marvellous rapidity. -Europe never ceased to send forth her superfluous and needy thousands. -America opened wide her hospitable arms and gave assurance of liberty -and comfort to all who came. The thirteen colonies now contained a -population of about three million. - -They were eminently a trading people, and their foreign commerce was -already large and lucrative. New England built ships with the timber of -her boundless forests, and sold them to foreign countries. She caught -fish and sent them to the West Indies. She killed whales and sent the -oil to England. New York and Pennsylvania produced wheat, which Spain -and Portugal were willing to buy. Virginia clung to the tobacco-plant, -which Europe was not then, any more than she is now, wise enough to -dispense with. The swampy regions of Carolina and Georgia produced rice -sufficient to supply the European demand. As yet cotton does not take -any rank in the list of exports. But the time is near. Even now Richard -Arkwright is brooding over improvements in the art of spinning cotton. -When these are perfected the growing of cotton will rise quickly to a -supremacy over all the industrial pursuits. - -England had not learned to recognize the equality of her colonists -with her own people. The colonies were understood to exist not for -their own good so much as for the good of the mother country. Even -the chimney-sweepers, as Lord Chatham asserted, might be heard in the -streets of London talking boastfully of their subjects in America. -Colonies were settlements “established in distant parts of the world -for the benefit of trade.” As such they were most consistently -treated. The Americans could not import direct any article of foreign -production. Everything must be landed in England and re-shipped thence, -that the English merchant might have profit. One exemption only was -allowed from the operation of this law--the products of Africa, the -unhappy negroes, were conveyed direct to America, and every possible -encouragement was given to that traffic. Notwithstanding the illiberal -restrictions of the home government, the imports of America before the -Revolution had risen almost to the value of three million sterling. - -New England had, very early, established her magnificent system of -Common Schools. For two or three generations these had been in full -operation. The people of New England were now probably the most -carefully instructed people in the world. There could not be found a -person born in New England unable to read and write. It had always been -the practice of the Northern people to settle in townships or villages -where education was easily carried to them. In the South it had not -been so. There the Common Schools had taken no root. It was impossible -among a population so scattered. The educational arrangements of the -South have never been adequate to the necessities of the people. - -In the early years of America, the foundations were laid of those -differences in character and interest which have since produced -results of such magnitude. The men who peopled the Eastern States had -to contend with a somewhat severe climate and a comparatively sterile -soil. These disadvantages imposed upon them habits of industry and -frugality. Skilled labour alone could be of use in their circumstances. -They were thus mercifully rescued from the curse of slavery--by the -absence of temptation, it may be, rather than by superiority of virtue. -Their simple purity of manners remained long uncorrupted. The firm -texture of mind which upheld them in their early difficulties remained -unenfeebled. Their love of liberty was not perverted into a passion for -supremacy. Among them labour was not degraded by becoming the function -of a despised race. In New England labour has always been honourable. -A just-minded, self-relying, self-helping people, vigorous in acting, -patient in enduring--it was evident from the outset that they, at -least, would not disgrace their ancestry. - -The men of the South were very differently circumstanced. Their climate -was delicious; their soil was marvellously fertile; their products were -welcome in the markets of the world; unskilled labour was applicable -in the rearing of all their great staples. Slavery being exceedingly -profitable, struck deep roots very early. It was easy to grow rich. The -colonists found themselves not the employers merely, but the owners of -their labourers. They became aristocratic in feeling and in manners, -resembling the picturesque chiefs of old Europe rather than mere -prosaic growers of tobacco and rice. They had the virtues of chivalry, -and also its vices. They were generous, open-handed, hospitable; but -they were haughty and passionate, improvident, devoted to pleasure and -amusement more than to work of any description. Living apart, each on -his own plantation, the education of children was frequently imperfect, -and the planter himself was bereft of that wholesome discipline to -mind and to temper which residence among equals confers. The two great -divisions of States--those in which slavery was profitable, and those -in which it was unprofitable--were unequally yoked together. Their -divergence of character and interest continued to increase, till it -issued in one of the greatest of recorded wars. - -Up to the year 1764, the Americans cherished a deep reverence and -affection for the mother country. They were proud of her great place -among the nations. They gloried in the splendour of her military -achievements; they copied her manners and her fashions. She was in -all things their model. They always spoke of England as “home.” To be -an Old England man was to be a person of rank and importance among -them. They yielded a loving obedience to her laws. They were governed, -as Benjamin Franklin stated it, at the expense of a little pen and -ink. When money was asked from their Assemblies, it was given without -grudge. “They were led by a thread,”--such was their love for the land -which gave them birth. - -Ten or twelve years came and went. A marvellous change has passed -upon the temper of the American people. They have bound themselves by -great oaths to use no article of English manufacture--to engage in no -transaction which can put a shilling into any English pocket. They -have formed “the inconvenient habit of carting,”--that is, of tarring -and feathering and dragging through the streets such persons as avow -friendship for the English Government. They burn the Acts of the -English Parliament by the hands of the common hangman. They slay the -King’s soldiers. They refuse every amicable proposal. They cast from -them for ever the King’s authority. They hand down a dislike to the -English name, of which some traces lingered among them for generations. - -By what unhallowed magic has this change been wrought so swiftly? By -what process, in so few years, have three million people been taught to -abhor the country they so loved? - -The ignorance and folly of the English Government wrought this evil. -But there is little cause for regret. Under the fuller knowledge of our -modern time, colonies are allowed to discontinue their connection with -the mother country when it is their wish to do so. Better had America -gone in peace. But better she went, even in wrath and bloodshed, than -continued in paralyzing dependence upon England. - -For many years England had governed her American colonies harshly, and -in a spirit of undisguised selfishness. America was ruled, not for her -own good, but for the good of English commerce. She was not allowed -to export her products except to England. No foreign ship might enter -her ports. Woollen goods were not allowed to be sent from one colony -to another. At one time the manufacture of hats was forbidden. In a -liberal mood Parliament removed that prohibition, but decreed that no -maker of hats should employ any negro workman, or any larger number of -apprentices than two. Iron-works were forbidden. Up to the latest hour -of English rule the Bible was not allowed to be printed in America. - -The Americans had long borne the cost of their own government and -defence. But in that age of small revenue and profuse expenditure on -unmeaning continental wars, it had been often suggested that America -should be taxed for the purposes of the home Government. Some one -proposed that to Sir Robert Walpole in a time of need. The wise Sir -Robert shook his head. It must be a bolder man than he was who would -attempt that. A man bolder, because less wise, was found in due time. - -[Sidenote: 1764 A.D.] The Seven Years’ War had ended, and England -had added a hundred million to her national debt. The country was -suffering, as countries always do after great wars, and it was no -easy matter to fit the new burdens on to the national shoulder. The -hungry eye of Lord Grenville searched where a new tax might be laid. -The Americans had begun visibly to prosper. Already their growing -wealth was the theme of envious discourse among English merchants. The -English officers who had fought in America spoke in glowing terms of -the magnificent hospitality which had been extended to them. No more -need be said. The House of Commons passed a resolution asserting their -right to tax the Americans. No solitary voice was raised against this -fatal resolution. Immediately after, an Act was passed imposing certain -taxes upon silks, coffee, sugar, and other articles. The Americans -remonstrated. They were willing, they said, to vote what moneys the -King required of them, but they vehemently denied the right of any -Assembly in which they were not represented to take from them any -portion of their property. They were the subjects of the King, but they -owed no obedience to the English Parliament. Lord Grenville went on his -course. He had been told the Americans would complain but submit, and -he believed it. Next session an Act was passed imposing Stamp Duties -on America. The measure awakened no interest. Edmund Burke said he had -never been present at a more languid debate. In the House of Lords -there was no debate at all. With so little trouble was a continent rent -away from the British Empire. - -[Sidenote: 1765 A.D.] Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that -America would never submit to the Stamp Act, and that no power on earth -could enforce it. The Americans made it impossible for Government -to mistake their sentiments. Riots, which swelled from day to day -into dimensions more “enormous and alarming,” burst forth in the New -England States. Everywhere the stamp distributers were compelled to -resign their offices. One unfortunate man was led forth to Boston -Common, and made to sign his resignation in presence of a vast crowd. -Another, in desperate health, was visited in his sick-room and obliged -to pledge that if he lived he would resign. A universal resolution was -come to that no English goods would be imported till the Stamp Act -was repealed. The colonists would “eat nothing, drink nothing, wear -nothing that comes from England,” while this great injustice endured. -The Act was to come into force on the 1st of November. That day the -bells rang out funereal peals, and the colonists wore the aspect of men -on whom some heavy calamity has fallen. But the Act never came into -force. Not one of Lord Grenville’s stamps was ever bought or sold in -America. Some of the stamped paper was burned by the mob; the rest was -hidden away to save it from the same fate. Without stamps, marriages -were null; mercantile transactions ceased to be binding; suits at law -were impossible. Nevertheless the business of human life went on. Men -married; they bought, they sold; they went to law;--illegally, because -without stamps. But no harm came of it. - -England heard with amazement that America refused to obey the law. -There were some who demanded that the Stamp Act should be enforced by -the sword. But it greatly moved the English merchants that America -should cease to import their goods. William Pitt--not yet Earl of -Chatham--denounced the Act, and said he was glad America had resisted. -[Sidenote: 1766 A.D.] Pitt and the merchants triumphed, and the Act was -repealed. There was illumination in the city that night. The city bells -rang for joy; the ships in the Thames displayed all their colours. The -saddest heart in all London was that of poor King George, who never -ceased to lament “the fatal repeal of the Stamp Act.” All America -thrilled with joy and pride when news arrived of the great triumph. -They voted Pitt a statue; they set apart a day for public rejoicing; -all prisoners for debt were set free. A great deliverance had been -granted, and the delight of the gladdened people knew no bounds. The -danger is over for the present; but whosoever governs America now has -need to walk warily. - -It was during the agitation arising out of the Stamp Act that the idea -of a General Congress of the States was suggested. A loud cry for union -had arisen. “Join or die” was the prevailing sentiment. The Congress -met in New York. It did little more than discuss and petition. It -is interesting merely as one of the first exhibitions of a tendency -towards federal union in a country whose destiny, in all coming time, -this tendency was to fix. - -The repeal of the Stamp Act delayed only for a little the fast-coming -crisis. A new Ministry was formed, with the Earl of Chatham at its -head. But soon the great Earl lay sick and helpless, and the burden -of government rested on incapable shoulders. Charles Townshend, a -clever, captivating, but most indiscreet man, became the virtual -Prime Minister. The feeling in the public mind had now become more -unfavourable to America. Townshend proposed to levy a variety of taxes -from the Americans. The most famous of his taxes was one of threepence -per pound on tea. All his proposals became law. - -This time the more thoughtful Americans began to despair of justice. -The boldest scarcely ventured yet to suggest revolt against England, -so powerful and so loved. But the grand final refuge of independence -was silently brooded over by many. The mob fell back on their customary -solution. Great riots occurred. To quell these disorders English -troops encamped on Boston Common. The town swarmed with red-coated -men, every one of whom was a humiliation. Their drums beat on Sabbath, -and troubled the orderly men of Boston, even in church. At intervals -fresh transports dropped in, bearing additional soldiers, till a great -force occupied the town. The galled citizens could ill brook to be -thus bridled. The ministers prayed to Heaven for deliverance from the -presence of the soldiers. The General Court of Massachusetts called -vehemently on the Governor to remove them. The Governor had no powers -in that matter. He called upon the court to make suitable provision for -the King’s troops,--a request which it gave the court infinite pleasure -to refuse. - -[Sidenote: 1770 A.D.] The universal irritation broke forth in frequent -brawls between soldiers and people. One wintry moonlight night in -March, when snow and ice lay about the streets of Boston, a more than -usually determined attack was made upon a party of soldiers. The mob -thought the soldiers dared not fire without the order of a magistrate, -and were very bold in the strength of that belief. It proved a mistake. -The soldiers did fire, and the blood of eleven slain or wounded -persons stained the frozen streets. This was “the Boston Massacre,” -which greatly inflamed the patriot antipathy to the mother country. - -Two or three unquiet years passed, and no progress towards a settlement -of differences had been made. From all the colonies there came, loud -and unceasing, the voice of complaint and remonstrance. It fell upon -unheeding ears, for England was committed. To her honour be it said, it -was not in the end for money that she alienated her children. The tax -on tea must be maintained to vindicate the authority of England. But -when the tea was shipped, such a drawback was allowed that the price -would actually have been lower in America than it was at home. - -The Americans had, upon the whole, kept loyally to their purpose of -importing no English goods, specially no goods on which duty could -be levied. Occasionally, a patriot of the more worldly-minded sort -yielded to temptation, and secretly despatched an order to England. -He was forgiven, if penitent. If obdurate, his name was published, -and a resolution of the citizens to trade no more with a person so -unworthy soon brought him to reason. But, in the main, the colonists -were true to their bond, and when they could no longer smuggle they -ceased to import. The East India Company accumulated vast quantities of -unsaleable tea, for which a market must be found. [Sidenote: 1773 A.D.] -Several ships were freighted with tea, and sent out to America. - -Cheaper tea was never seen in America; but it bore upon it the abhorred -tax which asserted British control over the property of Americans. -Will the Americans, long bereaved of the accustomed beverage, yield to -the temptation, and barter their honour for cheap tea? The East India -Company never doubted it; but the Company knew nothing of the temper of -the American people. The ships arrived at New York and Philadelphia. -These cities stood firm. The ships were promptly sent home--their -hatches unopened--and duly bore their rejected cargoes back to the -Thames. - -When the ships destined for Boston showed their tall masts in the bay, -the citizens ran together to hold council. It was Sabbath, and the -men of Boston were strict. But here was an exigency, in presence of -which all ordinary rules are suspended. The crisis has come at length. -If that tea is landed it will be sold, it will be used, and American -liberty will become a byword upon the earth. - -Samuel Adams was the true King in Boston at that time. He was a -man in middle life, of cultivated mind and stainless reputation--a -powerful speaker and writer--a man in whose sagacity and moderation -all men trusted. He resembled the old Puritans in his stern love of -liberty--his reverence for the Sabbath--his sincere, if somewhat -formal, observance of all religious ordinances. He was among the first -to see that there was no resting-place in this struggle short of -independence. “We are free,” he said, “and want no King.” The men of -Boston felt the power of his resolute spirit, and manfully followed -where Samuel Adams led. - -It was hoped that the agents of the East India Company would have -consented to send the ships home; but the agents refused. Several -days of excitement and ineffectual negotiation ensued. People flocked -in from the neighbouring towns. The time was spent mainly in public -meeting; the city resounded with impassioned discourse. But meanwhile -the ships lay peacefully at their moorings, and the tide of patriot -talk seemed to flow in vain. Other measures were visibly necessary. -One day a meeting was held, and the excited people continued in hot -debate till the shades of evening fell. No progress was made. At length -Samuel Adams stood up in the dimly-lighted church, and announced, “This -meeting can do nothing more to save the country.” With a stern shout -the meeting broke up. Fifty men disguised as Indians hurried down to -the wharf, each man with a hatchet in his hand. The crowd followed. -The ships were boarded; the chests of tea were brought on deck, broken -up, and flung into the bay. The approving citizens looked on in -silence. It was felt by all that the step was grave and eventful in the -highest degree. So still was the crowd that no sound was heard but the -stroke of the hatchet and the splash of the shattered chests as they -fell into the sea. All questions about the disposal of those cargoes of -tea at all events are now solved. - - * * * * * - -This is what America has done; it is for England to make the next move. -Lord North was now at the head of the British Government. It was his -lordship’s belief that the troubles in America sprang from a small -number of ambitious persons, and could easily, by proper firmness, be -suppressed. “The Americans will be lions while we are lambs,” said -General Gage. The King believed this, and Lord North believed it. In -this deep ignorance he proceeded to deal with the great emergency. -He closed Boston as a port for the landing and shipping of goods. He -imposed a fine to indemnify the East India Company for their lost teas. -He withdrew the Charter of Massachusetts. He authorized the Governor to -send political offenders to England for trial. Great voices were raised -against these severities. Lord Chatham, old in constitution now, if -not in years, and near the close of his career, pled for measures of -conciliation. Edmund Burke justified the resistance of the Americans. -Their opposition was fruitless. All Lord North’s measures of repression -became law; and General Gage, with an additional force of soldiers, -was sent to Boston to carry them into effect. Gage was an authority -on American affairs. He had fought under Braddock. Among blind men -the one-eyed man is king; among the profoundly ignorant, the man with -a little knowledge is irresistibly persuasive. “Four regiments sent -to Boston,” said the hopeful Gage, “will prevent any disturbance.” -He was believed; but, unhappily for his own comfort, he was sent to -Boston to secure the fulfilment of his own prophecy. He threw up some -fortifications and lay as in a hostile city. The Americans appointed a -day of fasting and humiliation. They did more. They formed themselves -into military companies; they occupied themselves with drill; they laid -up stores of ammunition. Most of them had muskets, and could use them. -He who had no musket now got one. They hoped that civil war would be -averted, but there was no harm in being ready. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Sept. 5, 1774 A.D.] While General Gage was throwing up his -fortifications at Boston, there met in Philadelphia a Congress of -delegates, sent by the States, to confer in regard to the troubles -which were thickening round them. Twelve States were represented. -Georgia as yet paused timidly on the brink of the perilous enterprise. -They were notable men who met there, and their work is held in enduring -honour. “For genuine sagacity, for singular moderation, for solid -wisdom,” said the great Earl of Chatham, “the Congress of Philadelphia -shines unrivalled.” The low-roofed quaint old room in which their -meetings were held, became one of the shrines which Americans delight -to visit. George Washington was there, and his massive sense and -copious knowledge were a supreme guiding power. Patrick Henry, then -a young man, brought to the council a wisdom beyond his years, and a -fiery eloquence, which, to some of his hearers, seemed almost more -than human. He had already proved his unfitness for farming and for -shop-keeping. He was now to prove that he could utter words which swept -over a continent, thrilling men’s hearts like the voice of the trumpet, -and rousing them to heroic deeds. John Routledge from South Carolina -aided him with an eloquence little inferior to his own. Richard Henry -Lee, with his Roman aspect, his bewitching voice, his ripe scholarship, -his rich stores of historical and political knowledge, would have -graced the highest assemblies of the Old World. John Dickenson, the -wise farmer from the banks of the Delaware, whose Letters had done so -much to form the public sentiment--his enthusiastic love of England -overborne by his sense of wrong--took regretful but resolute part in -withstanding the tyranny of the English Government. - -We have the assurance of Washington that the members of this Congress -did not aim at independence. As yet it was their wish to have wrongs -redressed and to continue British subjects. Their proceedings give -ample evidence of this desire. They drew up a narrative of their -wrongs. As a means of obtaining redress, they adopted a resolution that -all commercial intercourse with Britain should cease. They addressed -the King, imploring his majesty to remove those grievances which -endangered their relations with him. They addressed the people of Great -Britain, with whom, they said, they deemed a union as their greatest -glory and happiness; adding, however, that they would not be hewers of -wood and drawers of water to any nation in the world. They appealed -to their brother colonists of Canada for support in their peaceful -resistance to oppression. But Canada, newly conquered from France, -was peopled almost wholly by Frenchmen. A Frenchman of that time was -contented to enjoy such an amount of liberty and property as his King -was pleased to permit. And so from Canada there came no response of -sympathy or help. - -Here Congress paused. Some members believed, with Washington, that -their remonstrances would be effectual. Others, less sanguine, looked -for no settlement but that which the sword might bring. They adjourned, -to meet again next May. This is enough for the present. What further -steps the new events of that coming summer may call for, we shall be -prepared, with God’s help, to take. - -England showed no relenting in her treatment of the Americans. The -King gave no reply to the address of Congress. The Houses of Lords -and of Commons refused even to allow that address to be read in their -hearing. The King announced his firm purpose to reduce the refractory -colonists to obedience. Parliament gave loyal assurances of support to -the blinded monarch. All trade with the colonies was forbidden. All -American ships and cargoes might be seized by those who were strong -enough to do so. The alternative presented to the American choice was -without disguise--the Americans had to fight for their liberty, or -forego it. The people of England had, in those days, no control over -the government of their country. All this was managed for them by a few -great families. Their allotted part was to toil hard, pay their taxes, -and be silent. If they had been permitted to speak, their voice would -have vindicated the men who asserted the right of self-government--a -right which Englishmen themselves were not to enjoy for many a long -year. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1775 A.D.] General Gage had learned that considerable stores -of ammunition were collected at the village of Concord, eighteen -miles from Boston. He would seize them in the King’s name. Late one -April night eight hundred soldiers set out on this errand. They hoped -their coming would be unexpected, as care had been taken to prevent -the tidings from being carried out of Boston. But as they marched, -the clang of bells and the firing of guns gave warning far and near -of their approach. In the early morning they reached Lexington. Some -hours before, a body of militia awaited them there. But the morning was -chill and the hour untimely, and the patriots were allowed to seek the -genial shelter of the tavern, under pledge to appear at beat of drum. -Seventy of them did so, mostly, we are told, “in a confused state.” -Major Pitcairn commanded them to disperse. The patriots did not at once -obey the summons. It was impossible that seventy volunteers could mean -to fight eight hundred British soldiers; it is more likely they did -not clearly understand what was required of them. Firing ensued. The -Americans say that the first shot came from the British. Major Pitcairn -always asserted that he himself saw a countryman give the first fire -from behind a wall. It can never be certainly known, but there was now -firing enough. The British stood and shot, in their steady unconcerned -way, at the poor mistaken seventy. The patriots fled fast. Eighteen -of their number did not join the flight. These lay in their blood on -the village green, dead or wounded men. Thus was the war begun between -England and her colonies. - -The British pushed on to Concord, and destroyed all the military stores -they could find. It was not much, for there had been time to carry off -nearly everything. By noon the work was done, and the wearied troops -turned their faces towards Boston. - -They were not suffered to march alone. All that morning grim-faced -yeomen--of the Ironside type, each man with a musket in his hand--had -been hurrying into Concord. The British march was mainly on a road cut -through dense woods. As they advanced, the vengeful yeomanry hung upon -their flanks and rear. On every side there streamed forth an incessant -and murderous fire, under which the men fell fast. No effort could -dislodge those deadly but almost unseen foes. During all the terrible -hours of that return march the fire of the Americans never flagged, and -could seldom be returned. It was sunset ere the soldiers, half dead -with fatigue, got home to Boston. In killed, wounded, and prisoners, -this fatal expedition had cost nearly three hundred men. The blood shed -at Lexington had been swiftly and deeply avenged. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -BUNKER HILL. - - -The encounters at Lexington and Concord thoroughly aroused the American -people. The news rang through the land that blood had been spilt--that -already there were martyrs to the great cause. Mounted couriers -galloped along all highways. Over the bustle of the market-place--in -the stillness of the quiet village church--there broke the startling -shout, “The war has begun.” All men felt that the hour had come, and -they promptly laid aside their accustomed labour that they might gird -themselves for the battle. North Carolina, in her haste, threw off the -authority of the King, and formed herself into military companies. -Timid Georgia sent gifts of money and of rice, and cheering letters, -to confirm the bold purposes of the men of Boston. In aristocratic and -loyal Virginia there was a general rush to arms. From every corner -of the New England States men hurried to Boston. Down in pleasant -Connecticut an old man was ploughing his field one April afternoon. -His name was Israel Putnam. He was now a farmer and tavern-keeper--a -combination frequent at that time in New England, and not at all -inconsistent, we are told, “with a Roman character.” Formerly he had -been a warrior. He had fought the Indians, and had narrowly escaped -the jeopardies of such warfare. Once he had been bound to a tree, and -the savages were beginning to toss their tomahawks at his head, when -unhoped-for rescue found him. As rugged old Israel ploughed his field, -some one told him of Lexington. That day he ploughed no more. He sent -word home that he had gone to Boston. Unyoking his horse from the -plough, in a few minutes he was mounted and hastening towards the camp. - -Boston and its suburbs stand on certain islets and peninsulas, access -to which, from the mainland, is gained by one isthmus which is called -Boston Neck, and another isthmus which is called Charlestown Neck. A -city thus circumstanced is not difficult to blockade. The American -Yeomanry blockaded Boston. There were five thousand soldiers in the -town; but the retreat from Concord inclined General Gage to some -measure of patient endurance, and he made no attempt to raise the -blockade. - -The month of May was wearing on, and still General Gage lay inactive. -Still patriot Americans poured into the blockading camp. They were -utterly undisciplined, and wholly without uniform. The English scorned -them as a rabble “with calico frocks and fowling-pieces.” But they were -Anglo-Saxons with arms in their hands, and a fixed purpose in their -minds. It was very likely that the unwise contempt of their enemies -would not be long unrebuked. - -On the 25th, several English ships of war dropped their anchors in -Boston Bay. It was rumoured that they brought large reinforcements -under Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton--the best generals England possessed. -Shortly it became known that Gage now felt himself strong enough to -break out upon his rustic besiegers. But the choice of time and place -for the encounter was not to be left with General Gage. - -On Charlestown peninsula, within easy gun-shot of Boston, there are two -low hills, one of which, the higher, is called Bunker Hill, and the -other Breed’s Hill. In a council of war the Americans determined to -seize and fortify one of these heights, and there abide the onslaught -of the English. There was not a moment to lose. It was said that Gage -intended to occupy the heights on the night of the 18th June. But -Gage was habitually too late. On the 16th, a little before sunset, -twelve hundred Americans were mustered on Cambridge Common for special -service. Colonel Prescott, a veteran who had fought against the French, -was in command. Putnam was with him, to be useful where he could, -although without specified duties. Prayers were said; and the men, -knowing only that they went to battle, and perhaps to death, set forth -upon their march. They marched in silence, for their way led them under -the guns of English ships. They reached the hill-top undiscovered by -the supine foe. It was a lovely June night--warm and still. Far down -lay the English ships--awful, but as yet harmless. Across the Charles -river, Boston and her garrison slept the sleep of the unsuspecting. The -“All’s well” of the sentinel crept, from time to time, dreamily up the -hill. Swift now with spade and mattock, for the hours of this midsummer -night are few and precious--swift, but cautious, too, for one ringing -stroke of iron upon stone may ruin all! - -When General Gage looked out upon the heights next morning, he saw a -strong intrenchment and swarms of armed men where the untrodden grass -had waved in the summer breeze a few hours before. He looked long -through his glass at this unwelcome apparition. A tall figure paced to -and fro along the rude parapet. It was Prescott. “Will he fight?” asked -Gage eagerly. “Yes, sir,” replied a bystander; “to the last drop of his -blood.” - -It was indispensable that the works should be taken, and a plan of -attack was immediately formed. It was sufficiently simple. No one -supposed that the Americans would stand the shock of regular troops. -The English were therefore to march straight up the hill and drive the -Americans away. Meanwhile reinforcements were sent to the Americans, -and supplies of ammunition were distributed. A gill of powder, to -be carried in a powder-horn or loose in the pocket, two flints and -fifteen balls, were served out to each man. To obtain even the fifteen -balls, they had to melt down the organ-pipes of an Episcopal church at -Cambridge. - -At noon English soldiers to the number of two thousand crossed -over from Boston. The men on the hill-top looked out from their -intrenchments upon a splendid vision of bright uniforms and bayonets -and field-pieces flashing in the sun. They looked with quickened pulse -but unshaken purpose. To men of their race it is not given to know fear -on the verge of battle. - -The English soldiers paused for refreshments when they landed on -the Charlestown peninsula. The Americans could hear the murmur of -their noisy talk and laughter. They saw the pitchers of grog pass -along the ranks. And then they saw the Englishmen rise and stretch -themselves to their grim morning’s work. From the steeples and -house-tops of Boston--from all the heights which stand round about the -city--thousands of Americans watched the progress of the fight. - -The soldiers had no easy task before them. The day was “exceeding hot,” -the grass was long and thick, the up-hill march was toilsome, the enemy -watchful and resolute. As if to render the difficulty greater, the men -carried three days’ provision with them in their knapsacks. Each man -had a burden which weighed one hundred and twenty pounds in knapsack, -musket, and other equipments. Thus laden they began their perilous -ascent. - -While yet a long way from the enemy they opened a harmless fire of -musketry. There was no reply from the American lines. Putnam had -directed the men to withhold their fire till they could see the white -of the Englishmen’s eyes, and then to aim low. The Englishmen were very -near the works when the word was given. Like the left-handed slingers -of the tribe of Benjamin, the Americans could shoot to a hairbreadth. -Every man took his steady aim, and when they gave forth their volley -few bullets sped in vain. The slaughter was enormous. The English -recoiled in some confusion, a pitiless rain of bullets following them -down the hill. Again they advanced almost to the American works, and -again they sustained a bloody repulse. And now, at the hill-foot, they -laid down their knapsacks and stripped off their great-coats. They -were resolute this time to end the fight by the bayonet. The American -ammunition was exhausted, and they could give the enemy only a single -volley. The English swarmed over the parapet. The Americans had no -bayonets, but for a time they waged unequal war with stones and the -butt-ends of their muskets. They were soon driven out, and fled down -the hill and across the Neck to Cambridge, the English ships raking -them with grape-shot as they ran. - -They had done their work. Victory no doubt remained with the English. -Their object was to carry the American intrenchments, and they had -carried them. Far greater than this was the gain of the Americans. -It was proved that, with the help of some slight field-works, it was -possible for undisciplined patriots to meet on equal terms the best -troops England could send against them. Henceforth the success of the -Revolution was assured. “Thank God,” said Washington, when he heard -of the battle, “the liberties of the country are safe.” Would that -obstinate King George could have been made to see it! But many wives -must be widows, and many children fatherless, before those dull eyes -will open to the unwelcome truth. - -Sixteen hundred men lay, dead or wounded, on that fatal slope. The -English had lost nearly eleven hundred; the Americans nearly five -hundred. Seldom indeed in any battle has so large a proportion of the -combatants fallen. - - * * * * * - -The Americans, who had thus taken up arms and resisted and slain the -King’s troops, were wholly without authority for what they had done. -No governing body of any description had employed them or recognized -them. What were still more alarming deficiencies, they were without a -general, and without adequate supply of food and ammunition. [Sidenote: -1775 A.D.] Congress now, by a unanimous vote, adopted the army, and -elected George Washington Commander-in-Chief of the patriot forces. -They took measures to enlist soldiers, and to raise money for their -support. - -When Washington reached the army before Boston, he found it to consist -of fourteen thousand men. They were quite undisciplined, and almost -without ammunition. Their stock of powder would afford only nine rounds -to each man. They could thus have made no use of their artillery. Their -rude intrenchments stretched a distance of eight or nine miles. At any -moment the English might burst upon them, piercing their weak lines, -and rolling them back in hopeless rout. But the stubborn provincials -were, as yet, scarcely soldiers enough to know their danger. -Taking counsel only of their own courage, they strengthened their -intrenchment, and tenaciously maintained their hold on Boston. - -From a convenient hill-top Washington looked at his foe. He saw a -British army of ten thousand men, perfect in discipline and equipment. -It was a noble engine, but, happily for the world, it was guided by -incompetent hands. General Gage tamely endured siege without daring to -strike a single blow at the audacious patriots. It was no easy winter -in either army. The English suffered from small-pox. Their fleet failed -to secure for them an adequate supply of food. They had to pull down -houses to obtain wood for fuel, at the risk of being hanged if they -were discovered. They were dispirited by long inaction. They knew -that in England the feeling entertained about them was one of bitter -disappointment. Poor Gage was recalled by an angry Ministry, and -quitted in disgrace that Boston where he had hoped for such success. -General Howe succeeded to his command, and to his policy of inactivity. - -Washington on his side was often in despair. His troops were mainly -enlisted for three months only. Their love of country gave way -under the hardships of a soldier’s life. Washington was a strict -disciplinarian, and many a free-born back was scored by the lash. -Patriotism proved a harder service than the men counted for. Fast as -their time of service expired they set their faces homeward. Washington -plied them with patriotic appeals, and even caused patriot songs to be -sung about the camp. Not thus, however, could the self-indulgent men -of Massachusetts and Connecticut be taught to scorn delights and live -laborious days. “Such dearth of public spirit,” Washington writes, “and -such want of virtue, such fertility in all the low arts, I never saw -before.” [Sidenote: 1776 A.D.] When January came he had a new army, -much smaller than the old, and the same weary process of drilling began -afresh. He knew that Howe was aware of his position. The inactivity -of the English general astonished Washington. He could explain it no -otherwise than by believing that Providence watched over the liberties -of the American people. - -In February liberal supplies of arms and ammunition reached him. There -came also ten regiments of militia. Washington was now strong enough to -take a step. - -To the south of Boston city lie the Heights of Dorchester. If the -Americans can seize and hold these heights, the English must quit -Boston. The night of the 4th of March was fixed for the enterprise. A -heavy fire of artillery occupied the attention of the enemy. By the -light of an unclouded moon a strong working-party took their way to -Dorchester Heights. A long train of waggons accompanied them, laden -with hard-pressed bales of hay. These were needed to form a breastwork, -as a hard frost bound the earth, and digging alone could not be relied -upon. The men worked with such spirit, that by dawn the bales of hay -had been fashioned into various redoubts and other defences of most -formidable aspect. A thick fog lay along the heights, and the new -fortress looked massive and imposing in the haze. “The rebels,” said -Howe, “have done more work in one night than my whole army would have -done in a month.” - -And now the English must fight, or yield up Boston. The English chose -to fight. They were in the act of embarking to get at the enemy when -a furious east wind began to blow, scattering their transports and -compelling the delay of the attack. All next day the storm continued to -rage, and the English, eager for battle, lay in unwilling idleness. The -vigorous Americans never ceased to dig and build. On the third day the -storm abated. But it was now General Howe’s opinion that the American -position was impregnable. It may be that he was wisely cautious; it -may be that he was merely fearful. But he laid aside his thoughts of -battle, and prepared to evacuate Boston. On the 17th the last English -soldier was on board, and all New England was finally wrested from King -George. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -INDEPENDENCE. - - -Even yet, after months of fighting, the idea of final separation from -Great Britain was distasteful to a large portion of the American -people. To the more enlightened it had long been evident that no -other course was possible, but very many still clung to the hope -of a friendly settlement of differences. Some, who were native -Englishmen, loved the land of their birth better than the land of their -adoption. The Quakers and Moravians were opposed to war as sinful, -and would content themselves with such redress as could be obtained -by remonstrance. Some, who deeply resented the oppressions of the -home Government, were slow to relinquish the privilege of British -citizenship. Some would willingly have fought had there been hope of -success, but could not be convinced that America was able to defend -herself against the colossal strength of England. The subject was -discussed long and keenly. The intelligence of America was in favour -of separation. All the writers of the colonies urged incessantly that -to this it must come. Endless pamphlets and gazette articles set forth -the oppressions of the old country, and the need of independence in -order to the welfare of the colonies. Conspicuous among those whose -writings aided in convincing the public mind stands the unhonoured -name of Thomas Paine the infidel. Paine had been only a few months in -the colonies, but his restless mind took a ready interest in the great -question of the day. He had a surprising power of direct, forcible -argument. He wrote a pamphlet styled “Common Sense,” in which he urged -the Americans to be independent. His treatise had, for those days, a -vast circulation, and an extraordinary influence. - -[Sidenote: 1776 A.D.] The time was now ripe for the consideration by -Congress of the great question of Independence. It was a grave and most -eventful step, which no thinking man would lightly take, but it could -no longer be shunned. On the 7th of June a resolution was introduced, -declaring “That the United Colonies are and ought to be free and -independent.” The House was not yet prepared for a measure so decisive. -Many members still paused on the threshold of that vast change. -Pennsylvania and Delaware had expressly enjoined their delegates to -oppose it; for the Quakers were loyal to the last. Some other States -had given no instructions, and their delegates felt themselves bound, -in consequence, to vote against the change. Seven States voted for -the resolution; six voted against it. Greater unanimity than this was -indispensable. With much prudence it was agreed that the matter should -stand over for two or three weeks. - -On the 4th of July the Declaration of Independence was adopted, with -the unanimous concurrence of all the States. In this famous document -the usurpations of the English Government were set forth in unsparing -terms. The divinity which doth hedge a King did not protect poor King -George from a rougher handling than he ever experienced before. His -character, it was said, “was marked by every act which can define a -tyrant.” And then it was announced to the world that the Thirteen -Colonies had terminated their political connection with Great Britain, -and entered upon their career as free and independent States. - -The vigorous action of Congress nerved the colonists for their great -enterprise. The paralyzing hope of reconciliation was extinguished. -The quarrel must now be fought out to the end, and liberty must be -gloriously won or shamefully lost. Everywhere the Declaration was -hailed with joy. It was read to the army amidst exulting shouts. The -soldiers in New York expressed their transference of allegiance by -taking down a leaden statue of King George and casting it into bullets -to be used against the King’s troops. Next day Washington, in the -dignified language which was habitual to him, reminded his troops of -their new duties and responsibilities. “The general,” he said, “hopes -and trusts that every officer and soldier will endeavour so to live and -act as becomes a Christian soldier, defending the dearest rights and -liberties of his country.” - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -AT WAR. - - -England put forth as much strength as she deemed needful to subdue her -rebellious colonists. She prepared a strong fleet and a strong army. -She entered into contracts with some of the petty German princes to -supply a certain number of soldiers. It was a matter of regular sale -and purchase. England supplied money at a fixed rate; the Duke of -Brunswick and some others supplied a stipulated number of men, who -were to shed their blood in a quarrel of which they knew nothing. Even -in a dark age these transactions were a scandal. Frederick of Prussia -loudly expressed his contempt for both parties. When any of the hired -men passed through any part of his territory he levied on them the toll -usually charged for cattle--like which, he said, they had been sold! - - * * * * * - -So soon as the safety of Boston was secured, Washington moved with -his army southwards to New York. Thither, in the month of June, came -General Howe. Thither also came his brother, Lord Howe, with the -forces which England had provided for this war. These reinforcements -raised the British army to twenty-five thousand men. Lord Howe brought -with him a commission from King George to pacify the dissatisfied -colonists. He invited them to lay down their arms, and he assured them -of the King’s pardon. His proposals were singularly inopportune. The -Declaration of Independence had just been published, and the Americans -had determined to be free. They were not seeking to be forgiven, and -they rejected with scorn Lord Howe’s proposals. The sword must now -decide between King George and his alienated subjects. - -Lord Howe encamped his troops on Staten Island, a few miles from New -York. His powerful fleet gave him undisputed command of the bay, and -enabled him to choose his point of attack. The Americans expected that -he would land upon Long Island, and take possession of the heights near -Brooklyn. He would then be separated from New York only by a narrow arm -of the sea, and he could with ease lay the city in ruins. Washington -sent a strong force to hold the heights, and throw up intrenchments -in front of Brooklyn. General Putnam was appointed to the command of -this army. Staten Island lies full in view of Brooklyn. The white tents -of the English army, and the formidable English ships lying at their -anchorage, were watched by many anxious eyes, for the situation was -known to be full of peril. Washington himself did not expect success -in the coming fight, and hoped for nothing more than that the enemy’s -victory would cost him dear. - -After a time it was seen that a movement was in progress among the -English. One by one the tents disappeared. One by one the ships shook -their canvas out to the wind, and moved across the bay. Then the -Americans knew that their hour of trial was at hand. - -[Sidenote: Aug. 27, 1776 A.D.] Putnam marched his men out from their -lines to meet the English. At daybreak the enemy made his appearance. -The right wing of the American army was attacked, and troops were -withdrawn from other points to resist what seemed the main attack. -Meanwhile a strong English force made its way unseen round the -American left, and established itself between the Americans and their -intrenchments. This decided the fate of the battle. The Americans made -a brave but vain defence. They were driven within their lines after -sustaining heavy loss. - -Lord Howe could easily have stormed the works, and taken or destroyed -the American army. But his lordship felt that his enemy was in his -power, and he wished to spare his soldiers the bloodshed which an -assault would have caused. He was to reduce the enemy’s works by -regular siege. It was no part of Washington’s intention to wait for the -issue of these operations. During the night of the 29th he silently -withdrew his broken troops, and landed them safely in New York. So -skilfully was this movement executed, that the last boat had pushed off -from the shore before the British discovered that their enemies had -departed. - -But now New York had to be abandoned. Washington’s army was utterly -demoralized by the defeat at Brooklyn. The men went home, in some -instances, by entire regiments. Washington confessed to the President -of Congress with deep concern that he had no confidence “in the -generality of the troops.” To fight the well-disciplined and victorious -British with such men was worse than useless. He marched northwards, -and took up a strong position at Haerlem, a village nine miles from -New York. But the English ships, sweeping up the Hudson river, showed -themselves on his flank and in his rear; the English army approached -him in front. There was no choice but retreat. Washington crossed his -soldiers over to the Jersey side of the river. The English followed -him, after storming a fort in which nearly three thousand men had been -left, the whole of whom were made prisoners. - -The fortunes of the revolted colonies were now at the very lowest ebb. -Washington had only four thousand men under his immediate command. They -were in miserable condition--imperfectly armed, poorly fed and clothed, -without blankets, or tents, or shoes. An English officer said of them, -without extreme exaggeration, “In a whole regiment there is scarce one -pair of breeches.” This was the army which was to snatch a continent -from the grasp of England! As they marched towards Philadelphia the -people looked with derision upon their ragged defenders, and with -fear upon the brilliant host of pursuers. Lord Howe renewed his offer -of pardon to all who would submit. This time his lordship’s offers -commanded some attention. Many of the wealthier patriots took the oath, -and made their peace with a Government whose authority there was no -longer any hope of throwing off. - -Washington made good his retreat to Philadelphia, so hotly pursued that -his rear-guard, engaged in pulling down bridges, were often in sight -of the British pioneers sent to build them up. When he crossed the -Delaware he secured all the boats for a distance of seventy miles along -the river-course. Lord Howe was brought to a pause, and he decided to -wait upon the eastern bank till the river should be frozen. - -Washington knew well the desperate odds against him. He expected to -be driven from the Eastern States. It was his thought, in that case, -to retire beyond the Alleghanies, and in the wilderness to maintain -undying resistance to the English yoke. Meantime he strove like a -brave strong man to win back success to the patriot cause. It was only -now that he was able to rid himself of the evil of short enlistments. -Congress resolved that henceforth men should be enlisted to serve out -the war. - -Winter came, but Lord Howe remained inactive. He himself was in New -York; his army was scattered about among the villages of New Jersey, -fearing no evil from the despised Americans. All the time Washington -was increasing the number of his troops, and improving their condition. -But something was needed to chase away the gloom which paralyzed the -country. Ten miles from Philadelphia was the village of Trenton, held -by a considerable force of British and Hessians. At sunset on Christmas -evening Washington marched out from Philadelphia, having prepared -a surprise for the careless garrison of Trenton. The night was dark -and tempestuous, and the weather was so intensely cold that two of -the soldiers were frozen to death. The march of the barefooted host -could be tracked by the blood-marks which they left upon the snow. -At daybreak they burst upon the astonished Royalists. The Hessians -had drunk deep on the previous day, and they were ill prepared to -fight. Their commander was slain as he attempted to bring his men up -to the enemy. After his fall the soldiers laid down their arms, and -surrendered at discretion. - -[Sidenote: 1777 A.D.] A week after this encounter three British -regiments spent a night at Princeton, on their way to Trenton to -retrieve the disaster which had there befallen their Hessian allies. -Washington made another night march, attacked the Englishmen in -the early morning, and after a stubborn resistance defeated them, -inflicting severe loss. - -These exploits, inconsiderable as they seem, raised incalculably the -spirits of the American people. When triumphs like these were possible -under circumstances so discouraging, there was no need to despair of -the Commonwealth. Confidence in Washington had been somewhat shaken -by the defeats which he had sustained. Henceforth it was unbounded. -Congress invested him with absolute military authority for a period of -six months, and public opinion confirmed the trust. The infant Republic -was delivered from its most imminent jeopardy by the apparently trivial -successes of Trenton and Princeton. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -SYMPATHY BEYOND THE SEA. - - -France still felt, with all the bitterness of the vanquished, her -defeat at Quebec and her loss of Canada. She had always entertained the -hope that the Americans would avenge her by throwing off the English -yoke. To help forward its fulfilment, she sent occasionally a secret -agent among them, to cultivate their good-will to the utmost. When -the troubles began she sent secret assurances of sympathy, and secret -offers of commercial advantages. She was not prepared as yet openly -to espouse the American cause. But it was always safe to encourage -the American dislike to England, and to connive at the fitting out of -American privateers, to prey upon English commerce. - -The Marquis de Lafayette was at this time serving in the French army. -He was a lad of nineteen, of immense wealth, and enjoying a foremost -place among the nobility of France. The American revolt had now become -a topic at French dinner-tables. Lafayette heard of it first from the -Duke of Gloucester, who told the story at a dinner given to him by -some French officers. That conversation changed the destiny of the -young Frenchman. “He was a man of no ability,” said Napoleon. “There -is nothing in his head but the United States,” said Marie Antoinette. -These judgments are perhaps not unduly severe. But Lafayette had the -deepest sympathies with the cause of human liberty. They may not have -been always wise, but they were always generous and true. No sooner -had he satisfied himself that the American cause was the cause of -liberty than he hastened to ally himself with it. He left his young -wife and his great position, and he offered himself to Washington. His -military value may not have been great; but his presence was a vast -encouragement to a desponding people. He was a visible assurance of -sympathy beyond the sea. America is the most grateful of nations; and -this good, impulsive, vain man has ever deservedly held a high place -in her love. Washington once, with tears of joy in his eyes, presented -Lafayette to his troops. Counties are named after him, and cities and -streets. Statues and paintings hand down to successive generations of -Americans the image of their first and most faithful ally. - -Lafayette was the lightning-rod by which the current of republican -sentiments was flashed from America to France. He came home when the -war was over and America free. He was the hero of the hour. A man who -had helped to set up a Republic in America was an unquiet element for -old France to receive back into her bosom. With the charm of a great -name and boundless popularity to aid him, he everywhere urged that men -should be free and self-governing. Before he had been long in France -he was busily stirring up the oppressed Protestants of the south to -revolt. Happily the advice of Washington, with whom he continued to -correspond, arrested a course which might have led the enthusiastic -Marquis to the scaffold. Few men of capacity so moderate have been -so conspicuous, or have so powerfully influenced the course of human -affairs. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE WAR CONTINUES. - - -Spring-time came--“the time when Kings go out to battle”--but General -Howe was not ready. Washington was contented to wait, for he gained by -delay. [Sidenote: 1777 A.D.] Congress sent him word that he was to -lose no time in totally subduing the enemy. Washington could now afford -to smile at the vain confidence which had so quickly taken the place of -despair. Recruits flowed in upon him in a steady, if not a very copious -stream. The old soldiers whose terms expired were induced, by bounties -and patriotic appeals, to re-enlist for the war. By the middle of June, -when Howe opened the campaign, Washington had eight thousand men under -his command, tolerably armed and disciplined, and in good fighting -spirit. The patriotic sentiment was powerfully reinforced by a thirst -to avenge private wrongs. Howe’s German mercenaries had behaved very -brutally in New Jersey--plundering and burning without stint. Many of -the Americans had witnessed outrages such as turn the coward’s blood to -flame. - -Howe wished to take Philadelphia, then the political capital of the -States. But Washington lay across his path, in a strong position, from -which he could not be enticed to descend. Howe marched towards him, but -shunned to attack him where he lay. Then he turned back to New York, -and embarking his troops, sailed with them to Philadelphia. The army -was landed on the 25th August, and Howe was at length ready to begin -the summer’s work. - -The American army waited for him on the banks of a small river called -the Brandywine. The British superiority in numbers enabled them to -attack the Americans in front and in flank. The Americans say that -their right wing, on which the British attack fell with crushing -weight, was badly led. One of the generals of that division was a -certain William Alexander--known to himself and the country of his -adoption as Lord Stirling--a warrior brave but foolish; “aged, and a -little deaf.” The Americans were driven from the field; but they had -fought bravely, and were undismayed by their defeat. - -A fortnight later a British force, with Lord Cornwallis at its head, -marched into Philadelphia. The Royalists were strong in that city of -Quakers--specially strong among the Quakers themselves. The city was -moved to unwonted cheerfulness. On that September morning, as the -loyal inhabitants looked upon the bright uniforms and flashing arms -of the King’s troops, and listened to the long-forbidden strains of -“God save the King,” they felt as if a great and final deliverance -had been vouchsafed to them. The patriots estimated the fall of the -city more justly. It was seen that if Howe meant to hold Philadelphia, -he had not force enough to do much else. Said the sagacious Benjamin -Franklin,--“It is not General Howe that has taken Philadelphia; it is -Philadelphia that has taken General Howe.” - -The main body of the British were encamped at Germantown, guarding -their new conquest. So little were the Americans daunted by their -late reverses, that, within a week from the capture of Philadelphia, -Washington resolved to attack the enemy. At sunrise on the 4th -October the English were unexpectedly greeted by a bayonet-charge -from a strong American force. It was a complete surprise, and at -first the success was complete. But a dense fog, which had rendered -the surprise possible, ultimately frustrated the purpose of the -assailants. The onset of the eager Americans carried all before it. But -as the darkness, enhanced by the firing, deepened over the combatants, -confusion began to arise. Regiments got astray from their officers. -Some regiments mistook each other for enemies, and acted on that -belief. Confusion swelled to panic, and the Americans fled from the -field. - -Winter was now at hand, and the British army returned to quarters in -Philadelphia. Howe would have fought again, but Washington declined to -come down from the strong position to which he had retired. His army -had again been suffered to fall into straits which threatened its very -existence. A patriot Congress urged him to defeat the English, but -could not be persuaded to supply his soldiers with shoes or blankets, -or even with food. He was advised to fall back on some convenient town -where his soldiers would find the comforts they needed so much. But -Washington was resolute to keep near the enemy. He fixed on a position -at Valley Forge, among the hills, twenty miles from Philadelphia. -Thither through the snow marched his half-naked army. Log-huts were -erected with a rapidity of which no soldiers are so capable as -Americans. There Washington fixed himself. The enemy was within reach, -and he knew that his own strength would grow. The campaign which had -now closed had given much encouragement to the patriots. It is true -they had been often defeated, but they had learned to place implicit -confidence in their commander. They had learned also that in courage -they were equal, in activity greatly superior, to their enemies. All -they required was discipline and experience, which another campaign -would give. There was no longer any reason to look with alarm upon the -future. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE SURRENDER AT SARATOGA. - - -In the month of June, when Howe was beginning to win his lingering way -to Philadelphia, a British army set out from Canada to conquer the -northern parts of the revolted territory. [Sidenote: 1777 A.D.] General -Burgoyne was in command. He was resolute to succeed. “This army must -not retreat,” he said, when they were about to embark. The army did not -retreat. On a fair field general and soldiers would have played a part -of which their country would have had no cause to be ashamed. But this -was a work beyond their strength. - -Burgoyne marched deep into the New England States. But he had to do -with men of a different temper from those of New York and Philadelphia. -At his approach every man took down his musket from the wall and -hurried to the front. Little discipline had they, but a resolute -purpose and a sure aim. Difficulties thickened around the fated army. -At length Burgoyne found himself at Saratoga. It was now October. Heavy -rains fell; provisions were growing scanty; the enemy was in great -force, and much emboldened by success. Gradually it became evident -that the British were surrounded, and that no hope of fighting their -way out remained. Night and day a circle of fire encompassed them. -Burgoyne called his officers together. They could find no place for -their sorrowful communing beyond reach of the enemy’s musketry, so -closely was the net already drawn. There was but one thing to do, -and it was done. The British army surrendered. Nearly six thousand -brave men, in sorrow and in shame, laid down their arms. The men who -took them were mere peasants, no two of whom were dressed alike. The -officers wore uncouth wigs, and most of them carried muskets and large -powder-horns slung around their shoulders. No humiliation like this had -ever befallen the British arms. - -These grotesque American warriors behaved to their conquered enemies -with true nobility. General Gates, the American commander, kept his men -strictly within their lines, that they might not witness the piling -of the British arms. No taunt was offered, no look of disrespect was -directed against the fallen. “All were mute in astonishment and pity.” - -England felt acutely the shame of this great disaster. Her people -were used to victory. For many years she had been fighting in Europe, -in India, in Canada, and always with brilliant success. Her defeat -in America was contrary to all expectation. It was a bitter thing -for a high-spirited people to hear that their veteran troops had -surrendered to a crowd of half-armed peasantry. Under the depressing -influence of this calamity it was determined to redress the wrongs of -America. Parliament abandoned all claim to tax the colonies. Every -vexatious enactment would be repealed; all would be forgiven, if -America would return to her allegiance. Commissioners were sent bearing -the olive-branch to Congress. Too late--altogether too late! Never -more can America be a dependency of England. With few words Congress -peremptorily declined the English overtures. America had chosen her -course; for good or for evil she would follow it to the end. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -HELP FROM EUROPE. - - -A great war may be very glorious, but it is also very miserable. Twenty -thousand Englishmen had already perished in this war. [Sidenote: 1778 -A.D.] Trade languished, and among the working-classes there was want -of employment and consequent want of food. American cruisers swarmed -upon the sea, and inflicted enormous losses upon English commerce. The -debt of the country increased. And for all these evils there was no -compensation. There was not even the poor satisfaction of success in -our unprofitable undertaking. - -If it was any comfort to inflict even greater miseries than she -endured, England did not fight in vain. The sufferings of America were -very lamentable. The loss of life in battle and by disease, resulting -from want and exposure, had been great. The fields in many districts -were unsown. Trade was extinct; the trading classes were bankrupt. -English cruisers had annihilated the fisheries and seized the greater -part of the American merchant ships. Money had well-nigh disappeared -from the country. Congress issued paper-money, which proved a very -indifferent substitute. The public had so little confidence in the -new currency, that Washington declared, “A waggon-load of money will -scarcely purchase a waggon-load of provisions.” - -But the war went on. It was not for England, with her high place among -the nations, to retire defeated from an enterprise on which she had -deliberately entered. As for the Americans, after they had declared -their resolution to be independent, they could die, but they could not -yield. - -The surrender of Burgoyne brought an important ally to the American -side. The gods help those who help themselves. So soon as America -proved that she was likely to conquer in the struggle, France offered -to come to her aid. France had always looked with interest on the war; -partly because she hated England, and partly because her pulses already -throbbed with that new life, whose misdirected energies produced, a few -years afterwards, results so lamentable. Even now a people contending -for their liberties awakened the sympathies of France. America had -sent three Commissioners--one of whom was Benjamin Franklin--to Paris, -to cultivate as opportunity offered the friendship of the French -Government. For a time they laboured without visible results. But when -news came that Burgoyne and his army had surrendered, hesitation was at -an end. A treaty was signed by which France and America engaged to make -common cause against England. The King opposed this treaty so long as -he dared, but he was forced to give way. England, of course, accepted -it as a declaration of war. - -Spain could not miss the opportunity of avenging herself upon England. -Her King desired to live at peace, he said, and to see his neighbours -do the same. But he was profoundly interested in the liberties of the -young Republic, and he was bound by strong ties to his good brother -of France. Above all, England had in various quarters of the world -grievously wronged him, by violating his territory and interfering -with the trade of his subjects. And so he deemed it proper that he -should waste the scanty substance of his people in equipping fleets -and armies. When his preparations were complete he joined France and -America in the league, and declared war against England. - -The fleets of France and Spain appeared in the English Channel, and -England had to face the perils of invasion. The spirit of her people -rose nobly to meet the impending trial. The southern counties were -one great camp. Voluntary contributions from all parts of the country -aided Government to equip ships and soldiers. The King was to head his -warlike people, should the enemy land, and share their danger and their -glory. But the black cloud rolled harmlessly away, and the abounding -heroism of the people was not further evoked. The invading admirals -quarrelled. One of them wished to land at once; the other wished first -to dispose of the English fleet. They could not agree upon a course, -and therefore they sailed away home each to his own country, having -effected nothing. - -The war spread itself over a very wide surface. In the north, Paul -Jones with three American ships alarmed the Scotch coast and destroyed -much shipping. Spain besieged Gibraltar, but failed to regain that -much-coveted prize. On the African coast, the French took Senegal -from the English, and the English took Goree from the French. In the -West Indies, the French took St. Vincent and Granada. On the American -Continent, from New York to Savannah, the same wasteful and bloody -labour was ruthlessly pursued. - -The remaining years of the war were distinguished by few striking -or decisive enterprises. The fleet sent by France sailed hither and -thither in a feeble manner, accomplishing nothing. When General -Howe was made aware of its approach, he abandoned Philadelphia and -retired to New York. Washington followed him on his retreat, but -neither then nor for some time afterwards could effect much. Congress -and the American people formed sanguine expectations of the French -alliance, and ceased to put forth the great efforts which distinguished -the earlier period of the war. The English overran Georgia and -the Carolinas. The Americans captured two or three forts. The war -degenerated into a series of marauding expeditions. Some towns, -innumerable farm-houses, were burned by the English. Occasional -massacres took place. With increasing frequency, prisoners were, under -a variety of pretexts, put to death. On both sides feeling had become -intensely bitter. On both sides cruelties of a most savage type were -perpetrated. - -To the very end Washington’s army was miserably supplied, and endured -extreme hardships. Congress was a weak, and, it must be added, a very -unwise body. The ablest men were in the army, and Congress was composed -of twenty or thirty persons of little character or influence. They had -no authority to impose taxes. They tried to borrow money in Europe, and -failed. They had only one resource--the issue of paper currency, and -this was carried to such a wild excess that latterly a colonel’s pay -would not buy oats for his horse. Washington ceased to have the means -of purchasing. Reluctantly, and under pressure of extreme necessity, he -forcibly exacted supplies of meat and flour from the neighbourhood. Not -otherwise could he save his army from dissolution and the country from -ruin. - -But there was one respect in which the cause grew constantly in -strength. Men do not fight for eight years, in a war like this, without -learning to hate each other. With a deep and deadly hatred the American -people hated the power which ruthlessly inflicted upon them such cruel -sufferings. Under the growing influence of this hatred, men became -soldiers with increasing alacrity. The hardships of soldier-life -no longer daunted them, so long as they had the English to resist. -The trouble of short enlistments had ceased, and Washington was at -length at the head of an army, often ill fed and always ill clad, but -disciplined and invincibly resolved that their country should be free. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -MAJOR ANDRÉ. - - -The Americans had a strong fortress at West Point, on the Hudson -river. It was one of the most important places in the country, and its -acquisition was anxiously desired by the English. Possession of West -Point would have given them command of the Hudson, up which their ships -of war could have sailed for more than a hundred miles. But that fort, -sitting impregnably on rocks two hundred feet above the level of the -river, was hard to win; and the Americans were careful to garrison -effectively a position so vitally important. - -In the American army was an officer named Arnold, who had served, not -without distinction, from the beginning of the war. He had fought -in Canada when the Americans unsuccessfully invaded that province. -His courage and skill had been conspicuous in the engagements which -led to the surrender of Burgoyne. He was, however, a vain, reckless, -unscrupulous person. He had by extravagance in living involved himself -in debt, which he aggravated hopelessly by ill-judged mercantile -speculations. He had influence with Washington to obtain the command of -West Point. There is little doubt that when he sought the appointment -it was with the full intention of selling that important fortress to -the enemy. He opened negotiations at once with Sir Henry Clinton, then -in command of the English army at New York. - -Clinton sent Major André to arrange the terms of the contemplated -treachery. A mournful interest attaches to the name of this young -officer: the fate which befell him was so very sad. He was of French -descent--high-spirited, accomplished, affectionate, merry-hearted. It -was a service which a high-principled man would scarcely have coveted. -But André desired eagerly to have the merit of gaining West Point, and -he volunteered for this perilous enterprise. - -[Sidenote: Sept. 1780 A.D.] At midnight Major André landed from the -boat of a British ship of war, at a lonely place where Arnold waited -him. Their conference lasted so long that it was deemed unsafe for -André to return to the ship. He was conducted to a place of concealment -within the American lines, to await the return of darkness. He -completed his arrangement with Arnold, and received drawings of the -betrayed fortress. His mission was now accomplished. The ship from -which he had come lay full in view. Would that he could reach her! -But difficulties arose, and it was resolved that he must ride to New -York, a distance of fifty miles. Disguising himself as he best could, -André reluctantly accepted this very doubtful method of escape from his -fearful jeopardy. - -Within the American lines he had some narrow escapes, but the pass -given by Arnold carried him through. He was at length beyond the lines. -His danger might now be considered at an end, and he rode cheerfully on -his lonely journey. He was crossing a small stream--thick woods on his -right hand and his left enhanced the darkness of the night. Three armed -men stepped suddenly from among the trees and ordered him to stand. -From the dress of one of them, André thought he was among friends. -He hastened to tell them he was a British officer, on very special -business, and he must not be detained. Alas for poor Major André, they -were not friends; and the dress which deceived him had been given to -the man who wore it when he was a prisoner with the English, in place -of a better garment of which his captors had stripped him. - -André was searched; but at first nothing was found. It seemed as -if he might yet be allowed to proceed, when one of the three men -exclaimed, “Boys, I am not satisfied. His boots must come off.” André’s -countenance fell. His boots were searched, and Arnold’s drawings of -West Point were discovered. The men knew then that he was a spy. He -vainly offered them money; they were incorruptible. He was taken to -the nearest military station, and the tidings were at once sent to -Washington, who chanced to be then at West Point. Arnold had timely -intimation of the disaster, and fled for refuge to a British ship of -war. - -André was tried by a court formed of officers of the American army. -He gave a frank and truthful account of his part in the unhappy -transaction--bringing into due prominence the circumstance that he -was brought, without intention or knowledge on his part, within -the American lines. The court judged him on his own statement, and -condemned him to be hanged as a spy. - -His capture and sentence caused deep sensation in the English army, and -every effort was made to save him. But Washington was resolute that he -should die. The danger to the patriot cause had been too great to leave -any place for relenting. There were dark intimations of other treasons -yet unrevealed. It was needful to give emphatic warning of the perils -which waited on such unlawful negotiations. André begged that he might -be allowed to die a soldier’s death. Even this poor boon was refused to -the unhappy young man. Since the awful lesson must be given, Washington -considered that no circumstance fitted to enhance its terrors should be -withheld. But this was mercifully concealed from André to the very last. - -Ten days after his arrest, André was led forth to die. He was under -the impression that his last request had been granted, and that he -would die by the bullet. It was a fresh pang when the gibbet, with its -ghastly preparations, stood before him. “How hard is my fate,” he said; -“but it will soon be over.” He bandaged his own eyes; with his own -hands adjusted the noose to his neck. The cart on which he stood moved -away, and poor Major André was no longer in the world of living men. -Forty years afterwards his remains were brought home to England and -laid in Westminster Abbey. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. - - -During the later years of the war the English kept possession of the -Southern States, which, as we have seen, they had gained so easily. -[Sidenote: 1781 A.D.] When the last campaign opened, Lord Cornwallis -with a strong force represented British authority in the South, and did -all that he found possible for the suppression of the patriots. But -the time was past when any real progress in that direction could be -made. A certain vigorous and judicious General Greene, with such rough -semblance of an army as he could draw together, gave Lord Cornwallis -many rude shocks. The English gained little victories occasionally, -but they suffered heavy losses, and the territory over which they held -dominion was upon the whole becoming smaller. - -About midsummer, the joyous news reached Washington that a powerful -French fleet, with an army on board, was about to sail for America. -With this reinforcement, Washington had it in his power to deliver -a blow which would break the strength of the enemy, and hasten the -close of the war. Clinton held New York, and Cornwallis was fortifying -himself in Yorktown. The French fleet sailed for the Chesapeake, and -Washington decided in consequence that his attack should be made on -Lord Cornwallis. With all possible secrecy and speed the American -troops were moved southwards to Virginia. They were joined by the -French, and they stood before Yorktown a force twelve thousand strong. -Cornwallis had not expected them, and he called on Clinton to aid him. -But it was too late. He was already in a grasp from which there was no -escaping. - -Throughout the war, the weakness of his force often obliged Washington -to adopt a cautious and defensive policy, which grievously disappointed -the expectations of his impatient countrymen. It is not therefore to -be imagined that his leadership was wanting in vigour. Within his calm -and well-balanced mind there lurked a fiery energy, ready to burst -forth when occasion required. The siege of Yorktown was pushed on -with extraordinary vehemence. The English, as their wont is, made a -stout defence, and strove by desperate sallies to drive the assailants -from their works. But in a few days the defences of Yorktown lay in -utter ruin, beaten to the ground by the powerful artillery of the -Americans. The English guns were silenced; the English shipping was -fired by red-hot shot from the French batteries. Ammunition began to -grow scarce. The place could not be held much longer, and Clinton still -delayed his coming. Lord Cornwallis must either force his way out and -escape to the North, or surrender. One night he began to embark his men -in order to cross the York river and set out on his desperate march to -New York; but a violent storm arose and scattered his boats. The men -who had embarked got back with difficulty, under fire from the American -batteries. All hope was now at an end. In about a fortnight from the -opening of the siege, the British army, eight thousand strong, laid -down its arms. - -The joy of America over this great crowning success knew no bounds. One -highly emotional patriot was said to have expired from mere excess of -rapture. Some others lost their reason. In the army, all who were under -arrest were at once set at liberty. A day of solemn thanksgiving was -proclaimed and devoutly observed throughout the rejoicing States. - -[Sidenote: 1782 A.D.] Well might the colonists rejoice, for their -long and bitter struggle was now about to close. Stubborn King George -would not yield yet. But England and her Parliament were sick of this -hopeless and inglorious war. The House of Commons voted that all who -should advise the continuance of the war were enemies to the country. -A new Ministry was formed, and negotiations with a view to peace were -begun. The King had no doubt that if America were allowed to go, the -West Indies would go--Ireland would go--all his foreign possessions -would go; and discrowned England would sink into weakness and contempt. -But too much heed had already been given to the King and his fancies. -[Sidenote: Jan. 20, 1783 A.D.] Peace was concluded with France and -Spain, and the independence of America was at length recognized. - - * * * * * - -Eight years had passed since the first blood was shed at Lexington. -Thus long the unyielding English, unused to failure, had striven to -regain the lost ascendency. Thus long the colonists had borne the -miseries of invasion, not shaken in their faith that the independence -which they had undertaken to win was well worth all it cost them. And -now they were free, and England was the same to them as all the rest -of the world,--“in peace, a friend; in war, a foe.” They had little -left them but their liberty and their soil. They had been unutterably -devastated by those eight bloody years. Their fields had been wasted; -their towns had been burned; commerce was extinct; money had almost -disappeared from the country. Their public debt reached the large -sum of one hundred and seventy million dollars. The soldiers who had -fought out the national independence were not paid till they showed -some disposition to compel a settlement. There was nothing which -could be called a Government. There were thirteen sovereign States, -loosely knit together by a Congress. That body had power to discuss -questions affecting the general good; to pass resolutions; to request -the several States to give effect to these resolutions. The States -might or might not comply with such request. Habitually they did not, -especially when money was asked for. Congress had no power to tax. It -merely apportioned among the States the amounts required for the public -service, and each State was expected to levy a tax for its proportion. -But in point of fact it became utterly impossible to get money by this -process. - -[Sidenote: 1786 A.D.] Great hardships were endured by the labouring -population. The impatience of a suffering people expressed itself -in occasional sputterings of insurrection. Two thousand men of -Massachusetts rose in arms to demand that the collection of debts -should be suspended. It was some weeks before that rising could be -quelled, as the community generally sympathized with the insurgents. -During four or five years the miseries of the ungoverned country seemed -to warrant the belief that her war of independence had been a mistake. - -But a future of unparalleled magnificence lay before this sorely vexed -and discouraged people. The boundless corn-lands of the west, the -boundless cotton-fields of the south, waited to yield their wealth. -Pennsylvania held unimagined treasures of coal and iron--soon to be -evoked by the irresistible spell of patient industry. America was a -vast store-house, prepared by the Great Father against the time when -his children would have need of it. The men who are the stewards over -its opulence have now freed themselves from some entanglements and -hindrances which grievously diminished their efficiency, and stand -prepared to enter in good earnest upon that high industrial vocation to -which Providence has called them. - -There had been periods during the war when confidence in Washington’s -leadership was shaken. He sustained many reverses. He oftentimes -retreated. He adhered tenaciously to a defensive policy, when -Congress and people were burning with impatience to inflict crushing -defeat upon the foe. The deplorable insufficiency of his resources -was overlooked, and the blame of every disaster fell on him. And -when at length the cause began to prosper, and hope brightened into -triumph, timid people were apt to fear that Washington was growing -too powerful. He had become the idol of a great army. He had but to -signify his readiness to accept a throne, and his soldiers would have -crowned him King. It was usual in the revolutions of the world that a -military chief should grasp at supreme power; and so it was feared that -Washington was to furnish one example more of that lawless and vulgar -lust of power by which human history has been so largely dishonoured. - -But Washington sheathed his sword, and returned gladly to his home -on the banks of the Potomac. He proposed to spend his days “in -cultivating the affections of good men, and in the practice of the -domestic virtues.” He hoped “to glide gently down the stream which -no human effort can ascend.” He occupied himself with the care of -his farm, and had no deeper feeling than thankfulness that he was at -length eased of a load of public care. The simple grandeur of his -character was now revealed beyond possibility of misconception. The -measure of American veneration for this greatest of all Americans was -full. Henceforth Mount Vernon was a shrine to which pilgrim feet were -ever turned--evoking such boundless love and reverence as never were -elsewhere exhibited on American soil. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE THIRTEEN STATES BECOME A NATION. - - -Washington saw from the beginning that his country was without a -government. Congress was a mere name. There were still thirteen -sovereign States--in league for the moment, but liable to be placed at -variance by the differences which time would surely bring. Washington -was satisfied that without a central government they could never be -powerful or respected. Such a government, indeed, was necessary in -order even to their existence. European powers would, in its absence, -introduce dissensions among them. Men’s minds would revert to that form -of government with which they were familiar. Some ambitious statesman -or soldier would make himself King, and the great experiment, based -upon the equality of rights, would prove an ignominious failure. - -The more sagacious Americans shared Washington’s belief on this -question. Conspicuous among these was Alexander Hamilton--perhaps, -next to Washington, the greatest American of that age. Hamilton was a -brave and skilful soldier, a brilliant debater, a persuasive writer, -a wise statesman. In his nineteenth year he entered the army, at the -very beginning of the war. The quick eye of Washington discovered the -remarkable promise of the lad. He raised him to high command in the -army, and afterwards to high office in the government. It was Hamilton -who brought order out of the financial chaos which followed the war. -It was Hamilton who suggested the convention to consider the framing -of a new Constitution. Often, during the succeeding years, Hamilton’s -temperate and sagacious words calmed the storms which marked the -infancy of the great Republic. His career had a dark and bloody close. -[Sidenote: 1804 A.D.] In his forty-seventh year he stood face to face, -one bright July morning, with a savage politician named Aaron Burr--a -grandson of Jonathan Edwards the great divine. Burr had fastened a -quarrel upon him, in the hope of murdering him in a duel. Hamilton had -resolved not to fire. Burr fired with careful aim, and Hamilton fell, -wounded to death. One of the ablest men America has ever possessed was -thus lost to her. - -[Sidenote: 1783 A.D.] Immediately after the close of the war, Hamilton -began to discuss the weakness of the existing form of government. He -was deeply convinced that the union of the States, in order to be -lasting, must be established on a solid basis; and his writings did -much to spread this conviction among his fellow-countrymen. Washington -never ceased from his retirement to urge the same views. Gradually the -urgent need of a better system was recognized. It indeed soon became -too obvious to be denied. Congress found it utterly impossible to get -money. Between 1781 and 1786, ten million dollars were called for from -the States, but only two million and a half were obtained. The interest -on the debt was unpaid; the ordinary expenses of the government were -unprovided for. The existing form of government was an acknowledged -failure. Something better had to be devised, or the tie which bound the -thirteen States would be severed. - -[Sidenote: 1787 A.D.] Hamilton obtained the sanction of Congress to -his proposal that a convention of delegates from the several States -should be held. This convention was to review the whole subject of the -governing arrangement, and to recommend such alterations as should be -considered adequate to the exigencies of the time. Philadelphia, as -usual, was the place of meeting. Thither, in the month of May, came -the men who were charged with the weighty task of framing a government -under which the thirteen States should become a nation. - -Fifty-five men composed this memorable council. Among them were the -wisest men of whom America, or perhaps any other country, could boast. -Washington himself presided. Benjamin Franklin brought to this--his -latest and his greatest task--the ripe experience of eighty-two years. -New York sent Hamilton--regarding whom Prince Talleyrand said, long -afterwards, that he had known nearly all the leading men of his time, -but he had never known one on the whole equal to Hamilton. With these -came many others whose names are held in enduring honour. Since the -meeting of that first Congress which pointed the way to independence, -America had seen no such Assembly. - -The convention sat for four months. The great work which occupied -it divided the country into two parties. One party feared most the -evils which arise from weakness of the governing power, and sought -relief from these in a close union of the States under a strong -government. Another party dwelt more upon the miserable condition of -the over-governed nations of Europe, and feared the creation of a -government which might grow into a despotism. The aim of the one was -to vest the largest possible measure of power in a central government. -Hamilton, indeed--to whom the British Constitution seemed the most -perfect on earth--went so far as to desire that the States should -be merely great municipalities, attending only, like an English -corporation, to their own local concerns. The aim of the other was -to circumscribe the powers accorded to the general government--to -vindicate the sovereignty of the individual States, and give to it the -widest possible scope. These two sets of opinions continued to exist -and conflict for three-quarters of a century, till that which assigned -an undue dominion to what were called State Rights, perished in the -overthrow of the great Rebellion. - -Slowly and through endless debate the convention worked out its plan -of a government. The scheme was submitted to Congress, and thence sent -down to the several States. Months of fiery discussion ensued. Somewhat -reluctantly, by narrow majorities, in the face of vehement protests, -the Constitution was at length adopted under which the thirteen States -were to become so great. - - * * * * * - -Great Britain has no written Constitution. She has her laws; and it -is expected that all future laws shall be in tolerable harmony with -the principles on which her past legislation has been founded. But if -Parliament were to enact, and the Sovereign to sanction, any law at -variance with these principles, there is no help for it. Queen, Lords, -and Commons are our supreme authority, from whose decisions there lies -no appeal. In America it is different. There the supreme authority is a -written Constitution. Congress may unanimously enact, and the President -may cordially sanction, a new law. Two or three judges, sitting in -the same building where Congress meets, may compare that law with the -Constitution. If it is found at variance with the Constitution, it -is unceremoniously declared to be no law, and entitled to no man’s -obedience. With a few alterations, this Constitution remains in full -force now--gathering around it, as it increases in age, the growing -reverence of the people. The men who framed it must have been very -wise. The people for whom it was framed must possess in high degree -the precious Anglo-Saxon veneration for law. Otherwise the American -paper Constitution must long ago have shared the fate of the numerous -documents of this class under which the French vainly sought rest -during their first Revolution. - -Each of the thirteen States was sovereign, and the government of -America hitherto had been merely a league of independent powers. Now -the several States parted with a certain amount of their sovereignty, -and vested it in a General Government. The General Government was -to levy taxes, to coin money, to regulate commercial relations with -foreign countries, to establish post-offices and post-roads, to -establish courts of law, to declare war, to raise and maintain armies -and navies, to make treaties, to borrow money on the credit of the -United States. The individual States expressly relinquished the right -to perform these sovereign functions. - -These powers were intrusted to two Houses of Legislation and a -President. The House of Representatives is composed of two hundred and -forty-three members. The members hold their seats for two years, and -are paid five thousand dollars annually. Black men and Indians were -not allowed to vote; but all white men had a voice in the election of -their representatives. To secure perfect equality of representation, -members are distributed according to population. Thus, in 1863 a member -was given to every 124,000 inhabitants. Every ten years a readjustment -takes place, and restores the equality which the growth of the -intervening period has disturbed. - -The large States send necessarily a much larger number of members -to the Lower House than the small States do. Thus New York sends -thirty-one, while Rhode Island sends only two, Delaware and Florida -only one. The self-love of the smaller States was wounded by an -arrangement which resembled absorption into the larger communities. The -balance was redressed in the constitution of the Upper Chamber--the -Senate. That body is composed of seventy-six members, elected by the -legislatures of the States. Every State, large or small, returns two -members. The small States were overborne in the Lower House, but in the -Senate they enjoyed an importance equal to that of their most populous -neighbours. The senators are elected for six years, and are paid at the -same rate as the members of the House of Representatives. - -The head of the American Government is the President. He holds office -for four years. Each State chooses a number of persons equal to the -total number of members whom it returns to the Houses of Legislation. -These persons elect the President. They elect also a Vice-President, -lest the President should be removed by death or otherwise during -his term of office. All laws enacted by Congress must be submitted -to the President. He may refuse to pass them--sending them back with -a statement of his objections. But should both Houses, by a vote of -two-thirds of their number, adhere to the rejected measures, they -become law in spite of the President’s veto. The President appoints -his own Cabinet Ministers, and these have no seats in Congress. Their -annual reports upon the affairs of their departments are communicated -to Congress by the President, along with his own Message. The President -is Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. With concurrence of the -Senate, he appoints ambassadors, judges of the Supreme Court, and other -public officers. - -Every State has a government after the same pattern, composed of -two Houses of Legislation and a Governor. These authorities occupy -themselves with the management of such affairs as exclusively concern -their own State, and have, therefore, not been relinquished to the -General Government. They legislate in regard to railway and other -public companies. They see to the administration of justice within -their own territory, unless in the case of crimes committed against -the Government. They pass such laws as are required in regard to -private property and rights of succession. Above all, they retained -all the powers of which they were ever possessed in regard to slavery. -The Constitution gave Congress authority to suppress the importation -of slaves after the year 1808. Not otherwise was the slave-question -interfered with. That remained wholly under the control of the -individual States. - -But the men who framed this Constitution, however wise, were liable -to err. And if they were found in after years to have erred, what -provision--other than a revolution--was made for correcting their -mistakes? A very simple and very effective one. When two-thirds of -both Houses of Legislation deem it necessary that some amendment of -the Constitution should be made, they propose it to the legislatures -of the several States. When three-fourths of these judicatories adopt -the proposal, it becomes a part of the Constitution. There have been -in all fifteen amendments adopted, most of them very soon after the -Constitution itself came into existence. - - * * * * * - -And now the conditions of the great experiment are adjusted. Three -million Americans have undertaken to govern themselves. Europe does -not believe that any people can prosper in such an undertaking. Europe -still clings to the belief that, in every country, a few Heaven-sent -families must guide the destinies of the incapable, child-like -millions. America--having no faith in Heaven-sent families--believes -that the millions are the best and safest guides of their own -destinies, and means to act on that belief. On her success great issues -wait. If the Americans show that they can govern themselves, all the -other nations will gradually put their hands to the same ennobling work. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1789 A.D.] The first step to be taken under the new -Constitution was to elect a President. There was but one man who -was thought of for this high and untried office. George Washington -was unanimously chosen. Congress was summoned to meet in New York -on the 4th of March. But the members had to travel far on foot, or -on horseback. Roads were bad, bridges were few; streams, in that -spring-time, were swollen. It was some weeks after the appointed time -before business could be commenced. - -That Congress had difficult work to do, and it was done patiently, -with much plain sense and honesty. As yet there was no revenue, while -everywhere there was debt. The General Government had debt, and each -of the States had debt. There was the Foreign Debt--due to France, -Holland, and Spain. There was the Army Debt--for arrears of pay and -pensions. There was the Debt of the Five Great Departments--for -supplies obtained during the war. There was a vast issue of paper money -to be redeemed. There were huge arrears of interest. And, on the other -hand, there was no provision whatever for these enormous obligations. - -Washington, with a sigh, asked a friend, “What is to be done about -this heavy debt?” “There is but one man in America can tell you,” said -his friend, “and that is Alexander Hamilton.” Washington made Hamilton -Secretary to the Treasury. The success of his financial measures was -immediate and complete. “He smote the rock of the national resources,” -said Daniel Webster, “and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. -He touched the dead corpse of the public credit, and it sprang upon -its feet.” All the war debts of the States were assumed by the General -Government. Efficient provision was made for the regular payment of -interest, and for a sinking fund to liquidate the principal. Duties -were imposed on shipping, on goods imported from abroad, and on -spirits manufactured at home. The vigour of the Government inspired -public confidence, and commerce began to revive. In a few years the -American flag was seen on every sea. The simple manufactures of the -country resumed their long interrupted activity. A National Bank -was established. Courts were set up, and judges were appointed. The -salaries of the President and the great functionaries were settled. A -home was chosen for the General Government on the banks of the Potomac; -where the capital of the Union was to supplant the little wooden -village--remote from the agitations which arise in the great centres -of population. Innumerable details connected with the establishment of -a new government were discussed and fixed. Novel as the circumstances -were, little of the work then done has required to be undone. -Succeeding generations of Americans have approved the wisdom of their -early legislators, and continue unaltered the arrangements which were -framed at the outset of the national existence. - - * * * * * - -Thirty years of peace succeeded the War of Independence. There were, -indeed, passing troubles with the Indians, ending always in the sharp -chastisement of those disagreeable savages. [Sidenote: 1804 A.D.] There -was an expedition against Tripoli, to avenge certain indignities which -the barbarians of that region had offered to American shipping. There -was a misunderstanding with the French Directory, which was carried to -a somewhat perilous extreme. [Sidenote: 1789 A.D.] A desperate fight -took place between a French frigate and an American frigate, resulting -in the surrender of the former. But these trivial agitations did not -disturb the profound tranquillity of the nation, or hinder its progress -in that career of prosperity on which it had now entered. - -Washington was President during the first eight years of the -Constitution. [Sidenote: 1799 A.D.] He survived his withdrawal from -public life only three years, dying, after a few hours’ illness, in the -sixty-eighth year of his age. His countrymen mourned him with a sorrow -sincere and deep. Their reverence for him has not diminished with the -progress of the years. Each new generation of Americans catches up the -veneration--calm, intelligent, but profound--with which its fathers -regarded the blameless Chief. To this day there is an affectionate -watchfulness for opportunities to express the honour in which his name -is held. To this day the steamers which ply upon the Potomac strike -mournful notes upon the bell as they sweep past Mount Vernon, where -Washington spent the happiest days of his life, and where he died. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. - - -America was well contented during many years to be merely a spectator -of the Great European War. In spite of some differences which had -arisen, she still cherished a kindly feeling towards France--her friend -in the old time of need. She had still a bitter hatred to England, her -tyrant, as she deemed, and her cruel foe. But her sympathies did not -regulate her policy. She had no call to avenge the dishonour offered -to royalty by the people of France. As little was it her business to -strengthen France against the indignation of outraged monarchs. Her -distance exempted her from taking any part in the bloody politics of -Europe, and she was able to look quietly on while the flames of war -consumed the nations of the Old World. Her ships enjoyed a monopoly. -She traded impartially with all the combatants. The energies of Europe -were taxed to the uttermost by a gigantic work of mutual destruction. -The Americans conveyed to the people thus unprofitably occupied the -foreign articles of which they stood in need, and made great gain of -their neighbours’ madness. - -[Sidenote: 1806 A.D.] But the time came when France and England were -to put forth efforts more gigantic than before, to compass the ruin of -each other. England gave out a decree announcing that all the coasts -of France and her allies were in a state of blockade, and that any -vessels attempting to trade with the blockaded countries were liable -to seizure. At that time nearly all the Continent was in alliance with -France. Napoleon replied by declaring the British Isles in a state of -blockade. These decrees closed Europe against American vessels. Many -captures were made, especially by English cruisers. American merchants -suffered grievous losses, and loudly expressed their just wrath against -the wicked laws which wrought them so much evil. - -There was another question out of which mischief arose. England has -always maintained that any person who has once been her subject -can never cease to be so. He may remove to another country; he may -become the citizen of another state. English law recognizes no -such transaction. England claims that the man is still an English -subject--entitled to the advantages of that relation, and bound -by its obligations. America, on the other hand, asserted that men -could lay down their original citizenship, and assume another--could -transfer their allegiance--could relinquish the privileges and absolve -themselves from the obligations which they inherited. The Englishmen -who settled on her soil were regarded by her as American citizens and -as nothing else. - -Circumstances arose which bestowed dangerous importance upon these -conflicting doctrines. England at that time obtained sailors by -impressment. That is to say, she seized men who were engaged on board -merchant vessels, and compelled them to serve on board her ships of -war. It was a process second only to the slave-trade in its iniquity. -The service to which men were thus introduced could not but be hateful. -There was a copious desertion, as opportunity offered, and America was -the natural refuge. English ships of war claimed the right to search -American vessels for men who had deserted; and also for men who, as -born English subjects, were liable to be impressed. It may well be -believed that this right was not always exercised with a strict regard -to justice. It was not always easy to distinguish an Englishman from -an American. Perhaps the English captains were not very scrupulous as -to the evidence on which they acted. The Americans asserted that six -thousand men, on whom England had no shadow of claim, were ruthlessly -carried off to fight under a flag they hated; the English Government -admitted the charge to the extent of sixteen hundred men. The American -people vehemently resented the intolerable pretension of England. -Occasionally an American ship resisted it, and blood was freely shed. - -[Sidenote: 1807 A.D.] When England and France decreed the closing of -all European ports against commerce, America hastened to show that she -could be as unwise as her neighbours. Congress prohibited commerce with -the European powers which had so offended. The people, wiser than their -rulers, disapproved this measure; but the Government enforced it. The -President was empowered to call out militia and employ armed vessels -to prevent cargoes of American produce from leaving the country. It -was hoped that England and France, thus bereaved of articles which -were deemed necessary, would be constrained to repeal their injurious -decrees. - -Thus for four years commerce was suspended, and grass grew on the idle -wharves of New York and Philadelphia. The cotton and tobacco of the -Southern States, the grain and timber of the North, were stored up to -await the return of reason to the governing powers of the world. Tens -of thousands of working people were thrown idle. The irritation of the -impoverished nation was fast ripening towards war. - -America wanted now the wise leadership which she enjoyed at the period -of her revolutionary struggle. Washington had never ceased to urge -upon his countrymen the desirableness of being on good terms with -England. But Washington was dead, and his words were not remembered. -Franklin was dead, Hamilton had fallen by the murdering hand of Aaron -Burr. There was a strong party eager for war. The commercial towns on -the sea-board dreaded the terrible ships of England, and desired to -negotiate for redress of grievances. The people of the interior, having -no towns to be bombarded, preferred to try their strength with England -in battle. Some attempts at negotiation resulted in failure. [Sidenote: -June 18, 1812 A.D.] At length Congress ended suspense by passing a Bill -which declared war against Great Britain. - -It was a bolder challenge than America supposed it to be. England, -indeed, had her hands full, for the power of her great foe seemed to be -irresistible. But even then the axe was laid to its roots. In that same -month of June Napoleon crossed the river Niemen and entered Russia upon -his fatal march to Moscow. A few weeks before, the Duke of Wellington -had wrenched from his grasp the two great frontier fortresses of Spain, -and was now beginning to drive the French armies out of the Peninsula. -England would soon have leisure for her new assailant; but all this was -as yet unseen. - -When war was declared, England possessed one thousand ships of war, and -America possessed twenty. Their land forces were in like proportion. -England had nearly a million of men under arms. America had an army -reckoned at twenty-four thousand, many of them imperfectly disciplined -and not yet to be relied upon in the field. Her treasury was empty. She -was sadly wanting in officers of experience. She had declared war, but -it was difficult to see what she could do in the way of giving effect -to her hostile purposes. - -But she held to these purposes with unfaltering tenacity. Four days -after Congress had resolved to fight, England repealed those blockading -decrees which had so justly offended the Americans. There remained -now only the question of the right of search. The British Minister at -Washington proposed that an attempt should be made to settle peaceably -this sole remaining ground of quarrel. The proposal was declined. The -American war party would not swerve from its unhappy determination. -The first efforts of the Americans were signally unsuccessful. They -attacked Canada with an army of two thousand five hundred men. But this -force had scarcely got upon Canadian ground when it was driven back. -[Sidenote: August, 1812 A.D.] It was besieged in Fort Detroit by an -inferior British army and forced to surrender. The unfortunate General -Hull, who commanded, was brought to trial by his angry countrymen and -sentenced to be shot. He was pardoned, however, in consideration of -former services. - -A second invasion followed, closed by a second surrender. During -two other campaigns the Americans prosecuted their invasion. Ships -were built and launched upon the great lakes which lie between the -territories of the combatants. Sea-fights were fought, in one of which -the American triumph was so complete that all the British vessels -surrendered. Many desperate engagements took place on shore. Some -forts were captured; some towns were burned. Many women and children -were made homeless; many brave men were slain. But the invaders made -no progress. Everywhere the Canadians, with the help of the regular -troops, were able to hold their own. It was a coarse method of solving -the question which was in dispute between the countries, and it was -utterly fruitless. - -At sea a strange gleam of good fortune cheered the Americans. It was -there England felt herself omnipotent. She, with her thousand ships, -might pardonably despise the enemy who came against her with twenty. -But it was there disaster overtook her. - -[Sidenote: 1812 A.D.] During the autumn months a series of encounters -took place between single British and American ships. In every instance -victory remained with the Americans. Five English vessels were taken or -destroyed. The Americans were in most of these engagements more heavily -manned and armed than their enemies. But the startling fact remained. -Five British ships of war had been taken in battle by the Americans; -five defeats had been sustained by England. Her sovereignty of the sea -had received a rude shock. - -The loss of a great battle would not have moved England more profoundly -than the capture of these five unimportant ships. It seemed to many -to foretell the downfall of her maritime supremacy. She had ruled the -seas because, heretofore, no other country produced sailors equal to -hers. But a new power had now arisen, whose home, equally with that of -Britannia herself, was upon the deep. If America could achieve these -startling successes while she had only twenty ships, what might she not -accomplish with that ampler force which she would hereafter possess? -England had many enemies, all of whom rejoiced to see in these defeats -the approaching decay of her envied greatness. - - * * * * * - -Among English sailors there was a burning eagerness to wipe out -the unlooked-for disgrace which had fallen upon the flag. A strict -blockade of American ports was maintained. On board the English ships -which cruised on the American coasts impatient search was made for -opportunities of retrieving the honour of the service. - -Two English ships lay off Boston in the summer of 1813, under the -command of Captain Broke. Within the bay the American frigate -_Chesapeake_ had lain for many months. Captain Broke had bestowed -especial pains upon the training of his men, and he believed he had -made them a match for any equal force. He and they vehemently desired -to test their prowess in battle. He sent away one of his ships, -retaining only the _Shannon_, which was slightly inferior to the -_Chesapeake_ in guns and in men. And then he stood close in to the -shore, and sent to Captain Lawrence of the _Chesapeake_ an invitation -to come forth that they might “try the fortune of their respective -flags.” - -From his mast-head Captain Broke watched anxiously the movements of -the hostile ship. Soon he saw her canvas shaken out to the breeze. His -challenge was accepted. The stately _Chesapeake_ moved slowly down the -bay, attended by many barges and pleasure-boats. To the over-sanguine -men of Boston it seemed that Captain Lawrence sailed out to assured -victory. They crowded to house-top and hill to witness his success. -They prepared a banquet to celebrate his triumphant return. - -[Sidenote: June 1, 1813 A.D.] Slowly and in grim silence the -hostile ships drew near. No shot was fired till they were within a -stone’s-throw of each other, and the men in either could look into -the faces of those they were about to destroy. Then began the horrid -carnage of a sea-fight. The well-trained British fired with steady -aim, and every shot told. The rigging of their enemy was speedily -ruined; her stern was beaten in; her decks were swept by discharges of -heavy guns loaded with musket-balls. The American firing was greatly -less effective. After a few broadsides, the ships came into contact. -The _Shannon_ continued to fire grape-shot from two of her guns. The -_Chesapeake_ could now reply feebly, and only with musketry. Captain -Broke prepared to board. Over decks heaped with slain and slippery with -blood, the Englishmen sprang upon the yielding foe. The American flag -was pulled down, and resistance ceased. - -The fight lasted but a quarter of an hour. So few minutes ago the two -ships, peopled by seven hundred men in the pride of youth and strength, -sailed proudly over seas which smiled in the peaceful sunlight of that -summer evening. Now their rigging lies in ruins upon the cumbered -decks; their sides are riven by shot; seventy-one dead bodies wait to -be thrown overboard; one hundred and fifty-seven men lie wounded and in -anguish--some of them to die, some to recover and live out cheerless -lives, till the grave opens for their mutilated and disfigured forms. -Did these men hate each other with a hatred so intense that they could -do no less than inflict these evils upon each other? They had no -hatred at all. Their Governments differed, and this was their method -of ascertaining who was in the right! Surely men will one day be wise -enough to adopt some process for the adjustment of differences less -wild in its inaccuracy, less brutish in its cruelty than this. - -This victory, so quickly won and so decisive, restored the confidence -of England in her naval superiority. The war went on with varying -fortune. The Americans, awakening to the greatness of the necessity, -put forth vigorous efforts to increase both army and navy. Frequent -encounters between single ships occurred. Sometimes the American ship -captured or destroyed the British; more frequently now the British ship -captured or destroyed the American. The superb fighting capabilities of -the race were splendidly illustrated, but no results of a more solid -character can be enumerated. - -[Sidenote: 1814 A.D.] Meanwhile momentous changes had occurred in -Europe. Napoleon had been overthrown, and England was enjoying the -brief repose which his residence in Elba afforded. She could bestow -some attention now upon her American quarrel. Several regiments of -Wellington’s soldiers were sent to America, under the command of -General Ross, and an attack upon Washington was determined. The force -at General Ross’s disposal was only three thousand five hundred men. -With means so inconsiderable, it seemed rash to attack the capital -of a great nation. But the result proved that General Ross had not -under-estimated the difficulties of the enterprise. - -The Americans utterly failed in the defence of their capital. They -were forewarned of the attack, and had good time to prepare. The -militia of Pennsylvania and Virginia had promised their services, but -were not found when they were needed. Only seven thousand men could -be drawn together to resist the advance of the English. These took -post at Bladensburg, where there was a bridge over the Potomac. The -English were greatly less numerous, but they were veterans who had -fought under Wellington in many battles. To them it was play to rout -the undisciplined American levies. They dashed upon the enemy, who, -scarcely waiting to fire a shot, broke and fled towards Washington in -hopeless confusion. - -That same evening the British marched quietly into Washington. General -Ross had orders to destroy or hold to ransom all public buildings. -He offered to spare the national property, if a certain sum of money -were paid to him; but the authorities declined his proposal. Next day -a great and most unjustifiable ruin was wrought. The Capitol, the -President’s residence, the Government offices, even the bridge over the -Potomac--all were destroyed. The Navy-yard and Arsenal, with some ships -in course of building, were set on fire by the Americans themselves. -The President’s house was pillaged by the soldiers before it was -burned. These devastations were effected in obedience to peremptory -orders from the British Government, on whom rests the shame of -proceedings so reprehensible and so unusual in the annals of civilized -war. On the same day the British withdrew from the ruins of the burning -capital, and retired towards the coast. - -The Americans were becoming weary of this unmeaning war. Hope of -success there was none, now that Britain had no other enemy to engage -her attention. America had no longer a ship of war to protect her -coasts from insult. Her trade was extinct. Her exports, which were -fourteen million sterling before the war, had sunk to one-tenth of that -amount. Two-thirds of the trading classes were insolvent. Most of the -trading ships were taken. The revenue hitherto derived from customs had -utterly ceased. The credit of the country was not good, and loans could -not be obtained. Taxation became very oppressive, and thus enhanced -extremely the unpopularity of the war. Some of the New England States -refused to furnish men or money, and indicated a disposition to make -peace for themselves, if they could not obtain it otherwise. - -[Sidenote: Feb. 11, 1815 A.D.] Peace was urgently needed, and happily -was near at hand. Late one Saturday night a British sloop-of-war -arrived at New York bearing a treaty of peace, already ratified by -the British Government. The cry of “Peace! peace!” rang through the -gladdened streets. The city burst into spontaneous illumination. The -news reached Boston on Monday morning, and Boston was almost beside -herself with joy. A multitude of idle ships had long lain at her -wharves. Before night carpenters were at work making them ready to -go to sea. Sailors were engaged; cargoes were being passed on board. -Boston returned without an hour’s delay to her natural condition of -commercial activity. - -British and American Commissioners had met at Ghent, and had agreed -upon terms of peace. The fruitlessness of war is a familiar discovery -when men have calmness to review its losses and its gains. Both -countries had endured much during these three years of hostilities; -and now the peace left as they had been before the questions whose -settlement was the object of the war. - -[Sidenote: 1814 A.D.] The treaty was concluded on the 24th December. -Could the news have been flashed by telegraph across the Atlantic, much -brave life would have been saved. But seven weeks elapsed before it was -known in the southern parts of America that the two countries were at -peace. And meanwhile one of the bloodiest fights of the war had been -fought. - -New Orleans--a town of nearly twenty thousand inhabitants--was then, as -it is now, one of the great centres of the cotton trade, and commanded -the navigation of the Mississippi. The capture of a city so important -could not fail to prove a heavy blow to America. An expedition for -this purpose was organized. Just when the Commissioners at Ghent were -felicitating themselves upon the peace they had made, the British army, -in storm and intolerable cold, was being rowed on shore within a few -miles of New Orleans. - -Sir Edward Pakenham, one of the heroes of the Peninsula, commanded -the English. The defence of New Orleans was intrusted to General -Jackson. Jackson had been a soldier from his thirteenth year, and had -spent a youth of extraordinary hardship. He was now a strong-willed, -experienced, and skilful leader, in whom his soldiers had boundless -confidence. Pakenham, fresh from the triumphs of the Peninsula, looked -with mistaken contempt upon his formidable enemy. - -Jackson’s line of defence was something over half a mile in length. The -Mississippi covered his right flank, an impassable swamp and jungle -secured his left. Along his front ran a deep broad ditch, topped by a -massive wall of earth. In this strong position the Americans waited the -coming of the enemy. - -[Sidenote: 1815 A.D.] At daybreak on the 8th January the British, six -thousand strong, made their attack. The dim morning light revealed to -the Americans the swift advance of the red-coated host. A murderous -fire of grape and round shot was opened from the guns mounted on the -bastion. Brave men fell fast, but the assailants passed on through the -storm and reached the American works. It was their design to scale -the ramparts, and, once within, to trust to their bayonets, which had -never deceived them yet. But at the foot of the ramparts it was found -that the fascines and scaling-ladders, which had been prepared for the -assault, were now amissing! The men mounted on each other’s shoulders, -and thus some of them forced their way into the works, only to be shot -down by the American riflemen. All was vain. A deadly fire streamed -incessant from that fatal parapet upon the defenceless men below. Sir -Edward Pakenham fell mortally wounded. The carnage was frightful, and -the enterprise visibly hopeless. The troops were withdrawn in great -confusion, having sustained a loss of two thousand men. The Americans -had seven men killed and the same number wounded. - -Thus closed the war. Both countries look with just pride upon the -heroic courage so profusely displayed in battle, and upon the patient -endurance with which great sacrifices were submitted to. It is pity -these high qualities did not find a more worthy field for their -exercise. The war was a gigantic folly and wickedness, such as no -future generation, we may venture to hope, will ever repeat. - - * * * * * - -On the Fourth of July 1826 all America kept holiday. On that day, fifty -years before, the Declaration of Independence was signed, and America -began her great career as a free country. Better occasion for jubilee -the world has seldom known. The Americans must needs do honour to the -Fathers of their Independence, most of whom have already passed away; -two of whom--John Adams and Thomas Jefferson--died on this very day. -They must pause and look back upon this amazing half century. The world -had never seen growth so rapid. There were three million of Americans -who threw off the British yoke; now there were twelve million. The -thirteen States had increased to twenty-four. The territory of the -Union had been prodigiously enlarged. [Sidenote: 1803 A.D.] Louisiana -had been sold by France; [Sidenote: 1820 A.D.] Florida had been ceded -by Spain. Time after time tribes of vagrant Indians yielded up their -lands and enrolled themselves subjects of the Great Republic. The Gulf -of Mexico now bounded the Union on the south, and the lakes which -divide her from Canada on the north. From the Atlantic on the east, she -already looked out upon the Pacific on the west. Canals had been cut -leading from the great lakes to the Hudson, and the grain which grew on -the corn-lands of the west, thousands of miles away, was brought easily -to New York. Innumerable roads had been made. The debt incurred in -the War of Independence had been all paid; and the still heavier debt -incurred in the second war with England was being rapidly extinguished. -A steady tide of emigration flowed westward. Millions of acres of -the fertile wilderness which lay towards the setting sun had been at -length made profitable to mankind. Extensive manufactories had been -established, in which cotton and woollen fabrics were produced. The -foreign trade of the country amounted to forty million sterling. - -The Marquis Lafayette, now an old man, came to see once more before he -died the country he had helped to save, and took part with wonder in -the national rejoicing. The poor colonists, for whose liberties he had -fought, had already become a powerful and wealthy nation. Everywhere -there had been expansion. Everywhere there were comfort and abundance. -Everywhere there were boundless faith in the future, and a vehement, -unresting energy, which would surely compel the fulfilment of any -expectations, however vast. - - - - -Book Third - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -KING COTTON. - - -When Europeans first visited the southern parts of America, they found -in abundant growth there a plant destined to such eminence in the -future history of the world as no other member of the vegetable family -ever attained. It was an unimportant-looking plant, two or three feet -in height, studded with pods somewhat larger than a walnut. In the -appropriate season these pods opened, revealing a wealth of soft white -fibre, embedded in which lay the seeds of the plant. This was Cotton. -It was not unknown to the Old World, for the Romans used cotton fabrics -before the Christian era. India did so from a still remoter period. But -the extent to which its use had been carried was trivial. Men clothed -themselves as they best might in linen or woollen cloth, or simply -in the skins of the beasts which they slew. The time was now at hand -when an ampler provision for their wants was to be disclosed to them. -Socially and politically, cotton has deeply influenced the course of -human affairs. The mightiest conquerors sink into insignificance in -presence of King Cotton. - -The English began to cultivate a little cotton very soon after their -settlement in America. But it was a difficult crop for them to handle. -The plants grew luxuriantly, and when autumn came the opening pods -revealed a most satisfying opulence. The quantity of cotton produced -excited the wonder of the planters. But the seeds of the plant adhered -tenaciously to the fibre. Before the fibre could be used the seeds had -to be removed, and this was a slow and therefore a costly process. It -was as much as a man could do in a day to separate one pound of cotton -from the seeds. Cotton could never be abundant or cheap while this was -the case. - -But in course of time things came to pass in England which made it -indispensable that cotton should be both abundant and cheap. In 1768 -Richard Arkwright invented a machine for spinning cotton vastly -superior to anything hitherto in use. Next year a greater than -he--James Watt--announced a greater invention--his Steam Engine. -England was ready now to begin her great work of weaving cotton for the -world. But where was the cotton to be found? - -Three or four years before Watt patented his Engine, and Arkwright -his Spinning-frame, there was born in a New England farm-house a boy -whose work was needed to complete theirs. His name was Eli Whitney. -Eli was a born mechanic; it was a necessity of his nature to invent -and construct. As a mere boy he made nails, pins, and walking-canes by -novel processes, and thus earned money to support himself at college. -In 1792 he went to Georgia to visit Mrs. Greene, the widow of that -General Greene who so troubled Lord Cornwallis in the closing years -of the War of Independence. In that primitive society, where few of -the comforts of civilized life were yet enjoyed, no visits were so -like those of the angels as the visits of a skilful mechanic. Eli -constructed marvellous amusements for Mrs. Greene’s children. He -overcame all household difficulties by some ingenious contrivance. Mrs. -Greene learned to wonder at him, and to believe nothing was impossible -for him. One day Mrs. Greene entertained a party of her neighbours. -The conversation turned upon the sorrows of the Planter. That unhappy -tenacity with which the seeds of cotton adhered to the fibre was -elaborately bemoaned. With an urgent demand from England for cotton, -with boundless lands which grew nothing so well as cotton, it was hard -to be so utterly baffled. - -Mrs. Greene had unlimited faith in her friend Eli. She begged him to -invent a machine which should separate the seeds of cotton from the -fibre. Eli was of Northern upbringing, and had never even seen cotton -in seed. He walked to Savannah, and there, with some trouble, obtained -a quantity of uncleaned cotton. He shut himself up in his room and -brooded over the difficulty which he had undertaken to conquer. - -All that winter Eli laboured--devising, hammering, building up, -rejecting, beginning afresh. He had no help; he could not even get -tools to buy, but had to make them with his own hands. At length his -machine was completed--rude-looking, but visibly effective. Mrs. Greene -invited the leading men of the State to her house. She conducted them -in triumph to the building in which the machine stood. The owners of -unprofitable cotton lands looked on with a wild flash of hope lighting -up their desponding hearts. Possibilities of untold wealth to each of -them lay in that clumsy structure. The machine was put in motion. It -was evident to all that it could perform the work of hundreds of men. -Eli had gained a great victory for mankind. In that rude log-hut of -Georgia, Cotton was crowned King, and a new era opened for America and -the world. - -Ten years after Whitney’s Cotton-gin was invented, a huge addition -was made to the cotton-growing districts of America. In 1803 Europe -enjoyed a short respite from the mad Napoleon wars. France had recently -acquired from Spain vast regions bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and -stretching far up the valley of the Mississippi, and westward to the -Pacific. It was certain that peace in Europe would not last long. It -was equally certain that when war was resumed France could not hold -these possessions against the fleets of England. America wished to -acquire, and was willing to pay for them. It was better to sell to the -Americans, and equip soldiers with the price, than wait till England -was ready to conquer. Napoleon sold, and America added Louisiana to her -vast possessions. - -Mark well these two events--the invention of a machine for cheaply -separating the seeds of cotton from the fibre, and the purchase of -Louisiana from the French. Out of these events flows the American -history of the next half century. Not any other event since the War of -Independence--not all other events put together, have done so much to -shape and determine the career of the American people. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -SLAVERY. - - -When America gained her independence slavery existed in all the -colonies. No State was free from the taint; even the New England -Puritans held slaves. At an early period they had learned to enslave -their Indian neighbours. The children of the Pilgrims owned Indians, -and in due time owned Africans, without remorse. But the number of -slaves in the North was always small. At first it was not to the higher -principle or clearer intelligence of the Northern men that this limited -prevalence of slavery was due. The North was not a region where slave -labour could ever be profitable. The climate was harsh, the soil rocky -and bleak; and labour required to be directed by intelligence. In that -comparatively unproductive land the mindless and heartless toil of the -slave would scarcely defray the cost of his support. At the Revolution -there were half a million of slaves in the colonies, and of these only -thirty to forty thousand were in the North. - -It was otherwise in the sunny and luxuriant South. The African was at -home there, for the climate was like his own. The rich soil yielded -its wealth to labour in the slightest and least intelligent form. The -culture of rice, and tobacco, and cotton supplied the very kind of -work which a slave was fitted to perform. The South found profitable -employment for as many Africans as the slave-traders were able to -steal. - -And yet at the Revolution slavery enjoyed no great degree of favour. -The free spirit enkindled by the war was in violent opposition to -the existence of a system of bondage. The presence of the slaves -had disabled the South from taking the part she ought in the War of -Independence. The white men had to stay at home to watch the black. -Virginia, Washington’s State, furnished a reasonable proportion -of troops; but the other Southern States were almost worthless. -Everywhere in the North slavery was regarded as an objectionable and -decaying institution. The leaders of the Revolution, themselves mainly -slave-owners, were eagerly desirous that slavery should be abolished. -Washington was utterly opposed to the system, and provided in his will -for the emancipation of his own slaves. Hamilton was a member of an -association for the gradual abolition of slavery. John Adams would -never own a slave. Franklin, Patrick Henry, Madison, Munroe, were -united in their reprobation of slavery. Jefferson, a Virginian, who -prepared the Declaration of Independence, said that in view of slavery -“he trembled for his country, when he reflected that God was just.” - -In the convention which met to frame a Constitution for America the -feeling of antagonism to slavery was supreme. Had the majority followed -their own course, provision would have been made then for the gradual -extinction of slavery. But there arose here a necessity for one of -those compromises by which the history of America has been so sadly -marked. When it was proposed to prohibit the importation of slaves, all -the Northern and most of the Southern States favoured the proposal. But -South Carolina and Georgia were insatiable in their thirst for African -labour. They decisively refused to become parties to a Union in which -there was to be no importation of slaves. The other States yielded. -Instead of an immediate abolition of this hateful traffic, it was -agreed merely that after twenty years Congress should be at liberty to -abolish the slave-trade if it chose. By the same threat of disunion -the Slave States of the extreme South gained other advantages. It was -fixed by the Constitution that a slave who fled to a Free State was not -therefore to become a free man. He must be given back to his owner. It -was yet further conceded that the Slave States should have increased -political power in proportion to the number of their slaves. A black -man did not count for so much as a white. Every State was to send -members to the House of Representatives according to its population, -and in reckoning that population five negroes were to be counted as -three. - -And yet at that time, and for years after, the opinion of the -South itself regarded slavery as an evil--thrust upon them by -England--difficult to be got rid of--profitable, it might be, but -lamentable and temporary. No slave-holder refused to discuss the -subject or to admit the evils of the system. No violence was offered to -those who denounced it. The clergy might venture to preach against it. -Hopeful persons might foretell the approach of liberty to those unhappy -captives. Even the lowest of the slave-holding class did not yet resent -the expression of such hopes. - -But a mighty change was destined to pass upon the tone of Southern -opinion. The purchase of Louisiana opened a vast tract of the most -fertile land in the world to the growth of cotton; Whitney’s invention -made the growth of cotton profitable. Slave-holding became lucrative. -It was wealth to own a little plantation and a few negroes; and -there was an eager race for the possession of slaves. Importation -alone could not supply the demand. Some of the more northerly of the -Southern States turned their attention to the breeding of slaves for -the Southern markets. Kentucky and Virginia became rich and infamous by -this awful commerce.[1] While iniquity was not specially profitable, -the Southern States were not very reluctant to be virtuous. When the -gains of wickedness became, as they now did, enormous, virtue ceased to -have a footing in the South. - -During many years the leader of the slave-owners was John C. Calhoun. -He was a native of South Carolina--a tall, slender, gipsy-looking man, -with an eye whose wondrous depth and power impressed all who came into -his presence. Calhoun taught the people of the South that slavery was -good for the slave. It was a benign, civilizing agency. The African -attained to a measure of intelligence in slavery greatly in advance -of that which he had ever reached as a free man. To him, visibly, it -was a blessing to be enslaved. From all this it was easy to infer that -Providence had appointed slavery for the advantage of both races; -that opposition to this Heaven-ordained institution was profane; that -abolition was merely an aspect of infidelity. So Calhoun taught; so the -South learned to believe. [Sidenote: 1850 A.D.] Calhoun’s last speech -in Congress warned the North that opposition to slavery would destroy -the Union. His latest conversation was on this absorbing theme. A few -hours after, he had passed where all dimness of vision is removed, and -errors of judgment become impossible! - -It was very pleasant for the slave-owners to be taught that slavery -enjoyed divine sanction. The doctrine had other apostles than Mr. -Calhoun. Unhappily it came to form part of the regular pulpit teaching -of the Southern churches. It was gravely argued out from the Old -Testament that slavery was the proper condition of the negro. Ham was -to be the servant of his brethren; hence all the descendants of Ham -were the rightful property of white men. The slave who fled from his -master was guilty of the crime of theft in one of its most heinous -forms. So taught the Southern pulpit. Many books, written by grave -divines for the enforcement of these doctrines, remain to awaken the -amazement of posterity. - -The slave-owners inclined a willing ear to these pleasing assurances. -They knew slavery to be profitable; their leaders in Church and State -told them it was right. It was little wonder that a fanatical love -to slavery possessed their hearts. In the passionate, ill-regulated -minds of the slave-owning class it became in course of years almost a -madness, which was shared, unhappily, by the great mass of the white -population. Discussion could no longer be permitted. It became a -fearful risk to express in the South an opinion hostile to slavery. It -was a familiar boast that no man who opposed slavery would be suffered -to live in a Slave State; and the slave-owners made their word good. -Many who were suspected of hostile opinions were tarred and feathered, -and turned out of the State. Many were shot; many were hanged; some -were burned. The Southern mobs were singularly brutal, and the -slave-owners found willing hands to do their fiendish work. The law did -not interfere to prevent or punish such atrocities. The churches looked -on and held their peace. - -As slave property increased in value, a strangely horrible system of -laws gathered around it. The slave was regarded, not as a person, but -as a thing. He had no civil rights; nay, it was declared by the highest -legal authority that a slave had no rights at all which a white man was -bound to respect. The most sacred laws of nature were defied. Marriage -was a tie which bound the slave only during the master’s pleasure. A -slave had no more legal authority over his child “than a cow has over -her calf.” It was a grave offence to teach a slave to read. A white -man might expiate that offence by fine or imprisonment; to a black man -it involved flogging. The owner might not without challenge murder -an unoffending slave; but a slave resisting his master’s will might -lawfully be slain. A slave who would not stand to be flogged, might be -shot as he ran off. The master was blameless if his slave died under -the administration of reasonable correction--in other words, if he -flogged a slave to death. A fugitive slave might be killed by any means -which his owner chose to employ. On the other hand, there was a slender -pretext of laws for the protection of the slave. Any master, for -instance, who wantonly cut out the tongue or put out the eyes of his -slave, was liable to a small fine. But as no slave could give evidence -affecting a white man in a court of law, the law had no terrors for the -slave-owner. - -The practice of the South in regard to her slaves was not unworthy -of her laws. Children were habitually torn away from their mothers. -Husbands and wives were habitually separated, and forced to contract -new marriages. Public whipping-houses became an institution. The -hunting of escaped slaves became a regular profession, and dogs were -bred and trained for that special work. Slaves who were suspected of an -intention to escape were branded with red-hot irons. When the Northern -armies forced their way into the South, many of the slaves who fled -to them were found to be scarred or mutilated. The burning of a negro -who was accused of crime was a familiar occurrence. It was a debated -question whether it was more profitable to work the slaves moderately, -and so make them last, or to take the greatest possible amount of work -from them, even although that would quickly destroy them. Some favoured -the plan of overworking, and acted upon it without scruple. - -These things were done, and the Christian churches of the South were -not ashamed to say that the system out of which they flowed enjoyed -the sanction of God! It appeared that men who had spent their lives in -the South were themselves so brutalized by their familiarity with the -atrocities of slavery, that the standard by which they judged it was no -higher than that of the lowest savages. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -MISSOURI. - - -When the State of Louisiana was received into the Union in 1812, there -was left out a large proportion of the original purchase from Napoleon. -As yet this region was unpeopled. It lay silent and unprofitable--a -vast reserve prepared for the wants of unborn generations. It was -traversed by the Missouri river. The great Mississippi was its boundary -on the east. It possessed, in all, a navigable river-line of two -thousand miles. Enormous mineral wealth was treasured up to enrich -the world for centuries to come. There were coal-fields greater than -those of all Europe. There was iron piled up in mountains, one of -which contained two hundred million tons of ore. There was profusion -of copper, of zinc, of lead. There were boundless forests. There was -a soil unsurpassed in fertility. The climate was kindly and genial, -marred by neither the stern winters of the North nor the fierce heats -of the South. The scenery was often of rare beauty and grandeur. - -This was the Territory of Missouri. Gradually settlers from the -neighbouring States dropped in. Slave-holders came, bringing their -chattels with them. They were first in the field, and they took secure -possession. The free emigrant turned aside, and the slave-power reigned -supreme in Missouri. The wealth and beauty of this glorious land were -wedded to the most gigantic system of evil which ever established -itself upon the earth. - -By the year 1818 there were sixty thousand persons residing in -Missouri. The time had come for the admission of this Territory into -the Union as a State. It was the first great contest between the Free -and the Slave States. The cotton-gin, the acquisition of Louisiana, -the teaching of Calhoun, had done their work. The slave-owners were -now a great political power--resolute, unscrupulous, intolerant of -opposition. The next half century of American history takes its tone -very much from their fierce and restless energy. Their policy never -wavered. To gain predominance for slavery, with room for its indefinite -expansion, these were their aims. American history is filled with their -violence on to a certain April morning in 1865, when the slave-power -and all its lawless pretensions lay crushed among the ruins of Richmond. - -When the application of Missouri for admission into the Union came -to be considered in Congress, an attempt was made to shut slavery -wholly out of the new State. A struggle ensued which lasted for nearly -three years. The question was one of vital importance. At that time -the number of Free States and the number of Slave States were exactly -equal. Whosoever gained Missouri gained a majority in the Senate. The -North was deeply in earnest in desiring to prevent the extension of -slavery. The South was equally resolute that no limitation should be -imposed. The result was a compromise, proposed by the South. Missouri -was to be given over to slavery. But it was agreed that, excepting -within the limits of Missouri herself, slavery should not be permitted -in any part of the territory purchased from France, north of a line -drawn eastward and westward from the southern boundary of that State. -Thus far might the waves of this foul tide flow, but no further. So -ended the great controversy, in the decisive victory of the South. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -HOPE FOR THE NEGRO. - - -The North participated in the gains of slavery. The cotton-planter -borrowed money at high interest from the Northern capitalist. He bought -his goods in Northern markets; he sent his cotton to the North for -sale. The Northern merchants made money at his hands, and were in no -haste to overthrow the peculiar institution out of which results so -pleasant flowed. They had no occasion, as the planter had, to persuade -themselves that slavery enjoyed special divine sanction. But it did -become a very general belief in the North that without slave-labour -the cultivation of Southern lands was impossible. It was also very -generally alleged that the condition of the slave was preferable to -that of the free European labourer. - -All looked very hopeless for the poor negro. The South claimed to hold -him by divine right. She looked to a future of indefinite expansion. -The boundless regions which stretched away from her border, untrodden -by man, were marked out for slave territory. A powerful sentiment in -the North supported her claims. She was able to exercise a controlling -influence over the Federal Government. It seemed as if all authority in -the Union was pledged to uphold slavery, and assert for ever the right -of the white man to hold the black man as an article of merchandise. - -But even then the awakening of the Northern conscience had begun. On -the 1st of January 1831, a journeyman printer, William Lloyd Garrison, -published in Boston the first number of a paper devoted to the -abolition of slavery. This is perhaps the earliest prominent incident -in the history of Emancipation. It was indeed a humble opening of a -noble career. Garrison was young and penniless. He wrote the articles, -and he also, with the help of a friend, set the types. He lived mainly -on bread and water. Only when a number of the paper sold particularly -well, he and his companion indulged in a bowl of milk. The Mayor of -Boston was asked by a Southern magistrate to suppress the paper. He -replied that it was not worth the trouble. The office of the editor -was “an obscure hole; his only visible auxiliary a negro boy; his -supporters a few insignificant persons of all colours.” The lordly -Southerners need not be uneasy about this obscure editor and his paltry -newspaper. - -But the fulness of time had come, and every word spoken against slavery -found now some willing listener. In the year after Garrison began his -paper the American Anti-slavery Society was formed. It was composed -of twelve members. Busy hands were scattering the seed abroad, and it -sprang quickly. Within three years there were two hundred anti-slavery -societies in America; in seven years more these had increased to two -thousand. The war against slavery was now begun in earnest. - -The slave-owners and their allies in the North regarded with rage -unutterable this formidable invasion. Everywhere they opposed violence -to the arguments of their opponents. Large rewards were offered for the -capture of prominent abolitionists. Many Northern men, who unwarily -strayed into Southern States, were murdered on the mere suspicion -that they were opposed to slavery. [Sidenote: 1835 A.D.] President -Jackson recommended Congress to forbid the conveyance to the South, -by the mails, of anti-slavery publications. In Boston a mob of -well-dressed and respectable citizens suppressed a meeting of female -abolitionists. While busied about that enterprise, they were fortunate -enough to lay hold of Garrison, whose murder they designed, and would -have accomplished, had not a timely sally of the constables rescued -him from their grasp. [Sidenote: 1833 A.D.] In Connecticut a young -woman was imprisoned for teaching negro children to read. Philadelphia -was disgraced by riots in which negroes were killed and their houses -burned down. Throughout the Northern States anti-slavery meetings were -habitually invaded and broken up by the allies of the slave-owners. -The abolitionists were devoured by a zeal which knew no bounds and -permitted no rest. The slave-owners met them with a deep, remorseless, -murderous hatred, which gradually possessed and corroded their whole -nature. In this war, as it soon became evident, there could be no -compromise. Peace was impossible otherwise than by the destruction of -one or other of the contending parties. - -The spirit in which the South defended her cherished institution was -fairly exemplified in her treatment of a young clergyman, Mr. Lovejoy, -who offended her by his antipathy to slavery. Mr. Lovejoy established -himself in Alton, a little town of Illinois, where he conducted a -newspaper. Illinois was itself a Free State; but Missouri was near, and -the slave-power was supreme in all that region. Mr. Lovejoy declared -himself in his newspaper against slavery. He was requested to withdraw -from that neighbourhood; but he maintained his right of free speech, -and chose to remain. The mob sacked his printing-office, and flung his -press into the river. [Sidenote: 1837 A.D.] Mr. Lovejoy bought another -press. The arrival of this new machine highly displeased the ruffianism -of the little town of Alton. It was stored for safety in a well-secured -building, and two or three well-disposed citizens kept armed watch over -it. The mob attacked the warehouse. Shots were exchanged, and some of -the rioters were slain. At length the mob succeeded in setting fire to -the building. When Mr. Lovejoy showed himself to the crowd he was fired -at, and fell pierced by five bullets. The printing-press was broken; -the newspaper was silenced; the hostile editor was slaughtered. The -offended majesty of the slave-power was becomingly vindicated. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -TEXAS. - - -The decaying energies of Spain were sorely wasted by the wars which -Napoleon forced upon her. Invaded, conquered, occupied, fought for -during years by great armies, Spain issued from the struggle in a state -of utter exhaustion. It was impossible that a country so enfeebled -could maintain a great colonial dominion. Not long after the Battle of -Waterloo all her American dependencies chose to be independent, and -Spain could do nothing to prevent it. Among the rest, Mexico won for -herself the privilege of self-government, of which she has thus far -proved herself so incapable. - -Lying between the Mississippi and the Rio Grande was a vast wilderness -of undefined extent and uncertain ownership, which America, with some -hesitation, recognized as belonging to Mexico. It was called Texas. -The climate was genial; the soil was of wondrous fertility. [Sidenote: -1829 A.D.] America coveted this fair region, and offered to buy it from -Mexico. Her offer was declined. - -The great natural wealth of Texas, combined with the almost total -absence of government, were powerful attractions to the lawless -adventurers who abounded in the South-Western States. A tide of vagrant -blackguardism streamed into Texas. Safe from the grasp of justice, -the murderer, the thief, the fraudulent debtor, opened in Texas a new -and more hopeful career. Founded by these conscript fathers, Texan -society grew apace. [Sidenote: 1836 A.D.] In a few years Texas felt -herself strong enough to be independent. Her connection with Mexico was -declared to be at an end. - -The leader in this revolution was Sam Houston, a Virginian of massive -frame--energetic, audacious, unscrupulous--in no mean degree fitted to -direct the storm he had helped to raise. For Houston was a Southerner, -and it was his ambition to gain Texas for the purposes of the -slave-owners. Mexico had abolished slavery. Texas could be no home for -the possessor of slaves till she was severed from Mexico. - -When independence was declared, Texas had to defend her newly-claimed -liberties by the sword. General Houston headed the patriot forces, not -quite four hundred in number, and imperfectly armed. Santa Anna came -against them with an army of five thousand. The Texans retreated, and -having nothing to carry, easily distanced their pursuers. At the San -Jacinto, Houston was strengthened by the arrival of two field-pieces. -He turned like a lion upon the unexpectant Mexicans, whom he caught -in the very act of crossing the river. He fired grape-shot into their -quaking ranks. His unconquerable Texans clubbed their muskets--they had -no bayonets--and rushed upon the foe. The Mexicans fled in helpless -rout, and Texas was free. The grateful Texans elected General Houston -President of the republic which he had thus saved. - -[Sidenote: 1837 A.D.] No sooner was Texas independent than she offered -to join herself to the United States. Her proposals were at first -declined. But the South warmly espoused her cause and urged her claims. -Once more North and South met in fiery debate. Slavery had already a -sure footing in Texas. If Texas entered the Union, it was as a Slave -State. On that ground avowedly the South urged the annexation; on that -ground the North resisted it. “We all see,” said Daniel Webster, -“that Texas will be a slave-holding country; and I frankly avow my -unwillingness to do anything which shall extend the slavery of the -African race on this continent, or add another Slave-holding State to -the Union.” “The South,” said the Legislature of Mississippi, speaking -of slavery, “does not possess a blessing with which the affections of -her people are so closely entwined, and whose value is more highly -appreciated. By the annexation of Texas an equipoise of influence -in the halls of Congress will be secured, which will furnish us a -permanent guarantee of protection.” - -It was the battle-ground on which all the recent great battles of -American political history have been fought. It ended, as such battles -at that time usually did, in Southern victory. In March 1845 Texas was -received into the Union. The slave-power gained new votes in Congress, -and room for a vast extension of the slave-system. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE WAR WITH MEXICO. - - -Mexico was displeased with the annexation of Texas, but did not -manifest so quickly as it was hoped she would any disposition to avenge -herself. Mr. Polk, a Southern man, was now President, and he governed -in the interest of the South. A war with Mexico was a thing to be -desired, because Mexico must be beaten, and could then be plundered of -territory which the slave-owners would appropriate. [Sidenote: 1846 -A.D.] To provoke Mexico the Unready, an army of four thousand men was -sent to the extreme south-western confines of Texas. A Mexican army -of six thousand lay near. The Americans, with marvellous audacity, -erected a fort within easy range of Matamoras, a city of the Mexicans, -and thus the place was in their power. After much hesitation the -Mexican army attacked the Americans, and received, as they might well -have anticipated, a severe defeat. Thus, without the formality of any -declaration, the war was begun. - -President Polk hastened to announce to Congress that the Mexicans had -“invaded our territory, and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens.” -Congress voted men and money for the prosecution of the war, and -volunteers offered themselves in multitudes. Their brave little army -was in peril--far from help, and surrounded by enemies. The people -were eager to support the heroes, of whose victory they were so proud. -And yet opinion was much divided. Many deemed the war unjust and -disgraceful. Among these was a young lawyer of Illinois, destined in -later years to fill a place in the hearts of his countrymen second only -to that of Washington. Abraham Lincoln entered Congress while the war -was in progress, and his first speech was in condemnation of the course -pursued by the Government. - -The war was pushed with vigour at first under the command of General -Taylor, who was to become the next President; and finally under General -Scott, who, as a very young man, had fought against the British at -Niagara, and, as a very old man, was Commander-in-Chief of the American -Army when the great war between North and South began. Many officers -were there whose names became famous in after years. General Lee and -General Grant gained here their first experience of war. They were not -then known to each other. They met for the first time, twenty years -after, in a Virginian cottage, to arrange terms of surrender for the -defeated army of the Southern Confederacy! - -The Americans resolved to fight their way to the enemy’s capital, and -there compel such a peace as would be agreeable to themselves. The -task was not without difficulty. The Mexican army was greatly more -numerous. They had a splendid cavalry force and an efficient artillery. -Their commander, Santa Anna, unscrupulous even for a Mexican, was yet -a soldier of some ability. The Americans were mainly volunteers who -had never seen war till now. The fighting was severe. At Buena-Vista -the American army was attacked by a force which outnumbered it in the -proportion of five to one. The battle lasted for ten hours, and the -invaders were saved from ruin by their superior artillery. The mountain -passes were strongly fortified, and General Scott had to convey his -army across chasms and ravines which the Mexicans, deeming them -impracticable, had neglected to defend. Strong in the consciousness of -their superiority to the people they invaded--the same consciousness -which supported Cortes and his Spaniards three centuries before--the -Americans pressed on. At length they came in sight of Mexico, at the -same spot where Cortes had viewed it. [Sidenote: Sept. 14, 1847 A.D.] -Once more they routed a Mexican army of greatly superior force; and -then General Scott marched his little army of six thousand men quietly -into the capital. The war was closed, and a treaty of peace was with -little delay negotiated. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -CALIFORNIA. - - -America exacted mercilessly the penalty which usually attends defeat. -Mexico was to receive fifteen million dollars; but she ceded an -enormous territory stretching westward from Texas to the Pacific. - -One of the provinces which composed this magnificent prize was -California. The slave-owners had gone to war with Mexico that they -might gain territory which slavery should possess for ever. They sought -to introduce California into the Union as a Slave State. But Providence -interposed to shield her from a destiny so unhappy. - -[Sidenote: 1848 A.D.] Just about the time that California became an -American possession, it was discovered that her soil was richly endowed -with gold. On one of the tributaries of the Sacramento river an old -settler was peacefully digging a trench--caring little, it may be -supposed, about the change of citizenship which he had undergone--not -dreaming that the next stroke of his spade was to influence the -history, not merely of California, but of the world. Among the sand -which he lifted were certain shining particles. His wondering eye -considered them with attention. They were Gold! Gold was everywhere--in -the soil, in the river-sand, in the mountain-rock; gold in dust, gold -in pellets, gold in lumps! It was the land of old fairy tale, where -wealth could be had by him who chose to stoop down and gather! - -Fast as the mails could carry it the bewildering news thrilled the -heart of America. To the energetic youth of the Northern States the -charm was irresistible. It was now, indeed, a reproach to be poor, when -it was so easy to be rich. - -The journey to the land of promise was full of toil and danger. There -were over two thousand miles of unexplored wilderness to traverse. -There were mountain ranges to surmount, lofty and rugged as the Alps -themselves. There were great desolate plains, unwatered and without -vegetation. Indians, whose dispositions there was reason to question, -beset the path. But danger was unconsidered. That season thirty -thousand Americans crossed the plains, climbed the mountains, forded -the streams, bore without shrinking all that want, exposure, and -fatigue could inflict. Cholera broke out among them, and four thousand -left their bones in the wilderness. The rest plodded on undismayed. -Fifty thousand came by sea. From all countries they came--from quiet -English villages, from the crowded cities of China. Before the year -was out California had gained an addition of eighty thousand to her -population. - -These came mainly from the Northern States. They had no thought -of suffering in their new home the evil institution of the South. -[Sidenote: 1850 A.D.] They settled easily the constitution of their -State, and California was received into the Union free from the taint -of slavery. - -It was no slight disappointment to the men of the South. They had -urged on the war with Mexico in order to gain new Slave States, new -votes in Congress, additional room for the spread of slavery. They had -gained all the territory they hoped for; but this strange revelation -of gold had peopled it from the North, and slavery was shut out for -ever. To soothe their irritation, Henry Clay proposed a very black -concession, under the disgrace of which America suffered for years -in the estimation of all Christian nations. The South was angry, and -hinted even then at secession. The North was prosperous. Her merchants -were growing rich; her farmers were rapidly overspreading the country -and subduing waste lands to the service of man. Every year saw vast -accessions to her wealth; and her supreme desire was for quietness. In -this frame of mind she assented to the passing of the Fugitive Slave -Law. Heretofore it had been lawful for the slave-owner to reclaim his -slave who had escaped into a Free State; but although lawful, it was -in practice almost impossible. Now the officers of the Government, -and all good citizens, were commanded to give to the pursuer all -needful help. In certain cases Government was to defray the expense of -restoring the slave to the plantation from which he had fled. In any -trial arising under this law, the evidence of the slave himself was not -to be received; the oath of his pursuer was almost decisive against -him. Hundreds of Southern ruffians hastened to take vile advantage of -this shameful law. They searched out coloured men in the Free States, -and swore that they were escaped slaves. In too many instances they -were successful, and many free negroes as well as escaped slaves were -borne back to the miseries of slavery. The North erred grievously -in consenting to a measure so base. It is just, however, to say, -that although Northern politicians upheld it as a wise and necessary -compromise, the Northern people in their hearts abhorred it. The law -was so unpopular that its execution was resisted in several Northern -cities, and it quickly passed into disuse. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -KANSAS. - - -The great Louisiana purchase from Napoleon was not yet wholly portioned -off into States. Westward and northward of Missouri was an enormous -expanse of the richest land in the Union, having as yet few occupants -more profitable than the Indians. Two great routes of travel--to the -west and to the south-west--traversed it. The eager searcher for gold -passed that way on his long walk to California. The Mormon looked with -indifference on its luxuriant vegetation as he toiled on to his New -Jerusalem by the Great Salt Lake. In the year 1853 it was proposed -to organize this region into two Territories, under the names of -Kansas and Nebraska. Here once more arose the old question--Shall the -Territories be Slave or Free? The Missouri Compromise had settled that -slavery should never come here. But the slave-owners were able to -cancel this settlement. [Sidenote: 1854 A.D.] A law was enacted under -which the inhabitants were left to choose between slavery and freedom. -The vote of a majority would decide the destiny of these magnificent -provinces. - -And now both parties had to bestir themselves. The early inhabitants -of the infant States were to fix for all time whether they would admit -or exclude the slave-owner with his victims. Everything depended, -therefore, on taking early possession. - -The South was first in the field. Missouri was near, and her citizens -led the way. Great slave-owners took possession of lands in Kansas, -and loudly invited their brethren from other States to come at once, -bringing their slaves with them. But their numbers were small, while -the need was urgent. The South had no population to spare fitted for -the work of colonizing, but she had in large numbers the class of “mean -whites.” In the mean white of the Southern States we are permitted to -see how low it is possible for our Anglo-Saxon humanity to fall. The -mean white is entirely without education. His house is a hovel of the -very lowest description. Personally he walks in rags and filth. He -cannot stoop to work, because slavery has rendered labour disreputable. -He supports himself as savages do--by shooting, by fishing, by the -plunder of his industrious neighbours’ fields and folds. The negro, out -of the unutterable degradation to which he has been subjected, looks -with scorn upon the mean white. - -[Sidenote: 1855 A.D.] The mean whites of Missouri were easily -marshalled for a raid into Kansas. The time came when elections were -to take place--when the great question of Slave or Free was to be -answered. Gangs of armed ruffians were marched over from Missouri. -Such a party--nearly a thousand strong, accompanied by two pieces of -cannon--entered the little town of Lawrence on the morning of the -election day. The ballot-boxes were taken possession of, and the -peaceful inhabitants were driven away. The invaders cast fictitious -votes into the boxes, outnumbering ten or twenty times the lawful roll -of voters. A legislature wholly in the interests of slavery was thus -elected, and in due time that body began to enact laws. No man whose -opinions were opposed to slavery was to be an elector in Kansas. Any -man who spoke or wrote against slavery was to suffer imprisonment with -hard labour. Death was the penalty for aiding the escape of a slave. -All this was done while the enemies of slavery were an actual majority -of the inhabitants of Kansas! - -And then the Border ruffians overran the country--working their own -wicked will wherever they came. The outrages they committed read like -the freaks of demons. A man betted that he would scalp an abolitionist. -He rode out from the little town of Leavensworth in search of a victim. -He met a gentleman driving in a gig, shot him, scalped him, rode back -to town, showed his ghastly trophy, and received payment of his bet. -Men were gathered up from their work in the fields, ranged in line, and -ruthlessly shot to death, because they hated slavery. A lawyer who had -protested against frauds at an election was tarred and feathered; thus -attired, he was put up to auction and sold to the highest bidder. The -town of Lawrence was attacked by eight hundred marauders, who plundered -it to their content--bombarding with artillery houses which displeased -them--burning and destroying in utter wantonness. - -But during all this unhappy time the steady tide of Northern -immigration into Kansas flowed on. From the very outset of the strife -the North was resolute to win Kansas for freedom. She sought to do -this by colonizing Kansas with men who hated slavery. Societies were -formed to aid poor emigrants. In single families, in groups of fifty to -a hundred persons, the settlers were promptly moved westward. Some of -these merely obeyed the impulse which drives so many Americans to leave -the settled States of the east and push out into the wilderness. Others -went that their votes might prevent the spread of slavery. There was no -small measure of patriotism in the movement. Men left their comfortable -homes in the east and carried their families into a wilderness, to the -natural miseries of which was added the presence of bitter enemies. -They did so that Kansas might be a Free State. Cannon were planted on -the banks of the Missouri to prevent their entrance into Kansas. Many -of them were plundered and turned back. Often their houses were burned -and their fields wasted. But they were a self-reliant people, to whom -it was no hardship to be obliged to defend themselves. When need arose -they banded themselves together and gave battle to the ruffians who -troubled them. And all the while they were growing stronger by constant -reinforcements from the east. There were building, and clearing, and -ploughing, and sowing. In spite of Southern outrage Kansas was fast -ripening into a free and orderly community. [Sidenote: 1859 A.D.] In -a few years the party of freedom was able to carry the elections. A -constitution was adopted by which slavery was excluded from Kansas. -[Sidenote: 1861 A.D.] And at length, just when the great final struggle -between slavery and freedom was commencing, Kansas was received as a -Free State. Her admission raised the number of States in the Union to -thirty-four. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY. - - -The conflict deepened as years passed. The Abolitionists became more -irrepressible, the Slave-holders more savage. There seemed no hope of -the law becoming just. The American people have a deep reverence for -law, but here it was overborne by their sense of injustice. The wicked -law was habitually set at defiance, and plans were carefully framed for -aiding the escape of slaves. It was whispered about among the negroes -that at certain points they were sure to find friends, shelter, and -safe conveyance to Canada. Around every plantation there stretched -dense jungles, swamps, pathless forests. The escaping slave fled to -these gloomy solitudes. They hunted him with bloodhounds, and many a -poor wretch was dragged back to groan under deeper brutalities than -before. If happily undiscovered, he made his way to certain well-known -stations, a chain of which passed him safely on to the protection of -the British flag. This was the Underground Railway. Now and then its -agents were discovered. In that miserable time it was a grave offence -to help a slave to escape. The offender was doomed to heavy fine or -long imprisonment. Some died in prison of the hardships they endured. -But the Underground Railway never wanted agents. No sooner had the -unjust law claimed its victim than another stepped into his place. -During many years the average number of slaves freed by this agency was -considerably over a thousand. - -The slave-holders made it unsafe for Northerners of anti-slavery -opinions to remain in the South. Acts of brutal violence--very -frequently resulting in murder--became very common. [Sidenote: 1860 -A.D.] During one year eight hundred persons were robbed, whipped, -tarred and feathered, or murdered for suspected antipathy to slavery. -The possession of an anti-slavery newspaper or book involved expulsion -from the State; and the circulation of such works could scarcely be -expiated by any punishment but death. In Virginia and Maryland it was -gravely contemplated to drive the free negroes from their homes, or -to sell them into slavery and devote the money thus obtained to the -support of the common schools! Arkansas did actually expel her free -negroes. The slave-holders were determined that nothing which could -remind their victims of liberty should be suffered to remain. - -[Sidenote: 1858 A.D.] It was well said by Mr. Seward that they greatly -erred who deemed this collision accidental or ephemeral. It was “an -irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces.” All -attempts at compromise would be short-lived and vain. - - * * * * * - -The most influential advocate of the numerous compromises by which the -strife was sought to be calmed, was Henry Clay of Kentucky. Clay was -much loved for his genial dispositions, much honoured and trusted in -for his commanding ability. For many years of the prolonged struggle he -seemed to stand between North and South--wielding authority over both. -Although Southern, he hated slavery, and the slave-holders had often to -receive from his lips emphatic denunciations of their favourite system. -But he hated the doctrines of the abolitionists, too, and believed they -were leading towards the dissolution of the Union. He desired gradual -emancipation, and along with it the return of the negroes to Africa. -His aim was to deliver his country from the taint of slavery; but he -would effect that great revolution step by step, as the country could -bear it. At every crisis he was ready with a compromise. His proposals -soothed the angry passions which were aroused when Missouri sought -admission into the Union. [Sidenote: 1850 A.D.] His, too, was that -unhappy compromise, one feature of which was the Fugitive Slave Bill. -If compromise could have averted strife, Henry Clay would have saved -his country. But the conflict was irrepressible. - - * * * * * - -The slave-power grew very bold during the later years of its existence. -The re-opening of the slave-trade became one of the questions of the -day in the Southern States. The Governor of South Carolina expressly -recommended this measure. Southern newspapers supported it; Southern -ruffians actually accomplished it. Numerous cargoes of slaves were -landed in the South in open defiance of law, and the outrage was -unrebuked. [Sidenote: 1859 A.D.] Political conventions voted their -approval of the traffic, and associations were formed to promote -it. Agricultural societies offered prizes for the best specimens -of newly imported live Africans. It was even proposed that a prize -should be offered for the best sermon in favour of the slave-trade! -Advertisements like this were frequent in Southern newspapers--“For -sale, four hundred negroes, lately landed on the coast of Texas.” It -was possible to do such things then. A little later--in the days of -Abraham Lincoln--a certain ruffianly Captain Gordon made the perilous -experiment of bringing a cargo of slaves to New York. He was seized, -and promptly hanged, and there was no further attempt to revive the -slave-trade. Thus appropriately was this hideous traffic closed. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -JOHN BROWN. - - -The hatred of the North to slavery was rapidly growing. In the eyes -of some, slavery was an enormous sin, fitted to bring the curse of -God upon the land. To others, it was a political evil, marring the -unity and hindering the progress of the country. To very many, on the -one ground or the other, it was becoming hateful. Politicians sought -to delay by concessions the inevitable crisis. Simple men, guiding -themselves by their conviction of the wickedness of slavery, were -growing ever more vehement in their abhorrence of this evil thing. - -John Brown was such a man. The blood of the Pilgrim Fathers flowed -in his veins; the old Puritan spirit guided all his actions. From -his boyhood he abhorred slavery; and he was constrained by his duty -to God and man to spend himself in this cause. There was no hope of -advantage in it; no desire for fame; no thought at all for himself -or for his children. He saw a huge wrong, and he could not help -setting himself to resist it. He was no politician. He was powerless -to influence the councils of the nation, but he had the old Puritan -aptitude for battle. He went to Kansas with his sons to help in the -fight for freedom; and while there was fighting to be done, John Brown -was at the front. He was a leader among the free settlers, who felt -his military superiority, and followed him with confidence in many a -bloody skirmish. He retired habitually into deep solitudes to pray. He -had morning and evening prayers, in which all his followers joined. He -would allow no man of immoral character in his camp. He believed that -God directed him in visions; he was God’s servant, and not man’s. The -work given him to do might be bitter to the flesh, but since it was -God’s work he dared not shrink from it. - -When the triumph of freedom was secured in Kansas, John Brown moved -eastward to Virginia. He was now to devote himself in earnest to -the overthrow of the accursed institution. The laws of his country -sanctioned an enormous wickedness. He declared war against his country, -in so far as the national support of slavery was concerned. He prepared -a constitution and a semblance of government. He himself was the head -of this singular organization. Associated with him were a Secretary of -State, a Treasurer, and a Secretary of War. Slavery, he stated, was -a barbarous and unjustifiable war, carried on by one section of the -community against another. His new government was for the defence of -those whom the laws of the country wrongfully left undefended. He was -joined by a few enthusiasts like-minded with himself, and he laid up -a store of arms. He and his friends hung about plantations, and aided -the escape of slaves to Canada. Occasionally the horses and cattle of -the slave-owner were laid under contribution to support the costs of -the campaign. Brown meditated war upon a somewhat extensive scale, and -only waited the reinforcements of which he was assured, that he might -proclaim liberty to all the captives in his neighbourhood. But reason -appeared for believing that his plans had been betrayed to the enemy, -and Brown was hurried into measures which brought swift destruction -upon himself and his followers. - -Harper’s Ferry was a town of five thousand inhabitants, nestling amid -steep and rugged mountains, where the Shenandoah unites its waters with -those of the Potomac. The National Armoury was here, and an arsenal -in which were laid up enormous stores of arms and ammunition. Brown -resolved to seize the arsenal. It was his hope that the slaves would -hasten to his standard when the news of his success went abroad. And he -seems to have reckoned that he would become strong enough to make terms -with the Government, or, at the worst, to secure the escape to Canada -of his armed followers. - -[Sidenote: 1859 A.D.] One Sunday evening in October he marched -into Harper’s Ferry with a little army of twenty-two men--black -and white--and easily possessed himself of the arsenal. He cut the -telegraph wires; he stopped the trains which here cross the Potomac; he -made prisoners of the workmen who came in the morning to resume their -labours at the arsenal. His sentinels held the streets and bridges. -The surprise was complete, and for a few hours his possession of the -Government works was undisputed. - -When at length the news of this amazing rebellion was suffered to -escape, and America learned that old John Brown had invaded and -conquered Harper’s Ferry, the rage and alarm of the slave-owners -and their supporters knew no bounds. The Virginians, upon whom the -affront fell most heavily, took prompt measures to avenge it. By -noon on Monday a force of militiamen surrounded the little town, to -prevent the escape of those whom, as yet, they were not strong enough -to capture. Before night fifteen hundred men were assembled. All that -night Brown held his conquest, till nearly all his men were wounded -or slain. His two sons were shot dead. Brown, standing beside their -bodies, calmly exhorted his men to be firm, and sell their lives as -dearly as possible. On Tuesday morning the soldiers forced an entrance, -and Brown, with a sabre-cut in his head, and two bayonet-stabs in his -body, was a prisoner. He was tried, and condemned to die. Throughout -his imprisonment, and even amid the horrors of the closing scene, his -habitual serenity was undisturbed. He “humbly trusted that he had the -peace of God, which passeth all understanding, to rule in his heart.” - -To the enraged slave-owners John Brown was a detestable rebel. To the -abolitionists he was a martyr. To us he is a true, earnest, but most -ill-judging man. His actions were unwise, unwarrantable; but his aims -were noble, his self-devotion was heroic. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND SIXTY. - - -In this year America made her decennial enumeration of her people and -their possessions. The industrial greatness which the census revealed -was an astonishment, not only to the rest of the world, but even to -herself. The slow growth of the old European countries seemed absolute -stagnation beside this swift multiplication of men and of beasts, and -of wealth in every form. - -The three million colonists who had thrown off the British yoke had -now increased to thirty-one and a half million! Of these, four million -were slaves, owned by three hundred and fifty thousand persons. This -great population was assisted in its toils by six million horses and -two million working oxen. It owned eight million cows, fifteen million -other cattle, twenty-two million sheep, and thirty-three million -hogs. The products of the soil were enormous. The cotton crop of -this year was close upon one million tons. It had more than doubled -within the last ten years. The grain crop was twelve hundred million -bushels--figures so large as to pass beyond our comprehension. Tobacco -had more than doubled since 1850--until now America actually yielded -a supply of five hundred million pounds. There were five thousand -miles of canals, and thirty thousand miles of railroad--twenty-two -thousand of which were the creation of the preceding ten years. The -textile manufactures of the country had reached the annual value of -forty million sterling. America had provided for the education of her -children by erecting one hundred and thirteen thousand schools and -colleges, and employing one hundred and fifty thousand teachers. Her -educational institutions enjoyed revenues amounting to nearly seven -million sterling, and were attended by five and a half million pupils. -Religious instruction was given in fifty-four thousand churches, in -which there was accommodation for nineteen million hearers. The daily -history of the world was supplied by four thousand newspapers, which -circulated annually one thousand million copies. - -There belonged to the American people nearly two thousand million -acres of land. They had not been able to make any use of the greater -part of this enormous heritage. Only four hundred million acres had as -yet become in any measure available for the benefit of man. The huge -remainder lay unpossessed--its power to give wealth to man growing -always greater during the long ages of solitude and neglect. The -ownership of this prodigious expanse of fertile land opened to the -American people a future of unexampled prosperity. They needed only -peace and the exercise of their own vigorous industry. But a sterner -task was in store for them. - - * * * * * - -During the last few years the divisions between North and South had -become exceedingly bitter. The North was becoming ever more intolerant -of slavery. The unreasoning and passionate South resented with growing -fierceness the Northern abhorrence of her favoured institution. In -the Senate House one day a member was bending over his desk, busied -in writing. His name was Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts. He was -well known for the hatred which he bore to slavery, and his power -as an orator gave him rank as a leader among those who desired the -overthrow of the system. While this senator was occupied with his -writing, there walked up to him two men whom South Carolina deemed -not unworthy to frame laws for a great people. One of them--a ruffian, -although a senator--whose name was Brooks, carried a heavy cane. With -this formidable weapon he discharged many blows upon the head of the -unsuspecting Sumner, till his victim fell bleeding and senseless to -the floor. For this outrage a trifling fine was imposed on Brooks. His -admiring constituents eagerly paid the amount. Brooks resigned his -seat, and was immediately re-elected. Handsome canes flowed in upon him -from all parts of the slave country. The South, in a most deliberate -and emphatic manner, recorded its approval of the crime which he had -committed. - -To such a pass had North and South now come. Sumner vehemently -attacking slavery; Brooks vehemently smiting Sumner upon his -defenceless head--these men represent with perfect truthfulness the -feeling of the two great sections. This cannot last. - -A new President fell to be elected in 1860. Never had an election taken -place under circumstances so exciting. The North was thoroughly aroused -on the slave question. The time for compromises was felt to have -passed. It was a death-grapple between the two powers. Each party had -to put forth its strength and conquer, or be crushed. - -The enemies of slavery announced it as their design to prevent slavery -from extending to the Territories. They had no power to interfere -in States where the system already existed. But, they said, the -Territories belong to the Union. The proper condition of the Union is -freedom. The Slave States are merely exceptional. It is contrary to the -Constitution to carry this irregularity where it does not already exist. - -The Territories, said the South, belong to the Union. All citizens -of the Union are free to go there with their property. Slaves are -property. Slavery may therefore be established in the Territories, if -slave-owners choose to settle there. - -On this issue battle was joined. The Northern party nominated Abraham -Lincoln as their candidate. The Southerners, with their friends in -the North--of whom there were many--divided their votes among three -candidates. They were defeated, and Abraham Lincoln became President. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Lincoln was the son of a small and not very prosperous farmer. -He was born in 1809 in the State of Kentucky, but his youth was -passed mainly in Indiana. His father had chosen to settle on the -farthest verge of civilization. Around him was a dense, illimitable -forest, still wandered over by the Indians. Here and there in the -wilderness occurred a rude wooden hut like his own, the abode of some -rough settler regardless of comfort and greedy of the excitements of -pioneering. The next neighbour was two miles away. There were no roads, -no bridges, no inns. The traveller swam the rivers he had to cross, and -trusted, not in vain, to the hospitality of the settlers for food and -shelter. Now and then a clergyman passed that way, and from a hasty -platform beneath a tree the gospel was preached to an eagerly-listening -audience of rugged woodsmen. Many years after, when he had grown -wise and famous, Mr. Lincoln spoke, with tears in his eyes, of a -well-remembered sermon which he had heard from a wayfaring preacher in -the great Indiana wilderness. Justice was administered under the shade -of forest trees. The jury sat upon a log. The same tree which sheltered -the court, occasionally served as a gibbet for the criminal. - -In this society--rugged, but honest and kindly--the youth of the -future President was passed. He had little schooling; indeed there was -scarcely a school within reach, and if all the days of his school-time -were added together they would scarcely make up one year. His father -was poor, and Abraham was needed on the farm. There was timber to fell, -there were fences to build, fields to plough, sowing and reaping to -be done. Abraham led a busy life, and knew well, while yet a boy, -what hard work meant. Like all boys who come to anything great, he had -a devouring thirst for knowledge. He borrowed all the books in his -neighbourhood, and read them by the blaze of the logs which his own axe -had split. - -This was his upbringing. When he entered life for himself, it was as -clerk in a small store. He served nearly a year there, conducting -faithfully and cheerfully the lowly commerce by which the wants of the -settlers were supplied. Then he comes before us as a soldier, fighting -a not very bloody campaign against the Indians, who had undertaken, -rather imprudently, to drive the white men out of that region. Having -settled in Illinois, he commenced the study of law, supporting himself -by land-surveying during the unprofitable stages of that pursuit. -Finally he applied himself to politics, and in 1834 was elected a -member of the Legislature of Illinois. - -He was now in his twenty-fifth year; of vast stature, somewhat -awkwardly fashioned, slender for his height, but uncommonly muscular -and enduring. He was of pleasant humour, ready and true insight. After -such a boyhood as his, difficulty had no terrors for him, and he was -incapable of defeat. His manners were very homely. His lank, ungainly -figure, dressed in the native manufacture of the backwoods, would have -spread dismay in a European drawing-room. He was smiled at even in the -uncourtly Legislature of Illinois. But here, as elsewhere, whoever came -into contact with Abraham Lincoln felt that he was a man framed to -lead other men. Sagacious, penetrating, full of resource, and withal -honest, kindly, conciliatory, his hands might be roughened by toil, his -dress and ways might be those of the wilderness, yet was he quickly -recognized as a born king of men. - -During the next twenty-six years Mr. Lincoln applied himself to the -profession of the law. During the greater portion of those years he -was in public life. He had part in all the political controversies of -his time. Chief among these were the troubles arising out of slavery. -From his boyhood Mr. Lincoln was a steady enemy to slavery, as at once -foolish and wrong. He would not interfere with it in the old States, -for there the Constitution gave him no power; but he would in noway -allow its establishment in the Territories. He desired a policy which -“looked forward hopefully to the time when slavery, as a wrong, might -come to an end.” He gained in a very unusual degree the confidence of -his party, who raised him to the presidential chair, as a true and -capable representative of their principles in regard to the great -slavery question. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -SECESSION. - - -South Carolina was the least loyal to the Union of all the States. She -estimated very highly her own dignity as a sovereign State. She held in -small account the allegiance which she owed to the Federal Government. -Twenty-eight years ago Congress had enacted a highly protective -tariff. [Sidenote: 1832 A.D.] South Carolina, disapproving of this -measure, decreed that it was not binding upon her. Should the Federal -Government attempt to enforce it, South Carolina announced her purpose -of quitting the Union and becoming independent. General Jackson, who -was then President, made ready to hold South Carolina to her duty by -force; but Congress modified the tariff, and so averted the danger. -Jackson believed firmly that the men who then held the destiny of South -Carolina in their hands wished to secede. “The tariff,” he said, “was -but a pretext. The next will be the slavery question.” - -[Sidenote: 1860 A.D.] The time predicted had now come, and South -Carolina led her sister States into the dark and bloody path. A -convention of her people was promptly called, and on the 20th of -December an Ordinance was passed dissolving the Union, and declaring -South Carolina a free and independent republic. When the Ordinance was -passed the bells of Charleston rang for joy, and the streets of the -city resounded with the wild exulting shouts of an excited people. -Dearly had the joy of those tumultuous hours to be paid for. Four -years later, when Sherman quelled the heroic defence of the rebel -city, Charleston lay in ruins. Her people, sorely diminished by war -and famine, had been long familiar with the miseries which a strict -blockade and a merciless bombardment can inflict. - -The example of South Carolina was at once followed by other -discontented States. Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and -Florida hastened to assert their independence, and to league themselves -into a new Confederacy. They adopted a Constitution, differing from -the old mainly in these respects, that it contained provisions against -taxes to protect any branch of industry, and gave effective securities -for the permanence and extension of slavery. They elected Mr. Jefferson -Davis President for six years. They possessed themselves of the -Government property within their own boundaries. It was not yet their -opinion that the North would fight, and they bore themselves with a -high hand in all the arrangements which their new position seemed to -call for. - -After the Government was formed, the Confederacy was joined by other -Slave States who at first had hesitated. Virginia, North Carolina, -Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas, after some delay, gave in their -adhesion. The Confederacy in its completed form was composed of eleven -States, with a population of nine million; six million of whom were -free, and three million were slaves. Twenty-three States remained loyal -to the Union. Their population amounted to twenty-two million. - -It is not to be supposed that the free population of the seceding -States were unanimous in their desire to break up the Union. On the -contrary, there is good reason to believe that a majority of the people -in most of the seceding States were all the time opposed to secession. -In North Carolina the attempt to carry secession was at first defeated -by the people. In the end that State left the Union reluctantly, -under the belief that not otherwise could it escape becoming the -battle-ground of the contending powers. Thus, too, Virginia refused -at first by large majorities to secede. In Georgia and Alabama the -minorities against secession were large. In Louisiana twenty thousand -votes were given for secession, and seventeen thousand against it. In -many cases it required much intrigue and dexterity of management to -obtain a favourable vote; and the resolution to quit the Union was -received in sorrow by very many of the Southern people. But everywhere -in the South the idea prevailed that allegiance was due to the State -rather than to the Federation. And thus it came to pass that when the -authorities of a State resolved to abandon the Union, the citizens of -that State felt constrained to secede, even while they mourned the -course upon which they were forced to enter. - -It has been maintained by some defenders of the seceding States -that slavery was not the cause of secession. On that question there -can surely be no authority so good as that of the seceding States -themselves. A declaration of the reasons which influenced their -action was issued by several States, and acquiesced in by the others. -South Carolina was the first to give reasons for her conduct. These -reasons related wholly to slavery, no other cause of separation being -hinted at. The Northern States, it was complained, would not restore -runaway slaves. They assumed the right of “deciding on the propriety -of our domestic institutions.” They denounced slavery as sinful. They -permitted the open establishment of anti-slavery societies. They -aided the escape of slaves. They sought to exclude slavery from the -Territories. Finally, they had elected to the office of President, -Abraham Lincoln, “a man whose opinions and purposes are hostile to -slavery.” - -Some of the American people had from the beginning held the opinion -that any State could leave the Union at her pleasure. That belief was -general in the South. The seceding States did not doubt that they had -full legal right to take the step which they had taken, and they stated -with perfect frankness what was their reason for exercising this -right. They believed that slavery was endangered by their continuance -in the Union. Strictly speaking, they fought in defence of their right -to secede. But they had no other motive for seceding than that slavery -should be preserved and extended. The war which ensued was therefore -really a war in defence of slavery. But for the Southern love and the -Northern antipathy to slavery, no war could have occurred. The men of -the South attempted to break up the Union because they thought slavery -would be safer if the Slave-owning States stood alone. The men of the -North refused to allow the Union to be broken up. They did not go to -war to put down slavery. They had no more right to put down slavery in -the South than England has to put down slavery in Cuba. The Union which -they loved was endangered, and they fought to defend the Union. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE TWO PRESIDENTS. - - -Mr. Lincoln was elected, according to usage, early in November, but did -not take possession of his office till March. In the interval President -Buchanan remained in power. This gentleman was Southern by birth, and, -as it has always been believed, by sympathy. He laid no arrest upon -the movements of the seceding States; nay, it has been alleged that he -rather sought to remove obstacles from their path. During all these -winter months the Southern leaders were suffered to push forward their -preparations for the approaching conflict. The North still hoped for -peace, and Congress busied itself with vain schemes of conciliation. -Meetings were held all over the country, at which an anxious desire -was expressed to remove causes of offence. The self-willed Southerners -would listen to no compromise. They would go apart, peacefully if they -might; in storm and bloodshed if they must. - -[Sidenote: 1861 A.D.] Early in February Mr. Lincoln left his home in -Illinois on his way to Washington. His neighbours accompanied him to -the railroad depôt, where he spoke a few parting words to them. “I know -not,” he said, “how soon I shall see you again. A duty devolves upon -me, which is, perhaps, greater than that which has devolved upon any -other man since the days of Washington. He never would have succeeded -except for the aid of Divine Providence, upon which he at all times -relied. I feel that I cannot succeed without the same divine aid which -sustained him, and on the same Almighty Being I place my reliance for -support; and I hope you, my friends, will all pray that I may receive -that divine assistance without which I cannot succeed, but with which -success is certain.” - -With these grave, devout words, he took his leave, and passed on to -the fulfilment of his heavy task. His inauguration took place as usual -on the 4th of March. A huge crowd assembled around the Capitol. Mr. -Lincoln had thus far kept silence as to the course he meditated in -regard to the seceding States. Seldom had a revelation involving issues -so momentous been waited for at the lips of any man. The anxious crowd -stood so still, that to its utmost verge the words of the speaker were -distinctly heard. - -He assured the Southerners that their fears were unfounded. He had no -lawful right to interfere with slavery in the States where it existed; -he had no purpose and no inclination to interfere. He would, on the -contrary, maintain them in the enjoyment of all the rights which the -Constitution bestowed upon them. But he held that no State could quit -the Union at pleasure. In view of the Constitution and the laws, the -Union was unbroken. His policy would be framed upon that belief. He -would continue to execute the laws within the seceding States, and -would continue to possess Federal property there, with all the force at -his command. That did not necessarily involve conflict or bloodshed. -Government would not assail the discontented States, but would suffer -no invasion of its constitutional rights. With the South, therefore, it -lay to decide whether there was to be peace or war. - - * * * * * - -A week or two before Mr. Lincoln’s inauguration Jefferson Davis had -entered upon his career as President of the Southern Republic. Mr. -Davis was an old politician. He had long advocated the right of an -aggrieved State to leave the Union; and he had largely contributed, by -speech and by intrigue, to hasten the crisis which had now arrived. He -was an accomplished man, a graceful writer, a fluent and persuasive -speaker. He was ambitious, resolute, and of ample experience in -the management of affairs; but he had many disqualifications for -high office. His obstinacy was blind and unreasoning. He had little -knowledge of men, and could not distinguish “between an instrument and -an obstacle.” His moral tone was low. He taught Mississippi, his native -State, to repudiate her just debts. A great English statesman, who made -his acquaintance some years before the war broke out, pronounced him -one of the ablest and one of the most wicked men in America. - -In his Inaugural Address Mr. Davis displayed a prudent reserve. -Speaking for the world to hear--a world which, upon the whole, abhorred -slavery--he did not name the grievances which rendered secession -necessary. He maintained the right of a discontented State to secede. -The Union had ceased to answer the ends for which it was established; -and in the exercise of an undoubted right they had withdrawn from -it. He hoped their late associates would not incur the fearful -responsibility of disturbing them in their pursuit of a separate -political career. If so, it only remained for them to appeal to arms, -and invoke the blessing of Providence on a just cause. - -Alexander H. Stephens was the Vice-President of the Confederacy. His -health was bad, and the expression of his face indicated habitual -suffering. He had nevertheless been a laborious student, and a patient, -if not a very wise, thinker on the great questions of his time. In -the early days of secession he delivered at Savannah a speech which -quickly became famous, and which retains its interest still as the most -candid explanation of the motives and the expectations of the South. -The old Government, he said, was founded upon sand. It was founded -upon the assumption of the equality of races. Its authors entertained -the mistaken belief that African slavery was wrong in principle. “Our -new Government,” said the Vice-President, “is founded upon exactly the -opposite ideas; its foundations are laid, its corner-stone rests, upon -the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man--that -slavery is his natural and normal condition.” Why the Creator had made -him so could not be told. “It is not for us to inquire into the wisdom -of His ordinances, or to question them.” With this very clear statement -by the Vice-President, we are freed from uncertainty as to the designs -of the Southern leaders, and filled with thankfulness for the ruin -which fell upon their wicked enterprise. - -It is a very curious but perfectly authenticated fact, that -notwithstanding the pains taken by Southern leaders to show that they -seceded merely to preserve and maintain slavery, there were many -intelligent men in England who steadfastly maintained that slavery had -little or nothing to do with the origin of the Great War. - - - - -Book Fourth. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE FIRST BLOW STRUCK. - - -When his Inaugural Address was delivered, Mr. Lincoln was escorted -by his predecessor in office back to the White House, where they -parted--Buchanan to retire, not with honour, into a kindly oblivion; -Lincoln to begin that great work which had devolved upon him. During -all that month of March and on to the middle of April the world heard -very little of the new President. He was seldom seen in Washington. -It was rumoured that intense meditation upon the great problem had -made him ill. It was asserted that he endured the pains of indecision. -In the Senate attempts were made to draw forth from him a confession -of his purposes--if indeed he had any purposes. But the grim silence -was unbroken. The South persuaded herself that he was afraid--that -the peace-loving, money-making North had no heart for fight. She was -even able to believe, in her vain pride, that most of the Northern -States would ultimately adopt her doctrines and join themselves to her -Government. Even in the North there was a party which wished union -with the seceding States, on their own principles. There was a general -indisposition to believe in war. The South had so often threatened, -and been so often soothed by fresh concessions, it was difficult to -believe now that she meant anything more than to establish a position -for advantageous negotiation. All over the world men waited in anxious -suspense for the revelation of President Lincoln’s policy. Mercantile -enterprise languished. Till the occupant of the White House chose to -open his lips and say whether it was peace or war, the business of the -world must be content to stand still. - -Mr. Lincoln’s silence was not the result of irresolution. He had doubt -as to what the South would do; he had no doubt as to what he himself -would do. He would maintain the Union;--by friendly arrangement and -concession, if that were possible; if not, by war fought out to the -bitter end. - -He nominated the members of his Cabinet--most prominent among whom was -William H. Seward, his Secretary of State. Mr. Seward had been during -all his public life a determined enemy to slavery. He was in full -sympathy with the President as to the course which had to be pursued. -His acute and vigorous intellect and great experience in public affairs -fitted him for the high duties which he was called to discharge. - - * * * * * - -So soon as Mr. Lincoln entered upon his office the Southern Government -sent ambassadors to him as to a foreign power. These gentlemen formally -intimated that the six States had withdrawn from the Union, and now -formed an independent nation. They desired to solve peaceably all the -questions growing out of this separation, and they desired an interview -with the President, that they might enter upon the business to which -they had been appointed. - -Mr. Seward replied to the communication of the Southern envoys. His -letter was framed with much care, as its high importance demanded. It -was calm and gentle in its tone, but most clear and decisive. He could -not recognize the events which had recently occurred as a rightful -and accomplished revolution, but rather as a series of unjustifiable -aggressions. He could not recognize the new Government as a government -at all. He could not recognize or hold official intercourse with its -agents. The President could not receive them or admit them to any -communication. Within the unimpassioned words of Mr. Seward there -breathed the fixed, unalterable purpose of the Northern people, against -which, as many persons even then felt, the impetuous South might -indeed dash herself to pieces, but could by no possibility prevail. -The baffled ambassadors went home, and the angry South quickened her -preparations for war. - - * * * * * - -Within the bay of Charleston, and intended for the defence of that -important city, stood Fort Sumpter, a work of considerable strength, -and capable, if adequately garrisoned, of a prolonged defence. It was -not so garrisoned, however, when the troubles began. It was held by -Major Anderson with a force of seventy men, imperfectly provisioned. -The Confederates wished to possess themselves of Fort Sumpter, and -hoped at one time to effect their object peaceably. When that hope -failed them, they cut off Major Anderson’s supply of provisions, and -quietly began to encircle him with batteries. For some time they -waited till hunger should compel the surrender of the fort. But word -was brought to them that President Lincoln was sending ships with -provisions. [Sidenote: April 11, 1861 A.D.] Fort Sumpter was promptly -summoned to surrender. Major Anderson offered to go in three days, if -not relieved. In reply he received intimation that in one hour the -bombardment would open. - -About daybreak on the 12th the stillness of Charleston bay was -disturbed by the firing of a large mortar and the shriek of a shell as -it rushed through the air. The shell burst over Fort Sumpter, and the -war of the Great Rebellion was begun. The other batteries by which the -doomed fortress was surrounded quickly followed, and in a few minutes -fifty guns of the largest size flung shot and shell into the works. -The guns were admirably served, and every shot told. The garrison had -neither provisions nor an adequate supply of ammunition. They were -seventy, and their assailants were seven thousand. All they could do -was to offer such resistance as honour demanded. Hope of success there -was none. - -The garrison did not reply at first to the hostile fire. They -quietly breakfasted in the security of the bomb-proof casemates. -Having finished their repast, they opened a comparatively feeble and -ineffective fire. All that day and next the Confederate batteries -rained shell and red-hot shot into the fort. The wooden barracks caught -fire, and the men were nearly suffocated by the smoke. Barrels of -gunpowder had to be rolled through the flames into the sea. The last -cartridge had been loaded into the guns; the last biscuit had been -eaten; huge clefts yawned in the crumbling walls. Enough had been done -for honour; to prolong the resistance was uselessly to endanger the -lives of brave men. Major Anderson surrendered the ruined fortress, and -the garrison marched out with the honours of war. Curiously enough, -although heavy firing had continued during thirty-four hours, no man on -either side was injured! - -It was a natural mistake that South Carolina should deem the capture -of Fort Sumpter a glorious victory. The bells of Charleston chimed -triumphantly all the day; guns were fired; the citizens were in the -streets expressing with many oaths the rapture which this great success -inspired, and their confident hope of triumphs equally decisive in -time to come; ministers gave thanks; ladies waved handkerchiefs; male -patriots quaffed potent draughts to the welfare of the Confederacy. On -that bright April Sunday all was enthusiasm and boundless excitement in -the city of Charleston. Alas for the vanity of human hopes! There were -days near at hand, and many of them too, when these rejoicing citizens -should sit in hunger and sorrow and despair among the ruins of their -city and the utter wreck of their fortunes and their trade. - - * * * * * - -By many of the Southern people war was eagerly desired. The Confederacy -was already established for some months, and yet it included only -six States. There were eight other Slave States, whose sympathies -it was believed were with the seceders. These had been expected to -join, but there proved to exist within them a loyalty to the Union -sufficiently strong to delay their secession. Amid the excitements -which war would enkindle, this loyalty, it was hoped, would disappear, -and the hesitating States would be constrained to join their fortunes -to those of their more resolute sisters. The fall of Fort Sumpter was -more than a military triumph. It would more than double the strength -of the Confederacy, and raise it at once to the rank of a great power. -Everywhere in the South, therefore, there was a wild, exulting joy. And -not without reason; for Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, -and Texas now joined their sisters in secession. - - * * * * * - -In the North, the hope had been tenaciously clung to that the peace -of the country was not to be disturbed. This dream was rudely broken -by the siege of Fort Sumpter. The North awakened suddenly to the -awful certainty that civil war was begun. There was a deep feeling of -indignation at the traitors who were willing to ruin their country that -slavery might be secure. There was a full appreciation of the danger, -and an instant universal determination that, at whatever cost, the -national life must be preserved. Personal sacrifice was unconsidered; -individual interests were merged in the general good. Political -difference, ordinarily so bitter, was for the time almost effaced. -Nothing was of interest but the question how this audacious rebellion -was to be suppressed and the American nation upheld in the great place -which it claimed among men. - -Two days after the fall of Fort Sumpter, Mr. Lincoln intimated, by -proclamation, the dishonour done to the laws of the United States, and -called out the militia to the extent of seventy-five thousand men. -The Free States responded enthusiastically to the call. So prompt was -their action, that on the very next day several companies arrived -in Washington. Flushed by their easily-won victory, the Southerners -talked boastfully of seizing the capital. In a very short space there -were fifty thousand loyal men ready to prevent that, and the safety of -Washington was secured. - -The North pushed forward with boundless energy her warlike -preparations. Rich men offered money with so much liberality that in -a few days nearly five million sterling had been contributed. The -school-teachers of Boston dedicated fixed proportions of their incomes -to the support of the Government, while the war should last. All -over the country the excited people gathered themselves into crowded -meetings, and breathed forth in fervid resolutions their determination -to spend fortune and life in defence of the Union. Volunteer companies -were rapidly formed. In the cities ladies began to organize themselves -for the relief of sick and wounded soldiers. It had been fabled that -the North would not fight. With a fiery promptitude unknown before in -modern history the people sprang to arms. - - * * * * * - -Even yet there was on both sides a belief that the war would be a short -one. The South, despising an adversary unpractised in war, and vainly -trusting that the European powers would interfere in order to secure -their wonted supplies of cotton, expected that a few victories more -would bring peace. The North still regarded secession as little more -than a gigantic riot, which she proposed to extinguish within ninety -days. The truth was strangely different from the prevailing belief of -the day. A high-spirited people, six million in number, occupying a -fertile territory nearly a million square miles in extent, had risen -against the Government. The task undertaken by the North was to conquer -this people, and by force of arms to bring them and their territory -back to the Union. This was not likely to prove a work of easy -accomplishment. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN. - - -When the North addressed herself to her task, her own capital was still -threatened by the rebels. Two or three miles down the Potomac, and full -in view of Washington, lies the old-fashioned decaying Virginian town -of Alexandria, where the unfortunate Braddock had landed his troops a -century before. The Confederate flag floated over Alexandria. A rebel -force was marching on Harper’s Ferry, forty miles from Washington; and -as the Government works there could not be defended, they were burned. -Preparations were being made to seize Arlington Heights, from which -Washington could be easily shelled. At Manassas Junction, thirty miles -away, a rebel army lay encamped. It seemed to many foreign observers -that the North might lay aside all thought of attack, and be well -pleased if she succeeded in the defence of what was still left to her. - -But the Northern people, never doubting either their right or their -strength, put their hand boldly to the work. The first thing to be -done was to shut the rebels in so that no help could reach them from -the world outside. They could grow food enough; but they were a people -who could make little. They needed from Europe supplies of arms and -ammunition, of clothing, of medicine. They needed money, which they -could only get by sending away their cotton. To stop their intercourse -with Europe was to inflict a blow which would itself prove almost -fatal. Four days after the fall of Fort Sumpter, Mr. Lincoln announced -the blockade of all the rebel ports. It was a little time after till -he had ships enough to make the blockade effective. But in a few -weeks this was done, and every rebel port was closed. The grasp thus -established was never relaxed. So long as the war lasted, the South -obtained foreign supplies only from vessels which carried on the -desperate trade of blockade-running. - -Virginia completed her secession on the 23rd April. Next morning -Federal troops seized and fortified Alexandria and the Arlington -Heights. In the western portions of Virginia the people were so little -in favour of secession that they wished to establish themselves as a -separate State, loyal to the Union. With no very serious trouble the -rebel forces were driven out of this region, and Western Virginia was -restored to the Union. Desperate attempts were made by the disloyal -Governor of Missouri to carry his State out of the Union, against the -wish of a majority of the people. It was found possible to defeat the -efforts of the secessionists and retain Missouri. Throughout the war -this State was grievously wasted by Southern raids, but she held fast -her loyalty. - - * * * * * - -Thus at the opening of the war substantial advantages had been gained -by the North. They were not, however, of a sufficiently brilliant -character fully to satisfy the expectations of the excited people. -A great battle must be won. Government, unwisely yielding to the -pressure, ordered their imperfectly disciplined troops to advance and -attack the rebels in their position at Manassas Junction. - - * * * * * - -General Beauregard lay at Manassas with a rebel force variously -estimated at from thirty thousand to forty thousand men. In front of -his position ran the little stream of Bull Run, in a narrow, wooded -valley--the ground rising on both sides into “bluffs,” crowned with -frequent patches of dense wood. General M’Dowell moved to attack him, -with an army about equal in strength. [Sidenote: July 21, 1861 A.D.] -It was early Sunday morning when the army set out from its quarters at -Centreville. The march was not over ten miles, but the day was hot, -and the men not yet inured to hardship. It was ten o’clock when the -battle fairly opened. From the heights on the northern bank of the -stream the Federal artillery played upon the enemy. The Southern line -stretched well nigh ten miles, and M’Dowell hoped, by striking with an -overwhelming force at a point on the enemy’s right, to roll back his -entire line in confusion. Heavy masses of infantry forded the stream -and began the attack. The Southerners fought bravely and skilfully, -but at the point of attack they were inferior in number, and they were -driven back. The battle spread away far among the woods, and soon every -copse held its group of slain and wounded men. By three o’clock the -Federals reckoned the battle as good as won, for the enemy, though -still fighting, was falling back. But at that hour railway trains ran -close up to the field of battle with fifteen thousand Southerners -fresh and eager for the fray. This new force was hurried into action. -The wearied Federals could not endure the vehemence of the attack; -they broke, and fled down the hill-side. With inexperienced troops a -measured and orderly retreat is impossible; defeat is quickly followed -by panic. The men who had fought so bravely all the day now hurried in -wild confusion from the field. The road was choked with a tangled mass -of baggage-waggons, artillery, soldiers and civilians frenzied by fear, -and cavalry riding wildly through the quaking mob. But the Southerners -attempted no pursuit, and the panic passed away. Scarcely an attempt, -however, was made to stop the flight. Order was not restored till the -worn-out men made their way back to Washington. - -This was the first great battle of the war, and its results were of -prodigious importance. By the sanguine men of the South it was hailed -as decisive of their final success. President Davis counted upon the -immediate recognition of the Confederacy by the Great Powers of Europe -as now certain. The newspapers accepted it as a settled truth that -“one Southerner was equal to five Yankees.” Intrigues began for the -succession to the presidential chair--six years hence. A controversy -arose among the States as to the location of the Capital. The success -of the Confederacy was regarded as a thing beyond doubt. Enlistment -languished; it was scarcely worth while to undergo the inconvenience of -fighting for a cause which was already triumphant. - - * * * * * - -The defeat at Manassas taught the people of the North that the task -they had undertaken was a heavier task than they supposed, but it did -not shake their steady purpose to perform it. On the day after the -battle--while the routed army was swarming into Washington--Congress -voted five hundred million dollars, and called for half a million of -volunteers. A few days later, Congress unanimously resolved that the -suppression of the rebellion was a sacred duty, from the performance -of which no disaster should discourage; to which they pledged the -employment of every resource, national and individual. “Having chosen -our course,” said Mr. Lincoln, “without guile, and with pure purpose, -let us renew our trust in God, and go forward without fear and with -manly hearts.” The spirit of the North rose as the greatness of the -enterprise became apparent. No thought was there of any other issue -from the national agony than the overthrow of the national foe. The -youth of the country crowded into the ranks. The patriotic impulse -possessed rich and poor alike, and the sons of wealthy men shouldered -a musket side by side with the penniless children of toil. Once, by -some accident, the money which should have paid a New England regiment -failed to arrive in time. A private in the regiment gave his cheque -for a hundred thousand dollars, and the men were paid. The Christian -churches yielded an earnest support to the war. In some western -churches the men enlisted almost without exception. Occasionally their -ministers accompanied them. Sabbath-school teachers and members of -young men’s Christian associations were remarkable for the eagerness -with which they obeyed the call of their country. It was no longer a -short war and an easy victory which the North anticipated. The gigantic -character of the struggle was at length recognized; and the North, -chastened, but undismayed, made preparations for a contest on the issue -of which her existence depended. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -“ON TO RICHMOND.” - - -General M’Dowell had led the Northern army to a defeat which naturally -shook public confidence in his ability to command. A new general was -indispensable. When the war broke out, a young man--George B. M’Clellan -by name--was resident in Cincinnati, peacefully occupied with the -management of a railroad. He was trained at West Point, and had a high -reputation for soldiership. Several years before, Mr. Cobden was told -by Jefferson Davis that M’Clellan was one of the best generals the -country possessed. He was skilful to construct and organize, but his -power to direct successfully the movements of great armies engaged in -actual warfare was still unproved. - -General M’Clellan was appointed to the command of the army a few days -after the defeat at Bull Run, and sanguine hopes were entertained -that he was about to give the people victory over their enemies. He -addressed himself at once to his task. From every State in the North -men hastened to his standard. He disciplined them and perfected their -equipment for the field. In October he was at the head of two hundred -thousand men--the largest army ever yet seen on the American continent. - - * * * * * - -The rebel Government, which at first chose for its home the city of -Montgomery in Alabama, moved to Richmond so soon as Virginia gave -in her reluctant adherence to the secession cause. Richmond, the gay -capital of the Old Dominion, sits queen-like upon a lofty plateau, -with deep valleys flanking her on east and west, and the James river -rushing past far below upon the south--not many miles from the point -where the “dissolute” fathers of the colony had established themselves -two centuries and a half ago. To Washington the distance is only one -hundred and thirty miles. The warring Governments were within a few -hours’ journey of each other. - -The supreme command of the rebel forces was committed to General -Robert E. Lee--one of the greatest of modern soldiers. He was a calm, -thoughtful, unpretending man, whose goodness gained for him universal -love. He was opposed to secession, but believing, like the rest, that -he owed allegiance wholly to his own State, he seceded with Virginia. -It was his difficult task to contend nearly always with forces stronger -than his own, and to eke out by his own skill and genius the scanty -resources of the Confederacy. His consummate ability maintained the war -long after all hope of success was gone; and when at length he laid -down his arms, even the country against which he had fought was proud -of her erring but noble son. - -Thomas Jackson--better known as “Stonewall Jackson”--was the most -famous of Lee’s generals. In him we have a strange evidence of the -influence which slavery exerts upon the best of men. He was of truly -heroic mould--brave, generous, devout. His military perception was -unerring; his decision swift as lightning. He rose early in the morning -to read the Scriptures and pray. He gave a tenth part of his income -for religious uses; he taught a Sunday class of negro children; he -delivered lectures on the authenticity of Scripture; when he dropped a -letter into the post-office, he prayed for a blessing on the person to -whom it was addressed. As his soldiers marched past his erect, unmoving -figure, to meet the enemy, they saw his lips move, and knew that their -leader was praying for them to Him who “covereth the head in the -day of battle.” And yet this good man caused his negroes--male and -female--to be flogged when he judged that severity needful. And yet he -recommended that the South should “take no prisoners”--in other words, -that enemies who had ceased to resist should be massacred. To the end -of his life he remained of opinion that the rejection of this policy -was a mistake. So fatally do the noblest minds become tainted by the -associations of slave society. - - * * * * * - -During the autumn and early winter of 1861 the weather was unusually -fine, and the roads were consequently in excellent condition for the -march of an army. The rebel forces were scattered about Virginia--some -of them within sight of Washington. Around Richmond it was understood -there were few troops. It seemed easy for M’Clellan, with his -magnificent army, to trample down any slight resistance which could be -offered, and march into the rebel capital. For many weeks the people -and the Government waited patiently. They had been too hasty before; -they would not again urge their general prematurely into battle. But -the months of autumn passed, and no blow was struck. Winter was upon -them, and still “all was quiet on the Potomac.” M’Clellan, in a series -of brilliant reviews, presented his splendid army to the admiration of -his countrymen; but he was not yet ready to fight. The country bore -the delay for six months. Then it could be endured no longer, and in -January Mr. Lincoln issued a peremptory order that a movement against -the enemy should be made. M’Clellan now formed a plan of operations, -and by the end of March was ready to begin his work. - - * * * * * - -South-eastward from Richmond the James and the York rivers fall into -Chesapeake bay at a distance from each other of some twenty miles. -The course of the rivers is nearly parallel, and the region between -them is known as the Peninsula. M’Clellan conveyed his army down the -Potomac, landed at Fortress Monroe, and prepared to march upon Richmond -by way of the Peninsula. - -Before him lay the little town of Yorktown--where, eighty years before, -the War of Independence was closed by the surrender of the English -army. Yorktown was held by eleven thousand rebels. M’Clellan had over -one hundred thousand well-disciplined men eager for battle. But he -deemed it injudicious to assault the place, and preferred to operate in -the way of a formal siege. The rebels waited till he was ready to open -his batteries--and then quietly marched away. - -M’Clellan moved slowly up the Peninsula. In six weeks he was within -a few miles of Richmond, and in front of the forces which the rebels -had been actively collecting for the defence of their capital. These -forces were now so strong that M’Clellan deemed himself outnumbered, -and sought the protection of his gunboats on the James river. The -emboldened rebels dashed at his retreating ranks. His march to the -James river occupied seven days, and on every day there was a battle. -Nearly always the Federals had the advantage in the fight. Always after -the fight they resumed their retreat. Once they drove back the enemy, -inflicting upon him a crushing defeat. Their hopes rose with success, -and they demanded to be led back to Richmond. M’Clellan shunned the -great enterprise which opened before him, and never rested from his -march till he lay in safety, sheltered by the gunboats on the James -river. He had lost fifteen thousand men; but the rebels had suffered -even more. It was said that the retreat was skilfully conducted, but -the American people were in no humour to appreciate the merits of a -chief who was great only in flight. Their disappointment was intense. -The Southern leaders devoutly announced “undying gratitude to God” for -their great success, and looked forward with increasing confidence to -their final triumph over an enemy whose assaults it seemed so easy to -repulse. - -Nor was this the only success which crowned the rebel arms. The most -remarkable battle of the war was fought while M’Clellan was preparing -for his advance; and it ended in a rebel victory. - -At the very beginning of the war the Confederates bethought them of -an iron-clad ship of war. They took hold of an old frigate which the -Federals had sunk in the James river. They sheathed her in iron plates; -they roofed her with iron rails. At her prow, beneath the water-line, -they fitted an iron-clad projection, which might be driven into the -side of an adversary. They armed her with ten guns of large size. - -The mechanical resources of the Confederacy were defective, and this -novel structure was eight months in preparation. [Sidenote: 1862 A.D.] -One morning in March she steamed slowly down the James river, attended -by five small vessels of the ordinary sort. A powerful Northern fleet -lay guarding the mouth of the river. The _Virginia_--as the iron-clad -had been named--came straight towards the hostile ships. She fired no -shot; no man showed himself upon her deck. The Federals assailed her -with well-aimed discharges; but the shot bounded harmless from her -sides. She steered for the _Cumberland_, into whose timbers she struck -her armed prow. A huge cleft opened in the _Cumberland’s_ side, and the -gallant ship went down with a hundred men of her crew on board. The -_Virginia_ next attacked the Federal ship _Congress_. At a distance of -two hundred yards she opened her guns upon this ill-fated vessel. The -_Congress_ was aground, and could offer no effective resistance. After -sustaining heavy loss, she was forced to surrender. Night approached, -and the _Virginia_ drew off, intending to resume her work on the morrow. - -Early next morning--a bright Sunday morning--she steamed out, and made -for the _Minnesota_--a Federal ship which had been grounded to get -beyond her reach. The _Minnesota_ was still aground, and helpless. -Beside her, however, as the men on board the _Virginia_ observed, lay -a mysterious structure, resembling nothing they had ever seen before. -Her deck was scarcely visible above the water, and it supported nothing -but an iron turret nine feet high. This was the _Monitor_, designed by -Captain Ericsson;--the first of the class of iron-clad turret-ships. By -a singular chance she had arrived thus opportunely. The two iron-clads -measured their strength in combat, but their shot produced no -impression, and after two hours of heavy but ineffective firing, they -separated, and the _Virginia_ retired up the James river. - -This fight opened a new era in naval warfare. The Washington Government -hastened to build turret-ships. All European Governments, perceiving -the worthlessness of ships of the old type, proceeded to reconstruct -their navies according to the light which the action of the _Virginia_ -and the _Monitor_ afforded them. - - * * * * * - -The efforts of the North to crush the rebel forces in Virginia had -signally failed. But military operations were not confined to Virginia: -in this war the battle-field was the continent. Many hundreds of miles -from the scene of M’Clellan’s unsuccessful efforts, the banner of the -Union was advancing into the revolted territory. The North sought to -occupy the Border States, and to repossess the line of the Mississippi, -thus severing Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the other members of -the secession enterprise, and perfecting the blockade which was now -effectively maintained on the Atlantic coast. There were troops enough -for these vast operations. By the 1st of December 1861, six hundred -and forty thousand men had enrolled themselves for the war. The North, -thoroughly aroused now, had armed and drilled these enormous hosts. -Her foundries worked night and day, moulding cannon and mortars. Her -own resources could not produce with sufficient rapidity the gunboats -which she needed to assert her supremacy on the western waters, but she -obtained help from the building-yards of Europe. All that wealth and -energy could do was done. While the Confederates were supinely trusting -to the difficulties of the country and the personal prowess of their -soldiers, the North massed forces which nothing on the continent could -long resist. In the south and west results were achieved not unworthy -of these vast preparations. - -[Sidenote: 1861 A.D.] During the autumn a strong fleet was sent -southward to the Carolina coast. Overcoming with ease the slight -resistance which the rebel forts were able to offer, the expedition -possessed itself of Port Royal, and thus commanded a large tract of -rebel territory. It was a cotton-growing district, worked wholly by -slaves. The owners fled, but the slaves remained. The first experiment -was made here to prove whether the negro would labour when the lash did -not compel, and the results were most encouraging. The negroes worked -cheerfully and patiently, and many of them became rich from the easy -gains of labour on that rich soil. - -In the west the war was pushed vigorously and with success. To General -Grant--a strong, tenacious, silent man, destined ere long to be -Commander-in-Chief and President--was assigned the work of driving the -rebels out of Kentucky and Tennessee. His gunboats ran up the great -rivers of these States and took effective part in the battles which -were fought. The rebels were forced southward, till in the spring of -1862 the frontier line of rebel territory no longer enclosed Kentucky. -Even Tennessee was held with a loosened and uncertain grasp. - -[Sidenote: March 1862 A.D.] In Arkansas, beyond the Mississippi, was -fought the Battle of Pea Ridge, which stretched over three days, and in -which the rebels received a sharp defeat. Henceforth the rebels had no -footing in Missouri or in Arkansas. - -New Orleans fell in April. Admiral Farragut with a powerful fleet -forced his way past the forts and gunboats which composed the -insufficient defence of the city. There was no army to resist him. He -landed a small party of marines, who pulled down the Secession flag and -restored that of the Union. The people looked on silently, while the -city passed thus easily away for ever from Confederate rule. - -There was gloom in the rebel capital as the tidings of these disasters -came in. But the spirit of the people was unbroken, and the Government -was encouraged to adopt measures equal to the emergency. A law was -enacted which placed at the disposal of the Government every man -between eighteen and thirty-five years of age. Enlistment for short -terms was discontinued. Henceforth the business of Southern men must -be war, and every man must hold himself at his country’s call. This -law yielded for a time an adequate supply of soldiers, and ushered in -those splendid successes which cherished the delusive hope that the -Slave-power was to establish itself as one of the Great Powers of the -world. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -LIBERTY TO THE CAPTIVE. - - -The slave question, out of which the rebellion sprang, presented -for some time grave difficulties to the Northern Government. As the -Northern armies forced their way southwards, escaped slaves flocked -to them. These slaves were loyal subjects; their owners were rebels -in arms against the Government. Could the Government recognize the -right of the rebel to own the loyal man? Again: the labour of the -slaves contributed to the support of the rebellion. Was it not a clear -necessity of war that Government should deprive the rebellion of this -support by freeing all the slaves whom its authority could reach? -But, on the other hand, some of the Slave States remained loyal. Over -their slaves Government had no power, and much care was needed that no -measure should be adopted of which they could justly complain. - -The President had been all his life a steady foe to slavery, but he -never forgot that, whatever his own feelings might be, he was strictly -bound by law. His duty as President was, not to destroy slavery, but to -save the Union. When the time came to overthrow this accursed system, -he would do it with gladdened heart. Meanwhile he said, “If I could -save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could -save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save -it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would do it.” - -From the very beginning of the war escaped slaves crowded within the -Federal lines. They were willing to perform any labour, or to fight -in a cause which they all knew to be their own. But the North was not -yet freed from her habitual tenderness for Southern institutions. The -negroes could not yet be armed. Nay, it was permitted to the owners of -escaped slaves to enter the Northern lines and forcibly to carry back -their property. [Sidenote: May 26, 1861 A.D.] General M’Clellan pledged -himself not only to avoid interference with slaves, but to crush with -an iron hand any attempt at insurrection on their part. [Sidenote: -Aug. 31.] General Fremont, commanding in Missouri, issued an order -which gave liberty to the slaves of persons who were fighting against -the Union. The President, not yet deeming that measure indispensable, -disallowed it. A little later it was proposed to arm the blacks, but to -that also the President objected. He would do nothing prematurely which -might offend the loyal Slave States, and so hinder the restoration of -the Union. - -But in War opinion ripens fast. Men quickly learned, under that stern -teacher, to reason that, as slavery had caused the rebellion, slavery -should be extinguished. Congress met in December, with ideas which -pointed decisively towards Abolition. Measures were passed which marked -a great era in the history of slavery. The slaves of men who were in -arms against the Government were declared to be free. Coloured men -might be armed and employed as soldiers. Slavery was abolished within -the District of Columbia. Slavery was prohibited for ever within all -the Territories. Every slave escaping to the Union armies was to be -free. Wherever the authority of Congress could reach, slavery was now -at an end. - -But something yet remained. Public sentiment in the North grew strong -in favour of immediate and unconditional emancipation of all slaves -within the revolted States. This view was pressed upon Lincoln. He -hesitated long; not from reluctance, but because he wished the public -mind to be thoroughly made up before he took this decisive step. At -length his course was resolved upon. [Sidenote: July, 1862 A.D.] He -drew up a Proclamation, which gave freedom to all the slaves in the -rebel States. He called a meeting of his Cabinet, which cordially -sanctioned the measure. After New Year’s Day of 1863 all persons held -to slavery within the seceded territory were declared to be free. “And -upon this act”--thus was the Proclamation closed--“sincerely believed -to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon military -necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind, and the -gracious favour of Almighty God.” - -This--one of the most memorable of all State papers--gave freedom -to over three million slaves. It did not touch slavery in the loyal -States; for there the President had no authority to interfere. But all -men knew that it involved the abolition of slavery in the loyal as well -as in the rebellious States. Henceforth slavery became impossible on -any portion of American territory. - -The deep significance of this great measure was most fully recognized -by the Northern people. The churches gave thanks to God for this -fulfilment of their long-cherished desire. Congress expressed its -cordial approval. Innumerable public meetings resolved that the -President’s action deserved the support of the country. Bells pealed -joyfully in the great cities and quiet villages of the east, and in -the infant settlements of the distant west. Charles Sumner begged from -the President the pen with which the Proclamation had been signed. The -original draft of the document was afterwards sold for a large sum, at -a fair held in Chicago for the benefit of the soldiers. - -The South, too, understood this transaction perfectly. It was the -triumphant and final expression of that Northern abhorrence to slavery -which had provoked the slave-owners to rebel. It made reconciliation -impossible. President Davis said to his Congress that it would calm -the fears of those who apprehended a restoration of the old Union. - -It is a painful reflection that the English Government utterly -misunderstood this measure. Its official utterance on the subject was -a sneer. Earl Russell, the Foreign Secretary of that day, wrote to our -ambassador at Washington that the Proclamation was “a measure of a -very questionable kind.” “It professes,” he continued, “to emancipate -slaves where the United States cannot make emancipation a reality, but -emancipates no one where the decree can be carried into effect.” Thus -imperfectly had Earl Russell yet been able to comprehend this memorable -page of modern history. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -CONFEDERATE SUCCESSES. - - -M’Clellan’s ignominious failure disappointed but did not dishearten the -Northern people. While M’Clellan was hasting away from Richmond, the -Governors of seventeen States assured the President of the readiness -of their people to furnish troops. The President issued a call for an -additional three hundred thousand men; and his call was promptly obeyed. - -M’Clellan lay for two months, secure but inglorious, beside his -gunboats on the James river. General Lee, rightly deeming that there -was little to fear from an army so feebly led, ranged northwards with a -strong force and threatened Washington. The Federal troops around the -capital were greatly inferior in number. President Lincoln summoned -M’Clellan northwards. M’Clellan was, as usual, unready; and a small -Federal army under General Pope was left to cope unaided with the -enemy. Pope received a severe defeat at Manassas, and retired to the -fortifications of Washington. - -[Sidenote: Sept. 17, 1862 A.D.] General Lee was strong enough now to -carry the war into Northern territory. He captured Harper’s Ferry, -and passed into Maryland. M’Clellan was at length stimulated to -action, and having carried his troops northwards, he attacked Lee at -Antietam. The Northern army far outnumbered the enemy. The battle was -long and bloody. When darkness sank down upon the wearied combatants -no decisive advantage had been gained. M’Clellan’s generals urged a -renewal of the attack next morning. But this was not done, and General -Lee crossed the Potomac and retired unmolested into Virginia. M’Clellan -resumed his customary inactivity. The President ordered him to pursue -the enemy and give battle. He even wished him to move on Richmond, -which he was able to reach before Lee could possibly be there. In vain. -M’Clellan could not move. His horses had sore tongues and sore backs; -they were lame; they were broken down by fatigue. Lincoln had already -been unduly patient. But the country would endure no more. [Sidenote: -Nov. 5, 1862 A.D.] General M’Clellan was removed from command of that -army whose power he had so long been able to neutralize; and his place -was taken by General Burnside. - -Burnside at once moved his army southwards, for it was not yet too late -for a Virginian campaign. He reached the banks of the Rappahannock, -beside the little town of Fredericksburg. He had to wait there for many -weary days till he obtained means to cross the river. While he lay, -impatient, General Lee concentrated all the forces under his command -upon the heights which rose steeply from the opposite bank of the -stream. He threw up earthworks and strongly intrenched his position. -There he waited in calmness for the assault which he knew he could -repel. - -When Burnside was able to cross the Rappahannock, he lost no time in -making his attack. One portion of his force would strike the enemy -on his right flank; the rest would push straight up the heights and -assault him in front. A slight success in the flanking movement cheered -General Burnside. But in the centre his troops advanced to the attack -under a heavy fire of artillery which laid many brave men low. The -Northern soldiers fought their way with steady courage up the height. -They were superior in numbers, but the rebels fought in safety within -a position which was impregnable. The battle was no fair trial of skill -and courage, but a useless waste of brave lives. Burnside drew off his -troops and re-crossed the Rappahannock, with a loss of twelve thousand -men--vainly sacrificed in the attempt to perform an impossibility. - - * * * * * - -In the west there had been no great success to counter-balance the long -train of Confederate victories in the east. The year closed darkly -upon the hopes of those who strove to preserve the Union. The South -counted with certainty that her independence was secure. The prevailing -opinion of Europe regarded the enterprise which the North pursued -so resolutely, as a wild impossibility. But the Northern people and -Government never despaired of the Commonwealth. At the gloomiest period -of the contest a Bill was passed for the construction of a railroad -to the Pacific. The Homestead Act offered a welcome to immigrants in -the form of a free grant of one hundred and sixty acres of land to -each. And the Government, as with a quiet and unburdened mind, began -to enlarge and adorn its Capitol on a scale worthy of the expected -greatness of the reunited country. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE WAR CONTINUES. - - -Hitherto the men who had fought for the North had been volunteers. -They had come when the President called, willing to lay down their -lives for their country. Already volunteers had been enrolled to the -number of one million and a quarter. But that number had been sadly -reduced by wounds, sickness, and captivity, and the Northern armies -had not proved themselves strong enough to crush the rebellion. -[Sidenote: 1863 A.D.] A Bill was now passed which subjected the entire -male population, between eighteen and forty-five, to military duty when -their service was required. Any man of suitable age could now be forced -into the ranks. - -The blockade of the Southern ports had effected for many months an -almost complete isolation of the Confederates from the world outside. -Now and then a ship, laden with arms and clothing and medicine, ran -past the blockading squadron, and discharged her precious wares in a -Southern port. Now and then a ship laden with cotton stole out and -got safely to sea. But this perilous and scanty commerce afforded no -appreciable relief to the want which had already begun to brood over -this doomed people. The Government could find soldiers enough; but it -could not find for them arms and clothing. The railroads could not be -kept in working condition in the absence of foreign iron. Worst of all, -a scarcity of food began to threaten. [Sidenote: April 10, 1863 A.D.] -Jefferson Davis begged his people to lay aside all thought of gain, and -devote themselves to the raising of supplies for the army. Even now the -army was frequently on half supply of bread. The South could look back -with just pride upon a long train of brilliant victories, gained with -scanty means, by her own valour and genius. But, even in this hour of -triumph, it was evident that her position was desperate. - -The North had not yet completely established her supremacy upon the -Mississippi. Two rebel strongholds--Vicksburg and Port Hudson--had -successfully resisted Federal attack, and maintained communication -between the revolted provinces on either side the great river. The -reduction of these was indispensable. General Grant was charged with -the important enterprise, and proceeded in February to begin his work. - -Grant found himself with his army on the wrong side of the city. He -was up stream from Vicksburg, and he could not hope to win the place -by attacks on that side. Nor could he easily convey his army and siege -appliances through the swamps and lakes which stretched away behind the -city. It seemed too hazardous to run his transports past the guns of -Vicksburg. He attempted to cut a new channel for the river, along which -he might convey his army safely. Weeks were spent in the vain attempt, -and the country, which had not yet learned to trust in Grant, became -impatient of the unproductive toil. Grant, undismayed by the failure -of his project, adopted a new and more hopeful scheme. He conveyed his -soldiers across to the western bank of the Mississippi, and marched -them southward till they were below Vicksburg. There they were ferried -across the river; and then they stood within reach of the weakest -side of the city. The transports were ordered to run the batteries of -Vicksburg and take the chances of that enterprise. - -When Grant reached the position he sought, he had a difficult task -before him. One large army held Vicksburg; another large army was -gathering for the relief of the endangered fortress. Soon Grant lay -between two armies which, united, greatly outnumbered his. But he had -no intention that they should unite. He attacked them in detail, and in -every action he was successful. The Confederates were driven back upon -the city, which was then closely invested. - -For six weeks Grant pressed the siege with a fiery energy which allowed -no rest to the besieged. General Johnston was not far off, mustering -an army for the relief of Vicksburg, and there was not an hour to -lose. Grant kept a strict blockade upon the scantily-provisioned city. -From his gunboats and from his own lines he maintained an almost -ceaseless bombardment. The inhabitants crept into caves in the hill to -find shelter from the intolerable fire. They slaughtered their mules -for food. They patiently endured the inevitable hardships of their -position; and their daily newspaper, printed on scraps of such paper as -men cover their walls with, continued to the end to make light of their -sufferings, and to breathe defiance against General Grant. But all was -vain. On the 4th of July--the anniversary of Independence--Vicksburg -was surrendered with her garrison of twenty-three thousand men much -enfeebled by hunger and fatigue. - -The fall of Vicksburg was the heaviest blow which the Confederacy had -yet sustained. Nearly one-half of the rebel territory lay beyond the -Mississippi. That river was now firmly held by the Federals. The rebel -States were cut in two, and no help could pass from one section to the -other. There was deep joy in the Northern heart. The President thanked -General Grant for “the almost inestimable service” which he had done to -the country. - - * * * * * - -But long before Grant’s triumph at Vicksburg another humiliation had -fallen upon the Federal arms in Virginia. - -Soon after the disaster at Fredericksburg, the modest Burnside had -asked to be relieved of his command. General Hooker took his place. -The new chief was familiarly known to his countrymen as “fighting Joe -Hooker,”--a title which sufficiently indicated his dashing, reckless -character. Hooker entered on his command with high hopes. “By the -blessing of God,” he said to the army, “we will contribute something to -the renown of our arms and the success of our cause.” - -After three months of preparation, General Hooker announced that his -army was irresistible. The Northern cry was still, “On to Richmond;” -the dearest wish of the Northern people was to possess the rebel -capital. Hooker marched southward, nothing doubting that he was to -fulfil the long frustrated desire of his countrymen. His confidence -seemed not to be unwarranted; for he had under his command a -magnificent army, which greatly outnumbered that opposed to him. But, -unhappily for Hooker, the hostile forces were led by General Lee and -Stonewall Jackson. - -On the 1st of May, Hooker was in presence of the enemy on the line -of the Rappahannock. Lee was too weak to give or accept battle; but -he was able to occupy Hooker with a series of sham attacks. All the -while Jackson was hasting to assail his flank. His march was through -the Wilderness--a wild country thick with ill-grown oaks and a dense -undergrowth--where surprise was easy. Towards evening, on the 2nd, -Jackson’s soldiers burst upon the unexpectant Federals. The fury of the -attack bore all before it. The Federal line fell back in confusion and -with heavy loss. - -In the twilight Jackson rode forward with his staff to examine the -enemy’s position. As he returned, a North Carolina regiment, seeing -a party of horsemen approach, presumed it was a charge of Federal -cavalry. They fired, and Jackson fell from his horse, with two bullets -in his left arm and one through his right hand. They placed him on a -litter to carry him from the field. One of the bearers was shot down -by the enemy, and the wounded general fell heavily to the ground. The -sound of musketry wakened the Federal artillery, and for some time -Jackson lay helpless on ground swept by the cannon of the enemy. When -his men learned the situation of their beloved commander, they rushed -in and carried him from the danger. - -Jackson sunk under his wounds. He bore patiently his great suffering. -“If I live, it will be for the best,” he said; “and if I die, it will -be for the best. God knows and directs all things for the best.” He -died eight days after the battle, to the deep sorrow of his countrymen. -He was a great soldier; and although he died fighting for an evil -cause, he was a true-hearted Christian man. - -During two days after Jackson fell the battle continued at -Chancellorsville. Lee’s superior skill in command more than compensated -for his inferior numbers. He attacked Hooker, and always at the point -of conflict he was found to be stronger. Hooker discovered that he -must retreat, lest a worse thing should befall him. After three days’ -fighting he crossed the river in a tempest of wind and rain, and along -the muddy Virginian roads carried his disheartened troops back to their -old positions. He had been baffled by a force certainly not more than -one-half his own. The splendid military genius of Lee was perhaps never -more conspicuous than in the defeat of that great army which General -Hooker himself regarded as invincible. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -GETTYSBURG. - - -The Confederate Government had always been eager to carry the contest -into Northern territory. It was satisfying to the natural pride of the -South, and it was thought that some experience of the evils of war -might incline the Northern mind to peace. Lee was ordered to march -into Pennsylvania. He gathered all the troops at his disposal, and -with seventy-five thousand men he crossed the Potomac, and was once -more prepared to face the enemy on his own soil. The rich cities of -the North trembled. It was not unlikely that he should possess himself -of Baltimore and Philadelphia. Could he once again defeat Hooker’s -army, as he had often done before, no further resistance was possible. -Pennsylvania and New York were at his mercy. - -Lee advanced to the little Pennsylvanian town of Gettysburg. Hooker, -after marching his army northwards, had been relieved of the command. -A battle was near; and in face of the enemy a new commander had to -be chosen. Two days before the hostile armies met, General Meade was -appointed. Meade was an experienced soldier, who had filled with honour -the various positions assigned to him; but it was seemingly a hopeless -task which he was now asked to perform. With an oft-defeated army of -sixty thousand to seventy thousand men, to whom he was a stranger, -he had to meet Lee with his victorious seventy-five thousand. Meade -quietly undertook the work appointed to him, and did it, too, like a -brave, prudent, unpretending man. - -[Sidenote: July 1, 1863 A.D.] The battle lasted for three days. On the -first day the Confederates had some advantage. Their attack broke and -scattered a Federal division with considerable loss. But that night the -careful Meade took up a strong position on a crescent-shaped line of -heights near the little town. Here he would lie, and the Confederates -might drive him from it if they could. - -[Sidenote: July 2.] Next day Lee attempted to dislodge the enemy. The -key of the Federal position was Cemetery Hill, and there the utmost -strength of the Confederate attack was put forth. Nor was it in vain; -for part of the Federal line was broken, and at one point an important -position had been taken by the Confederates. Lee might fairly hope -that another day’s fighting would complete his success and give him -undisputed possession of the wealthiest Northern States. His loss had -been small, while the Federals had been seriously weakened. - -Perhaps no hours of deeper gloom were ever passed in the North than -the hours of that summer evening when the telegraph flashed over the -country the news of Lee’s success. The lavish sacrifice of blood and -treasure seemed in vain. A million of men were in arms to defend the -Union, and yet the northward progress of the rebels could not be -withstood. Should Lee be victorious on the morrow, the most hopeful -must despond. - -[Sidenote: July 3.] The day on which so much of the destiny of America -hung opened bright and warm and still. The morning was occupied by Lee -in preparations for a crushing attack upon the centre of the Federal -position; by Meade, in carefully strengthening his power of resistance -at the point where he was to win or to lose this decisive battle. -About noon all was completed. Over both armies there fell a marvellous -stillness--the silence of anxious and awful expectation. It was broken -by a solitary cannon-shot, and the shriek of a Whitworth shell as -it rushed through the air. That was the signal at which one hundred -and fifty Confederate guns opened their fire. The Federal artillery -replied, and for three hours a prodigious hail of shells fell upon -either army. No decisive supremacy was, however, established by the -guns on either side, although heavy loss was sustained by both. While -the cannonade still continued, Lee sent forth the columns whose errand -it was to break the Federal centre. They marched down the low range -of heights on which they had stood, and across the little intervening -valley. As they moved up the opposite height the friendly shelter of -Confederate fire ceased. Terrific discharges of grape and shell smote -but did not shake their steady ranks. As the men fell, their comrades -stepped into their places, and the undismayed lines moved swiftly on. -Up to the low stone wall which sheltered the Federals, up to the very -muzzles of guns whose rapid fire cut every instant deep lines in their -ranks, the heroic advance was continued. - -General Lee from the opposite height watched, as Napoleon did at -Waterloo, the progress of his attack. Once the smoke of battle was for -a moment blown aside, and the Confederate flag was seen to wave within -the enemy’s position. Lee’s generals congratulate him that the victory -is gained. Again the cloud gathers around the combatants. When it lifts -next, the Confederates are seen broken and fleeing down that fatal -slope, where a man can walk now without once putting his foot upon the -grass, so thick lie the bodies of the slain. The attack had failed; the -battle was lost; the Union was saved. - -General Lee’s business was now to save his army. “This has been a sad -day for us,” he said to a friend, “a sad day; but we can’t expect -always to gain victories.” He rallied his broken troops, expecting to -be attacked by the victorious Federals; but Meade did not follow up -his success. Next day Lee began his retreat. In perfect order he moved -towards the Potomac, and safely crossed the swollen river back into -Virginia. - -The losses sustained in this battle were terrible. Forty-eight thousand -men lay dead or wounded on the field. Lee’s army was weakened by -over forty thousand men killed, wounded, and prisoners. Meade lost -twenty-three thousand. For miles around, every barn, every cottage -contained wounded men. The streets of the little town were all dabbled -with blood. Men were for many days engaged in burying the dead, of -whom there were nearly eight thousand. The wounded of both armies, -who were able to be removed, were at once carried into hospitals and -tenderly cared for. There were many so mangled that their removal was -impossible. These were ministered to on the field till death relieved -them from their pain. - -The tidings of the victory at Gettysburg came to the Northern people -on the 4th of July, side by side with the tidings of the fall of -Vicksburg. The proud old anniversary had perhaps never before been -celebrated by the American people with hearts so thankful and so glad. -Mr. Lincoln, who had become grave and humble and reverential under the -influence of those awful circumstances amid which he lived, proclaimed -a solemn day of thanksgiving for the deliverance granted to the nation, -and of prayer that God would lead them all, “through the paths of -repentance and submission to the divine will, to unity and fraternal -peace.” - -The deep enthusiasm which, in those anxious days, thrilled the American -heart, sought in song that fulness of expression which speech could not -afford. Foremost among the favourite poetic utterances of the people -was this:-- - - BATTLE-HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC. - - Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord; - He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored; - He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword; - His Truth is marching on. - - I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps; - They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps; - I have read His righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps; - His Day is marching on. - - I have read a fiery gospel writ in burnished rows of steel-- - “As ye deal with My contemners, so with you My grace shall deal;” - Let the Hero born of woman crush the serpent with His heel, - Since God is marching on. - - He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat; - He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment-seat; - Oh! be swift, my soul, to answer Him; be jubilant, my feet,-- - Our God is marching on. - - In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea, - With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me; - As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free, - While God is marching on. - -These strangely musical verses were sung at all public meetings in -the North, the audience ordinarily starting to their feet and joining -in the strain, often interrupted by emotion too deeply stirred to be -concealed. President Lincoln has been seen listening to the hymn with -tears rolling down his face. When the Battle of Gettysburg was fought -there were many hundreds of Northern officers captive in the Libby -prison--a huge, shapeless structure, once a tobacco factory, standing -by the wayside in a suburb of Richmond. A false report was brought to -them that the rebels had gained. There were many sleepless eyes and -sorrowing hearts that night among the prisoners. But next morning an -old negro brought them the true account of the battle. The sudden joy -was too deep for words. By one universal impulse the gladdened captives -burst into song. Midst weeping and midst laughter the Battle-Hymn of -the Republic was caught up until five hundred voices were joining in -the strain. There as elsewhere it was felt with unutterable joy and -thankfulness that the country was saved. - -The victory at Gettysburg lifted a great load from the hearts of -the Northern people. There was yet a work--vast and grim--to be -accomplished before a solid peace could be attained, but there was now -a sure hope of final success. It was remarked by President Lincoln’s -friends that his appearance underwent a noticeable change after -Gettysburg. His eye grew brighter; his bowed-down form was once more -erect. In the winter after the battle part of the battle-ground was -consecrated as a cemetery, into which were gathered the remains of -the brave men who fell. Lincoln took part in the ceremony, and spoke -these memorable words: “It is for us the living to be dedicated here to -the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly -advanced. It is for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining -before us; that from these honoured dead we take increased devotion to -that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that -we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; -that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and -that government of the people--by the people and for the people--shall -not perish from the earth.” - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE LAST CAMPAIGN. - - -Even before the disasters of Gettysburg and Vicksburg, and while -General Lee was still pursuing a course of dazzling success, it had -become evident to many that the cause of the South was hopeless. A -strict blockade shut her out from the markets of Europe. Her supplies -of arms were running so low, that even if she could have found men in -sufficient numbers to resist the North, she could not have equipped -them. Food was becoming scarce. Already the pangs of hunger had been -experienced in Lee’s army. Elsewhere there was much suffering, even -among those who had lately been rich. The soldiers were insufficiently -provided with clothing. As winter came on, they deserted and went home -in crowds so great that punishment was impossible. - -The North had a million men in the field. She had nearly six hundred -ships of war, seventy-five of which were iron-clads. She had boundless -command of everything which could contribute to the efficiency and -comfort of her soldiers. The rolls of the Southern armies showed only -four hundred thousand men under arms, and of these it was said that -from desertion and other causes seldom more than one-half were in the -ranks. - -Money was becoming very scarce. The Confederate Government borrowed -all the money it could at home, but the supply received was wholly out -of proportion to the expenditure. A loan was attempted in England; -and there proved to be there a sufficient number of rich but unwise -persons to furnish three million sterling--most of which will remain -for ever unpaid to the lenders. No other measure remained but to print, -as fast as machinery could do it, Government promises to pay at some -future time, and to force these upon people to whom the Government -owed money. These promises gradually fell in value. In 1862, when the -rebellion was young and hopes were high, one dollar and twenty cents in -Government money would purchase a dollar in gold. In January 1863 it -required three dollars to do that. After Gettysburg it required twenty -dollars. Somewhat later it required sixty paper dollars to obtain the -one precious golden coin. - -It became every day more apparent that the resources of the South were -being exhausted. Even if the genius of her generals should continue -to gain victories, the South must perish from want of money and -want of food. There was a touching weakness in many of her business -arrangements. Government appealed to the people for gifts of jewellery -and silver plate, and published in the Richmond newspapers lists of -the gold rings and silver spoons and teapots which amiable enthusiasts -bestowed upon them! When iron-clad ships of war were needed and iron -was scarce, an association of ladies was formed to collect old pots -and pans for the purpose! The daring of these people and the skill -of their leaders might indeed gain them victories; but it was a wild -improbability that they should come successfully out of a war in which -the powerful and sagacious North was resolute to win. - -[Sidenote: 1864 A.D.] The Northern Government, well advised of the -failing resources of the South, hoped that one campaign more would -close the war. Bitter experience had corrected their early mistakes, -and they had at length found a general worthy of his high place. Grant -was summoned eastward to direct the last march on Richmond. The spirit -of the country was resolute as ever. The soldiers had now the skill of -veterans; enormous supplies were provided; everything that boundless -resources, wisely administered, could do, was now done to bring the -awful contest to a close. - -When the campaign opened, Grant with one hundred and twenty thousand -men faced Lee, whose force was certainly less by one-half. The little -river Rapidan flowed between. The Wilderness--a desolate region of -stunted trees and dense undergrowth--stretched for many miles around. -At midnight on the 3rd of May, Grant began to cross the river, and -before next evening his army stood on the southern side. Lee at once -attacked him. During the next eight days there was continuous fighting. -The men toiled all day at the work of slaughter, lay down to sleep at -night, and rose to resume their bloody labour in the morning, as men -do in the ordinary peaceful business of life. Lee directed his scanty -force with wondrous skill. It was his habit to throw up intrenchments, -within which he maintained himself against the Federal assault. Grant -did not allow himself to be hindered in his progress to Richmond. -When he failed to force the Confederate position he marched southward -round its flank, continually obliging Lee to move forward and take up -a new position. His losses were terrible. From the 5th to the 12th of -May he had lost thirty thousand men in killed, wounded, and missing. -The wounded were sent to Washington, and trains of ambulances miles -in length, laden with suffering men, passed continually through the -capital, filling all hearts with sadness and gloomy apprehension. The -cost was awful, but General Grant knew that the end was being gained. -He knew that Lee was weakened irrecoverably by the slaughter of these -battles, and he wrote that he would “fight it out on this line, if it -should take all summer.” - -Grant found that a direct attack on Richmond was as yet hopeless, and -he marched southwards past the rebel capital to the little town of -Petersburg, twenty-two miles off. His plan was to wear down the rebel -army by the continual attack of superior forces, and also to cut the -railways by which provisions were brought into Richmond. By the middle -of June he was before Petersburg, which he hoped to possess before Lee -had time to fortify the place against him. It might have been taken by -a vigorous assault; but the attacking force was feebly led, and the -opportunity was missed. - -And now there began the tedious bloody siege of Petersburg. The armies -had chosen their positions for the final conflict. The result was -not doubtful. General Lee was of opinion, some time before, that the -fortunes of the Confederacy were desperate. The Northern Government and -military leaders knew that success was certain. Indeed General Grant -stated afterwards that he had been at the front from the very beginning -of the war, and that he had never entertained any doubt whatever as to -the final success of the North. - -All around Petersburg, at such distance that the firing did not very -seriously affect the little city, stretched the earthworks of the -combatants. Before the end there were forty miles of earthworks. The -Confederates established a line of defence. The Federals established -a line of attack, and gradually, by superior strength, drove their -antagonists back. Lee retired to a new series of defences, where the -fight was continued. The Federals had a railway running to City Point, -eleven miles away, where their ships brought for them the amplest -supplies. Lee depended upon the railways which communicated with -distant portions of Confederate territory. These it was the aim of -Grant to cut, so that his adversary might be driven by want of food -from his position. The outposts of the armies were within talking -distance of each other. The men lay in rifle-pits or shallow ditches, -watching opportunity to kill. Any foe who incautiously came within -range died by their unerring fire. For ten long months the daily -occupation of the combatants had been to attack each the positions of -the other. The Confederates, by constant sallies, attempted to hinder -the advance of their powerful assailant. Grant never relaxed his hold. -He “had the rebellion by the throat,” and he steadily tightened his -grasp. By City Point he was in easy communication with the boundless -resources of the North. Men and stores were supplied as he needed them -by an enthusiastic country. On the rebel side the last available man -was now in the field. Half the time the army wanted food. Desertions -abounded. It was not that the men shunned danger or hardship, but they -knew the cause was hopeless. Many of them knew also that their families -were starving. They went home to help those who were dearer to them -than that desperate enterprise whose ruin was now so manifest. The -genius of Lee was the sole remaining buttress of the Confederate cause. - -Once the Federals ran an enormous mine under a portion of the enemy’s -works. In this mine they piled up twelve thousand pounds of gunpowder. -They had a strong column ready to march into the opening which the -explosion would cleave. Early one summer morning the mine was fired. -A vast mass of earth, mingled with bodies of men, was thrown high -into air. The Confederate defence at that point was effaced, and -the attacking force moved forward. But from some unexplained reason -they paused and sheltered themselves in the huge pit formed by the -explosion. The Confederates promptly brought up artillery and rained -shells into the pit, where soon fifteen hundred men lay dead. The -discomfited Federals retired to their lines. - - * * * * * - -When Grant began his march to Richmond, he took care that the enemy -should be pressed in other quarters of his territory. General Sherman -marched from Tennessee down into Georgia. Before him was a strong -Confederate army, and a country peculiarly favourable for an army -contented to remain on the defensive; but Sherman overcame every -obstacle. He defeated his enemy in many battles and bloody skirmishes. -His object was to reach Atlanta, the capital of Georgia. Atlanta -was of extreme value to the rebels. It commanded railroads which -conveyed supplies to their armies; it had great factories where they -manufactured cannon and locomotives; great foundries where they -laboured incessantly to produce shot and shell. Sherman, by brilliant -generalship and hard fighting, overcame all resistance, and entered -Atlanta, September 2. It was a great prize, but it was not had cheaply. -During those four months he had lost thirty thousand men. - -When Sherman had held Atlanta for a few weeks, he resolved to march -eastward through Georgia to the sea. He had a magnificent army of sixty -thousand men, for whom there was no sufficient occupation where they -lay. On the sea-coast there were cities to be taken. And then his army -could march northwards to join Grant before Petersburg. - -[Sidenote: Nov. 15, 1864 A.D.] When all was ready Sherman put the -torch to the public buildings of Atlanta, telegraphed northwards that -all was well, and cut the telegraph wires. Then he started on his -march of three hundred miles across a hostile country. For a month -nothing was heard of him. When he re-appeared it was before Savannah, -of which he quickly possessed himself. His march through Georgia -had been unopposed. He severely wasted the country for thirty miles -on either side of the line from Atlanta to Savannah. He carried off -the supplies he needed; he destroyed what he could not use; he tore -up the railroads; he proclaimed liberty to the slaves, many of whom -accompanied him eastward. He proved to all the world how hollow a thing -was now the Confederacy, and how rapidly its doom was approaching. - - * * * * * - -At the north, in the valley of the Shenandoah, a strong Confederate -army, under the habitually unsuccessful General Early, confronted the -Federals under Sheridan. Could Sheridan have been driven away, the -war might again have been carried into Pennsylvania or Maryland, and -the North humbled in her career of victory. But Sheridan was still -triumphant. [Sidenote: Oct. 19, 1864 A.D.] At length General Early -effected a surprise. He burst upon the Federals while they looked not -for him. His sudden attack disordered the enemy, who began to retire. -Sheridan was not with his army; he had gone to Winchester, twenty -miles away. The morning breeze from the south bore to his startled ear -the sounds of battle. Sheridan mounted his horse, and rode with the -speed of a man who felt that upon his presence hung the destiny of the -fight. His army was on the verge of defeat, and already stragglers were -hurrying from the field; but when Sheridan galloped among them, the -battle was restored. Under Sheridan the army was invincible. The rebels -were defeated with heavy loss, and were never again able to renew the -war in the valley of the Shenandoah. - - * * * * * - -The Slave question was not yet completely settled. The Proclamation -had made free the slaves of all who were rebels, and nothing remained -between them and liberty but those thin lines of gray-coated hungry -soldiers, upon whose arms the genius of Lee bestowed an efficacy -not naturally their own. But the Proclamation had no power to free -the slaves of loyal citizens. In the States which had not revolted, -slavery was the same as it had ever been. The feeling deepened rapidly -throughout the North that this could not continue. Slavery had borne -fruit in the hugest rebellion known to history. It had proclaimed -irreconcilable hostility to the Government; it had brought mourning -and woe into every house. The Union could not continue half-slave and -half-free. The North wisely and nobly resolved that slavery should -cease. - -Most of the loyal Slave States freed themselves by their own choice -of this evil institution. Louisiana, brought back to her allegiance -not without some measure of force, led the way. Maryland followed, -and Tennessee, and Missouri, and Arkansas. In Missouri, whence -the influence issued which murdered Lovejoy because he was an -abolitionist--which supplied the Border ruffians in the early days of -Kansas--the abolition of slavery was welcomed with devout prayer and -thanksgiving, with joyful illuminations and speeches and patriotic -songs. - -One thing was yet wanting to the complete and final extinction of -slavery. The Constitution permitted the existence of the accursed -thing. If the Constitution were so amended as to forbid slavery upon -American soil, the cause of this huge discord which now convulsed the -land would be removed. A Constitutional Amendment to that effect was -submitted to the people. In the early months of 1865, while General -Lee--worthy to fight in a better cause--was still bravely toiling to -avert the coming doom of the Slave Empire, the Northern States joyfully -adopted the Amendment. Slavery was now at length extinct. This was -what Providence had mercifully brought out of a rebellion whose avowed -object it was to establish slavery more firmly and extend it more -widely. - -But freedom was not enough. Many of the black men had faithfully -served the Union. Nearly two hundred thousand of them were in the -ranks--fighting manfully in a cause which was specially their own. -There were many black men, as Lincoln said, who “could remember that -with silent tongue, and clenched teeth, and steady eye, and well-poised -bayonet, they had helped mankind to save liberty in America.” But the -coloured people were child-like and helpless. They had to be looked -upon as “the wards of the nation.” [Sidenote: 1864 A.D.] A Freedmen’s -Bureau was established, to be the defence of the defenceless blacks. -General Howard--a man peculiarly fitted to give wise effect to the -kind purposes of the nation--became the head of this department. It -was his duty to provide food and shelter for the slaves who were set -free by military operations in the revolted States. He settled them, -as he could, on confiscated lands. After a time he had to see to the -education of their children. In all needful ways he was to keep the -negroes from wrong till they were able to keep themselves. - - * * * * * - -Four years had now passed since Lincoln’s election furnished the -slave-owners with a pretext to rebel. Another election had to be -made, and Lincoln was again proposed as the Republican candidate. -The Democratic party nominated General M’Clellan. The war, said the -Democrats, is a failure; let us have a cessation of hostilities, and -endeavour to save the Union by peaceful negotiation. Let us put down -slavery and rebellion by force, said the Republicans; there is no other -way. These were the simple issues on which the election turned. Mr. -Lincoln was re-elected by the largest majority ever known. “It is not -in my nature,” he said, “to triumph over any one; but I give thanks to -Almighty God for this evidence of the people’s resolution to stand by -free government and the rights of humanity.” - -[Sidenote: March 4, 1865 A.D.] He was inaugurated according to the -usual form. His Address was brief, but high-toned and solemn, as -beseemed the circumstances. Perhaps no State paper ever produced so -deep an impression upon the American people. It closed thus:--“Fondly -do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war -may speedily pass away. Yet if God wills that it continue until all -the wealth piled by the bondsman’s two hundred and fifty years of -unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with -the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword--as was said -three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, ‘The judgments of -the Lord are true and righteous altogether.’ With malice towards none, -with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see -the right, let us finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s -wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his -widow and his orphans--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just -and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.” - -[Sidenote: 1864-5 A.D.] During the winter months it became very -plain that the Confederacy was tottering to its fall. These were the -bitterest months through which Virginia had ever passed. The army was -habitually now on short supply. Occasionally, for a day, there was -almost a total absence of food. One day in December Lee telegraphed -to Richmond that his army was without meat, and dependent on a little -bread. And yet the soldiers were greatly better off than the citizens. -Provisions were seized for the army wherever they could be found, and -the owners were mercilessly left to starve. The suffering endured among -the once cheerful homes of Virginia was terrible. - -Every grown man was the property of the Government. It was said the -rich men escaped easily, but a poor man could not pass along a street -in Richmond without imminent risk of being seized and sent down to -the lines at Petersburg. At railroad stations might be constantly -seen groups of squalid men on their way to camp--caught up from their -homes and hurried off to fight for a cause which they all knew to be -desperate--in the service of a Government which they no longer trusted. -It was, of course, the earliest care of these men to desert. They went -home, or they surrendered to the enemy. The spirit which made the -Confederacy formidable no longer survived. - -General Lee had long before expressed his belief that without the help -of the slaves the war must end disastrously. But all men knew that a -slave who had been a soldier could be a slave no longer. The owners -were not prepared to free their slaves, and they refused therefore to -arm them. In November--with utter ruin impending--a Bill was introduced -into the Confederate Congress for arming two hundred thousand negroes. -It was debated till the following March. Then a feeble compromise was -passed, merely giving the President power to accept such slaves as were -offered to him. So inflexibly resolute were the leaders of the South -in their hostility to emancipation. It was wholly unimportant. At that -time Government could have armed only another five thousand men; and -could not feed the men it had. - -The finances of the Confederacy were an utter wreck. Government itself -sold specie at the rate of one gold dollar for sixty dollars in paper -money. [Sidenote: Feb. 17, 1864 A.D.] Mr. Davis, by a measure of -partial repudiation, relieved himself for a short space from some of -his embarrassments; but no device could gain public confidence for the -currency of a falling power. A loaf of bread cost three dollars. It -took a month’s pay to buy the soldier a pair of stockings. The misery -of the country was deep, abject, unutterable. President Davis came to -be regarded with abhorrence, as the cause of all this wretchedness. -Curses, growing ever deeper and louder, were breathed against the -unsuccessful chief. - -General Grant, well aware of the desperate condition of the -Confederates, pressed incessantly upon their enfeebled lines. He had -one hundred and sixty thousand men under his command. Sheridan joined -him with a magnificent force of cavalry. Sherman with his victorious -army was near. Grant began to fear that Lee would take to flight, -and keep the rebellion alive on other fields. [Sidenote: March 29, -1865 A.D.] A general movement of all the forces around Richmond was -decided upon. Lee struggled bravely, but in vain, against overwhelming -numbers. His right was assailed by Sheridan, and driven back with -heavy loss--five thousand hungry and disheartened men laying down -their arms. [Sidenote: April 1.] On that same night Grant opened, from -all his guns, a terrific and prolonged bombardment. [Sidenote: April -2.] At dawn the assault was made. Its strength was directed against -one of the Confederate forts. The fight ceased elsewhere, and the -armies looked on. There was a steady advance of the blue-coated lines; -a murderous volley from the little garrison; wild cheers from the -excited spectators. Under a heavy fire of artillery and musketry the -soldiers of the Union rush on; they swarm into the ditch and up the -sides of the works. Those who first reach the summit fall back slain -by musket-shot or bayonet-thrust, but others press fiercely on. Soon -their exulting cheers tell that the fort is won. Lee’s army is cut in -two, and his position is no longer tenable. He telegraphed at once to -President Davis that Richmond must be evacuated. - -It was Communion Sunday in St. Paul’s Episcopal Church, and President -Davis was in his pew among the other worshippers. No intelligence from -the army had been allowed to reach the public for some days. But the -sound of Grant’s guns had been heard, and the reserve of the Government -was ominous. Many a keen eye sought to gather from the aspect of -the President some forecast of the future; but in vain. That serene -self-possessed face had lost nothing of its habitual reticence. In all -that congregation there was no worshipper who seemed less encumbered -by the world, more absorbed by the sacred employment of the hour, -than President Davis. The service proceeded, and the congregation -knelt in prayer. As President Davis rose from his knees the sexton -handed him a slip of paper. He calmly read it. Then he calmly lifted -his prayer-book, and with unmoved face walked softly from the church. -It was Lee’s message he had received. Jefferson Davis’s sole concern -now was to escape the doom of the traitor and the rebel. He fled at -once, by special train, towards the south. Then the work of evacuation -commenced. The gunboats on the river were blown up; the bridges were -destroyed; the great warehouses in the city were set on fire, and in -the flames thus wickedly kindled a third part of the city was consumed. -All who had made themselves prominent in the rebellion fled from the -anticipated vengeance of the Federals. The soldiers were marched off, -plundering as they went. Next morning Richmond was in possession of -the Northern troops. Among the first to enter the capital of the rebel -slave-owners was a regiment of negro cavalry. - -[Sidenote: April 4, 1865 A.D.] About midnight on Sunday Lee began his -retreat from the position which he had kept so well. Grant promptly -followed him. On the Tuesday morning Lee reached a point where he had -ordered supplies to wait him. By some fatal blunder the cars laden with -the food which his men needed so much had been run on to Richmond, and -were lost to him. Hungry and weary the men toiled on, hotly pursued -by Grant. Soon a hostile force appeared in their front, and it became -evident that they were surrounded. - -[Sidenote: April 7.] General Grant wrote to General Lee asking the -surrender of his army, to spare the useless effusion of blood. Lee did -not at first admit that surrender was necessary, and Grant pressed the -pursuit with relentless energy. Lee wrote again to request a meeting, -that the terms of surrender might be arranged. [Sidenote: April 9.] -The two leaders met in a wayside cottage. They had never seen each -other before, although they had both served in the Mexican War, and -Lee mentioned pleasantly that he remembered the name of his antagonist -from that time. Grant drew up and presented in writing the terms -which he offered. The men were to lay down their arms, and give their -pledge that they would not serve against the American Government till -regularly exchanged. They were then to return to their homes, with a -guarantee that they would not be disturbed by the Government against -which they had rebelled. Grant asked if these terms were satisfactory. -“Yes,” said Lee, “they are satisfactory. The truth is, I am in such -a position that any terms offered to me _must_ be satisfactory.” And -then he told how his men had been for two days without food, and begged -General Grant to spare them what he could. Grant, generously eager to -relieve his fallen enemies, despatched instantly a large drove of oxen -and a train of provision waggons. In half an hour there were heard in -the Federal camp the cheers with which the hungry rebels welcomed those -precious gifts. - -Lee rode quietly back to his army, where the surrender was expected. -When its details became known, officers and men crowded around their -much-loved chief, to assure him of their devotion, and to obtain a -parting grasp of his hand. Lee was too deeply moved to say much. “Men,” -he said, with his habitual simplicity, “we have fought through the war -together, and I have done the best I could for you.” A day or two later -the men stacked their arms and went to their homes. The history of the -once splendid Army of Northern Virginia had closed. - -Lee’s surrender led the way to the surrender of all the Confederate -armies. Within a few days there was no organized force of any -importance in arms against the Union. The War of the Great Rebellion -was at an end. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE MURDER OF THE PRESIDENT. - - -When the closing operations against Richmond were being arranged, -President Lincoln went down to General Grant’s head-quarters at City -Point, and remained there till Lee’s surrender. He visited Richmond on -the day it was taken, and walked through the streets with his little -boy in his hand. The freed slaves crowded to welcome their deliverer. -They expressed in a thousand grotesque ways their gratitude to the good -“Father Abraham.” There had been dark hints for some time that there -were those among the Confederates who would avenge their defeat by the -murder of the President. Mr. Lincoln was urged to be on his guard, and -his friends were unwilling that he should visit Richmond. He himself -cared little, now that the national cause had triumphed. - -[Sidenote: April 9, 1865 A.D.] He returned unharmed to Washington on -the evening of Lee’s surrender. The next few days were perhaps the -brightest in his whole life. He had guided the nation through the -heaviest trial which had ever assailed it. On every side were joy and -gladness. Flags waved, bells rang, guns were fired, houses were lighted -up; the thanks of innumerable grateful hearts went up to God for this -great deliverance. No heart in all the country was more joyful and -more thankful than Mr. Lincoln’s. He occupied himself with plans for -healing the wounds of his bleeding country, and bringing back the -revolted States to a contented occupation of their appointed places -in the Union. No thought of severity was in his mind. Now that armed -resistance to the Government was crushed, the gentlest measures which -would give security in the future were the measures most agreeable to -the good President. - -On the 14th he held a meeting of his Cabinet, at which General Grant -was present. The quiet cheerfulness and hopefulness of the President -imparted to the proceedings of the council a tone long remembered -by those who were present. After the meeting he drove out with Mrs. -Lincoln, to whom he talked of the good days in store. They had had a -hard time, he said, since they came to Washington; but now, by God’s -blessing, they might hope for quieter and happier years. - -In the evening he drove, with Mrs. Lincoln and two or three friends, -to a theatre where he knew the people expected his coming. As the play -went on the audience were startled by a pistol-shot in the President’s -box. A man brandishing a dagger was seen to leap from the box on to the -stage, and with a wild cry--“The South is avenged!”--disappeared behind -the scenes. The President sat motionless, his head sunk down upon his -breast. He was evidently unconscious. When the surgeon came, it was -found that a bullet had pierced the brain, inflicting a deadly wound. -He was carried to a house close by. His family and the great officers -of State, by whom he was dearly loved, sat around the bed of the dying -President. He lingered till morning, breathing heavily, but in entire -unconsciousness, and then he passed away. - -At the same hour the President was murdered a ruffian broke into the -sick-room of Mr. Seward, who was suffering from a recent accident, -and stabbed him almost to death as he lay in bed. His bloody work was -happily interrupted, and Mr. Seward recovered. - -The assassin of Mr. Lincoln was an actor called Booth, a fanatical -adherent of the fallen Confederacy. His leg was broken in the leap on -to the stage, but he was able to reach a horse which stood ready at -the theatre door. He rode through the city, crossed the Potomac by a -bridge, in the face of the sentinels posted there, and passed safely -beyond present pursuit. A week later he was found hid in a barn, and -well armed. He refused to surrender, and was preparing to fire, when a -soldier ended his miserable existence by a bullet. - -The grief of the American people for their murdered President was -beyond example deep and bitter. Perhaps for no man were there ever -shed so profusely the tears of sorrow. Not in America alone, but in -Europe also--where President Lincoln was at length understood and -honoured--his loss was deeply mourned. It was resolved that he should -be buried beside his old home in Illinois. The embalmed remains were to -be conveyed to their distant resting-place by a route which would give -to the people of the chief Northern cities a last opportunity to look -upon the features of the man they loved so well. The sad procession -moved on its long journey of nearly two thousand miles, traversing the -States of Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana, -and Illinois. Everywhere, as the funeral train passed, the weeping -people sought to give expression to their reverential sorrow. At the -great cities the body lay in state, and all business was suspended. - -At length Springfield was reached. The body was taken to the State -House. His neighbours looked once more upon that well-remembered face, -wasted, indeed, by years of anxious toil, but wearing still, as of old, -its kind and placid expression. - -Four years before, Lincoln said to his neighbours, when he was leaving -them, “I know not how soon I shall see you again. I go to assume a task -more difficult than that which has devolved upon any other man since -the days of Washington.” He had nobly accomplished his task; and this -was the manner of his home-coming. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE LOSSES AND THE GAINS OF THE WAR. - - -The Great Rebellion was at an end. It was not closed by untimely -concessions which left a discontented party, with its strength -unbroken, ready to renew the contest at a more fitting time. It was -fought out to the bitter end. The slave-power might be erring, but it -was not weak. The conflict was closed by the utter exhaustion of one of -the combatants. Lee did not surrender till his army was surrounded by -the enemy and had been two days without food. The great questions which -had been appealed to the sword were answered conclusively and for ever. - -The cost had been very terrible. On the Northern side, two million -seven hundred thousand men bore arms at some period of the war. Of -these there died in battle, or in hospital of wounds received in -battle, ninety-six thousand men. There died in hospital of disease, one -hundred and eighty-four thousand. Many went home wounded, to die among -the scenes of their infancy. Many went home stricken with lingering and -mortal disease. Of these there is no record but in the sad memories -which haunt nearly every Northern home. - -The losses on the Southern side have not been accurately ascertained. -The white population of the revolted States numbered about a fourth of -the loyal Northern population. At the close of the war the North had a -full million of men under arms. The Southern armies which surrendered -numbered one hundred and seventy-five thousand. When to this is added -the number who went home without awaiting the formality of surrender, -it appears probable that the Southern armies bore to the Northern the -same proportion that the population did. Presumably the loss bore a -larger proportion, as the deaths from disease, owing to the greater -hardships to be endured, must have been excessive in the rebel army. -It must be under the truth to say that one hundred and fifty thousand -Southerners perished in the field or in the hospital. - -The war cost the North in money seven hundred million sterling. It is -impossible to state what was the cost to the South. The Confederate -debt was supposed to amount at the close to thirty-five hundred million -dollars; but the dollar was of so uncertain value that no one can tell -the equivalent in any sound currency. Besides this, there was the -destruction of railroads, the burning of houses, the wasting of lands, -and, above all, the emancipation of four million slaves, who had been -purchased by their owners for three or four hundred million sterling. -It has been estimated that the entire cost of the war, on both sides, -was not less than eighteen hundred million pounds sterling. - -Great wars ordinarily cost much and produce little. What results had -the American people to show for their huge expenditure of blood and -treasure? - -They had freed themselves from the curse of slavery. That unhappy -system made them a byword among Christian nations. It hindered the -progress of the fairest section of the country. It implanted among the -people hatreds which kept them continually on the verge of civil war. -Slavery was now extinct. - -For three-quarters of a century the belief possessed Southern minds -that they owed allegiance to their State rather than to the Union. -Each State was sovereign. Having to-day united itself with certain -sister sovereignties, it was free to-morrow to withdraw and enter into -new combinations. America was in this view no nation, but a mere -incoherent concourse of independent powers. This question had been -raised when the Constitution was framed, and it had been debated ever -since. It was settled now. The blood shed in a hundred battles, from -Manassas to Petersburg, expressed the esteem in which the Northern -people held their national life. The doctrine of States’ Rights was -conclusively refuted by the surrender of Lee’s army, and the right of -America to be deemed a nation was established for ever. - -It was often said during the war that republican institutions were -upon their trial. It was possible for the war to have resulted so that -government by the people would ever after have been deemed a failure. -It has not been so. The Americans have proved conspicuously the -capacity of a free people to guide their own destinies in war as well -as in peace. They have shown that the dependence of the many upon the -few is as unnecessary as it is humiliating. They have rung the knell -of personal government, and given the world encouragement to hope that -not the Anglo-Saxon race alone, but all other races of men will yet be -found worthy to govern themselves. - -Terrible as the cost of the war has been, have not its gains been -greater? The men who gave their lives so willingly have not died -in vain. America and the world will reap advantage, through many -generations, by the blood so freely shed in the great war against the -Southern slave-owners. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -AFTER THE WAR. - - -In all civil strifes, until now, the woe which waits upon the -vanquished has been mercilessly inflicted. After resistance has ceased, -the grim scaffold is set up, and brave men who have escaped the sword -stoop to the fatal axe. It was assumed by many that the Americans would -avenge themselves according to the ancient usage. Here, again, it was -the privilege of America to present a noble example to other nations. -Nearly every Northern man had lost relative or friend, but there was -no cry for vengeance; there was no feeling of bitterness. Excepting in -battle, no drop of blood was shed by the Northern people. The Great -Republic had been not merely strong, resolute, enduring--it was also -singularly and nobly humane. - -Jefferson Davis fled southward on that memorable Sunday when the sexton -of St. Paul’s Church handed to him General Lee’s message. He had need -to be diligent, for a party of American cavalry were quickly upon -his track. They followed him through gaunt pine wildernesses, across -rivers and dreary swamps, past the huts of wondering settlers, until -at length they came upon him near a little town in Georgia. [Sidenote: -May 10, 1865 A.D.] They quietly surrounded his party. Davis assumed -the garments of his wife, and the soldiers saw at first nothing more -formidable than an elderly and not very well-dressed female. But the -unfeminine boots which he wore led to closer inspection, and quickly -the fallen President stood disclosed to his deriding enemies. - -There was at first suspicion that Davis encouraged the assassination -of the President. Could that have been proved, he would have died, as -reason was, by the hand of the hangman. But it became evident, on due -examination being made, that he was not guilty of that crime. For a -time the American people regarded Davis with just indignation, as the -chief cause of all the bloodshed which had taken place. Gradually their -anger relaxed into a kind of grim, contemptuous playfulness. He was to -be put upon his trial for treason. Frequently a time was named when the -trial would begin; but the time never came. Ultimately Davis was set at -liberty. - - * * * * * - -What were the Americans to do with the million of armed men now in -their employment? It was believed in Europe that these men would never -return to peaceful labour. Government could not venture to turn them -loose upon the country. Military employment must be found for them, and -would probably be found in foreign wars. - -While yet public writers in Europe occupied themselves with these dark -anticipations, the American Government, all unaware of difficulty, -ordered its armies to march on Washington. [Sidenote: May 23, 24, 1865 -A.D.] During two days the bronzed veterans who had followed Grant -and Sherman in so many bloody fights passed through the city. Vast -multitudes from all parts of the Union looked on with a proud but -chastened joy. And then, just as quickly as the men could be paid the -sums which were due to them, they gave back the arms they had used -so bravely, and returned to their homes. It was only six weeks since -Richmond fell, and already the work of disbanding was well advanced. -The men who had fought this war were, for the most part, citizens who -had freely taken up arms to defend the national life. They did not -love war, and when their work was done they thankfully resumed their -ordinary employments. Very speedily the American army numbered only -forty thousand men. Europe, when she grows a little wiser, will follow -the American example. The wasteful folly of maintaining huge standing -armies in time of peace is not destined to disgrace us for ever. - - * * * * * - -What was the position of the rebel States when the war closed? Were -they provinces conquered by the Union armies, to be dealt with as the -conquerors might deem necessary; or were they, in spite of all they -had done, still members of the Union, as of old? The rebels themselves -had no doubt on the subject. They had tried their utmost to leave -the Union. It was impossible to conceal that. But they had not been -permitted to leave it, and they had never left it. As they were not out -of the Union, it was obvious they were in it. And so they claimed to -resume their old rights, and re-occupy their places in Congress, as if -no rebellion had occurred. - -Mr. Lincoln’s successor was Andrew Johnson, a man whose rough vigour -had raised him from the lowly position of tailor to the highest office -in the country. He was imperfectly educated, of defective judgment, -blindly and violently obstinate. He supported the rebels in their -extravagant pretensions. He clung to the strictly logical view that -there could be no such thing as secession; that the rebel States had -never been out of the Union; that now there was nothing required but -that the rebels, having accepted their defeat, should resume their old -positions, as if “the late unpleasantness” had not occurred. - -The American people were too wise to give heed to the logic of the -President and the baffled slave-owners. They had preserved the life of -their nation through sacrifices which filled their homes with sorrow -and privation, and they would not be tricked out of the advantages -which they had bought with so great a price. The slave-owners had -imposed upon them a great national peril, which it cost them infinite -toil to avert. They would take what securities it was possible to -obtain that no such invasion of the national tranquillity should occur -again. - -It was out of the position so wrongfully assigned to the negro race -that this huge disorder had arisen. The North, looking at this with -eyes which long and sad experience had enlightened, resolved that the -negro should never again divide the sisterhood of States. No root of -bitterness should be left in the soil. Citizenship was no longer to be -dependent upon colour. The long dishonour offered to the Fathers of -Independence was to be cancelled; henceforth American law would present -no contradiction to the doctrine that “all men are born equal.” All men -now, born or naturalized in America, were to be citizens of the Union -and of the State in which they resided. No State might henceforth pass -any law which should abridge the privileges of any class of American -citizens. - -An Amendment of the Constitution was proposed by Congress to give -effect to these principles. [Sidenote: March 30, 1870 A.D.] It was -agreed to by the States--not without reluctance on the part of some. -The Revolution--so vast and so benign--was now complete. The negro, who -so lately had no rights at all which a white man was bound to respect, -was now in full possession of every right which the white man himself -enjoyed. The successor of Jefferson Davis in the Senate of the United -States was a negro! - -The task of the North was now to “bind up the nation’s wounds”--the -task to which Mr. Lincoln looked forward so joyfully, and which he -would have performed so well. Not a moment was lost in entering upon -it. No feeling of resentment survived in the Northern mind. The South -was utterly exhausted and helpless--without food, without clothing, -without resources of any description. The land alone remained. -Government provided food--without which provision there would have -been in many parts of the country a great mortality from utter want. -The proud Southerners, tamed by hunger, were fain to come as suppliants -for their daily bread to the Government they had so long striven to -overthrow. - -With little delay nearly all the rebels received the pardon of the -Government, and applied themselves to the work of restoring their -broken fortunes. Happily for them the means lay close at hand. -Cotton bore still an extravagantly high price. The negroes remained, -although no longer as slaves. They had now to be dealt with as free -labourers, whose services could not be obtained otherwise than by the -inducement of adequate wages. In a revolution so vast, difficulties -were inevitable; but, upon the whole, the black men played their part -well. It had been said they would not consent to labour when they were -free to choose. That prediction was not fulfilled. When kindly treated -and justly paid, they showed themselves anxious to work. Very soon it -began to dawn upon the planters that slavery had been a mistake. Those -of their number who were able to command the use of capital found -themselves growing rich with a rapidity unknown before. Under the old -and wasteful system, the growing crop of cotton was generally sold -to the Northern merchant and paid for to the planter before it was -gathered. Now it had become possible to carry on the business of the -plantation without being in debt at all. Five years after the close of -the war, it is perhaps not too much to say that the men of the South -would have undergone the miseries of another war rather than permit the -re-imposition of that system which they, erringly, endured so much to -preserve. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -HOW THE AMERICANS CARED FOR THEIR SOLDIERS. - - -Wars have been, in general, made by Kings to serve the purposes of -their own ambition or revenge. This war was made by the American -people, and willingly fought out by their own hands. The men who fought -were nearly all Americans, and mainly volunteers. They were regarded -with the deepest interest by those who remained at home. Ordinarily, -the number of soldiers who die of diseases caused by the hardships -they endure is greater than the number of those who die of wounds. The -Americans were eager to save their soldiers from the privations which -waste so many brave lives. They erected two great societies, called the -Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission. Into the coffers of -these societies they poured money and other contributions to the amount -of four million sterling. The Sanitary Commission sent medical officers -of experience into the armies to guide them in the choice of healthy -situations for camps; to see that drainage was not neglected; to watch -over the food of the soldiers, and also their clothing; to direct the -attention of the Government to every circumstance which threatened evil -to the health of the army. Its agents followed the armies with a line -of waggons containing all manner of stores. Everything the soldier -could desire issued in profusion from those inexhaustible waggons. -There were blankets and great-coats and every variety of underclothing. -There were crutches for the lame, fans to soothe the wounded in the -burning heat of summer, bandages, and sponges, and ice, and even -mosquito-netting for the protection of the poor sufferers in hospital. -Huge wheeled-caldrons rolled along in the rear, and ever, at the close -of battle or toilsome march, dispensed welcome refreshment to the -wearied soldiers. - -The Christian Commission undertook to watch over the spiritual wants -of the soldiers. Its president was George H. Stuart, a merchant of -Philadelphia, whose name is held in enduring honour as a symbol of all -that is wise and energetic in Christian beneficence. Under the auspices -of this society thousands of clergymen left their congregations and -went to minister to the soldiers. A copious supply of Bibles, tracts, -hymn-books, and similar reading matter was furnished. The agents of -the Commission preached to the soldiers, conversed with them, supplied -them with books, aided them in communicating with friends at home. But -they had sterner duties than these to discharge. They had to seek the -wounded on the field and in the hospital; to bind up their wounds; to -prepare for them such food or drink as they could use;--in every way -possible to soothe the agony of the brave men who were giving their -lives that the nation might be saved. Hundreds of ladies were thus -engaged tending the wounded and sick, speaking to them about their -spiritual interests, cooking for them such dishes as might tempt the -languid appetite. The dying soldier was tenderly cared for. The last -loving message was conveyed to the friends in the far-off home. Nothing -was left undone which could express to the men who gave this costly -evidence of their patriotism the gratitude with which the country -regarded them. - -It resulted from the watchful care of the American Government and -people, that the loss of life by disease was singularly small in the -Northern army. There never was a war in which the health of the army -was so good, and the waste of life by disease so small. - -When the war was over, the Americans addressed themselves, sadly and -reverently, to the work of gathering into national cemeteries the -bones of those who had fallen. The search was long and toilsome, for -the battle-ground had been a continent, and men were buried where they -died. Every battle-field was searched. Every line by which an army -had advanced, or by which the wounded had been removed, was searched. -Sometimes a long train of ambulances had carried the wounded to -hospitals many miles away. At short intervals, during that sad journey, -it was told that a man had died. The train was stopped; the dead man -was lifted from beside his dying companions; a shallow grave was dug, -and the body, still warm, was laid in it. A soldier cut a branch from -a tree, flattened its end with his knife, and wrote upon it the dead -man’s name. This was all that marked his lowly resting-place. The -honoured dead, scattered thus over the continent, were now piously -gathered up. For many miles around Petersburg the ground was full of -graves. During several years men were employed in the melancholy search -among the ruins of the wide-stretching lines. In some cemeteries lie -ten thousand, in others twenty thousand of the men who died for the -nation. An iron tablet records the name of the soldier and the battle -in which he died. Often, alas! the record is merely that of “Unknown -Soldier.” Over the graves floats the flag which those who sleep below -loved so well. Nothing in America is more touching than her national -cemeteries. So much brave young life given freely, that the nation -might be saved! So much grateful remembrance of those who gave this -supreme evidence of their devotion! - - - - -Book Fifth. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -REUNITED AMERICA. - - -Long ago thoughtful men had foreseen that a permanent union between -slave communities and free communities was impossible. Wise Americans -knew that their country could not continue “half slave and half -free.” Slavery was a fountain out of which strife flowed perpetual. -There was an incessant conflict of interests. There was a still more -formidable conflict of feeling. The North was humiliated by the -censure which she had to share with her erring sisters. The South was -imbittered by the knowledge that the Christian world abhorred her most -cherished institution. The Southern character became ever more fierce, -domineering, unreasoning. Some vast change was known to be near. -Slavery must cease in the South, or extend itself into the North. There -was no resting-place for the country between that universal liberty -which was established in the North, and the favourite doctrine of the -South that the capitalist should own the labourer. - -The South appealed to the sword, and the decision was against her. She -frankly and wisely accepted it. She acknowledged that the labouring-man -was now finally proved to be no article of merchandise, but a free and -responsible citizen. That acknowledgment closed the era of strife -between North and South. There was no longer anything to strive -about. There was no longer North or South, in the old hostile sense, -but a united nation, with interests and sympathies rapidly becoming -identical. It has been foretold that America will yet break up into -several nations. What developments may await America in future ages we -do not know. But we do know that the only circumstance which threatened -disruption among the sisterhood of States has been removed, and that -the national existence of America rests upon foundations at least as -assured as those which support any nation in the world. - -The South had laid aside all thought of armed resistance, and in -perfect good faith had acquiesced in the overthrow of slavery. Her -leaders did not, however, consent readily to those guarantees of -future tranquillity which the North demanded. At the close of the war -eleven States were without legal State government; and the North would -not permit the restoration of the forfeited privilege until those -constitutional changes were accepted by which the political equality -of the negro was secured. It had become an easy thing to consent that -the negro should be free; it was very hard to consent that he should -sit in the State Legislatures, and exercise an influential voice -in framing laws for those who had lately owned him. Several States -withheld their concurrence from arrangements which humiliated them -so deeply, desperately choosing rather to deny themselves for the -time the privilege of self-government and to live under a government -in whose creation they had no part. Very grave evils resulted from -their pertinacious adherence to this unwise choice. Their affairs -were necessarily taken charge of by the Federal executive, and -President Grant sent them rulers from Washington. Unworthy persons -were able by dexterous intrigue to gain positions of control, and -hastened southwards, with no purpose to heal the wounds of the war; -intent merely to plunder for their own advantage the impoverished -and suffering States. The finances of the South were in extreme -disorder. Public debt had increased enormously during the war; but the -North averted the difficulty which this increase might have caused -by insisting that no debt incurred for the purposes of the rebellion -should be recognized as a public obligation. The temporary rulers of -the South gave prompt attention to the possibility of obtaining loans, -ostensibly for the restoration of railroads and other necessary works. -It was not yet realized how fatally wasted the South had been, and men -hastily concluded that her advantages of soil and climate must secure -for her a rapid financial recovery. Cherishing such expectations, -capitalists on both sides of the Atlantic were found willing to make -loans on the credit of various Southern States. These moneys were -applied only in very small measure to the uses of the States in -whose name they were obtained; the larger portion was feloniously -appropriated by the unscrupulous persons whose position gave them the -opportunity of doing so. Afterwards, when the fraud was fully exposed, -the defrauded States repudiated the obligation to repay moneys which -they had not received, and which, as they averred, had been borrowed -by persons who were in no sense their servants. The good name of the -South suffered deeply and her recovery was seriously hindered by these -unhappy transactions. - -The inevitable difficulties of reconstruction were seriously aggravated -by the violent conflict of opinion which raged between President -Johnson and Congress. The President would not sanction the conditions -which Congress considered it necessary to make with the South, and he -steadily vetoed all measures which were at variance with his theory -that the rebels were entitled to be received without stipulation. His -resistance was not practically important, for the country was united, -and Congress was able to pass all its measures over the veto of the -President. The irritation caused by his opposition to the public wish -grew, however, so intense, that it led to his impeachment and trial -before the Senate, with a view to his forcible removal from office. His -enemies failed to secure a conviction, although they came so near that -one additional hostile vote would have brought Mr. Johnson’s presidency -to an abrupt close. So smoothly does the constitutional machinery of -America now move, that the trial and expected deposition of the head of -the government were not felt either by the commercial interests of the -country or in the carrying on of public business. - -For five years after the end of the war some of the Southern States -continued to refuse the terms insisted upon by the inflexible North, -and continued to endure the evils of military rule. Gradually, -however, as time soothed the bitterness of defeat, they withdrew their -refusal and consented to resume their position in the Union on the -conditions which were offered to them. In 1870 President Grant was -able to announce the completed restoration of the Union which his own -leadership had done so much to save. - -The industrial recovery of the South was unexpectedly slow. The -industrial arrangements of the country were utterly overthrown. -Population had diminished; capital had disappeared; cultivation, -excepting of articles necessary for food, had ceased; many of the -coloured labourers had fled northwards, and the labour of those -who remained had to be arranged for on conditions altogether new -and unknown. The reconstruction of the shattered fragments of an -industrial system was inevitably a tedious and difficult work. But the -wholesome pressure of necessity,--laid equally on white men and on -black,--obliged both to adapt themselves to the circumstances in which -they were placed. The planters drew together as many labourers as they -could obtain and were able to pay for, and cultivated such portions of -their lands as they could thus overtake. The negroes were always ready -to serve any man who paid regular wages; but it very often happened, at -the outset, that there was no man with money enough to do that. In such -cases the negroes cultivated for their own behoof. The progress made -in reconquering the neglected soil was very slow. But in that fertile -land no effort of man is suffered to go without a bountiful reward. -Every succeeding crop left the cultivator a little richer than he had -been before. Every seed-time witnessed a larger area under cultivation, -until at length the quantity of cotton produced is as large as it had -ever been before the war, and promises steadily to increase. A new and -better industrial system gradually arose--less picturesque than that -which had been destroyed, but no longer founded in wrong, and therefore -more enduring and more beneficial to master as well as to servant. - - * * * * * - -The rebellion had drawn forth into energetic exercise among the -Northern people a patriotic sentiment which nerved them for every -measure of self-devotion. But war cherishes also into exceptional -strength the evil that is in humanity, and this patriot war exerted -an influence not less unhallowed than other wars have done. The -fluctuating value of the currency and consequently of all commodities, -the unprecedented opportunities of acquiring sudden wealth, fostered -widespread corruption in the cities. Reckless personal extravagance, -a frantic haste to become rich by whatever means, and a general decay -of commercial morality, characterized the years which followed the -restoration of peace. Political society, at no time distinguished by -its elevation of moral tone, was deeply tainted. Even among the men -whom President Grant had chosen as worthy of his fullest confidence -there were some who yielded to the prevailing influence, and the -President had the mortification of finding that several members of -his Cabinet had incurred the shame of corrupt transactions. Habitual -embezzlement was practised in the management of the finances of large -cities. The municipal government of New York had fallen into hands -exceptionally rapacious and base, and the career of the plunderers was -not arrested till the city had been robbed of many million dollars. - -For several years after the close of the war the industrial interests -of America seemed to prosper exceedingly. Her foreign trade increased -rapidly. The thriving people purchased freely of the costly luxuries -imported from Europe, and the gains of merchants were liberal. New -factories arose; villages swelled into towns; emigrants to the number -of three hundred and fifty thousand annually hastened to exchange the -poverty of Europe for the plenty of this land of promise; a million -persons were added every year to the population. New railways were laid -down at the rate of five to six thousand miles annually, involving an -annual expenditure of thirty to forty million sterling. The confiding -capitalists of Europe furnished the means requisite to sustain this -perilously rapid increase. The census of 1870 reported that during -ten years the wealth of the people had nearly doubled, and that their -annual earnings now amounted to two thousand million sterling. It -seemed as if, for the first time in history, a prolonged and costly war -had been waged without pecuniary disadvantage to the combatants. - -But the inevitable retribution was not abandoned; it was only delayed. -[Sidenote: Sept. 1873 A.D.] While the currents of commercial activity -still flowed with unwonted swiftness and smoothness, the failure of a -large financial house in New York gave the signal for a panic, which -speedily assumed an aspect of unprecedented severity. Business stood -still; the exchanges were closed; the banks ceased to give out money; -the payment of debts became impossible. In a short time the intensity -of the excitement passed away, leaving a deep-seated depression, -which continued for six years. It was now discovered that men had -been deluding themselves with a merely visionary prosperity--that all -values had been wildly inflated; and it became the sad and surprising -experience of very many that their fancied wealth had, in part or -wholly, disappeared. Factories were closed; artisans were unable to -obtain employment; wages fell, step by step, till in many industries -they had undergone reductions which were not less than forty per cent. -All stocks and every description of property sank lamentably in value; -railway companies and other borrowers of foreign capital discontinued -payment of the promised interest; immigration almost ceased--for who -would now seek a home in this afflicted and impoverished land? - -America emerged from those miserable years with her vitality -undiminished; with her financial position improved; with her industrial -system organized, for the first time, upon a basis of rigorous economy; -with the views of her people corrected, and their character braced -by adversity. The operatives who were unable to find employment in -the cities of the east had made their way westward, and were now -contributing to the greatness of the nation by cultivating the soil. -Personal extravagance ceased, and the imports of foreign commodities -fell one-third. On the other hand, the exports increased largely. -America had for many years been accustomed to use an amount of foreign -goods very much larger than she was able to pay for by her own surplus -productions. In settlement of the excess, she endured a drain upon her -store of the precious metals, or she neutralized it for the time by -the loans which her people obtained abroad. Now all this was changed. -America exported so largely of her manufactures and of the products -of her soil, and restricted so carefully her purchase of foreign -commodities, that now she has to receive from foreigners an annual -balance which exceeds fifty million sterling. And during the painful -years through which she passed, while nearly all European countries -continued to add to their public indebtedness, America continued to -reduce hers. Her debt, which at the close of the war amounted to six -hundred million sterling, thirteen years later was only four hundred -million.[2] And whereas at one period an amount equal to one-half of -her present debt was owing to foreigners, it is now, to the extent of -five-sixths, owing to her own citizens. Her currency, which had been -long at a discount, rose in value, step by step, till it stood at par. -After seventeen years of an inconvertible currency specie payments were -resumed, without the slightest inconvenience to the commerce of the -country. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ENGLAND AND AMERICA. - - -America looked to England for sympathy when the rebellion began. -England had often reproached her, often admonished her, in regard to -the question of Slavery. The war which threatened her existence was a -war waged by persons who desired to perpetuate slavery, and who feared -the growing Northern dislike to the institution. The North expected -the countenance of England in her time of trial. It was reasonable to -expect that the deep abhorrence of slavery which had long ruled in the -mind of the English people would suffice to decide that people against -the effort to establish a great independent slave-empire. - -Most unfortunately, that expectation was not wholly fulfilled. The -working-men of England perceived, as by intuition, the merits of the -dispute, and gave their sympathy unhesitatingly to the North. In the -cotton-spinning districts grievous suffering was endured, because -the Northern ships shut in the cotton of the South and deprived the -mills of their accustomed supply. It was often urged that the English -Government should take measures to raise the Northern blockade. Hunger -persuades men to unwise and evil courses; but hunger itself could never -persuade the men of Lancashire to take any part against the North. So -genuine and so deep was their conviction that the Northern cause was -right. - -But among the aristocratic and middle classes of England it was -different. Their sympathy was in large measure given to the South. They -were misled by certain newspapers, in which they erringly trusted. They -were misled by their admiration of a brave people struggling against -an enemy of overwhelming strength. They were misled by an unworthy -jealousy of the greatness of America. Thus unhappily influenced, they -gave their good wishes to the defenders of the slave-system. The North -felt deeply the unlooked-for repulse; and a painful alienation of -feeling resulted. - -A variety of circumstances occurred which strengthened this feeling. -A few weeks after the fall of Fort Sumpter, England, having in view -that there had been set up in the South a new Government which was -exercising the functions of a Government, whether rightfully or -otherwise, acknowledged in haste the undoubted fact, and recognized the -South as a belligerent power. This the North highly resented; asserting -that the action of the South was merely a rebellion, with which -foreign countries had nothing to do. A few months later the British -mail-steamer _Trent_ was stopped by a rash American captain, and two -gentlemen, commissioners to England from the rebel Government, were -made prisoners. The captives were released, but the indignity offered -to the British flag awakened a strong sentiment of indignation which -did not soon pass away. Yet further: there was built in a Liverpool -dockyard a steam-ship which it was understood was destined to serve -the Confederacy by destroying the merchant shipping of the North. The -American Ambassador requested the British Government to detain the -vessel. So hesitating was the action of Government, that the vessel -sailed before the order for her detention was issued. For two years the -_Alabama_, and some other ships also fitted in English ports, scoured -the seas, burning and sinking American ships, and inflicting enormous -loss upon American commerce. These circumstances increased the bitter -feeling which prevailed. - -The American Government held that England had failed to perform the -duty imposed upon her by international law, and had therefore made -herself responsible for the depredations of the _Alabama_. English -lawyers of eminence expressed the same unacceptable opinion; and a few -years after the war closed the English Government wisely determined -to seek the settlement of the question. [Sidenote: 1869 A.D.] There -was arranged by the Foreign Secretary and the American Minister a -treaty, in terms of which the subject was disposed of by a reference -to the arbitration of impartial persons. This treaty was sent to -Washington for confirmation, according to the judicious American rule -that treaties with foreign powers must receive the sanction of the -Senate. But American feeling was not yet prepared for any adjustment -of differences which had wounded the nation so deeply. It was not -that the terms of the proposed settlement were objected to; it was -rather that no immediate settlement was desired. The American people -chose that the question should, for the time, remain an open question. -Their irritation had not yet subsided, and many of them solaced their -angry minds with the purpose that, when England was again involved in -some one of those European embarrassments which habitually beset her, -this matter of the _Alabama_ should be pressed to a settlement. The -Senate gave effect to the general wish by withholding sanction from -the treaty, and President Grant instructed his minister at the English -Court to abstain from further negotiation. - -[Sidenote: 1871 A.D.] But the passage of a little time calmed the -irritation of the not implacable Americans. England renewed her -proposal to refer the dispute to arbitration, coupling the offer with -an expression of regret that injuries so grave had been inflicted upon -the shipping of America. She further consented that the arbitrators -should guide themselves by a definition of neutral duties so framed -that, in effect, it condemned her conduct, and made an adverse decision -inevitable. America accepted the proposal, and a dispute which at an -earlier period would have brought upon two nations the miseries of -a great war was found to come easily within the scope of a peaceful -arbitration. The transaction is of high importance, for it is the -largest advance which has yet been made towards the settlement of -national differences by reason rather than by brute force. - -The arbitrators were five persons, named by the Queen, the President, -the King of Italy, the President of Switzerland, and the Emperor -of Brazil. Their deliberations were conducted in the tranquil city -of Geneva, remote from the influence of the disputants. America -presented a statement of her wrongs, and of the compensation to which -she deemed herself entitled. Her case was stated with much ability, -and it produced numerous and painful evidences that the neutrality -with which England regarded the conflict had been a neutrality very -full of sympathy with the slave-holders. But the claim tabled was -extravagantly large. America argued that England should indemnify -her for the expenses of the war-ships which were employed to pursue -the piratical cruisers. She argued that, since her ship-owners had -been compelled to sell their ships to foreigners, England should bear -the losses arising from these enforced sales. Above all, she alleged -that the prolongation of the war after the battle of Gettysburg was -traceable to the influence of the pirate-ships; and she made the huge -demand that England should refund to her the cost of nearly two years -of fighting. The arbitrators gave judgment that England was responsible -for the property destroyed by the _Alabama_ and the other cruisers, and -ordained that she should repair the wrong by a payment of three million -sterling. The claim for losses arising indirectly out of these unhappy -transactions was rejected. - -When the claims of sufferers by the piratical vessels were investigated -it was found that the arbitrators had over-estimated them. The American -Government, having satisfied every authenticated demand, found itself -still in possession of about one million of the English money. It was -the wish of many Americans that this sum should be restored to England, -but Congress did not rise to the height of this generosity. - -When the _Alabama_ dispute was closed, there remained no cause of -alienation between the two countries. All good men on both sides of -the Atlantic desire earnestly that England and America should be fast -friends. It was possible for England, by bestowing upon the North that -sympathy which we now recognize to have been due, to have bound the -two countries inalienably to each other. Unhappily the opportunity -was missed, and a needless estrangement was caused. But this was not -destined to endure, and it has long ago passed wholly away. England -and America now understand each other as they have never done before. -The constant intercourse of their citizens is a bond of union already -so strong that no folly of Governments could break it. It may fairly -be hoped that the irritations which arose during the war have been -succeeded by an enduring concord between the two great sections of the -Anglo-Saxon family. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -INDUSTRIAL AMERICA. - - -The chosen career of the American people is a career of peaceful -industry. Wisely shunning the glories and calamities of war, they have -devoted themselves to the worthier labour of developing the resources -of the continent which is their magnificent heritage. During four -years they had been obliged to give their energies to a war, on the -successful issue of which the national existence depended. When those -sad years were over, and the conflict ceased, they turned with renewed -vigour to their accustomed pursuits. - -The industrial greatness of America is still, in large measure, -agricultural. Nearly one-half of her people live by the cultivation -of the soil. Upwards of three-fourths of the commodities which she -sells to foreigners are agricultural products. The total value of the -crops which she gathered in 1878 was not less than £400,000,000. The -strangers who help to build up her power are drawn to her shores by the -hope of obtaining easy possession of fertile land. Her progress in the -manufacturing arts has been very rapid, but it cannot rival the giant -growth of her agriculture. - -The agricultural system of America is eminently favourable to cheap -production. Unoccupied lands are the property of the nation, and are -made over to cultivators on easy terms, and in many cases gratuitously. -A rent-paying farmer is practically unknown; the farmer owns the land -which he tills. His farm has cost him little, and as the invariable -improvement in value cancels even that, it may be said that it has cost -him nothing. The average farm of the Western States is one hundred -and sixty acres. It is cultivated almost without outlay of money. The -farmer and his family perform the work of the farm, with the help of -a neighbour at the great eras of sowing and reaping. This help is -requited in kind, and therefore costs nothing in money. The rich, deep, -virgin soil asks for no manure during many years. The sole burden -upon the farm is the maintenance of the farmer and his family, and of -the four oxen or mules which share his toils. His local taxation is -trivial. His national taxation is less than one-half of that which the -English farmer bears.[3] The evil of distance from the great markets -of the world is neutralized by the low charge for which his grain is -carried on railway or canal.[4] His husbandry is careless, insomuch -that two acres of land in the valley of the Mississippi yield no more -than one acre yields in England.[5] But if his agriculture is rude it -is constantly improving; and, meanwhile, it is so inexpensive that -he can send its products to England, four thousand miles away, and -undersell the farmer there. A vast revolution, whose results we as -yet imperfectly appreciate, is in progress around us. The antiquated, -semi-feudal land-system of England totters to its fall, unable to -sustain itself in presence of the more free and natural system of the -West. - -Immigration languished during the earlier years of the war. The -distracted condition of the country, and the fears in regard to its -future so widely entertained in Europe, formed sufficient reason -why men who were in search of a home should avoid America. But when -success crowned the efforts of the North, her old attractiveness to -the emigrating class resumed its power. It came then to be pressed -upon the public mind that the progress of the West was frustrated -by want of adequate communication. There was no railway beyond the -Missouri river. From that point westward to the Pacific communication -depended upon a rude system of stage-coaches, or the waggon of an -adventurous pioneer. It was a journey of nearly two thousand miles, -across an unpeopled wilderness. The hardship was extreme, and the -dangers not inconsiderable; for the way was beset by hostile Indians, -and the traveller must be in constant readiness to fight. This vast -region, composed mainly of rich prairie land, was practically closed -against progress. The resources of the country, as it seemed, could not -be developed excepting near the margins of the continent, or by the -borders of her great navigable rivers. - -It was now determined to construct a railway which should connect -the Atlantic with the Pacific, and open for the use of man the vast -intervening expanse of fertile soil. Stimulated by liberal grants of -national land, two companies began to build--one eastward from San -Francisco, the other westward from the Missouri. As the extent of land -given was in strict proportion to the length of line laid down, each -of the companies pushed its operations to the utmost. The work was -done in haste, and, as many then thought, slightly; but experience -has proved its sufficiency. [Sidenote: 1869 A.D.] In due time the -lines met; the last rail was laid down, not without emotion, such as -befitted the completion of a work so great. By the help of electricity -the blows of the hammer which drove home the last spike were made -audible in the chief cities of the east. The union of east and west -was now complete, and many millions of acres of rich land, hitherto -inaccessible, were added to the heritage of man. The savage occupants -of these lands were remorselessly pushed aside. The Indians had been -dangerously hostile to the workmen who constructed the railway, and -they showed some disposition to offer unpleasant interruption to the -trains which ran upon it. They were now gathered up and placed in -certain “reservations,” which it was well understood would be reserved -for Indians only till white men had need of them. When the railroad -was newly opened, travellers could occasionally look out from the -windows upon a vast plain dark with innumerable multitudes of buffaloes -plodding sullenly on their customary migrations. Herds of antelopes -were seen fleeing before this new invader of their quiet lives. The -prairie-dog, sitting upon his mound of earth, watched with curious eye -the unwonted disturbance. All wild creatures were now wantonly slain, -or driven far away. A steady tide of emigration flowed to the west. In -the neighbourhood of the railway, the little wooden farm-house became -frequent; beside stopping-places, villages arose, and swelled out -into little towns; the towns of the olden time increased rapidly and -prospered. The settlers planted trees of quick growth, and gradually, -as the line of settlement stretched westward, the monotony of those -dreary plains was brightened with groves, and dwellings, and cultivated -fields. - -Iowa, Indiana, Illinois ceased to be regarded as belonging to the -west, and took rank as old and fully settled central States. Beyond -the Missouri a new career opened for Kansas and Nebraska. Down to the -beginning of the war these States had been claimed and fought for by -the slave-power. Day by day now the railway brought long trains laden -with immigrants--Russian Mennonites fleeing from persecution in Church -and despotism in State; Germans escaping from military conscription; -Englishmen and Irishmen leaving lands where the ownership of the soil -was impossible excepting to a few. - -Texas--once the refuge of men seeking exemption from the restraints -which criminal law imposes--even Texas prospered, and under the genial -influence of prosperity became respectable. Her population has risen -in eight years from eight hundred thousand to two million. Much of her -vast area[6] still lies untilled; but much of it has been reclaimed -for the use of man. Her railways still traverse dreary forests, and -great, unpeopled plains; but they also carry the traveller past many -smiling villages, and many thriving cities where a prosperous commerce -is maintained, where schools and churches abound. They reveal to him -well-appointed farm-buildings; fields rich with bountiful crops; -jungles where the peach, the orange, the banana, the pomegranate grow -luxuriantly under the fostering heat of a semi-tropical sun; vast -areas roamed over by myriads of slight, active-looking Texan cattle, -the rearing of which yields wealth to the people. In many of the Texan -cities two contrasted types of civilization--the old Mexican and the -young American--live peaceably side by side. The palace-car meets -the ox-team and the donkey with his panniers. The blanketed Indian, -the Mexican in poncho and sombrero, the American in his faultless -broadcloth, mingle harmoniously in the streets. Handsome mansions such -as abound in the suburbs of eastern cities are near neighbours to -antique Mexican dwellings, built of adobe, with loopholed battlements, -and walls which show still the bullet-marks of forgotten strifes. - -As the enormous mineral resources of the Rocky Mountains became more -certainly ascertained, crowds were attracted in hope of sudden wealth, -and the States which include the richer portions of the range became -the home of a large population. In the remote north-west wheat crops of -astonishing opulence rewarded the simple husbandry of the settler. The -law that cultivated plants are most productive near the northern limit -of their growth was illustrated in the happy experience of Dakotah -and northern Minnesota, where the growing of wheat has now become -one of the most lucrative of industrial occupations. The railways -of those States are being extended with all possible rapidity, and -each extension is followed by a fresh influx of settlers. Farmers of -experience from the older and less productive States are drawn to the -north-west by the unrivalled advantages which soil and climate present. -During the year 1878 not less than five million acres of land were -purchased in northern Minnesota for immediate cultivation.[7] - - * * * * * - -America has never been satisfied with mere agricultural greatness. -The ambition to manufacture was coeval with her origin, and has grown -with her growing strength. Twenty years after the landing of the -Pilgrim Fathers there were bounties offered in Massachusetts for the -encouragement of the manufacture of linen, woollen, and cotton cloths. -When the Arkwright spinning machinery was introduced into England, -the Americans were eager to possess themselves of an improvement so -valuable. But the English law which prohibited the export of machinery -was inflexibly administered, and the models prepared in secret for -shipment to America were seized and confiscated. But no discouragement -repressed the enterprising colonists. The beginnings of their great -textile industries were sufficiently humble. The earliest motive-power -applied to cotton machinery was the hand; next to it, and as an -important advance, came the use of animal-power.[8] But the growth of -demand was rapid, and before the close of last century the application -of water-power was universal. - -The increase of consumption was more rapid in America than the increase -of production, and it had to be met by considerable imports of English -goods. England, with abundant capital and low-priced labour, was -able to produce more cheaply than America, and the struggling native -manufacturer had to complain of a competition against which he was not -able to support himself. He appealed to the Government for protection, -and was influential enough to obtain that which he desired. For many -years the subject of the tariff was keenly disputed. The Northern -manufacturers were habitually seeking increased protection, which the -Southern planters, having no kindred interests to protect, were often -unwilling to grant. The rates imposed rose or fell with the strength -of the contending parties and the political exigencies of the time. -[Sidenote: 1861 A.D.] At length, immediately after the representatives -of the South had quitted Congress, and the friends of protection were -absolute, a highly protective tariff was enacted. Duties, the mass of -which range from thirty to fifty per cent., with some very much larger, -were imposed on nearly all foreign commodities landed at American -ports. Under this law, with only slight modification, the foreign -commerce of America has been conducted for the last eighteen years, -and there has not yet manifested itself any change in American opinion -which warrants the expectation of an early return to a more liberal -system. - -The large protection now enjoyed, and the active demand occasioned by -the war, stimulated the increase of productive power. Within twelve -years the machinery engaged in cotton-spinning had doubled, rising from -five to ten million spindles. The increase in many other industries -was equally rapid. Side by side with this undue development there -appeared the customary fruits of a protective policy. There was a -general disregard of economy, a prevailing wastefulness which seemed to -neutralize the advantages enjoyed, and leave the manufacturer still in -need of additional protection. But a new competition had now arisen, -against which protection could not be gained. It was no longer foreign -competition which marred the fortune of the native manufacturer; it -was the still more deadly competition which resulted from excessive -production at home. Especially when the panic of 1873 diminished so -suddenly the purchasing power of the American people, it was seen that -even if the manufactures of Europe had been wholly excluded, America -could no longer consume the commodities which her machinery was able to -produce. - -During the years of misery which followed the panic, American -manufacturers gained experience of the “sweet uses” of adversity. It -was incumbent upon them now above all things to study cheapness. Wages -were reduced; improved appliances by which cost might be lessened -were eagerly and successfully sought for; economy in every detail was -studied with anxious care. The result gained was of high national -importance. In a few years the American manufacturers found, in regard -to many articles of general consumption, that they were now able to -produce as cheaply as their rivals in England, and that they were -wholly independent of that legislative protection which hitherto had -been regarded as indispensable. - -As the skill and care of the native producer increased, the purchases -which America required to make from foreigners underwent large -diminution. Her imports in 1878 were smaller by one-third than they -had been in 1873. She ceased to purchase railroad iron, and diminished -by more than eight-tenths her purchases of other descriptions of iron. -She almost ceased to use European watches, having signally distanced -us in that branch of industry. She diminished by nearly one-half her -use of foreign books and other publications. Where formerly she had -required the earthen and glass wares of Europe to the value of thirteen -million dollars, seven million now sufficed. Her use of foreign carpets -fell to one-tenth; of foreign cottons and woollens to one-half; of -manufactures of wood to one-third; of manufactures of steel to a little -over one-third. [Sidenote: April, 1879 A.D.] And in explanation of this -record of decay our Secretary of Legation at Washington contributes -the ominous suggestion:--“The decreased importation of the articles -referred to has been due in a great measure to the substitution in the -markets of this country of articles of American manufacture.” - -But the Americans were not contented with this limitation of their -purchases from foreign producers. A desire to become themselves -exporters of manufactured articles sprang up during the years of -depression which followed the panic. Under the pure democracy of -America a general desire translates itself very quickly into Government -action. [Sidenote: 1877 A.D.] The Secretary of State addressed to his -consuls in all parts of the world a request that they would collect for -him all information fitted to be useful to American manufacturers who -sought markets for their wares in foreign countries. The answers have -put him in possession of a mass of information such as no Government -ever before took the trouble to gather regarding the conditions of -foreign markets, and the openings which existed or might be created -in each for American manufactures. The growth of this trade has thus -far been steady, but not rapid, and even now it has reached only -moderate dimensions. In 1870 American manufactures were exported to -the value of fifteen million sterling, while in 1878 the value had -risen to twenty-seven million. Chief among the articles which make -up this respectable aggregate are cotton cloths, manufactures of -wood, of leather, of iron and steel, including machinery, tools, and -agricultural implements. America sells to foolish nations which have -not yet grown out of their fighting period, fire-arms, cartridges, -gunpowder, and shell, to the extent of nearly a million and a half -sterling. The multiplicity of articles which leave her ports show how -keenly her foreign trade is being prosecuted. She sends household -furniture, made by machinery, and sells it at prices which to the -British cabinet-maker seem to be ruinous. She sends cutlery and tools -of finish and price which fill the men of Sheffield with dismay, but -do not apparently stimulate them to improvement. She sends watches -manufactured by processes so superior to those still practised in -Europe that the Swiss manufacturers have explicitly acknowledged -hopeless defeat. She sends medicines, combs, perfumery, soap, spirits, -writing-paper, musical instruments, glass-ware, carriages. All these -are articles for which, but a few years ago, she herself was indebted -to Europe. Now she supplies her own requirements, and has an increasing -surplus for which she seeks markets abroad. Her policy of protection -has been costly beyond all calculation; but those who upheld it now -point with reasonable pride to the splendid place which America has -taken among the manufacturing nations of the Earth. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -EDUCATION IN AMERICA. - - -The Pilgrim Fathers carried with them to New England a deep persuasion -that the people of the State which they went to found must be -universally educated. Not otherwise could the enduring success of -their great enterprise be hoped for. It was their care from the very -outset to provide in such manner as circumstances enabled them for -the education of their children. The germ of a free-school system is -to be found in each of their youthful settlements. The records of the -European countries of the time would be searched in vain for evidence -of a sentiment so deeply seated, so widely prevalent, so enlightened -as the New England desire that all children should be educated. Its -sincerity was proved by the willingness of the people to submit to -taxation in the cause. In the early days of Connecticut one-fourth of -the revenues of the colony was applied to the support of schools. Long -before the revolution, schools maintained by public funds and free of -charge to the pupils had extended widely over the New England States. -This love of education has never cooled. When the colonists gained -their independence and established themselves as an association of -freemen, conducting their own public affairs, a new urgency was added -to the necessity that all should be educated. It was clearly seen, -even then, that while ignorant men might be serviceable subjects of a -despotism, only educated citizens were capable of self-government. -Northern America sought to build the fabric of republican institutions -upon the solid and durable foundation of universal enlightenment. - -In the Southern States the aristocratic tendencies which the -slave-system fostered were adverse to the education of the poor. The -slave-owners desired submission; their property was not improved -in value, but the reverse, by education. While America was still a -dependency, a question was put to the Governor of Virginia by the -English Commissioners for Foreign Plantations. “I thank God,” replied -the Governor, “there are no free schools or printing-presses, and I -hope we shall not have these hundred years.” The Governor’s hope was -more than fulfilled. The common-school system was almost unknown in -the South while slavery existed. It became criminal to teach a slave -to read; the poor white had no desire to learn, and no one sought to -teach him. At the close of the rebellion the mass of the Southern -population were as little educated as the Russian peasants are to-day. -But peace was no sooner restored than the eager desire of the negroes -for education was met by the generous efforts of the North. Northern -teachers were quickly at work among the negro children. So soon as -the means of the ruined States permitted, the common-school system of -the North was set up. It entailed burdens which they were then ill -able to bear. But these burdens have been borne with a willingness -which is evidence that the South now recognizes her need of education. -Notwithstanding their poverty, some of the States yield for school -purposes a rate of taxation larger for each member of the population -than is that of England. - -The American people manifest a profound and, as recent reports -indicate, an increasing interest in their system of common schools. -It is not merely or chiefly the personal advantage of the individual -citizen which concerns them. It is the greatness and permanence of the -State.[9] “Free education for all is the prime necessity of republics.” -Institutions which rest altogether upon popular support demand, as -essential to their safety, the support of an instructed people. It was -the same conviction which impressed itself upon Great Britain when, -having conceded household suffrage, she hastened to set up a compulsory -and universal system of education, that the dangers likely to arise -from the ignorance of the new electors might be averted. Moreover, the -Americans believe firmly that without educated labour eminence in the -industrial arts is not attainable. According to an estimate which has -grown out of the experience of employers, the educated labourer is -more valuable by twenty-five per cent. than his ignorant rival. Here -is a source of national wealth which no wise State will disregard. It -is the American theory that the State--the associated citizens--has -a proprietary interest in each of its members. For the good of the -community, it is entitled to insist that every citizen shall become -as effective as it is possible to make him; to expend public funds in -order to that result is therefore a warrantable and remunerative outlay. - -Looking thus upon the value of public instruction, the American people -have borne willingly the heavy costs of the common school. They suffer -taxation ungrudgingly at a rate which, for the smaller population -of England and Wales, would amount to nine million sterling instead -of the four million actually expended. Nor is this the easy product -of lands set apart for educational purposes at a time when land was -valueless. Many of the States wisely set apart one-sixteenth of their -land to uphold their schools. But in many of the old States the -appropriation was not respected; too often, especially in the South, -the endowment was applied to other uses. The revenue derived now from -any description of endowment does not exceed five per cent. of the -whole; the remainder comes from State or local taxation. At one time, -in some of the States, fees were charged from the pupils. But the -opinion came to be widely entertained that this charge impaired in many -ways the efficiency of the system. Six or eight years ago fees were -discontinued, and now the schools of the nation are free to all. The -Americans witness with approbation the increase of their expenditure -on education. During the ten years which preceded the rebellion this -expenditure was doubled; again, during the ten years which followed it -was trebled. It has now grown to nearly eighteen million sterling--a -sum larger than all the nations of Europe unitedly expend for the -same purpose. Large as it is, however, it is equal to no more than -two-thirds of the sum which Britain still expends upon her military and -naval preparations. - -The common school is used by all classes of the American people. At -one time there existed among the rich a disposition to have their -children educated with others of their own social position, and many -private schools sprang up to meet their demand. As the common schools -have increased in efficiency, and consequently in public favour, this -disposition has weakened, and private schools have decayed. Their -number is much smaller now than it was ten years ago, and continues -to diminish. With one unhappy exception, the common school satisfies -the requirements of the American people. The leaders of the Roman -Catholic body perceive that its influences are adverse to the growth of -their tenets, and do not cease to demand the means of educating their -children apart from the children of those who hold religious beliefs -differing from theirs. But their proposals meet with no favour beyond -the limits of their own denomination, and even there only partial -support is given. The American Roman Catholic is more apt than his -brethren in Europe to fall into the disloyal practice of independent -judgment. It has not been found possible to alienate him wholly from -the common school. - -It is of interest to inquire in what measure the American people have -been requited by the success of their common-school system for the -vast sums which they expend on its maintenance. At first sight the -statistics of the subject seem to return a discouraging reply to such -an inquiry. When the census of 1870 was taken it disclosed a high -percentage of illiteracy. Seventeen adult males and twenty-three adult -females in every hundred were wholly uneducated--numbers almost as high -as those of England at the same period. But the special circumstances -of the country explain these figures in a manner which relieves the -common school of all blame. The larger portion of this illiteracy had -its home in the Southern States and among the coloured population, -whose ignorance had been carefully preserved by wicked laws and a -corrupted public feeling. Again, America had received during the ten -years which preceded the census an immigration of four and a half -million persons. The educational condition of those strangers was low, -and their presence therefore bore injuriously upon the averages which -were reported. The common school must be judged in the Northern States -and among the native white population, for there only has it had full -opportunity to act. And there it has achieved magnificent success. In -the New England States there is not more than one uneducated native of -ten years and upwards in every hundred. In the other Northern States -the average is scarcely so favourable. The uneducated number from two -up to four in every hundred. - -It thus appears that the common school has banished illiteracy from -the North. The native American of the Northern States is almost -invariably a person who has received, at the lowest, a sound primary -education. The efforts by which this result has been reached began with -the foundation of each State, and have been continued uninterruptedly -throughout its whole history. In the rising industrial competition of -the time, it must count for much that American artisans are not only -educated men and women, but are the descendants of educated parents. A -nation which expends upon education a sum larger than all the nations -of Europe unitedly expend; which contents itself with an army of -twenty-five thousand soldiers; whose citizens are exempt from the curse -of idle years laid by the governments of Continental Europe upon their -young men,--such a nation cannot fail to secure a victorious position -in the great industrial struggle which all civilized States are now -compelled to wage for existence. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -EUROPE AND AMERICA. - - -From the very dawn of her history, America has been a powerful factor -in the solution of many great European problems. In the early days -of her settlement she offered a welcome refuge from the oppression -and poverty of the Old World. Her assertion of independence inflamed -the impulses which were preparing the French Revolution with all its -unforeseen and incalculable consequences, and hastened the coming of -that tremendous occurrence. Throughout the half century of struggle -by which Europe vindicated her freedom, it was a constant stimulus -to patriot effort to know that, beyond the sea, there was a country -where men were at liberty to prosecute their own welfare unimpeded by -the restraints which despotism imposes. A constant light was thrown -by American experience upon the questions which agitated Europe. Men -accustomed to be told that they were unfit to bear any part in the -government of their country, saw men such as they themselves were -enjoying political privileges in America, and governing a continent to -the general advantage. Men accustomed to be told that State support was -indispensable to the existence of the Church, saw religion becomingly -upheld in America by the spontaneous offerings of the people. Methods -of government altogether unlike those of Europe were practised in -America; and Europe had constant opportunity of judging how far these -methods surpassed or fell short of her own. Europe lived under a -system of government which scarcely regarded individual rights, and -cared supremely for the interests of the State--meaning ordinarily by -that the interests or caprices of a very few persons. In America the -State was an organization whose purpose was mainly the protection of -individual rights. On the eastern shores of the Atlantic the belief -still prevailed that in every nation the Almighty had conveyed to some -one man the right to deal as he pleased with the lives and property of -all the others. On the western shores of the Atlantic a great nation -acted on the theory that national interests were merely the interests -which the aggregated individual citizens had in common,[10] and that -government was nothing more than an association of persons whose duty -it was to guide those interests in conformity with the public desire. -The American doctrine extended into Europe, and contributed in no -inconsiderable degree to the growth of liberal ideas and the overthrow -of despotism. The sustained exhibition upon a scale so vast of freedom -in thought and action, with its happy results in contentment and -prosperity, could not fail to impress deeply the oppressed nations -of Europe. Here were a people who made their own laws, who obeyed no -authority which was not of their own appointment, to whom decrees, -and ukases, and all the hateful utterances of despotism were unknown. -Here were millions of men enjoying perfect equality of opportunity -to seek their own welfare; here was life free from the burden of a -class inaccessibly superior to the great mass of the people. The daily -influences of American life sapped the fabric of privilege, and helped -the European people to vindicate the rights of which they had been -deprived. - -The influence which America exerts upon the currents of European -history must continue to increase in power. Her population, reinforced -as it is by emigration from less happily circumstanced countries, -grows more rapidly than any European population. Her artisans are -better educated than those of any other country, and they are therefore -more effective for industrial purposes. They are free from the burden -of military service, which in Continental Europe absorbs those years -of a young man’s life when the hands gain expertness and the mind -forms habits of industry. In the capacity of mechanical invention--the -breath of life to an industrial nation--they are manifestly superior -to Europe. The competition of this intelligent, ingenious, rapidly -increasing people, fired by an ambition to become great as a -manufacturing nation, cannot fail to influence directly and powerfully -the industrial future of the European nations. - -As the population and the wealth of America increase, the testimony -which her example bears in favour of individual right and absolute -freedom of thought will become more conspicuous and influential. The -rebuke which her attitude of universal peace and her inconsiderable -military expenditure administer to the diseased suspicions and -measureless waste of Europe will become more emphatic, perhaps even in -some degree more effective, than it has yet proved to be. Thus far, -the teaching of America in regard to the maintenance of huge armies -in time of peace has been rejected as inapplicable to the existing -circumstances of Europe. But it may fairly be hoped that in course -of years the industrial competition of a great people who have freed -themselves from heavy burdens which their competitors still bear will -enforce upon Europe economies of which neither governments nor people -are as yet sufficiently educated to perceive the necessity. - - * * * * * - -America has still something to learn from the riper experience and more -patient thinking of England. But it has been her privilege to teach to -England and the world one of the grandest of lessons. She has asserted -the political rights of the masses. She has proved to us that it is -safe and wise to trust the people. She has taught that the government -of the people should be “by the people and for the people.” - - * * * * * - -Let our last word here be a thankful acknowledgment of the inestimable -service which she has thus rendered to mankind. - - - - -POSTSCRIPT.[11] - -PRESIDENT GARFIELD. - - -The reconstruction of the Union was completed during General Grant’s -term of office. The Presidentship of his successor, Mr. Rutherford B. -Hayes, was uneventful. It was not on that account the less fruitful -in good results. The complete amalgamation of the North and the South -could only be the work of time. President Hayes helped forward this -useful work. He visited the South in his first year of office, and was -everywhere well received. - -The Census of 1880 showed the population of the United States to be -upwards of fifty million. The increase during the previous ten years -had been eleven million and a half, or at the extraordinary rate of -more than a million a year. - -During Mr. Hayes’ Presidentship, two questions became prominent, and -sharply divided political parties. These were, the resumption of cash -payments, and the reform of the Civil Service. - -[Sidenote: 1878 A.D.] The Currency Controversy is remarkable for having -brought the President into conflict with Congress. The Bland Silver -Bill, making the silver dollar a legal tender, was passed by large -majorities both in the House of Representatives and in the Senate. -President Hayes had no faith in the doctrine of bi-metallism, and he -vetoed the Bill. The Bill was re-passed in both Houses by a two-thirds -majority, and became law in spite of the presidential veto. The -conflict subjected the Constitution to a severe strain. But the crisis -passed quietly, showing how well-grounded is the faith of the Americans -in the fitness of their Constitution to meet all exigencies. - -The demand for a reform in the Civil Service had been growing -for years. The revelations of electoral corruption filled men of -independent spirit with shame and confusion. The evil practices were -not confined to a particular party. Republicans and Democrats were -equally unscrupulous. It was proved by strict inquiry that in two -States the majority for President Hayes himself had been obtained by -fraudulent means. The constitutional custom which makes every office -in the Civil Service, from the highest to the lowest, change hands -whenever power is transferred from one party to another, was felt to be -the root of the evil. - -[Sidenote: 1881 A.D.] When President James Garfield assumed office in -March 1881, he announced his intention of dealing firmly and earnestly -with the question of administrative reform. Garfield’s election to the -dignity of President was unexpected. The chief Republican candidates -were General Grant, who had previously held the office for two terms, -Secretary Sherman, and Senator Blaine. In the Republican convention -held at Chicago for the selection of a candidate, General Garfield -acted as manager of the party which supported Sherman. When he was -first proposed he declined to become a candidate. It was only when -Sherman’s success was seen to be impossible, and when all the parties -opposed to Grant coalesced in favour of Garfield, that his name came -to the front. He was ultimately chosen unanimously as the Republican -candidate, on the ground that he divided the party the least. In the -election itself, which was mainly determined by the vote of New York -State, Garfield defeated his Democratic opponent General Hancock by 219 -votes to 185. - -Comparatively little was known about the new President before he was -elected. Even in America his selection was a surprise. The chief fact -that was known about him was that he had risen, like Abraham Lincoln, -from the humblest origin. He had been born in a log-hut in the forest -of Ohio. He had begun life on the tow-path as a driver of mules which -dragged a canal boat between Cleveland and Pittsburg. By his own energy -alone he had risen. He had been a professor, a preacher, a successful -soldier, a practical lawyer, a bold and ready party leader. Throughout -life he had been noted for fearless honesty. In his public career, no -taint of corruption was found attaching to any part of his conduct. The -man who should undertake to reform the abuses in the official system of -America must himself have clean hands, and Garfield’s hands were clean. - -General Garfield’s election was held to be a great triumph for the -Republican party, but especially for that section of it which advocated -Civil Service reform. He had made no secret of his opinions on that -subject. In the outline of his political creed which he issued soon -after his selection as Republican candidate he expressed his agreement -with those who urged the necessity of “placing the Civil Service on -a better basis.” The remedy to which he pointed was that “Congress -should devise a method that will determine the tenure of office.” In -his inaugural address on assuming office, he intimated his intention of -taking steps to apply this remedy. Two objects, he said, must be aimed -at. The one was to protect the executive against “the waste of time and -the obstruction to public business caused by the inordinate pressure -for place.” The other was to protect the holders of office “against -intrigue and wrong.” To effect both objects, he would “at the proper -time ask Congress to fix the tenure of the minor offices of several -executive departments, and prescribe grounds upon which removals shall -be made.” Further, he announced his purpose “to demand rigid economy -in all expenditures of the Government, and to require honest and -faithful service of all the executive officers, remembering that their -offices were created, not for the benefit of the incumbents or their -supporters, but for the service of the Government.” - -These declarations did not give unmixed satisfaction to the Republican -party. The anti-reform section of it, which still holds by President -Jackson’s maxim, “The spoils to the victors,” regarded them as in -some sense a declaration of war. It is certain that to the hopes of -place-hunters they were a serious blow. For his honest desire to rid -the public offices of these pests, and at the same time to purify the -Government, the President was made to pay a terrible penalty. Within -the railway station at Washington he was shot in the back by a man -named Charles Guiteau, who for several days had been importuning the -authorities at White House for place. - -The useless and utterly wanton crime sent a thrill of horror through -America, through England, through the civilized world. The shot did not -at once prove fatal; but that only made the cruelty of the deed the -more intense. For eleven weeks through the heat of summer (July 2 till -September 19) the President’s life trembled in the balance. He bore his -sufferings with marvellous patience and fortitude. The calamity brought -out the manly strength and the simple beauty of his character with the -brilliancy of sunset. - - “In the reproof of chance - Lies the true proof of men.” - -Seldom if ever before has there been so striking an instance of -misfortune raising a good man to world-wide renown. Hardly less -beautiful than the President’s cheerful endurance was the heroic -devotion of his wife. “It is no exaggeration to say,” said Mr. -James Russell Lowell, the American Minister in London, “that the -recent profoundly-touching spectacle of womanly devotedness, in its -simplicity, its constancy, and its dignity, has moved the heart of -mankind in a manner without any precedent in living memory.” - -During the whole of these “eleven agonizing weeks” the bed of the -dying President was the centre of interest to men and women of all -ranks in both hemispheres. “The whole civilized world,” said Mr. -Lowell, “gathered about it; and in the breathless suspense of anxious -solicitude listened to the difficult breathing, counted the fluttering -pulse, was cheered by the momentary rally, and saddened by the -inevitable relapse.” - -At length the end came with startling suddenness. It was followed by a -universal wail. All humanity mourned, as if it had lost a brother. The -sentiment pervaded all classes, from crowned heads to humble peasants. -The Queen of England was foremost in her offers of sympathy, not only -with the sorrowing widow and mother, but also with the bereaved nation; -and stanch Republicans were fain to acknowledge “how true a woman’s -heart may beat under the royal purple.” The English Court was ordered -to go into mourning, as for one of royal blood and ancient lineage. -The act was as graceful and as wise as it was unprecedented. The head -of the young Republic was, by the spontaneous act of the head of the -ancient Kingdom, recognized in his due place as one of the community of -monarchs and princes. A hundred years ago, who could have anticipated -such an event? - -It would be a mistake to suppose that the death of President Garfield -created the warm feelings of sympathy between England and America which -the event revealed. It is true, however, that the event opened at once -the hearts and the eyes of both peoples, and brought to light the depth -and the strength of their brotherhood, in a way that nothing else could -have done. The brotherly feelings on the part of England were heartily -and even touchingly reciprocated in America. After the coffin of the -deceased President had been closed, only one wreath was allowed to -rest on it; and that was the wreath sent by the Queen of England. To -the world this was a token of peace and good-will firmly established -between England and America--of the oneness of the English-speaking -race, in their common homage to President and to Queen. If the result -shall be to strengthen permanently the bond between the kindred -peoples--to root out jealousies and smooth over asperities, to -produce generosity in the midst of rivalry and co-operation in good -works--President Garfield will not have died in vain. - -“He was no common man,” said Mr. Lowell, in his graceful and eloquent -panegyric, “who could call forth, and justly call forth, an emotion so -universal, an interest so sincere and so human.” And that is no common -country which can produce such a man, and give him the opportunity -of achieving greatness. Garfield’s career teaches many lessons; but -it shows nothing more clearly than the great possibilities which his -country opens up to honesty and persevering labour. “The poor lad who -at thirteen could not read, dies at fifty the tenant of an office -second in dignity to none on earth; and the world mourns his loss as -that of a personal relative.” - - * * * * * - -“The soil out of which such men as he were made is good to be born on, -good to live on, good to die for and to be buried in.” - - * * * * * - -The peace and naturalness with which Vice-President Arthur at once -succeeded to the presidential functions, without shock to the political -system and without detriment to the national honour, justifies the -pride of the Americans in the stability of their institutions. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] During the ten years, from 1840 to 1850, the annual export of -slaves from the Border States to the South averaged 23,500. These, -at an average value of £150, amounted to three million and a quarter -sterling! - -[2] The local indebtedness of America has increased largely since the -war, and is now equal to one-half of the Federal debt. In many of -the States the Constitution now prohibits the State Legislature from -contracting debt excepting for war and other urgent purposes. There -is a growing opinion that this wise restriction should be universally -adopted. - -[3] State and county taxation in the west ranges from five to -twenty-five cents per acre--2½d. to 12½d. National taxation is in -America 20s., and in Britain 47s. 2d., for each of the population. - -[4] Wheat is now carried from Chicago to New York by lake and canal for -2s. 6d. per quarter, and by rail for 4s. From the northern parts of -Minnesota carriage to New York is 8s. per quarter. - -[5] The American average is fourteen bushels of wheat per acre; the -English average is twenty-eight bushels; the Scotch average, under high -farming, is thirty-four bushels. - -[6] Equal to three times the area of Great Britain. - -[7] To the north of Minnesota and across the Canadian frontier lies the -province of Manitoba, a section of the North-West Territories recently -acquired by the Canadian Government from the Hudson Bay Company. In the -capability of a large portion of its soil to produce wheat Manitoba is -unsurpassed, perhaps unequalled, by any part of the world. An active -immigration is in progress: during the year 1879, when navigation was -open, the daily arrivals numbered four hundred. When communication by -rail and river is more adequate, Manitoba may be expected to take the -highest place as a wheat-producing country. - -[8] The use of animal-power was not confined to America. In England -the earliest of Cartwright’s power-looms are said to have owed their -movement to the labour of a bull. - -[9] “We regard [the education of the people] as a wise and liberal -system of police by which property and life and the peace of society -are secured.”--_Daniel Webster._ - -[10] “This country with its institutions belongs to the people who -inhabit it.”--_President Lincoln._ - -[11] This short chapter has been added since the author’s death, by -another hand. - - - - -THE DOMINION OF CANADA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE DAWN OF CANADIAN HISTORY. - - -The dazzling success which had crowned the efforts of Columbus -awakened in Europe an eager desire to make fresh discoveries. Henry -VII. of England had consented to equip Columbus for his voyage; but -the consent was withheld too long, and given only when it was too -late. Lamenting now the great mischance by which the glory and the -profit of these marvellous discoveries passed away from him, Henry -lost no time in seeking to possess himself of such advantage as Spain -had not yet appropriated. There was living then in Bristol a Venetian -merchant named John Cabot. This man and his son Sebastian shared their -great countryman’s love of maritime adventure. [Sidenote: 1496 A.D.] -Under the patronage of the King, who claimed one-fifth of the gains -of their enterprise, they fitted out, at their own charge, a fleet of -six ships, and sailed westward into the ocean whose terrors Columbus -had so effectually tamed. They struck a northerly course, and reached -Newfoundland. [Sidenote: 1497 A.D.] Still bending northwards, they -coasted Labrador, hoping as Columbus did to gain an easy passage to -the East. They pierced deeper into the unknown north than any European -had done before. But day by day, as they sailed and searched, the cold -became more intense; the floating masses of ice became more frequent -and more threatening; the wished-for opening which was to conduct them -to Cathay did not reveal itself. Cabot, repulsed by unendurable cold, -turned and sought the more genial south. He steered his course between -the island of Newfoundland and the mainland, and explored with care -the gulf afterwards called by the name of St. Lawrence. Still moving -southwards, he passed bleak and desolate coasts which to-day are the -home of powerful communities, the seat of great and famous cities. -He had looked at the vast sea-board which stretches from Labrador to -Florida. He had taken no formal possession; his foot had scarcely -touched American soil. But when he reported to Henry what he had seen, -the King at once claimed the whole as an English possession. - -Many years passed before the claim of England was heard of any more. -The stormy life of Henry came to its close. His son, around whose -throne there surged the disturbing influences of the Reformation, and -who was obliged in this anxious time to readjust the ecclesiastical -relations of himself and of his people, had no thought to spare for -those distant and unknown regions. The fierce Mary was absorbed in the -congenial employment of trampling out Protestantism by the slaughter -of its followers. The America upon which John Cabot--now an almost -forgotten name--had looked fourscore years before, was nearly as much -forgotten as its discoverer. But during the more tranquil reign of -Elizabeth there began that search for a north-west route to the East -which Europe has prosecuted from that time till now with marvellous -persistence and intrepidity. [Sidenote: 1576 A.D.] Martin Frobisher, -going forth on this quest, pierced further into the north than any -previous explorer had done. He looked again upon the bleak, ice-bound -coasts of Labrador and of southern Greenland. [Sidenote: 1583 A.D.] -Sir Humphrey Gilbert, acting under the Queen’s authority, visited -Newfoundland, and planted there an inconsiderable and unenduring -settlement. Another generation passed before England began to concern -herself about the shadowy and well-nigh forgotten claim which she had -founded upon the discoveries of John Cabot. It was indeed a shadowy -claim; but, even with so slender a basis of right, the power and -determination of England proved ultimately sufficient to establish and -maintain it against the world. The Pope had long ago bestowed upon the -Kings of Spain and Portugal the whole of the New World, with all its -“cities and fortifications;” but England gave no heed to the enormous -pretension which even France refused to acknowledge.[12] - -Meanwhile, disregarding the dormant claims of England, France had made -some progress in establishing herself upon the new continent. She too -had in her service a mariner on whose visit to the West a claim was -founded. Thirty years after Cabot’s first voyage, John Verazzani--an -Italian, like most of the explorers--sailed from North Carolina to -Newfoundland; scenting, or believing that he scented, far out at sea -the fragrance of southern forests; welcomed by the simple natives of -Virginia and Maryland, who had not yet learned to dread the terrible -strangers who brought destruction to their race; visiting the Bay of -New York, and finding it thronged with the rude and slender canoes -of the natives; looking with unpleased eye upon the rugged shores of -Massachusetts and Maine, and not turning eastward till he had passed -for many miles along the coast of Newfoundland. When Verazzani reported -what he had done, France assumed, too hastily as the event proved, that -the regions thus explored were rightfully hers. - -But her claim obtained a more substantial support than the hasty visit -of Verazzani was able to bestow upon it. [Sidenote: 1534 A.D.] Ten -years later, Jacques Cartier, a famous sea-captain, sailed on a bright -and warm July day into the gulf which lies between Newfoundland and -the mainland. He saw a great river flowing into the gulf with a width -of estuary not less than one hundred miles. It was the day of St. -Lawrence, and he opened a new prospect of immortality for that saint by -giving his name to river and to gulf. He erected a large cross, thirty -feet high, on which were imprinted the insignia of France; and thus he -took formal possession of the country in the King’s name. He sailed -for many days up the river, between silent and pathless forests; past -great chasms down which there rolled the waters of tributary streams; -under the gloomy shadow of huge precipices; past fertile meadow-lands -and sheltered islands where the wild vine flourished. The Indians in -their canoes swarmed around the ships, giving the strangers welcome, -receiving hospitable entertainment of bread and wine. At length they -came where a vast rocky promontory, three hundred feet in height, -stretched far into the river. Here the chief had his home; here, on -a site worthy to bear the capital of a great State, arose Quebec; -here, in later days, England and France fought for supremacy, and it -was decided by the sword that the Anglo-Saxon race was to guide the -destinies of the American continent. - -Cartier learned from the Indians that, much higher up the river, there -was a large city, the capital of a great country; and the enterprising -Frenchman lost no time in making his way thither. Standing in the midst -of fields of Indian corn, he found a circular enclosure, strongly -palisaded, within which were fifty large huts, each the abode of -several families. This was Hochelaga, in reality the capital of an -extensive territory. Hochelaga was soon swept away; and in its place, -a century later, Jesuit enthusiasts established a centre of missionary -operations under the protection of the Holy Virgin. It too passed -away, to be succeeded by the city of Montreal, the seat of government -of an Anglo-Saxon nation. - -The natives entertained Cartier hospitably, and were displeased that -he would not remain longer among them. He returned to Quebec to winter -there. Great hardships overtook him. The winter was unusually severe; -his men were unprovided with suitable food and clothing. Many died; all -were grievously weakened by exposure and insufficient nourishment; and -when their condition was at the lowest, Cartier was led to suspect that -the natives meditated treachery. So soon as the warmth of spring thawed -the frozen river, Cartier sailed for France, lawlessly bearing with -him, as a present to the King, the chief and three natives of meaner -rank. - -The results of Carrier’s visits disappointed France. A country which -lies buried under deep snow for half the year had no attractions for -men accustomed to the short and ordinarily mild winters of France. The -King expected gold and silver mines and precious stones; but Cartier -brought home only a few savages and his own diminished and diseased -band of followers. There were some, however, to whom the lucrative -trade in furs was an object of desire; there were others, in that -season of high-wrought religious zeal, who were powerfully moved to -bear the Cross among the heathens of the West. Under the influence -of these motives, feeble efforts at colonization were from time to -time made. The fishermen of Normandy and Brittany resorted to the -shores of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and plied their -calling there with success such as had not rewarded their efforts in -European waters. The persecuted Calvinists sought to give effect to a -proposal made by Admiral Coligny, and find rest from the malignity of -their enemies among the forests of Canada. But the French have little -aptitude for colonizing. Down far beyond the close of the century -France had failed to establish any permanent footing on the American -continent. A few mean huts at Quebec, at Montreal, and at two or three -other points, were all that remained to represent the efforts and the -sufferings of nearly a hundred years. There is evidence that in the -year 1629 “a single vessel” was expected to take on board “all the -French” in Canada; and the vessels of those days were not large. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. - - -The fierce strifes which raged between Catholic and Protestant during -the latter half of the sixteenth century engrossed the mind of France -to the exclusion of all that concerned her remote and discouraging -possession. But while the strong hand of Henry IV. held the reins of -government, these strifes were calmed. The hatred remained, ready to -break forth when circumstances allowed; but meantime the authority -of the King imposed salutary restraint upon the combatants, and the -country had rest. During this exceptional quiet the project of founding -a New France on the gulf and river of St. Lawrence again received -attention. - -Among the favourite servants of the King was Samuel de Champlain. This -man was a sailor from his youth, which had been passed on the shores -of the Bay of Biscay. He had fought for his King on sea and on land. -He was brave, resolute, of high ability, of pure and lofty impulses, -combining the courage with the gentleness and courtesy of the true -knight-errant. In him there survived the passionate love of exploring -strange lands which prevailed so widely among the men of a previous -generation. He foresaw a great destiny for Canada, and he was eager -to preserve for France the neglected but magnificent heritage. Above -all, he desired to send the saving light of faith to the red men of the -Canadian forests; for although a bigoted Catholic, he was a sincere -Christian. “The salvation of one soul,” he was accustomed to say, “is -of more value than the conquest of an empire.” - -This man was the founder of Canada. During thirty years he toiled -incessantly to plant and foster settlements, to send out missionaries, -to repel the inroads of the English, to protect the rights of France -in the fur-trade and in the fisheries of Newfoundland. The immediate -success which attended his labours was inconsiderable. His settlements -refused to make progress; the savage tribes for whose souls he cared -were extirpated by enemies whose hostility he had helped to incur; the -English destroyed ships which were bringing him supplies; they besieged -and captured Quebec itself. He died without seeing the greatness of the -colony which he loved, but which, nevertheless, owed the beginnings of -its greatness to him. - -One of the earliest concerns of Champlain was to choose a site for -the capital of the French empire in the West. As Cartier had done -three-quarters of a century before, he chose the magnificent headland -of Quebec. [Sidenote: 1608 A.D.] At the foot of the rock he erected -a square of buildings, enclosing a court, surrounded by a wall and a -moat, and defended by a few pieces of cannon. This rude fort became the -centre of French influence in Canada during the next hundred and fifty -years, till the English relieved France of responsibility and influence -on the American continent. - -Champlain received cordial welcome from the Huron Indians, who were his -neighbours. These savages were overmatched by their ancient enemies -the Iroquois, and they besought the Frenchmen to lend them the help -of their formidable arms. Champlain consented--moved in part by his -love of battle, in part by his desire to explore an unknown country. -He and some of his men accompanied his new allies on their march. -The Iroquois warriors met them confidently, expecting the customary -victory. They were received with a volley of musketry, which stretched -some on the ground, and caused panic and flight of the whole force. But -Champlain had reason to regret the foreign policy which he had adopted. -The Hurons took many prisoners, whom, as their practice was, they -proceeded to torture to death. In a subsequent expedition the allies -were defeated, and Champlain himself was wounded--circumstances which, -for a time, sensibly diminished his authority. And the hostility of the -Iroquois, thus unwisely provoked, resulted in the utter destruction of -the Hurons, and involved the yet unstable colony in serious jeopardy. - -Champlain enjoyed the support of King Henry IV., who listened to -his glowing accounts of the country in which he was so profoundly -interested, who praised the wisdom of his government, and encouraged -him to persevere. But despite of royal favour, his task was a heavy -one. There were in his company both Romanists and Calvinists, who -bore with them into the forest the discords which then made France -miserable. Champlain tells that he has seen a Protestant minister and -a curé attempting to settle with blows of the fist their controversial -differences. Such occurrences, he points out, were not likely to -yield fruit to the glory of God among the infidels whom he desired to -convert. At home his prerogatives were the playthings of political -parties. To-day he obtained vast powers and rich grants of land; -to-morrow some court intrigue swept these all away. There was an -“Association of Merchants” who had received a valuable trading monopoly -under pledge that they would send out men to colonize and priests to -instruct. But the faithless merchants sought only to purchase furs at -low prices from the Indians. It was to their advantage that the Indian -and the wild creatures which he pursued should continue to occupy -the continent, undisturbed by the coming in of strangers. And thus -they thwarted to the utmost all Champlain’s efforts. In defiance of -authority, they paid in fire-arms and brandy for the furs which were -brought to them; and the red men, whose souls Champlain so earnestly -desired to save, were being corrupted and destroyed by the greed of his -countrymen. - -Some years after Champlain’s first expedition, a few Englishmen landed -in mid-winter on the coast of Massachusetts, and, without help of kings -or nobles, began to grow strong by their own inherent energy and the -constant accession to their number of persons dissatisfied at home. It -was not so with the French settlements on the St. Lawrence. Champlain -was continually returning to France to entreat the King for help; to -seek a new patron among the nobles; to compel the merchants to fulfill -their compact by sending out a few colonists. No Frenchman was desirous -to find a home beyond the sea; all bore in quietness a despotism worse -than that from which the more impatient Englishmen had fled. The -natural inaptitude of France for the work of colonizing was vividly -illustrated in the early history of Canada. - -[Sidenote: 1629 A.D.] Near the close of Champlain’s life the capital of -the State which he had founded was torn away from him. An English ship, -commissioned by Charles I. and commanded by a piratical Scotchman, -appeared before the great rock of Quebec, and summoned the city to -surrender. Champlain, powerless to resist, yielded to fate and gave -up his capital. When the conquerors landed to seek the plunder for -which they had come, they found a few old muskets and cannon and fifty -poorly-fed men. The growth of twenty years had done no more for Quebec -than this. - -The loss of Canada caused no regret in France. There were public men -who regarded that loss as in reality a gain, and advised that France -should make no effort to regain her troublesome dependency. But -Champlain urged upon the Government the great value of the fur trade -and fisheries; he showed that the difficulties of the settlement were -now overcome, and that progress in the future must be more rapid than -in the past; he pled that the savages who were beginning to receive -the light of the true faith should not be given over to heretics. -[Sidenote: 1632 A.D.] His urgency prevailed; and England, not more -solicitous to keep than France was to regain this unappreciated -continent, readily consented that it should be restored to its former -owners. - -Three years afterwards Champlain died. He saw nothing of the greatness -for which he had prepared the way. The colonists numbered yet only a -few hundreds. The feeble existence of the settlement depended upon the -good-will of the Englishmen who were their neighbours on the south, -and of the fierce savages who lived in the forests around them. But -Champlain was able to estimate, in some measure, the results of the -work which he had done. He sustained himself to the end with the -hope that the Canada which he loved would one day be prosperous and -strong--peopled by good Catholics from France, and by savages rescued -from destruction by baptism and the exhibition of the cross. - - * * * * * - -The Canada of Champlain’s day was a region stretching thirteen hundred -miles northward from the frontier line of the New England settlements, -and seven hundred miles westward from the mouth of the St. Lawrence. -Besides Canada, France possessed Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; and -she claimed all the unknown territory to the north, the character and -extent of which were veiled from human knowledge by cold so intense -that men had not yet dared to encounter it. The great river with -its tributaries, and the vast lakes out of which it flows, opened -convenient access into the heart of the country, and made commerce -easy. On the high lands were dense forests of oak and pine and maple; -beech, chestnut, and elm. In the plains were great areas of rich -agricultural land capable of supporting a large population, but useless -as yet; for the Indians deemed agriculture effeminate, and chose to -live mainly by the chase. The climate is severe and the winter long, -especially towards the mouth of the St. Lawrence, where at certain -seasons the cold becomes greater than the human frame can endure. -Everywhere the heat of summer is great, and the transition from the -fierce extreme of cold to the warmth of the delightful Canadian spring -is sudden. The desolate woods burst into rich green foliage; the -valleys clothe themselves as by magic with grass and flowers. The great -heat of summer follows with equal suddenness, and the harvest of grain -or of fruits ripens as quickly as it sprang. - -The cold of the Canadian winter was greatly more influential than the -heat of the Canadian summer in fixing the character and pursuits of -the savages who occupied the country. In a climate where frost rends -asunder rocks and trees, and gives to iron power to burn as if it were -red hot, life could not be sustained without a special defence against -the intolerable severity. Nature had amply provided for the welfare of -the wild creatures which she had called into being. The buffalo and -musk ox which wandered over the plains were endowed with masses of -shaggy hair which defied the cold even of a Canadian winter. The bear -which prepared for himself a resting-place in the hollow trunk of an -old tree, where he could sleep out the tedious months of frost, was -clothed suitably to his circumstances. The beaver which built his house -in the centre of Canadian streams was wrapped in rich, warm, glossy -fur. The fox, the wolverine, the squirrel, and many others, enjoyed -the same effective protection. The Indians needed the skins of these -creatures for clothing, their flesh for food. And thus it came to pass -that the French found in Canada only wild things, which walked the -forests in coverings of beautiful and valuable fur; and human beings, -but one degree higher in intelligence, who lived by slaying them. -One of the strongest impulses which drew Europeans to Canada was not -her rich soil, nor the timber of her inexhaustible forests, nor her -treasures of copper and of iron, but the skins of the beasts which -frequented her valleys and her woods. - -Numerous tribes of savages inhabited the Canadian wilderness. They -ordinarily lived in villages built of logs, and strongly palisaded -to resist the attack of enemies. They were robust and enduring, as -the climate required; daring in war, friendly and docile in peace. -The torture of an enemy was their highest form of enjoyment: when -the victim bore his sufferings bravely, the youth of the village ate -his heart in order that they might become possessed of his virtues. -They had orators, politicians, chiefs skilled to lead in their rude -wars. Most of their weapons were of flint. They felled the great -pines of their forests with stone axes supplemented by the use of -fire. Their canoes were made of the bark of birch or elm. They wore -breastplates of twigs. It was their habit to occupy large houses, in -some of which as many as twenty families lived together without any -separation. Licentiousness was universal and excessive. Their religion -was a series of grovelling superstitions. There was not in any Indian -language a word to express the idea of God: their heaven was one vast -banqueting-hall where men feasted perpetually. - -The origin of the American savage awakened at one time much controversy -among the learned. Had there been a plurality of creative acts? Had -Europeans at some remote period been driven by contrary winds across -the great sea? If not, where did the red man arise, and by what means -did he reach the continent where white men found him? When these -questions were debated, it was not known how closely Asia and America -approach each other at the extreme north. A narrow strait divides the -two continents, and the Asiatic savage of the far north-east crosses -it easily. The red men are Asiatics, who, by a short voyage without -terrors to them, reached the north-western coasts of America, and -gradually pushed their way over the continent. The great secret which -Columbus revealed to Europe had been for ages known to the Asiatic -tribes of the extreme north. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE JESUITS IN CANADA. - - -The Reformation had made so large progress in France that at the -beginning of the seventeenth century the Protestants were able -to regard themselves as forming one-half of the nation. They had -accomplished this progress in the face of terrible difficulties. The -false maxim prevailed in France, as in other countries, that as there -was but one king and one government, there should be but one faith. -Vast efforts were made to regain this lost uniformity. The vain pursuit -cost France thirty-five years of civil war, and two million French -lives. At its close half her towns were in ashes; her industries -had perished; her fields were desolated. The law gave no protection -to Protestants: a Catholic noble riding with his followers past a -Protestant meeting-place occasionally paused to slaughter the little -congregation, and then resumed his journey, not doubting that he had -done to God and to the State an acceptable service. The Protestants -undertook their own armed defence; made laws for themselves; maintained -in so far as it was possible a government distinct from that of their -persecutors. There were two nations of not extremely unequal strength -living on the soil of France, with fierce mutual hatred raging in -their hearts, and finding expression in incessant war, assassination, -massacre. [Sidenote: 1598 A.D.] At length these horrors were allayed -by the Edict of Nantes, which conceded full liberty of conscience. -The Pope cursed this hateful concession; but the strong arm of Henry -IV. maintained it. For a time the ferocity of religious strife was -mitigated, and the adherents of the new faith enjoyed unwonted calm. - -The sword was no longer a weapon of theological war; the deep and -irrepressible antagonism of the old and the new beliefs found -now its inadequate expression by pen and by speech. The interest -which prevailed regarding disputed ecclesiastical questions became -exceptionally strong. Theological dogmas filled an influential place -in the politics of the time. The Protestant Synod adopted in its -Confession of Faith an article which charged the Pope with being -Antichrist. His Holiness manifested “a grand irritation;” the King -declared that this article threatened to destroy the peace of the -kingdom. For four years a fierce contest raged, till another Synod -withdrew the offending article by express order of the King, after -having with unanimous voice declared that the charge was true. -Philippe de Mornay, one of the King’s most trusted advisers, and a -devoted adherent of Protestantism, had written a treatise against -the Real Presence, supporting his argument by five or six thousand -quotations, which he had laboriously gathered from the writings of the -early Fathers. One of the bishops impugned his accuracy, and Mornay -challenged him to a public discussion. The meeting-place was the grand -hall of the palace of Fontainebleau. The combatants debated in presence -of the King, before a brilliant audience of great officers of State, of -lords and ladies who formed the royal court, of all great dignitaries -of the kingdom. So effectively, for the time, had the Reformation and -its consequences dispelled the religious apathy of France. - -It had, indeed, left unaffected the manners of a large portion of -French society. The great lords retained professional assassins among -their followers. It was as easy then to get the address of a stabber -or a poisoner as it is now to get that of a hotel. In the highest -places licentiousness was unconcealed and unrebuked. Crime associated -itself with superstition, and the courtiers made wax figures of their -enemies, which they transfixed with pins, hoping thus to destroy those -whom the figures represented. The religious zeal which burned in every -heart and retained its vigour amidst this enormous wickedness was -nowhere stronger than among the members of the Society of Jesus. It -moulded into very dissimilar forms, and guided into widely different -lines of action, those sworn servants of the Church. For the most -part it revealed itself in nothing higher than a readiness to serve -the purposes of the Church, however unworthy, by any conduct, however -criminal. But among the Jesuits too there were men of pure and noble -nature, whose religious zeal found its sole gratification in toil -and danger and self-sacrifice to promote the glory of God and save -perishing heathen souls. - -Champlain had never ceased to press upon the spiritual chiefs of -France the claims of those savages for whose welfare he himself cared -so deeply. For many years he spoke almost in vain, and his toilsome -and frustrated career had nearly reached its close before the Jesuits -entered in good earnest upon the work of Indian conversion. [Sidenote: -1632 A.D.] Six priests and two lay-brothers, sworn to have no will but -that of their superiors, laid the foundation of the great enterprise. -Under the shadow of the rock on which Quebec stands arose a one-story -building of planks and mud, thatched with grass, and affording but poor -shelter from rain and wind. This was the residence of Our Lady of the -Angels--the cradle of the influence which was to change the savage red -men of Canada into followers of the Cross. The Father Superior of the -Mission was Paul le Jeune, a man devoted in every fibre of mind and -heart to the work on which he had come. He utterly scorned difficulty -and pain. He had received the order to depart for Canada “with -inexpressible joy at the prospect of a living or dying martyrdom.” -Among his companions was Jean de Brébœuf, a man noble in birth and -aspect, of strong intellect and will, of zeal which knew no limit, and -recognized no obstacle in the path of duty. - -The winter was unusually severe. The snow-drift stood higher than the -roof of the humble Residence; the fathers, sitting by their log-fire, -heard the forest trees crack with loud report under the power of -intense frost. Le Jeune’s earliest care was to gain some knowledge of -the savage tongue spoken by the tribes around him. He was commended, -for the prosecution of that design, to a withered old squaw, who -regaled him with smoked eels while they conversed. After a time, he -obtained the services of an interpreter, a young Indian known as -Pierre, who could speak both languages. Pierre had been converted and -baptized; but the power of good influences within him was not abiding, -and his frequent backslidings grieved the Father Superior. A band -of savages invited Le Jeune to accompany them on a winter hunting -expedition; and he did so, moved by the hope that he might gain their -hearts as well as acquire their language. Among the supplies which -his friends persuaded him to carry, was a small keg of wine. Scarcely -had the expedition set out when the apostate Pierre found opportunity -to tap the keg, and appeared in the camp hopelessly and furiously -intoxicated. The sufferings of the good father from hunger and from -cold were excessive.[13] His success in instructing the savages was -not considerable. He endured much from Pierre’s brother, who followed -the occupation of sorcerer. This deceptive person, being employed to -assist Le Jeune in preparing addresses, constantly palmed off upon him -very foul words, which provoked the noisy mirth of the assembled wigwam -and grievously diminished the efficacy of his teaching. The missionary -regained his home at Quebec after five months of painful wandering. -He had accomplished little; but he had learned to believe that his -labour was wasted among these scanty wandering tribes, and that it -was necessary to find access to one of the larger and more stable -communities into which the Indians were divided. - -Far in the west, beside a great lake of which the Jesuits had vaguely -heard, dwelt the Hurons, a powerful nation with many kindred tribes -over which they exercised influence. The Jesuits resolved to found a -mission among the Hurons. Once in every year a fleet of canoes came -down the great river, bearing six or seven hundred Huron warriors, -who visited Quebec to dispose of their furs, to gamble and to steal. -[Sidenote: 1634 A.D.] Brébœuf and two companions took passage with -the returning fleet, and set out for the dreary scene of their new -apostolate. The way was very long--scarcely less than a thousand miles; -it occupied thirty toilsome days. The priests journeyed separately, -and were able to hold no conversation with one another or with their -Indian companions. They were barefooted, as the use of shoes would -have endangered the frail bark canoe. Their food was a little Indian -corn crushed between two stones and mixed with water. At each of -the numerous rapids or falls which stopped their way, the voyagers -shouldered the canoe and the baggage and marched painfully through the -forest till they had passed the obstacle. The Indians were often spent -with fatigue, and Brébœuf feared that his strong frame would sink under -the excessive toil. - -The Hurons received with hospitable welcome the black-robed strangers. -The priests were able to repay the kindness with services of high -value. They taught more effective methods of fortifying the town in -which they lived. They promised the help of a few French musketeers -against an impending attack by the Iroquois. They cured diseases; they -bound up wounds. They gave simple instruction to the young, and gained -the hearts of their pupils by gifts of beads and raisins. The elders -of the people came to have the faith explained to them: they readily -owned that it was a good faith for the French, but they could not be -persuaded that it was suitable for the red man. The fathers laboured -in hope, and the savages learned to love them. Their gentleness, their -courage, their disinterestedness, won respect and confidence, and they -had many invitations from chiefs of distant villages to come and live -with them. It was feared that the savages regarded them merely as -sorcerers of unusual power; and they were constantly applied to for -spells, now to give victory in battle, now to destroy grasshoppers. -They were held answerable for the weather; they had the credit or the -blame of what good or evil fortune befell the tribe. They laboured -in deep earnestness; for to them heaven and hell were very real, and -very near. The unseen world lay close around them, mingling at every -point with the affairs of earth. They were visited by angels; they were -withstood by manifest troops of demons. St. Joseph, their patron, held -occasional communication with them; even the Virgin herself did not -disdain to visit and cheer her servants. Once, as Brébœuf walked cast -down in spirit by threatened war, he saw in the sky, slowly advancing -towards the Huron territory, a huge cross, which told him of coming and -inevitable doom. - -Some of their methods of conversion were exceedingly rude. A letter -from Father Garnier has been preserved in which pictures are ordered -from France for the spiritual improvement of the Indians. Many -representations of souls in perdition are required, with appropriate -accompaniment of flames and triumphant demons tearing them with -pincers. One picture of saved souls would suffice, and “a picture of -Christ without beard.”[14] They were consumed by a zeal for the baptism -of little children. At the outset the Indians welcomed this ceremonial, -believing that it was a charm to avert sickness and death. But when -epidemics wasted them they charged the calamity against the mysterious -operations of the fathers, and refused now to permit baptism. The -fathers recognized the hand of Satan in this prohibition, and refused -to submit to it. They baptized by stealth. A priest visited the hut -where a sick child lay--the mother watching lest he should perform the -fatal rite. He would give the child a little sugared water. Slyly and -unseen he dips his finger in the water, touches the poor wasted face, -mutters the sacramental words, and soon “the little savage is changed -into a little angel.” - -The missionaries were subjected to hardship such as the human frame -could not long endure. They were men accustomed to the comforts and -refinements of civilized life; they had tasted the charms of French -society in its highest forms. Their associations now were with men -sunk till humanity could fall no lower. They followed the tribes in -their long winter wanderings in quest of food. They were in perils, -often from hunger, from cold, from sudden attack of enemies, from the -superstitious fears of those whom they sought to save. They slept on -the frozen ground, or, still worse, in a crowded tent, half suffocated -by smoke, deafened by noise, sickened by filth. Self-sacrifice more -absolute the world has never seen. A love of perishing heathen souls -was the impulse which animated them; a deep and solemn enthusiasm -upheld them under trials as great as humanity has ever endured. -That they were themselves the victims of erring religious belief is -most certain; but none the less do their sublime faith, their noble -devotedness, and patience and gentleness claim our admiration and our -love. - -[Sidenote: 1640 A.D.] The Huron Mission had now been established for -five years. During those painful years the missionaries had laboured -with burning zeal and absolute forgetfulness of self; but they had not -achieved any considerable success. The children whom they baptized -either died or they grew up in heathenism. There were some adult -converts, one or two of whom were of high promise; but the majority -were eminently disappointing. Once the infant church suffered a -grievous rent by the withdrawal of converts who feared a heaven in -which, as they were informed, tobacco would be denied to them. The -manners of the nation had experienced no amelioration. No limitation -in the number of wives had been conceded to the earnest remonstrances -of the missionaries. Captive enemies were still tortured and eaten by -the assembled nation. In time, the patient, self-denying labour of the -fathers might have won those discouraging savages to the Cross; but -a fatal interruption was at hand. A powerful and relentless enemy, -bent on extermination, was about to sweep over the Huron territory, -involving the savages and their teachers in one common ruin. - -Thirty-two years had passed since those ill-judged expeditions in -which Champlain had given help to the Hurons against the Iroquois. The -unforgiving savages had never forgotten the wrong. A new generation -inherited the feud, and was at length prepared to exact the fitting -vengeance. The Iroquois had trading relations with the Dutchmen of -Albany on the Hudson, who had supplied them with fire-arms. About -one-half of their warriors were now armed with muskets, and were able -to use them. [Sidenote: 1642 A.D.] They overran the country of the -Hurons; they infested the neighbourhood of the French settlements. -Boundless forests stretched all around; on the great river forest trees -on both sides dipped their branches in the stream. When Frenchmen -travelled in the woods for a little distance from their homes, they -were set upon by the lurking savages and often slain; when they -sailed on the river, hostile canoes shot out from ambush. No man now -could safely hunt or fish or till his ground. The Iroquois attacked -in overwhelming force the towns of their Huron enemies; forced the -inadequate defences; burned the palisades and wooden huts; slaughtered -with indescribable tortures the wretched inhabitants. In one of -these towns they found Brébœuf and one of his companions. They bound -the ill-fated missionaries to stakes; they hung around their necks -collars of red-hot iron; they poured boiling water on their heads; -they cut stripes of flesh from their quivering limbs and ate them in -their sight. To the last Brébœuf cheered with hopes of heaven the -native converts who shared his agony. And thus was gained the crown of -martyrdom for which, in the fervour of their enthusiasm, these good men -had long yearned. - -In a few years the Huron nation was extinct; famine and small-pox -swept off those whom the Iroquois spared. The Huron Mission was closed -by the extirpation of the race for whom it was founded. Many of the -missionaries perished; some returned to France. Their labour seemed -to have been in vain; their years of toil and suffering had left -no trace. It was their design to change the savages of Canada into -good Catholics, industrious farmers, loyal subjects of France. If -they had been successful, Canada would have attracted a more copious -immigration, and a New France might have been solidly established on -the American continent. The feudal system would have cumbered the -earth for generations longer; Catholicism, the irreconcilable enemy to -freedom of thought and to human progress, would have overspread and -blighted the valley of the St. Lawrence. For once the fierce Iroquois -were the allies and vindicators of liberty. Their cruel arms gave a new -course to Canadian history. They frustrated plans whose success would -have wedded Northern America to despotism in Church and in State. They -prepared a way for the conquest of New France by the English, and thus -helped, influentially, to establish free institutions over those vast -regions which lie to the northward of the Great Lakes. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. - - -The discovery of the Mississippi by Ferdinand de Soto was not -immediately productive of benefit. For nearly a century and a half -after this ill-fated explorer slept beneath the waters which he had -been the first to cross, the “Father of Rivers” continued to flow -through unpeopled solitudes, unvisited by civilized men. The French -possessed the valley of the St. Lawrence. The English had thriving -settlements on the Atlantic sea-board; but the Alleghany Mountains, -which shut them in on the west, allowed room for the growth of many -years, and there was yet therefore no reason to seek wider limits. The -valley of the Mississippi remained a hunting-ground for the savages who -had long possessed it. - -In course of years it became evident that England and France must -settle by conflict their claims upon the American continent. The -English still maintained their right, originating in discovery, to -all the territory occupied by the French; and from time to time they -sent out expeditions to re-assert by invasion the dormant claim. To -the French, magnificent possibilities offered themselves. The whole -enormous line of the Mississippi and its tributaries, from the Great -Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, could be seized and held; a military -settlement could secure the mouth of the river; the English could be -hemmed in between the Alleghanies and the ocean, and the increase of -their settlements frustrated. - -[Sidenote: 1671 A.D.] Nicholas Perrot, a French officer, met, on the -King’s business, a gathering of Indian delegates, at a point near the -northern extremity of Lake Michigan. There he was told of a vast river, -called by some Mechasepé, by others Mississippi. In what direction -it flowed the savages could not tell, but they were sure it did not -flow either to the north or to the east. The acute Frenchman readily -perceived that this mysterious stream must discharge its waters into -the Pacific or into the Gulf of Mexico, and that in either case its -control must be of high value to France. - -[Sidenote: 1673 A.D.] An exploring party, composed of six men and -furnished with two slight bark canoes, undertook the search. They -ascended the Fox River from the point where it enters Lake Michigan; -they crossed a narrow isthmus; and launching upon the River Wisconsin, -they floated easily downwards till they came out upon the magnificent -waters of the Mississippi. Their joy was great: the banks of the -river seemed to their gladdened eyes rich and beautiful; the trees -were taller than they had ever seen before; wild cattle in vast herds -roamed over the flowery meadows of this romantic land. For many days -the adventurers followed the course of the river. They came where the -Missouri joins its waters to those of the Mississippi. They passed the -Ohio and the Arkansas, and looked with wonder upon the vast torrents -which reinforced the mighty river. They satisfied themselves that the -Mississippi fell into the Gulf of Mexico; and then, mistrusting the -good-will of the Spaniards, they turned back and toilsomely reascended -the stream. - -[Sidenote: 1680 A.D.] Some years later, a young and energetic -Frenchman--Sieur de la Salle--completed the work which these explorers -had begun. The hope entertained by Columbus, that he would discover -a better route to the East, had only now, after two hundred years of -disappointment, begun to fade out of the hearts of his followers, -and it was still eagerly cherished by La Salle. He traversed the -Mississippi from the mouth of the Illinois River to the Gulf. He -saw the vast and dreary swamps which lie around the outlet of the -Mississippi. He erected a shield bearing the arms of France; he claimed -the enormous region from the Alleghany Mountains to the Pacific, from -the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, as the possession of the French -King. - -For a full half century France took no action to secure the vast -possession which she claimed. The later years of Louis XIV. were full -of disaster. England, persuaded by King William that French ambition -was a standing menace to Europe, waged wars which brought France to -the verge of ruin. Her colonial possessions could receive little care -when France was fighting for existence in Europe. [Sidenote: 1746 A.D.] -A wise Governor of Canada--the Compte de la Galissonnière--perceived -the rapid growth of the English settlements and the growing danger to -France which their superior strength involved. He proposed that the -line of the Mississippi should be fortified, and that ten thousand -peasants should be sent out to form settlements on the banks of -the great lakes and rivers. In time, the growing strength of these -settlements would give to France secure possession of the valley of -the Mississippi; while the English colonists, confined within the -narrow region eastward of the Alleghany Mountains, must lie exposed to -the damaging assault of their more powerful neighbours. So reasoned -the Governor; but his words gained no attention from the pre-occupied -Government of France. To the utmost of his means he sought to carry -out the policy which would preserve for France her vast American -possessions. He endeavoured to exclude English traders, and to persuade -the Indians to adopt a similar course. He marked out the confines of -French territory by leaden plates bearing the arms of France, sunk in -the earth or nailed upon trees. He brought a few settlers from Nova -Scotia. But all his efforts were in vain. The Anglo-Saxons were the -appointed rulers of the American continent; and the time was near when, -brushing aside the obstruction offered by Frenchmen and by Indians, -they were to enter into full possession of their magnificent heritage. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE AMERICAN CONTINENT GAINED BY THE BRITISH. - - -The first English settlement which became permanent in Virginia was -founded in 1606. Seven years later--while the settlement was still -struggling for existence--the colonists began to form purposes of -aggression against their still feebler neighbours in the far north. It -was their custom to send annually to the great banks of Newfoundland -a fleet of fishing-boats under convoy of an armed ship. Once the -commander of this escort was a warlike person named Samuel Argall, -whose lofty aims could not be restricted to the narrow sphere which -had been assigned to him. While the boats which were his charge -industriously plied their calling, Argall turned his thoughts to the -larger pursuit of national aggrandizement. [Sidenote: 1613 A.D.] He -affirmed the right of England to all the lands in his neighbourhood. -The French had an armed vessel on the coast: Argall attacked and -captured her. The French had formed a very feeble settlement on -Penobscot Bay: Argall landed and laid in ruins the few buildings which -composed it. He crammed seventeen of his prisoners into an open boat -and turned them adrift at sea. The others were carried to Jamestown, -where they came near to being hanged as pirates. - -Thus early and thus lawlessly opened the strife which was to close, -a century and a half later, with the victory of the English on the -Heights of Abraham and the expulsion of French rule from the American -continent. During the greater portion of that time England and France -were at war, and the infant settlements of Acadie and Canada formed -a natural prey to English adventurers. [Sidenote: 1628 A.D.] King -James bestowed Acadie upon a countryman whom he befriended, and this -new proprietor sent out a fleet to establish his claims. The lawless -commander of this expedition did not scruple, in a time of peace, to -possess himself of Quebec. Three times the English took Acadie: once -they held it jointly with France for eleven years; then they restored -it. [Sidenote: 1713 A.D.] Finally, it became theirs by the Treaty of -Utrecht, and was henceforth known as Nova Scotia. As the New England -colonies increased in strength they waged independent war with Canada. -[Sidenote: 1664 A.D.] A little farther on the English conquered New -York, and gradually extended their occupation northward to the Great -Lakes. The Frenchmen of the St. Lawrence were their natural enemies. -The English sought to possess themselves of the Canadian fur trade, -and to that end made alliance with the Iroquois Indians, who were then -a controlling power in the valley of the Hudson. There were perpetual -border wars--cruel and wasteful. Often the Englishmen of New York -attacked the Frenchmen of Canada; still more frequently they stimulated -the Indians to hostility. Always there was strife, which made the -colonies weak, and often threatened their extinction. It was not at -first that England cared to possess Canada; it was rather that she -could not witness the undisturbed possession by France of any territory -which France seemed to prize. - -As years passed and the enormous value to European Powers of the -American continent was more fully discovered, the inevitable conflict -awakened fiercer passions and called forth more energetic effort. The -English were resolute to frequent the valley of the Ohio for trading -purposes; the French were resolute to prevent them. Governors of the -English colonies, scorning the authority of France, granted licences -to traders; when traders bearing such licences appeared on the banks -of the Ohio, they were arrested and their goods were confiscated. The -English highly resented these injuries. Attempts were made to reach -a pacific adjustment of disputes, and commissioners met for that -purpose. But the temper of both nations was adverse to negotiation; the -questions which divided them were too momentous. It was the destiny of -a continent which the rival powers now debated. Men have not even yet -found that the peaceable settlement of such questions is possible. - -The English colonies had increased rapidly, and now contained a -population upwards of a million. From France there had been almost no -voluntary emigration, and the valley of the St. Lawrence was peopled -to the extent of only sixty-five thousand. The English were strong -enough to trample out their rivals. But they were scattered at vast -distances, and conflicting opinions hindered them from uniting their -strength. [Sidenote: 1754 A.D.] And France, at this time, began to send -out copious military stores and reinforcements, as if in preparation -for immediate aggression. The two countries were still at peace, but -the inevitable conflict was seen to be at hand. The English Governors -begged earnestly for the help of regular soldiers, in whose prowess -they had unbounded confidence. Two regiments were granted to their -prayers, and they themselves provided a strong body of bold but -imperfectly disciplined troops. They were too powerful to wait for the -coming of the enemy. A campaign was designed whose success would have -shaken the foundations of French authority on the continent. One army -under General Braddock was to cross the Alleghany Mountains and destroy -Fort du Quesne, the centre of French power on the Ohio. Two armies -would operate against the French forts on the Great Lakes; yet another -force moved against the French settlements in the Bay of Fundy. To -crown the whole, a British fleet cruised off the banks of Newfoundland -watching the proceedings of a rival force. - -[Sidenote: 1755 A.D.] Ruin, speedy and complete, overwhelmed the -unwisely-guided armament which followed General Braddock through the -Virginian forests.[15] In the north there were fought desperate and -bloody battles. The English forced on board their ships three thousand -French peasants--peaceful inhabitants of Nova Scotia--and scattered -them among the southern colonies. The Indian allies of the French -surprised many lonely hamlets, slaughtered many women and children, -tortured to death many fighting-men. The English fleet captured two -French ships. But no decisive advantage was gained on either side. -The problem of American destiny was solving itself according to the -customary methods--by the desolation of the land, by the slaughter and -the anguish of its inhabitants; but the results of this bloody campaign -did not perceptibly hasten the solution after which men so painfully -groped. - -During the next two years success was mainly with the French. The -English were without competent leadership. An experienced and skilled -officer--the Marquis de Montcalm--commanded the French, and gained -important advantage over his adversaries. He took Fort William Henry, -and his allies massacred the garrison. He took and destroyed two -English forts on Lake Ontario. He made for himself at Ticonderoga a -position which barred the English from access to the western lakes. -The war had lasted for nearly three years; and Canada not merely kept -her own, but, with greatly inferior resources, was able to hold her -powerful enemy on the defensive. - -But now the impatient English shook off the imbecile Government under -which this shame had been incurred, and the strong hand of William -Pitt assumed direction of the war. [Sidenote: 1757 A.D.] When England -took up in earnest the work of conquest, France could offer but -feeble resistance. The Canadians were few in number, and weakened -by discontent and dissension. Their defensive power lay in a few -inconsiderable forts, a few thousand French soldiers, and five ships of -war. The insignificance of their resources had been concealed by the -skilful leadership of Montcalm. - -Pitt proposed, as the work of the first campaign, to take -Louisburg--the only harbour which France possessed on the Atlantic; to -take Fort du Quesne, in the valley of the Ohio; and Ticonderoga, in -the north. He was able to accomplish more than he hoped. Louisburg was -taken; Cape Breton and the island of St. John became English ground. -Communication between France and her endangered colony was henceforth -impossible. The French ships were captured or destroyed, and the flag -of France disappeared from the Canadian coast. Fort du Quesne fell into -English hands, and assumed the English name of Pittsburg, under which -it has become famous as a centre of peaceful industry. France had no -longer a footing in the Mississippi valley. [Sidenote: 1758 A.D.] At -Ticonderoga, incapable generalship caused shameful miscarriage: the -English attack failed, and a lamentable slaughter was sustained. But -the progress which had been made afforded ground to expect that one -campaign more would terminate the dominion of France on the American -continent. - -The spirit of the British nation rose with the return of that success -to which they had long been strangers. Pitt laid his plans with -the view of immediate conquest. Parliament expressed strongly its -approbation of his policy and his management, and voted liberal sums to -confirm the zeal of the colonists. The people gave enthusiastic support -to the war. Their supreme concern for the time was to humble France by -seizing all her American possessions. The men of New England and New -York lent their eager help to a cause which was peculiarly their own. -The internal condition of Canada prepared an easy way for a resolute -invader. The harvest had been scanty; no supply could now be hoped for -from abroad, for the English ships maintained strict blockade; food was -scarce; a corrupt and unpopular Government seized, under pretence of -public necessity, grain which was needed to keep in life the families -of the unhappy colonists. There were no more than fifteen thousand -men fit to bear arms in the colony, and these were for the most part -undisciplined and reluctant to fight. The Governor vainly endeavoured -to stimulate their valour by fiery proclamations. The gloom and apathy -of approaching overthrow already filled their hearts. - -[Sidenote: 1759 A.D.] It was the design of Pitt to attack -simultaneously all the remaining strongholds of France. An army of -eleven thousand men, moving northward from New York by the valley of -the Hudson, took with ease the forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point; -and the fair region which lies around Lake Champlain and Lake George -passed for ever away from the dominion of France. A smaller force -attacked Fort Niagara, the sole representative now of French authority -on Lake Ontario. This stronghold fell, and France had no longer a -footing on the shores of the Great Lakes. - -In the east the progress of the British arms was less rapid. Montcalm -held Quebec, strongly fortified, but insufficiently provided with food. -He had a force of twelve thousand men under his command--heartless and -ill-armed, and swarms of allied Indians lurked in the woods, waiting -their opportunity. Before Quebec there lay a powerful British fleet, -and a British army of eight thousand men. Pitt knew that here lay the -chief difficulty of the campaign; that here its crowning success must -be gained. He found among his older officers no man to whom he could -intrust the momentous task. Casting aside the routine which has brought -ruin upon so many fair enterprises, he promoted to the chief command a -young soldier of feeble health, gentle, sensitive, modest, in whom his -unerring perception discovered the qualities he required. That young -soldier was James Wolfe, who had already in subordinate command evinced -courage and high military genius. To him Pitt intrusted the forces -whose arms were now to fix the destiny of a continent. - -The long winter of Lower Canada delayed the opening of the campaign, -and June had nearly closed before the British ships dropped their -anchors off the Isle of Orleans, and Wolfe was able to look at the -fortress which he had come to subdue. His survey was not encouraging. -The French flag waved defiantly over tremendous and inaccessible -heights, crowned with formidable works, which stretched far into the -woods and barred every way of approach. Wolfe forced a landing, and -established batteries within reach of the city. For some weeks he -bombarded both the upper and the lower town, and laid both in ruins. -But the defensive power of Quebec was unimpaired. The misery of the -inhabitants was extreme. “We are without hope and without food,” wrote -one: “God has forsaken us.” Regardless of their sufferings, the French -general maintained his resolute defence. - -The brief summer was passing, and Wolfe perceived that no real progress -had been made. He knew the hopes which his countrymen entertained; -and he felt deeply that the exceptional confidence which had been -reposed in him called for a return of exceptional service. [Sidenote: -July 31, 1759 A.D.] He resolved to carry his men across the river and -force the French intrenchments. But disaster fell, at every point, on -the too hazardous attempt. His transports grounded; the French shot -pierced and sunk some of his boats; a heavy rain-storm damped the -ammunition of the troops; some of his best regiments, fired by the wild -enthusiasm of battle, dashed themselves against impregnable defences -and were destroyed. The assault was a complete failure, and the baffled -assailants withdrew, weakened by heavy loss. - -The agony of mind which resulted from this disaster bore with crushing -weight upon Wolfe’s enfeebled frame, and for weeks he lay fevered and -helpless. During his convalescence he invited his officers to meet for -consultation in regard to the most hopeful method of attack. One of -the officers suggested, and the others recommended, a scheme full of -danger, but with possibilities of decisive success. It was proposed -that the army should be placed upon the high ground to the westward -of the upper town and receive there the battle which the French would -be forced to offer. The assailants were largely outnumbered by the -garrison; escape was impossible, and defeat involved ruin. But Wolfe -did not fear that the French could inflict defeat on the army which he -led. The enterprise had an irresistible attraction to his daring mind. -He trusted his soldiers, and he determined to stake the fortune of -the campaign upon their power to hold the position to which he would -conduct them. - -The Heights of Abraham stretch westward for three miles from the -defences of the upper town, and form a portion of a lofty table-land -which extends to a distance from the city of nine miles. They are -from two to three hundred feet above the level of the river. Their -river-side is well-nigh perpendicular and wholly inaccessible, save -where a narrow footpath leads to the summit. It was by this path--on -which two men could not walk abreast--that Wolfe intended to approach -the enemy. The French had a few men guarding the upper end of the path; -but the guard was a weak one, for they apprehended no attack here. -Scarcely ever before had an army advanced to battle by a track so -difficult. - -[Sidenote: Sept. 12, 1759 A.D.] The troops were all received on board -the ships, which sailed for a few miles up stream. During the night -the men re-embarked in a flotilla of boats and dropped down with the -receding tide. They were instructed to be silent. No sound of oar -was heard, or of voice, excepting that of Wolfe, who in a low tone -repeated to his officers the touching, and in his own case prophetic, -verses of Gray’s “Elegy in a Country Churchyard.” Quickly the -landing-place was reached, and the men stepped silently on shore. One -by one they climbed the narrow woodland path. As they neared the summit -the guard, in panic, fired their muskets down the cliff and fled. The -ships had now dropped down the river, and the boats plied incessantly -between them and the landing-place. All night long the landing -proceeded. The first rays of the morning sun shone upon an army of -nearly five thousand veteran British soldiers solidly arrayed upon the -Heights of Abraham, eager for battle and confident of victory. Wolfe -marched them forward till his front was within a mile of the city, and -there he waited the attack of the French. - -Montcalm had been wholly deceived as to the purposes of the British, -and was unprepared for their unwelcome appearance on the Heights. He -had always shunned battle; for the larger portion of his troops were -Canadian militia, on whom little reliance could be placed. He held them -therefore within his intrenchments, and trusted that the approaching -winter would drive away the assailants and save Canada. Even now he -might have sheltered himself behind his defences, and delayed the -impending catastrophe. But his store of provisions and of ammunition -approached exhaustion; and as the English ships rode unopposed in the -river, he had no ray of hope from without. Montcalm elected that the -great controversy should be decided by battle and at once. - -He marched out to the attack with seven thousand five hundred men, -of whom less than one-half were regular soldiers, besides a swarm -of Indians, almost worthless for fighting such as this. The French -advanced firing, and inflicted considerable loss upon their enemy. The -British stood immovable, unless when they silently closed the ghastly -openings which the bullets of the French created. At length the hostile -lines fronted each other at a distance of forty yards, and Wolfe gave -the command to fire. From the levelled muskets of the British lines -there burst a well-aimed and deadly volley. That fatal discharge gained -the battle, gained the city of Quebec--gained dominion of a continent. -The Canadian militia broke and fled. Montcalm’s heroic presence held -for a moment the soldiers to their duty; but the British, flushed with -victory, swept forward on the broken and fainting enemy: Montcalm fell -pierced by a mortal wound; the French army in hopeless rout sought -shelter within the ramparts of Quebec. - -Both generals fell. Wolfe was thrice struck by bullets, and died upon -the field, with his latest breath giving God thanks for this crowning -success. Montcalm died on the following day, pleased that his eyes were -not to witness the surrender of Quebec. The battle lasted only for a -few minutes; and having in view the vast issues which depended on it, -the loss was inconsiderable. Only fifty-five British were killed and -six hundred wounded; the loss of the French was twofold that of their -enemies. - -A few days after the battle, Quebec was surrendered into the hands -of the conquerors. But the French did not at once recognize absolute -defeat. [Sidenote: 1760 A.D.] In the spring of the following year a -French army of ten thousand men gained a victory over the British -garrison of Quebec on the Heights of Abraham, and laid siege to the -city. But this appearance of reviving vigour was delusive. The speedy -approach of a few British ships broke up the siege and compelled a -hasty retreat. Before the season closed, a British army, which the -French had no power to resist, arrived before Montreal and received the -immediate surrender of the defenceless city. Great Britain received, -besides this, the surrender of all the possessions of France in Canada -from the St. Lawrence to the unknown regions of the north and the west. -The militia and the Indians were allowed to return unmolested to their -homes. The soldiers were carried back to France in British ships. -All civil officers were invited to gather up their papers and other -paraphernalia of government and take shipping homewards. For French -rule in Canada had ceased, and the Anglo-Saxon reigned supreme from -Florida to the utmost northern limit of the continent. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -COLONIZATION BY FRANCE AND BY ENGLAND. - - -A century and a half had elapsed since Champlain laid the foundations -of French empire among the forests of the St. Lawrence valley. During -those years the nations of Western Europe were possessed by an eager -desire to extend their authority over the territories which recent -discovery had opened. On the shores of the Northern Atlantic there -were a New France, a New Scotland, a New England, a New Netherlands, -a New Sweden. Southwards stretched the vast domain for whose future -the occupation by Spain had already prepared deadly and enduring -blight. France and England contended for possession of the great Indian -peninsula. Holland and Portugal, with a vigour which their later years -do not exhibit, founded settlements alike in Eastern and in Western -seas, gaining thus expanded trade and vast increase of wealth. - -France had shared the prevailing impulse, and put forth her strength -to establish in Canada a dominion worthy to bear her name. The wise -minister Colbert perceived the greatness of the opportunity, and spared -neither labour nor outlay to foster the growth of colonies which would -secure to France a firm hold of this magnificent territory. Successive -Kings lent aid in every form. Well-chosen Governors brought to the -colony every advantage which honest and able guidance could afford. -Soldiers were furnished for defence; food was supplied in seasons -of scarcity. A fertile soil and trading opportunities which were not -surpassed in any part of the continent, offered inducements fitted -to attract crowds of the enterprising and the needy. But under every -encouragement New France remained feeble and unprogressive. When she -passed under British rule, her population was scarcely over sixty -thousand, and had been for several years actually diminishing. Quebec, -her chief city, had barely seven thousand inhabitants; Montreal had -only four thousand. The rest of the people cultivated, thriftlessly, -patches of land along the shores of the great river and its affluents; -or found, like the savages around them, a rude and precarious -subsistence by the chase. The revenue of the colony was no more than -£14,000--a sum insufficient to meet the expenditure. Its exports were -only £115,000. - -While France was striving thus vainly to plant in Canada colonies which -should bear her name and reinforce her greatness, some Englishmen who -were dissatisfied with the conditions of their life at home, began -to settle a few hundred miles away on the shores of the same great -continent. They had no encouragement from Kings or statesmen; the only -boon they gained, and even that with difficulty, was permission to -be gone. When famine came upon them, they suffered its pains without -relief; their own brave hearts and strong arms were their sufficient -defence. But their rise to strength and greatness was rapid. Within a -period of ten years twenty thousand Englishmen had found homes in the -American settlements. Before the seventeenth century closed, Virginia -alone contained a population larger than that of all Canada. When -the final struggle opened, the thirteen English colonies contained a -population of between two and three million to contrast with the poor -sixty thousand Frenchmen who were their neighbours on the north. The -greatness of the colonies can be best measured by a comparison with the -mother country. England was then a country of less than six million; -Scotland of one million; Ireland of two million. - -The explanation of this vast difference of result between the efforts -of the English and those of the French to colonize the American -continent is to be found mainly in the widely different quality of the -two nations. England, in the words of Adam Smith, “bred and formed men -capable of achieving such great actions and laying the foundation of -so great an empire.” France bred no such men; or if she did so, they -remained at home unconcerned with the founding of empires abroad. The -Englishman who took up the work of colonizing, came of his own free -choice to make for himself a home; he brought with him a free and bold -spirit; a purpose and capacity to direct his own public affairs. The -Frenchman came reluctantly, thrust forth from the home he preferred, -and to which he hoped to return. He came, submissive to the tyranny -which he had not learned to hate. He was part of the following of a -great lord, to whom he owed absolute obedience. He did not care to till -the ground: he would hunt or traffic with the Indians in furs till the -happy day when he was permitted to go back to France. Great empires are -not founded with materials such as these. - -But France was unfortunate in her system no less than in her men. -Feudalism was still in its unbroken strength. The soil of France was -still parcelled out among great lords, who rendered military service -to the King; and was still cultivated by peasants, who rendered -military service to the great lord. Feudalism was now carried into -the Canadian wilderness. Vast tracts of land were bestowed upon -persons of influence, who undertook to provide settlers. The seigneur -established his own abode in a strong, defensible position, and settled -his peasantry around him. They paid a small rent and were bound to -follow him to such wars as he thought good to wage, whether against -the Indians or the English. He reserved for his own benefit, or sold -to any who would purchase, the right to fish and to trade in furs; -he ground the corn of his tenantry at rates which he himself fixed. -He administered justice and punished all crimes excepting treason -and murder. When the feudal system was about to enter on its period -of decay in Europe, France began to lay upon that unstable basis the -foundation of her colonial empire. - -The infant commerce of the colony was strangled by monopolies. -Great trading companies purchased at court, or favourites obtained -gratuitously, exclusive right to buy furs from the Indians and to -import all foreign goods used in the colonies--fixing at their -own discretion the prices which they were to pay and to receive. -Occasionally in a hard season they bought up the crops and sold them -at famine prices. The violation of these monopolies by unlicensed -persons was punishable by death. The colonists had no thought of -self-government; they were a light-hearted, submissive race, who were -contented with what the King was pleased to send them. Their officials -plundered them, and with base avarice wasted their scanty stores. -The people had no power for their own protection, and their cry of -suffering was slow to gain from the distant King that justice which -they were not able to enforce. - -The priest came with his people to guard their orthodoxy in this new -land--to preserve that profound ignorance in which lay the roots of -their devotion. Government discouraged the printing-press; scarcely -any of the peasantry could so much as read. At a time when Connecticut -expended one-fourth of its revenues upon the common school, the -Canadian peasant was wholly uninstructed. In Quebec there had been, -almost from the days of Champlain, a college for the training of -priests. There and at Montreal were Jesuit seminaries, in which -children of the well-to-do classes received a little instruction. A -feeble attempt had been made to educate the children of the Indians; -but for the children of the ordinary working Frenchmen settled in -Canada no provision whatever had been made. - -The influences which surrounded the infancy of the English colonies -were eminently favourable to robust growth. Coming of their own -free choice, the colonists brought with them none of the injurious -restraints which in the Old World still impeded human progress. The -burdensome observances of feudalism were not admitted within the new -empire. Every colonist was a landowner. In some States the settlers -divided among themselves the lands which they found unoccupied, waiting -no consent of King or of noble. In others, they received, for prices -which were almost nominal, grants of land from persons--as William -Penn, who had received large territorial rights from the sovereign. In -all cases, whether by purchase or by appropriation, they became the -independent owners of the lands which they tilled. At the beginning, -they were too insignificant to be regarded by the Government at home: -favoured by this beneficent neglect, they were allowed to conduct -in peace their own public affairs. As their importance increased, -the Crown asserted its right of control; but their exercise of the -privilege of self-government was scarcely ever interfered with. The -men who founded the New England States carried with them into the -wilderness a deep conviction that universal education was indispensable -to the success of their enterprise. While the French Canadian, -despising agriculture, roamed the forest in pursuit of game, ignorant -himself, and the father of ignorant children, the thoughtful New -England farmer was helping with all his might to build up a system of -common schools by which every child born on that free soil should be -effectively taught. Thus widely dissimilar were the methods according -to which France and England sought to colonize the lately-discovered -continent. An equally wide dissimilarity of result was inevitable. - -It was in the closing years of the great experiment that France devised -the bold conception of establishing a line of military settlements on -the Mississippi as well as on the St. Lawrence,[16] and thus confining -the English between the Alleghany Mountains and the sea. In view of the -extreme inferiority of her strength, the project seems extravagant. It -was utterly impossible to restrain, by any forces which France could -command, the expansive energy of the English colonies. There were sixty -thousand Frenchmen proposing to imprison on the sea-coast two million -Englishmen. But the constitution of the French settlements, while it -enfeebled them and unfitted them to cope with their rivals in peaceful -growth, made them formidable beyond their real strength for purposes -of aggression. Canada was a military settlement; every Canadian was -a soldier, bound to follow to the field his feudal lord. The English -colonists were peaceful farmers or traders; they were widely scattered, -and living as they did under many independent governments, their -combination for any common warlike purpose was almost impossible. That -they should ultimately overthrow the dominion of their rivals was -inevitable; but if the French King had been able to reinforce more -liberally the arms of his Canadian subjects, the contest must have been -prolonged and bloody. Happily, his resources were taxed to the utmost -by the complications which surrounded him at home. The question as to -which race should be supreme on the American continent was helped to a -speedy solution on the battle-fields of the Seven Years’ War. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -AFTER THE CONQUEST. - - -The condition of the Canadian people at the time of the conquest by the -English was exceedingly miserable. Every man was in the ranks, and the -fields on which their maintenance depended lay untilled. The lucrative -fur trade had ceased, for the Indian hunter and the French trader were -fighting against the English. The scanty revenues of the colony no -longer yielded support to the officers of the Government, who plundered -the wretched people without restraint of pity or of shame. Famine -prevailed, and found many victims among the women and children, who -were now the occupants of the neglected clearings along the river-banks. - -At length the conquest was accomplished, and those sad years of -bloodshed closed. The French soldiers, the rapacious officials, -were sent home to France, where some of the worst offenders, it -is gratifying to know, found their way quickly to the Bastile. -The colonists laid down their arms, and returned gladly to their -long-disused industries. At first the simple people feared the -severities of the new authority into whose power they had fallen. -Some of them went home to France; but these were chiefly the -colonial aristocracy, whose presence had always been a misfortune. -The apprehensions of the settlers were soon allayed. They had been -accustomed to arbitrary and cruel government. The rack was in regular -use. Accused persons were habitually subjected to torture. Trials were -conducted in secret, and without opportunity of defence. The personal -liberty of every man depended upon the pleasure of his superiors. -English rule brought at once the termination of these wrongs, and -bestowed upon the submissive Canadians the unexpected blessings of -peace, security of person and property, and a pure administration of -justice. It had been feared that the great mass of the population -would leave the province and return to France. But the leniency of -the Government, and the open-handed kindness with which the urgent -necessities of the poor were relieved, averted any such calamity; and -the Frenchmen accepted, without repining, the new sovereignty which the -sword had imposed upon them. - -The English Government naturally desired to foster the settlement -of an English population in Canada. It was not, at first, without -hesitation that Britain made up her mind to retain the territory for -whose possession she had fought so stoutly. The opinion was widely -entertained, especially among the trading class, that united North -America would quickly become too powerful to continue in dependence on -the mother country; that the subjection of our existing colonies would -be guaranteed by the wholesome presence of a rival and hostile power -on their northern frontier. But wiser views prevailed, and Britain -resolved to keep the splendid prize which she had won. Every effort was -made to introduce a British element which should envelop and ultimately -absorb the unprogressive French. Large inducements were offered -to traders, and to the fighting men whose services were no longer -required. Many of these accepted the lands which were offered to them, -and made their homes in Canada. The novelty of the acquisition, and the -interest which attached to the conquest, brought a considerable number -of settlers from the old country. The years immediately succeeding the -conquest were years of more rapid growth than Canada had experienced -under French rule. In twelve years the population had increased to one -hundred thousand. The clearings along the shores of the St. Lawrence -increased in number and in area, and stretched backward from the river -into the forest. The influx of merchants caused a notable increase of -the towns. Thus far no printing-press had been permitted on Canadian -soil; for despotism here, as well as elsewhere, demanded popular -ignorance as a condition of its existence. But scarcely had the French -officials departed when two enterprising men of Philadelphia arrived in -Quebec with a printing-press, and began the publication of a newspaper. - -The war in Europe continued for upwards of three years after the -expulsion of the French from Canada. Wearied at length with the brutal -strife, the exhausted nations desired peace. France had suffered -enormous territorial losses. The disasters which had fallen on Spain -humbled her haughty spirit, and hastened the decay which was already in -progress. Austria and Prussia desired rest from a wasteful contest, in -the advantages of which they scarcely participated. The enormous gains -which Britain had secured satisfied for the time the ambition of her -people, and she was contented now that the sword should be sheathed. -[Sidenote: 1763 A.D.] Peace was concluded. Britain added to her -dominions several islands of the West Indies, the Floridas, Louisiana -to the Mississippi, Canada, and the islands in the Gulf of the St. -Lawrence, as well as Senegal. “Never,” said the lately-crowned George -III., “did England, nor, I believe, any other power in Europe, sign -such a peace.” - -While the war still lasted, a military Government ruled Canada, and -justice was administered by councils of officers. When peace was -restored, and the transference of Canada was formally complete, -arrangements of a more permanent character became necessary. The -situation was full of difficulty. The colony was substantially French -and Roman Catholic; only a small minority of its people were English -and Protestant. These, however, looked with the pride of conquerors -upon the old settlers, and claimed that the institutions of the -colony should be framed wholly on English models. Wise statesmanship -in this eventful hour would have averted enfeebling divisions, -wasteful strifes, discontents swelling at length into rebellion. But -wise statesmanship was denied to Canada. [Sidenote: October, 1763 -A.D.] There came a Proclamation in the King’s name, promising to the -people self-government such as the Americans enjoyed, so soon as the -circumstances of the colony permitted; briefly intimating that for -the present the laws of England were the laws of Canada. It was a -revolution scarcely surpassed in its violence and injustice; and in -its results it delayed for generations the progress of the colony. At -one stroke the laws which had been in force for a century and a half -were swept away. A new code of laws, entirely new methods of judicial -procedure, of which the people knew nothing, were now administered -in a language which scarcely any one understood. In their haste the -Government did not pause to consider that the laws which they had thus -suddenly imposed upon this Roman Catholic colony included severe penal -statutes against Catholics. It was desired that the laws, the language -and the customs of England should displace those of France, and that -the French settlers should become absorbed in the mass of anticipated -English immigration. In course of years, by wise and conciliatory -treatment, these results would have been gained; but the unredeemed -injustice of this assault upon the rights of the colonists postponed -for generations the hope of the desirable reconciliation. The French -took up at once the position of an oppressed people--holding themselves -studiously separate from their oppressors, cherishing feelings of -jealousy and antagonism. To uphold French customs, to reject the -English tongue, and if possible the English law--these were now the -evidences of true patriotism. Henceforth, and for many long and unquiet -years, there were two distinct and hostile nations dwelling side by -side in the valley of the St. Lawrence. - -It was one of the unhappy results of these ill-considered arrangements -that no Frenchman could fill any public office, in consequence of his -ignorance of the language in which public business was conducted. All -such offices were therefore occupied by Englishmen. For the most part -the appointments were made in London, with small regard to the fitness -of the persons who received them. Men came out to administer the -affairs of Canada in absolute ignorance of the country, of the habits -of the people, even of the language which they spoke. These officials -received no salaries, but were suffered to indemnify themselves by -fees, which they exacted rapaciously and ruthlessly. They treated the -old inhabitants with harshness and irritating contempt. [Sidenote: -1766 A.D.] There were even darker charges than these preferred against -them, warranting the assertion of the good General Murray, who was then -Governor, that “they were the most immoral collection of men he ever -knew.” The conduct of these officials aggravated the alienation of the -French settlers, and helped to prepare the unquiet future through which -the colony was to pass. - -But the French Canadians were a submissive people, and although they -perceived that they were wronged, they did not on that account turn -aside from the path of peaceful industry which opened before them. -Trade was prosperous, and steadily increasing; many persons who had -left the colony returned to it; agriculture extended; gradually the -deep wounds which years of war had inflicted were healed. The people -remained long profoundly ignorant. When Volney, the French traveller, -visited them towards the close of the century, he found that they -knew almost nothing of figures, and were incapable of the simplest -calculation. They indicated short distances by telling how many pipes a -man could smoke while he walked; a longer distance was that which a man -could or could not traverse between sunrise and sunset. But ignorance -did not prevent that patient, incessant toil, which year by year added -to their possessions and improved their condition. - -In course of time a desire for representative institutions sprang up -among the English settlers. During all these years they had lived under -the despotic sway of a Governor and Council appointed by the Crown. -They alone among Englishmen were without part in their own government, -and they wished the odious distinction to cease. [Sidenote: 1773 A.D.] -They petitioned for the House of Assembly which the King had promised -them ten years before, and for the permanent establishment of English -law among them. The French were not sufficiently instructed to care for -representative government, but they earnestly desired the restoration -of the laws which had been so hastily abolished after the conquest. - -It was during a season of anxiety and apprehension that these -conflicting opinions were pressed upon the attention of the British -Government. The differences which had arisen between England and her -American colonies were evidently now incapable of settlement otherwise -than by the sword. The men of Boston had already thrown into their -harbour the cargoes of taxed tea which England sought to force upon -them. All over New England men were hastening to obtain muskets and -to accomplish themselves in military drill. A strong English force, -which was being steadily increased, held Boston, and waited for the -expected strife. In view of impending war, it was the desire of the -English Government to satisfy Canada, and gain such support as she -was able to afford. The great mass of the Canadians were Frenchmen -and Roman Catholics.[17] It was not doubted that in course of years -men who were English and Protestant would form the population of -Canada. But the danger was present and urgent, and it must be met by -conciliating the men who now formed that population. [Sidenote: 1774 -A.D.] An Act was passed by which the Proclamation of 1763 was repealed. -The Roman Catholic religion was set free from legal disability, -and reinstated in its right to exact tithes and other dues from all -persons who owned its sway. French civil law was reimposed, but the -barbarous criminal code of England was set up in preference to the -milder system of France. The House of Assembly was still denied, and -the province--extended now to the Ohio and the Mississippi--was to be -ruled by a Governor and Council appointed by the Crown, one-third of -the Council being composed of French Canadians. This was the Quebec -Act, under which Canada was governed for the next seventeen years. It -inflicted many evils upon the colony, but it served well the immediate -purpose for which it was intended. It satisfied the old settlers, and -held them firmly to the side of England during the years of war which -England vainly waged against her alienated children. - -Thus far the affairs of the colonies had been administered by the Board -of Trade. The administration had been negligent; for the greatness of -the colonies was recent, and the importance of the interests involved -was not yet fully appreciated. But the variance which was to cost -England the greatest of her colonial possessions had already revealed -itself. England was impressively reminded of the imperfections of her -management, and of the urgent need of a better system. She set up a new -but not a better system. [Sidenote: 1774 A.D.] A Colonial department -of Government was created; a Colonial Secretary was appointed; an -official regulation of colonial interests began, based upon imperfect -knowledge--formal, restrictive, often unreasonable and irritating. -For many years, until the growing strength of the colonies enabled -them first to modify and then to overthrow it, this strict official -government continued to discourage and impede settlements whose prime -necessity was wide freedom of action. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CANADA DURING THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. - - -The Quebec Act roused much indignation among the American colonists. -From Pennsylvania and Virginia twenty thousand persons had already -settled in the valley of the Ohio. These suddenly found themselves -disjoined from the colonies of which they regarded themselves members, -and subjected to the despotic rule which was imposed upon Canada. -The American patriots enrolled the new arrangements among their -grievances, and hoped that their fellow-sufferers the Canadians would -be of the same opinion. [Sidenote: 1774 A.D.] The Congress which met -at Philadelphia opened communication with the Canadians, to whom they -addressed a forcible exposition of their mutual wrongs, coupled with -the proposal that their neighbours should take some part in the steps -which they were meditating in order to obtain redress. The handful of -English Canadians sympathized with the complaints of their countrymen, -and were not reluctant to have given help had that been possible; but -they were an inconsiderable number, living among a population which -did not share their views. The French settlers were unaccustomed to -self-government, which they did not understand and did not desire. -Their own laws had been restored to them, the Government was not -oppressive, they were suffered to cultivate their fields in peace, and -they were without motive to enter upon that stormy path to which their -more heroic neighbours invited them. The American proposals did not -disturb for one moment the profound political apathy which reigned in -the valley of the St. Lawrence. - -[Sidenote: 1775 A.D.] When the war began, the Americans lost no time in -taking hostile measures against Canada. They were able, by the superior -energy of their movements, to possess themselves of the fortresses -of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which had not yet been prepared to -offer resistance. Governor Carleton was taken at a disadvantage by -this spirited invasion, for he had been left without an army. For the -defence of the vast territory over which his sway extended, he had no -more than eight hundred soldiers. He fell back upon the privileges -of the feudal law, and summoned the colonists to render to the King -that military service which they owed. But the colonists, from whose -minds there had not yet passed the memory of the disastrous war which -preceded the conquest, decisively repudiated feudal obligations, and -maintained that the various seignorial dues which they paid were the -full equivalent of the advantages which they enjoyed. The embarrassed -Governor invoked the help of the clergy, who exhorted the people -to take up arms in defence of their country. But neither could the -authority of the priests rouse those unwarlike spirits. The Frenchmen -would fight when their own homes were invaded. Meanwhile they had no -quarrel with any one, and they would not incur the miseries of war so -long as it was possible for them to remain at peace. - -The Americans still believed that there existed among the Canadians a -feeling of sympathy with their cause. To embolden their secret allies, -and give opportunity for the avowal of friendly sentiment, they now -despatched two expeditions, one of which was to seize Montreal, and -then descend upon Quebec, where it would be joined by the other, -approaching by way of the river Kennebec. One wing of the expedition -was successful. Montreal fell; the larger portion of the British -troops became prisoners; the Governor escaped with some difficulty, -and fled to Quebec. In the east the fortune of war was against the -invaders. They besieged Quebec, maintaining their attack under severe -hardships, imperfectly supplied with food, and cruelly wasted by -epidemic disease. After months of this vain suffering, a British -frigate appeared one morning at Quebec, and proceeded to land a body -of troops. The siege was quickly raised, and the assailants, in much -distress, effected a disorderly retreat. Reinforcements soon began to -arrive from England, and the continued occupation of Montreal by the -Americans was found to be impossible. The invasion of Canada served -no good purpose. It was obvious that no help was to be afforded to -the party of revolution by the uncomplaining people of Canada. It was -possible to hold certain positions on Lake Champlain and elsewhere. But -that could be of no service to the American cause; on the contrary, -it withdrew useful men from the work for which they were urgently -required--the defence of New York and Pennsylvania against the -overwhelming strength of the English attack. The invasion of Canada -ceased, leaving the Canadians better contented with the Government -under which they lived, and less disposed to form relationships with -the colonists by whom the authority of that Government had been cast -off. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. - - -In course of years the English Government fought out its quarrel with -the revolted American colonists and was defeated. [Sidenote: 1783 A.D.] -A treaty of peace was concluded, and the independence which America had -proved herself able to maintain was now acknowledged. At the opening -of the war England had borrowed a suggestion from France, and sought, -by attaching the valley of the Mississippi to Canada, to shut in the -Americans on the west as on the north by Canadian settlements breathing -the spirit of loyalty and submissiveness. The Americans would endure -no such restriction. The southern boundary of Canada was now the St. -Lawrence river and the great lakes out of which it flows. The vast -western region with its boundless capability was made over to the -victorious colonists. England held only the north. The two branches -of the Anglo-Saxon family had divided in nearly equal proportions the -whole enormous area of the North American continent. - -As one of the results of the revolutionary war, Canada gained a large -accession to her population and her prosperity. There were among the -Americans a considerable number of persons who did not sympathize -with the aims of the majority, and who had given good wishes and -occasionally active support to the royal cause. Congress had given to -the British Government a promise that it would endeavour to mitigate -the discomforts which the unpopularity of the cause those persons had -clung to now entailed. But the victors did not at once forgive those -who resisted the national desire, and the position of the royalists -became intolerable. It was resolved to make provision for them in -Canada, where they could still enjoy those relations with the English -monarchy their love for which had cost them so dear. - -Western Canada was still almost wholly unpeopled. There were a few -soldiers at Niagara, and some inconsiderable French settlements near -Detroit. Kingston had been abandoned; the settlers at Toronto had been -chased away during the troubles which preceded the conquest, and the -traces which they left had been long covered by the luxuriant growth of -the fertile wilderness. The vast expanse of rich land which lies along -the upper waters of the St. Lawrence and the northern shores of Lake -Ontario still waited the coming of the husbandman. - -Here was the home chosen for the men who had incurred the hatred -of their neighbours by seeking to perpetuate English rule over the -American colonies. The English Government honestly desired to requite -those unfortunate supporters. It desired also to plant them far away -from the colonists who were of French origin and sentiment. For -England mistrusted now her own children who lived within range of -American influences, and it was her aim to preserve unimpaired the -submissive loyalty of her French subjects. Therefore she chose that -while the Frenchmen prospered and increased in the lower valley of -the St. Lawrence, those Englishmen who were fleeing from triumphant -republicanism, but who had probably not altogether escaped its taint, -should open their new career on the shores of Lake Ontario. They came -in such numbers, that within a year there were ten thousand settlers in -the new colony. They came so miserably poor, that for a time England -required to feed and clothe them. But they bore stout hearts, and hands -not unaccustomed to wield the axe and guide the plough. The country -was one vast forest, and the labour of clearing was great. Every man -received, free of charge, a grant of two hundred acres; and for each -child of those who had borne arms a like endowment was reserved. The -settlers worked with good-will. In a short time each man’s lands were -ready for the plough, and the landscape was lighted up with corn-fields -and the dwellings of man. - -During the course of peaceful years which she now enjoyed Canada -increased steadily. Emigrants were drawn from England by the inducement -of free lands in the western province; in the east there were constant -additions both to the French and to the English section of the -population. Shortly after the close of the American War it was found -that in the whole colony there were not fewer than one hundred and -fifty thousand souls. Canada had doubled her population in the twenty -years which had elapsed since she became an English possession. - -Her government was still administered according to the pleasure of -the English Crown, without any concession being made to the wishes of -the people. But events now occurred in Europe which quickened, for a -space, the democratic tendency, and disposed governments to listen to -the wishes of their subjects. The French Revolution had vindicated the -right of a nation to guide its own destiny. The influences of that -great change were keenly felt in Canada. The English colonists, who -had long been dissatisfied with the system under which they lived, -earnestly desired a representative government. Many of the Frenchmen, -who had hitherto been indifferent to the privilege, partook of the -same desire, in sympathy with the revolution which their countrymen -had effected. The English Government, wiser now than when it undertook -to deal with the discontents of the American colonies, listened with -favour to the prayer of the Canadians. [Sidenote: 1791 A.D.] A Bill was -introduced by Mr. Pitt to confer upon the colonists the long-withheld -privilege of self-government. It was not the desire of England that the -Canadians should grow strong in the enjoyment of a union which might -result in their independence. It seemed prudent that the Frenchmen, -who cared little for liberty, should form a separate colony with -power to bridle the more democratic Englishmen. Therefore Canada was -divided into two provinces, which were named Upper and Lower Canada, -the boundary line being for the greater part of the distance the -Ottawa river. Each of the colonies received from the King a Governor, -an Executive Council to act as his advisers, a Legislative Council, -and a Legislative Assembly elected once in four years by a somewhat -restricted suffrage. The Roman Catholic clergy were already endowed, -and a similar provision was now made for Protestants. One-seventh of -all Crown lands which were being settled was reserved for the teachers -of Protestantism--a reservation which proved in the coming years a -source of infinite vexation and strife. The criminal law of England was -set up in both provinces; but in all civil laws and usages Upper Canada -became wholly English; Lower Canada remained wholly French. The English -settlers opposed with all their might this ill-advised separation. They -foresaw the enfeebling divisions which it must produce: living as they -did far in the interior, they felt that they were wronged when the -river, by which alone their products could reach the sea, was placed -under control of neighbours who must be rivals and might be enemies. -But their opposition was unheeded. The Bill became law, and continued -during fifty unquiet years to foster strife between the provinces and -hinder their growth. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE WAR OF 1812. - - -Canada was now, for a space of two and a half years, to be involved in -war, and subjected to the miseries of invasion. It was a war with which -she had no proper concern. The measures adopted by England and France -in order to accomplish the ruin of each other fell injuriously upon -American commerce, and the American people were reasonably displeased -that their occupations and those of the world should be interrupted -by the strifes of two unwisely guided nations. Certain high-handed -proceedings of British ships[18] so aggravated this irritation, that -America declared war against Great Britain. She had no quarrel with the -Canadians, but she could not elsewhere express the hostile impulses -by which she was now animated. An invasion of Canada was instantly -resolved upon, and an easy victory was expected. The country was almost -undefended, for England at that time was putting forth her utmost -strength in the effort to overthrow Napoleon, and she required, for the -bloody battle-fields of Spain, every soldier of whom she could possess -herself. In all Canada there were only four thousand regular troops and -two thousand militiamen. Many weeks must elapse before help could come -from England. Canada had grown steadily during forty years of peace, -and had now a population of three hundred thousand. But the progress -of the United States had been greatly more rapid, and Canada had now -to encounter a hostile nation of eight million. The expectation that -the Americans would subdue and possess the valley of the St. Lawrence -seemed easy of fulfilment. - -Many Americans clung to the belief that the Canadians were dissatisfied -with their government, and would be found ready to avail themselves -of an opportunity to adopt republican institutions. But no trace of -any such disposition manifested itself. The colonists were tenaciously -loyal, and were no more moved by the blandishments than they were by -the arms of their republican invaders. - -[Sidenote: July, 1812 A.D.] Soon after the declaration of war, an -American army of two thousand five hundred men set out to conquer -Western Canada. The commander of this force was General Hull, who -announced to the Canadians that he had come to bring them “peace, -liberty, and security,” and was able to overbear with ease any -resistance which it was in their power to offer. But victory did not -attach herself to the standards of General Hull. The English commander, -General Brock, was able to hold the Americans in check, and to furnish -General Hull with reasons for withdrawing his troops from Canada and -taking up position at Detroit. Thither he was quickly followed by -the daring Englishman, leading a force of seven hundred soldiers and -militia and six hundred Indians. He was proceeding to attack General -Hull, but that irresolute warrior averted the danger by an ignominious -capitulation. - -[Sidenote: October.] A little later a second invasion was attempted, -the aim of which was to possess Queenstown. It was equally -unsuccessful, and reached a similar termination--the surrender of the -invading force. Still further, an attempt to seize Montreal resulted -in failure. Thus closed the first campaign of this lamentable war. -Everywhere the American invaders had been foiled by greatly inferior -forces of militia, supported by a handful of regular troops. The war -had been always distasteful to a large portion of the American people. -On the day when the tidings of its declaration were received in Boston, -flags were hung out half-mast high in token of general mourning. The -New England States refused to contribute troops to fight in a cause -which they condemned. The shameful defeats which had been sustained in -Canada encouraged the friends of peace, and the policy of invasion was -loudly denounced as unwise and unjust. But the disposition to fight -still inspired the larger number, and although there was no longer any -hope of assistance from disaffected Canadians, a fresh campaign was -planned and new miseries prepared for the unoffending colonists. - -During the next campaign the Americans gained some important -advantages. Both combatants had exerted themselves to build and equip -fleets on Lake Erie--the command of the lake being of high importance -for the defence or the attack of Western Canada. [Sidenote: Sept. 1813 -A.D.] The hostile fleets met and fought near the western shores of the -lake. The battle was fiercely contested, and ended in the complete -defeat of the British and the capture of their entire fleet--one-third -of the crews of which were killed or wounded. Soon after this decisive -victory a small force of British and Indians was encountered and nearly -annihilated, and the conquest of Western Canada seemed complete. An -attempt to seize Montreal was, however, baffled by a small body of -Canadians. Nothing further of importance was effected on either side. -But during these many months of alternating victory and defeat the -combatants had learned to hate each other with the wild, unreasoning -hatred which war often inspires. The Americans, in utter wantonness, -burned down a large Canadian village: the Canadians avenged themselves -by giving to the flames the town of Buffalo and several American -villages. When the campaign closed much loss and suffering had been -inflicted upon peaceful inhabitants on both sides of the border; -America held some positions in the extreme west, but no real progress -had been made towards the conquest of Canada. - -[Sidenote: 1814 A.D.] During the third campaign the Americans persisted -in their ill-judged efforts to subdue Canada. Much desultory and -indecisive fighting occurred. The British Government, during the pause -in European strife which occurred while Napoleon occupied the island of -Elba, was able to send several regiments to Canada. The militia on both -sides had gained the experience of veterans. Larger forces were now -afoot, and were handled with increased skill. The fighting was growing -ever more obstinate, as the mutual hatred of those engaged in it became -more intense. The most protracted and bloody of all the battles of the -war occurred near the close. A British officer, having sixteen hundred -men under his command, took up position on a little eminence at Lundy’s -Lane, hard by the Falls of Niagara. Here, about five o’clock of a July -afternoon, this force was attacked by five thousand Americans. The -assailants charged fiercely their outnumbered enemies, but were met by -a destructive fire from a few well-placed and well-served pieces of -artillery. Night fell, and the moon shone over the field where men of -the same race strove to slaughter one another in a worthless quarrel. -After some hours of battle a short pause occurred, during which the -groans of the many wounded men who lay in agony on the slope where -the British fought, mingled with the dull roar of the neighbouring -cataract. The battle was resumed: the assailants pushed forward their -artillery till the muzzles of the guns almost met; furious charges -were met and repelled by the bayonets of the unyielding British. Not -till midnight did the Americans desist from the attack and draw back -their baffled forces. The killed and wounded of the Americans in this -pitiless slaughter were nearly a thousand men; the British suffered a -loss almost as heavy. - -Many other engagements occurred, worthless in respect of result, -having no claim on the notice of men, excepting for the vain heroism -and the wasted lives of those who took part in them. [Sidenote: Dec. -1814 A.D.] At length Britain and America accomplished a settlement of -their quarrel, and Canada had rest from war. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -DOMESTIC STRIFE. - - -During the ten or twelve years which succeeded the war with America, -Canada increased more rapidly than at any previous period. The English -Government offered free conveyance and a liberal grant of land to any -person of good character who consented to accept a home in the Upper -Province. Emigration from Great Britain was very inconsiderable during -the Napoleon wars; but when peace was restored, and employment became -scarce and inadequately paid, men sought refuge beyond the Atlantic -from the misery which had fallen so heavily on their native land. -In 1815 only two thousand persons emigrated; next year the number -was twelve thousand; three years later it had risen to thirty-five -thousand. Many of these found their way to Canada. Ten years from the -close of the war the population of the Lower Province numbered four -hundred and twenty thousand; that of the Upper Province was one hundred -and twenty thousand. In fourteen years the population had almost -doubled. - -Immediately after the war the British people turned their minds to -the defects of their Government, and the agitation began which gained -its difficult and long-delayed triumph in the Reform Bill of 1832. -The influences of the same reforming spirit extended themselves to -Canada. The measure of political authority enjoyed by the colonists -was still extremely limited, and contrasted unfavourably with that of -their American neighbours. It is true they had the appointment of the -Lower Chamber; but the Executive was not responsible to the legislative -bodies, and was therefore practically despotic. The Governor was the -representative of the Sovereign; the Upper Chamber drew its origin from -the same source. The Governor answered to no one for the course which -he chose to follow; the members of the Legislative Council ordinarily -supported him without reserve, because they expected favours from -him. They desired the increase of his power, because thus he would -be able more bountifully to reward his friends. The sympathies of -the Assembly were with constitutional freedom, purity, and economy -of administration. At a very early period it was found that the men -who were chosen by the people were at variance on every question of -importance with the men who were nominated by the King. - -In truth, the kind of government assigned to the Canadian people was -in most respects unsuitable for them. The French colonists did not -desire the popular institutions which they received: they preferred a -mild despotism. The English colonists desired more complete liberty, -and were continually displeased by the arbitrary acts of the Executive. -A still more fatal error was the separation of the provinces, and the -provision thus made for perpetuating the French language and laws, the -gradual extinction of which was urgently desirable. The time had now -arrived when these errors were to bear their proper fruit in jealousy -and strife and mutual frustration. - -The people of Lower Canada remained almost devoid of education, and -they bestowed no care upon the cure of that evil. It was quite usual to -have members of the Legislature who were unable to write. [Sidenote: -1828 A.D.] Once the people were so sorely displeased with the conduct -of the Governor that they determined to lay their grievances before -the King. Eighty-seven thousand citizens concurred in a statement of -wrongs; but of these only nine thousand possessed the accomplishment -of being able to write their own names--the remainder did not rise -above the ignominy of expressing their approval by a mark. In the -Upper Province the education of the people received some attention. -[Sidenote: 1816 A.D.] The foundations were laid of the present -common-school system of Canada, although as yet an annual grant of -£600 formed the inadequate provision which the Legislature was able to -supply. - -The mutual antipathies of the French and the English colonists -colour all the history of the Lower Province at this period. The -French increased more rapidly than the English. The Council was -mainly British; the Assembly was almost entirely French. The French, -emboldened by their growing numbers, began to dream of forming -themselves into a separate nation. The British did not conceal that -they regarded the French as a conquered people; and they deemed it -a wrong that they, the conquerors, should have no larger influence -on the legislation of the colony. Obscure strifes raged perpetually -among the several branches of the Legislature. Every shilling of -Government expenditure was eagerly scrutinized by the Assembly. The -House wrangled over the amounts and also over the forms and methods -of expenditure. Occasionally it disallowed certain charges, which -the Governor calmly continued to pay on his own responsibility. A -Receiver-General defaulted, and much fiery debate was expended in -fixing the blame of this occurrence on the Governor. [Sidenote: 1822 -A.D.] The English minority sought the extinction of French law and -language, and supported a scheme of union which would have secured -that result. The French, alarmed and indignant, loudly expressed in -public meeting and by huge petitions their opposition to the proposal. -Influential persons continually obtained large gifts of land on unfair -terms, and kept their possessions lying waste, waiting speculatively -for an advance in price, to the inconvenience of honest settlers. Not -contented with the rich crop of grievances which sprang luxuriantly -around them, the House revived the troubles of past years, and vainly -impeached certain judges who were supposed to have been the authors of -forgotten oppressions. Even the House was at war with the Governor: not -infrequently that high-handed official freed himself from the irksome -restraint by sending the members to their homes, and conducting the -government of the colony without their help. - -Upper Canada had its own special troubles. A military spirit had gone -abroad among the people. When the lavish expenditure of the war ceased, -and the colonists were constrained to return in poverty to their -prosaic, everyday occupations, restlessness and discontent spread over -the land. [Sidenote: 1817 A.D.] When the legislative bodies met, the -Assembly, instead of applying itself to its proper business, proceeded -angrily to inquire into the condition of the province. The Governor -would permit no such investigation, and abruptly dismissed the House. -It was complained that a small group of influential persons--named with -abhorrence the Family Compact--monopolized all positions of trust and -power, and ruled the province despotically. The Government connived at -the shutting up of large masses of land, of which speculators had been -allowed improperly to possess themselves. Emigration from the United -States into Canada was forbidden, to the injury of the colony, lest the -political opinions of the colonists should be tainted by association -with republicans. But the ecclesiastical grievance of Upper Canada -surpassed all others in its power to implant mutual hatred in the -minds of the people. An Act passed many years ago (1791) had set apart -one-seventh of all lands granted by Government, “for the support of a -Protestant clergy.” The Church of England set up the monstrous claim -that there were no Protestant clergymen but hers. The Presbyterians, -the Methodists, the Baptists claimed an equal right to the appellation -and to a share in the inheritance. The Roman Catholics proposed that -the “Clergy Reserves,” now extending to three million acres, should -be sold, and the proceeds applied in the interests of religion and -education. No question could have been imagined more amply fitted -to break up the colony into discordant factions. In actual fact the -question of the Clergy Reserves was for upwards of half a century a -perennial source of bitter sectarian strife. - -[Sidenote: 1817 A.D.] While the Canadians were thus dissatisfied with -the political arrangements under which they lived, there arrived -among them one Robert Gourlay, an energetic, restless, erratic -Scotchman, inspired by an intense hatred to despotism, and a passionate -intolerance of abuses. Mr. Gourlay began at once to investigate the -causes which retarded the progress of the colony. He found many evils -which were distinctly traceable to the corruption of the governing -power, and these he mercilessly exposed. The Government replied by a -prosecution for libel, and succeeded after a time in shutting up their -assailant in prison, and ultimately sending him from the country. These -arbitrary proceedings greatly incensed the people, and deepened the -prevailing discord. - -In addition to these internal variances, the provinces had a standing -dispute on a question of revenue. Of the duties levied on goods which -passed up the St. Lawrence river, only one-fifth was paid to Upper -Canada. As the commerce of the province increased, the unfairness of -this distribution was more loudly complained of. The men of the East -were slow to perceive the justice of the complaint, and maintained -their hold upon the revenue despite the exasperation of their brethren -in the West. - -But although these now obscure strifes have been regarded as composing -the history of Canada, they were happily not its life. The increase -of its people and of their intelligence and comfort; the growth of -order and of industry; the unrecorded spread of cultivation along -the banks of the great river and far up its tributary valleys--these -silent operations of natural causes were the life of the provinces. -Their shores were sought by crowds of emigrants. New settlements were -being continually formed. [Sidenote: 1821 A.D.] Steamships began to -ply on the river and on the great lakes, and the improved facilities -of communication quickened the industrial development of the country. -The navigation of the river was grievously impeded by rapids and -waterfalls--the _portages_ of the olden time, at which the red man was -accustomed to draw his canoe from the water and carry it toilsomely -through the forest till he had rounded the obstacle. Canals were now -formed at such points, and ships were enabled to continue their voyages -without interruption. The revenue steadily increased, and every class -was fairly prosperous. Banks had been established in all leading towns. -Agriculture was still exceedingly rude. All agricultural implements -were in insufficient supply; the poor farmers could not obtain so much -as the ploughs they needed, and they were fain to draw out the wealth -of the fertile soil with no better means than manual labour afforded. - -But these evils were in due course of years surmounted, and in the -year 1831, when an estimate of the possessions of the Canadians was -made, the result disclosed an amount of successful industry for which -the world had not given them credit. During the seventy years which -had elapsed since England conquered the valley of the St. Lawrence, -the population had increased from sixty thousand to nearly nine -hundred thousand. With the addition of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, -and the smaller colonies, the American subjects of England numbered -now a million and a quarter. The lands which their toil had redeemed -from wilderness were now valued at seventeen million sterling. Their -cattle and horses were worth seven million; their dwellings and -public buildings had cost them fifteen million; they had two million -invested in the machinery by which the timber of their boundless -forests was prepared for market; in their great cod and seal fisheries -they had a fixed capital of a million and a half. Eight hundred ships -annually visited their ports from Great Britain; in all the branches -of their maritime industry two thousand five hundred arrivals were -registered. They received every year foreign or colonial goods to the -value of two million; and they exported to a somewhat larger extent. -They built ships, and sold them to England; they sent many cargoes of -timber, and much valuable fur; already they produced food beyond their -own consumption, and they sent to Europe wheat and flour and oats -and salted provisions. They shipped fish and fish oils. They burned -down masses of their abundant timber, and having obtained the salts -which combustion set free, they manufactured them into pot and pearl -ashes, and shipped them to Europe for service in bleaching and other -operations. They supplied themselves with sugar from the sap of their -maple trees. They brewed much excellent cider and beer; they distilled -from rye, potatoes, apples, much whisky which was not excellent. - -Quebec and Montreal had grown up into considerable towns, each with a -population of nearly forty thousand, the vast majority of whom were -French. In the bay where Wolfe’s boats stole unobserved and in silence -to the shore, there lay now a fleet of merchant-vessels ministering to -a large and growing commerce. The lower town which the English guns had -destroyed was a bustling, thriving sea-port. Far above, where Montcalm -and Wolfe fought, was now a well-built city, bright with towers and -spires; with its impregnable Citadel; with its Parliament House, said -to be more imposing than that in which the Commons of Great Britain -then assembled; with its Palace for the Governor-General, and its -aspect and tone of metropolitan dignity; with college and schools; with -newspapers and banks, and libraries and charitable societies; with -ship-building, manufacturing, and all the busy marketing which beseems -one of the great haunts of commerce. Those seventy years of English -rule had raised Quebec from the rank of little more than a village to -that of an important city; and had seen the valley of the St. Lawrence -pass out of the condition of wilderness and become the home of a -numerous and prospering population. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE CANADIAN REVOLUTION. - - -The progress of years did not allay, but, on the contrary, steadily -enhanced the fever of political discontent which now pervaded the -colonies. The measure of representation which they enjoyed had seemed, -when the Act of Pitt conferred it upon them, fairly satisfactory; but -after the close of the great European war political opinion ripened -fast, and the freedom which had seemed ample in 1791 was intolerably -insufficient forty years later. The colonists perceived that they were -living under a despotism. Their Executive and one of their legislative -chambers were appointed by the Crown, without regard to the popular -wish. Only the Lower Chamber was chosen by the people, and its action -was constantly frustrated by the Governor, the aristocratic advisers by -whom his policy was guided, and his ally the Council. On their southern -border lay the territories of a great nation, whose people enjoyed -complete political freedom and appointed all their rulers. The United -States had so prospered that their population was now tenfold that of -Canada; and their more rapid growth was traced, in the general belief, -to the larger freedom of their institutions. In England the engrossing -occupation of the people had been, for many years, the extending of -their liberties, the rescue of political power from the hands by which -it had been irregularly appropriated. The Englishmen of Canada could -not remain unmoved by the things which had come to pass among the -Englishmen of America and of England. - -[Sidenote: 1820 A.D.] When the Canadians of the Upper Province were -awakening to a perception of the evils under which they suffered, -there arrived among them an adventurous young Scotchman destined to -leave deep traces on their political history. His name was William -Lyon Mackenzie. He had already played many parts in various Scotch -and English towns, with but indifferent success. In Canada he resumed -his quest of a livelihood; but finding nothing at first to meet his -requirements, he devoted himself to political reform, and set up a -newspaper. His love of reform and his hatred of abuses were genuine -and deep; his mind was acute and energetic; but his temperament was -too impulsive to permit sufficient consideration of the course which -he intended to pursue. The very first number of his paper awakened -the sensibilities of all who profited by corruption. He continued his -unwelcome diligence in the investigation and exposure of abuses, and in -rousing the public mind to demand an enlargement of political privilege. - -There were many grounds of difference between the party of Reform and -the governing power. Justice, it was said, was impurely administered; -the Governor persisted in refusing to yield to the Assembly control -over certain important branches of the public revenue, and continued -to administer these at his own pleasure. The Governors fell into the -hands of the small influential party known as the Family Compact, -which filled all public offices with its own adherents. The grievances -of which the Assembly complained were debated in a spirit of intense -bitterness. On one occasion the Assembly censured the Governor, and -was in turn rebuked for its want of courtesy. Mackenzie was five -times expelled from the House, and was as often elected. On one -occasion the Assembly refused to grant supplies to the Governor, and -the Governor avenged himself by rejecting the Bill which members had -passed for payment of their own salaries. But gradually, with growing -enlightenment, all these trivial discontents consolidated into one loud -and urgent demand for responsible government. It was perceived that -with a Ministry responsible to the Assembly an adequate measure of -constitutional liberty would be secured. - -The politics of the Lower Province were more complex. There was a -British Reform party, having aims identical with those of their -brethren in the west: the overthrow of the despotic Family Compact, -full control of revenue by the Assembly, better administration of -justice, improved management of Crown lands--all summed up in the -demand for responsible government. There was also a French party, -greatly more numerous than the other, and seeming to concur with it in -many of its opinions. But the real aims of the Frenchmen were wholly at -variance with those of the British. They desired to increase the power -of the Assembly, because they themselves composed seven-eighths of that -body. It was still their hope to establish a French nation on the banks -of the St. Lawrence; to preserve old French law and custom; to shut out -British immigrants, and possess the soil for their own people. - -The British Government was bewildered by the complicated strife in -which it was constantly importuned to interfere. There were petitions -full of grievances; on one occasion there were ninety-two resolutions, -which were laid before King and Parliament by the French party, and -copiously answered by the British; there were constant and querulous -statements of wrongs presented to the Governor. Out of doors a bitter -and uncompromising strife raged. The British were denounced as tyrants, -usurpers, foreigners. The French were scorned as a subjugated race, and -reprobated as ungrateful rebels who had been treated too leniently. -The British Government manifested an anxious desire to understand and -to heal those pernicious strifes. It decreed Committees of Inquiry; it -sent Commissions to investigate on the spot; it appointed conciliatory -Governors; it made numerous small concessions, in the vain hope of -appeasing the entangled and inexplicable discontents of its distant -subjects. - -The disaffected Frenchmen were ruled, during their unhappy progress -towards rebellion, by Louis Joseph Papineau, a man whose years should -have brought him wisdom, for he was now in middle-life; ambitious, -restless, eloquent, with power to lead his ignorant countrymen at his -pleasure, and without prudence to direct his authority to good ends. - -[Sidenote: 1837 A.D.] This mischievous person occupied himself in -persuading the peasants of the Montreal district to throw off the -British yoke and establish themselves as an independent nation. His -efforts were not wholly without success. The peasantry began to arm -and to drill. The symbols of French dominion, the tri-coloured flag -and the eagle, were constantly displayed; the revolutionary songs of -France were sung by turbulent mobs in the streets of Montreal. These -evidences of inflamed feeling pointed decisively to violence. The -Roman Catholic clergy took part with the Government, and sought to -hold the excited people to their duty by threatening disturbers of the -peace with the extreme penalties of ecclesiastical law. Many persons -were restrained by the terrors thus announced, and the dimensions of -the rebellious movement were lessened. But no considerations, sacred -or secular, sufficed to restrain Papineau and his deluded followers -from a series of violent proceedings, which have been dignified by the -name of rebellion, but which were really nothing more than serious -riots. Bands of armed peasantry ranged the country around Montreal; -the well-affected inhabitants sought shelter in the city, and their -homesteads were ravaged by the invaders. At several points a few -hundred men drew together to withstand the Government forces and were -defeated. One such body, unable to abide the conflict which they had -provoked, threw down their arms and implored pardon. During a period -of five or six weeks these disorders continued, but the firm action of -the Governor restored tranquillity. Papineau, the unworthy instigator -of the disturbances, fled so soon as fighting began, and sought -inglorious security beyond the frontier. A little later, some bodies of -American marauders appeared in the Montreal district, hoping to renew -the disturbance; but they too were quickly dispersed. The Governor -acted with much leniency towards those rebels who became his prisoners. -With few exceptions they were set at liberty; and even those who were -detained for a time were discharged on giving security for future good -behaviour. Of the foreigners who were captured in arms, several were -put to death, and many suffered lengthened captivity. - -The disorders of the Lower Province had scarcely been quelled, when -Mackenzie, followed by the more extreme and injudicious advocates of -reform, precipitated in Upper Canada a movement equally insignificant -and unsuccessful. These persons went to war avowedly to secure complete -responsibility of government to the people. This was undeniably the -prevailing desire of the province; but it was found that while many -desired this excellent reform, few were prepared to incur for its sake -the evils which rebellion must necessarily bring. Fifteen hundred men -enrolled themselves under the banner of Mackenzie. An attack upon -Toronto was devised, and was defeated with ease. [Sidenote: Dec. -1837 A.D.] Mackenzie fled to the United States, where he was able to -organize some bands of lawless men for a marauding expedition into -Canada. They, too, were routed, and order was easily restored. - -These wretched disturbances served a purpose which peaceful agitation -had thus far failed to accomplish--they compelled the earnest attention -of the British Parliament to the wishes of the colonists. On the eve -of the rebellion, Government had explicitly refused to grant the boon -of ministerial responsibility, and carried an Act by which powers were -given to the Governor to make certain payments which the Assembly had -for some years refused to make. The British Government of the day was a -Liberal Government. Lord John Russell was one of its members, a man who -for many years had devoted himself to the cause of reform at home. It -was Lord John Russell who now led the House of Commons in its denial to -the colonies of that popular control over government which was deemed -essential for England. No perception of the glaring inconsistency -disturbed the minds of the most genuine reformers, for an erring theory -of the true position and rights of colonists still prevailed. Even -the Liberal party had not yet learned to recognize an Englishman who -had taken up his abode in the valley of the St. Lawrence as the equal -in political right of the Englishman who remained at home. A colony -was still an association of persons who had established themselves on -some distant portion of national territory, and whose affairs were -to be administered with reference chiefly to the interests of the -mother country. Colonists were not allowed to trade freely where they -chose. They must purchase from England all the goods which they might -require; all their surplus productions must be sent home for sale. -Their attempts to manufacture were sternly repressed. It was expected -of them that they should cultivate that portion of the national soil -which had been assigned to them, reserving for the mother country the -profitable supply of all their wants, the profitable disposal of all -their productions. The ships of strangers were rigorously excluded; no -foreign keel had ploughed the waters of the St. Lawrence since French -ships bore home to Europe the men whom Wolfe defeated. - -No less clear was the political inferiority of the colonist. A colony -was still regarded as a subordinate and dependent portion of the -empire, whose position rendered impossible its admission to equality -of privilege. It could not be intrusted with the unqualified control -of its own destinies; it must needs accept also the guidance of the -Colonial Office. This was the tie which bound the colony to the mother -country; but for this Canada would certainly yield to the influences -of prosperous republicanism in its neighbourhood, and cast off the -authority of the Crown. So reasoned the Whig statesmen of forty years -ago; and their reasoning was replied to by widespread discontent, the -depth of which was revealed by lurid and ominous flashes of rebellion. -It became necessary to revise the traditional estimate of colonial -right. - -[Sidenote: October, 1839 A.D.] The progress of ministerial opinion -made itself apparent in the despatches of Lord John Russell. His -Lordship would not yet explicitly acknowledge the responsibility of -the Executive to the representatives of the people. But he assured the -colonists that Her Majesty would in future look to their “affectionate -attachment” as the best security for permanent dominion, and that she -would not maintain among them any policy which opinion condemned. The -friends of responsible government perceived that their hour of triumph -was near. - -Many evils had flowed from the separation of the provinces effected -by Pitt fifty years before. It still suited the interests of the -unreforming party in the Upper Province and the French Canadians in -the Lower to maintain the separation. But it was clear to all men who -sought merely the public good that existing arrangements had become -unendurable. The position of both colonies called urgently for measures -of reconstruction. The constitution of Lower Canada had been suspended -during the rebellion, and had not yet been restored. The finances of -the Upper Province were in disorder; public works were discontinued; -business was paralyzed; immigration had ceased. It was widely felt that -industrial progress was fatally impeded by separation; that the only -remedy for the evils under which Canada suffered was the legislative -union of the two provinces. - -The British Government was known to favour this measure; the Liberals -in both provinces were eager in its support; the Conservatives of -the Upper Province ceased from resistance under loyal impulses; the -French Canadians had by their attitude during the late disturbances -forfeited their claim to consideration. [Sidenote: July, 1840 A.D.] The -Union Bill was passed by the Legislatures of both provinces and by the -Imperial Parliament, and the enfeebling separation which the jealousies -of an earlier time had imposed was finally cancelled. - -Canada was henceforth to be ruled by a Governor, a Legislative Council, -and a Legislative Assembly. The Governor and Council were appointed by -the Crown; the Assembly was chosen by the people. The representation -was shared equally by the provinces--ten members of Council, and -forty-two members of Assembly being assigned to each. The Assembly -had control of all branches of the public revenue. The Governor was -advised by an Executive Council of eight members, who, if they were -members of Assembly, required re-election when they accepted a place -in the Council. When the Council no longer commanded a majority in the -Assembly it ceased to hold office. The long-desired boon of responsible -government was thus at length secured; the traditional inferiority of -the colonist was cancelled; it was recognized that an Englishman who -bore his part in building up new empires in distant places did not -therefore forfeit the rights of a free-born English subject. To insure -and hasten the use of this new method of colonial government, a command -came to the Governor-General, in the Queen’s name, to the effect that -he should rule in accordance with the feelings and opinions of the -people, as these were expressed by the popular representatives. For a -few years there was an imperfect application of a principle hitherto -unknown in Canadian history; but gradually the people learned to -enforce and the Government to recognize the newly conferred privilege. -The great revolution which raised the Canadians to the rank of a fully -self-governing people was complete. - -The foundations were now laid upon which the colonists could peacefully -build themselves up into a great industrial nation. But the antipathies -of race which had hitherto vexed and frustrated them were not -immediately allayed. The united British population of the two provinces -now outnumbered the French, and was able to give law to the colony. -The French element was surrounded by a British element of superior -strength, of superior intelligence and energy, attracting continually -reinforcements from the mother country. The hope of erecting a French -power in the valley of the St. Lawrence was now extinct, and the -Frenchmen had no longer any higher prospect than that of peaceful -citizenship under the rule of men whom they regarded as foreigners. -They remained apart, following their own customs, cherishing their own -prejudices, refusing to intermingle with the British population among -whom they lived. - -Political animosity was for some years exceptionally bitter. Soon after -the union it was roused to unwonted fury by a proposal to compensate -those persons in Lower Canada who had suffered destruction of their -property during the rebellion. The British Conservative party offered -a discreditable resistance to this proposal. It was not intended that -any persons engaged in the rebellion should participate in the benefits -of the measure. But the unreasonable British asserted that they, the -loyal men, were being taxed for the advantage of rebels. [Sidenote: -1849 A.D.] When the Bill was passed, the rabble of Montreal pelted with -stones Lord Elgin, who was then Governor-General; they threatened, -in their unbridled rage, to annex themselves with the United States; -they invaded and dispersed the Assembly; they burned to the ground -the building in which their Parliament held its sittings. From that -day Montreal ceased to be the seat of Government. For a few years -Parliament alternated between Quebec and Toronto. That system having -been found inconvenient, the Queen was requested to select a permanent -home for the Government of the colony. [Sidenote: 1858 A.D.] Her -Majesty’s choice fell upon Bytown, a thriving little city, occupying a -situation of romantic beauty, on the river which divided the provinces. -The capital of the Dominion received a name more fully in keeping with -its metropolitan dignity, and was henceforth styled Ottawa. - -The course of prosperous years soothed the bitterness of party hatred, -and the Canadian Legislature applied itself to measures of internal -amelioration and development. Thus far the inestimable advantage of -municipal institutions had not been enjoyed in Canada. The Legislature -regulated all local concerns;--took upon itself the charge of roads, -bridges, and schools; of the poor; of such sanitary arrangements as -existed; and the people contracted the enfeebling habit of leaving -their local affairs to be administered by the Government. [Sidenote: -1849 A.D.] This grave evil was now corrected; the Legislature was -relieved of unnecessary burdens; and the people learned to exercise an -intelligent interest in the conduct of their own local business. - -Canada had now to accept the perfect freedom of trade which the mother -country had at length adopted for herself. [Sidenote: 1846-50 A.D.] -All restraints were now withdrawn; all duties which bestowed upon the -colonist advantages over his foreign rival ceased. The Canadians might -now buy and sell where they chose. Foreign ships were now free to sail -the long-forbidden waters of the St. Lawrence. The change was not, in -the outset, a welcome one. The Canadians were not fully prepared for an -open competition with their neighbours of the United States. For a time -trade languished, and there was a loud and bitter cry that the mother -country disregarded the interests of her dependency. But the wholesome -discipline of necessity taught the Canadians self-reliance. The -adoption of a policy of unaided and unrestricted commerce inaugurated -for the Canadians a period of enterprise and development such as they -had not previously known. - -After some years of steadily growing commerce, the Canadians bethought -them of the mutual benefits which would result from freedom of -trade between themselves and their neighbours of the United States. -[Sidenote: 1854 A.D.] Lord Elgin, who was then Governor-General, was -able to arrange a treaty by which this end was gained. The products of -each country were admitted, without duty, to the other. The Americans -gained free access to the great fisheries of Canada, to the rivers -St. Lawrence and St. John, and all the canals by which navigation was -facilitated. For eleven years this treaty remained in force, to the -advantage of both the contracting powers. But the idea of protection -had gained during those years increased hold upon the minds of the -American people. [Sidenote: 1866 A.D.] The American Government now -resolved to terminate the treaty. Grave inconveniences resulted to many -classes of Americans. The New England States missed the supplies of -cheap food which their manufacturing population received from Canada. -The brewers of New York and Philadelphia had to find elsewhere, and -at higher prices, the barley which Canada was accustomed to send. -Woollen manufacturers could not obtain the serviceable varieties of -raw material which the flocks of their northern neighbours supplied. -Railway companies experienced the sudden loss of a large and lucrative -traffic. Canada did not suffer materially by the termination of the -Reciprocity Treaty. She found new outlets for her products, and the -growth of her commerce was not appreciably interrupted. - -The progress of education had in the Upper Province kept pace with -the increase of population. But the common school was yet very -insufficiently established in Lower Canada. The polite, genial, -industrious French _habitant_ was almost wholly uninstructed, and -suffered his children to grow up in the blind ignorance of which -he himself had not even discovered the evils. [Sidenote: 1850 A.D.] -There was now set up an educational system adapted to his special -requirements, but of which he was not swift to avail himself. - -The question of the Clergy Reserves had been for generations a -perennial source of vexation. The Episcopalians persisted in -asserting themselves as the only Protestant Church; the Presbyterians -and Methodists rejected with indignation and scorn the audacious -pretension. In all countries where religious divisions prevail, the -exaltation of any one sect above the others is obviously unjust, and -must in its results disturb the harmony of the nation. Especially is -this true of a colony where the notion of equality is indigenous, and -men do not so easily, as in an old country, reconcile themselves to the -assumption of superiority by a favoured class. The existence of a State -Church became intolerable to the Canadian people. [Sidenote: 1854 A.D.] -An Act was passed which severed the connection of Church and State. All -life-interests--Episcopalian and Presbyterian--having been provided -for, the lands and funds which remained were divided among the several -municipalities on the basis of the population which they possessed. -No important question of an ecclesiastical nature has since that time -disturbed the tranquillity of the colony, if we except the demand of -the Roman Catholics for a system of education apart from that of the -common school. - -The feudal tenure of lands still prevailed among the Frenchmen of -the Lower Province. The seigneurs to whose ancestors Louis XIV. had -granted large tracts of land, in the hope of building up a Canadian -aristocracy, still levied their dues; still enforced their right to -grind, at oppressive rates of charge, all the corn grown upon their -land; still imposed upon the Canadians those cruel exactions which -Frenchmen of seventy years ago had been unable to endure. The system -was long complained against as a grievance which held the French -population in a position of inferiority to the British. [Sidenote: -1859 A.D.] The rights of the seigneurs were now purchased by the -province for a payment of one million dollars, and this antiquated and -barbarous method of holding ceased to press upon the interests of the -colony. - -For some years after the union of the provinces there had been a sudden -influx of settlers attracted from the old country by the improving -prospects of the colony. In the quarter century which followed the -battle of Waterloo, half a million of emigrants left Britain for -Canada. But in the two years of 1846-47, the number was a quarter of a -million, and the average for ten years had been nearly sixty thousand. -Means were now used to stimulate these enriching currents. Hitherto -the emigrant had been unregarded. He was suffered to take his passage -in ships which were not seaworthy, and which were fatally overcrowded. -When he arrived, often poor and ignorant, sometimes plague-stricken, -he was uncared for. Now he was welcomed as a stranger who came to -contribute to the wealth and greatness of the Dominion. Officers were -appointed to protect him from the plunderers who lay in wait for him. -His urgent wants were supplied; information was given him by which his -future course might safely be guided. - -The passion for constructing railways, which raged in England in the -year 1845, sent its influences into Canada. The colonists began to -discuss arrangements for connecting the great cities of their extended -Dominion. But the need in Canada was less urgent than elsewhere, and -the difficulties were greater. The inhabited region lay for the most -part on the shores of the Great Lakes, or of the St. Lawrence and its -tributaries, where easy communication by steam-boat was enjoyed. On the -other hand, distances were great, population was scanty; capital for -the construction of railways and traffic for their support were alike -awanting. For years Canada was unable to pass beyond the initial stage -of surveys and reports and meetings to discuss, and vain attempts to -obtain help from the imperial exchequer. [Sidenote: 1852 A.D.] After -seven years thus passed, a railway mania burst out in Canada. In one -session of Parliament fifteen railway Bills were passed, and the number -rose to twenty-eight in the following session. The most notable of -the projects thus authorized was the Grand Trunk Railway--a gigantic -enterprise, which proposed to connect Montreal with Toronto, and Quebec -with Rivière du Loup. So urgent was now the desire for railways, that -the Legislature incurred liabilities on account of this undertaking to -the enormous amount of nearly five million sterling; to which extent -the colonial exchequer is and will probably always remain a loser. - -The financial position of Canada had been hitherto satisfactory. Her -entire debt was four million and a half; an expenditure of £600,000 met -all her requirements, and her revenue largely exceeded this sum; her -securities bore a premium on the Stock Exchanges of England. [Sidenote: -1852 A.D.] But now Canada, in her eagerness for more rapid development, -began with liberal hand to offer aid to industrial undertakings. -She contributed freely to the making of railways. She encouraged -the municipalities to borrow upon her security for the construction -of roads and bridges, and for other necessary public works. The -municipalities, with responsive alacrity, borrowed and expended; a -genial activity pervaded all industries; and the development of Canada -advanced with more rapid step than at any previous period. But the -country was providing for wants which had not yet arisen, and the -premature expenditure brought upon her unwelcome and oppressive burdens -of debt and of taxation.[19] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CONFEDERATION. - - -The political system which existed in British America before the union -of the two provinces was in a high degree inconvenient. There were, in -all, six colonies--Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, -Newfoundland, and the two Canadas. They were the subjects of the same -Monarch, but they possessed no other bond of union. Their interests -were often in conflict; their laws and customs differed widely; each -had its own currency; each maintained its own custom-house, to tax or -to exclude the products of the others. They were without any bond of -union, excepting that which the common sovereignty of England supplied; -and they were habitually moved by jealousies and antipathies, which -were more powerful to divide than this was to unite. Along their -frontiers lay the territory of prosperous States, living under a -political system which bound them together by community of interest, -while it adequately preserved and guaranteed the free individual action -of each. The success of confederation, as seen on the vast arena of -the United States, silently educated the British settlements for the -adoption of that political system which alone met the necessities of -their position. - -The union of Upper and Lower Canada was the largest progress then -possible in the direction of removing the evils which prevailed. -This union closed some of the most injurious of existing divisions, -and allowed a more rapid development of the national resources than -had been previously experienced. But the permanent form of Canadian -government had not yet been reached. The difference of race and -interest still operated to mar the harmonious action of the united -Legislature. The childish jealousy of the imperfectly reconciled -sections led, among other evils, to wasteful expenditure; for no grant -of money could be voted for necessary public works to either section -without an equal grant being made needlessly to the other. At the time -of the union, an equality in number of representatives was accepted as -just to both provinces. But Upper Canada increased more rapidly than -the sister province, and in ten years contained a larger population. -[Sidenote: 1857 A.D.] A demand arose for representation according to -population, and without regard to the division of provinces. This -proposal was keenly opposed in Lower Canada, as a violation of the -terms of union. It was as keenly pressed in the western province; it -became the theme of much fervid eloquence, and for a time the rallying -cry at elections. The leader of this movement was George Brown--a -Scotchman and Presbyterian, a man of great ability and energy, and -an earnest reformer of abuses. It was the hope of Mr. Brown and his -followers, that by gaining the parliamentary majority, to which Upper -Canada was now by her numbers entitled, they would frustrate the demand -for sectarian schools, and would equip completely a common-school -system for the whole of both provinces. Still further, Upper Canada -would control the revenue, and by useful public works would develop the -resources of the great North-West. - -The controversy was bitter and exasperating, and resulted in nothing -more than a deepened feeling that some important modification of -existing arrangements had become indispensable. [Sidenote: 1860 A.D.] -Mr. Brown gave expression to the opinion now widely entertained in -Upper Canada, in two resolutions, which he invited the Legislature -to accept. These asserted that the union, from difference of origin, -local interest, and other causes, had proved a failure; and suggested, -as the only remedy, the formation of local governments for the care -of sectional interests, and the erection of a joint authority for the -regulation of concerns which were common to all. In this form the -proposal of a confederated government, following as closely as possible -the model of the United States, was placed before the country. The idea -was not new. [Sidenote: 1822 1839 A.D.] Once it had been recommended -by the Colonial Office; once by Lord Durham, during his rule as -Governor-General. Often in seasons of political difficulty it had been -the hope of embarrassed statesmen. But the time had not yet come, and -Mr. Brown’s resolutions were rejected by large majorities. - -The succeeding years were unquiet and even alarming. Political passion -rose to an extreme degree of violence. The mutual hatred of parties was -vehement and unreasoning. Every question with which the Legislature had -to deal was the arena on which a furious battle must needs be waged. -The opposing parties met in fiery conflict over the construction of -railways, over the tariff, over the defence of the colony against a -possible invasion by the Americans, over the proposed confederation, -over every detail of the policy of Government. The public interests -suffered; the natural progress of the colony was frustrated by these -unseemly dissensions. At length the leaders of the contending factions -became weary of strife. [Sidenote: 1864 A.D.] George Brown, on behalf -of the reforming party, wisely offered terms of peace to his opponents. -A coalition Government was formed, with the express design of carrying -out a confederation of the two Canadas, with a provision for the -reception of the other provinces and of the North-West Territory. The -new Cabinet entered promptly upon the task which it had undertaken. -[Sidenote: October, 1864 A.D.] Within a few weeks there met in -Quebec for conference on this momentous question thirty-three men, -representing the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, -Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. They met in private, and -discussed for seventeen days the details of a union which should -harmonize and promote the interests of all. The desired reconciliation -was not easily attained; for each province estimated with natural -exaggeration the advantages which it brought into the confederation, -and sought a higher position than the others were willing to concede. -But in the end a scheme of union was framed, and the various -Governments pledged themselves that they would spare no effort to -secure its adoption by the Legislatures. A party of resistance arose, -and years of debate ensued. But time fought on the side of union. The -evils of the existing political system became increasingly apparent -in the light thrown by incessant discussion. The separated provinces -were weak for purposes of defence; their commerce was strangled by -the restrictive duties which they imposed on one another. United, -they would form a great nation, possessing a magnificent territory, -inhabited by an intelligent and industrious people; formidable to -assailants; commanding a measure of respect to which they had hitherto -been strangers; with boundless capabilities of increase opening to all -their industrial interests. - -[Sidenote: 1866 A.D.] Under the growing influence of views such as -these, the confederation of the provinces was at length resolved on -by the Legislatures of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick; and in -the following year a Royal Proclamation announced the union of these -provinces into one Dominion, which was styled Canada. A little later, -Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were received into -the union. Newfoundland refused to join her sister States, and still -maintains her independent existence. - -Under the constitution which the Dominion now received, executive -power is vested in the Queen, and administered by her representative, -the Governor-General. This officer is aided and advised by a Privy -Council, composed of the heads of the various great departments of -State. The Senate is composed of seventy-eight members appointed by the -Crown, and holding office for life. The House of Commons consists of -two hundred and six members. These are chosen by the votes of citizens -possessing a property qualification, the amount of which varies in the -different provinces. Canada gives the franchise to those persons in -towns who pay a yearly rent of £6, and to those not in towns who pay -£4; New Brunswick demands the possession of real estate valued at £20, -or an annual income of £80; and Nova Scotia is almost identical in her -requirements. The duration of Parliament is limited to five years, and -its members receive payment. The Parliament of the Dominion regulates -the interests which are common to all the provinces; each province has -a Lieutenant-Governor and a Legislature for the guidance of its own -local affairs. Entire freedom of trade was henceforth to exist between -the provinces which composed the Canadian nation. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE MARITIME PROVINCES. - - -On the outer margin of the great bay into which the waters of the St. -Lawrence discharge themselves, there lie certain British provinces -which had till now maintained their colonial existence apart from the -sister States of the interior. The oldest and most famous of these -was Nova Scotia--the Acadie of the French period--within whose limits -the Province of New Brunswick had been included. Northwards, across -the entrance to the bay, was the island of Newfoundland. The Gulf -Stream, moving northwards its vast currents of heated water, meets -here an ice-cold stream descending from the Arctic Sea, and is turned -eastward towards the coasts of Europe. The St. Lawrence deposits -here the accumulations of silt which its waters have disengaged in -their lengthened course, and forms great banks which stretch for many -hundreds of miles out into the ocean. These banks are the haunt of -icebergs escaping from the frozen North; perpetual fogs clothe them -in gloom. But they offer to man wealth such as he cannot elsewhere -win from the sea. The fisheries of the Newfoundland Banks were the -earliest inducement which led Europeans to frequent those seemingly -inhospitable shores. The Maritime Provinces were more easily accessible -than Canada, for they abounded in commodious inlets where ships could -enter and lie secure. They were placed at the difficult entrance to the -St. Lawrence valley, and their value was more immediately apparent. -Their possession was keenly contended for, at a time when England had -not made up her mind to seek, and France scarcely cared to retain, the -interior of the northern continent. - -The Cabots were the first Europeans who looked upon the rugged shores -of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and England therefore claimed those -regions as her own. But France actually took possession of the Acadian -peninsula. Small settlements were founded here and there, and a -profitable trade in furs was carried on with the Indians, who came -from great distances on the mainland to acquire the attractive wares -which the white men offered. During its first century Acadie had -an unquiet life. England would allow the poor colonists no repose. -During those periods--and they constantly recurred--when the two -great European powers were at war, the roving ships of England were -sure to visit the feeble Acadian settlements, bringing ruin, sudden -and deep. The colonists of Massachusetts or of distant Virginia, now -grown strong, did not wait for the pretext of war, but freely invaded -Acadie even during the intervals of peace. The French incautiously -provoked the resentment of their Indian neighbours, and the treacherous -savages exacted bloody vengeance for their wrongs. And as if foreign -hostility were not sufficient, civil wars raged among the Acadians. At -one unhappy time there were rival governors in Acadie, with battles, -sieges, massacres of Frenchmen by French hands. But even these miseries -did not prevent some measure of growth. Before Acadie finally passed -away from France, there were twenty thousand Frenchmen engaged in its -fisheries and its fur trade. - -[Sidenote: 1713 A.D.] A hundred years after the first French settlement -on the Acadian peninsula, there came to a close, in the reign of -Queen Anne, the desolating war against Louis XIV., which King William -had deemed essential to the welfare of Europe. England, as was her -practice at such seasons, had possessed herself of Acadie. Hitherto -she had been accustomed to restore Acadie at the close of each war. -Now she determined to retain it; and exhausted France submitted, by -the treaty of Utrecht, to the loss. Acadie became Nova Scotia; Port -Royal became Annapolis, in honour of the English Queen. Cape Breton, -an island adjoining Acadie on the north, was suffered to remain a -French possession; and here France hastened, at vast expense, to build -and fortify Louisburg, for the protection of her American trade. -Thirty years later, the English besieged and took Louisburg. France -strove hard, but vainly, to regain a fortress the loss of which shook -her hold of all her American possessions. A great fleet sailed from -France to achieve this conquest. But evil fortune attended it from -the outset. The English captured some of the ships; tempest wrecked -or scattered the others. Fresh efforts invited new disasters; the -attempt to repossess Louisburg was closed by the destruction or capture -of an entire French fleet. But France had fought more successfully -in India, and when the terms of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle came -to be adjusted, she received back Louisburg in exchange for Madras. -[Sidenote: 1748 A.D.] It remained in her possession for ten years more, -and then passed finally away from her, along with all the rest of her -American territory. - -The first care of England, when Nova Scotia became decisively hers, -was to provide herself with a fortified harbour and naval station -adequate to the wants of her extended dominion. Her ships in large -numbers frequented those Western waters, intent upon the protection of -her own interests and the overthrow of the interests of France. Some -well-defended and easily-accessible position was required, where fleets -could rendezvous, where ships could refit, from which the possessions -of France in the north and of Spain in the south could be menaced. A -site was chosen on the eastern shore of the island, where a magnificent -natural harbour opens to the sea. Here, on a lofty slope, arose the -town of Halifax, the great centre of British naval influence on the -American coast. [Sidenote: 1749 A.D.] Four thousand adventurers arrived -from England, tempted by liberal offers of land. During the months of -one brief summer, houses were built, and defences were erected against -unfriendly neighbours. The forest trees of that lovely hill-side -disappeared, and in their place arose a busy English town. - -The Indians of Nova Scotia did not look with approval upon the -occupation of their territory by the English. They lurked in the -woods around Halifax, or they stole silently along by night in their -light canoes, and as they found fitting opportunity they plundered -and slew. Once they burst upon the sleeping crews of two vessels -lying in the harbour, murdering some, and carrying away others to be -sold to the French at Louisburg. England held the Frenchmen of the -province responsible for these outrages. The Acadians were a simple, -light-hearted people, living contentedly in the rude comfort which -the harvest of sea and of land yielded to them. But they did not at -once assent to the revolution which handed them over to a foreign -power, and they refused to swear allegiance to the English King. The -Governor dealt very sternly with these reluctant subjects. [Sidenote: -1755 A.D.] He gathered up as many as he could find, and having crowded -them on board his ships, he scattered them among the southern English -colonies. He burned their houses, he confiscated their goods. Nearly -one-half of the Acadians were thus sent forcibly away from homes which -were rightfully their own. Of the others, some escaped into the woods, -and finally into Canada. Many perished under this cruel treatment, -and nearly all fell from comparative ease and comfort into extreme -wretchedness. - -For some years Nova Scotia was without any semblance of representative -government, contenting herself with the mild despotism of the Governor. -At length, when this arrangement ceased to give satisfaction, an -Assembly chosen by the people met in Halifax. Henceforth Nova Scotia -enjoyed the privilege of self-government, and her political history -runs for the most part parallel with that of Canada. [Sidenote: 1758 -A.D.] She had the same prolonged conflict with the Governor in regard -to control of the revenue, the same grievance of a despotic family -compact, the same determination that the advisers of the Governor -should be responsible to the Assembly. The population was mixed -and inharmonious. There were Germans and Dutchmen; there were some -remnants of the Acadians who had been permitted to return; there were -American loyalists fleeing before triumphant republicanism; there were -the English who founded Halifax. Soon, however, the preponderance of -the English element was decisive, and Nova Scotia was spared those -envenomed dissensions which difference of race originated in the -Canadian provinces. At the close of her separate existence Nova Scotia -did not embrace with entire cordiality the project of confederation. A -strong minority opposed union. But wiser counsels in the end prevailed, -and this province, although not without hesitation, cast in her lot -with the others. - -Nova Scotia has an area equal to rather more than one-half that of -Scotland, with a population of four hundred thousand persons; and as -nearly all of these are natives of the province, it does not appear -that many strangers have recently sought homes upon her soil. The -country is beautifully diversified with valley and with hill, and -bright with river and with lake. Much of the land is abundantly -fertile, and a careful and intelligent system of cultivation is -practised. Near the sea-board are vast treasures of coal and iron, of -copper and tin. No equal length of coast in any part of the world has -been more abundantly supplied with convenient harbours. In a distance -of one hundred miles there are no fewer than twelve harbours capable of -receiving the largest vessels in the British navy. The salmon rivers of -Acadie are second only to those of Scotland. The ocean-fishings are so -productive that Nova Scotia exports products of the sea to the annual -value of one million sterling. - -New Brunswick is the latest born of the American settlements. For many -years after the conquest her fertile soil lay almost uncultivated, -and her population was nothing more than a few hundred fishermen. It -was at the close of the American War of Independence that the era -of progress in New Brunswick began. Across the frontier, in the New -England States, were many persons who had fought in the British ranks, -to perpetuate a system of government which their neighbours had agreed -to reject as tyrannical and injurious. These men were now regarded with -aversion, as traitors to the great cause. Finding life intolerable -amid surroundings so uncongenial, they shook from their feet the dust -of the revolted provinces, and moved northwards with their families -in quest of lands which were still ruled by monarchy. Five thousand -came in one year. They came so hastily, and with so little provision -for their own wants, that they must have perished, but for the timely -aid of the Government. [Sidenote: 1785 A.D.] But their presence added -largely to the importance of New Brunswick, which was now dissociated -from Nova Scotia, and erected into a separate province. At this time, -when she attained the dignity of an administration specially her own, -her population was only six thousand, scattered over an area nearly -equal to that of Scotland. But her soil was fertile; she abounded in -coal and in timber; her fisheries were inexhaustibly productive. Her -progress was not unworthy of the advantages with which Nature had -endowed her. In twenty years her inhabitants had doubled. In half a -century the struggling six thousand had increased to one hundred and -fifty thousand. To-day the population of New Brunswick exceeds three -hundred thousand. This rate of increase, although the numbers dealt -with are not large, is greatly higher than that of the United States -themselves. In the treaty by which England recognized the independence -of her thirteen colonies, the boundary of New Brunswick and of Maine -was fixed carelessly and unskilfully. It was defined to be, on the -extreme east, a certain river St. Croix. Westward from the source of -that river it was a line drawn thence to the highlands, dividing the -waters which flow to the Atlantic from those which flow to the St. -Lawrence. The records even of diplomacy would be searched in vain for -an agreement more fertile in misunderstanding. The negotiators were -absolutely ignorant of the country whose limits they were appointed -to fix. Especially were they unaware that the devout Frenchmen who -first settled there were accustomed to set up numerous crosses along -the coast, and that the name La Croix was in consequence given to -many rivers. In a few years it was found that the contracting powers -differed as to the identity of the river St. Croix. The Americans -applied the name to one stream, the British to another. That portion of -the controversy was settled in favour of Britain. But a more serious -difficulty now rose to view. The powers differed as to the locality of -the “highlands” designated by the treaty, and a “disputed territory” of -twelve thousand square miles lay between the competing boundary-lines. -For sixty years angry debate raged over this territory, and the strife -at one period came to the perilous verge of actual war. The people of -New Brunswick exercised the privilege of felling timber on the disputed -territory. [Sidenote: 1839 A.D.] The Governor of Maine sent an armed -force to expel the intruders, and called out ten thousand militiamen -to assert the rights of America. The Governor of New Brunswick replied -by sending two regiments, with a competent artillery. Nova Scotia -voted money and troops. But the time had passed when it was possible -for England and America to fight in so light a quarrel as this. Lord -Ashburton was sent out by England; Daniel Webster, on the part of -America, was appointed to meet him. [Sidenote: 1842 A.D.] The dispute -was easily settled by assigning seven thousand square miles to America -and five thousand to New Brunswick. - -Newfoundland was the earliest of the British settlements on the -northern shores of America, and it was also, down to a late period, -the most imperfectly known. Even from the time of its discovery by -Cabot the value of its fisheries was perceived. English fishing-vessels -followed their calling on the Newfoundland coast during the reign of -Henry VIII., and the trade then begun was never interrupted. England -had always asserted proprietary rights over the island; but she did -not at first attempt to enforce exclusive possession of its shores, -and the ships of all European nations were at liberty to fish without -obstruction. But the vast importance of those fisheries became more -and more apparent. It was not merely or chiefly the liberal gain which -the traffic yielded. Of yet greater account was the circumstance that -the fisheries were a nursery in which was trained a race of hardy and -enterprising sailors, capable of upholding the honour of the English -flag. A century after Cabot’s voyage, the sovereignty of Newfoundland -and the exclusive right to fish on its shores were claimed for England; -and the claim was enforced by the confiscation of certain foreign -ships, which were peacefully returning home, laden with the gains of a -successful season. - -About the middle of the seventeenth century there were upon the island -three hundred and fifty families, scattered in fifteen or sixteen petty -settlements. By this time the persons who resorted to the fisheries had -become sensitively alive to the preservation of the trade, and looked -with disfavour upon the increase of a permanent population. They were -able to obtain from the reckless Government of Charles II. an order -that the settlers should depart from the island; and the barbarous -edict was enforced by burning down the houses and wasting the fields of -the inhabitants. - -It was not England alone to which the fisheries of Newfoundland were -of value. France was equally in earnest in her desire to gain control -of the coveted territory. [Sidenote: 1696 A.D.] She had one or two -small settlements, and she had been able by one happy stroke to gain -possession of the whole island. The triumph, however, was not enduring, -for England speedily reclaimed all that she had lost. [Sidenote: 1713 -A.D.] By the treaty of Utrecht, when Louis XIV. was reduced by the -victorious arms of Marlborough to the last extremity of exhaustion, -France ceded to England all her claims upon Newfoundland; preserving -still, however, her right to participate in the fisheries. - -Down almost to the close of last century Newfoundland was without -any proper government or administration of justice. England would -not recognize the island as a colony, but persisted in regarding it -as a mere fishery. The substitute for government was probably the -rudest device which has ever been adopted by any civilized country. -[Sidenote: 1690 A.D.] The master of the fishing-vessel which arrived -first on the coast was the “Admiral” for the season, charged with -the duty of maintaining order among the crews of the other ships, -governing the island from the deck of his vessel. The great industry of -Newfoundland--her fisheries--was always prosperous, and yielded large -gains to the mother-country. But her infant settlements struggled up to -strength and importance in the face of many discouragements, which were -negligently or wilfully inflicted. - -The area of Newfoundland is equal to two-thirds that of England and -Wales, and her population is one hundred and fifty thousand. For -three hundred and fifty years after Cabot’s discovery the interior -of the island had never been explored by Europeans, and was wholly -unknown, excepting to a few Indian hunters. Only so recently as 1822 an -adventurous traveller accomplished for the first time a journey across -the island. The enterprise was attended with much difficulty and some -danger. The country was found to be rugged and broken. Innumerable -lakes and marshes opposed the traveller’s progress, and imposed -tedious deviations from his course. The journey occupied two months, -during which the traveller and his Indian companions were obliged to -subsist by the chase. No traces of cultivation were discovered, and no -inhabitants. The natives of Newfoundland were the only race of American -savages who persistently refused to enter into relations with the white -men. They maintained to the end a hostile attitude, and were shot down -and finally exterminated as opportunity offered. - -Newfoundland has on her western coast, and along the valleys through -which her rivers flow, some tracts of rich land on which grain might -be grown. She has, too, much good pasturage; and although her winters -are long and severe, her brief summer has heat enough to ripen many -varieties of fruit and vegetables. She has coal, iron, and limestone. -Her savage inhabitants fed on the flesh of deer, which wandered in -vast herds in the woods; and they clothed themselves in the rich -furs of bears, wolves, beavers, and other wild creatures. The first -settlers found the noble Newfoundland dog living in a very debased -condition--hunting in packs, and manifesting tendencies not superior -to those of the wolf. But his higher nature made him amenable to -civilizing influences, and he quickly rose to be the trusted companion -and friend of man. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE PROVINCES OF THE NORTH-WEST. - - -The boundary-line which marks the southern limit of British territory -divides the continent into two not very unequal portions. On one side -stretches out the vast area covered by the United States--the home -of fifty million people--the seat of the manifold industries which -their energy has called into existence. On the other side there lies -a yet wider expanse of territory, whose development is still in the -future. Northward and westward of the original line of settlement in -the valley of the St. Lawrence the possessions of Great Britain are -nearly equal in extent to the whole of Europe. Towards the Atlantic -vast pine-forests cover the ground. Towards the Pacific are great -mountain-ranges, rich with mineral treasures, destined to yield wealth -to the men of future generations. The central portion of the continent -is a vast expanse of rich farm-land, where the slightest efforts of the -husbandman yield lavish increase.[20] Great navigable rivers, which -take their origin in the Rocky Mountains, traverse the continent, and -wait, silent and unused, to bear the traffic which coming years must -bring. The Saskatchewan, after a course of thirteen hundred miles, and -the Red River, whose sources are very near those of the Mississippi, -after flowing nearly seven hundred miles, pour their ample floods -into Lake Winnipeg--a vast sheet of water, covering an area equal to -one-third that of Scotland. The Nelson River carries the waters of Lake -Winnipeg into Hudson Bay by a course of three hundred miles, which -could easily be rendered navigable for ships of large burden. - -Lake Winnipeg is in the latitude of England; but the genial influences -of the Gulf Stream do not visit those stern coasts, whose temperature -is largely governed by the ice-cold currents of the Arctic Ocean. The -climate is severe, the winter is long. During five or six months of the -year the country lies under a covering of snow; river and lake are fast -bound by frost; the thermometer occasionally sinks to fifty degrees -below zero. This stern dominion does not pass gradually away; it ceases -almost suddenly. The snow disappears as if by magic; the streams resume -their interrupted flow; trees clothe themselves with foliage; the -plains are gay with grass and flower. At one stride comes the summer, -with its fierce heat, with its intolerable opulence of insect life, -with its swift growth and ripening of wild fruits, and of the seeds -which the sower has scattered over the fertile soil. - -At the coming of Europeans into America this magnificent region was -possessed by numerous tribes of Indians, who gained their food and -clothing almost wholly by the chase. In course of years the white man -found that the Indian would sell, for trivial payment, rich furs which -were eagerly desired in Europe. The Indian came to understand that -he could exchange his easily obtained furs for the musket which the -strangers brought and taught him to use, for the beads with which he -loved to ornament himself, for the seductive liquors which quickly -asserted a destructive mastery over his savage nature. Out of these -experiences there arose trading relations between the Indians of -the North-West and the adventurous Europeans who from time to time -made their way into those mysterious regions. A sagacious Frenchman -perceived the advantage which was to be gained by an organized and -systematic prosecution of this lucrative commerce. [Sidenote: 1668 -A.D.] He proposed the enterprise to his countrymen, but it failed -to command their support. The baffled projector made his way to -England, and obtained access to Prince Rupert, to whom he unfolded his -scheme. A quarter of a century had passed since the fierce charges of -Rupert’s cavalry swept down the troops of the Parliament at Naseby -and Newark, since he himself had been chased from Marston Moor by -the stern Ironsides of Cromwell. The prince was now a sedate man of -fifty. The vehemence of his youth had mellowed itself down to a love of -commercial adventure. He lent a willing ear to the ingenious Frenchman. -His influence with the public procured the formation of a company, -whose paid-up capital was £10,500. His influence with his cousin, -King Charles, sufficed to obtain a charter. [Sidenote: 1670 A.D.] The -liberal monarch bestowed half a continent upon these speculators, on -no more burdensome terms than that they should pay two elks and two -black beavers to the sovereign whensoever he visited their territory. -“The Governor and Company of Adventurers trading into Hudson Bay” -were endowed by this liberal monarch with “all countries which lie -within the entrance of Hudson’s Straits, in whatever latitude they may -be, so far as not possessed by other Christian States.” Thus largely -privileged, the adventurers entered upon a career of unusual success. -In a few years they paid a dividend at the rate of fifty per cent.; a -little later they trebled their capital out of profits, and paid to -shareholders twenty-five per cent. upon the increased amount; still -later the capital was once more trebled from the same source, without -diminution of the rate of dividend. - -The fur trade was one of the most lucrative of which merchants had any -experience. The savages who overthrew the Roman empire had introduced -to Southern Europe the beautiful furs of the north. Henceforth the -article was in urgent demand. Great ladies sought eagerly, for purposes -of ornament, such furs as those with which the northern savage clothed -himself and his children--sought eagerly, but often unsuccessfully, for -demand outstripped supply. It was certain that Europe would purchase at -liberal prices all the furs which the adventurers were able to bring. - -The Hudson Bay Company entered with vigour upon this inviting field. -They established a fort near the coast, and made it known among -the Indians that they were prepared to trade. With as little delay -as possible they pushed their settlement far into the interior. -Scattered at great intervals across the continent arose the little -trading-stations. They were composed of a few wooden huts, with a -strong surrounding palisade or wall; with well-barred gates; with -loop-holes, from which, in case of need, the uncertain clients of the -Company could be controlled by musketry. These posts were ordinarily -established near rivers, accessible to the savages by canoe or by -sledge. Their loneliness was extreme. For hundreds of miles on every -side stretched the dense forest or the boundless prairie, untrodden by -man. At fixed seasons--once or twice in the year--the natives appeared, -bearing the spoils of the chase--skins, oil, the tusk of the walrus, -feathers, dried fish. Ordinarily the entire tribe come on this great -mission. They encamp before the fort. An officer goes forth, and the -gate is jealously barred behind him. Gifts are exchanged and speeches -effusively affectionate and confiding. Within the fort are stores -filled with wares, which the Company has brought from afar,--blankets, -beads, scalping-knives, fish-hooks, muskets, ammunition, tea, sugar, -red and yellow paints for purposes of personal adornment. These strange -traders enter in groups of three or four, for they cannot be trusted -in larger numbers. They deposit the articles which they offer; the -Company’s servants put a value upon these, and hand over an equivalent, -according to the choice of their customer. Money, until lately, would -have been worthless to the Indian, and none was offered. At one time -spirits were supplied, with frightful results in uproar and violence; -but this evil practice has been discontinued or carefully restricted. -When the negotiation is concluded, the Indians withdraw and resume -their wanderings. - -The Company supplied such government as the unpeopled continent -required. They had many rivals in the lucrative commerce which they -carried on, and it was often needful for them to defend by arms their -coveted monopoly. The French strove during many years to drive out -the English and possess the fur trade. French ships of war appeared -in the bay; French soldiers attacked the posts of the Company. -Scarcely had those angry debates been silenced by the victory of -Wolfe, when a yet more formidable competition arose. [Sidenote: 1784 -A.D.] Some enterprising Canadians founded a rival Company, and traded -so prosperously that in a few years they had established numerous -stations, and possessed themselves of much of the trade which had -hitherto been enjoyed by the older Company. Perpetual strife raged -between the servants of the rival institutions. Battles were fought; -much blood was shed; the revenues of the Hudson Bay Company decayed; -its rich dividends wholly ceased. [Sidenote: 1816 A.D.] At length a -union of the Companies closed these wasteful feuds, and restored the -almost forgotten era of prosperity. - -For a century and a half from the formation of the Company there was no -attempt to colonize the vast region over which its dominion extended. -The Englishmen and Scotchmen who occupied the trading-stations were the -only civilized inhabitants of the North-West. The stations were in -number about one hundred; the entire white population did not exceed -one or two thousand. There were stations on the Mackenzie River, -within the Arctic circle, where the cold was so intense that hatchets -of ordinary temper shivered like glass at the first blow. There were -stations on the Labrador coast, and twenty-five hundred miles away -from these there were stations on the Pacific. The Company did not -desire to carry civilization into this wilderness. The interests of -the fur trade are not promoted by civilization. That industry cannot -live within sound of the settler’s axe, or where the yellow corn waves -in the soft winds of autumn. It prospers only where the silence of the -forest is unbroken; where the fertile glebe lies undisturbed by the -plough. The Company gave no encouragement to the coming in of human -beings, in presence of whom the more profitable occupancy of beaver -and bison and silver fox must cease. At length, and for the only time, -the traditional policy was departed from. [Sidenote: 1812 A.D.] While -the struggle with the rival Company still raged, Lord Selkirk, who was -then chairman of the Hudson Bay Company, bethought him of sending out -a number of Scotch Highlanders to found a permanent settlement, and -thus give preponderance to the interests of which he was the guardian. -At that time the Duke of Sutherland was in process of removing small -farmers from his estates in Sutherlandshire, in order that he might -give effect to modern ideas on the subject of sheep-farming. Lord -Selkirk collected a band of these dispossessed Highlanders, and settled -them in the solitudes of the Winnipeg valley. The point which he -selected was near the confluence of the Red River and the Assiniboine, -and forty miles from the lake into which these rivers fall. It was many -hundred miles from a human habitation; this lonely colony was the only -seat of population on all the northern portion of a vast continent. But -the soil possessed remarkable fertility; and the Scotchmen were robust -and industrious. Gradually they were joined by other adventurers to -whom the severity of the climate was without terrors. Ejected Highland -crofters, soldiers disbanded after Waterloo, sought in little groups -this remote and dimly-known region. The retired servants of the -Company came to spend the evening of their days in the settlement. A -line of block houses and of cultivated farms stretched for many miles -up the valleys of the Assiniboine and Red River. A cluster of wooden -huts received the name of Winnipeg, and started upon its career as a -prairie town at a rate of progress so leisurely that in 1871 it held -no more than four hundred inhabitants. Fort Garry, the chief seat of -the Company’s authority, added to the dignity of the colony, which soon -became the recognized metropolis of all the north-western region. Its -growth has not been rapid, but it has been steady; and the population, -if we accept the mean of very diverse estimates, is probably now -about fifteen thousand souls. These are largely Scotch; but there -are also French and Indians, and there has been a copious admixture -of the European and native races. There are Scotch half-breeds and -French half-breeds, in whom the aspect and the qualities of both races -are combined, and many of whom are not inferior in intelligence and -education to their European parentage. - -In course of years political government by trading companies became -utterly discredited in England. The government of the East India -Company had long been regarded with disapproval; after the great mutiny -of 1857 occurred, it was felt to be intolerable. No voice of authority -was raised in favour of its longer continuance, and the political -functions of the Company were extinguished as inconsistent with the -general welfare. The Hudson Bay Company was not more fortunate in its -rule than the great sister Company had been. Latterly it had failed -to maintain order among the scanty population over which it presided. -Occasionally, when its officers pronounced an unacceptable sentence, -the friends of the offender forced the prison-doors, and set the -prisoner free. The Company was willing to be relieved from the burden -of an authority which it was no longer able to exercise. The new -Dominion of Canada desired to add to its possessions the vast domain -of the Hudson Bay Company. [Sidenote: 1869 A.D.] A transfer which was -sought for on both sides was not difficult to arrange. The Company -received the sum of £300,000 and certain portions of land around its -trading-stations. All besides passed into the hands of the Canadian -Government. - -The authorities who negotiated this transaction seem to have thought -mainly of the land, and very little of the people who dwelt upon -it. The people now claimed to express themselves, and they did so -by methods which were rude and inconvenient. The French and French -half-breed population refused to concur in a transfer which they -regarded as injurious to their rights. They were sensitive on the -subject of their title to the properties which they occupied; and with -reason, for many of them had no claim excepting that which occupancy -may be supposed to confer. It was rumoured among them that their new -rulers intended to eject them from their holdings; and the entrance -upon the scene of various surveying-parties was accepted as evidence of -this purpose. [Sidenote: 1869 A.D.] The excited people took up arms, -and formed a provisional government. Their leader in the rebellion -by which they hoped to throw off the authority of Canada and Great -Britain, and establish themselves as an independent nation, was Louis -Riel, an ambitious but reckless young French Canadian. Riel became -President of the new Republic, and gathered an armed force of six -hundred men to uphold the national dignity. He turned back at the -frontier the newly-appointed Governor; he seized Fort Garry, in which -were ample stores of arms and provisions; he imprisoned all who offered -active opposition to his rule. The distant Canadian Government looked -on at first as amused with this diminutive rebellion. They did not -think of employing force to restore order; they sought the desired end -by persuasion. The Roman Catholic archbishop of the district was then -in Rome, occupied in solving the problem of papal infallibility. He -was invited to desist from the absorbing pursuit; to return to the Red -River and incline his erring flock to thoughts of peace. He made the -sacrifice; he left Rome, and arrived in Canada. But while he was still -toiling homewards across the snowy wilderness, events occurred which -fatally complicated the position and rendered an amicable solution -impossible. - -A party of loyal inhabitants made a hasty and ill-prepared rising -against the authority of the provisional government. They were easily -beaten back by the superior forces under Riel’s command, and some of -them were taken prisoners. Among these was a Canadian named Scott, who -had distinguished himself by his obstinate hostility to the rule of -the usurpers. Riel determined to overawe his enemies, and compel the -adherence of his friends by an act of conspicuous and unpardonable -severity. [Sidenote: March, 1870 A.D.] Poor Scott was subjected to -the trial of a mock tribunal, whose judgment sent him to death. An -hour later he was led forth beyond the gate of the fort. Kneeling, -with bandaged eyes, among the snow, he was shot by a firing-party of -intoxicated half-breeds almost before he had time to realize the cruel -fate which had befallen him. - -This shameful murder invested the Red River rebellion with a gravity of -aspect which it had not hitherto worn. There arose in Canada a vehement -demand that the criminals should be punished and the royal authority -restored. The despatch of a military force sufficiently strong to -overbear the resistance of the insurgent Frenchmen was at once resolved -upon. - -Unusual difficulty attended this enterprise. Fort Garry was twelve -hundred miles distant from Toronto. One-half of this distance could -be accomplished easily by railway and by steam-boat; but beyond the -northern extremity of Lake Superior there were six hundred miles of -dense and pathless forest traversed by a chain of rivers and of lakes. -On these waters, broken by dangerous rapids and impassable falls, no -vessel but the light birch canoe of the Indian had ever floated. By -this seemingly impracticable route it was now proposed that an army -carrying with it the elaborate equipment of modern war should make its -way to the valley of the Winnipeg. - -Happily there was at that time in Canada an officer endowed with rare -power in the department of military organization. To this officer, -now well known as Sir Garnet Wolseley, was intrusted the task of -preparing and commanding the expedition. No laurels were gained by -the forces which Colonel Wolseley led out into the wilderness; for -the enemy did not abide their coming, and their modest achievements -were unnoticed amid the absorbing interest with which men watched the -tremendous occurrences of the war then raging between Germany and -France. Nevertheless the Red River expedition claims an eminent place -in the record of military transactions. It is probably the solitary -example of an army advancing by a lengthened and almost impracticable -route, accomplishing its task, and returning home without the loss of -a single life either in battle or by disease. And the wise forethought -which provided so effectively for all the exigencies of that unknown -journey is more admirable than the generalship which has sufficed to -gain bloody victories in many of our recent wars. - -[Sidenote: May 21, 1870 A.D.] In little more than two months from the -commission of the crime which it went to avenge, the army set forth. It -was composed of twelve hundred fighting men, of whom two-thirds were -Canadian volunteers, and the remainder British regulars. Two hundred -boats, a few pieces of light artillery, and provisions for sixty days, -formed part of its equipment. The expedition passed easily along Lake -Huron and Lake Superior, and disembarked in Thunder Bay. From this -point to the little Lake Shebandowan was a distance of fifty miles. -There was a half-formed road for part of the way, and a river scarcely -navigable. So toilsome was this stage of the journey that six weeks -passed before those fifty miles were traversed. At length the boats -floated on the tranquil waters of Lake Shebandowan. In an evening of -rare loveliness the fleet moved from the place of embarkation, and the -forest rung to the rejoicing cheers of the rowers. - -Thus far the troops had been toiling up steep ascents. Now they had -reached the high land forming the water-shed, from which some streams -depart for Hudson Bay, others for Lake Superior and the St. Lawrence. -For many days their route led them along a chain of small lakes, on -which they rowed easily and pleasantly. But at the transition from -lake to lake, there ordinarily presented itself a portage--a name of -fear to the soldiers. At the portage all disembarked. The innumerable -barrels which held their supplies, the artillery, the ammunition, the -boats themselves, were taken on shore, and carried on men’s shoulders -or dragged across the land which divided them from the next lake. -Forty-seven times during the progress to Lake Winnipeg was this heavy -labour undergone. But in the face of all difficulties the progress was -rapid. The health of the men was perfect, their spirits were high, and -their carrying power so increased by exercise that they were soon able -to carry double the load which they could have faced at the outset. -No spirituous liquors were served out, and perfect order reigned in -the camp. The heat was often oppressive; the attacks of mosquitoes and -similar insects were intolerable. But the forethought of the general -had provided for each man a veil which protected his face, and each -boat carried a jar of mosquito oil to fortify the hands. In the early -days of August the boats passed along Rainy Lake, a beautiful sheet of -water fifty miles in length, and entered the river of the same name. -Rainy River is a noble stream, eighty miles in length, and three to -four hundred yards in width. The scenery through which it flows is of -great beauty. Oak-trees of large growth, open glades stretching far -into the forest, luxuriant grass, flowers in endless variety and rich -profusion, all suggested to the men the parks which surround great -houses in England. Helped by the current, Rainy River was traversed at -the rate of five or six miles an hour, and the expedition reached the -Lake of the Woods. Issuing thence, it entered the Winnipeg River. - -Here the difficulties of the expedition thickened. The Winnipeg is a -magnificent stream, one hundred and sixty-three miles in length--broad -and deep, flowing with a rapid current, often between lofty cliffs of -granite. In its course, however, there are numerous falls in which -boats cannot live. Twenty-five times the stores were unshipped, and the -boats drawn on shore. Frequent rapids occurred, down which the boats -were guided, not without danger, by the skilful hands of the Indian -boatmen. No loss was sustained, and after five days of this toilsome -and exciting work the boats entered Lake Winnipeg. For one day they -steered across the south-eastern portion of the lake; for one day more -they held their course up Red River. They left their boats at two -miles’ distance from Fort Garry, and under rain falling in torrents, -and by roads ankle-deep with tenacious mud, they advanced to seek the -enemy. - -Colonel Wolseley had used precautions to prevent any knowledge of his -approach from being carried to the fort. He was unable to learn what -Riel intended to do, and the men marched forward in the eager hope -that the enemy would abide their coming. As they neared the fort, the -gates were seen to be shut, and cannon looked out from the bastions -and over the gateways. But on a closer view it was noticed that no -men were beside the guns, and the hopes of the assailants fell. A -moment later, and the fort was known to be abandoned; men were seen at -a little distance in rapid flight. Riel, it appeared, had meditated -resistance, if he could induce his followers to fight. He had been -able to build some hope, too, upon the six hundred miles of almost -impassable country which lay between him and Lake Superior. [Sidenote: -Aug. 24, 1870 A.D.] Soothing his anxieties by this dream, the President -of the Red River Republic breakfasted tranquilly on this closing day of -his career. But just as his repast was ended there were seen from the -windows of the fort, at a distance of a few hundred yards, and marching -with swift step towards him, the twelve hundred men who had come so far -to accomplish his overthrow. The blood of Scott was upon his guilty -hands. The wretched man saddled a horse and galloped for life; and the -victors did not seek to interrupt his flight. The Red River rebellion -was suppressed, and British authority was restored in the valley of the -Winnipeg. - -Until very recently the vast wheat-field of the North-West was almost -worthless to man; even now its development has only begun. It is -difficult to over-estimate the influence on the future course of -human affairs which this lonely and inaccessible region is destined -to exert. In the valleys of Lake Winnipeg and its tributary streams -two hundred million acres of land, unsurpassed in fertility, wait -the coming of the husbandman. Its average production of wheat may be -stated at thirty bushels per acre--more than double that of the valley -of the Mississippi, and rather more than can be gained from the soil -of England by careful and expensive cultivation.[21] Great Britain -imports annually one hundred million bushels of wheat--scarcely more -than one-sixtieth part of the production of the Winnipeg valley were -its enormous capability fully drawn out. The soil is of surpassing -richness, and yields its ample fruits so easily that in an ordinary -season the cost of producing a quarter of wheat is on an average no -more than thirteen shillings. Port Nelson on the Hudson Bay--the -natural shipping point of all this region--is eighty miles nearer than -New York is to Liverpool and the markets of England. - -The valley of the Winnipeg has been hitherto practically inaccessible. -The Red River expedition spent three months on the journey. Many of -the settlers had required even longer time to reach the secluded -paradise which they sought. To a vast majority of the British people -the existence of this territory is still unknown. The boats of the -Hudson Bay Company formed its only medium of communication with the -outside world. Until the Winnipeg valley has been opened by railway or -by steam-boat, it must remain valueless for any better use than as a -preserve for the wild creatures which yield fur, and as a home for the -Indians who pursue them. - -But the needful facility of transport is now being gained; the distance -which has shut out the human family from this splendid domain is now -in course of being abridged. Winnipeg, now grown into a town of about -twelve thousand inhabitants, and rapidly increasing, has a direct -railway connection with St. Paul, the chief city of Minnesota. The -Northern Pacific--a line whose progress was delayed for years by -financial disaster--is now advancing westward from its starting-point -on Lake Superior, and will soon be opened through to the western ocean. -The Canadian Pacific, largely subsidized by Government, is pushing -its way westward towards Columbia and the ocean. The obstacles to -navigation in the Nelson river have been carefully examined with a view -to their removal, so that vessels of large size may pass from Lake -Winnipeg to Europe. - -These increased facilities of transport have produced their expected -result. A large inflow of settlers began two or three years ago, and -continues year by year to increase. Many thousand immigrants came -to the Winnipeg valley in 1877-78. Up to the present time over four -million acres of rich wheat-lands have been taken up--an area capable -of adding to the supply of human food a quantity almost equal to -the entire British import of wheat. The new settlers are, for the -most part, experienced farmers, who have been attracted hither by -the superior advantages of the soil. Some of them come from Europe, -but a larger number come from the old Canadian provinces and from -those States of the Union which lie near the frontier. Most of them -are men who have sold the lands which they formerly owned, and come -with capital sufficient to provide the most approved agricultural -appliances. The price for which land can be obtained is inconsiderable; -and while the average holding does not exceed two hundred acres, many -persons have acquired large tracts. - -The rapid settlement of this central territory of Canada is one of -the great social and political factors of the future for Canada and -for Europe. The development of the vast resources of Manitoba must -hasten the progress of the Dominion to wealth and consideration. To -the growers of food on the limited and highly-rented fields of Europe -it furnishes reasonable occasion for anxiety. To those who are not -producers, but only consumers, it gives, in stronger terms than it has -ever previously been given, the acceptable assurance that the era of -famine lies far behind--that the human family, for many generations to -come, will enjoy the blessing of abundant and low-priced food. - - * * * * * - -Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific there lies a vast tract of -fertile land, possessing an area equal to six times that of England -and Wales. This is British Columbia--the latest-born member of the -confederation, which it entered only in 1871. The waters of the Pacific -exert upon its climate the same softening influence which is carried -by the Gulf Stream to corresponding latitudes in Europe, and the -average temperature of Columbia does not differ materially from that -of England. Gold is found in the sands of the rivers which flow down -from the Rocky Mountains; coal in abundance lies near the surface; -large tracts are covered with pine forests, whose trees attain unusual -size;[22] many islands stud the placid waters which wash the western -shores of the province; many navigable inlets sweep far into the -interior--deep into forests, for the transport of whose timber they -provide ample convenience. In the streams and on the coasts there -is an extraordinary abundance of fish; on the banks of the Fraser -River the English miner and the Indian fisherman may be seen side by -side pursuing their avocations with success. The wealth of Columbia -secures for her a prosperous future; but as yet her development has -only begun. Her population is about twelve thousand, besides thirty -thousand Indians. Her great pine forests have yet scarcely heard the -sound of the axe; her rich valleys lie untilled; her coal and iron -wait the coming of the strong arms which are to draw forth their -treasures; even her tempting gold-fields are cultivated but slightly. -Columbia must become the home of a numerous and thriving population, -but in the meantime her progress is delayed by her remoteness and her -inaccessibility. - -Columbia herself feels deeply this temporary frustration of her -destiny. Her recent political history has been in large measure the -history of a grievance. [Sidenote: 1871 A.D.] When she entered the -Confederation, the Dominion Government engaged that in two years there -should be commenced, and in ten years there should be completed, the -construction of a railway to connect the sea-board of Columbia with -the railway system of Canada. In that time of universal inflation -such engagements were contracted lightly. A little later, when cool -reflection supervened, it was perceived that the undertaking was too -vast for the time allowed. Canada took no action beyond the ordering -of surveys; Columbia, in her isolation, complained loudly of the -faithlessness of her sisters. The impracticable contract was reviewed, -and a fresh engagement was given to the effect that the work should -begin so soon as surveys could be made, and should reach completion -in sixteen years. [Sidenote: 1874 A.D.] The work is now in progress; -and Columbia, not without impatience and some feeling of wrong, has -consented to postpone the opening of that era of prosperity which she -full surely knows to be in store. - - [Sidenote: 1881 A.D.] [With a view to the prospective - development of the Hudson Bay route, a charter was recently - obtained for the construction of a railway, to follow the line - of the Nelson River, from Norway House on Lake Winnipeg to York - Factory on Hudson Bay, thus connecting the over-sea navigation - available from the latter point with steam-boat lines plying - inland from the former. There would still, however, seem to be - considerable diversity of opinion among people on the spot, - as to whether the route in question can successfully compete, - at least for a good many years to come, with the facilities - which will soon be offered by the Canadian Pacific Railway - Company. The line now being built by that enterprising body of - capitalists has already been carried about 250 miles west of - Winnipeg, and is expected, by the close of next year, to have - reached the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. At present, - there is an outlet from Manitoba, by rail, to Duluth on Lake - Superior and to Chicago on Lake Michigan; but the opening, - which cannot now be long delayed, of the Canadian Pacific - line between Winnipeg and the west end of the former lake, in - conjunction with the enlargement of the Welland Canal, so as - to enable large vessels to pass the Falls of Niagara, will - provide a new rail and water route to Montreal, by which, it - is believed, wheat may be carried that distance for something - less than the nine shillings and sixpence per quarter which it - now costs by Duluth. The construction of the railway along the - north side of Lake Superior, which the Canadian Pacific Company - is taken bound to complete within ten years, will ultimately - afford all-rail communication right through to the eastern - sea-board: and it remains to be seen whether, with such means - of transit at command, any considerable proportion of traffic - will follow a route which, it is alleged, can only be depended - upon for three months in the year, and which, in the opinion - of some seafaring men, may occasionally be found difficult - to work even during that period from the presence of ice in - Hudson Strait. On the other hand, there comes, of course, - the consideration that, if the development of the north-west - should answer the expectations generally entertained, there may - by-and-by be sufficient surplus produce for exportation to keep - a Hudson Bay railway and steam-boat line, as well as all the - other practicable outlets of that vast region, in remunerative - operation.--ED.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE PROGRESS OF THE CANADIAN NATION. - - -Canada is, in respect of extent, the noblest colonial possession over -which any nation has ever exercised dominion. It covers an area of -three million three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. Our -great Indian Empire is scarcely larger than one-fourth of its size. -Europe is larger by only half a million square miles; the United -States is smaller to nearly the same extent. The distances with which -men have to deal in Canada are enormous. From Ottawa to Winnipeg is -fourteen hundred miles--a journey equal to that which separates Paris -from Constantinople: the adventurous traveller, who would push his -way from Winnipeg to the extreme north-west, has a farther distance -of two thousand miles to traverse. The representatives of Vancouver -Island must travel two thousand five hundred miles in order to reach -the seat of Government. The journey from London to the Ural Mountains -is not greater in distance, and is not by any means so difficult. From -Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, to New Westminster, the capital -of British Columbia, there is a distance of four thousand miles--about -the distance as that which intervenes between London and Chicago, or -between London and the sources of the Nile. - -The people on whom has devolved this vast heritage are in number about -four million. It is greatly beyond their powers, as yet, to subdue -and possess the continent upon whose fringes they have settled. -Nevertheless, their progress is now so rapid in numbers and industrial -development, and the wealth which lies around them is so great, that -year by year they must fill a larger place in the world’s regard, -and exercise a wider influence upon the course of human affairs. At -the beginning of the century they numbered scarcely a quarter of a -million--the slow growth of two hundred years of misgovernment and -strife. Twenty-five years thereafter their numbers had more than -doubled; in the following quarter of a century they had trebled. During -the ten years from 1851 to 1861 the annual increase was one hundred and -twenty thousand; in the following decade it was at the rate of sixty -thousand, of which less than one-half was by immigration. The increase -is mainly rural; there are no very powerful influences favouring the -growth of great cities. Montreal has a population of one hundred -and seven thousand; Quebec, of sixty thousand; Toronto has grown to -fifty thousand; Halifax to thirty thousand. All European nations are -represented on Canadian soil. Of English, Scotch, and Irish there are -over two million; of Frenchmen over one million. Germans, Russians, -Dutchmen, Swiss make up the remainder. The fusion of races has yet -made imperfect progress; the characteristic aspect and habits of each -nationality remain with little modification. - -The Canadian people maintain a large and growing commerce, one-half of -which is with the mother country. Their exports are £18,000,000; their -imports are £26,000,000. They purchase iron largely in England, the -time having not yet come when their own abundant stores of this article -can be made available. They import annually four million tons of coal; -but the approaching close of this traffic is already foreshadowed by -the circumstance that they also export the product of their own mines -to the extent of four hundred thousand tons. Textile manufactures are -steadily gaining importance in Canada; but as yet the people clothe -themselves to a large extent in the woollen and cotton fabrics of the -old country. - -Canada sells annually the produce of her forests to the extent of five -million sterling, and of her fields to the extent of four million. -The harvest of the sea yields a value of over two million, of which -one-half is sent abroad; the furs which her hunters collect bear a -value of half a million. She extracts from the maple-tree sugar to the -annual value of four million; her frugal cottagers gather annually two -million pounds of honey from the labours of the bee. - -The lumber trade is the most characteristic of Canadian industries. -On the eastern portion of the Dominion, stretching northwards towards -the Arctic regions, illimitable forests clothe the ground. For the -most part these are yet undisturbed by man. But in the valleys of -streams which flow into the St. Lawrence, notably in the valley of the -picturesque Ottawa, the lumber trade is prosecuted with energy. Year by -year as autumn draws towards its close numerous bands of woodsmen set -out for the scene of their invigorating labours. A convenient locality -is chosen near a river, whose waters give motion to a saw-mill, and -will in due time bear the felled timber down to the port of shipment. -A hut is hastily erected to form the home of the men during the winter -months. The best trees in the neighbourhood are selected, and fall in -thousands under the practised axe of the lumberman. When the warmth -of approaching summer sets free the waters of the frozen stream, the -trees are floated to the saw-mill, and cut there into manageable -lengths. They are then formed into great rafts, on which villages of -huts are built for the accommodation of the returning woodsmen. The -winter months are spent in cutting down the timber; the whole of the -summer is often spent in conducting to Quebec or the Hudson the logs -and planks which have been secured. The forests of Canada are a source -of great and enduring wealth. They form also the nursery of a hardy, -an enduring, and withal a temperate population; for the lumberman -ordinarily dispenses with the treacherous support of alcohol, and is -content to recruit his energies by the copious use of strong tea and of -salted pork. - -The occupation of about one-half of the Canadian people is agriculture. -In the old provinces there are nearly five hundred thousand persons -who occupy agricultural lands. Of these, nine-tenths own the soil -which they till; only one-tenth pay rent for their lands, and they -do so for the most part only until they have gained enough to become -purchasers. The agricultural labourer--a class so numerous and so -little to be envied in England--is almost unknown in Canada. No more -than two thousand persons occupy this position, which is to them -merely a step in the progress towards speedy ownership. Land is easily -acquired; for the Government, recognizing that the grand need of -Canada is population, offers land to every man who will occupy and -cultivate, or sells at prices which are little more than nominal. -The old provinces are filling up steadily if not with rapidity. -During the ten years from 1851 to 1861 the land under cultivation -had become greater by about one-half. During the following decade -the increase was in the same proportion. Schools of agriculture -and model farms have been established by Government, and the rude -methods by which cultivation was formerly carried on have experienced -vast ameliorations. Agriculture has become less wasteful and more -productive. Much attention is given to the products of the dairy. Much -care has been successfully bestowed upon the improvement of horses and -cattle. The manufacture and use of agricultural implements has largely -increased. The short Canadian summer lays upon the farmer the pressing -necessity of swift harvesting, and renders the help of machinery -specially valuable. In the St. Lawrence valley the growing of fruit -is assiduously prosecuted; and the apples, pears, plums, peaches, and -grapes of that region enjoy high reputation. Success almost invariably -rewards the industrious Canadian farmer. The rich fields, the well-fed -cattle, the comfortable farm-houses, all tell of prosperity and -contentment. - -The fisheries of the Dominion form one of its valuable industries. The -eastern coasts are resorted to by myriads of fishes, most prominent -among which is the cod-fish, whose preference for low temperatures -restrains its further progress southward. Sixty thousand men and -twenty-five thousand boats find profitable occupation in reaping this -abundant harvest. A Minister of Fisheries watches over this great -industry. Seven national institutions devote themselves to the culture -of fish, especially of the salmon, and prosecute experiments in regard -to the introduction of new varieties. - -The Mercantile Navy of the Dominion is larger than that of France. -It comprises seven thousand ships, of the aggregate tonnage of one -million and a quarter; while the tonnage of Great Britain is six -million. Canada has invested in her shipping a capital of seven and a -half million sterling. She uses the timber of her forests in building -ships for herself and for other countries. The annual product of her -building-yards is considerably over a million sterling. - -The burden laid by taxation upon the Canadians is not oppressive. -Taxation is raised almost entirely in the form of custom and excise -duties, and amounts to four million sterling. This is an average rate -of one pound for each of the population; not differing appreciably from -the rate of taxation in the United States, but being considerably less -than one-half of that which now prevails in Great Britain. - -Canada trusts for her defence against foreign enemies to her militia -and volunteers, of whom she has nominally a large force. But only a -handful of these are annually called out for a few days of drill, -and the Dominion spends no more than £200,000 upon her military -preparations. Her fleet is equally modest, and consists of a few small -steamers which serve on the lakes and rivers, and mount in all about -twenty guns. - -Besides the outlays incurred in carrying on the ordinary business -of Government, large sums, raised by loan, are annually expended on -public works. Navigation on the great rivers of Canada is interrupted -by numerous rapids and falls. Unless these obstructions be overcome, -the magnificent water-way with which Canada is endowed will be of -imperfect usefulness. At many points on the rivers and lakes canals -have been constructed. The formidable impediment which the great Fall -of Niagara offers to navigation is surmounted by the Welland Canal, -twenty-seven miles in length, and on which, with its branches, two and -a half million sterling have been expended. Much care is bestowed, -too, upon the deepening of rivers and the removal of rocks and other -obstructions to navigation. The vast distances of Canada render -railways indispensable to her development. The Canadian Government -and people have duly appreciated this necessity. They have already -constructed seven thousand miles of railway, and are proceeding rapidly -with further extension. The cost of railways already made amounts to -eighty million sterling, of which Government has provided one-fourth. -Very soon Canada will have a length of railway equal to one-half that -of Great Britain. But the disposition to travel has not kept pace with -the increased facilities which have been provided. The average number -of journeys performed annually by each Englishman is seventeen, while -the Canadian average is not quite two. - -There still remain in the various provinces of the Dominion about -ninety thousand Indians, to represent the races who possessed the -continent when the white man found it. Two-thirds of these are in the -unpeopled wastes of Manitoba and British Columbia; the remainder are -settled in the old provinces. The Indian policy of Canada has been -from the beginning just and kind, and it has borne appropriate fruits. -The Governments of the United States have signally failed in their -management of their Indian population. Faith has not been kept with -the savages. Treaties have again and again been made by the Government -and violated by the people. Lands have been assigned to the Indians, -and forcibly taken from them so soon as possession was desired by any -considerable number of white men. Large grants of food and clothing -have been given by the Government, and shamelessly intercepted by -dishonest traders. Out of transactions such as these have sprung bitter -hatreds, ruthless massacres, inflicted now by the red man, now by the -white, and a state of feeling under which a Western American will, on -slight provocation, shoot down an Indian with as little remorse as -he would slay a stag. Canada has dealt in perfect fairness with her -Indians. She has recognized always the right of the original occupants -of the land. She has fulfilled with inflexible faith every treaty into -which she has entered. The lands allotted to the Indians have been -secured to them as effectively as those of the white settler, or have -been acquired from them by fair process of sale and purchase. The -Indians have requited with constant loyalty the Government which has -treated them with justice. While the French ruled Canada there was -perpetual strife with the Indians, as there is to-day in the United -States. Canada under the British has never been disturbed by an Indian -war. - -The Indians of the older provinces have adopted settled habits and -betaken themselves to agriculture. In Ontario they are steadily -increasing in numbers and intelligence. Drunkenness diminishes; -education is eagerly sought; hunting gives place to farming; the -descendants of the barbarous Iroquois have been transformed into -industrious and prosperous citizens. In Quebec there is also progress, -but it is less rapid, and the old drunken habits of the people have -not yielded so completely to the influences which surround them. The -Indians of British Columbia are still very drunken and debased, and -their numbers diminish rapidly. In Manitoba and the whole North-West -the condition of the Indians is very hopeful. Drunkenness is almost -unknown; crime is very rare; the demand for schools and for persons -who can teach how to build houses and till the soil is universal and -urgent. The buffalo has been the support of the North-Western Indian. -Its flesh was his food, its skin was his clothing, the harness of -his horse, the property by whose sale all his remaining wants were -supplied. The innumerable multitudes of buffalo which frequented the -plains maintained in the Indian camp a rude affluence. But the buffalo -gives place before advancing civilization, and the Indians in alarm -hasten to find new means of subsistence. - -The problem which savage occupants present to the civilized men who -settle on their lands has been solved in Canada by the simple but rare -device of friendly and perfectly fair dealing. The red men of Canada -live contentedly under the rule of the strangers, and prove that they -are able to uphold themselves by the white man’s industries. They -adopt his language, often to the disuse of their own, his dress, his -customs, his religion. Not only do the two races live in concord; -their blood has been largely mixed. The native race is probably doomed -to disappear, but this will not be the result of violence or even of -neglect. The history of the Indian race in Canada will close with its -peaceful absorption by the European races which possess the continent. - -Thirty years ago the Canadians, borrowing largely from their neighbours -of the United States, perfected their common-school system. Schools -adequate to the wants of the population are provided. A Board chosen -by the people conducts the school business of the district. The costs -are defrayed by a local tax, supplemented by a grant from the treasury -of the province. In general, no fees are charged; primary education -is absolutely free. The French Canadians manifest less anxiety for -education than their British neighbours, and have not yet emerged -from the ignorance which they brought with them from Europe, and in -which they were suffered for generations to remain. In Toronto and -the maritime provinces the means of education are ample, and are very -generally taken advantage of by the colonists. - - * * * * * - -A noble heritage has been bestowed upon the Canadian people. Treasures -of the sea and of the soil, of forest and of mine, are theirs in -lavish abundance. Their climate, stern but also kindly, favours the -growth of physical and mental energy. They enjoy freedom in its -utmost completeness. Their peaceable surroundings exempt them from -the blight of war and the evils of costly defensive preparation. -For generations these inestimable advantages were in large measure -neutralized by the enfeebling rivalries which divided the provinces. -But internal dissension has been silenced by confederation, and Canada -has begun to consolidate into a nation. Differences of religion and -of race still hold a place among the forces which are shaping out -her future, but the antipathies which they once inspired have almost -passed away. The distinctions of Catholic and Protestant, Englishman -and Frenchman, are being merged in the common designation of Canadian, -which all are proud to bear. The welfare of Canada, her greatness in -the years of the future, are assured not merely by the vastness of her -material resources, but still more by the spirit which animates her -people. The destiny towards which the Canadian people are hastening -is fittingly indicated by the eloquent words of one of the ablest of -their Governor-Generals. [Sidenote: 1875 A.D.] “However captivating,” -said Lord Dufferin, “may be the sights of beauty prepared by the -hands of Nature, they are infinitely enhanced by the contemplation of -all that man is doing to turn to their best advantage the gifts thus -placed within his reach. In every direction you see human industry and -human energy digging deep the foundations, spreading out the lines, -and marking the inviolable boundaries upon and within which one of the -most intelligent and happiest offsets of the English race is destined -to develop into a proud and great nation. The very atmosphere seems -impregnated with the exhilarating spirit of enterprise, contentment, -and hope. The sights and sounds which caressed the senses of the Trojan -wanderer in Dido’s Carthage are repeated and multiplied in a thousand -different localities in Canada, where flourishing cities, towns, and -villages are rising in every direction with the rapidity of a fairy -tale. And better still, _pari passu_ with the development of these -material evidences of wealth and happiness is to be observed the growth -of political wisdom, experience, and ability, perfectly capable of -coping with the difficult problems which are presented in a country -where new conditions, foreign to European experience, and complications -arising out of ethnological and geographical circumstances, are -constantly requiring the application of a statesmanship of the highest -order.” - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[12] Francis I. said that he “would fain see the article in Adam’s -will which bequeathed the vast inheritance” to the Kings of Spain and -Portugal. - -[13] “One must be ready,” wrote this devout priest, full of faith, “to -abandon life and all he has; contenting himself, as his only riches, -with a cross--very large and very heavy.” - -[14] The fathers were wise in their generation. The Indians hated -beards, and extirpated their own. It was judicious to omit this -distasteful feature from all sacred representations. - -[15] See page 77. - -[16] Towards the close of her dominion in Canada, France expended about -one million sterling on her unprofitable colony, mainly in building -forts along the enormous line from Quebec to New Orleans, in order to -shut in the English colonists. - -[17] According to the best estimates, the population of Canada at this -time was composed of 100,000 Catholics and 400 Protestants. - -[18] See page 145. - -[19] In three years the debt had nearly doubled--rising from twenty-one -to thirty-eight million dollars. In 1859 it had further risen to -fifty-four million. - -[20] “It was here that Canada, emerging from her woods and forests, -first gazed upon her rolling prairies and unexplored North-West, -and learned, as by an unexpected revelation, that her historical -territories of the Canadas--her eastern sea-boards of New Brunswick, -Labrador, and Nova Scotia; her Lawrentian lakes and valleys, corn-lands -and pastures--though themselves more extensive than half-a-dozen -European kingdoms, were but the vestibules and ante-chambers to that -till then undreamt-of Dominion, whose illimitable dimensions alike -confound the arithmetic of the surveyor and the verification of the -explorer. It was hence that, counting her past achievements as but the -preface and prelude to her future exertions and expanding destinies, -she took a fresh departure, received the afflatus of a more imperial -inspiration, and felt herself no longer a mere settler along the -banks of a single river, but the owner of half a continent; and, in -the magnitude of her possession, in the wealth of her resources, -in the sinews of her material might, the peer of any power on the -earth.”--_Lord Dufferin, Governor-General of Canada. Speech in the City -Hall, Winnipeg, September 1877._ - -[21] With careful husbandry much better results are obtained. A yield -of forty to fifty bushels is common, and a prize was recently awarded -to a farmer whose land yielded one hundred and five bushels! - -[22] In presence of Lord Dufferin a pine tree was felled whose height -was two hundred and fifty feet, and whose rings gave evidence of an age -which dated from the reign of Edward IV. - - - - -SOUTH AMERICA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST. - - -Columbus prosecuted, down to the close of life, the great work of -discovery to which, as he never ceased to feel, God had set him apart. -He occupied himself almost entirely among those lovely islands to -which Providence had guided his uncertain way; seeing almost nothing -of the vast continents, on the right hand and on the left, which he -had gained for the use of civilized man. Once, near the island of -Trinidad, he was suffered to look for the only time upon the glorious -mainland, so lavishly endowed with beauty and with wealth. Once again -he sailed along the coasts of the isthmus and landed upon its soil. But -he scarcely passed, in his researches, beyond the multitudinous islands -which lay around him on every side. He sailed among them with a heart -full, at the outset, of deep, solemn joy, over the unparalleled victory -which had been vouchsafed to him; full, towards the close, with a -bitter sense of ingratitude and perfidy. He had made his first landing -on the little island of San Salvador. Voyaging thence he quickly -found Cuba, “the most beautiful island that eyes ever beheld, full of -excellent ports and profound rivers.” Then he discovered Hispaniola -and Jamaica, and a multitude of smaller islands. Thirteen years of life -were still left to him, and Columbus was content to expend them among -the sights and sounds which had caressed his delighted senses at his -first coming into this enchanted world. - -But there were other adventurers, allured by the success which had -crowned the efforts of Columbus, and hastening now to widen the scope -of his inquiry. Five years from the first landing of Columbus, John -Cabot had explored the northern continent from Labrador to Florida. -Many navigators who had sailed with Columbus in his early voyages now -fitted out small expeditions, in order to make fresh discoveries on -the southern continent. Successive adventurers traversed its entire -northern coasts. One discovered the great River of the Amazons; another -passed southwards along the coasts of Brazil. Before the century -closed, almost the whole of the northern and eastern shores of South -America had been visited and explored. - -Ten or twelve years after Columbus had discovered the mainland, -there was a Spanish settlement at the town of Darien on the isthmus. -Prominent among the adventurers who prosecuted, from this centre of -operations, the Spaniard’s eager and ruthless search for gold was -Vasco Nuñez de Balboa--a man cruel and unscrupulous as the others, but -giving evidence of wider views and larger powers of mind than almost -any of his fellows. Vasco Nuñez visited one day a friendly chief, from -whom he received in gift a large amount of gold. The Spaniards had -certain rules which guided them in the distribution of the spoils, but -in the application of these rules disputes continually fell out. It -so happened on this occasion that a noisy altercation arose. A young -Indian prince, regarding with unconcealed contempt the clamour of the -greedy strangers, told them that, since they prized gold so highly, -he would show them a country where they might have it in abundance. -Southward, beyond the mountains, was a great sea; on the coasts of that -sea there was a land of vast wealth, where the people ate and drank -from vessels of gold. This was the first intimation which Europeans -received of the Pacific Ocean and the land of Peru on the western shore -of the continent. Vasco Nuñez resolved to be the discoverer of that -unknown sea. Among his followers was Francisco Pizarro, who became, a -few years later, the discoverer and destroyer of Peru. - -[Sidenote: 1513 A.D.] Vasco Nuñez gathered about two hundred well-armed -men, and a number of dogs, who were potent allies in his Indian wars. -He climbed with much toil the mountain ridge which traverses the -isthmus. After twenty-five days of difficult journeying, his Indians -told him that he was almost in view of the ocean. He chose that he -should look for the first time on that great sight alone. [Sidenote: -Sept. 25.] He made his men remain behind, while he, unattended, looked -down upon the Sea of the South, and drank the delight of this memorable -success. Upon his knees he gave thanks to God, and joined with his -followers in devoutly singing the _Te Deum_. He made his way down -to the coast. Wading into the tranquil waters, he called his men to -witness that he took possession for the Kings of Castile of the sea and -all that it contained--a large claim, assuredly, for the Pacific covers -more than one-half the surface of the globe. - -Many of the adventurers realized large gains in gold and pearls, -from their trading with the natives. But the hunger of the Spaniards -for gold was still utterly unsatisfied. No considerable quantity of -gold had been found in the islands; but the constant report of the -natives pointed to regions in the interior where the precious metals -abounded. On the mainland, beside the Gulf of Paria, the early voyagers -were able to obtain more ample supplies. When Columbus explored the -Mosquito country and Costa Rica, he found the natives in possession of -massive ornaments of gold, on which they did not seem to place very -special value. Still the natives spoke of a country far away among -the mountains where gold and precious stones were profusely abundant. -The Spaniards continued to advance in the direction to which these -rumours pointed. As they approached the northern portions of Central -America, evidences of higher civilization and greater wealth multiplied -around them. The natives lived in houses solidly built of stone and -lime, their temples were highly ornamented, the soil was more carefully -cultivated here than elsewhere; above all, there was much gold, which -could be obtained in exchange for the worthless trinkets offered by the -strangers. [Sidenote: 1518 A.D.] At length the Spaniards arrived on the -borders of Mexico, and held intercourse with the chief who ruled over -the region to which they had come. - -When the Spanish Governor of Cuba heard of the tempting wealth of -Mexico, he determined to send out an expedition sufficiently strong -to effect the conquest of the country. Hernando Cortes, then a young -man of thirty-three, was intrusted with the guidance of this arduous -enterprise. Cortes was a man of middle height and slender figure, with -pale complexion and large dark eyes; of grave aspect, and with an air -of command which secured prompt obedience; of resolution which no -danger could shake; inexhaustibly fertile of resource, and eminently -fitted, therefore, to lead men who were about to encounter unknown -perils. Cortes having placed his fleet under the protection of St. -Peter, and having kindled the enthusiasm of his men by assurances of -glory and wealth and divine favour, sailed for the coast of Yucatan. -[Sidenote: Feb 18, 1519 A.D.] His forces numbered seven hundred -Europeans and two hundred Indians. He had fourteen pieces of artillery. -His enemies had not yet seen the horse, and Cortes sought anxiously to -have the means of overawing them by the sudden attack of cavalry. But -horses were scarce, for they had still to be brought from Europe; and -only sixteen mounted men rode in his ranks. These diminutive forces -were embarked in eleven little ships, the largest of which did not -exceed one hundred tons burden. - -Cortes disembarked his army on a wide sandy plain where now stands -the city of Vera Cruz, the chief sea-port of Mexico. He was within -rather less than two hundred miles of the capital of the country, and -he sent to demand access to the presence of the King. Pictures, which -represented the ships and the cannon and the horses of the Spaniards, -had been forwarded to Montezuma, who pondered with his councillors -those symbols of mysterious and terrible power. The council failed to -ascertain the true character of the strangers, and remained in doubt -whether they were supernatural beings or merely the envoys of some -distant sovereign. Montezuma came to the conclusion that in any case -they should be persuaded to depart and leave his country in peace. He -sent an embassy to point out the dangers of the journey, and request -his unwelcome visitors to return to their own land. But, by a fatal -indiscretion, the ambassadors supported the King’s request by rich -gifts:--a helmet filled to the brim with gold; two circular plates -of gold and silver “as large as carriage-wheels;” a multitude of -ornamental articles of costly material and beautiful workmanship. The -greedy eyes of the Spaniards glistened with delight as the treasures of -the simple monarch were spread before them. From that moment the ruin -of Montezuma was sealed. - -Cortes prepared for his advance upon the Mexican capital by destroying -all the ships of his fleet with one solitary exception. There were -faint hearts among his men, and fears which counselled early return to -Cuba. Cortes had accepted for himself the alternative of success or -utter ruin, and he purposed that his men should have no other. When the -enfeebling possibility of escape was withdrawn, he roused their courage -by appeals to the complex motives which swayed the Spaniards of that -day. The desire to plant the cross on the temples of the heathen, the -craving for glory and for gain, nerved the hearts of the warriors, who -now, trusting to the skill of their leader and the protecting care of -Divine Providence, went forth to the conquest of a great empire. - -Their way led at first across plains sodden and rendered almost -impassable by the summer rain. [Sidenote: Aug. 16, 1519 A.D.] Soon they -left the plain and began to climb the long ascent of the Cordilleras, -up towards the great table-land where the city of Mexico stands. -They left, too, the warmth of the coast, and traversed a dreary -mountain-region, swept by cold winds and tempests of sleet and snow. -They passed under the shadow of volcanic mountains whose fires had -been long extinguished; they looked down the sheer depths of dizzy -precipices, and saw, far below, the luxuriant vegetation which a -tropical heat drew forth. At length they came within the fertile and -populous territory of the Tlascalans--a bold republican people who -maintained with difficulty their independence against the superior -strength of Montezuma. Cortes sought the alliance of this people; but -they unwisely rejected his overtures and attacked his army. It was -not till the close of two days of fighting that Cortes routed his -assailants. The bold savages endured the dreaded attack of Spanish -horsemen, the murderous discharge of Spanish artillery; they offered -their defenceless bodies to the Spanish sword and lance, and were -slaughtered in thousands, while their feeble arms scarcely harmed the -invaders. The humbled Tlascalans hastened to conclude peace, and a -great fear of the irresistible strangers spread far and wide among the -population of the plateau. Montezuma once more sent large gifts of the -gold which the Spaniards loved, and vainly begged them to forbear from -coming to his capital. - -Fifteen miles from Tlascala stood the city of Cholula, which Cortes -now received an invitation to visit. Cortes found Cholula “a more -beautiful city than any in Spain,” lying in a well-tilled plain, with -many lofty towers, and with a dense population. Montezuma had enticed -the Spaniards hither that he might destroy them; and to that end he -had prepared an ambuscade of twenty thousand Mexican troops. But Cortes -detected the plot, and having drawn a large assemblage of the chiefs -and their followers into the great square, he gave the signal for an -indiscriminate and unsparing massacre. The defenceless people fell -in thousands; and Cortes, satisfied with the fearful lesson he had -taught, erected an altar and cross, addressed the priests and chiefs on -the excellences of the Christian religion, and resumed his advance on -Mexico. - -For a few leagues the way led up the steep side of a great volcanic -mountain, then in a state of eruption, although its fires are now -extinguished. A dense forest for a time impeded their march; then, as -they ascended, vegetation ceased, and they passed within the line of -everlasting snow. At length, rounding a shoulder of the mountain, the -great valley of Mexico, seen afar in that clear air, spread itself -before them, in all its glory of lake and city, of garden and forest -and cultivated plain. There were Spaniards who looked with fear upon -the evidences of a vast population, and demanded to be led back to the -security of the coast; but for the most part the soldiers, trusting to -the skill of their leader and the favour of Heaven, thought joyfully -of the vast plunder which lay before them, and hastened down the -mountain-side. - -The city of Mexico contained then a population which the Spaniards -estimated at three hundred thousand souls. It was built in a shallow -salt-water lake, and was approached by many broad and massive -causeways, on some of which eight horsemen could ride abreast. The -streets were sometimes wholly of water; sometimes they were of water -flanked by solid foot-paths. There were numerous temples; the royal -palaces excelled those of Europe in magnificence; the market-place -accommodated fifty thousand persons, and the murmur of their bargaining -spread far over the city; the dwellings and the aspect of the common -people spoke of comfort and contentment. - -[Sidenote: Nov. 8, 1519 A.D.] Montezuma received his unwelcome visitors -with munificent although reluctant hospitality, and assigned one of -his palaces as their place of residence while it should please them -to remain. Cortes, whose desire to convert the heathen was of equal -urgency with his desire to plunder them, took an early opportunity to -acquaint Montezuma with the leading doctrines of the Christian faith, -and to assure him that the gods of the Mexicans were not gods at all, -but “evil things which are called devils.” But the unconvinced heathen -refused his doctrine, and expressed himself satisfied with his gods -such as they were. - -For several days Cortes lived peaceably as the guest of Montezuma, -pondering deeply the next step which he must take in this marvellous -career. He perceived the full danger of his position. A handful of -invaders had thrust themselves among a vast population, whose early -feelings of wonder and fear were rapidly passing into hatred, and who -would probably, ere long, attempt their destruction. Against this -danger no guarantee was so immediately available as possession of -the King’s person. With the calm decision in which lay much of his -strength, Cortes rode down to the palace, attended by a competent -escort, and brought the astonished but unresisting Montezuma home to -the Spanish quarters. The Mexicans revered their sovereign with honours -scarcely less than divine, and Cortes felt that while he possessed the -King he was able to command the people. In a few days more Montezuma -and his great lords professed themselves vassals of the King of Spain. - -For six months Cortes ruled Mexico. He dethroned the Mexican gods, and -he suppressed the human sacrifices which the Mexican priests offered -profusely to their hideous idols. He built ships for defence; he sowed -maize for food: he gave attention to mining, that he might have gold -to satisfy the needs of the King of Spain. While he was thus occupied, -he learned that eighteen ships had arrived near his little settlement -of Vera Cruz. They carried a force of eighty horsemen, fourteen hundred -foot soldiers, and twenty pieces of cannon, sent by the Governor of -Cuba, who was jealous of his success, with instructions to arrest -Cortes and his companions. It was a threatening interruption to a -victorious career. Cortes devolved his government upon Alvarado, a -rugged soldier in whom he had confidence, and with only seventy men -hastened to encounter his new foes. By skill and daring he achieved -decisive success, and within a few weeks from the day he quitted Mexico -he was ready to return, strengthened by the arms of those whom he had -subdued, and whom he now gained over to his cause. - -But during those weeks events of grave import had occurred in Mexico. -The absence of Cortes resulted in a visible diminution of the meek -submission with which the Mexicans had hitherto demeaned themselves -towards their conquerors. Rumours arose that a revolt was in -contemplation. Alvarado resolved to anticipate the expected treachery. -The time of the annual religious festival had come, and the great -lords of Mexico were engaged in the sacred dance which formed the -closing ceremonial. Suddenly a strong force of armed Spaniards attacked -the undefended worshippers, six hundred of whom were slaughtered. -The outraged city instantly rose against its murderous tyrants. The -Spaniards endured at the hands of their despised assailants a blockade -which must have quickly ended in ruin unless Cortes had hastened to -their relief. - -Cortes returned in time at the head of thirteen hundred soldiers, -of whom one hundred were horsemen. He found the city wholly turned -against him. [Sidenote: June 24, 1520 A.D.] The next day, a formidable -attack was made. The streets and terraced roofs of the houses could -not be seen, so densely were they covered by assailants; stones were -thrown in such numbers that it seemed as if it rained stones; the -arrows shot by the Mexicans so covered the courts of the fortress -that it became difficult to move about. The Indians attempted almost -successfully to scale the walls, offering their undefended bosoms, -with reckless disregard of life, to the musketry and artillery, whose -discharge swept them down by hundreds. Their feeble weapons wounded, -but scarcely ever killed; but at the close of each day Cortes found -his fighting strength diminished by the loss of sixty or eighty men. -Food could scarcely be obtained, for the people withheld supplies. To -such a measure of intensity had the cruelty of their oppressors kindled -the hatred of the Indians, that they were willing to spend thousands -of their own lives, if by the costly sacrifice they might compass the -death of one Spaniard. It was necessary for Cortes to be gone. First, -however, he would endeavour to conjure his assailants into submission -by the voice of their King. The unhappy Montezuma came forth upon a -balcony and besought the infuriated people to cease from resistance. -But the spell had lost its power, and the fallen monarch was struck -down and fatally injured by a shower of arrows and of stones. Cortes -left the city that night. [Sidenote: July 1, 1520 A.D.] His stealthy -retreat was discovered, and the vengeful savages caught him at fearful -disadvantage. They swarmed in their canoes around the broken bridges -where the Spaniards had to pass. In the darkness the retreat speedily -became a hopeless and bloody rout. Four hundred and fifty Spaniards -perished, with a large number of their Indian allies and one-half of -the horses. The artillery was wholly lost. It is said that when Cortes -became aware of the ruin which had been wrought, he sat down upon a -great stone in a Mexican village and wept bitterly.[23] - -Cortes withdrew to Tlascala, where his allies, unacquainted with -the practice of civilized life, adhered with unswerving loyalty to a -fallen cause. Many of his soldiers were eager to quit the scene of -their crushing defeat. Cortes resolved to maintain his hold upon the -country he had won. He united many states in a great league for the -overthrow of Mexico. He sent ships to Hispaniola for horses, men, -and arms. He ordered brigantines to be built at Tlascala. Six months -after his defeat he was again before Mexico with a force of nearly a -thousand Spaniards and a hundred thousand native allies--with horsemen, -and musketeers, and a fleet of brigantines, to command the lake and -the approaches to the city. It was not till May, however, that active -operations were commenced. - -The siege lasted for almost three months. During many days Cortes -forced his way constantly into the city, retiring at nightfall to his -camps in the outskirts. Always he inflicted fearful slaughter upon the -Indians, sparing neither age nor sex: occasionally the brave savages -had their revenge, and the Spaniards, looking up to the summit of the -great temple, witnessed in horror comrades offered in sacrifice to the -Mexican gods. Unwonted horrors attended this cruel siege. The Indian -allies of Cortes frequently banqueted upon the bodies of their slain -enemies, and frequently supplied the materials for a like ghastly -feast. Famine and disease pressed heavily on the doomed city; but no -suffering or danger quelled the heroic resistance of the despairing -people. At length Cortes resolved to destroy the beautiful city, -step by step as he gained it. The houses were pulled down and their -materials thrown into the lake. The Mexicans refused to yield; they -desired only to die. Enfeebled by hunger they ceased to fight, and -the siege became little more than a ruthless slaughter of unresisting -wretches. [Sidenote: Aug. 13, 1520 A.D.] At length the new King -was taken, and all opposition was at an end. The great mass of the -population had perished. The lake and the houses and the streets were -full of dead bodies. Palaces and temples and private dwellings had -fallen. The Spanish historian,[24] who was present, and who in his time -had witnessed many horrors, “does not know how he may describe” these. -He had read the awful story of the destruction of Jerusalem, but he -doubts whether its terrors equalled those which attended the fall of -Mexico. - - * * * * * - -The fame of this appalling success spread far and wide in Central -America. From great distances southward embassies sought the conqueror, -to conciliate his favour, to offer submission to the great monarch -whose servants had beaten to the ground the power of the Aztec tyrants. -A thousand miles away Cortes had allies and vassals. Still farther -to the south was the rich province of Guatemala, with great and -well-built cities, the home of a people whose progress in the arts of -civilized life was not inconsiderable. Regarding these people reports -were carried to Cortes that they had lately manifested to his allies -dispositions less cordial than had heretofore existed. Three years had -now passed since the conquest of Mexico, and Cortes and his followers -were ready for new enterprises. An expedition, composed of two hundred -and eighty men, with four cannon, with “much ammunition and powder,” -was sent forth under Pedro de Alvarado to ascertain the truth of those -statements which had been reported to Cortes. [Sidenote: Dec. 1523 -A.D.] Alvarado, a gallant but ruthless warrior, forced his way into -the fertile valleys of Guatemala. He fought many battles against great -native armies, and inflicted vast slaughter--himself almost unharmed. -He slew the King; he overthrew cities; he gathered together the chiefs -of a certain province, “and as it was for the good and pacification of -this country he burned them.” The people were given over as slaves to -Spaniards who desired them. While busied with these awful arrangements -the devout Alvarado did not fail to entreat that Cortes would appoint -a solemn procession of Mexican clergy, to the effect that Our Lady -might procure for him the succour of Heaven against the urgent perils -of his enterprise. Under such auspices Guatemala became a Spanish -possession. - - * * * * * - -Among the followers of Vasco Nuñez there was a middle-aged Spanish -warrior, slow, silent, but gifted with a terrible pertinacity in -following out his purposes. His name was Francisco Pizarro. He probably -heard the young Indian tell of the wealth of Peru.[25] He was beside -Vasco Nuñez when that eager discoverer waded into the waters of -the Pacific. A little later he arrested his chief and led him to a -death of violence. He had taken part in an expedition in which the -Spaniards, pursued by overwhelming forces, stabbed their prisoners as -they retreated, and left them dying on the way, in order to hinder -the pursuit. He was wholly without education, and was unable even to -sign his own name. At this time he was living near Panama, on certain -lands which he had obtained, along with the customary allotment of -Indian labourers. Here he applied himself to cattle-farming; and his -labours and his gains were shared with two partners--Almagro, the -son of a labouring man, and De Luque, a schoolmaster. The associates -prospered in their industry, and it seemed probable that they would -live in obscurity, and die wealthy country gentlemen. But Pizarro had -never ceased to brood over the assurances which he had heard ten years -before, that there were in the south regions whose wealth surpassed all -that the Spaniards had yet discovered. He wished to find a shorter path -to greatness than cattle-farming supplied, and he was able to inspire -his associates with the same ambition. The scope of the copartnery was -strangely widened. The rearing of cattle was abandoned, and a formal -contract was entered into for the discovery and conquest of Peru. -Pizarro was to conduct the enterprise; Almagro was to bring to him -reinforcements and needful stores; De Luque was to procure funds. The -profits resulting from their efforts were to be equally divided. They -were ridiculed in Panama as madmen; but the courage and tenacity of -Pizarro sufficed to crown with terrible success purposes which in their -origin seemed wholly irrational. - -[Sidenote: Nov. 1524 A.D.] The early history of the expedition was -disastrous. Pizarro sailed from Panama on his career of conquest, -attended by eighty men and four horses. He crept down the coast; -landing occasionally to find only a rugged and barren country. Hunger -fell on his followers, and many died. The Indians assailed them with -poisoned arrows, and slew some. The forests were impenetrably dense; -the climate was unwholesome. Almagro brought a small reinforcement; but -the employment became intolerable, and the men, losing heart, returned -to Panama. Pizarro, with only fourteen followers, sought shelter on -an uninhabited island, “which those who have seen it compare to the -infernal regions.” Here they spent three wretched months, living on -shell-fish and what else the sharpened eye of hunger could discover. -[Sidenote: 1527 A.D.] Strengthened by supplies which Almagro was able -to send, they set forth once more and moved southward along the coast. -And now they found the region of which they had dreamed so long. They -landed in the northern part of Peru. Gold was everywhere. They found -a temple whose walls were lined with plates of gold; a palace where -every vessel, for use or for ornament, was formed of gold. The people -were gentle, and received them hospitably. But Pizarro had no more -than fourteen men with him--a force wholly inadequate for purposes -of conquest. [Sidenote: 1528 A.D.] He returned to Panama, and thence -to Spain, bearing to the King the thrilling story of his marvellous -discovery. The King bestowed large rights of government upon the -successful adventurer; and as the conversion of the natives was an -end steadily prosecuted by the Spanish Government, a bishopric in the -newly-found territory was assigned to his partner De Luque. But Pizarro -had omitted to obtain honours or advantages for Almagro--an omission -which drew in its train a long series of destructive strifes among the -conquerors. - -[Sidenote: Dec. 1530 A.D.] Once more Pizarro set forth to conquer -the great kingdom of which he now claimed to be governor. His forces -consisted of one hundred and eighty-three men and thirty-seven horses. -He found it necessary to wait for additional strength; and he encamped -in an unhealthy locality, where his men suffered severely. At length -he was joined by a reinforcement of fifty-six men, one-half of whom -were mounted. He had incurred a delay of seven months; but the time -was well spent. While he waited the Peruvians lightened his task by a -civil war, in which multitudes perished. To secure retreat, in event -of disaster, Pizarro resolved to found a city. He chose a convenient -site, and erected several strong buildings, among which were a church, -a court-house, and a fortress. He left fifty men to garrison his -settlement, to which he gave the name of San Miguel, in recognition of -services rendered to him by that saint in a recent battle. He divided -the neighbouring lands among his citizens, and assigned to each a -certain number of Indians--an arrangement which, as he was assured, was -not merely indispensable to the comfort of the settlers, but “would -serve the cause of religion and tend greatly to the spiritual welfare” -of the savages thus provided for. - -And now his simple preparations were completed. He had learned that at -the distance of twelve days’ journey eastward beyond the great mountain -barrier of the Cordilleras the Peruvian monarch was encamped with a -powerful army, flushed with victory in the civil war which had just -closed. It seemed a wild adventure to go forth with a hundred and -eighty men against an enemy computed at fifty thousand. But Pizarro -knew what Cortes had accomplished with means apparently as inadequate; -he trusted in the well-proved courage of his men, the vast superiority -of their arms, and the favour of the saints. He had placed himself -where hesitation must draw in its train inevitable ruin. But there was -no hesitation in the steady purpose of the resolute, tenacious Pizarro. -He determined to encounter the victorious Inca. [Sidenote: Sept. 24, -1532 A.D.] He marched forth from the gates of his little town, eastward -towards the mountains and the unknown perils which lay beyond. - -For several days the march of the Spaniards led them across the rich -plains which lay between the mountains and the sea. Their progress was -easy and pleasant, and they passed several well-built and apparently -prosperous towns, whose inhabitants hospitably supplied their wants. At -length the vast heights of the Andes cast their shadows on the little -army, and the toilsome ascent was begun. The path was so steep that -the cavalry dismounted and with difficulty led their horses upward; so -narrow that there was barely room for a horse to walk; in many places -it overhung abysses thousands of feet in depth, into which men and -horses looked with fear. As they rose, the opulent vegetation of the -tropics was left behind, and they passed through dreary forests of -stunted pine-wood. The piercing cold was keenly felt by men and horses -long accustomed to the sultry temperature of the plains. But the summit -was reached in safety, and the descent of the eastern slope begun. As -they followed the downward path, each step disclosed some new scene of -grandeur or of beauty. - -On the seventh day, the hungry eyes of the adventurers looked down on -a fertile valley. A broad stream flowed through its well-cultivated -meadows; the white walls of a little city glittered in the evening -sun; far as the eye could reach there stretched along the slopes of -the surrounding hills the tents which sheltered the Peruvian army. The -Spaniards had reached their destination. They had reached the city of -Cassamarca, and they were almost in presence of the Inca Atahualpa, -whom they had come to subdue and destroy. In the stoutest heart of that -little party there was for the moment “confusion, and even fear.” But -no retreat was possible now. Pizarro formed his men in order of battle, -and with unmoved countenance strode towards the city. - -[Sidenote: Nov. 15, 1532 A.D.] The Inca knew of the coming of his -visitors, and had made some preparations for their reception. Quarters -were assigned to them in a range of buildings which opened upon a vast -square. It was evening when they arrived; but Pizarro lost no time in -sending one of his brothers, with Fernando de Soto and a small troop -of horsemen, to wait upon the Inca and ascertain his dispositions. The -ambassadors were admitted to the royal presence and informed that next -morning the monarch with his chieftains would visit Pizarro. Riding -back to their quarters, the men thought gloomily of the overwhelming -force into whose presence they had rashly thrust themselves. Their -comrades shared the foreboding which the visit to the Peruvian camp had -inspired. When night came on they looked out almost hopelessly upon the -watch-fires of the Peruvians, which seemed to them “as numerous as the -stars of heaven.” - -Happily for the desponding warriors, the courage of their chief was -unshaken by the dangers which surrounded him. Pizarro did not conceal -from himself the jeopardy in which he stood. He saw clearly that ruin -was imminent. But he saw, too, how by a measure of desperate boldness -he might not only save his army from destruction, but make himself -master of the kingdom. He would seize the Inca in presence of his army. -Once in possession of the sacred person he could make his own terms. -He could wait for the reinforcements which his success was sure to -bring; at the worst, he could purchase a safe retreat to the coast. He -informed the soldiers of his purpose, and roused their sinking courage -by assurances of divine favour and protection. - -[Sidenote: Nov. 16, 1532 A.D.] At sunrise next morning Pizarro began -to make his preparations. In the halls which formed the ground-floor -of the buildings beside the grand square he disposed his horsemen and -footmen. His two pieces of artillery were planted on the fortress which -looked down on the square. The arms of the men were carefully examined, -and the chief made himself sure that swords were sharp and arquebusses -loaded. Then mass was said, and the men, who stood ready to commit one -of the foulest crimes in history, joined devoutly in the chant, “Rise, -O Lord, and judge thine own cause.” About noon the sentinel on the -fortress reported that the Inca had set out from his camp. He himself, -seated on a throne of massive gold, was borne aloft on the shoulders -of his principal nobles; before him moved a crowd of attendants whose -duty it was to sweep every impurity from the path about to be honoured -by the advance of royalty; on either hand his soldiers gathered towards -the road to guard their King. At a little distance from the city, -Atahualpa paused, in seeming doubt as to the measure he was adopting, -and sent word to Pizarro that he would defer his visit till the morrow. -Pizarro dreaded to hold his soldiers longer under the strain which -approaching danger laid upon them. He sent to entreat the Inca to -resume his journey, and the Inca complied with the treacherous request. - -About sunset the procession reached the gates of the square. The -servants, drawing aside, opened an avenue along which the monarch was -borne. After him a multitude of Peruvians of all ranks crowded into -the square, till five or six thousand men were present. No Spaniard -had yet been seen; for Pizarro apparently shunned to look in the face -of the man whom he had betrayed. At length his chaplain advanced and -began to explain to the astonished monarch the leading doctrines of -the Christian religion. As his exposition proceeded, it was noticed -that the Peruvian troops were drawing closer to the city. Pizarro -hastened now to strike the blow which he had prepared. A gun was fired -from the fortress. At this appointed signal the Spaniards rushed -from their hiding-places. The musketeers plied their deadly weapons. -The cavalry spurred fiercely among the unarmed crowd. High overhead -flashed the swords of the pitiless assailants. The ground was quickly -heaped with dead, and even flight was impossible until a portion of -the wall which bounded the square yielded under the pressure of the -crowd and permitted many to gain the open country. Around the Inca a -fierce battle raged,--such a battle as can be fought between armed and -steel-clad men and others without arms, offering their defenceless -bosoms to the steel of the slayer in the vain hope that thus they might -purchase the safety of their master. The bearers of the Inca were -struck down, and he himself was taken prisoner and instantly secured. -The cavalry, giving full scope to the fierce passions which the fight -aroused, urged the pursuit of the fugitives far beyond the limits -of the city. The Peruvian army, panic-stricken by these appalling -circumstances, broke and fled. Less than an hour ago Atahualpa was a -great monarch, whose wish was the law of a nation; the possessor of -vast treasures; the commander of a powerful army. Now his throne was -overturned; his army had disappeared; he himself was a captive in the -hands of strangers, regarding whom he knew only that their strength was -irresistible and their hearts fierce and cruel. - -The fallen monarch, perceiving the insatiable greed of gold which -inspired his captors, sought to regain his liberty by offers whose -magnitude bewildered the Spaniards. He offered to fill with gold, up -to a height of nine feet, a room whose area was seventeen feet in -breadth and twenty-two feet in length. A room of smaller dimensions -was to be twice filled with silver; and he asked only two months to -collect this enormous ransom. The offer was accepted, and the Inca sent -messengers to all his cities commanding that temples and palaces should -be stripped of their ornaments. In a few weeks Indian bearers began to -arrive at Cassamarca, laden to their utmost capacity with silver and -gold. Day by day they poured in, bearing great golden vessels, which -had been used in the palaces; great plates of gold, which had lined -the walls and roofs of temples; crowns and collars and bracelets of -gold, which the chieftains gave up in the hope that they would procure -the liberty of their master. At length the room was filled up to the -red line which Pizarro had drawn upon the wall as his record of this -extraordinary bargain. When it was acknowledged that the Inca had -completely fulfilled his stipulation,[26] Pizarro executed an Act in -presence of a notary, and proclaimed it to the sound of the trumpet -in the great square of Cassamarca. By this document he certified that -the Inca had paid the stipulated ransom, and was now in consequence -liberated. But he did not, in actual fact, set the captive monarch -free. On the contrary, he informed him that until a larger number of -Spaniards arrived to hold the country, it was necessary for the service -of the King of Spain that Atahualpa should continue a prisoner. - -Meanwhile rumours became current in the camp that Atahualpa had ordered -a great rising of his people to destroy the invaders. The Spaniards -had been recently joined by Almagro with important reinforcements; -but still they were no more than four hundred men, and they were in -possession of treasure which exposed them to apprehensions unfelt -by the penniless adventurer. It was asserted that a vast army was -gathering only a hundred miles away; at length the imaginary force was -reported to be within ten miles. The cry arose that the Inca should -be brought to trial for his treasonable practices. A court was formed, -with Pizarro and Almagro as presiding judges; counsel were named to -prosecute and defend; charges were framed,[27] and the unhappy Inca -was placed at the bar. The evidence taken reached the court through -the doubtful channel of an Indian interpreter, who, it was believed, -sought the destruction of the prisoner. The judges occupied themselves -with discussion, not of the guilt of the accused, but of the results -which his execution might be expected to produce. Their judgment was -death by burning, as befitted an idolater. [Sidenote: Aug. 29, 1533 -A.D.] The whole army claimed a voice in the great decision. A few -condemned the proceedings, and urged that the Inca should be sent to -Spain to wait the pleasure of the King. But the voice of the larger -number confirmed the sentence of the court, and it was intimated to -Atahualpa that he must prepare for immediate death. The fallen monarch -lost, for a moment, the habitual calmness with which an Indian warrior -is accustomed to meet death. With many tears he besought Pizarro to -spare him. Even the stern conqueror was moved in view of misery so -deep; but he was without power to reverse the doom which his army had -spoken. Two hours after sunset, Atahualpa was led forth, with chains -on hand and foot. The great square was lighted up by torches, and the -Spanish soldiers gathered around the closing scene in the ruin which -they had wrought. The Inca was bound to the stake, and rude hands piled -high the fagots around him. A friar who had instructed him in Christian -doctrine besought him to accept the faith, promising in that event the -leniency of death by the cord instead of the flame. Atahualpa accepted -the offered grace, and abjured his idolatry. He was instantly baptized -under the name of Juan, in honour of John the Baptist, on whose day -this conversion was achieved. With his latest breath he implored -Pizarro to have pity on his little children. While he spoke, the string -of a cross-bow was tightened around his neck, and, with the rugged -soldiers muttering “credos” for the repose of his soul, the last of the -Incas submitted to death in its most ignominious form. Next morning -they gave him Christian burial in the little wooden church which they -had already erected in Cassamarca. His great lords, as we are assured, -“received much satisfaction” from the honour thus bestowed upon their -unhappy prince.[28] - -[Sidenote: Sept. 1533 A.D.] Almost immediately after these occurrences -Pizarro marched southward and possessed himself easily of the Peruvian -capital--“the great and holy city of Cusco.” Although the capital had -parted with much of its treasure in obedience to the requisition of -its captive monarch, there still remained a vast spoil to enrich the -plunderers. In especial, mention is made of ten or twelve statues of -female figures, of life size, made wholly of fine gold, “beautiful and -well-formed as if they had been alive.” The Spaniards appropriated -these and much besides. The great Temple of the Sun was speedily -rifled; for the piety of the conquerors conspired with their avarice to -hasten the downfall of idolatrous edifices. In this temple the embalmed -bodies of former Incas, richly adorned, sat on golden thrones beside -the golden image of the Sun. The venerated mummies were now stripped -and cast aside. The image of the Sun became the prize of a common -soldier, by whom it was quickly lost in gambling. Pizarro claimed the -land for the Church as well as for the King. He overthrew temples; -he cast down idols; he set up crosses on all highways; he erected a -Christian place of worship in Cusco. - -Cusco was the worthy capital of a great empire. It was of vast extent, -and contained a population variously estimated at from two to four -hundred thousand persons. The streets crossed regularly at right -angles; the houses were built mainly of stone, with light thatched -roofs. The numerous palaces[29] were of great size, and splendid beyond -anything the conquerors had seen in Europe. A mighty fortress, built -upon a lofty rock, looked down on the city. It was formed of enormous -blocks of stone, fitted with such care that the point of junction could -not be discovered. Two streams descending from the mountains flowed -through the city in channels lined with masonry. This noble city was -the pride of all Peruvians. It was to them all that Jerusalem was to -the ancient Jews or Rome to the Romans. - -The natives offered no considerable resistance to the entrance of -the conquerors. Vast multitudes had gathered out of the neighbouring -country. They looked with wonder and with awe upon the terrible -strangers who had slain their monarch, who were now marching at their -ease through the land, claiming as their own whatever they desired. -They heard the heavy tramp of the war-horse and the strange thrilling -notes of the trumpet. They saw the mysterious arms before whose -destructive power so many of their countrymen had fallen, and the -bright mail within whose shelter the Spaniard could slay in safety -the undefended Indian. They may well have regarded the fierce bearded -warriors as beings of supernatural strength and supernatural wickedness. - -But the time came when they could no longer endure the measureless -wrongs which had been heaped upon them; when they were impelled to -dash themselves against the mailed host of their conquerors and perish -under their blows if they could not destroy them. No injury which it -was possible for man to inflict upon his fellows had been omitted in -their bitter experience. Their King had been betrayed and ignominiously -slain; their temples had been profaned and plundered; their -possessions had been seized or destroyed; dishonour had been laid upon -them in their domestic relations; they themselves had been subjected to -compulsory service so ruthlessly enforced that many of them died under -the unaccustomed toil. They were now to make one supreme effort to cast -off this oppression, which had already gone far to destroy the life of -their nation. - -[Sidenote: Jan. 1535 A.D.] Pizarro--raised to the dignity of -Marquis--had retired to the coast, where he occupied himself in -founding and embellishing the city of Lima. His brother Fernando--a -stout-hearted and skilful captain--was left in charge of Cusco. Danger -was not apprehended, and the garrison of Cusco was no more than -two hundred Spaniards and a thousand native auxiliaries. While the -Spaniards enjoyed their lordly repose in the splendid palaces of the -fallen monarchy, the Peruvian chiefs organized a formidable revolt. -From all the provinces of the empire multitudes of armed natives -gathered around Cusco, and took up position on hills where they were -safe from the attack of Spanish horsemen. Many of them were armed with -lances or axes of copper tempered so that they were scarcely less -effective than steel. Every man in all those dusky ranks was prepared -to spend his life in the effort to rescue the sacred city from this -abhorred invasion. [Sidenote: Feb. 1536 A.D.] They set fire to the -city; they forced their way into the streets, and fought hand to hand -with the Spaniards in desperate disregard of the inequality of their -arms. They fell slaughtered in thousands; but in six days’ fighting -they had gained the fortress and nearly all of the city which the -flames had spared. The Spaniards held only the great square and a few -of the surrounding houses. Some despaired, and began to urge that they -should mount and ride for the coast, forcing their way through the -lines of the besiegers. But the stout heart of Fernando Pizarro quailed -not in presence of the tremendous danger. In his mind, he told them, -there was not and there had not been any fear. If he were left alone -he would maintain the defence till he died, rather than have it said -that another gained the city and he lost it. The Spaniard of that day -was unsurpassed in courage, and his spirit rose to the highest pitch -of daring in response to the appeal of a trusted leader. The men laid -aside all thought of flight, and addressed themselves to the capture -of the great fortress. This strong position was fiercely attacked, and -defended with unavailing heroism. Many Spaniards were slain, among -whom was Juan, one of the Pizarro brothers, on whose undefended head a -great stone inflicted fatal injury. The slaughter of Indians was very -great. At length their ammunition failed them--the stones and javelins -and arrows with which they maintained the defence were exhausted. Their -leader had compelled the admiration of the Spaniards by his heroic -bearing throughout the fight. When he had struck his last blow for his -ruined country he flung his club among the besiegers, and, casting -himself down from the height of the battlement, perished in the fall. -“There is not written of any Roman such a deed as he did,” says the -Spanish chronicler. [Sidenote: May, 1536 A.D.] The defence now ceased; -the Spaniards forced their way into the fortress, and slaughtered -without mercy the fifteen hundred men whom they found there. - -For several weeks longer the Indians blockaded Cusco, and the Spaniards -were occasionally straitened in regard to supplies; but always at the -time of new moon the Indians withdrew for the performance of certain -religious ceremonies, and the Spaniards were able then to replenish -their exhausted granaries. The siege languished, and finally ceased, -but not till the Spaniards had practised for some time the cruel -measure of putting to death every Indian woman whom they seized. - - * * * * * - -But now misery in a new form came upon this unhappy country. Fierce -strifes arose among the conquerors themselves. Pizarro had gained -higher honours and ampler plunder than had fallen to the share of his -partner Almagro, and it does not seem that he was scrupulous in his -fulfilment of the contract by whose terms an equal division of spoil -was fixed. Almagro appeared on the scene with an overwhelming force, -to assert his own rights. For ten or twelve years from this time the -history of Peru represents to us a country ungoverned and in confusion; -a native population given over to slavery, and wasting under the -exactions of ruthless task-masters; fierce wars between the conquerors -devastating the land. [Sidenote: 1537 A.D.] Tranquillity was not -restored till a large portion of the native population had perished, -and till all the chiefs of this marvellous conquest had died as -miserably as the Indians they had destroyed. Almagro entered Cusco, and -made prisoners of the two brothers Fernando and Gonzalo Pizarro; whom, -however, he soon liberated. [Sidenote: 1538 A.D.] He, in turn, fell -into the hands of Fernando, by whose orders he was brought for trial -before a tribunal set up for that occasion in Cusco. He was condemned -to die;--partly for his “notorious crimes;” partly because, as the -council deemed, his death “would prevent many other deaths.” On the -same day the old man, feeble, decrepit, and begging piteously for life, -was strangled in prison and afterwards beheaded. Immediately after -this occurrence Fernando Pizarro sailed for Spain, where his enemies -had gained the ear of the King. Fernando was imprisoned, and was not -released for twenty-three years, till his long life of a hundred years -was near its close. [Sidenote: 1541 A.D.] Three years after the death -of Almagro, the Marquis Pizarro, now a man of seventy, was set upon in -his own house in Lima and murdered by a band of soldiers dissatisfied -with the portion of spoil which had fallen to their share. The close -of that marvellous career was in strange contrast to its brilliant -course. After a stout defence against overwhelming force, a fatal wound -in the throat prostrated the brave old man. He asked for a confessor, -and received for answer a blow on the face. With his finger he traced -the figure of a cross on the ground, and pressed his dying lips on -the hallowed symbol. Thus passed the stern conqueror and destroyer -of the Peruvian nation. [Sidenote: 1548 A.D.] A few years after the -assassination of the Marquis, his brother Gonzalo was beheaded for -having resisted the authority of Spain; and he died so poor, as he -himself stated on the scaffold, that even the garments he wore belonged -to the executioner who was to cut off his head. The partnership which -was formed at Panama a quarter of a century before, had brought wealth -and fame, but it conducted those who were chiefly concerned in it to -misery and shameful death. - - * * * * * - -From Peru the tide of Spanish conquest flowed southward to Chili. The -river Plate was explored; Buenos Ayres was founded; and communication -was opened from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Forty years after the -landing of Columbus, the margins of the continent bordering on the -sea had been subdued and possessed, and some progress had been made -in gaining knowledge of the interior. There had been added to the -dominions of Spain vast regions, whose coast-line on the west stretched -from Mexico southward for the distance of six thousand miles--regions -equal in length to the whole of Africa, and largely exceeding in -breadth the whole of the Russian Empire. It has now to be shown how -ill-prepared was Spain for this sudden and enormous addition to her -responsibilities--how huge have been the evils which her possession of -the new continent inflicted upon mankind. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE INDIANS OF SPANISH AMERICA. - - -The native populations with which the Spaniards were brought into -contact differed widely, in respect of the degree of civilization -to which they had attained, from the Indians of the Northern -Continent. The first colonists of Virginia, Massachusetts, and the -St. Lawrence valley found the soil possessed by fierce tribes, wholly -without knowledge of the arts of civilized life. The savages of the -north supported themselves almost entirely by the chase, regarding -agriculture with contempt; their dwellings were miserable huts; their -clothing was the skins of the beasts which they slew; they were without -fixed places of abode, and wandered hither and thither in the forest -as their hopes of success in hunting directed. They left no traces of -their presence on the land which they inhabited--no cleared forest, nor -cultivated field, nor fragment of building. They were still savage and -debased in a degree almost as extreme as humanity has ever been known -to reach. - -The inhabitants of the islands where Columbus first landed were the -least civilized of the southern races. But the genial conditions of -climate under which they lived, and the abundance with which nature -surrounded them, seemed to have softened their dispositions and made -them gentle and inoffensive and kind. They were scarcely clothed at -all, but they lived in well-built villages and cultivated the ground. -Their wants were few; and as the spontaneous bounty of nature for the -most part supplied these, they spent their days in simple, harmless -indolence. Land among them was “as common as the sun and water.” -They gave willingly, and without hope of recompense, any of their -possessions which visitors desired to obtain. To the pleased eye of -Columbus they seemed “to live in the golden world without toil; living -in open gardens, not intrenched with dikes, divided by hedges, or -defended with walls.” - -The natives of Central America were of a fiercer character and more -accustomed to war than those of the islands. They had also made -greater progress in the arts; and the ornaments of gold which the -Spaniards received from them evidenced considerable skill in working -the precious metals. They wore mantles of cotton cloth, and must, -therefore, have mastered the arts of spinning and weaving. Their -achievements in architecture and sculpture still remain to excite the -wonder of the antiquary. Here and there, wrapped almost impenetrably -in the profuse vegetation of the forest, there have been found ruined -cities, once of vast extent. These cities must have been protected by -great walls--lofty, massive, skilfully built. They contained temples, -carefully plastered and painted; and numerous altars and images, whose -rich sculptures still attest the skill of the barbarian artist. - -It was, however, in the ancient monarchies of Mexico and Peru that -American civilization reached its highest development. The Mexican -people lived under a despotic Government; but their rights were secured -by a gradation of courts, with judges appointed by the Crown, or in -certain cases elected by the people themselves, and holding their -offices for life. Evidence was given on oath, and the proceedings of -the courts were regularly recorded. A judge who accepted bribes was -put to death. The marriage ceremony was surrounded with the sanctions -of religion, and divorce was granted only as the result of careful -investigation by a tribunal set up for that special business. Slavery -existed; but it was not hereditary, and all Mexicans were born free. -Taxation was imposed according to fixed rates, and regular accounts -were kept by an officer appointed to that service. The Mexicans had -made no inconsiderable progress in manufactures. They wove cotton -cloths of exceedingly fine texture, and adorned them with an embroidery -of feather-work marvellously beautiful. They produced paper from the -leaf of the Mexican aloe; they extracted sugar from the stalk of -the Indian corn. They made and beautifully embellished vessels of -gold and silver; they produced in abundance vessels of crystal and -earthenware for domestic use. They had not attained to the use of -iron; but they understood how to harden copper with an alloy of tin -till it was fitted both for arms and for mechanical tools. Agriculture -was their most honourable employment, and was followed by the whole -population excepting the nobles and the soldiers. It was prosecuted -with reasonable skill--irrigation being practised, land being suffered -to lie fallow for the recovery of its exhausted energies; laws being -enacted to prevent the destruction of the woods. The better class of -dwellings in cities were well-built houses of stone and lime; the -streets were solidly paved; public order was maintained by an effective -police. Europe was indebted to the Mexicans for its knowledge of the -cochineal insect, whose rich crimson was much used for dyeing fine -cotton cloths. The Mexicans were without knowledge of the alphabet -till the Spaniards brought it; but they practised with much skill an -ingenious system of hieroglyphic painting, which served them fairly -well for the transmission of intelligence. Montezuma was informed of -the coming of the Spaniards by paintings which represented their ships -and horses and armour. - -Notwithstanding the industrial progress of this remarkable people, -their social condition was, in some respects, inexpressibly debased. -It was their custom to offer to their gods multitudes of human -sacrifices. Their most powerful motive in going to war was to obtain -prisoners for this purpose; and the prowess of a warrior was judged -by the number of victims whom he had secured and brought to the -sacrificing priest. Wealthy Mexicans were accustomed to give banquets, -from which they sought to gain social distinction by the culinary -skill exercised and the large variety of delicacies presented. One of -the dishes on which the cook put forth all his powers was the flesh -of a slave slaughtered for the occasion.[30] The civilization of the -Mexicans was fatally obstructed by their religion. The priesthood was -numerous, and possessed of commanding authority. The people regarded -the voice of the priest as that of the deity to which he ministered, -and they lived under the power of a bloody and degrading superstition. -Here, as it has been elsewhere, a religion which in its origin was -merely a reflection of the good and the evil existing in the character -of the people, stamped divine sanction upon their errors, and thus -rendered progress impossible. - -For two or three centuries before her fall, Peru had constantly -extended her dominion over her less civilized neighbours. Her -supremacy was widely recognized, and many of the surrounding tribes -were persuaded to accept peacefully the advantages which her strong -and mild government afforded. It was her wise policy to admit her new -subjects, whether they were gained by negotiation or by force, to an -equality of privilege with the rest of the people, and to present -inducements which led quickly to the adoption of her own religion and -language. By measures such as these the empire was consolidated while -it was extended, and its tranquillity was seldom marred by internal -discontent. When the Peruvian empire received its sudden death-blow -from the Spanish conquerors, it was doing the useful work which -England has done in India, and Russia in Central Asia--subjugating the -savage nations whose territories lay around and imparting to them the -benefits of a civilization higher than their own. - -Peru was governed according to the principles of Communism. A portion -of land was set apart for the Sun--the national deity--and its revenues -were expended in the support of temples and a priesthood. A second -portion belonged to the Inca--the child and representative of the -Sun. The remainder was divided annually among the people. All shared -equally. When a young man married he received a fixed addition; when -children were born to him further increase was granted. He might not -sell his land or purchase that of his neighbour; he could not improve -his condition and become rich. But neither could he suffer from want; -for the Government provided for his support if he could not provide for -it himself, and poverty was unknown. It was equally impossible to be -idle, for the Government enforced the exercise of industrious habits. - -Agriculture was the national employment. To illustrate its dignity, the -Inca was wont on great public occasions to put his own divine hand to -the plough and reveal himself to his people in the act of turning over -the fruitful sod. The Peruvians were acquainted with the virtues of the -guano, which was piled in mountains upon the islands lying along their -coasts, and were careful to protect by stern laws the sea-fowl to which -they were indebted for the precious deposit. Between the sea and the -mountains there stretched a level expanse on which rain never fell. -This otherwise profitless region was nourished into high fertility by -an elaborate system of irrigation. On the mountains the solid rock -was hewn into terraces and covered with soil laboriously carried up -from below. In the valleys flourished the tropical banana and cassava -tree. On the lower ranges of the mountains grew the maize. At a greater -height appeared the American aloe, the tobacco plant, and the coca, -the favourite narcotic of the Indian. Yet further up the mountain-side -Europeans first saw the potato, then largely cultivated in Peru, and -destined at a later time to attain vast social and even political -significance in the Old World. - -The public works of Peru furnish striking evidence of the industry -of the people and the enlightened views of their rulers. Two great -roads traversed the country from north to south. One of these, whose -length is estimated at fifteen hundred miles, ascended the mountains -and passed along the plateau, at a height occasionally of twelve -thousand feet; the other ran parallel in the plain which was bordered -by the sea. The construction of the upper road was necessarily a -work of prodigious difficulty. Vast ravines had to be filled with -solid masonry; lofty masses of rock had to be pierced by galleries or -surmounted by a long succession of steps; bridges formed of osiers -twisted into huge cables had to be hung across rivers. The roadway -was formed of massive paving-stones and of concrete; and although no -wheeled vehicle or beast of burden other than the llama passed over -it, the Spaniards remarked with grateful surprise on its perfect -smoothness. There was no road in Europe so well built and so well -maintained. Since the conquest it has been suffered to fall into ruin; -but here and there, where mountain-torrents have washed the soil from -underneath, massive fragments of this ancient work are still to be seen -hanging in air, so tenacious were the materials used, so indestructible -was the structure produced. - -The Peruvians had gained no inconsiderable skill in textile -manufacture. Cotton grew abundantly on the sultry plains. Large -supplies of wool of extreme fineness were obtained from the Peruvian -sheep. Two varieties of these--the llama and the alpaca--were -domesticated and carefully watched over by Government officers. Two -other varieties roamed wild upon the mountains. But once in the year -a great hunt was organized under royal authority; the wanderers were -caught and shorn; and the wool thus obtained was carried to the royal -store-house. Thence it was given out to the people, to be woven into -garments for themselves and for the Inca. The beauty of the fabrics -which were produced awakened the admiration of the Spaniards, as -greatly superior to the finest products of European looms. - -The sons of the great nobles were instructed in the simple learning of -the country, in seminaries erected for that purpose; beyond the narrow -circle of the aristocracy education did not pass. Some of these youths -were to be priests, and they were taught the complicated ritual of the -national religion. Some would have to do with the administration of -public affairs, and these were required to acquaint themselves with -the laws. Many would become subordinate officers of Government, having -charge of revenues; recording births and deaths--for the registration -system of the Peruvians was painstaking and accurate; taking account of -the stores received and given out at the royal magazines. These were -instructed in the Peruvian method of keeping records--by means of knots -tied upon a collection of threads of different colours. The education -of the nobles did not extend further, for little more was known; and as -the Peruvian intellect was devoid of energy and the power to originate, -the boundaries of knowledge were not extending. The masses of the -people lived in contented ignorance; pleased with the Government which -directed all their actions and supplied all their wants; enjoying a -fulness of comfort such as has seldom been enjoyed by any population; -without ambition, without progress, but also without repining; wholly -satisfied with the position in which they were born and in which they -lived; experiencing no rise and no fall from one generation to another. - - * * * * * - -Such were the people upon whom there now fell, with awful suddenness, -the blight of Spanish conquest. Their numbers cannot be told with -any approach to accuracy, for the estimates left by the conquerors -are widely diverse. The population of the city of Mexico is set down -by some writers at sixty thousand; by others, with equal opportunity -for observation, at six hundred thousand; and a divergence equally -baffling attends most of the statements which have been supplied to -us. There is, however, abundant evidence that the Southern Continent -was the home of a very numerous population. The means of subsistence -were easily obtained; in Peru marriage was compulsory; the duration of -life and the increase of population were not restrained, as in Northern -America, by severity of climate and the toil necessarily undergone -in the effort to procure food. Cortes, on his way to Mexico, came to -a valley where for a distance of twelve miles there was a continuous -line of houses. Everywhere near the coast the Spaniards found large -villages, and often towns of considerable size. Peru was undoubtedly a -populous State; and the great plateau over which Mexico ruled contained -many tributary cities of importance. One Spanish writer estimates that -forty million of Indians had perished within half a century after the -conquest;--beyond doubt an extravagant estimate, but the use of such -figures by an intelligent observer is in itself evidence that the -continent was inhabited by a vast multitude of human beings. - -The power of resistance of this great population was wholly -insignificant. The men were not wanting in courage; the Peruvians, -at least, were not without a rude military discipline: but they were -inferior in physical strength to their assailants; they were without -horses and without iron; their solitary hope lay in their overwhelming -numbers. They were powerfully reinforced by the diseases which struck -down the invaders; but their own poor efforts at defence, heroic and -self-devoted as these were, sufficed to inflict only trivial injury -upon their well-defended conquerors. A vast continent, with many -millions of men ready to die in defence of their homes, fell before the -assault of enemies who never at any point numbered over a few hundreds. - -The invaders claimed the continent and all that it held as the property -of the Spanish Sovereign, upon whom these great possessions had been -liberally bestowed by the Pope. The grant of his Holiness conveyed not -only the lands but also the infidels by whom they were inhabited; and -the Spaniards assumed without hesitation that the Indians belonged to -them, and were rightfully applicable to any of their purposes. Upon -this doctrine their early relations with the natives were based. The -demand for native labour was immediate and urgent. There was gold to -be found in the rivers and mountains of the islands, and the natives -were compelled to labour in mining--a description of work unknown -to them before. There was no beast of burden on all the continent, -excepting the llama, which the Peruvians had trained to carry a weight -of about a hundred pounds; but the Spaniards had much transport work to -do. When an army moved, its heavy stores had to be carried for great -distances, and frequently by ways which a profuse tropical vegetation -rendered almost impassable. Occasionally it happened that the materials -for vessels were shaped out far from the waters on which they were to -sail. Very often it pleased the lordly humour of the conquerors to be -borne in litters on men’s shoulders when they travelled. The Indian -became the beast of burden of the Spaniard. Every little army was -accompanied by its complement of Indian bearers, governed by the lash -held in brutal hands. When Cortes prepared at Tlascala the materials of -the fleet with which he besieged Mexico--when Vasco Nuñez prepared on -the Atlantic the materials of ships which were to be launched on the -Pacific, the deadly work of transport was performed by Indians. The -native allies were compelled to rebuild the city of Mexico, carrying or -dragging the stones and timber from a distance, suffering all the while -the miseries of famine. Indians might often have been seen bearing on -bleeding shoulders the litter of a Spaniard--some ruffian, it might -well happen, fresh from the jails of Castile. - -The Indians--especially those of the islands, feeble in constitution -and unaccustomed to labour--perished in multitudes under these toils. -The transport of Vasco Nuñez’s ships across the isthmus cost five -hundred Indian lives. Food became scarce, and the wretched slaves who -worked in the mines of Hispaniola were insufficiently fed. The waste of -life among the miners was enormous. All around the great mines unburied -bodies polluted the air. Many sought refuge in suicide from lives of -intolerable misery. Mothers destroyed their children to save them from -the suffering which they themselves endured. - -Nor was it only excessive labour which wasted the native population. -The slightest outrage by Indians was avenged by indiscriminate -massacre. Constant expeditions went out from Spanish settlements -to plunder little Indian towns. When resistance was offered, the -inhabitants were slaughtered. If the people gave up their gold and -their slender store of provisions, many of them were subjected to -torture in order to compel further disclosures. Vasco Nuñez, who was -deemed a humane man, wrote that on one expedition he had hanged thirty -chiefs, and would hang as many as he could seize: the Spaniards, he -argued, being so few, they had no other means of securing their own -safety. Columbus himself, conscious that the gold he had been able to -send fell short of the expectation entertained in Spain, remitted to -the King five hundred Indians, whom he directed to be sold as slaves -and their price devoted to the cost of his majesty’s wars. Yet further: -there came in the train of the conquerors the scourge of small-pox, -which swept down the desponding and enfeebled natives in multitudes -whose number it is impossible to estimate. The number of Indian orphans -furnished terrible evidence of the rigour of the Spaniards. “They are -numerous,” writes one merciful Spaniard, “as the stars of heaven and -the sands of the sea.” And yet the conquerors often slew children and -parents together. - -It was on the islanders that these appalling calamities first -fell. They fell with a crushing power which speedily amounted to -extermination. When Columbus first looked upon the luxuriant beauty -of Hispaniola, and received the hospitality of its gentle and docile -people, that ill-fated island contained a population of at least a -million. Fifteen years later the number had fallen to sixty thousand. -The inhabitants of other islands were kidnapped and carried to -Hispaniola, to take up the labours of her unhappy people, and to perish -as they had done. In thirty years more there were only two hundred -Indians left on this island. It fared no better with many of the -others. At a later period, when most of these possessions fell into the -hands of the English, no trace of the original population was left. On -the mainland, too, enormous waste of life occurred. No estimate lower -than ten million has ever been offered of the destruction of natives -by the Spanish conquest, and this number is probably far within the -appalling truth. Human history, dishonoured as it has ever been by the -record of blood causelessly and wantonly shed, has no page so dreadful -as this. - -But although there prevailed among the conquerors a terrible unanimity -in this barbarous treatment of the natives, there were some who -stood forward with noble courage and persistency in defence of the -perishing races. [Sidenote: 1502 A.D.] Most prominent among these was -Bartholomew de Las Casas, a young priest, who came to the island of -Hispaniola ten years after Columbus had landed there. He was a man of -eager, fervid nature, but wise and good--self-sacrificing, eloquent, -bold to attack the evils which surrounded him, nobly tenacious in his -life-long efforts to protect the helpless nations whom his countrymen -were destroying. He came to Hispaniola at a time when the island was -being rapidly depopulated, and he witnessed the methods by which this -result was accomplished. [Sidenote: 1511 A.D.] Some years later he was -sent for to assist in the pacification of Cuba. In the discharge of -this task he travelled much in the island, baptizing the children. One -morning he and his escort of a hundred men halted for breakfast in the -dry bed of a stream. The men sharpened their swords upon stones which -abounded there suitable for that purpose. A crowd of harmless natives -had come out from a neighbouring town to gaze upon the horses and arms -of the strangers. Suddenly a soldier, influenced, as it was believed, -by the devil, drew his sword and cut down one of the Indians. In an -instant the diabolic suggestion communicated itself to the whole force, -and a hundred newly-sharpened swords were hewing at the half-naked -savages. Before Las Casas could stay this mad slaughter the ground -was cumbered with heaps of dead bodies. The good priest knew the full -horrors of Spanish conquest. - -When the work of pacification in Cuba was supposed to be complete, -Las Casas received from the Governor certain lands, with a suitable -allotment of Indians. He owns that at that time he did not greatly -concern himself about the spiritual condition of his slaves, but -sought, as others did, to make profit by their labour. It was his duty, -however, occasionally to say mass and to preach. [Sidenote: 1514 A.D.] -Once, while preparing his discourse, he came upon certain passages in -the book of Ecclesiasticus in which the claims of the poor are spoken -of, and the guilt of the man who wrongs the helpless. Years before, -he had heard similar views enforced by a Dominican monk, whose words -rose up in his memory now. He stood, self-convicted, a defrauder of -the poor. He yielded a prompt obedience to the new convictions which -possessed him, and gave up his slaves; he laboured to persuade his -countrymen that they endangered their souls by holding Indians in -slavery. His remonstrances availed nothing, and he resolved to carry -the wrongs of the Indians to Spain and lay them before the King. -[Sidenote: 1515 A.D.] Ferdinand--old and feeble, and now within a few -weeks of the grave--heard him with deep attention as he told how the -Indians were perishing in multitudes, without the faith and without the -sacraments; how the country was being ruined; how the revenue was being -diminished. The King would have tried to redress these vast wrongs, and -fixed a time when he would listen to a fuller statement; but he died -before a second interview could be held. - -The wise Cardinal Ximenes, who became Regent of the kingdom at -Ferdinand’s death, entered warmly into the views of Las Casas. He -asserted that the Indians were free, and he framed regulations which -were intended to secure their freedom and provide for their instruction -in the faith. He chose three Jeronymite fathers to administer these -regulations; for the best friends of the Indians were to be found among -the monks and clergy. He sent out Las Casas with large authority, -and named him “Protector of the Indians.” [Sidenote: 1516 A.D.] But -in a few months the Cardinal lay upon his death-bed, and when Las -Casas returned to complain of obstructions which he encountered, -this powerful friend of the Indians was almost unable to listen to -the tale of their wrongs. The young King Charles assumed the reins -of government, and became absorbed in large, incessant, desolating -European wars. The home interests of the Empire were urgent; the -colonies were remote; the settlers were powerful and obstinate in -maintaining their right to deal according to their own pleasure with -the Indians. For another twenty-five years the evils of the American -colonies lay unremedied; the cruelty under which the natives were -destroyed suffered no effective restraint. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SPANISH GOVERNMENT OF THE NEW WORLD. - - -The ruin which fell on the native population of the New World was at no -time promoted by the rulers of Spain; it was the spontaneous result of -the unhappy circumstances which the conquest produced. In early life -Columbus had been familiarized with the African slave-trade; and he -carried with him to the world which he discovered the conviction that -not only the lands he found, but all the heathens who inhabited them, -became the absolute property of the Spanish Sovereigns. [Sidenote: -1495 A.D.] He had not been long in Hispaniola till he imposed upon all -Indians over fourteen years of age a tribute in gold or in cotton. -But it was found impossible to collect this tribute; and Columbus, -desisting from the attempt to levy taxes upon his subjects, ordained -that, instead, they should render personal service on the fields and -in the mines of the Spaniards. [Sidenote: 1496 A.D.] Columbus had -authority from his Government to reward his followers with grants of -lands, but he had yet no authority to include in his gift those who -dwelt upon the lands. But of what avail was it to give land if no -labour could be obtained? Columbus, on his own responsibility, made -to his followers such grants of Indians as he deemed reasonable. He -intended that these grants should be only temporary, till the condition -of the country should be more settled; but the time never came when -those who received consented to relinquish them. - -A few years later, when the Indians had gained some experience of the -ways of the Spaniards, they began to shun the presence of their new -masters. They shunned them, wrote Las Casas, “as naturally as the -bird shuns the hawk.” It was reported by the Governor, Ovando, that -this policy interfered with the spread of the faith as well as with -the prosperity of the settlements. [Sidenote: 1503 A.D.] He received -from the Spanish Monarchs authority to compel the Indians to work -for such wages as he chose to appoint, and also to attend mass and -receive instruction. The liberty of the Indians was asserted; but in -presence of the conditions under which they were now to live, liberty -was impossible. Ovando lost no time in acting on his instructions. He -distributed large numbers of Indians, with no other obligation imposed -upon those who received them than that the savages should be taught the -holy Catholic faith. - -[Sidenote: Nov. 1504 A.D.] Next year the good Queen Isabella died. -She had loved the Indians, and her influence sufficed to restrain the -evils which were ready to burst upon them. Her death greatly emboldened -the colonists in their oppressive treatment of their unhappy servants. -The search for gold had become eminently successful, and there arose a -vehement demand for labourers. King Ferdinand was a reasonably humane -man, but the welfare of his Indian subjects did not specially concern -him. There were many men who had done him service which called for -acknowledgment. The King had little money to spare, but a grant of -Indians was an acceptable reward. That was the coin in which the claims -of expectants were now satisfied. The King soothed his conscience by -declaring that such grants were not permanent, but might be revoked -at his pleasure. Meantime the population of the islands wasted with -terrible rapidity. - -In course of time the colonists desired that their rights should -be placed upon a more stable footing, and they sent messengers to -the King to request that their Indians should be given to them in -perpetuity, or at least for two or three generations. [Sidenote: 1512 -A.D.] Their prayer was not granted; but the King summoned a Junta, -and the Indians became, for the first time, the subjects of formal -legislation. The legality of the system under which they were forced -to labour was now clearly established. In other respects the laws -were intended, for the most part, to ameliorate the condition of the -labourers. But it was only at a few points the new regulations could be -enforced. By most of the colonists they were disregarded. - -Thirty miserable years passed, during which, although the incessant -labours of Las Casas gained occasional successes, the colonists -exercised their cruel pleasure upon the native population. The islands -were almost depopulated, and negroes were being imported from Africa -to take the place of the labourers who had been destroyed. Mexico -had fallen, with a slaughter which has been estimated by millions. -Of the numerous cities which Cortes passed on his way to Mexico, -“nothing,” says a report addressed to the King, “is now remaining but -the sites.” In Peru it was asserted by an eye-witness that one-half -or two-thirds of men and cattle had been destroyed. The survivors -of these unparalleled calamities had fallen into a condition of -apathy and indifference from which it was impossible to arouse them. -The conquerors had not yet penetrated deeply into the heart of the -continent; but they had visited its coasts, and wherever they had gone -desolation attended their steps. - -[Sidenote: 1542 A.D.] The Spanish Government had made many efforts -to curb the lawless greed and cruelty of the conquerors. Now a Junta -was summoned and a new code of laws enacted. Again the freedom of the -Indians was asserted, and any attempt to enslave them forbidden. The -colonists had assumed that the allotments of Indians made to them -were not subject to recall. But it was now declared that all such -allotments were only for the single life of the original possessor; at -his death they reverted to the Crown. Yet further: compulsory service -was abolished, and a fixed tribute took its place. - -Official persons were sent to enforce these laws in Mexico and Peru. -But the Junta had not sufficiently considered the temper of the -provinces. It was found that Mexico would not receive the new laws, -which were therefore referred to the Government for reconsideration. -The Viceroy, who carried the laws to Peru, after bringing the country -to the verge of rebellion, was taken prisoner by the local authorities -and shipped homewards to Spain. The laws which the high-handed -conquerors thus decisively rejected were soon after annulled by an -order of the King. - -The Spanish Government was thus baffled in its efforts to terminate the -ruinous control which Spanish colonists exercised over the natives. -The duration of that control was gradually extended. In seventeen -years it crept up to three lives. Fifty years later, after many years -of agitation, the fourth life was gained. Twenty years after, the -still unsatisfied heirs of the conquerors demanded that a fifth life -should be included in the grant; but here they were obliged to accept -a compromise. The system continued in force for two hundred and fifty -years, and was not abolished till near the close of the eighteenth -century. - -But although the Government yielded to the clamour of its turbulent -subjects, in so far as the prolongation of Spanish control was -concerned, it was inflexible in its determination to modify the -quality of that control. The prohibition of compulsory labour was -firmly adhered to. The legal right of the conquerors was restricted -to the exaction of a fixed tribute from their subject Indians. This -tribute must be paid in money or in some product of the soil, but not -compounded for by personal service. The Indians might hire themselves -as labourers, under certain regulations and for certain specified -wages, but this must be their own voluntary act. For many years -the Spaniards yielded a most imperfect obedience to these salutary -restrictions, but gradually, as the machinery of administration spread -itself over the continent, the law was more strictly enforced. - -The Spanish Government is entitled to the praise of having done its -utmost to protect the native populations. In the early days of the -conquest, Queen Isabella watched over their interests with a special -concern for their conversion to the true faith. As years passed, and -the gigantic dimensions of the evil which had fallen on the Indians -became apparent, her successors attempted, by incessant legislation, -to stay the progress of the ruin which was desolating a continent. -None of the other European Powers manifested so sincere a purpose to -promote the welfare of a conquered people. The rulers of Spain were -continually enacting laws which erred only in being more just and wise -than the country in its disordered condition was able to receive. They -continually sought to protect the Indians by regulations extending to -the minutest detail, and conceived in a spirit of thoughtful and even -tender kindness.[31] In all that the Government did or endeavoured to -do it received eager support from the Church, whose record throughout -this terrible history is full of wise foresight and noble courage -in warning and rebuking powerful evil-doers. The Popes themselves -interposed their authority to save the Indians. Las Casas, when he -became a bishop, ordered his clergy to withhold absolution from men -who held Indians as slaves. [Sidenote: 1520 A.D.] Once the King’s -Preachers, of whom there were eight, presented themselves suddenly -before the Council of the Indies and sternly denounced the wrongs -inflicted upon the natives, whereby, said they, the Christian religion -was defamed and the Crown disgraced. Gradually efforts such as these -sufficed to mitigate the sorrows of the Indians; but for many years -their influence was scarcely perceived. The spirit of the conquerors -was too high for submission to any limitation of prerogatives which -they had gained through perils so great; their hearts were too fierce, -their orthodoxy too strict to admit any concern for the sufferings -of unbelievers. They were followed by swarms of adventurers--brave, -greedy, lawless. Success--unlooked for and dazzling--attended the -search for gold. Conquest followed conquest with a rapidity which -left hopelessly in arrear the efforts of Spain to supply government -for the enormous dependencies suddenly thrown upon her care. Every -little native community was given over to the tender mercies of a -man who regarded human suffering with unconcern; who was animated -by a consuming hunger for gold, and who knew that Indian labour -would procure for him the gold which he sought. In course of years, -the persistent efforts of the Government and the Church bridled the -measureless and merciless rapacity of the Spanish colonists. But this -restraint was not established till ruin which could never be retrieved -had fallen on the Indians; till millions had perished, and the spirit -of the survivors was utterly broken. - - * * * * * - -When the English began to colonize the northern continent of America, -their infant settlements enjoyed at the hands of the mother country -a beneficent neglect.[32] The early colonists came out in little -groups--obscure men fleeing from oppression, or seeking in a new world -an enlargement of the meagre fortune which they had been able to -find at home. They gained their scanty livelihood by cultivating the -soil. The native population lived mainly by the chase, and possessed -nothing of which they could be plundered. The insignificance of these -communities sufficed to avert from them the notice of the monarchs -whose dominions they had quitted. And thus they escaped the calamity -of institutions imposed upon them by ignorance and selfishness; they -secured the inestimable advantage of institutions which grew out -of their own requirements and were moulded according to their own -character and habits. - -In the unhappy experience of Spanish America all these conditions -were reversed. There were countries in which the precious metals -abounded, and many of whose products could be procured without labour -and converted readily into money. There was a vast native population -in whose hands much gold and silver had accumulated, and from whom, -therefore, a rich spoil could be easily wrung. There were powerful -monarchies, the romantic circumstances of whose conquest drew the -attention of the civilized world. Spain, marvelling much at her own -good fortune, hastened to bind these magnificent possessions closely -and inseparably to herself. - -The territories which England gained in America were regarded as -the property of the English nation, for whose advantage they were -administered. Spanish America was the property of the Spanish Crown. -The gift of the Pope was a gift, not to the Spanish nation, but to -Ferdinand and Isabella and their successors. The Government of England -never attempted to make gain of her colonies; on the contrary, large -sums were lavished on these possessions, and the Government sought no -advantage but the gain which colonial trade yielded to the nation. -The Sovereigns of Spain sought direct and immediate profit from their -colonies. The lands and all the people who inhabited them were their -own; theirs necessarily were the products of these lands. No Spaniard -might set foot on American soil without a license from the House -of Trade. No foreigner was suffered to go, on any terms whatever. -Even Spanish subjects of Jewish or Moorish blood were excluded. The -Sovereigns claimed as their own two-thirds[33] of all the gold and -silver which were obtained, and one-tenth of all other commodities. -They established an absolute monopoly in pearls and dye-woods. They -levied heavy duties on all articles which were imported into the -colonies. They levied a tax on _pulque_--the intoxicant from which -the Indians drew a feeble solace for their miseries. They sold for a -good price a Papal Bull, which conveyed the right to eat meat on days -when ecclesiastical law restricted the faithful to meaner fare. Acting -rigorously according to financial methods such as these, the Spanish -Crown drew from the colonies a revenue which largely exceeded the -expenses of the colonial administration. - -The results of the first two voyages of Columbus disappointed public -expectation, and the interest which his discovery had awakened almost -ceased. But when the admiral, after his third voyage, sent home -pearls and gold and glowing accounts of the treasures which he had -at last found, boundless possibilities of sudden wealth presented -themselves, and the adventurous youth of Spain hastened to embrace the -unprecedented opportunity. The old and rich fitted out ships and loaded -them with the inexpensive trifles which savages love; the young and -poor sought, under any conditions, the boon of conveyance to the golden -world where wealth could be gained without labour: the King granted -licenses to such adventurers, and without sharing in their risks and -outlays secured to himself a large portion of their profits. So great -was the emigration, that in a few years Spain could with difficulty -obtain men to supply the waste of her European wars, and found herself -in possession of enormous territories and a numerous population for -which methods of government and of trade had to be provided. - -The government which was established had the simplicity of a pure -despotism. [Sidenote: 1511 A.D.] The King established a Council which -exercised absolute authority over the new possessions, and continued -in its functions so long as South America accepted government from -Spain. This body framed all the laws and regulations according to -which the affairs of the colonies were guided; nominated to all -offices; controlled the proceedings of all officials. Two Viceroys[34] -were appointed, who maintained regal state, and wielded the supreme -authority with which the King invested them. - -The early colonial policy of all European nations was based on the idea -that foreign settlements existed, not for their own benefit, but for -the benefit of the nation to which they belonged. Under this belief, -colonists were fettered with numerous restrictions which hindered their -own prosperity in order to promote that of the mother country. Spain -carried this mistaken and injurious policy to an extreme of which -there is nowhere else any example. The colonies were jealously limited -in regard to their dealings with one another, and were absolutely -forbidden to have commercial intercourse with foreign nations. All -the surplus products of their soil and of their mines must be sent to -Spain; their clothing, their furniture, their arms, their ornaments -must be supplied wholly by Spain. No ship of their own might share in -the gains of this lucrative traffic, which was strictly reserved for -the ships of Spain. Ship-building was discouraged, lest the colonists -should aspire to the possession of a fleet. If a foreign vessel -presumed to enter a colonial port, the disloyal colonist who traded -with her incurred the penalties of death and confiscation of goods. The -colonists were not suffered to cultivate any product which it suited -the mother country to supply. The olive and the vine flourished in -Peru; Puerto Rico yielded pepper; in Chili there was abundance of hemp -and flax. All these were suppressed that the Spanish growers might -escape competition. That the trade of the colonies might be more -carefully guarded and its revenues more completely gathered in, it was -confined to one Spanish port. No ship trading with the colonies might -enter or depart elsewhere than at Seville, and afterwards at Cadiz. -For two centuries the interests of the colonies and of Spain herself -languished under this senseless tyranny. - -Those cities which were endowed with a monopoly of colonial trade -enjoyed an exceptional prosperity. Seville attracted to herself a large -mercantile community and a flourishing manufacture of such articles as -the colonists required. She became populous and rich, and her merchants -affected a princely splendour. And well they might. The internal -communications of Spain were, as they always have been, extremely -defective, and the gains of the new traffic were necessarily reaped in -an eminent degree by the districts which lay around the shipping port. - -Once in the year, for nearly two hundred years, there sailed from -the harbour of Seville or of Cadiz the fleets which maintained the -commercial relations of Spain with her American dependencies. One -was destined for the southern colonies, the other for Mexico and the -north. They were guarded by a great force of war-ships. Every detail -as to cargo and time of sailing was regulated by Government authority; -no space was left in this sadly over-governed country for free -individual action. In no year did the tonnage of the merchant-ships -exceed twenty-seven thousand tons. The traffic was thus inconsiderable -in amount; but it was of high importance in respect of the enormous -profits which the merchants were enabled by their monopoly to exact. -The southern branch of the expedition steered for Carthagena, and -thence to Puerto Bello; the ships destined for the north sought -Vera Cruz. To the points at which they were expected to call there -converged, by mountain-track and by river, innumerable mules and boats -laden with the products of the country. A fair was opened, and for a -period of forty days an energetic exchange of commodities went on. When -all was concluded, the colonial purchasers carried into the interior -the European articles which they had acquired. The gold and silver and -pearls, and whatever else the colonies supplied, having been embarked, -the ships met at the Havana and took their homeward voyage, under the -jealous watch of the armed vessels which escorted them hither. - -The treasure-ships of Spain carried vast amounts of gold and silver; -and when Spain was involved in war, they were eagerly sought after -by her enemies. Many a bloody sea-fight has been fought around these -precious vessels; and many a galleon whose freight was urgently -required in impoverished Spain found in the Thames an unwelcome -termination to her voyage. [Sidenote: 1804 A.D.] On one occasion -England, in her haste not waiting even to declare war, possessed -herself of three ships containing gold and silver to the value of two -million sterling, the property of a nation with which she was still at -peace. - -But her hostile neighbours were not the only foes who lay in wait -to seize the remittances of Spain. During the seventeenth century, -European adventurers--English, French, and Dutch--flocked to the West -Indies. At first they meditated nothing worse than smuggling; but they -quickly gave preference to piracy, as an occupation more lucrative and -more fully in accord with the spirit of adventure which animated them. -They sailed in swift ships, strongly manned and armed; they recreated -themselves by hunting wild cattle, whose flesh they smoked over their -_boucanes_ or wood-fires--drawing from this practice the name of -Buccaneer, under which they made themselves so terrible. They lurked -in thousands among the intricacies of the West India islands, ready -to spring upon Spanish ships; they landed occasionally to besiege a -fortified or to plunder and burn a defenceless Spanish town. In time, -the European Governments, which once encouraged, now sought to suppress -them. This proved a task of so much difficulty that it is scarcely -sixty years since the last of the dreaded West India pirates was -hanged. - -Spain sought to preserve the dependence of her American possessions by -the studied promotion of disunion among her subjects. The Spaniard who -went out from the mother country was taught to stand apart from the -Spaniard who had been born in the colonies. To the former nearly all -official positions were assigned. The dependencies were governed by Old -Spaniards; all lucrative offices in the Church were occupied by the -same class. They looked with some measure of contempt upon Spaniards -who were not born in Spain; and they were requited with the jealousy -and dislike of their injured brethren. There were laws carefully framed -to hold the negro and the Indian races apart from each other. The -unwise Sovereigns of Spain regarded with approval the deep alienations -which their policy created, and rejoiced to have rendered impossible -any extensive combination against their authority. - -The supreme desire which animated Spain in all her dealings with her -colonies was the acquisition of gold and silver, and there fell on her -in a short time the curse of granted prayers. The foundations of her -colonial history were laid in a destruction of innocent human life -wholly without parallel; influences originating with the colonies -hastened the decline of her power and the debasement of her people. -But gold and silver were gained in amounts of which the world had -never dreamed before. The mines of Hispaniola were speedily exhausted -and abandoned. But soon after the conquest the vast mineral wealth of -Peru was disclosed. An Indian hurrying up a mountain in pursuit of a -strayed llama, caught hold of a bush to save himself from falling. The -bush yielded to his grasp, and he found attached to its roots a mass -of silver. All around, the mountains were rich in silver. The rumoured -wealth of Potosi attracted multitudes of the adventurous and the poor, -and the lonely mountain became quickly the home of a large population. -A city which numbered ultimately one hundred and fifty thousand souls -arose at an elevation of thirteen thousand feet above sea-level: -several thousand mines were opened by the eager crowds who hastened -to the spot. A little later the yet more wonderful opulence of Mexico -was discovered. During the whole period of Spanish dominion over the -New World the production of the precious metals, especially of silver, -continued to increase, until at length it reached the large annual -aggregate of ten million sterling. Two centuries and a half passed -in the interval between the discovery of the Western mines and the -overthrow of Spanish authority. During that period there was drawn from -the mines of the New World a value of fifteen hundred or two thousand -million sterling. - -When this flood of wealth began to pour in upon the country, Spain -stood at the highest pitch of her strength. The divisions which -for many centuries had enfeebled her were now removed, and Spain -was united under one strong monarchy. Her people, trained for many -generations in perpetual war with their Moorish invaders, were robust, -patient, enduring, regardless of danger. Their industrial condition -was scarcely inferior to that of any country in Europe. Barcelona -produced manufactures of steel and glass which rivalled those of -Venice. The looms of Toledo, occupied with silk and woollen fabrics, -gave employment to ten thousand workmen; Granada and Valencia sent -forth silks and velvets; Segovia manufactured arms and fine cloths; -around Seville, while she was still the only port of shipment for the -New World, there were sixteen thousand looms. So active was the demand -which Spanish manufacturers enjoyed, that at one time the orders held -by them could not have been executed under a period of six years. Spain -had a thousand merchant ships--certainly the largest mercantile marine -in Europe. Her soil was carefully cultivated, and many districts which -are now arid and barren wastes yielded then luxuriant harvests. - -But Spain proved herself unworthy of the unparalleled opportunities -which had been granted to her. Her Kings turned the national attention -to military glory, and consumed the lives and the substance of -the people in aggressive wars upon neighbouring States. Her Church -suppressed freedom of thought, and thus, step by step, weakened -and debased the national intellect. [Sidenote: 1492 A.D.] The Jews -were expelled from Spain, and the country never recovered from the -wound which the loss of her most industrious citizens inflicted. -The easily-gained treasure of the New World fired the minds of -the people with a restless ambition, which did not harmonize with -patient industry. The waste of life in war, and the eager rush to -the marvellous gold-fields of America, left Spain insufficiently -supplied with population to maintain the industrial position which -she had reached. Her manufactures began to decay, until early in the -seventeenth century the sixteen thousand looms of Seville had sunk to -four hundred. Agriculture shared the fall of the sister industries; and -ere long Spain was able with difficulty to support her own diminished -population. Her navy, once the terror of Europe, was ruined. Her -merchant ships became the prey of enemies whose strength had grown -as hers had decayed. The traders of England and Holland, setting at -defiance the laws which she was no longer able to enforce, supplied her -colonies with manufactures which she in her decline was no longer able -to produce. - -The North American possessions of England became an inestimable -blessing to England and to the human family, because they were the -slow gains of patient industry. Their ownership was secured not by the -sword, but by the plough. Nothing was done for them by fortune; the -history of their growth is a record of labour, undismayed, unwearied, -incessant. Every new settler, every acre redeemed from the wilderness, -contributed to the vast aggregate of wealth and power which has been -built up slowly, but upon foundations which are indestructible. - -The success of Spain was the demoralizing success of the fortunate -gambler. Within the lifetime of a single generation ten or twelve -million of Spaniards came into possession of advantages such as had -never before been bestowed upon any people. A vast region, ten times -larger than their own country, glowing with the opulence of tropical -vegetation, fell easily into their hands. Products of field and of -forest which were eagerly desired in Europe were at their call in -boundless quantity. A constant and lucrative market was opened for -their own productions. Millions of submissive labourers spared them -the necessity of personal effort. All that nations strive for as -their chief good--territorial greatness, power, wealth, ample scope -for commercial enterprise--became suddenly the coveted possession of -Spain. But these splendours served only to illustrate her incapacity, -to hasten her ruin, to shed a light by which the world could watch -her swift descent to the nether gloom of idleness, depopulation, -insolvency, contempt. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -REVOLUTION. - - -For three hundred years Spain governed the rich possessions which she -had so easily won. At the close of that period the population was -about sixteen million--a number very much smaller than the conquerors -found on island and continent. The increase of three centuries had not -repaired the waste of thirty years. Of the sixteen million two were -Spaniards; the remainder were Indians, negroes, or persons of mixed -descent. - -Spain ruled in a spirit of blind selfishness. Her aim was to wring from -her tributary provinces the largest possible advantage to herself. -Her administration was conducted by men sent out from Spain for that -purpose, and no man was eligible for office unless he could prove his -descent from ancestors of unblemished orthodoxy. It was held that -men circumstanced as these were must remain for ever true to the -pleasant system of which they formed part, and were in no danger of -becoming tainted with colonial sympathies. This expectation was not -disappointed. During all the years of her sordid and unintelligent -rule, the servants of Spain were scarcely ever tempted, by any concern -for the welfare of the colonists, to deviate from the traditional -policy of the parent State. Corruption fostered by a system of -government which inculcated the wisdom of a rapid fortune and an early -return to Spain was excessive and audacious. Those Spaniards who had -made their home in the colonies were admitted to no share in the -administration. Many of them had amassed great wealth; but yielding to -the influences of an enervating climate and a repressive Government, -they had become a luxurious, languid class, devoid of enterprise or -intelligence. - -In course of years the poor remnants of the native population which -had been bestowed, for a certain number of lives, upon the conquerors, -reverted to the Crown, and their annual tribute formed a considerable -branch of revenue.[35] The Indians had been long recognized by the law -as freemen, but they were still in the remoter districts subjected to -compulsory service on the fields and in the mines. They were no longer, -however, exposed to the unrestrained brutality of a race which they -were too feeble to resist. Officers were appointed in every district -to inquire into their grievances and protect them from wrong. In their -villages they were governed by their own chiefs, who were salaried -by the Spanish Government; and they lived in tolerable contentment, -avoiding, so far as that was possible, the unequal companionship which -had brought misery so great upon their race. - -In the early years of the conquest, negroes were imported from Africa -on the suggestion of Las Casas,[36] and for the purpose of staying the -destruction of the native population. Negro labour was soon found to be -indispensable, and the importation of slaves became a lucrative trade. -The demand was large and constant; for the negroes perished so rapidly -in their merciless bondage that in some of the islands one negro in -every six died annually. France enjoyed for many years the advantage -of supplying these victims. [Sidenote: 1713 A.D.] But England having -been victorious over Spain in a great war, wrung from her the guilty -privilege of procuring for her the slaves who were to toil and die in -her cruel service. After the Treaty of Utrecht, the Spanish colonists -were forbidden to purchase negroes excepting from English vessels. - -Down to the period of the conquest the Indians had utterly failed to -establish dominion over the lower animals. Excepting in Peru, there -was almost no attempt made to domesticate, and in Peru it extended -no higher than to the sheep. There was no horse on the continent; -there were no cattle. It was the fatal disadvantage of being without -mounted soldiers which made the subjugation of the Indians so easy. -The Spaniards introduced the horse as the chief instrument of their -success in war. From time to time as riders were killed in battle, -or died smitten by disease, their neglected horses escaped into the -wilderness. [Sidenote: 1548 A.D.] Fifty years after the discovery of -the New World a Spaniard introduced cattle. On the boundless plains -of the southern continent the increase of both races was enormous. In -course of years countless millions of horses and of cattle wandered -masterless among the luxuriant vegetation of the pampas. Their presence -introduced an element which was wanting before in the population. -The pastoral natives of the pampas, to whose ancestors the horse was -unknown, have become the best horsemen in the world. They may almost be -said to live in the saddle. They support themselves mainly by hunting -and slaughtering wild cattle. The submissiveness of their fathers has -passed away. They are rude, passionate, fierce; and, as the Spaniards -found to their cost, they furnish an effective and formidable cavalry -for the purposes of war. A few thousands of such horsemen would have -rendered Spanish conquest impossible, and given a widely different -course to the history of the continent. - -In spite of the indolence of the colonial Spaniards and the mischievous -restrictions imposed by the mother country, the trade of the colonies -had largely increased. Especially was this the case when certain -ameliorations, which even Spain could no longer withhold, were -introduced. [Sidenote: 1748 A.D.] The annual fleet was discontinued; -single trading ships registered for that purpose sailed as their -owners found encouragement to send them. [Sidenote: 1765 A.D.] By -successive steps the trade of the islands was opened to all Spaniards -trading from the principal Spanish ports; the continental colonies were -permitted to trade freely with one another, and [Sidenote: 1774 A.D.] -a few years later they were permitted to trade with the islands. These -tardy concessions to the growing enlightenment of mankind resulted in -immediate expansion, and increased the colonial traffic to dimensions -of vast importance. [Sidenote: 1809 A.D.] At the time when the colonies -raised the standard of revolt their annual purchases from Spain -amounted to fifteen million sterling, and the annual exports of their -own products amounted to eighteen million. The colonial revenue was -in a position so flourishing that, after providing for all expenses -on a scale of profuse and corrupt extravagance, Spain found that her -American colonies yielded her a net annual profit of two million -sterling. - -The Spaniards, although, as one of the results of their prolonged -religious war against the Moorish invaders, they had fallen under a -debasing subserviency to their priests, cherished a hereditary love of -civil liberty. The Visigoths, from whom they sprang, brought with them -into Spain an elective monarchy, a large measure of personal freedom, -and even the germs of a representative system. During the war of -independence the cities enjoyed the privilege of self-government, and -were represented in the national councils. [Sidenote: 1504 A.D.] Queen -Isabella, in her will, spoke of “the free consent of the people” as -being essential to the lawfulness of taxation. A few years afterwards, -the King’s Preachers, in their noble pleading for the Indians, assert -that “a King’s title depends upon his rendering service to his people, -or being chosen by them.” Three centuries later, the Spaniards gave -unexpected evidence that their inherited love of democracy had not been -extinguished by ages of blind superstition and despotism. [Sidenote: -1812 A.D.] While Europe still accepted the practice and even the -theory of personal government, there issued from the Spanish people -a democratic constitution, which served as a rallying cry to the -nations of Southern Europe in their early struggles for liberty and -representation. - -The successful assertion of their independence by the thirteen English -colonies of the northern continent appealed to the slumbering democracy -of the Spanish colonists, and increased the general discontent with the -political system under which they lived. [Sidenote: 1780 A.D.] A revolt -in Peru gave to Spain a warning which she was not sufficiently wise to -understand. The revolt was suppressed. Its leader, after he had been -compelled to witness the death by burning of his wife and children, -was himself torn to pieces by wild horses in the great square of Lima. -The Spanish Government, satisfied with its triumph, made no effort to -remove the grievances which estranged its subjects and threatened the -overthrow of its colonial empire. - -For thirty years more, although discontent continued to increase, the -languid tranquillity of the Spanish colonies was undisturbed. But -there had now arisen in Europe a power which was destined to shatter -the decaying political systems of the Old World, and whose influences, -undiminished by distance, were to introduce changes equally vast upon -the institutions of the New World. Napoleon had cast greedy eyes upon -the colonial dominion of Spain, and coveted, for the lavish expenditure -which he maintained, the treasure yielded by the mines of Peru and -Mexico. [Sidenote: 1808 A.D.] He placed his brother on the throne of -Spain; he attempted to gain over the Viceroys to his side. Spain was -now a dependency of France. The colonists might have continued for -many years longer in subjection to Spain, but they utterly refused -to transfer their allegiance to her conqueror. With one accord they -rejected the authority of France; and, having no rightful monarch to -serve, they set up government for themselves. At first they did not -claim to be independent, but continued to avow loyalty to the dethroned -King, and even sent money to strengthen the patriot cause. But meantime -they tasted the sweetness of liberty. Four years later the usurpers -were cast out, and the old King was brought back to Madrid. Spain -sought to replace her yoke upon the emancipated colonies, making it -plain that she had no thought of lightening their burdens or widening -their liberties. The time had passed when it was possible for Spanish -despotism to regain its footing on American soil. Many of the provinces -had already claimed their independence, and the others were prepared -for the same decisive step. The ascendency of Europe over the American -continent had ceased. But Spain followed England in her attempt to -compel the allegiance of subjects whose affection she had forfeited. In -her deep poverty and exhaustion she entered upon a costly war, which, -after inflicting for sixteen years vast evils on both the Old World and -the New, terminated in her ignominious defeat. - -The provinces which bordered on the Gulf of Mexico had a larger -intercourse with Europe than their sister States, and were the first to -become imbued with the liberal ideas which were now gaining prevalence -among the European people. They had constant communication with the -West India islands, on one of which they had long been familiar with -the mild rule of England, while on another they had seen a free Negro -State arise and vindicate its liberties against the power of France. -[Sidenote: 1797 A.D.] The island of Trinidad, lying near their shores, -had been conquered by England, who used her new possession as a centre -from which revolutionary impulses could be conveniently diffused among -the subjects of her enemy. Bordering thus upon territories where -freedom was enjoyed, the Colombian provinces learned more quickly than -the remoter colonies to hate the despotism of Spain, and were first to -enter the path which led to independence. - -[Sidenote: 1810 A.D.] Seven of these northern provinces formed -themselves into a union, which they styled the Confederation of -Venezuela. They did not yet assert independence of Spain. But they -abolished the tax which had been levied from the Indians; they declared -commerce to be free; they gathered up the Spanish Governor and his -councillors, and, having put them on board ship, sent them decisively -out of the country. Only one step remained, and it was speedily taken. -Next year Venezuela declared her independence, and prepared as she best -might to assert it in arms against the forces of Spain. - -One of the fathers of South American independence was Francis Miranda. -He was a native of Caraccas, and now a man in middle life. In his -youth he had fought under the French for the independence of the -English colonies on the Northern Continent. When he had seen the -victorious close of that war he returned to Venezuela, carrying with -him sympathies which made it impossible to bear in quietness the -despotism of Spain. A few years later Miranda offered his sword to -the young French republic, and took part in some of her battles. But -he lost the favour of the new rulers of France, and betook himself to -England, where he sought to gain English countenance to the efforts of -the Venezuelan patriots. He mustered a force of five hundred English -and Americans, and he expected that his countrymen would flock to -his standard. But his countrymen were not yet prepared for action -so decisive, and his efforts proved for the time abortive. It was -this man who laid the foundations of independence, but he himself -was not permitted to see the triumph of the great cause. [Sidenote: -1812 A.D.] The patriot arms had made some progress, and high hopes -were entertained; but the province was smitten by an earthquake, -which overthrew several towns and destroyed twenty thousand lives. -The priests interpreted this calamity as the judgment of Heaven upon -rebellion, and the credulous people accepted their teaching. The cause -of independence, thus supernaturally discredited, was for the time -abandoned. Miranda himself fell into the hands of his enemies, and -perished in a Spanish dungeon. - -His lieutenant, Don Simon Bolivar, was the destined vindicator of the -liberties of the South American Continent. Bolivar was still a young -man; his birth was noble; his disposition was ardent and enterprising; -among military leaders he claims a high place. His love of liberty, -enkindled by the great deliverance which the United States and France -had lately achieved, was the grand animating impulse of his life. But -his heart was unsoftened by civilizing influences. Under his savage -guidance, the story of the war of independence becomes a record not -only of battles ably and bravely fought, but of ruthless massacres -habitually perpetrated. - -For ten years the war, with varying fortune, held on its destructive -course. Spain, blindly tenacious of the rich possessions which were -passing from her grasp, continued to squander the substance of her -people in vain efforts to reconquer the empire with which Columbus and -Cortes and Pizarro had crowned her, and which her own incapacity had -destroyed. She was utterly wasted by the prolonged war which Napoleon -had forced upon her. She was miserably poor. Her unpaid soldiers, -inspired by revolutionary sympathies, rose in mutiny against the -service to which they were destined. But still Spain maintained the -hopeless and desolating strife. - -When the terrors of the earthquake had passed away, the patriots threw -themselves once more into the contest, with energy which made their -final success sure. On both sides a savage and ferocious cruelty was -constantly practised. The Royalists slaughtered as rebels the prisoners -who fell into their hands. Bolivar announced that “the chief purpose -of the war was to destroy in Venezuela the cursed race of Spaniards.” -Soldiers who presented a certain number of Spanish heads were raised to -the rank of officers. The decree of extirpation was enforced against -multitudes of unoffending Spaniards--even against men in helpless age, -so infirm that they could not stand to receive the fatal bullet, and -were therefore placed in chairs and thus executed. In South America, as -in France, the revolt against the cruel despotism of ages was itself -without restraint of pity or remorse. The severity which despotism -calmly imposes, under due form of law, is in the fulness of time -responded to by the passionate and savage outburst of the sufferers’ -rage. It is lamentable that it should be so; but while tyrant and -victim remain, Nature’s stern method of deliverance must be accepted. - -When Miranda first sought the help of England, he received a certain -amount of encouragement. Englishmen served in the ranks of his first -army, and English money contributed to their equipment. [Sidenote: 1810 -A.D.] A little later England was in league with Spain for the overthrow -of Napoleon, and her Government frowned upon “any attempt to dismember -the Spanish monarchy.” But when the purposes of this union were served, -the inalienable sympathy of the British people with men struggling for -liberty asserted itself openly and energetically. [Sidenote: 1819-20 -A.D.] Ample loans were made to the insurgent Governments; recruiting -stations were established in the chief towns of England; many veterans -who had fought under Wellington offered to the patriot cause the -invaluable aid of their disciplined and experienced courage. - -Thus reinforced, Bolivar was able to press hard upon the discouraged -Royalists. The protracted struggle was about to close. [Sidenote: June, -1821 A.D.] Four thousand Spaniards, unable now to meet their enemies -in the field, lay in a strong position near Carabobo. Bolivar with a -force of eight thousand watched during many days for an opportunity to -attack. Of his troops twelve hundred were British veterans. Bolivar -succeeded at length in placing his forces on the flank of the enemy and -compelling him to accept battle. The Spaniards at the outset gained -important advantage, and broke the first line of the assailants. -Unaware of the presence of British auxiliaries, they advanced as to -assured victory. But when they saw, through the smoke of battle, the -advancing ranks and levelled bayonets of the British, and heard the -loud and defiant cheers of men confident in their own superior prowess, -their hearts failed them and they fled. The victory of Carabobo closed -the war in the northern provinces. Henceforth the liberty of Venezuela -was secure. - - * * * * * - -The revolutionary movement which originated on the shores of the Gulf -of Mexico extended itself quickly into all the continental possessions -of Spanish America. The overthrow of government in Spain imposed upon -every province the necessity of determining for itself the political -system under which its affairs should be conducted. The course pursued -in all was substantially identical. There came first the establishment -of a native government, administered in the King’s name. Gradually -this insincere acceptance of an abhorred yoke was discarded, and the -colonies were unanimous in their resolution to become independent. In -each there was a Royalist element which struggled bravely and bitterly -to uphold the ancient rule of the mother country, with all its pleasant -abuses and unfathomable evils. In each it was the care of Spain to -strengthen the Royalists and maintain the contest. During many years -Spanish America was the theatre of universal civil war. Evils of -appalling magnitude flowed from the prolonged and envenomed strife. -Population sunk in many localities to little more than one-half of what -it had formerly been. The scanty agriculture of the continent became -yet more insignificant. Commerce lost more than one-half its accustomed -volume. The supply of gold and silver well-nigh ceased. In some years -it fell to one-tenth, and during the whole revolutionary period it was -less than one-third of what it had been in quieter times. Never before -had war inflicted greater miseries upon its victims or extended its -devastations over a wider field. - -Peru was the last stronghold of Spanish authority. Spain put forth her -utmost effort to maintain her hold upon the mineral treasures which -were almost essential to her existence. The desire for independence was -less enthusiastic here than in the other provinces; the insurrectionary -movement was more fitful and more easily suppressed. When independence -had triumphed everywhere besides, the Peruvian republic was struggling, -hopelessly, for existence. The Spaniards had possessed themselves -of the capital; a reactionary impulse had spread itself among the -soldiers, and numerous desertions had weakened and discouraged the -patriot ranks. The cause of liberty seemed almost lost in Peru; the -old despotism which had been cast out of the other provinces seemed -to regain its power over the land of the Incas, and threatened to -establish itself there as a standing menace to the liberty and peace of -the continent. - -[Sidenote: 1820 A.D.] But at this juncture circumstances occurred in -Europe whose influences reinforced the patriot cause and led to its -early and decisive victory. A revolutionary movement had broken out in -Spain, and attained strength so formidable that the Bourbon King was -forced to accept universal suffrage. The restored monarchy of France -sent an army into Spain to suppress these disorders and re-establish -the accustomed despotism. The expedition, led by a French prince, -achieved a success which was regarded as brilliant, and which naturally -gained for France a large increase of influence in the affairs of the -Peninsula. England, not delivered even by Waterloo from her hereditary -jealousy of France, regarded this gain with displeasure. Mr. Canning, -who then directed the foreign policy of England, resolved that since -France now predominated over Spain, it should be over Spain shorn of -her American possessions. As he grandly boasted, he “called the New -World into existence to redress the balance of the Old.” [Sidenote: -1823 A.D.] In simple prose, he acknowledged the independence of the -revolted Spanish provinces, and entered into relations with them by -means of consuls. As a consequence of this recognition, large supplies -of money and of arms were received by the insurgents, and many veteran -British and French soldiers joined their ranks. - -[Sidenote: 1823 A.D.] These reinforcements made it possible for Bolivar -to equip a strong force and hasten to the support of the sinking -republic of Peru. He arrived at Lima with an army of ten thousand men, -many of whom had gained their knowledge of war under Napoleon and -Wellington. Here he made his preparations for the arduous undertaking -of carrying his army across the Andes. When Pizarro entered upon the -same enterprise, he marched across a plain made fertile by the industry -of the people; among the mountains his progress was aided by the -great roads of the barbarians and the frequent magazines and places -of shelter which they had providently erected. But three centuries of -Spanish dominion had effaced the works of the Incas, and had carried -the land, by great strides, back towards desolation. The roads and -the canals for irrigation had fallen into decay; the fruitful plain -was now an arid and sterile wilderness. Bolivar had to make roads, to -build sheds, to lay up stores of food along his line of march, before -he could venture to set out. The toil of the ascent was extreme, and -the men suffered much from the cold into which they advanced. The -Royalists did not wait for their descent, but met them among the -mountains at an elevation of twelve thousand feet above sea-level. -During many months there was fighting without decisive result. At -length the armies met for a conflict which it was now perceived must -be final. [Sidenote: Dec. 9, 1824 A.D.] On the plain of Ayacucho, -twelve thousand Royalists encountered the Republican army, numbering -now scarcely more than one-half the opposing forces. The outnumbered -Independents fought bravely, but the fortune of war seemed to declare -against them, and they were being driven from the field with a defeat -which must soon have become a rout. At that perilous moment an English -general commanding the Republican cavalry struck with all his force -on the flank of the victorious but disordered Spaniards. The charge -could not be resisted. The Spaniards fled from the field, leaving their -artillery and many prisoners, among whom was the Viceroy. A final and -decisive victory had been gained. The war ceased; Peru and Chili were -given over by treaty to the friends of liberty, and the authority which -Spain had so vilely abused had no longer a foothold on the soil of the -great South American Continent. - - * * * * * - -The process by which Spain was stripped of her American possessions, -and of which we have now seen the close, had begun within a hundred -years after the conquest. When she ceased to obtain gold and silver -from the islands of the Gulf of Mexico, Spain ceased to concern -herself about these portions of her empire. The other nations of -Europe, guided by a wiser estimate, sought to possess themselves of -the neglected islands. Soon after the death of Queen Elizabeth, the -English established themselves on Barbadoes, and began industriously -to cultivate tobacco, indigo, and the sugar-cane. A little later, -the French formed settlements on Martinique and Guadaloupe, as the -English did on St. Christopher, and held them against all the efforts -of Spain. Oliver Cromwell seized Jamaica, and peopled the island with -“idle and disaffected” persons, who were sent out with slight regard to -their own wishes.[37] The buccaneers formed many settlements, which -were assailed but could not be extirpated. [Sidenote: 1665 to 1671 -A.D.] One of these, on the island of St. Domingo, was taken under the -protection of France. The Danes possessed themselves of St. Thomas. -During the ceaseless wars of the eighteenth century France and England -competed keenly for dominion in the Gulf of Mexico, and the maritime -supremacy of England gave her decisive advantage in the contest. Few -wars closed without a new cession of colonial lands by France or by -Spain to England. [Sidenote: 1763 A.D.] On the Northern Continent, -Florida was added to the English possessions. The vast territory -known as Mississippi passed into the hands of the United States. The -revolutionary movement of the nineteenth century wrenched from Spain -all the rich provinces which she owned on the Southern Continent, and -the battle of Ayacucho left her with only an inconsiderable fragment -of those boundless possessions which, by a strange fortune, had fallen -into her unworthy hands. - -Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remain, to preserve the humiliating memory -of a magnificent colonial dominion gained and held without difficulty; -governed in shameless selfishness; lost by utter incapacity. Puerto -Rico is an inconsiderable island, scarcely larger than the largest of -our English counties, lying off the northern shores of the continent. -It holds a population of six or seven hundred thousand persons, -one-half of whom are slaves.[38] Its people occupy themselves in the -cultivation of sugar and tobacco, and are still governed by Spain -according to the traditions which guided her policy during the darkest -period of her colonial history. - -Cuba is the noblest of all the islands which Columbus found in the -West. It lies in the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, where Yucatan on -the Southern Continent draws towards Florida on the Northern to form -the seaward boundaries of the Gulf. Its area is about one-half that of -Great Britain. Its population is one million four hundred thousand,[39] -of whom one-fourth are slaves. The rich soil yields two and even three -crops of corn annually; the perpetual summer of its genial climate -clothes in blossom throughout the whole year the aromatic plants and -trees which beautify its plains. The sugar-cane, whose cultivation is -the leading industry of the island, is a source of vast wealth. To the -extent of one-half its area the island is covered with dense forests -of valuable timber still untouched by the axe. The orange tree, the -citron, the pomegranate yield, spontaneously, their rich harvest of -precious fruits. - -But the bounty of Nature has been neutralized by the unworthiness of -man. The blight of Spanish government has fallen heavily on this lovely -island. When the other American possessions of Spain threw aside the -yoke, the leading Cubans assembled and swore solemnly to maintain for -ever the authority of the parent State. They still plume themselves on -their loyalty, and speak fondly of Cuba as “the ever-faithful isle.” -But neither the obedience of Cuba nor the rebellion of the other -colonies moved the blind rulers of Spain to mitigate the evils which -their authority inflicted. The ancient system was enforced on Cuba -when she became the sole care of Spain precisely as it had been when -she was still a member of a great colonial dominion. All offices were -still occupied by natives of Spain; all Spaniards born in Cuba were -still regarded with contempt by their haughty countrymen from beyond -the sea. Governors still exercised a purely despotic authority; the -home Government still claimed a large gain from the colonial revenue; -all religions but one were still excluded. The loss of a continent had -taught no lesson to incapable Spain. - -After the successful assertion of independence by the continental -States, frequent insurrections testified to the presence of a liberal -spirit in Cuba. These were suppressed without difficulty, but not -without much needless cruelty. [Sidenote: 1868 A.D.] At length there -burst out an insurrection which surpassed all the others in dimensions -and duration. It continued to rage during eight years; it cost Spain -one hundred and fifty thousand of her best soldiers; nearly one-half -the sugar plantations of the island were destroyed; population -decreased; trade decayed; poverty and famine scourged the unhappy -island. - -[Sidenote: 1876 A.D.] Spain was able at length to crush out the -rebellion and maintain her grasp over this poor remnant of her American -empire. Cuba emerged from those miserable years in a state of utter -exhaustion. Many of her people had perished by famine or by the sword; -many others had fled from a land blighted by a government which they -were not able either to reject or to endure. Spain sought to make Cuba -defray the costs of her own subjugation, and taxation became enormous. -The expenditure of Cuba is at the rate of fifteen pounds for each of -the population, or six times the rate of that of Great Britain. Only -three-fourths of the total sum can be wrung from the impoverished -people, even by a severity of taxation which is steadily crushing out -the agriculture of the island; and a large annual deficit is rapidly -increasing the public debt.[40] Already that debt has been trebled -by the rebellion and its consequences. None of the devices to which -distressed States are accustomed to resort have been omitted, and an -inconvertible currency, so large as to be hopelessly unmanageable, -presses heavily upon the sinking industries of Cuba.[41] - -Spain is the largest producer and the smallest consumer of sugar. A -Spaniard uses only one-sixth of the quantity of sugar which is used -by an Englishman. Spain has made the article high-priced, in utter -disregard of colonial interests, for the purpose of cherishing her home -production. The sugar of Cuba, loaded with heavy taxes before shipment, -and further discouraged in the markets of Spain by excessive import -duties, is unable to support those iniquitously imposed burdens, and -this great industry is falling into ruin. - -There are sixteen thousand Government servants in Cuba--nearly all -Spaniards; all underpaid; all permitted to make livings or fortunes by -such means as present themselves. They maintain themselves, and many -of them grow rich, by corruption, which there is no public opinion -to rebuke. The ignorance of the people is unsurpassed--not more than -one-tenth of their number having received any education at all. A few -poor newspapers, living under a strict censorship, supply the literary -wants of Havana, a city of two hundred and thirty thousand souls. No -religious teaching, excepting that which the Church of Rome supplies, -is permitted within the island. Justice is administered according to -the irresponsible pleasure of ignorant Spanish officials, incessantly -eager to be bribed. Slavery lingers in Cuba after its rejection by all -American and European States, and is here characterized by special -brutalities. Recent English travellers have witnessed the flogging of -young slave-women, from whose arms lately-born children were removed in -order that the torture might be inflicted. - - * * * * * - -The States of the Spanish mainland suffered deeply in their struggle -against the power of the mother country, but they gained the ample -compensation of independence. Unhappy Cuba endured miseries no less -extreme, but she found no deliverance. The solace of freedom has been -withheld; the abhorred and withering despotism survives to blight the -years that are to come as it has blighted those that are past. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -INDEPENDENCE. - - -When the thirteen English colonies of the Northern Continent gained -their independence, they entered upon a political condition for which -their qualities of mind and their experience amply fitted them. They -were reasonably well educated; indeed there was scarcely any other -population which, in this respect, enjoyed advantages so great. They -were men of a race which had for centuries been accustomed to exercise -authority in the direction of its own public affairs. Since they became -colonists they and their fathers had enjoyed in an eminent degree the -privilege of self-government. The transition by which they passed into -sovereign States demanded no fitness beyond that which they inherited -from many generations of ancestors and developed in the ordinary -conduct of their municipal and national interests. - -With the Spanish settlements on the Southern Continent it was -altogether different. The people were entirely without education; the -printing-press was not to be found anywhere on the continent excepting -in two or three large cities. They were of many and hostile races. -There were Spaniards--European and native. There were Indians, classed -as civilized, half-civilized, and wild. There were Negroes; there were -races formed by the union of the others. The European Spaniards alone -had any experience in the art of government, and they were driven -from the continent with all possible speed. The others were wholly -unpractised in the management of their own national concerns. Spanish -officials supplied, according to their own despotic pleasure, the -regulation which they deemed needful; and the colonists had not even -the opportunity of watching and discussing the measures which were -adopted. - -No people ever took up the work of self-government under a heavier -burden of disadvantage and disqualification. It is not surprising that -their success thus far has been so imperfect. Nor is their future to -be despaired of because their past is so full of wasted effort, of -incessant revolution, of blood lavishly shed in civil strife which -seemed to have no rational object and no solid result. Mankind must -be satisfied if, beneath these confusions and miseries, there can be -traced some evidences of progress towards that better political and -industrial condition which self-government has never ultimately failed -to gain. - -The early legislation of the South American States expressed genuine -sympathy with the cause of liberty, and an unselfish desire that its -blessings should be enjoyed by all. Slavery was abolished, and for many -years the absence of that evil institution from the emancipated Spanish -settlements was a standing rebuke to the unscrupulous greed which still -maintained it among the more enlightened inhabitants of the Northern -Continent. Constitutions were adopted which evinced a just regard to -the rights of all, combined, unhappily, with an utter disregard to -the fitness of the population for the exercise of these rights.[42] -Universal suffrage and equal electoral districts were established, and -votes were taken by the ballot. Orders of nobility were abolished, and -some unjust laws which still retain their place in the statute-book -of England, as the laws of entail and primogeniture. Entire religious -liberty was decreed, and it was not long till the interference of the -Pope in such ecclesiastical concerns as the appointment of bishops -was resented and repelled. The punishment of death for political -offences was abolished. In course of time an educational system, -free and compulsory, was set up in some of the States. The people of -South America had been animated in their pursuit of independence by -the example of the United States and of France, and they sought to -frame their political institutions according to the models which these -countries supplied. - -The institutions which were then set up remain in their great outlines -unchanged. But the wisdom and moderation which are essential to -self-government are not suddenly bestowed by Heaven; they are the -slowly accumulated gains of long experience. There did not exist -among the South Americans that reverential submission to majorities -which self-governing nations gradually acquire. Here, as elsewhere, -two opposing parties speedily revealed themselves. One was zealously -liberal and reforming--seeking progress and desiring in each country -a federation of States as opposed to a strong centralized Government; -the other preferred centralization and a maintenance of existing -conditions. Among a people so utterly unpractised in political life no -method of settling these differences other than the sword suggested -itself. During half a century the continent has been devastated -by perpetual wars around questions which, among nations of larger -experience, would have merely formed the theme of peaceful controversy. -And in a large number of instances the original grounds of contest were -forgotten--exchanged for an ignoble personal struggle to gain or to -hold the advantages of power. - -The South American States perceived the desirableness of a popularly -chosen Legislature, but their political knowledge carried them no -further. They consented to an autocratic Executive. They placed -Dictators in supreme authority. Theirs was the idea which Napoleon in -modern times originated and which his nephew developed--the idea of a -despotism based on universal suffrage. They intrusted their liberties -to a selfish oligarchy. When the struggle for independence was -victoriously closed, they had still to conquer their freedom, and the -contest has been more prolonged and bloody than that which they waged -against the tyranny of Spain. - - * * * * * - -The three northern States of VENEZUELA, NEW GRANADA, and ECUADOR began -their independent career by forming themselves into a great federal -Republic. Their possessions extended over an area six times larger than -that of France; thinly peopled by men of diverse races; severed by -mountains well-nigh impassable, without connection of road or navigated -river. The task of government under these circumstances was manifestly -desperate. But hopes were high in that early morning of liberty. -[Sidenote: 1821 A.D.] With a constitution closely resembling that of -the United States, and with Bolivar the liberator of a continent as -President, the Republic of Colombia entered proudly upon the fulfilment -of its destiny. Five years after, the union which had been found -impossible was dissolved. Bolivar, the great and patriotic soldier, -proved himself an incapable and despotic statesman. He became Dictator -of New Granada, which he ruled according to his arbitrary pleasure. -[Sidenote: 1830 A.D.] The outraged people delivered themselves by a -bloody but successful revolt from a yoke scarcely more tolerable than -that of Spain; and the man to whom the continent owed its independence -died broken-hearted, by what seemed to him the ingratitude of his -countrymen. - -Incessant strife now raged between the party of the priests and -soldiers on the one hand and that of the people on the other. During -a period of seventeen years the country endured a government of -clerical ascendency and brute force. But during these years the numbers -and political influence of the artisan class in towns had largely -increased; and the far-reaching influences of the revolutions in -Europe roused the energies of the people. [Sidenote: 1848 A.D.] They -were able to wring from the Government large promises of reform, -and a decree for the expulsion of the Jesuits. Some years followed, -darkened by incessant revolts and the alternating victory and defeat -of the opposing parties. [Sidenote: 1854 A.D.] At length the Liberals -took the field with a “regenerating army” of twenty thousand men, and -were utterly defeated. The Conservatives were now in the ascendant. -But the tenacious Liberals, refusing to accept defeat, maintained for -seven years a war in which, after a hundred battles, they were at -length decisively victorious. [Sidenote: 1861 A.D.] There have been -revolutions since that time, and short-lived Conservative triumphs, but -the Liberal ascendency has never been very seriously shaken. - -[Sidenote: 1826 to 1847 A.D.] Venezuela spent twenty tranquil years -under the military despotism of General Paez--one of Bolivar’s -companions-in-arms. But at the end of that period there arose a -cry for reform. Even the Indians and the men of mixed race sought -eagerly for the correction of the abuses which the ruling party -maintained. [Sidenote: 1849 A.D.] General Paez was banished from the -country. [Sidenote: 1863 1868 1870 A.D.] For some years he troubled -the Republic by armed attempts to regain his lost authority, but the -power of Liberalism could not be shaken. Once a sudden Conservative -uprising gained a short-lived triumph. But a spirited Liberal--Guzman -Blanco--drove the enemy forth and became President of the Republic--an -office which he held for eight years. During the period of his rule -there was no more than one revolutionary movement of importance. -[Sidenote: 1872 A.D.] That revolt was closed by a desperate battle, in -which the strength of the Conservative party was utterly broken.[43] - -Under the judicious rule of President Blanco, Venezuela has enjoyed -what to a South American Republic must seem profound tranquillity. -Priestly power has received great discouragement. The convents and -monasteries have been suppressed; civil marriage has been established; -subjection to Rome has been disavowed.[44] A compulsory system of -national education has been established--not too soon, for only one -Venezuelan in ten can read or write. Some beginning has been made in -developing the vast mineral resources of the country. Numerous roads, -canals, and aqueducts have been constructed. Population has increased, -and the trade of the republic, although not yet considerable, grows -from year to year. The industrious habits of the people draw no -reinforcement from necessity; for in that rich soil and genial climate -the labour of a single month will maintain a family in comfort for a -whole year. Nevertheless, the people are fairly industrious; and they -are honest, cheerful, and hospitable. The tendency to redress political -wrongs by violence seems to lose its power as these wrongs diminish -in number and intensity; and the prospect of a peaceful future, with -growing intelligence and increase of industrial well-being, steadily -improves. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1822 A.D.] When the MEXICANS gained their independence, they -raised to the throne a popular young officer, whom they styled the -Emperor Augustine First. They were then a people utterly priest-ridden -and fanatical; and the clergy whom they superstitiously revered were -a corrupt and debased class. The reformers had avowed the opinion -that the Church was the origin of most of the evils which afflicted -the country. The Emperor, while he offered equal civil rights to all -the inhabitants of Mexico, sought to gain the clergy to his cause by -guaranteeing the existence of the Catholic Church. But a monarchy -proved to be impossible, and in less than a year a republican uprising, -headed by Santa Anna, forced the Emperor to resign. [Sidenote: 1824 -A.D.] A Federal Republic was then organized, with a constitution based -on that of the great Republic whose territories adjoined those of -Mexico. - -For the next thirty years Santa Anna is the prominent figure in -Mexican politics. He was a tall thin man, with sun-browned face, black -curling hair, and dark vehement eye. He possessed no statesmanship, -and his generalship never justified the confidence with which it was -regarded by his countrymen. But he was full of reckless bravery and -dash, and if his leading was faulty, his personal bearing in all his -numerous battles was irreproachable. His popularity ebbed and flowed -with the exigencies of the time. [Sidenote: 1828-39 A.D.] He repelled -an invasion by Spain and an invasion by France, and these triumphs -raised him to the highest pinnacle of public favour. Then his power -decayed, and he was forced to flee from the country. When new dangers -threatened the unstable nation, he was recalled from his banishment, -and placed in supreme command. At one period one of his legs, which -had been shattered in battle, was interred with solemn funeral service -and glowing patriot oratory. A little later the ill-fated limb was -disinterred, and kicked about the streets of Mexico with every -contumelious accompaniment. His public life was closed by a hasty -flight to Havana--the second movement of that description which it was -his lot to execute. - -Santa Anna sought the favour of the people by the grant of extremely -democratic constitutions, but throughout his whole career he remained -the willing tool of the clerical party. The Mexican clergy were -possessed of vast wealth and vast influence. Fully one-half the land -of the country belonged to them, and a large portion of the remainder -was mortgaged to them. Their spiritual prerogatives were held to exempt -them from taxation, and thus the whole weight of national burden fell -upon the smaller division of national property. It was the concern of -this powerful interest to maintain its own unjust privileges and to -repress the growth of liberal sentiments among the people. So long as -they were able to command the service of Santa Anna, they were able -to frustrate the general wish, and guide the policy of the country -according to their ignorant and tyrannical pleasure. - -But they had not been able to shut out from the democracy of the towns, -or from the Indians in their country villages, the political ideas to -which the French Revolution of 1848 gave so large prevalence in Europe. -The influence of the United States, which the ruling party strove -to exclude, continued to gain in power. A radical party arose which -assailed the privileges of the clergy. In course of years the growing -demand for reform overcame the stubborn priestly defence of abuses, -and the Mexicans took a large step towards the vindication of their -liberties. - -The leader in this revolution was Benito Juarez, a Toltec Indian; one -of that despised race which the Aztecs subdued centuries before the -Spanish invasion. This man had imbibed the liberal and progressive -ideas which now prevailed in all civilized countries; and his personal -ability and skill in the management of affairs gained for him the -opportunity of conferring upon Mexico the fullest measure of political -blessing which she had ever received. [Sidenote: 1855 A.D.] The -Liberals were now a majority in Congress, and the gigantic work of -reformation began. The first step was to declare the subjection of the -clergy to civil law. Two years later came the abolition of clerical -privileges, liberty of religion, a free press, a reduced tariff, the -opening of the country to immigration, the beginning of commercial -relations with the United States. The Pope, with hearty good-will, -cursed all who favoured such legislation; the Archbishop of Mexico -added his excommunication of all who rendered obedience to it. What -was still more to the purpose, the clerical party rose in civil war -to crush this aggressive liberalism, or, in their own language, to -“regenerate” Mexico. Juarez and his Government were driven for a time -from the capital, and withdrew to Vera Cruz. But this retreat did not -arrest the flow of Liberal measures. [Sidenote: 1859 A.D.] From Vera -Cruz, Juarez was able to promulgate his Laws of Reform, suppressing -monastic orders, establishing civil marriage, claiming for the nation -the monstrously overgrown possessions of the Church,[45] giving fuller -scope to many of the reforming laws enacted two years before. Next year -the Liberals triumphed over their enemies, and the Government returned -to its proper home, in the city of Mexico. - -But the resources of the defeated Clericals were not yet exhausted. -Their aims concurred with an ambition which at that time animated the -restless mind of the Emperor Napoleon III. The Emperor claimed to be -the head of the Latin races, whose position on the American Continent -seemed to be endangered by their own dissensions, as well as by the -rapid expansion of the Anglo-Saxons. The Mexican clergy, supported by -the Court of Rome, gave encouragement to his idle dream. An expedition -was prepared, in which England and Spain took reluctant and hesitating -part, and from which they quickly withdrew. - -[Sidenote: 1863 A.D.] A French army entered the capital of Mexico. -Juarez and his Government withdrew to maintain a patriot war, in which -the mass of the people zealously upheld them. An Austrian prince sat -upon the throne of Mexico without support, excepting that which the -clerical party of Mexico and the bayonets of France supplied. A few -years earlier or later these things dared not have been done; but when -the French troops entered Mexican territory, the United States waged, -not yet with clear prospect of success, a struggle on the results of -which depended their own existence as a nation. They had no thought to -give to the concerns of other American States, and they wisely suffered -the Empire of Mexico to run its sad and foolish course. [Sidenote: -1865 A.D.] But now the Southern revolt was quelled, and the Government -of Washington, having at its call a million of veteran soldiers, -intimated to Napoleon that the further stay of his troops on the -American Continent had become impossible. The Emperor waited no second -summons. [Sidenote: 1866 A.D.] When the French were gone, the patriot -armies swept over the country, and this deplorable attempt to set up -imperialism came to an ignominious close. [Sidenote: 1867 A.D.] The -Emperor Maximilian fell into the hands of his enemies, and was put to -death according to the terms of a decree which his own Government had -framed. - -Juarez was again elected President, and returned with his Congress to -the city of Mexico. During his whole term of office he had to maintain -the Liberal cause in arms against the tenacious priesthood and its -followers. [Sidenote: 1872 A.D.] When he died, a Liberal President was -chosen to succeed him. The war has never ceased, and the clerical party -has occasionally gained important advantages. It is evident, however, -that its power is being gradually exhausted, and that the final triumph -of Liberalism is not now remote. For sixty years Mexico has been -the opprobrium of Christendom. It is possible now to entertain the -hope that ere many years pass, this unhappy country, purged of those -clerical and military elements which have been her curse, will begin -to take her fitting place among peaceable, industrious, and prosperous -States. - -The area of Mexico is six times larger than that of Great Britain and -Ireland. Her population is between nine and ten million. Two-thirds -of these are pure Indians, the descendants of the men on whom the -thunderbolt of Spanish invasion fell nearly four hundred years ago. -Two and a half million are of mixed origin; five hundred thousand -are pure European. At the time of the conquest there were among the -Mexicans thirty different races and languages, and these distinctions -still survive. The Indians have regained the cheerfulness which was -crushed out of their dispositions by Spanish cruelty, and under due -superintendence they make excellent artisans and servants. The work of -the country is performed by them; and as their ambition has not been -awakened and their wants are few, labour is cheap. It is only recently -that anything at all has been done for their education, and they are -still profoundly ignorant.[46] But they furnish abundant evidence -of high capability. The race from which President Juarez sprang may -reasonably hope that, after all its miseries, a creditable future is in -store. - -The whites are the aristocracy of the country; the mixed breeds are its -turbulent element. They are ordinarily quiet and indolent, but they are -easily inflamed to revolt. To a large extent the constant revolutionary -movements which waste the country have been sustained by them. - -The reforming laws of Juarez have been well enforced in the great -centres of population. No monk or nun, nor any Jesuit is tolerated; -no priest is to be seen in the streets in the garb of his office; -reformatories and schools are being established; the youth of Mexico -are being rescued from the priest, and made over to the schoolmaster. -In the remote provinces the execution of the law is extremely -imperfect. There the clerical party is still powerful, and forbidden -taxes are still levied in defiance of law. The subordinate officers -of Government are inordinately corrupt. Import duties are excessive, -and the temptations to evasion are irresistible. The officers of the -custom-house habitually conspire with merchants to defraud the revenue, -and share with them the unlawful gain. The financial condition of the -country is lamentable. Only a small portion of the public debt is -recognized by the Government, and upon that portion no interest is -paid. Expenditure constantly exceeds revenue. Ordinarily the cost of -civil war absorbs more than one-half the national income; frequently it -absorbs the whole. - -The country is surpassingly rich, but its progress is hindered by -insufficient means of communication. The most urgent requirement of -this inland region was that it should be brought within easy reach -of the sea-coast. The pressure of this necessity led, so long ago as -in 1852, to the attempted construction of a railway from the city -of Mexico to Vera Cruz. But the works were stopped by the habitual -national convulsions; and when Maximilian ascended the throne, he -found nothing accomplished excepting a few miles at either end of -the projected line. While he reigned, the works were carried on, and -they were stopped when his fall drew near. They were resumed by the -Liberal Government, but the progress of any useful work is slow in a -country tormented by incessant revolution. It was seven years more till -the railway was completed for the whole distance of two hundred and -sixty-three miles. Besides this line, there are no more than three or -four hundred miles of railway yet opened in Mexico. - -The silver-mines of Mexico, which ceased to produce during the war of -independence, have resumed their former importance. They now yield -silver to the annual value of three million sterling. Besides the -export of this commodity, Mexico exports two million annually of -cochineal, indigo, hides, and mahogany. Her entire imports do not -amount to more than five and a half million. Her foreign commerce, to -the extent of two-thirds its value, is transacted with her once hated -neighbour the United States. - -If Mexico has been the least fortunate of all the Spanish provinces of -America, CHILI furnishes the best example of a well-ordered, settled, -and prosperous State. Its area is only one-fifth and its population -one-fourth that of Mexico, but its foreign commerce is nearly one-half -larger.[47] For this commerce its situation is peculiarly favourable. -Chili, a long and narrow country, lies on the Pacific, with which it -communicates by upwards of fifty sea-ports. It is therefore only in -small measure dependent for its progress upon railways and navigable -rivers. - -For sixteen years after throwing off the Spanish yoke,[48] Chili -was governed, despotically, without a constitution. During those -years constant disorders prevailed. At length the general wish of -the nation was gratified. [Sidenote: 1833 A.D.] A constitution was -promulgated, under which the franchise was bestowed on every married -man of twenty-one years, and on every unmarried man of twenty-five -who was able to read and write. With this constitution the people -have been satisfied. The government has been throughout in the hands -of a moderate Conservative party, which has directed public affairs -with firmness and wisdom, and has manifested zeal in the correction -of abuses. Opposing parties have not in Chili, as in the neighbouring -States, wasted the country by their fierce contentions for ascendency. -In the exercise of a wise but rare moderation, the views of either -party have been modified by those of the other. A method of government -has thus been reached which men of all shades of opinion have been able -to accept, and under which the prosperous development of the country -has advanced with surprising rapidity. - -During the last thirty years the population of Chili has quadrupled, -and her revenue has increased still more largely. Immigration from -Europe, especially from Germany, has been successfully promoted. -Formerly almost all land was held by large owners. This pernicious -system has been in great measure destroyed. Estates have been -subdivided, and the system of small proprietorship is now widely -prevalent. The public debt of Chili is twelve million sterling; but as -she, unlike her sister republics, meets her obligations punctually, -her name stands high on the Stock Exchanges of Europe. The education -of her people receives a fair measure of attention. Of her revenue of -three and a half million, she expends a quarter million upon schools--a -proportion not equalled in Europe. But this liberal expenditure is -recent, and has not yet had time to produce its proper results. Only -one in twenty-four of the population attends school; only one in seven -can read. Even in the cities the proportion is no greater than one in -four. - - * * * * * - -The neighbouring State of PERU has an area four times that of Chili, -but her population is scarcely larger. And while Chili has a very -inconsiderable proportion of Indians, it is estimated that fifty-seven -per cent. of the Peruvian population are of the aboriginal races, -and twenty-three per cent. are of mixed origin. The remainder are -native Spaniards, Negroes, Chinese, with a very few Germans and -Italians. From a nation so composed, a wise management of public -affairs can scarcely be hoped for. The government of Peru has been, -since the era of independence, a reproach to humanity. Elsewhere -on the continent there has been the hopeful spectacle of a people -imperfectly enlightened, but animated by a sincere love of liberty, and -struggling against tremendous obstacles towards a happier political -situation. The incessant strifes which have devastated Peru have no -such justification. They have no political significance at all; they do -not originate in any regard to national interests. Turbulent military -chiefs have, in constant succession and with shameless selfishness, -contended for power and plunder. A debased and slothful people, wholly -devoid of political intelligence, have become the senseless weapons -with which these ignoble strifes have been waged. The vast wealth with -which Nature has endowed the land has lain undeveloped; the labour, -with which the country is so inadequately supplied, has been absorbed -by the wars of a vulgar and profligate ambition: Peru remains almost -worthless to the human family. - -Spain took courage, from the disorders of Peru, to meditate the -restoration of her lost colonial empire. She attacked Peru; but her -fleet was utterly defeated, after a severe engagement. [Sidenote: -1866 A.D.] This victory roused the spirit of the Peruvian people, -and for a short space it seemed as if impulses had been communicated -which would open an era of progress. For some years real industrial -advance was made. But the fair prospect was quickly marred. Two -Presidents, who manifested a patriotic desire to begin the work of -reform, were murdered. An insane war against Chili was begun. Chili -had imposed certain duties on products imported from Bolivia; and -Peru, disapproving of these duties, went to war to avenge or annul the -proceeding. The fortune of that war has been decisively against the -aggressor. Chili has proved not merely equal to the task of holding -her own; she has defeated her enemy in many battles; she has seized -portions of her territory; she has captured her most powerful iron-clad -ship of war. The progress of Peru has utterly ceased. [Sidenote: 1880 -A.D.] Her finances are in the wildest disorder. Her paper currency -is worth no more than one-tenth its nominal value. Her ports are -blockaded; her commerce is well-nigh abolished. But her misguided -rulers will listen to no suggestion of peace, and seem resolved to -maintain this discreditable contest to the extremity of prostration and -misery. - -Peru is believed to extract silver from her mines to the annual -value of a million sterling; an amount somewhat smaller than these -mines yielded down to the war of independence. Peru exports chiefly -articles which can be obtained without labour or thought. The guano, -heaped in millions of tons on the islands which stud her coasts, was -sold to European speculators, and carried away by European ships. But -these vast stores seem to approach exhaustion. Fortunately for this -spendthrift Government, discovery was made some years ago of large -deposits of nitrate of soda, from the sale of which an important -revenue is gained. - -For Peru, lying chiefly between lofty mountain ranges remote from the -sea, railway communication is of prime importance. In the time of one -of her best Presidents there was devised a scheme of singular boldness; -and by the help of borrowed money, on which no interest is paid, it -has been partially executed. A railway line, setting out from Lima, on -the Pacific, crosses the barren plain which adjoins the coast, climbs -the western range of the Andes to a height of nearly sixteen thousand -feet, and traverses the table-land which lies between the great lines -of mountain. When completed, it will reach some of the tributaries of -the Amazon, at points where these become navigable--thus connecting the -Pacific with the Atlantic where the continent is at the broadest. There -are, in all, about fourteen hundred miles of railway open for traffic -in Peru, three-fourths of which are Government works. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1811 A.D.] PARAGUAY, a State with an area nearly twice -that of England, and a population of a million and a half, had the -good fortune to assume her independence without any resistance from -the mother country, and therefore without requiring to undergo the -sacrifices of war. For nearly thirty years she was ruled by a despotism -not less absolute than that of Spain. Dr. Francia became Dictator for -life. He had been educated as a theologian, and was a silent, stern, -relentless man, who inspired his people with such fear that even after -his death they scarcely ventured to pronounce his name. Francia did -something to develop the resources of the State. But progress was slow, -for the Dictator permitted no intercourse with other nations. Paraguay -was to supply all her own wants--depending for nothing on the outside -world. Whosoever came within her borders must remain; he who obtained -permission to go out might not return. [Sidenote: 1840 A.D.] When this -strange ruler died his power fell to Carlos Lopez, who maintained for -twenty-two years a despotism not less absolute, but guided by a policy -greatly more enlightened. He encouraged intercourse with foreigners; -he constructed roads and railways; he cared for education; he created -defences and a revenue. [Sidenote: 1862 A.D.] Before he died he -bequeathed his authority to his son. - -This new ruler had been sent, when a young man, to Europe to acquire -the ideas which animated the enlightened Powers of the Old World. He -arrived at the time of the Crimean War, to find a love of glory and -of empire occupying the public mind of England and of France. He was -not able to withstand the malign influence. He went home resolved to -emulate the career of the Emperor Napoleon. He, too, would become a -conqueror; he, too, would found an empire. He occupied himself in -forming a large army, in accumulating military stores. [Sidenote: 1865 -A.D.] When the death of his father raised him to absolute authority, -he lost no time in attacking Brazil, which he had marked as his -first victim. The Argentine Republic and Uruguay made common cause -with Brazil against a disturber of the peace, in whose ambition they -recognized a common danger. - -The war continued for five years. It brought upon Paraguay calamities -more appalling than have fallen in modern times on any State. Her -territory was occupied by a victorious foe, and one-half of it was -taken away from her for ever. Her debt had swelled to an amount which -utterly precluded hope of payment.[49] Her population had sunk from a -million and a half to two hundred and twenty thousand. Of these it was -estimated that four-fifths were females. War and its attendant miseries -had almost annihilated the adult male population.[50] Paraguay yielded -herself as the base instrument of an insane ambition, and she was -destroyed. - - * * * * * - -BUENOS AYRES, a city founded during the early years of the conquest, -was the seat of one of the vice-royalties by which the Spaniards -conducted the government of the continent. It stands on the right -bank of the river Plate, not far from the ocean. The Plate and its -tributary rivers flow through vast treeless plains, where myriads of -horses and cattle roam at will among grass which attains a height -equal to their own. When the dominion of Spain ceased, Buenos Ayres -naturally assumed a preponderating influence in the new Government. The -provinces which had composed the old vice-royalty formed themselves -into a Confederation, with a constitution modelled on that of the -United States. Buenos Ayres was the only port of shipment for the -inland provinces. Her commercial importance as well as her metropolitan -dignity soon aroused jealousies which could not be allayed. Within a -few years the Confederation was repudiated by nearly all its members, -and for some time each of the provinces governed itself independently -of the others. - -[Sidenote: 1821 A.D.] The next experiment was a representative Republic -under President-General Rivadavia, with Buenos Ayres as the seat of -Government. Rivadavia was a man of enlightened views. He encouraged -immigration, established liberty of religion, took some steps to -educate the people, entered into commercial treaties with foreign -powers. [Sidenote: 1827 A.D.] But his liberal policy was regarded -unfavourably by a people not sufficiently wise to comprehend it; and he -resigned his office after having held it for six years. - -The influence of Buenos Ayres now waned, and the provinces of the -interior gained what the capital lost. These provinces were occupied -by a half-savage race of mixed origin, who lived by the capture and -slaughter of wild cattle. These fierce hunters were trained to the -saddle almost from infancy, and lived on horseback. Excellence in -horsemanship was a sufficient passport to their favour. [Sidenote: -1829 A.D.] The government of the country now fell into the hands of -General Rosas, a Gaucho chief, whose feats in the saddle have probably -never been equalled by the most accomplished of circus-riders.[51] For -twenty-three years this man--cruel, treacherous, but full of rugged -vigour--maintained over the fourteen provinces a despotism which soon -lapsed into an absolute reign of terror. One of the methods of this -wretched man’s government was the systematic employment of a gang -of assassins, who murdered according to his orders, and under whose -knives many thousands of innocent persons perished. His troops overran -the neighbouring province of Uruguay; but Monte Video, the capital of -that State, was successfully held against him, chiefly by the skill -and courage of Garibaldi. France and England declared war against the -tyrant, and for several years vainly blockaded the city of Buenos -Ayres. At length (1848) a determined rebellion broke out and raged -for four years. [Sidenote: 1852 A.D.] A great battle was fought; the -army of Rosas was scattered; the capital, wild with joy, received the -thrilling news that the tyrant had fled[52] and that the country was -free. - -The twenty-three years of despotism had done nothing to solve the -political problems which still demanded solution at the hands of the -Argentine people. The tedious and painful work had now to be resumed. -The province of Buenos Ayres declared itself out of the Confederation, -and entered upon a separate career. The single State was wisely -governed, and made rapid progress in all the elements of prosperity. In -especial it copied the New England common-school system. The thirteen -States from which it had severed itself strove to repress or to rival -its increasing greatness. But their utmost efforts could scarcely avert -decay. [Sidenote: 1859 A.D.] They declared war, in the barbarous hope -of crushing their too prosperous neighbour. Buenos Ayres was strong -enough to inflict defeat upon her assailants. [Sidenote: 1861 A.D.] She -now, on her own terms, reëntered the Confederation, of which her chief -city became once more the capital. - -[Sidenote: 1865 A.D.] The career of the reconstructed Confederation -has not been, thus far, a wholly peaceful one. There has been a -lengthened war with Paraguay. There was a Gaucho revolt, which it was -not hard to suppress. [Sidenote: 1870-72 A.D.] The important province -of Entre Rios rose in arms, and was brought back to her duty after -two years of war. Still later (1874) a rebellion broke out on the -election of a new President. But the energy which formerly inspired -revolutionary movements seems to decay, and this latest disorder was -trampled out in a campaign of no greater duration than seventy-six -days. A milder temper now prevails, especially in the cities of the -Confederation. There are still divisions of opinion. One party is eager -to promote a consolidated and effectively national life; another would -maintain and enhance provincial separations; a third--the party of -disorder, whose strength is being sapped by the growing prosperity of -the country--seeks to foment revolutionary movements in the hope of -advantage, or in sheer restlessness of spirit. But these antagonisms -have in large measure lost the envenomed character which they once -bore. The only habitual disturbers of the national tranquillity are -the Indians, who are suffered to hold possession of almost one-half -the Argentine territory, and against whom murderous frontier wars are -incessantly waged. - -It is, however, obvious that the union of the fourteen provinces rests -upon no satisfactory or permanent basis, and that the final adjustment -can scarcely be effected otherwise than by the customary method -of force. The province of Buenos Ayres, although it contains only -one-fourth of the population, contains three-fourths of the wealth,[53] -and bears fully nine-tenths of the taxation of the confederate -provinces. The other thirteen provinces have absolute control over the -government; and the expenditure has largely increased, as it needs -must when the persons who enjoy the privilege of expending funds are -exempt from the burden of providing them. This arrangement is highly -and not unreasonably displeasing to the rich province of Buenos Ayres; -and it seems probable that the people of this province will sooner or -later force their way out of a Confederation whose burdens and whose -advantages are so unequally distributed. - -The fourteen provinces of the Argentine Confederation cover an area -of 515,700 square miles, and are thus almost equal to six countries -as large as Great Britain. The population which occupies this huge -territory numbers only two million. Every variety of temperature -prevails within their borders. In South Patagonia the cold is nearly -as intense as that of Labrador. Southern Buenos Ayres has the climate -of England; farther north the delicious climate of the south of France -and the north of Italy is enjoyed. Yet farther north comes the fierce -heat of the tropics. Westward, on the slopes of the Andes, little rain -falls; eastward, toward the sea, the rainfall is excessive. - -The Argentine States have promoted immigration so successfully that -they have received in some years accessions to their numbers of from -sixty to ninety thousand persons--British, Italian, French, German, -and Swiss. They have thus the presence of a large European element, -which gives energy to every liberal and progressive impulse. The -great city of Buenos Ayres is, to the extent of half its population -(of 220,000), a city of Europeans. In most of the other cities this -European element is present and influential. Far in the interior are -many little colonies composed of Europeans, settled on lands bestowed -by Government, engaged in sheep or cattle farming, growing rich by the -rapid increase of their herds on that fertile soil. Full religious -liberty is enjoyed, and all the various shades of Protestantism are -represented in the chapels of Buenos Ayres or in the rural colonies -of the interior. Two thousand five hundred miles of railway are in -operation; direct telegraphic communication with England is enjoyed; -the provinces are being drawn more closely together by the construction -of roads and bridges; the vast river systems of the Confederation -are traversed by multitudes of steamers. The people have entered, -seemingly, with earnestness on the task of developing the illimitable -resources of the great territory which Providence has committed to -their care. - - * * * * * - -Our survey of South American history since the era of Independence -discloses much that is lamentable. It discloses nothing, however, that -is fitted to surprise, and little that is fitted to discourage. We see -priest-directed and therefore utterly ignorant people throwing aside -the yoke of an abhorred tyranny. We see them assume the function of -self-government without a single qualification for the task. We see -them become the prey of lawless and turbulent chiefs, of a selfish -military and priestly oligarchy. We watch their struggles as they grope -in blind fury, but still under the guidance of a healthy instinct, -after the freedom of which they have been defrauded. At length we are -permitted to mark, with rejoicing, that they begin to emerge from the -unprecedented difficulties by which they have been beset. The path by -which they must gain the position of orderly and prosperous States is -yet long and toilsome. It is now, however, at least possible to believe -that they have entered upon it. - - * * * * * - -[The disturbed condition of the Western States continues without -abatement, and without prospect of settlement. Both Peru and Bolivia -are practically at the mercy of Chili. The war is over, but peace is -made impossible by the anarchy that prevails in the vanquished States. -The President of Peru is a fugitive. The President of Bolivia has -absconded. There is no settled government in either country with which -the Chilians can safely make terms. What seems most certain is, that -the provinces which yield most abundantly that nitrate of soda about -the export of which the war originated will be permanently annexed -to Chili. Indeed, these districts are now administered by Chilian -functionaries. - -The Conservative counter-revolution in Mexico, under Diaz, lasted till -1880, when General Gonzalez was elected President. An insurrection in -the capital had to be suppressed before his installation could take -place. - -In Buenos Ayres, nationalism has had a further struggle with -provincialism, and another triumph over it. In August 1880 the national -troops forcibly entered the Provincial Assembly, and ejected the -deputies at the point of the sword. A few days afterwards, General -Roca, the new President, entered the capital.--ED.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE CHURCH OF ROME IN SPANISH AMERICA. - - -At the time when the discovery and possession of the New World occupied -the Spaniards, the Church of Rome exercised over that people an -influence which had no parallel elsewhere in all her wide dominion. -A religious war of nearly eight centuries had at length closed -victoriously. Twenty generations of Spaniards had spent their lives -under the power of a burning desire to expel unbelievers from the soil -of Spain, and win triumphs for the true faith. The ministers of that -religion, for which they were willing to lay down their lives, gained -their boundless reverence. To the ordinary Spaniard religion had yet -no association with morals; it exercised no control over conduct. It -was a collection of beliefs; above all it was an unreasoning loyalty to -a certain ecclesiastical organization. To extend the authority of the -Church, and, if it had been possible, to exterminate all her enemies, -formed now the grand animating motives of the Spanish nation. - -No Spaniard of them all was more powerfully influenced by these motives -than the good Queen Isabella. At the bidding of her confessor she set -up the Inquisition, for the destruction of heretics; she consented to -the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and the virtual confiscation of -their property. She gave encouragement to the enterprise of Columbus, -in the hope of extending the empire of the Church over benighted -nations. The King himself stated, in later years, that the conversion -of Indians was the chief purpose of the conquest. The Queen sent -missionaries to begin this great work so soon as she heard of the -discovery. In all her official correspondence her chief concern is -avowedly for the spiritual interests of her new subjects. Columbus -tells, in regard to his second voyage, that he was sent “to see the way -that should be taken to convert the Indians to our holy faith.” He was -instructed “to labour in all possible ways to bring the dwellers in the -Indies to a knowledge of the holy Catholic faith.” Twelve ecclesiastics -were sent with him to share in these pious toils. A little later, when -the overthrow of Columbus was sought by his enemies, one of their most -deadly weapons was the charge that he did not baptize Indians, because -he desired slaves rather than Christians. - -Favoured thus by the general sentiment of the mother country, -the Church quickly overspread the colonies and appropriated no -inconsiderable share of their wealth. Within four years there were -monasteries already established.[54] Within one hundred years there -were twelve hundred nunneries and monasteries. There was a full -equipment of patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, prebends, abbots, -chaplains, as well as parish priests. There were monks of every -variety--Franciscans, Dominicans, Jeronymites, Fathers of Mercy, -Augustines, Jesuits. In Lima it was alleged that the convents covered -more ground than all the rest of the city. [Sidenote: 1644 A.D.] -From Mexico there came a petition to the King praying that no new -monasteries should be allowed, as these institutions, if suffered -to increase, would soon absorb the whole property of the country. -Wherever the Spaniards went they hastened to erect churches. While the -conquest of Peru was yet incomplete, there was a church in Caxamalco -to which the devout Spaniards assigned a liberal share of the gold of -which they so villanously plundered the unhappy Inca. The magnificence -of churches and convents became in course of years so dazzling that the -European mind, it was said, could form no conception of it. The tithes, -which had been vested in the Crown, were almost wholly made over to -the Church. The free-will offerings of a superstitious people, with an -exceptionally large volume of personal iniquity to expiate, swelled out -to a huge aggregate. The wealth of the Church continued to grow till, -as we have seen, in Mexico she possessed one-half of all the land in -the province. - -Among the multitudes of ecclesiastics who hastened to these new fields -of enterprise and emolument there were very many whose characters were -debased, whose lives were scandalous. Very soon after the settlement -the profligacy of churchmen attracted general remark. Living often in -secluded positions without the control or observation of superiors, -they gave free scope to evil dispositions, and occupied themselves with -the pursuits of avarice or of licentiousness. - -But we should grievously wrong the Church of Rome were we to suppose -that all her ministers in the New World were of this unworthy -description. The sudden knowledge of many millions of heathens, whose -existence had been previously unsuspected, awakened in the monasteries -of Spain a strong impulse towards missionary effort. To men who were -lingering out their idle days in the profitless repose of a religious -seclusion there opened now boundless possibilities of ennobling -usefulness. Among them were many whose singleness of purpose, whose -utter crucifixion of self, whose heroic daring and endurance would have -done honour to the purest Church. Especially was this true concerning -the Jesuits. This dreaded and upon the whole pernicious Order was -distinguished, in its earlier days, as well for the sagacity and -administrative ability of its members as for their absorbing devotion -to the interests of the faith. - -The Indians accepted with perfect readiness the new religion which -their conquerors offered. The monks who went among them speedily -acquired commanding influence. The Franciscans who went out on -the invitation of Cortes reported that they found the Mexicans a -gentle people, given somewhat to lying and drunkenness and needing -restraint, but well disposed to religion, and confessing so well that -it was not necessary to ask them questions. The children about the -monastery already knew much, and taught others who were less happily -circumstanced; they sang well and accompanied the organ competently. - -This gentle people loved the holy men who, clothed plainly and living -on the humblest fare, laboured without ceasing to do them good. They -willingly submitted to baptism to please their teachers. Indeed, -the only limit to the increase of baptized persons was the physical -capability of the missionaries. One father baptized till he was -unable any longer to lift his arms. Of another it was asserted that -he had administered this sacrament to four hundred thousand converts. -[Sidenote: 1531 A.D.] Ten years after the fall of Mexico, the bishop -reported that in his diocese there were now a million of baptized -persons; that five hundred temples and twenty thousand idols had -been destroyed; that in their room were now churches, oratories, and -hermitages; that whereas there were formerly offered up every year to -idols twenty thousand hearts of young men and young women, the hearts -of Mexican youth were now offered up with innumerable sacrifices of -praise to the Most High God. - -Among many races of Indians there had existed from time immemorial -a marvellous fondness for the confession of sin. Under all grave -attacks of illness they hastened to confess old sins to any one who -would listen to their tale. When they encountered a panther in the -wilderness, they began, under the influence of some unexplained -superstition, to disclose their iniquities to the savage beast. A -people so inclined welcomed a religion which offered them free access -to the enjoyment of their cherished privilege. They manifested, in -regard to this ordinance of the Church, “a dove-like simplicity, -an incredible fervour.” Oral confession was to these simple souls -an insufficient relief. They brought to the confessor a pictorial -representation of the special transgressions which burdened them. -Later, when many of them had learned to write, they bore with them -elaborate catalogues of their evil doings. - -The monks attempted to bestow upon the children under their care -the elements of a simple education. To each monastery a school was -attached. Peter of Ghent, a Flemish lay-brother of noble devotedness, -caused the erection of a large building, in which he taught six hundred -Mexican children to read, to write, and to sing.[55] This good man knew -the Mexican language well, and could preach when need was. He spent -fifty toilsome years in labours for the instruction of the conquered -people; and there were many of his brethren equally diligent. - -But among the teeming millions of South America, these efforts, so -admirable in quality, were wholly insignificant in amount. They were -thwarted, too, by the murderous cruelty which the Spaniards exercised, -and the people remained utterly uninstructed. The conversion of the -country made progress so rapid that in a few years the native religions -disappeared, and the Indians seemed universally to have accepted -Christianity. But the change rested in large measure upon fear of -their tyrants, or love to their teachers, or the authority of chiefs -who had deemed it expedient to adopt the faith of men who were always -victorious in battle. It was only in a few instances the result of -intelligent conviction. The priests baptized readily all natives who -would permit the ceremony, because that was a sure provision for their -eternal welfare. But the opinion was entertained from an early period -that the natives were incapable of comprehending the first principles -of the faith. Acting under this belief, a council of Lima decreed -their exclusion from the sacrament of the Eucharist. Down to the close -of Spanish dominion few Indians were allowed to communicate, or to -become members of any religious order, or to be ordained as priests. -Underneath the profession of Christianity the Indians have always -retained a secret love for the pagan faith of their fathers, and still -secretly practise its rites.[56] - -The monks were throughout the warm friends and protectors of the -Indians. At a very early period the Dominicans preached against -Indian slavery “with very piercing and terrible words.” They refused -to confess men who were cruel to Indians--a privation which was -severely felt; for to the Spaniard of that day, with his over-burdened -conscience, confession was a necessary of life. [Sidenote: 1537 A.D.] -The Pope himself pronounced the doom of excommunication against all who -reduced Indians to slavery or deprived them of their goods. We have -seen how nobly and how vainly the good Las Casas interposed in defence -of the Indians. The efforts of the well-meaning fathers were, in almost -every direction, unsuccessful. But this failure resulted from no -deficiency either in zeal or in discretion. The record of the Church of -Rome is darkened by manifold offences against the welfare of the human -family; but she is able to recall with just pride the heroic efforts -which her sons put forth on behalf of the deeply-wronged native races. - -The servants of the Church enjoyed, on two memorable occasions, the -opportunity of exhibiting their capacity for government in striking -contrast to that of the civil rulers whom the mother country supplied. - -Bordering on the province of Guatemala was a tract of forest and -mountain, inhabited by an Indian nation of exceptional fierceness. -Thrice the Spaniards had attempted the subjugation of this people, -and thrice they were driven back. They hesitated to renew an invasion -which had brought only defeat and loss, and the brave savages continued -to enjoy a precarious independence. [Sidenote: 1537 A.D.] Las Casas -made offer to the Governor that he would place this territory under -the King of Spain, on condition that it should not be given over to -any Spaniard, and that, indeed, no Spaniard, excepting the Governor -himself, should for the space of five years be suffered to enter it. -The offer was accepted, and the brave monk, confident in the power of -truth and kindness, made himself ready to fulfil his contract. - -Having devoted several days to prayer and fasting, Las Casas and his -companions proceeded to draw up a statement of the great doctrines of -the Christian religion. They told of the creation of the world, of -the fall of man, of his expulsion from the pleasant garden in which -he had been placed. Then they told of his restoration, of the death -and resurrection of Christ, and of judgment to come. They closed with -emphatic denunciation of idols and of human sacrifices. The work was -in verse, and in the language of the people for whom it was destined. -The fathers next obtained the co-operation of four native merchants -who were accustomed for commercial reasons to visit the country of the -warlike savages. These friendly traders were taught first to repeat the -verses and then to sing them to the accompaniment of Indian instruments. - -The merchants were received by the chief into his own house; and -they requited his hospitality and gained his favour by offering to -him certain gifts of scissors, knives, looking-glasses, and similar -matters with which the thoughtful fathers had provided them. When -they had finished a day of trading, they borrowed musical instruments -and proceeded to sing their message to the crowds by whom they were -surrounded. They commanded the immediate and rapt attention of the -savages, who hailed them as the ambassadors of new gods. Every day -of the next seven the song was repeated by desire of the chief, and -every repetition seemed to deepen the effect produced. Then the -merchants told of the good fathers by whom they were sent--of their -dress, of their manner of life, of their love for the Indians, of -their indifference to that gold which other Spaniards worshipped. An -embassy was despatched to entreat a visit from some of the fathers. -The request was immediately granted; but knowing the fickleness of the -savage mind, the prudent monks would not as yet risk the loss of more -than one of their number. Father Luis went back with the ambassador. -A church was instantly built: the chief in a short time avowed his -conversion to the new faith, and was loyally followed by his people. -The change was enduring, and the arrangements made by Las Casas for the -protection of the Indians being enforced by the King, were in large -measure effective. [Sidenote: 1630 A.D.] A century afterwards the town -of Rabinal, which the monks founded, was described by a Spaniard who -visited it as in a most flourishing condition, with a population of -eight hundred Indian families, who were in the enjoyment of “all that -heart can wish for pleasure and life of man.” - -A century after the conquest, the Jesuits had made their way into the -vast interior region of Paraguay. They came as religious teachers, but -they were empowered to trade with the natives, that they might, by -their commercial gains, defray the cost of their missionary operations. -In both provinces of their enterprise they found themselves frustrated -by the excesses of their countrymen. The savages traded reluctantly -with men so unscrupulous as the commercial Spaniards; they refused -to accept a new faith on the suggestion of men so avaricious and -so dissolute as the ecclesiastical Spaniards. The Jesuits, whose -sagacity and skill in the management of affairs were then unequalled, -obtained from the King the exclusion of all strangers from the land of -Paraguay; they in return for this privilege becoming bound to pay to -his majesty a yearly tax of one dollar for every baptized Indian who -lived under their dominion. Thus protected, the missionaries proceeded -to instruct the savages and form them into communities. Their lives -were irreproachably pure; the sincerity of their kindness was assured -by their manifest self-denial; the wisdom of the measures which they -introduced was quickly approved by the increasing welfare of the -population. In a very few years the Jesuits had gained the confidence -of the Indians, over whom they henceforth exercised control absolute -and unlimited. - -They drew together into little settlements a number, fifty or thereby, -of wandering families, to whom they imparted the art of agriculture. -The children were taught to read, to write, to sing. In each settlement -a judge, chosen by the inhabitants, maintained public order and -administered justice. The savages received willingly the faith which -the good fathers commended to their adoption. They were lenient to the -superstitions of their subjects, and the reception of the new faith was -hastened by its readiness to exist in harmonious combination with many -of the observances of the old. In time the sway of the Jesuits extended -over a population of one million five hundred thousand persons, all -of whom had received Christian baptism; and they could place sixty -thousand excellent soldiers in the field. - -The fathers regulated all the concerns of their subjects. All -possessions were held in common. Every morning, after hearing mass, -the people went out to labour according to the instructions of -the fathers. The gathered crops were stored for the general good, -and were distributed according to the necessities of each family. -No intoxicants were permitted. A strict discipline was enforced -by stripes administered in the public market-place, and received -without murmuring by the submissive natives. When strangers made their -unwelcome way into the country, the missionaries stood between their -converts and the apprehended pollution. The stranger was hospitably -entertained and politely escorted from one station to another till he -reached the frontier, no opportunity of intercourse with the natives -having been afforded. - -[Sidenote: 1640 to 1770 A.D.] The government of the Jesuits was in -a high degree beneficial to the Paraguans. The soil was cultivated -sufficiently to yield an ample maintenance for all. Education was -widely extended; churches were numerous and richly adorned; the -people were peaceable, contented, cheerful. In every condition which -makes human life desirable, the Jesuit settlements, during a period -of considerably over a century, stand out in striking and beautiful -contrast to all the other colonial possessions of Spain. - -But while the Jesuits of Paraguay were thus nobly occupied in raising -the fallen condition of the savages over whom they ruled, their -brethren in Europe had incurred the hatred of mankind by the wicked -and dangerous intrigues in which they delighted to engage. [Sidenote: -1767 A.D.] The Church of Rome herself cast them out. They were expelled -from Spain. The Order was dissolved by the Pope. The fall of this -unscrupulous organization was in most countries a relief from constant -irritation and danger; in Paraguay it was disastrous. [Sidenote: 1773 -A.D.] The country accepted new and incapable rulers, and was parcelled -out into new provinces. It speedily fell from the eminence to which the -fathers had raised it, and sunk into the anarchy and misery by which -its neighbours were characterized. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -BRAZIL. - - -King John of Portugal, to whom Columbus first made offer of his project -of discovery, was grievously chagrined when the success of the great -navigator revealed the magnificence of the rejected opportunity. Till -then, Portugal had occupied the foremost place as an explorer of -unknown regions. She had already achieved the discovery of all the -western coasts of Africa, and was now about to open a new route to -the East by the Cape of Good Hope. Suddenly her fame was eclipsed. -While she occupied herself with small and barren discoveries, Spain -had found, almost without the trouble of seeking, a new world of vast -extent and boundless wealth. - -Portugal had obtained from the Pope a grant of all lands which she -should discover in the Atlantic, with the additional advantage of -full pardon for the sins of all persons who should die while engaged -in the work of exploration. The sovereigns of Spain were equally -provident in regard to the new territory which they were now in course -of acquiring. They applied to Pope Alexander Sixth, who, as vicar of -Christ, possessed the acknowledged right to dispose at his pleasure of -all territories inhabited by heathens. From this able but eminently -dissolute pontiff they asked for a bull which should confirm them in -possession of all past and future discoveries in Western seas. The -accommodating Pope, willing to please both powers, divided the world -between them. [Sidenote: 1493 A.D.] He stretched an imaginary line, -from pole to pole, one hundred leagues to the westward of the Cape de -Verd Islands: all discoveries on the eastern side of this boundary -were given to Portugal, while those on the west became the property of -Spain. Portugal, dissatisfied with the vast gift, proposed that another -line should be drawn, stretching from east to west, and that she should -be at liberty to possess all lands which she might find between that -line and the South Pole. Spain objected to this huge deduction from her -expected possessions. [Sidenote: 1494 A.D.] Ultimately Spain consented -that the Papal frontier should be removed westward to a distance of two -hundred and seventy leagues from the Cape de Verd Islands; and thus the -dispute was happily terminated. - -[Sidenote: 1500 A.D.] Six years after this singular transaction, by -which two small European States parted between them all unexplored -portions of the Earth, a Portuguese navigator--Pedro Alvarez -Cabral--set sail from the Tagus in the prosecution of discovery in the -East. He stood far out into the Atlantic, to avoid the calms which -habitually baffled navigation on the coast of Guinea. His reckoning -was loosely kept, and the ocean currents bore his ships westward into -regions which it was not his intention to seek. After forty-five days -of voyaging he saw before him an unknown and unexpected land. In -searching for the Cape of Good Hope, he had reached the shores of the -great South American Continent, and he hastened to claim for the King -of Portugal the territory he had found, but regarding the extent of -which he had formed as yet no conjecture. Three Spanish captains had -already landed on this part of the continent and asserted the right -of Spain to its ownership. For many years Spain maintained languidly -the right which priority of discovery had given. But Portugal, to whom -an interest in the wealth of the New World was an object of vehement -desire, took effective possession of the land. She sent out soldiers; -she built forts; she subdued the savage natives; she founded colonies; -she established provincial governments. Although Spain did not formally -withdraw her pretensions, she gradually desisted from attempts to -enforce them; and the enormous territory of Brazil became a recognized -appanage of a petty European State whose area was scarcely larger than -the one-hundredth part of that which she had so easily acquired. - -For three hundred years Brazil remained in colonial subordination to -Portugal. Her boundaries were in utter confusion, and no man along all -that vast frontier could tell the limits of Portuguese dominion. Her -Indians were fierce, and bore with impatience the inroads which the -strangers made upon their possessions. The French seized the bay of Rio -de Janeiro. The Dutch conquered large territories in the north. But in -course of years these difficulties were overcome. [Sidenote: 1654 A.D.] -The foreigners were expelled. The natives were tamed, partly by arms, -partly by the teaching of zealous Jesuit missionaries. Some progress -was made in opening the vast interior of the country and in fixing its -boundaries. On the coast, population increased and numerous settlements -sprang up. The cultivation of coffee, which has since become the -leading Brazilian industry, was introduced. [Sidenote: 1750 A.D.] Some -simple manufactures were established, and the country began to export -her surplus products to Europe. There was much misgovernment; for the -despotic tendencies of the captains-general who ruled the country were -scarcely mitigated by the authority of the distant Court of Lisbon. -The enmity of Spain never ceased, and from time to time burst forth -in wasteful and bloody frontier wars. Sometimes the people of cities -rose in insurrection against the monopolies by which wicked governors -wronged them. Occasionally there fell out quarrels between different -provinces, and no method of allaying these could be found excepting -war. [Sidenote: 1711 A.D.] Once the city of Rio de Janeiro was sacked -by the French. Brazil had her full share of the miseries which the -foolishness and the evil temper of men have in all ages incurred. These -hindered, but did not altogether frustrate, the development of her -enormous resources. - -During the eighteenth century the Brazilian people began to estimate -more justly than they had done before the elements of national -greatness which surrounded them, and to perceive how unreasonable it -was that a country almost as large as Europe should remain in contented -dependence on one of the most inconsiderable of European States. The -English colonies in North America threw off the yoke of the mother -country. The air was full of those ideas of liberty which a year or two -later bore fruit in the French Revolution. A desire for independence -spread among the Brazilians, and expressed itself by an ill-conceived -rising in the province of Minas Geraes. But the movement was easily -suppressed, and the Portuguese Government maintained for a little -longer its sway over this noblest of colonial possessions. - -During the earlier years of the French Revolution, Portugal was -permitted to watch in undisturbed tranquillity the wild turmoils by -which the other European nations were afflicted. At length it seemed -to the Emperor Napoleon that the possession of the Portuguese kingdom, -and especially of the Portuguese fleet, was a fitting step in his -audacious progress to universal dominion. [Sidenote: 1807 A.D.] A -French army entered Portugal; a single sentence in the _Moniteur_ -informed the world that “the House of Braganza had ceased to reign.” -The French troops suffered so severely on their march, that ere they -reached Lisbon they were incapable of offensive operations. But so -timid was the Government, so thoroughly was the nation subdued by fear -of Napoleon, that it was determined to offer no resistance. The capital -of Portugal, with a population of three hundred thousand, and an army -of fourteen thousand, opened its gates to fifteen hundred ragged and -famishing Frenchmen, who wished to overturn the throne and degrade the -country into a French province. - -Before this humiliating submission was accomplished, the Royal Family -had gathered together its most precious effects, and with a long train -of followers,[57] set sail for Brazil. The insane Queen was accompanied -to the place of embarkation by the Prince Regent and the princes and -princesses of the family, all in tears: the multitudes who thronged to -look upon the departure lifted up their voices and wept. Men of heroic -mould would have made themselves ready to hold the capital of the State -or perish in its ruins; but the faint-hearted people of Lisbon were -satisfied to bemoan themselves. When they had gazed their last at the -receding ships, they hastened to receive their conquerors and supply -their needs. - -The presence of the Government hastened the industrial progress of -Brazil. The Prince Regent (who in a few years became King) began his -rule by opening the Brazilian ports to the commerce of all friendly -nations.[58] [Sidenote: 1815 A.D.] Seven years later it was formally -decreed that the colonial existence of Brazil should cease. She was now -raised to the dignity of a kingdom united with Portugal under the same -Crown. Her commerce and agriculture increased; she began to regard as -her inferior the country of which she lately had been a dependency. - -[Sidenote: 1820 A.D.] The changed relations of the two States were -displeasing to the people of Portugal. The Council by which the -affairs of the kingdom were conducted became unpopular. The demand -for constitutional government extended from Spain into Portugal. The -Portuguese desired to see their King again in Lisbon, and called -loudly for his return. The King consented to the wish of his people -reluctantly; for besides other and graver reasons why he should -not quit Brazil, his majesty greatly feared the discomforts of a -sea-voyage. [Sidenote: 1821 A.D.] His son, the heir to his throne, -became Regent in Brazil. - -The Brazilians resented the departure of the King. The Portuguese -meditated a yet deeper humiliation for the State whose recent -acquisition of dignity was still an offence to them. There came an -order from the Cortes that the Prince Regent also should return to -Europe. The Brazilians were now eager that the tie which bound them to -the mother country should be dissolved. The Prince Regent was urged to -disregard the summons to return. After some hesitation he gave effect -to the general wish, and intimated his purpose of remaining in Brazil. -[Sidenote: 1822 A.D.] A few months later he was proclaimed Emperor, and -the union of the two kingdoms ceased. Constitutional government was set -up. But the administration of the Emperor was not sufficiently liberal -to satisfy the wishes of his people. [Sidenote: 1831 A.D.] After nine -years of deepening unpopularity, he resigned the crown in favour of his -son, then a child five years of age, and now (1881), although still in -middle life, the oldest monarch in the world. - -Brazil covers almost one-half the South American Continent, and has -therefore an area nearly equal to that of the eight States of Spanish -origin by which she is bounded. She is as large as the British -dominions in North America; she is larger than the United States, -excluding the untrodden wastes of Alaska. One, and that not the -largest, of her twenty provinces is ten times the size of England. -Finally, her area is equal to five-sixths that of Europe.[59] She has -a sea-coast line of four thousand miles. She has a marvellous system -of river communication; the Amazon and its tributaries alone are -navigable for twenty-five thousand miles within Brazilian territory. -Her mineral wealth is so ample that the governor of one of her -provinces was wont, in religious processions, to ride a horse whose -shoes were of gold; and the diamonds of the Royal Family are estimated -at a value of three million sterling. Her soil and climate conspire -to bestow upon her agriculture an opulence which is unsurpassed and -probably unequalled. An acre of cotton yields in Brazil four times as -much as an acre yields in the United States. Wheat gives a return of -thirty to seventy fold; maize, of two hundred to four hundred fold; -rice, of a thousand fold. Brazil supplies nearly one-half the coffee -which the human family consumes. An endless variety of plants thrive in -her genial soil. Sugar and tobacco, as well as cotton, coffee, and tea, -are staple productions. Nothing which the tropics yield is wanting, and -in many portions of the empire the vegetation of the temperate zones -is abundantly productive. The energy of vegetable life is everywhere -excessive. The mangrove seeds send forth shoots before they fall from -the parent tree; the drooping branches of trees strike roots when they -touch the ground, and enter upon independent existence; wood which has -been split for fences hastens to put forth leaves; grasses and other -plants intertwine and form bridges on which the traveller walks in -safety. - -But the scanty population of Brazil is wholly insufficient to subdue -the enormous territory on which they have settled and make its vast -capabilities conduce to the welfare of man. The highest estimate -gives to Brazil a population of from eleven to twelve million.[60] -She has thus scarcely four inhabitants to every square mile of her -surface, while England has upwards of four hundred. Vast forests still -darken her soil, and the wild luxuriance of tropical undergrowth -renders them well-nigh impervious to man. There are boundless expanses -of wilderness imperfectly explored, still roamed over by untamed -and often hostile Indians. Persistent but not eminently successful -efforts have been made to induce European and now to induce Chinese -immigration. The population continues, however, to increase at such a -rate that it is larger by nearly two million than it was ten years ago. -But these accessions are trivial when viewed in relation to the work -which has still to be accomplished. It is said that no more than the -one hundred and fiftieth part of the agricultural resources of Brazil -has yet been developed or even revealed. The agricultural products of -the country, in so far as the amount of these can be tested by the -amount exported, do not exhibit any tendency to increase.[61] - -Brazil is afflicted not merely by an insufficient population, but -still more by the reluctance of her people to undergo the fatigues -of agricultural labour in the exhausting heat of her sultry plains. -The coloured population choose other occupations, and flock to the -cities. Once they were held by compulsion to field-work. Slavery was -maintained in Brazil after it had been abandoned by all other Christian -States. Not till 1871 was Brazil shamed out of the iniquitous system. -In that year it was enacted that the children of slave women should -be free--subject, however, to an apprenticeship of twenty-one years, -during which they must labour for the owners of their mothers. Since -that law was passed, there has been voluntary emancipation to a -considerable extent; and the slaves in Brazil, who numbered at one time -two and a half million, are now about one million.[62] The freedmen -shun field-work, and the places which they quit are scarcely filled -by immigration or natural increase. Agricultural progress is thus -frustrated--an evil which will probably be felt still more acutely -as the emancipation of the negroes draws towards its completion. No -sufficient remedy for this evil can be hoped for so long as any -remnants of slavery linger on the soil. - -The Brazilian Legislature is elected by the people, the qualification -of a voter being an annual income of twenty pounds. Three candidates -for the office of Senator are chosen by each constituency, and the -Emperor determines which of the three shall gain the appointment. The -members of the Lower House are chosen by indirect election. Every -thirty voters choose an elector, and the electors thus chosen appoint -the deputies. The exercise of the right of voting is compulsory; -neglect to vote is punished by the infliction of penalties. Each of -the twenty provinces into which the empire is divided has its own -Legislature, with a President appointed by the general Government. The -powers exercised by the provincial governments are necessarily large. - -The constitution confers upon the Emperor a “moderating power,” which -enables him, when he chooses, to frustrate the wishes of his Chambers. -He may dismiss a minister who has large majorities in both Houses; he -may withhold his sanction from measures which have been enacted by the -Legislature. Brazil has no hereditary nobility; but there is a lavish -distribution of distinctions which endure only for the lifetime of the -recipient. It is held that the power of bestowing these coveted honours -invests the Emperor with a measure of authority which is not unattended -with danger to the public liberties. - -But the career of the Brazilian Empire has been marked in large measure -by tranquillity and progress, and the masses of the people manifest no -desire for change. They have suffered from foreign war[63] and from -domestic strife; but their sufferings have been trivial when compared -with those of the Spanish States which adjoin them. Thus far their -quiet and unadventurous Government has given them repose, and thus -far they are satisfied. Three-fourths of the Brazilian people are of -mixed race, the leading elements in which are Indian and Negro. They -are profoundly ignorant; for although compulsory education has been -enacted, its progress is yet inconsiderable.[64] What the awakened -intellect of the Brazilian nation may in future years demand is beyond -human forecast. It is not probable that the political combinations -which an ignorant and indolent people have accepted at the hand of -their rulers will continue to satisfy when the national mind casts -aside its apathy. Brazil will be more fortunate than other States -if she attain to a stable political condition otherwise than by the -familiar path of civil contention and bloodshed. - - * * * * * - -It has been said by Mr. Bright that there is no event in history, -ancient or modern, which for grandeur and for permanence can compare -with the discovery of the American Continent by Christopher Columbus. -This is a large claim, but indisputably a just one. The discovery -of America ushered in an epoch wholly different from any which had -preceded it. Nearly one-third of the area of our world was practically -worthless to the human family--wandered over by savages who supported -their unprofitable lives by the slaughter of animals scarcely more -savage than themselves. Suddenly the lost continent is found, and its -incalculable wealth is added to the sum of human possessions. Europe -supported with difficulty, by her rude processes of agriculture, -even the scanty population which she contained; here were homes and -maintenance sufficient for all. Europe was governed by methods yet more -barbarous than her agriculture; here was an arena worthy of the great -experiment of human freedom on which the best of her people longed to -enter. Europe was committed to many old and injurious institutions--the -legacy of the darkest ages--no one of which could be overthrown save -by wasteful strife; here, free from the embarrassments which time -and error had created, there could be established the institutions -which the wants of new generations called for, and Europe could inform -herself of their quality before she proceeded to their adoption. The -human family was very poor; its lower classes were crushed down by -poverty into wretchedness and vice. At once the common heritage was -enormously increased, and possibilities of well-being not dreamed of -before were opened to all. The brave heart of Columbus beat high as he -looked out from the deck of his little ship upon the shores of a new -world, and felt with solemn thankfulness that God had chosen him to -accomplish a great work. We recognize in this lonely, much-enduring -man, the grandest human benefactor whom the race has ever known. -Behind him lay centuries of oppression and suffering, and ignorance -and debasement. Before him, unseen by the eye of man, there stretched -out, as the result of his triumph, the slow but steadfast evolution of -influences destined to transform the world. - -It fell to three European States, whose united area was scarcely larger -than one-fortieth part of the American Continents, to complete the -work which Columbus had begun; to preside over and direct the vast -revolution which his work rendered inevitable. England, Spain, and -Portugal were able to possess themselves of the lands which lie between -the Atlantic and the Pacific; and they assumed the responsibility -of shaping out the future of the nations by which those lands must -ultimately be peopled. They entered upon the momentous task under the -influence of motives which were exclusively selfish. A magnificent -prize had come into their hands; their sole concern was to extract -from it the largest possible advantage to themselves. These enormous -possessions were to remain for ever colonial dependencies; their -inhabitants were to remain for ever in the imperfect condition of -colonists--men who labour partly for their own benefit, but still more -for that of the mother country. The European owners of America were -alike in the selfishness of their aims, in their utter misconception -of the trust which had devolved upon them. But they differed widely -in regard to the methods by which they sought to give effect to their -purposes; and the difference of result has been correspondingly great. - -The American colonies of England were founded by the best and wisest -men she possessed--men imbued with a passionate love of liberty, and -resolute in its defence. These men went forth to find homes in the New -World, and to maintain themselves by honest labour. England laid unjust -restrictions upon their commerce, and suppressed their manufactures, -that she herself might profit by the supply of their wants. But so long -as her merchants gathered in the gain of colonial traffic, she suffered -the government of the colonies to be guided by the free spirit of her -own institutions. The colonists conducted their own public affairs, and -gained thus the skill and moderation which the work of self-government -demands. In course of years they renounced allegiance to the mother -country, and founded an independent government, under which no -privileged class exists, and the equality of human rights is asserted -and maintained. To-day the English colonies form one of the greatest -nations on the Earth, with a population of fifty million, educated, in -the enjoyment of every political right, more amply endowed than any -other people have ever been with the elements of material well-being. - -In the progress by which the English colonies in America have advanced -to the commanding position which they now occupy, they have given -forth lessons of inestimable value to Europe. At a very early period -in her history there came back from America influences powerful to -overthrow the evils which men had fled there to avoid. The liberty -of conscience over which the early Pilgrims never ceased to exult, -not only drew many to follow them, but emboldened those who remained -for the successful assertion of their rights. The vindication by the -colonists of their political independence quickened all free impulses -in Europe, and prepared the fall of despotic government. Europe watched -the rising greatness of a nation in which all men had part in framing -the laws under which they lived; in which perfect freedom and equality -of opportunity were enjoyed by all; in which religion was becomingly -upheld by the spontaneous liberality of the individual worshippers; -in which standing armies were practically unknown, and the substance -of the people was not wasted on military preparations. Throughout the -long and bitter contest in which Western Europe vanquished despotism, -the example of America confirmed the growing belief that liberty was -essential to the welfare of man, and strengthened every patriot heart -for the efforts and the sacrifices which the noble enterprise demanded. - -The history of Spanish America presents, in nearly every respect, a -striking and gloomy contrast to that of the Northern Continent. The -Spanish conquerors were men of unsurpassed capability in battle; but -they were cruel, superstitious, profoundly ignorant. They went to -the New World with the purpose of acquiring by force or by fraud the -gold and precious stones in which the continent was rich, and then of -hastening homeward to live splendidly in Spain. In their greedy search, -they trampled down the native population with a murderous cruelty -which is a reproach to the human name. The natives, on the other hand, -were oppressed by the home Government. Their commerce was fettered; -no influence was permitted to them in the conduct of their own public -affairs; no action was taken to dispel the ignorance which brooded over -the ill-fated continent. They learned to hate the Government which -thus abused its trust; and when they rose in arms for its overthrow, -they disclosed an untamed ferocity which the conquerors themselves -scarcely surpassed. Their half century of independence has been filled -with destructive civil wars, which have hindered and almost forbidden -progress. - -In Spanish hands this fair region has failed to contribute, in any -substantial measure, to the welfare of mankind. This portion of the -gift which Columbus brought fell into incapable hands, and has been -rendered almost worthless. It may reasonably be hoped that a better -future is in store for Spanish America; but its past must be regarded -as a gigantic failure. Its people have taught the world nothing. They -have served the world by a history which is rich in warning but void of -example. - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - -[23] The great cypress-tree, behind which Cortes hid himself at one -period during the Noche Trista, still retains some measure of vitality. -Beside it stands “The Church of the Sad Night.” A tramway line runs to -the temple at Tacuba, where he is said to have reviewed his troops next -day. Part of the temple was removed to give space for the tramway. - -[24] Bernal Diaz. - -[25] See page 434. - -[26] It has been estimated that the ransom paid by the Inca would be -equal, when the greater value of money at that time is allowed for, to -three or four million sterling at the present day. It yielded a sum -equal for each foot-soldier to £4000, and for each horseman to £8800. - -[27] The prisoner was charged with having usurped the crown and -assassinated his brother; with having squandered the revenues of -the country; with idolatry and polygamy; with attempting to incite -insurrection against the Spaniards. - -[28] The gallant De Soto, in later years the discoverer of the -Mississippi, was absent from the camp when Atahualpa was put to death. -On his return he reproached his chief for the unhappy transaction, and -maintained that the Inca had been basely slandered. Pizarro, seemingly -penitent, admitted that he had been precipitate. - -[29] No Inca inhabited the palace of his predecessor; each built for -himself. - -[30] In this, however, the Mexicans were not greatly more savage than -the Spaniards. After the fall of Mexico, Cortes dismissed his Indian -allies with various gifts, among which were many bodies of slain -enemies, carefully salted for preservation. - -[31] A regulation laid down by the Royal Order of 1601 illustrates the -spirit which pervades Spanish legislation. Leave is given to employ -Indians in the cultivation of coca. But inasmuch as coca is grown in -rainy districts and on humid ground, and the Indians in consequence -become ill, the master of the plantation is forbidden, under penalties, -to allow Indians to begin work until they are provided with a change of -clothes. - -[32] This neglect was continued almost to the close. The Duke of -Newcastle, who had charge of the colonies during Sir Robert Walpole’s -administration, neglected his duties so entirely that he ceased even -to read the letters which came to him from America. “It would not be -credited what reams of paper, representations, memorials, petitions -from that quarter of the world lay mouldering and unopened in his -office.” - -[33] This intolerable exaction was in course of time reduced to -one-fifth, and finally to one-twentieth. - -[34] These were increased to four, and finally to six, as the colonies -became more populous. - -[35] This tribute varied in the different provinces. In Mexico it was -about four shillings annually, levied on every male between eighteen -and fifty years of age. It produced latterly about half a million -sterling from all the colonies, and was collected with difficulty, -owing to the extreme poverty of the Indians. - -[36] A suggestion of which the good man bitterly repented, when the -enormous evils which sprang from it began to develop themselves. - -[37] Cromwell interested himself much in the welfare of this island. -Thirty years after the Pilgrim Fathers had settled in Massachusetts, he -invited them to remove to Jamaica. But the Fathers declined to renew -their pilgrimage; they wisely elected to remain where Providence had -led them, and where their descendants were destined to become a great -nation. - -[38] A Bill was, however, passed in 1873 for the abolition of slavery -in Puerto Rico. - -[39] This was the population according to the enumeration of 1867. It -has been seriously diminished by the war which began in the following -year; but the amount of loss has not been accurately ascertained. - -[40] The expenditure of 1878 was £16,000,000, while the revenue did not -exceed £11,000,000. - -[41] The Cuban paper currency amounts to £13,000,000. Great Britain -would be in the same position if she had an inconvertible and -depreciated currency of £450,000,000. - -[42] In Venezuela, where writing was almost unknown, it was necessary -to allow votes to be given orally. For weeks before an election the -priests taught their list of candidates as a school exercise to Indians -and other ignorant persons who were under their influence. - -[43] An incident in this defeat reminds us of one of the remarkable -conditions of tropical warfare. The routed Conservatives were driven -towards a broad river swarming with alligators. These savage creatures -were probably less terrible than the victorious Liberals. The fugitives -took to the river, where, it is told, they suffered heavy loss from the -alligators. - -[44] President Blanco asks from his Congress (May 1876) a law which -shall “declare the Church of Venezuela independent of the Roman -Episcopate, and order that parish priests shall be elected by the -faithful, the bishops by the rectors of parishes, and archbishops by -Congress, returning to the usage of the primitive Church, founded -by Jesus Christ and his Apostles.” Congress replies: “Faithful to -our duties, our convictions, and the holy doctrines of the religion -of Jesus, we do not hesitate to emancipate the Church of Venezuela -from that Episcopate which pretends, as an infallible and omnipotent -power, to absorb the vitality of a free people.” The leading newspaper -of Venezuela discriminates with equal accuracy between the Papacy -and Christianity--between “the genuine religion of Christ and those -adulterations of his law which substitute the reign of vanity, pride, -and contempt for mankind, for the doctrine of gentleness, meekness, and -love.” - -[45] Amounting in value to forty million sterling. - -[46] The depth of this ignorance is illustrated by the circumstance -that the Mexican post-office carries annually one letter for each five -of the population. The English post-office carries thirty-five letters -for each of the population. - -[47] In twenty-two years (from 1855 to 1877) her foreign -commerce--imports and exports together--had doubled, rising from seven -and a half to fifteen million sterling. - -[48] Chili was wise enough to offer the command of her fleet during -this struggle to an English hero whom a less wise but scarcely more -ungrateful English Government had wronged and cast out. Lord Cochrane, -who combined in a singular degree prudence with daring, performed so -many marvellous achievements that the terror of his name seemed to -paralyze the enemy. Ultimately, with the inconsiderable force under -his command, he drove the Spanish fleet away, and was supreme on the -Chilian coast. - -[49] The debt of Paraguay is £117,000,000. - -[50] The Dictator himself perished by the lance of a Brazilian soldier. - -[51] Some of his achievements were eminently fitted to bind to his -cause a rude and daring people. Standing once over a gateway, through -which a troop of wild horses were being driven at full speed, he -dropped on to the back of one previously selected. He bore in his hand -a leathern rein, which he fastened securely round the mouth of the -terrified and madly-galloping horse; and in half-an-hour he rode back, -the animal now trembling and subdued. - -[52] Rosas made his way to England, where he spent the remaining -twenty-six years of his life. - -[53] It has been said, with pardonable exaggeration, that “the -Argentine Republic consists of the province of Buenos Ayres and -thirteen mud-huts.” The thirteen provinces are so poor that for many -years regular monthly remittances have been sent them from Buenos Ayres -to defray the expense of the local governments. - -[54] So soon as the rebuilding of the city of Mexico was accomplished, -in 1524, Cortes applied to the Emperor to send him godly men who should -instruct the natives in the truths of religion. He makes it a special -request that sumptuous ecclesiastics, who wasted the substance of -the Church in riotous living, should not be inflicted on him. Twelve -Dominican and twelve Franciscan friars were sent, and Cortes was able -to convene a synod of thirty-one persons to take counsel regarding the -spiritual welfare of his subjects. - -[55] Peter reported of his pupils that “they learn quickly, fast -precisely, and pray fervently.” - -[56] It is the same with the great mass of the coloured population of -Hayti. While avowedly Catholic, they are in reality faithful to the -superstitions which their forefathers brought from Africa. They worship -the great serpent without poison, and withdraw secretly into the forest -to celebrate religious festivals at which human victims are sacrificed -and eaten. - -[57] There were in all fifteen thousand persons; and it was said that -they carried with them one-half the coinage then in circulation in -Portugal. - -[58] He also ordered a printing-press to be purchased in England at a -cost of £100. No such apparatus had heretofore existed within Brazilian -territory. - -[59] The area of Europe is 3,848,000 square miles; that of Brazil is -3,287,000 square miles, although some estimates place it much higher. - -[60] Of these, it is officially estimated that one million are untamed -Indians without any fixed place of abode. - -[61] The imports of Brazil are £19,000,000; her exports, £21,000,000. - -[62] This is the statement made by Government. The Abolitionists, -however, accuse the Government of acting in bad faith regarding -emancipation, and assert that the number of slaves has not diminished. - -[63] The Paraguayan War cost Brazil £50,000,000. - -[64] In 1874 the public schools were attended by only one hundred and -forty thousand pupils. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abraham, Heights of, 79, 344, 345. - - Acts of the English Parliament, Burning of, 84. - - Adams, Samuel, 90. - - Agriculture in Canada, 429. - - Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, 73. - - Alabama, The, 279; - Settlement of the Dispute, 280, 281. - - Alatamaha, The, 55. - - Alexander, William, Lord Stirling, 115. - - Alexandria, 75, 76, 211, 212. - - Almagro, 451, 458, 459, 464. - - Alvarado, Pedro de, 447, 450. - - America, British, The Six Colonies of, 394. - - America, Discovery of, by Columbus, 13; - by the Cabots, 14. - - Amsterdam, New, 48. - - Anderson, Major, 206. - - André, Major, 124. - - Annapolis (Port Royal), 401. - - Anna, Santa, Mexican Commander, 174. - - Antietam, Battle of, 228. - - Anti-Slavery Society, Formation of, 167. - - Argall, Samuel, 337. - - Argentine Confederation, The, 531. - - Arkansas, 184. - - Arkwright, Richard, 81, 155, 288. - - Arlington Heights, 212. - - Arnold, Commander of West Point, 123. - - Atahualpa, Inca of Peru, 455, 460. - - Atlanta, Capture of, 247. - - Augustine First, Emperor of Mexico, 516. - - Ayacucho, Battle of, 506. - - - Baptists, Persecution of, 40. - - Barbadoes, 506. - - Beauregard, General, 212. - - Bladensburg, 148. - - Blanco, Guzman, 515, 516. - - Bland Silver Bill, The, 303. - - Blockade of Southern Ports, 212, 231. - - Board of Trade, Government of the Colonies by the, 360. - - Bolivar, Don Simon, 501, 505, 514. - - Booth, Murderer of Pres. Lincoln, 257. - - Boston, 29, 38, 45; - Boston Common, 86, 88, 90, 91, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 146, 167, 209. - - “Boston Massacre,” The, 89. - - Braddock, General, 75, 339, 340. - - Brandywine River, 115. - - Brébœuf, Jean de, 326, 328, 332. - - Brewster, 29, 36. - - Brock, General, 369. - - Broke, Captain, 146. - - Brooklyn, Engagement at, 108. - - Brown, The Honourable George, 395, 396. - - Brunswick, Duke of, 107. - - Buccaneer, Origin of the word, 489. - - Buchanan, President, 200. - - Buenos Ayres, 528, 529. - - Buena-Vista, Battle of, 174. - - Bunker Hill, fortified by the Americans, 97; - taken by the English, 99, 100. - - Burgoyne, General, 97, 117. - - Burke, Edmund, 72, 86, 91. - - Burnside, General, 229. - - - Cabot, John and Sebastian, 14, 311, 440. - - Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 545. - - Calhoun, John C., 161. - - Cambridge, Massachusetts, 98, 99, 100. - - Canada, 73; - Invasion of, 78; - ceded to England, 80; - appealed to by the States, 93; - invaded by the Americans, 145; - the Founder of, 318; - Original Extent, 321; - Climate and Animals, 322; - Early Inhabitants, 323; - a British Possession, 346; - Revenue and Exports, 349; - Progress of, 355; - Government, 359, 374; - Population, 359 _n._; - the Quebec Act, 360; - Invasion of by Americans, 362; - Increase of Population, 366, 373; - Pitt’s Bill, 367; - another American Invasion, 368; - Education in Lower, 374; - in Upper, 375; - Union of the Two Provinces, 387; - Effects of Free Trade, 389; - Grand Trunk Railway, 393; - Financial Position, 393; - The Dominion, 397; - its Political Constitution, 398; - Area and Population, 426; - Commerce, 427; - the Lumber Trade, 428; - Agriculture, 429; - Fisheries, 430; - Mercantile Navy, 430; - Taxation, 430; - the Educational System, 433. - - Cape Breton, taken by the English, 341, 401. - - Cape Cod Bay, 31. - - Carabobo, Bolivar’s Victory at, 502. - - Carleton, Governor of Canada, 362. - - Carolina, North, 54, 81, 96, 121. - - Carolina, South, 54, 61, 81, 121, 159, 196. - - Cartier, Jacques, 314, 315. - - “Carting, The Inconvenient Habit of,” 84. - - Carver, John, 32. - - Cassamarca, a City of Peru, 460. - - Census, The American, of 1860, 190; - of 1870, 275; - of 1880, 303. - - Census of Canada, 1831, 378. - - Champlain, Samuel de, 317-321. - - Chancellorsville, Fighting at, 235. - - Charles I. of England, 33. - - Charles II. of England, 65. - - Charles V. of Spain, 59. - - Charleston, 196. - - Chesapeake Bay, 127. - - _Chesapeake_, The Frigate, 146. - - Chili, 523, 524. - - Cholula, Massacre at, 444. - - Christian Commission, The, 268. - - Civil Service Reform, 304. - - Clay, Henry, 177, 184. - - “Clergy Reserves,” The, 376, 391. - - Clinton, General, 97, 123, 127. - - Coalition Government, The Canadian, of 1864, 396. - - Cochrane, Lord, 523 _n._ - - Colombia, The Republic of, 514. - - Colonial Department of English Government, 360. - - Colonies, The Four United, of New England, 37. - - Colonization, American, the Result of Oppression in Europe, 21. - - Columbia, British, 423, 424. - - Columbus, Christopher, 12, 439, 475, 479, 486, 553. - - Commerce, American, Restrictions on, 85. - - Compass, The Mariner’s, 12. - - Concord, The Village of, 94, 95. - - Confederacy, The States of the, 197. - - Congress, 87, 92, 101, 105, 110, 111, 118, 122, 129, 130, 132, 138. - - Connecticut, 37, 54, 96, 168. - - Convention of Delegates from the Thirteen Original States, 134. - - Cook, James, the Navigator, 78. - - Cornwallis, Lord, 115, 127, 128. - - Cortes, Hernando, 442-446, 448, 449. - - Cromwell, Oliver, 33, 38, 65. - - Crown Point, The Capture of, 362. - - Cuba, 507-510. - - Cusco, the Capital of Peru, 460, 462, 463. - - - Darien, The Spanish Settlement of, 440. - - Davis, Jefferson, 197, 201, 202, 252, 253, 262. - - Debt, The War, of the General Government and of the States, 139; - at the Close of the Federal War, 276. - - Debtors and the English Law, 55. - - Declaration of Independence, 72, 152. - - Delaware, Lord, 26. - - Delaware River, 52, 53. - - Delaware State, 54, 105. - - De Leon, Ponce, Expedition of, 15. - - Delfthaven, 30. - - De Luque, 451, 453. - - De Soto, Ferdinand, Expedition of, 15-17. - - Dickenson, John, 93. - - Dorchester, The Heights of, 102. - - Dufferin, Lord, Viceroy of Canada, 434. - - Du Quesne, Fort (Pittsburg), taken, 341. - - - Early, General, 247. - - East India Company sends Tea to America, 89; - The Tea thrown into the Sea, 91. - - Ebenezer, The Town, 56. - - Ecuador, 514. - - Education, Progress of, in New England, 36, 82; - in Southern States, 82; - in the Union, 293-298; - in Canada, 351, 374, 375, 433. - - Elgin, Lord, Governor-General of Canada, 388, 390. - - Eliot, John, Apostle of the Indians, 47. - - Elizabeth, Queen of England, 60. - - English, Early Settlements of the, 333; - Wars with French Settlers, 338, 340; - Conquests of, 342. - - Erie, Lake, Naval Fight on, 370. - - Exports, American, Restrictions on, 85. - - Exports of America, The, 291, 292. - - - Falmouth, 44. - - Family Compact (Canadian), 376, 381. - - Farming, American, 284. - - Farragut, Admiral, 222. - - Federal Army, Disbanding of the, 263. - - Feudalism in Canada, 350; - Abolished, 391. - - Fisheries of Canada, 430. - - Florida, its Discovery, 15; - ceded to England, 80. - - Fort Detroit, 145. - - Fort Du Quesne, 75. - - Fort Necessity, 74. - - Fort Pitt, 76. - - Fort Sumpter, Bombardment of, 206. - - Fox, George, 42. - - France, American Possessions of, 15, 73; - her Sympathy with America, 112; - her Treaty with America against England, 120; - her Aid to America, 127; - Surrender of her Possessions, 346. - - Francia, Dr., Dictator of Paraguay, 526. - - Franklin, Benjamin, 71, 72, 76, 84, 86, 115, 120, 134, 159. - - Frederick of Prussia, 107. - - Fredericksburg, Disaster at, 229. - - Freedmen’s Bureau, 249. - - Fremont, General, 225. - - French, The, in Canada, 315, 316, 320, 321, 341, 342. - - Frobisher, Martin, 312. - - - Gage, General, 91, 94, 97, 98, 101. - - Garfield, President James, 303-308. - - Garibaldi, Defender of Monte Video, 529. - - Garrison, William Lloyd, 167. - - Gates, General, 118. - - General Government, Powers of the, 136. - - George II., 55. - - George III., 87, 94, 129. - - Georgia, 54, 61, 81, 92, 96, 121, 159. - - Germantown, 115. - - Gettysburg, Battle of, 237, 238. - - Ghent, Treaty of, 150. - - Gibraltar, besieged by Spain, 121. - - Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 313. - - Goree, 121. - - Gourlay, Robert, 377. - - Granada, 121. - - Grant, General, 174, 222, 232, 243, 252, 254; - President, 273, 304. - - Greene, General, 127. - - Grenville, Lord, 85, 86. - - Guatemala, 450. - - Gulf Stream, 14. - - - Haerlem, 109. - - Halifax, Foundation of, 402. - - Hamilton, Alexander, 132, 133, 139, 159. - - Hampden, John, 33. - - Harper’s Ferry, 187, 188, 228. - - Harvard College, 36. - - Hawkins, Sir John, 60. - - Hayes, President R. B., 303. - - Henry, Patrick, 92, 159. - - Henry VII. of England, 311. - - Hochelaga, 314. - - Homestead Act, The, 230. - - Hooker, General, 234, 236. - - House of Representatives, Composition of the, 136. - - Houston, General, 171. - - Howard, General, 249. - - Howe, General, 97, 101, 103, 107, 121. - - Howe, Lord, 107, 108, 110. - - Hudson Bay Company, 411-416. - - Hull, General, 145, 369. - - Huron Mission, The, 328-331. - - - Imports of America, their Value before the Revolution, 82; - Restrictions on, 82, 86, 89, 290. - - Impressment, Results of, 142. - - Independence, Declaration of, 105, 106. - - Indians, The Huron, 318, 328, 332; - the Iroquois, 318, 331, 338; - Canadian, present Condition of, 431-433; - Central American, 467; - Mexican, 467-469; - Peruvian, 469-472. - - - Jackson, General, 151, 167. - - Jackson, General Thomas,--“Stonewall Jackson,”--217, 234, 235. - - Jamaica, 506. - - James II., 65. - - Jamestown founded, 23. - - Jefferson, Thomas, 159. - - Johnson, President, 264; - Impeachment of, 272. - - Johnston, General, 233. - - Juarez, Benito, 518-520. - - - Kentucky, 160. - - - Labrador, Discovery of by the Cabots, 14. - - Lafayette, Marquis de, 112, 113, 153. - - La Galissonnière, Compte de, 335. - - La Salle, Sieur de, 334. - - Las Casas, Bartholomew de, “Protector of the Indians,” 476-478. - - Laud, Archbishop, 33. - - Lawrence, Captain, 146. - - Lawrence, The Town, 180. - - Lee, General Robert E., 174, 217, 228, 234, 238, 244, 254. - - Lee, Richard Henry, 92. - - Lexington, Skirmish at, 94. - - Lightning, Franklin’s Discovery, 72. - - Lima, founded by Pizarro, 462. - - Lincoln, President Abraham, 174, 193-195, 200, 201, 204, 225, 241, - 250, 256. - - Lok, John, 60. - - Long Island, 49. - - Lopez, Carlos, Dictator of Paraguay, 527. - - Louisburg, taken by the English, 341, 401. - - Louisiana, 73, 157. - - Lovejoy, Mr., 168. - - Lumber Trade, 428. - - Lundy’s Lane, Battle of, 371. - - Luther, Martin, 14. - - - Mackenzie, William Lyon, 381, 384. - - Manassas, Battle at, 213, 228. - - Manhattan Island, 48. - - Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 67. - - Maryland, 54, 184. - - Massachusetts, 37, 39, 45, 47, 54, 88, 91, 130. - - _Mayflower_, The, 31, 32, 58. - - Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 520-522. - - M’Clellan, General George B., 216, 219, 225, 228, 229, 250. - - M’Dowell, General, 213. - - Meade, General, 236. - - “Mean Whites” of the Southern States, 180. - - Mexico, 175, 176, 445, 449, 473, 516, 519, 520-522. - - Milton, John, 33, 38. - - Miranda, Francis, 500, 501. - - Mississippi, Discovery of the, 16. - - Monetary Panic of 1873, 275. - - _Monitor_, The Turret-Ship, 221. - - Monopolies in Canada, 351. - - Montcalm, Marquis de, 79, 340, 342, 343. - - Monte Video, 529. - - Montezuma, King of Mexico, 443, 446. - - Montgomery, The City of, 216. - - Montreal, Capture of, by the Americans, 362; - Evacuation of, 363; - Attempt by the Americans to seize, 369, 370; - Progress of, 379; - Political Disturbances at, 383; - ceases to be the Seat of Government, 388. - - Mount Vernon, 131. - - - Navy, The Mercantile, of Canada, 430. - - Neck, Boston, 97; - Charlestown, 97, 99. - - New Brunswick, Progress and Resources of, 404; - Settlement of the Boundary, 405. - - New England States, Early Government of, 65; - Commerce of, 81; - Educational System of, 82; - Riots in, 86; - Muster of Men at Boston, 96; - wrested from England, 103; - invaded by a British Army, 117. - - Newfoundland, 311, 321; - taken Possession of by England, 406, 407; - Area and Population of, 407; - the Natives of, 408; - Resources of, 408. - - New Granada, 514. - - New Hampshire, 54. - - New Haven, 37. - - New Jersey, its Acquisition, 50, 54. - - New Orleans, 150, 222. - - New Plymouth founded, 31. - - New World, The, 312, 313, 333. - - New York, 48, 50, 53, 54, 66, 81, 87, 89, 107, 109, 121, 150. - - North, Lord, 91. - - Nova Scotia (Acadie), a Possession of France, 321, 400; - a Possession of England, 338, 401; - Progress and Resources of, 402, 403. - - - Oglethorpe, James, 54 - - Ohio, Valley of the, 73. - - Ontario, Lake, 365. - - Ordinance of the Convention of South Carolina, dissolving the Union, 196. - - Ottawa, 389. - - - Pacific Ocean, Discovery of, 441. - - Paez, General, 515. - - Paine, Thomas, 105. - - Pakenham, Sir Edward, 150. - - Papineau, Louis Joseph, 383. - - Paraguay, 526-528. - - Paris, Mr., 44. - - Paul Jones, 121. - - Paul le Jeune, Father, 326. - - Pea Ridge, Battle of, 222. - - Peninsula, The, 219. - - Pennsylvania, 54, 66, 81, 105, 130. - - Penn, William, 51, 52, 66. - - Penobscot Bay, 337. - - Perrot, Nicholas, 334. - - Peru, 455, 524-526. - - Petersburg, Siege of, 245. - - Philadelphia, 52, 53, 71, 89, 92, 110, 115, 121, 133, 168. - - Pilgrim Fathers, their leaving England, 29; - Settlement in Holland, 29; - Removal to New England, 31; - their Hardships after landing, 32; - their Political Constitution, 32; - their Reinforcements from England, 34; - their Peculiarities, 35; - their Virtues, 35. - - Pitcairn, Major, 94. - - Pittsburg, 76. - - Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 78, 82, 87, 88, 91, 92. - - Pizarro, Fernando, 462, 464. - - Pizarro, Juan, 463. - - Pizarro, Gonzalo, 464, 465. - - Pizarro, Francisco, the Discoverer of Peru, 441, 451, 464. - - Plymouth, 37. - - Pocahontas, 24. - - Polk, President, 173. - - Pope, General, 228. - - Port Hudson, Reduction of, 232. - - Port Royal, Capture of, 222. - - Potomac, 71. - - Prescott, Colonel, 98. - - President, Election and Powers of, 137. - - Princeton, 111. - - Protective Tariff, 289. - - Providence, The City of, 39. - - Puerto Rico, 507. - - Putnam, Israel, 96, 98, 99, 108. - - - Quakers, Persecution of, 40, 41; - Beliefs and Character, 42; - Loyalty of, 105. - - Quebec, 78-80; - First Occupants of, 315; - the French Capital, 318; - taken by England, 320; - regained by France, 321; - held by Montcalm, 342; - besieged by Wolfe, 343; - surrendered to the English, 346; - Population of, 349; - Siege of, by the Americans, 363; - Progress of, 379; - Meeting of Delegates at, 396. - - - Railway, The Atlantic and Pacific, 285. - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, 22. - - Rapidan, Crossing of the, 244. - - Rappahannock, The Heights of the, 229. - - Reciprocity Treaty, The, 390. - - Red River, The Settlement at, 414, 416, 418-420. - - Rhode Island, State of, founded, 39, 54. - - Richmond, City of, 217, 219, 253. - - Riel, Louis, 416, 417, 421. - - Rio de Janeiro, 546. - - Rivadavia, President-General, 528. - - Robinson, 29, 30. - - Rosas, General, 529, and _note_. - - Ross, General, 148. - - Routledge, John, 92. - - Russell, Lord John, and Canada, 385, 386. - - - Sacramento, The, 176. - - Salem, 39, 44. - - Sanitary Commission, 267. - - San Miguel, 453. - - Santa Anna, President of Mexico, 517. - - Saratoga, The Surrender at, 117. - - Savannah, The River, 55; - the Town of, 56, 57; - Capture of, 247. - - Scott, General, 174. - - Scrooby, The Town of, 28. - - Selkirk, Lord, his Colony, 414. - - Senate, Composition of the, 136. - - Senegal, 121. - - Seward, William H., 205, 257. - - Shakamaxon, 53. - - _Shannon_, The War-Ship, 146. - - Shenandoah, Valley of the, 247. - - Sheridan, General, 247, 252. - - Sherman, General, 246, 252. - - Sierra Leone, 60. - - Slaves, English, sold in Virginia, 26. - - Slave Law, The Fugitive, 178. - - Slavery, forbidden in Georgia, but afterwards allowed, 57; - the first great Contest regarding, 165; - the second, 171; - the third, 180; - War in Defence of, 198; - Abolition of, 225, 226, 248, 249. - - Slaves, Negro, First landing of, in America, 58; - Importation of, begun by Spain, 59; - carried on by Portugal, 60; - by England, 60; - Provision of the American Constitution regarding, 61; - English Legislation, regarding the Trade in, 62; - Declaration of English Bishops and Crown Lawyers regarding the - holding of, 63; - the sufferings of, 62; - Enactment of Congress regarding the Importation of, 61; - the Rights of, 265; - the Education of, 294. - - Smith, John, 23. - - Southern States recognized as a belligerent Power by England, 279. - - Spain, Dominions of, in the West, 465, 488, 489, 495, 496, 499. - - Spain, her Treaty with America against England, 120. - - Springfield, Burial-place of President Lincoln, 258. - - Stamp Act, The, 72, 86, 87. - - Staten Island, 108. - - States, The Secession, 197, 208. - - St. Domingo, 60, 507. - - Stephens, Alexander H, 202. - - St. John, Island of, 341. - - St. Lawrence, Discovery of the, 314. - - Stuart, George H., 268. - - Stuyvesant, Petrus, 49. - - St. Vincent, Island of, 121. - - Subjects, English and American, The Law relating to, 142. - - Sumner, Charles, 191. - - - Taxation, American, 284, and _note_. - - Taxation in Canada, 430. - - Taxes imposed on the Americans by the English Parliament, 85, 88. - - Taylor, General, 174. - - Tiascalans, Overthrow of the, 444. - - Ticonderoga, Capture of, 362. - - Tobacco, 26, 190. - - Townshend, Charles, 88. - - _Trent_, British Mail-Steamer, boarded by the Americans, 279. - - Trenton, 110. - - Tripoli, Expedition against, 140. - - - Union Bill, The Canadian, 387. - - United States, The, 54, 81, 133, 137, 152, 182, 273. - - - Valley Forge, 116. - - Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, 440. - - Venezuela, the Confederation of, 500; - the State of, 514, 515. - - Verazzani, John, 313. - - Vicksburg, Reduction of, 232, 233. - - Virginia, 54, 65, 74, 81, 96, 127, 160, 184, 212, 251, 337. - - _Virginia_, Iron-clad Frigate, 220. - - - Wall Street, 49. - - Walpole, Sir Robert, 54, 85. - - Washington, Capital of the Union, capture of, by the British, 149; - threatened by the Confederates, 211, 228. - - Washington, George, 68-70, 74, 75, 92, 93, 100, 101, 102, 106, 107, - 108, 109, 110, 111, 116, 121, 122, 125, 128, 130, 131, 134, 138, - 140, 159. - - Watt, James, 155. - - Wesley, Charles, 56. - - Wesley, John, 56. - - West Point, 123. - - Whitefield, George, 57. - - Whitney, Eli, Inventor of Cotton-Gin, 155. - - Wilderness, Federal Disaster in the, 234. - - William, Prince of Orange, 30. - - Williams, Roger, 38; - his Views on Religious Toleration, 39; - President of Rhode Island, 40. - - Winnipeg Valley, 421, 422. - - Wolfe, General, 78, 343-346. - - Wolseley, Sir Garnet, Expedition to the Red River, 418. - - - York, Duke of, 66. - - Yorktown, 127, 219. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of America, by Robert Mackenzie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICA *** - -***** This file should be named 53314-0.txt or 53314-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/1/53314/ - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: America - A history - -Author: Robert Mackenzie - -Release Date: October 18, 2016 [EBook #53314] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICA *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Tenth Thousand.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="larger">THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A History.</span> By <span class="smcap">Robert Mackenzie</span>. -Crown 8vo, Cloth Antique. Price 7s. 6d.</p> - -<p>Presenting in a handy form a history of the great events and movements of -the present century, in our own country, throughout the British Empire, on the -Continent of Europe, and in America.</p> - -<p><i>THE TIMES.</i>—“A valuable addition to the library.”</p> - -<p><i>THE SCOTSMAN.</i>—“The central idea of the work and the chief aim of the -writer is displayed in his very evident design to trace the growth of free institutions -in the different States of Europe, and particularly in England.… No more -instructive or more useful book could be put into the hands of the rising generation -of the present day. The book is written in a terse and pointed style. The -movement is rapid throughout; and though the scene frequently changes, its -central thought—that of the education of the race in the spirit of freedom—is -never lost sight of for a moment.”</p> - -<p><i>DAILY REVIEW.</i>—“Written with rare power and skill; from beginning -to end the book is highly interesting and instructive. It is a political guide as -well as a history, and a safer guide with a more captivating manner will not easily -be found.”</p> - -<p class="center">T. NELSON AND SONS, LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<h1><span class="smcap">America.</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">A History.</span></h1> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.—</td> - <td>THE UNITED STATES.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.—</td> - <td>DOMINION OF CANADA.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.—</td> - <td>SOUTH AMERICA, &c.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class="titlepage"><i>By ROBERT MACKENZIE</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 141px;"> -<img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="141" height="100" alt="Spray of flowers (decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage">London:<br /> -T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW.<br /> -EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK.<br /> -1882.</p> - -<p class="titlepage">[<i>All Rights Reserved.</i>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#THE_UNITED_STATES">THE UNITED STATES.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#Book_First">BOOK FIRST.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_I">DISCOVERY</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_II">COLONIZATION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_III">VIRGINIA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_IV">NEW ENGLAND</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_V">THE NEW ENGLAND PERSECUTIONS</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_VI">WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_VII">THE INDIANS</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">46</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_VIII">NEW YORK</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_IX">PENNSYLVANIA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_X">GEORGIA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">54</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_XI">SLAVERY</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_I_CHAPTER_XII">EARLY GOVERNMENT</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#Book_Second">BOOK SECOND.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_I">GEORGE WASHINGTON</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_II">BENJAMIN FRANKLIN</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_III">THE VALLEY OF THE OHIO</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>IV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_IV">AMERICA ON THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_V">BUNKER HILL</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_VI">INDEPENDENCE</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_VII">AT WAR</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">107</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_VIII">SYMPATHY BEYOND THE SEA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_IX">THE WAR CONTINUES</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_X">THE SURRENDER AT SARATOGA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">117</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_XI">HELP FROM EUROPE</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_XII">MAJOR ANDRÉ</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_XIII">THE CLOSE OF THE WAR</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_XIV">THE THIRTEEN STATES BECOME A NATION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_II_CHAPTER_XV">THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">141</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#Book_Third">BOOK THIRD.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_I">KING COTTON</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_II">SLAVERY</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_III">MISSOURI</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">164</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_IV">HOPE FOR THE NEGRO</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_V">TEXAS</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_VI">THE WAR WITH MEXICO</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_VII">CALIFORNIA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_VIII">KANSAS</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">179</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_IX">THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">183</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_X">JOHN BROWN</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">186</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_XI">EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND SIXTY</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">190</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_XII">SECESSION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">196</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_III_CHAPTER_XIII">THE TWO PRESIDENTS</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#Book_Fourth">BOOK FOURTH.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_I">THE FIRST BLOW STRUCK</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">204</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>II.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_II">THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">211</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_III">“ON TO RICHMOND,”</a></td> - <td class="tdr">213</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_IV">LIBERTY TO THE CAPTIVE</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">224</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_V">CONFEDERATE SUCCESSES</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">228</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_VI">THE WAR CONTINUES</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">231</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_VII">GETTYSBURG</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">236</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_VIII">THE LAST CAMPAIGN</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">242</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_IX">THE MURDER OF THE PRESIDENT</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">256</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_X">THE LOSSES AND THE GAINS OF THE WAR</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">259</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_XI">AFTER THE WAR</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">262</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#US_IV_CHAPTER_XII">HOW THE AMERICANS CARED FOR THEIR SOLDIERS</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">267</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#Book_Fifth">BOOK FIFTH.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#US_V_CHAPTER_I">REUNITED AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">270</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#US_V_CHAPTER_II">ENGLAND AND AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">278</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#US_V_CHAPTER_III">INDUSTRIAL AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">283</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#US_V_CHAPTER_IV">EDUCATION IN AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">293</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#US_V_CHAPTER_V">EUROPE AND AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">299</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><a href="#POSTSCRIPT">POSTSCRIPT—PRESIDENT GARFIELD</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">303</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#THE_DOMINION_OF_CANADA">THE DOMINION OF CANADA.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_I">THE DAWN OF CANADIAN HISTORY</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">311</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_II">SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">317</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_III">THE JESUITS IN CANADA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">324</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_IV">THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">333</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_V">THE AMERICAN CONTINENT GAINED BY THE BRITISH</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">337</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_VI">COLONIZATION BY FRANCE AND BY ENGLAND</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">348</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_VII">AFTER THE CONQUEST</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">354</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_VIII">CANADA DURING THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">361</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>IX.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_IX">CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">364</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_X">THE WAR OF 1812</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">368</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_XI">DOMESTIC STRIFE</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">373</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_XII">THE CANADIAN REVOLUTION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">380</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_XIII">CONFEDERATION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">394</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_XIV">THE MARITIME PROVINCES</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">399</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_XV">THE PROVINCES OF THE NORTH-WEST</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">409</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI.</td> - <td><a href="#CANADA_CHAPTER_XVI">THE PROGRESS OF THE CANADIAN NATION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">426</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA">SOUTH AMERICA.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_I">DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">439</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_II">THE INDIANS OF SPANISH AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">466</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_III">SPANISH GOVERNMENT OF THE NEW WORLD</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">479</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_IV">REVOLUTION</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">494</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_V">INDEPENDENCE</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">511</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_VI">THE CHURCH OF ROME IN SPANISH AMERICA</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">534</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_VII">BRAZIL</a>,</td> - <td class="tdr">544</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="THE_UNITED_STATES">THE UNITED STATES.</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="Book_First">Book First.</h3> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">DISCOVERY.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">It was late in the history of the world before Europe -and America became known to each other. During -the first fifteen centuries of the Christian era Europe -was unaware of the vast continent which lay beyond -the sea. Asia had ceased to influence her. Africa had not -begun. Her history was waiting for the mighty influence -which America was to exercise in her affairs through all the -future ages.</p> - -<p>Men had been slow to establish completely their dominion -over the sea. They learned very early to build ships. They -availed themselves very early of the surprising power which the -helm exerts over the movements of a ship. But, during many -ages, they found no surer guidance upon the pathless sea than -that which the position of the sun and the stars afforded. When -clouds intervened to deprive them of this uncertain direction, they -were helpless. They were thus obliged to keep the land in view, -and content themselves with creeping timidly along the coast.</p> - -<p>But at length there was discovered a stone which the wise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -Creator had endowed with strange properties. It was observed -that a needle brought once into contact with that stone pointed -ever afterwards steadfastly to the north. Men saw that with -a needle thus influenced they could guide themselves at sea as -surely as on land. The Mariners’ Compass untied the bond -which held sailors to the coast, and gave them liberty to push -out into the sea.</p> - -<p>Just when sailors were slowly learning to put confidence in -the mariners’ compass, there arose in Europe a vehement desire -for the discovery of unknown countries. A sudden interest -sprang up in all that was distant and unexplored. The strange -fables told by travellers were greedily received. The human -mind was beginning to cast off the torpor of the Middle Ages. -As intelligence increased, men became increasingly eager to -ascertain the form and extent of the world in which they dwelt, -and to acquaint themselves with those unknown races who were -their fellow-inhabitants.</p> - -<p>Portugal and Spain, looking out upon the boundless sea, were -powerfully stirred by the new impulse. The Courts of Lisbon -and Madrid swarmed with adventurers who had made discoveries, -or who wished the means to make them. Conspicuous among -these was an enthusiast, who during eighteen years had not -ceased to importune incredulous monarchs for ships and men -that he might open up the secrets of the sea. He was a tall -man, of grave and gentle manners, and noble though saddened -look. His eye was gray, “apt to enkindle” when he spoke of -those discoveries in the making of which he felt himself to be -Heaven’s chosen agent. He had known hardship and sorrow in -his youth, and at thirty his hair was white. He was the son of -a Genoese wool-comber, and his name was Christopher Columbus. -In him the universal passion for discovery rose to the dignity of -an inspiration.</p> - -<p>No sailor of our time would cross the Atlantic in such ships -as were given to Columbus. In size they resembled the smaller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -of our river and coasting vessels. Only one of them was decked. -The others were open, save at the prow and stern, where cabins -were built for the crew. The sailors went unwillingly and in -much fear—compelled by an order from the King. With such -ships and such men Columbus left the land behind him and -pushed out into these unknown waters. To him there were no -dangers, no difficulties—God, who had chosen him to do this -work, would sustain him for its accomplishment. He sailed on -the 3rd of August 1492. On the 12th of October, in the dim -light of early morning, he gazed out from the deck of his little -ship upon the shores of a new world. His victory was gained; -his work was done. How great it was he himself never knew. -He died in the belief that he had merely discovered a shorter -route to India. He never enjoyed that which would have been -the best recompense for all his toil—the knowledge that he had -added a vast continent to the possessions of civilized men.</p> - -<p>The revelation by Columbus of the amazing fact that there -were lands beyond the great ocean, inhabited by strange races of -human beings, roused to a passionate eagerness the thirst for -fresh discoveries. The splendours of the newly-found world -were indeed difficult to be resisted. Wealth beyond the wildest -dreams of avarice could be had, it was said, for the gathering. -The sands of every river sparkled with gold. The very colour -of the ground showed that gold was profusely abundant. The -meanest of the Indians ornamented himself with gold and jewels. -The walls of the houses glittered with pearls. There was a -fountain, if one might but find it, whose waters bestowed perpetual -youth upon the bather. The wildest romances were -greedily received, and the Old World, with its familiar and -painful realities, seemed mean and hateful beside the fabled -glories of the New.</p> - -<p>Europe then enjoyed a season of unusual calm—a short respite -from the habitual toil of war—as if to afford men leisure to enter -on their new possession. The last of the Moors had taken his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -last look at Granada, and Spain had rest from her eight centuries -of war. In England, the Wars of the Roses had ceased. After -thirty years of hard fighting and huge waste of life and property, -the fortunate English had been able to determine which branch -of a certain old family was to rule over them. Henry VII., -with his clear, cold head, and his heavy hand, was guiding his -people somewhat forcibly towards the victories of peace. Even -France tasted the joy of repose. The Reformation was at hand. -While Columbus was holding his uncertain way across the great -Atlantic, a boy called Martin Luther was attending school in a -small German town. The time was not far off, but as yet the -mind of Europe was not engrossed by those religious strifes -which were soon to convulse it.</p> - -<p>The men whose trade was fighting turned gladly in this idle -time to the world where boundless wealth was to be wrung -from the grasp of unwarlike barbarians. England and France -had missed the splendid prize which Columbus had won for -Spain. They hastened now to secure what they could. A -merchant of Bristol, John Cabot, obtained permission from the -King of England to make discoveries in the northern parts of -America. Cabot was to bear all expenses, and the King was to -receive one-fifth of the gains of the adventure. Taking with -him his son Sebastian, John Cabot sailed straight westward -across the Atlantic. <span class="sidenote">1497 A.D.</span> He reached the American continent, -of which he was the undoubted discoverer. The -result to him was disappointing. He landed on the -coast of Labrador. Being in the same latitude as England, he -reasoned that he should find the same genial climate. To his -astonishment he came upon a region of intolerable cold, dreary -with ice and snow. John Cabot had not heard of the Gulf -Stream and its marvellous influences. He did not know that -the western shores of northern Europe are rescued from perpetual -winter, and warmed up to the enjoyable temperature -which they possess, by an enormous river of hot water flowing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -between banks of cold water eastward from the Gulf of Mexico. -The Cabots made many voyages afterwards, and explored the -American coast from extreme north to extreme south.</p> - -<p>The French turned their attention to the northern parts of -the New World. The rich fisheries of Newfoundland attracted -them. A Frenchman sailed up the great St. Lawrence river. -After some failures a French settlement was established there, -and for a century and a half the French peopled Canada, until -the English relieved them of the ownership.</p> - -<p>Spanish adventurers never rested from their eager search after -the treasures of the new continent. An aged warrior called -Ponce de Leon fitted out an expedition at his own cost. He -had heard of the marvellous fountain whose waters would restore -to him the years of his wasted youth. He searched in vain. -The fountain would not reveal itself to the foolish old man, and -he had to bear without relief the burden of his profitless years. -But he found a country hitherto unseen by Europeans, which -was clothed with magnificent forests, and seemed to bloom with -perpetual flowers. He called it Florida. He attempted to -found a colony in the paradise he had discovered. But the -natives attacked him, slew many of his men, and drove the rest -to their ships, carrying with them their chief, wounded to death -by the arrow of an Indian.</p> - -<p class="tb">Ferdinand de Soto had been with Pizarro in his expedition to -Peru, and returned to Spain enriched by his share of the -plunder. He did not doubt that in the north were cities as -rich and barbarians as confiding. An expedition to discover new -regions, and plunder their inhabitants, was fitted out under his -command. No one doubted that success equal to that of Cortes -and Pizarro would attend this new adventure. The youth of -Spain were eager to be permitted to go, and they sold houses and -lands to buy them the needful equipment. Six hundred men, in -the prime of life, were chosen from the crowd of applicants, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -the expedition sailed, high in courage, splendid in aspect, boundless -in expectation. <span class="sidenote">1539 A.D.</span> They landed on the coast of Florida, -and began their march into the wilderness. They had -fetters for the Indians whom they meant to take captive. -They had bloodhounds, lest these captives should escape. -The camp swarmed with priests, and as they marched the festivals -and processions enjoined by the Church were devoutly observed.</p> - -<p>From the outset it was a toilsome and perilous enterprise; but -to the Spaniard of that time danger was a joy. The Indians -were warlike, and generally hostile. De Soto had pitched -battles to fight and heavy losses to bear. Always he was victorious, -but he could ill afford the cost of many such victories. -The captive Indians amused him with tales of regions where -gold abounded. They had learned that ignorance on that subject -was very hazardous. De Soto had stimulated their knowledge -by burning to death some who denied the existence of gold -in that country. The Spaniards wandered slowly northwards. -They looked eagerly for some great city, the plunder of whose -palaces and temples would enrich them all. They found nothing -better than occasionally an Indian town, composed of a few -miserable huts. It was all they could do to get needful food. -At length they came to a magnificent river. European eyes -had seen no such river till now. It was about a mile in breadth, -and its mass of water swept downward to the sea with a current -of amazing strength. It was the Mississippi. The Spaniards -built vessels and ferried themselves to the western bank.</p> - -<p>There they resumed their wanderings. De Soto would not -yet admit that he had failed. He still hoped that the plunder -of a rich city would reward his toils. For many months the -Spaniards strayed among the swamps and dense forests of that -dreary region. The natives showed at first some disposition to -be helpful. But the Spaniards, in their disappointment, were -pitiless and savage. They amused themselves by inflicting pain -upon the prisoners. They cut off their hands; they hunted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -them with bloodhounds; they burned them at the stake. The -Indians became dangerous. De Soto hoped to awe them by -claiming to be one of the gods, but the imposture was too -palpable. “How can a man be God when he cannot get bread -to eat?” asked a sagacious savage. It was now three years since -De Soto had landed in America. The utter failure of the expedition -would no longer conceal, and the men wished to return -home. Broken in spirit and in frame, De Soto caught fever and -died. His soldiers felled a tree and scooped room within its -trunk for the body of the ill-fated adventurer. They could not -bury their chief on land, lest the Indians should dishonour his -remains. In the silence of midnight the rude coffin was sunk -in the Mississippi, and the discoverer of the great river slept -beneath its waters. The Spaniards promptly resolved now to -make their way to Cuba. They had tools, and wood was abundant. -They slew their horses for flesh; they plundered the -Indians for bread; they struck the fetters from their prisoners -to reinforce their scanty supply of iron. They built ships enough -to float them down the Mississippi. Three hundred ragged and -disheartened men were all that remained of the brilliant company -whose hopes had been so high, whose good fortune had been so -much envied.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">COLONIZATION.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-f.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">For many years European adventurers continued to -resort to the American coast in the hope of finding -the way to immediate wealth. Some feeble attempts -had been made to colonize. Here and there -a few families had been planted, but hunger or the Indians -always extinguished those infant settlements. The great idea -of colonizing America was slow to take possession of European -minds. The Spaniard sought for Indians to plunder. The -Englishman believed in gold-mines and the north-west passage -to India. It was not till America had been known for a hundred -years that men began to think of finding a home beyond -the Atlantic.</p> - -<p>The courage and endurance of the early voyagers excite our -wonder. Few of them sailed in ships so large as a hundred -tons burden. The merchant ships of that time were very -small. The royal navies of Europe contained large vessels, but -commerce was too poor to employ any but the smallest. The -commerce of imperial Rome employed ships which even now -would be deemed large. St. Paul was wrecked in a ship of -over five hundred tons burden. Josephus sailed in a ship of -nearly one thousand tons. Europe contented herself, as yet, -with vessels of a very different class. A ship of forty or fifty -tons was deemed sufficient by the daring adventurers who -sought to reach the Land of Promise beyond the great sea.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -Occasionally toy-ships of twenty or twenty-five tons were used. -The brother of Sir Walter Raleigh crossed the Atlantic in such -a ship, and perished in it as he attempted to return to England.</p> - -<p class="tb">It was not a pleasant world which the men and women of -Europe had to live in during the sixteenth century. Fighting -was the constant occupation of the Kings of that time. A year -of peace was a rare and somewhat wearisome exception. Kings -habitually, at their own unquestioned pleasure, gathered their -subjects together, and marched them off to slay and plunder -their neighbours. Civil wars were frequent. In these confused -strifes men slew their acquaintances and friends as the -only method they knew of deciding who was to fill the throne. -Feeble Commerce was crushed under the iron heel of War. No -such thing as security for life or property was expected. The -fields of the husbandman were trodden down by the march of -armies. Disbanded or deserted soldiers wandered as “masterless -men” over the country, and robbed and murdered at their -will. Highwaymen abounded—although highways could -scarcely be said to exist. Epidemic diseases of strange type, -the result of insufficient feeding and the poisonous air of undrained -lands and filthy streets, desolated all European countries. -Under what hardships and miseries the men of the -sixteenth century passed their days, it is scarcely possible for -us now to conceive.</p> - -<p>The English Parliament once reminded James I. of certain -“undoubted rights” which they possessed. The King told -them, in reply, that he “did not like this style of talking, but -would rather hear them say that all their privileges were derived -by the grace and permission of the sovereign.” Europe, -during the sixteenth century, had no better understanding of -the matter than James had. It was not supposed that the -King was made for the people; it seemed rather to be thought -that the people were made for the King. Here and there some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -man wiser than ordinary perceived the truth, so familiar to us, -that a King is merely a great officer appointed by the people to -do certain work for them. There was a Glasgow professor who -taught in those dark days that the authority of the King was -derived from the people, and ought to be used for their good. -Two of his pupils were John Knox the reformer, and George -Buchanan the historian, by whom this doctrine, so great and -yet so simple, was clearly perceived and firmly maintained. -But to the great mass of mankind it seemed that the King had -divine authority to dispose of his subjects and their property -according to his pleasure. Poor patient humanity still bowed -in lowly reverence before its Kings, and bore, without wondering -or murmuring, all that it pleased them to inflict. No -stranger superstition has ever possessed the human mind than -this boundless mediæval veneration for the King—a veneration -which follies the most abject, vices the most enormous, were not -able to quench.</p> - -<p>But as this unhappy century draws towards its close, the -elements of a most benign change are plainly seen at work. -The Bible has been largely read. The Bible is the book of all -ages and of all circumstances. But never, surely, since its first -gift to man was it more needful to any age than to that which -now welcomed its restoration with wonder and delight. It took -deep hold on the minds of men. It exercised a silent influence -which gradually changed the aspect of society. The narrative -portions of Scripture were especially acceptable to the untutored -intellect of that time; and thus the Old Testament was preferred -to the New. This preference led to some mistakes. -Rules which had been given to an ancient Asiatic people were -applied in circumstances for which they were never intended or -fitted. It is easy to smile at these mistakes. But it is impossible -to over-estimate the social and political good which we now -enjoy as a result of this incessant reading of the Bible by the -people of the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> - -<p>In nearly all European countries the King claimed to regulate -the religious belief of his subjects. Even in England that -power was still claimed. The people were beginning to suspect -that they were entitled to think for themselves—a suspicion -which grew into an indignant certainty, and widened and -deepened till it swept from the throne the unhappy House of -Stuart.</p> - -<p>A little way into the seventeenth century America became -the refuge of those who would not receive their faith at the -bidding of the King. The best part of American colonization -resulted from the foolish and insolent oppressions of Europe. -At the beginning, however, it was not so. It was from an impulse -of vagrant blackguardism that the first American colony -sprang.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">VIRGINIA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-s.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Sir Walter Raleigh spent a large fortune in -attempting to colonize Virginia. He succeeded in -directing the attention of his countrymen to the -region which had kindled his own enthusiasm, but -his colonies never prospered. Sometimes the colonists returned -home disgusted by the hardships of the wilderness. Once they -were massacred by the Indians. When help came from England -the infant settlement was in ruins. The bones of unburied -men lay about the fields; wild deer strayed among the untenanted -houses. Once a colony wholly disappeared. To this -day its fate is unknown.</p> - -<p>Sir Walter was enduring his long captivity in the Tower, -writing his “History of the World,” and moaning piteously -over the havoc which prison-damps wrought upon his handsome -frame. The time had now come, and his labours were -about to bear fruit. The history of Virginia was about -to open. It opened with meagre promise. <span class="sidenote">1606 A.D.</span> A charter -from the King established a Company whose function was to -colonize—whose privilege was to trade. The Company sent -out an expedition which sailed in three small vessels. It consisted -of one hundred and five men. Of these one-half were -gentlemen of broken fortune; some were tradesmen; others -were footmen. Only a very few were farmers, or mechanics, or -persons in any way fitted for the life they sought. Morally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -aspect of the expedition was even more discouraging. “An -hundred dissolute persons” were on board the ships. The respectable -portions of the expedition must have gone into very -little room.</p> - -<p>But, happily for Virginia, there sailed with these reprobate -founders of a new empire a man whom Providence had highly -gifted with fitness to govern his fellow-men. His name was -John Smith. No writer of romance would have given his hero -this name; but, in spite of his name, the man was truly heroic. -He was still under thirty, a strong-limbed, deep-chested, massively-built -man. From boyhood he had been a soldier—roaming -over the world in search of adventures, wherever hard blows -were being exchanged. He was mighty in single combat. -Once, while opposing armies looked on, he vanquished three -Turks, and, like David, cut off their heads, and bore them to -his tent. Returning to England when the passion for colonizing -was at its height, he caught at once the prevailing impulse. -He joined the Virginian expedition; ultimately he became its -chief. His fitness was so manifest, that no reluctance on his -own part, no jealousies on that of his companions, could bar -him from the highest place. Men became Kings of old by the -same process which now made Smith a chief.</p> - -<p>The “dissolute persons” sailed in their ships up the James -river. Landing there, they proceeded to construct a little town, -which they named Jamestown, in honour of the King. This -was the first colony which struck its roots in American soil. -The colonists were charmed with the climate and with the -luxuriant beauty of the wilderness on whose confines they had -settled. But as yet it was only a wilderness. The forest had -to be cleared that food might be grown. The exiled gentlemen -laboured manfully, but under grievous discouragements. “The -axes so oft blistered their tender fingers, that many times every -third blow had a loud oath to drown the echo.” Smith was a -man upon whose soul there lay a becoming reverence for sacred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -things. He devised how to have every man’s oaths numbered; -“and at night, for every oath, to have a can of water poured -down his sleeve.” Under this treatment the evil assuaged.</p> - -<p>The emigrants had landed in early spring. Summer came -with its burning heat; supplies of food ran low. “Had we -been as free from all sins as from gluttony and drunkenness,” -Smith wrote, “we might have been canonized as saints.” The -colonists sickened and died. From those poor blistered fingers -dropped for ever the unaccustomed axe. Before autumn every -second man had died. But the hot Virginian sun, which proved -so deadly to the settlers, ripened the wheat they had sowed in -the spring, and freed the survivors from the pressure of want. -Winter brought them a healthier temperature and abundant -supplies of wild-fowl and game.</p> - -<p>When the welfare of the colony was in some measure secured, -Smith set forth with a few companions to explore the interior of -the country. He and his followers were captured by the Indians, -and the followers were summarily butchered. Smith’s composure -did not fail him in the worst extremity. He produced -his pocket-compass, and interested the savages by explaining its -properties. He wrote a letter in their sight—to their infinite -wonder. They spared him, and made a show of him in all the -settlements round about. He was to them an unfathomable -mystery. He was plainly superhuman. Whether his power -would bring to them good or evil, they were not able to determine. -After much hesitation they chose the course which -prudence seem to counsel. They resolved to extinguish powers -so formidable, regarding whose use they could obtain no -guarantee. Smith was bound and stretched upon the earth, -his head resting upon a great stone. The mighty club was uplifted -to dash out his brains. But Smith was a man who won -golden opinions of all. The Indian chief had a daughter, Pocahontas, -a child of ten or twelve years. She could not bear to -see the pleasing Englishman destroyed. As Smith lay waiting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -the fatal stroke, she caught him in her arms and interposed -herself between him and the club. Her intercession prevailed, -and Smith was set free.</p> - -<p>Five years later, “an honest and discreet” young Englishman -called John Rolfe loved this young Indian girl. He had a sore -mental struggle about uniting himself with “one of barbarous -breeding and of a cursed race.” But love triumphed. He -laboured for her conversion, and had the happiness of seeing her -baptized in the little church of Jamestown. Then he married -her. After a time he took her home to England. Her appearance -was pleasing; her mind was acute; her piety was sincere; -her manners bore picturesque evidence of her forest upbringing. -The English King and Court regarded her with lively interest -as the first-fruits of the wilderness. Great hopes were founded -on this union of the two races. She is the brightest picture—this -young Virginian wife and mother—which the history of -the doomed native races presents to us. But she did not live -to revisit her native land. Death parted her very early from -her husband and her child.</p> - -<p>When Smith returned from captivity the colony was on the -verge of extinction. Only thirty-eight persons were left, and -they were preparing to depart. With Smith, hope returned to -the despairing settlers. They resumed their work, confident in -the resources of their chief. Fresh arrivals from England -cheered them. The character of these reinforcements had not -as yet improved. “Vagabond gentlemen” formed still a large -majority of the settlers—many of them, we are told, “packed -off to escape worse destinies at home.” The colony, thus composed, -had already gained a very bad reputation: so bad that -some, rather than be sent there, “chose to be hanged, <i>and were</i>.” -Over these most undesirable subjects Smith ruled with an -authority which no man dared or desired to question. But he -was severely injured by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. -Surgical aid was not in the colony. Smith required to go to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -England, and once more hungry ruin settled down upon -Virginia. <span class="sidenote">1610 A.D.</span> In six months the five hundred men whom -Smith had left dwindled to sixty. These were already -embarked and departing, when they were met by Lord -Delaware, the new governor. Once more the colony was -saved.</p> - -<p>Years of quiet growth succeeded. Emigrants—not wholly -now of the dissolute sort—flowed steadily in. Bad people bore -rule in England during most of the seventeenth century, and -they sold the good people to be slaves in Virginia. The victims -of the brutal Judge Jeffreys—the Scotch Covenanters taken at -Bothwell Bridge—were shipped off to this profitable market. In -1688 the population of Virginia had increased to 50,000. The -little wooden capital swelled out. Other little wooden towns -established themselves. Deep in the unfathomed wilderness -rose the huts of adventurous settlers, in secluded nooks, by the -banks of nameless Virginian streams. A semblance of roads -connected the youthful communities. The Indians were relentlessly -suppressed. The Virginians bought no land; they took -what they required—slaying or expelling the former occupants. -Perhaps there were faults on both sides. Once the Indians -planned a massacre so cunningly that over three hundred Englishmen -perished before the bloody hand of the savages could -be stayed.</p> - -<p>The early explorers of Virginia found tobacco in extensive -use among the Indians. It was the chief medicine of the -savages. Its virtues—otherwise unaccountable—were supposed -to proceed from a spiritual presence whose home was in the -plant. Tobacco was quickly introduced into England, where it -rose rapidly into favour. Men who had heretofore smoked only -hemp knew how to prize tobacco. King James wrote vehemently -against it. He issued a proclamation against trading in an -article which was corrupting to mind and body. He taxed it -heavily when he could not exclude it. The Pope excommunicated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -all who smoked in churches. But, in defiance of law and -reason, the demand for tobacco continued to increase.</p> - -<p>The Virginians found their most profitable occupation in -supplying this demand. So eager were they, that tobacco was -grown in the squares and streets of Jamestown. In the absence -of money tobacco became the Virginian currency. Accounts -were kept in tobacco. The salaries of members of Assembly, -the stipends of clergymen, were paid in tobacco; offences were -punished by fines expressed in tobacco. Absence from church -cost the delinquent fifty pounds; refusing to have his child -baptized, two thousand pounds; entertaining a Quaker, five -thousand pounds. When the stock of tobacco was unduly large, -the currency was debased, and much inconvenience resulted. -The Virginians corrected this evil in their monetary system by -compelling every planter to burn a certain proportion of his -stock.</p> - -<p>Within a few years of the settlement the Virginians had a -written Constitution, according to which they were ruled. They -had a Parliament chosen by the burghs, and a Governor sent -them from England. The Episcopal Church was established -among them, and the colony divided into parishes. A college -was erected for the use not only of the English, but also of the -most promising young Indians. But they never became an -educated people. The population was widely scattered, so that -schools were almost impossible. In respect of education, Virginia -fell far behind her sisters in the North.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">NEW ENGLAND.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">A little more than two centuries ago New England -was one vast forest. Here and there a little space -was cleared, a little corn was raised; a few Indian -families made their temporary abode. The savage -occupants of the land spent their profitless lives to no better -purpose than in hunting and fighting. The rivers which now -give life to so much cheerful industry flowed uselessly to the -sea. Providence had prepared a home which a great people -might fitly inhabit. Let us see whence and how the men were -brought who were the destined possessors of its opulence.</p> - -<p>The Reformation had taught that every man is entitled to -read his Bible for himself, and guide his life by the light he -obtains from it. But the lesson was too high to be soon learned. -Protestant princes no more than Popish could permit their subjects -to think for themselves. James I. had just ascended the -English throne. His were the head of a fool and the heart of -a tyrant. He would allow no man to separate himself from -the Established Church. He would “harry out of the land” -all who attempted such a thing; and he was as good as his -word. Men would separate from the Church, and the King -stretched out his pitiless hand to crush them.</p> - -<p>On the northern border of Nottinghamshire stands the little -town of Scrooby. Here there were some grave and well-reputed -persons, to whom the idle ceremonies of the Established Church<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -were an offence. They met in secret at the house of one of -their number, a gentleman named Brewster. They were ministered -to in all scriptural simplicity by the pastor of their choice—Mr. -Robinson, a wise and good man. But their secret meetings -were betrayed to the authorities, and their lives were made -bitter by the persecutions that fell upon them. They resolved -to leave their own land and seek among strangers that freedom -which was denied them at home.</p> - -<p>They embarked with all their goods for Holland. But when -the ship was about to sail, soldiers came upon them, plundered -them, and drove them on shore. They were marched to the -public square of Boston, and there the Fathers of New England -endured such indignities as an unbelieving rabble could inflict. -After some weeks in prison they were suffered to return home.</p> - -<p>Next spring they tried again to escape. This time a good -many were on board, and the others were waiting for the return -of the boat which would carry them to the ship. Suddenly -dragoons were seen spurring across the sands. The shipmaster -pulled up his anchor and pushed out to sea with those of his -passengers whom he had. The rest were conducted to prison. -After a time they were set at liberty, and in little groups they -made their way to Holland. Mr. Robinson and his congregation -were reunited, and the first stage of the weary pilgrimage -from the Old England to the New was at length accomplished.</p> - -<p>Eleven quiet and not unprosperous years were spent in -Holland. The Pilgrims worked with patient industry -at their various handicrafts. <span class="sidenote">1609 A.D.</span> They quickly gained the -reputation of doing honestly and effectively whatever -they professed to do, and thus they found abundant employment. -Mr. Brewster established a printing-press, and printed books -about liberty, which, as he had the satisfaction of knowing, -greatly enraged the foolish King James. The little colony -received additions from time to time as oppression in England -became more intolerable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> - -<p>The instinct of separation was strong within the Pilgrim -heart. They could not bear the thought that their little colony -was to mingle with the Dutchmen and lose its independent -existence. But already their sons and daughters were forming -alliances which threatened this result. The Fathers considered -long and anxiously how the danger was to be averted. They -determined again to go on pilgrimage. They would seek a -home beyond the Atlantic, where they could dwell apart and -found a State in which they should be free to think.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1620 A.D.</span> On a sunny morning in July the Pilgrims kneel upon the -sea-shore at Delfthaven, while the pastor prays for the -success of their journey. Out upon the gleaming sea a -little ship lies waiting. Money has not been found to -transplant the whole colony, and only a hundred have been -sent. The remainder will follow when they can. These hundred -depart amid tears and prayers and fond farewells. Mr. -Robinson dismissed them with counsels which breathed a pure -and high-toned wisdom. He urged them to keep their minds -ever open for the reception of new truths. “The Lord,” he -said, “has more truth to break forth out of his holy Word. I -cannot sufficiently bewail the condition of the Reformed -Churches, who are come to a period in religion, and will go at -present no further than the instruments of their reformation. -Luther and Calvin were great and shining lights in their times, -yet they penetrated not into the whole counsel of God, but, -were they now living, would be as willing to embrace further -light as that which they first received. I beseech you, remember -that you be ready to receive whatever truth shall be made -known to you from the written Word of God.”</p> - -<p>Sixty-eight years later, another famous departure from the -coast of Holland took place. It was that of William, Prince of -Orange, coming to deliver England from tyranny, and give a -new course to English history. A powerful fleet and army -sailed with the prince. The chief men of the country accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -him to his ships. Public prayers for his safety were -offered up in all the churches. Insignificant beside this seems -at first sight the unregarded departure of a hundred working-men -and women. It was in truth, however, not less, but even -more memorable. For these poor people went forth to found a -great empire, destined to leave as deep and as enduring a mark -upon the world’s history as Rome or even as England has -done.</p> - -<p>The <i>Mayflower</i>, in which the Pilgrims made their voyage, -was a ship of one hundred and sixty tons. The weather proved -stormy and cold; the voyage unexpectedly long. It was early -in September when they sailed; it was not till the 11th November -that the <i>Mayflower</i> dropped her anchor in the waters of -Cape Cod Bay.</p> - -<p>It was a bleak-looking and discouraging coast which lay before -them. Nothing met the eye but low sand-hills, covered -with ill-grown wood down to the margin of the sea. The Pilgrims -had now to choose a place for their settlement. About -this they hesitated so long that the captain threatened to put -them all on shore and leave them. Little expeditions were -sent to explore. At first no suitable locality could be found. -The men had great hardships to endure. The cold was so excessive -that the spray froze upon their clothes, and they resembled -men cased in armour. At length a spot was fixed upon. -The soil appeared to be good, and abounded in “delicate -springs” of water. On the 23rd December the Pilgrims landed, -stepping ashore upon a huge boulder of granite, which is still -reverently preserved by their descendants. Here they resolved -to found their settlement, which they agreed to call New Plymouth.</p> - -<p>The winter was severe, and the infant colony was brought -very near to extinction. They had been badly fed on board -the <i>Mayflower</i>, and for some time after going on shore there -was very imperfect shelter from the weather. Sickness fell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -heavily on the worn-out Pilgrims. Every second day a grave -had to be dug in the frozen ground. By the time spring came -in there were only fifty survivors, and these sadly enfeebled -and dispirited.</p> - -<p>But all through this dismal winter the Pilgrims laboured at -their heavy task. The care of the sick, the burying of the -dead, sadly hindered their work; but the building of their little -town went on. They found that nineteen houses would contain -their diminished numbers. These they built. Then they surrounded -them with a palisade. Upon an eminence beside their -town they erected a structure which served a double purpose. -Above, it was a fort, on which they mounted six cannon; below, -it was their church. Hitherto the Indians had been a -cause of anxiety, but had done them no harm. Now they felt -safe. Indeed there had never been much risk. A recent -epidemic had swept off nine-tenths of the Indians who inhabited -that region, and the discouraged survivors could ill afford to -incur the hostility of their formidable visitors.</p> - -<p>The Pilgrims had been careful to provide for themselves a -government. They had drawn up and signed, in the cabin of -the <i>Mayflower</i>, a document forming themselves into a body -politic, and promising obedience to all laws framed for the -general good. Under this constitution they appointed John -Carver to be their governor. They dutifully acknowledged -King James, but they left no very large place for his authority. -They were essentially a self-governing people. They knew -what despotism was, and they were very sure that democracy -could by no possibility be so bad.</p> - -<p>The welcome spring came at length, and “the birds sang in -the woods most pleasantly.” The health of the colony began -somewhat to improve, but there was still much suffering to -endure. The summer passed not unprosperously. They had -taken possession of the deserted clearings of the Indians, and -had no difficulty in providing themselves with food. But in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -the autumn came a ship with a new company of Pilgrims. -This was very encouraging; but unhappily the ship brought no -provisions, and the supplies of the colonists were not sufficient -for this unexpected addition. For six months there was only -half allowance to each. Such straits recurred frequently during -the first two or three years. Often the colonists knew not at -night “where to have a bit in the morning.” Once or twice -the opportune arrival of a ship saved them from famishing. -They suffered much, but their cheerful trust in Providence and -in their own final triumph never wavered. They faced the difficulties -of their position with undaunted hearts. Slowly but -surely the little colony struck its roots and began to grow.</p> - -<p class="tb">The years which followed the coming of the Pilgrims were -years through which good men in England found it bitter to -live. Charles I. was upon the throne; Laud was Archbishop -of Canterbury. Bigotry as blind and almost as cruel as England -had ever seen thus sat in her high places. Dissent -from the Popish usages, which prevailed more and more in the -Church, was at the peril of life. A change was near. John -Hampden was farming his lands in Buckinghamshire. A -greater than he—his cousin, Oliver Cromwell—was leading his -quiet rural life at Huntingdon, not without many anxious and -indignant thoughts about the evils of his time. John Milton -was peacefully writing his minor poems, and filling his mind -with the learning of the ancients. The Men had come, and the -Hour was at hand. But as yet King Charles and Archbishop -Laud had it all their own way. They fined and imprisoned -every man who ventured to think otherwise than they wished -him to think: they slit his nose, they cut off his ears, they gave -him weary hours in the pillory. They ordered that men should -not leave the kingdom without the King’s permission. Eight -ships lay in the Thames, with their passengers on board, when -that order was given forth. The soldiers cleared the ships, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -the poor emigrants were driven back, in poverty and despair, -to endure the misery from which they were so eager to -escape.</p> - -<p>New England was the refuge to which the wearied victims -of this senseless tyranny looked. The Pilgrims wrote to their -friends at home, and every letter was regarded with the interest -due to a “sacred script.” They had hardships to tell of at -first; then they had prosperity and comfort; always they had -liberty. New England seemed a paradise to men who were -denied permission to worship God according to the manner -which they deemed right. Every summer a few ships were -freighted for the settlements. Many of the silenced ministers -came. Many of their congregations came, glad to be free, at -whatever sacrifice, from the tyranny which disgraced their -native land. The region around New Plymouth became too -narrow for the population. From time to time a little party -would go forth, with a minister at its head. With wives and -children and baggage they crept slowly through the swampy -forest. By a week or two of tedious journeying they reached -some point which pleased their fancy, or to which they judged -that Providence had sent them. There they built their little -town, with its wooden huts, its palisade, its fort, on which one -or two guns were ultimately mounted. Thus were founded -many of the cities of New England.</p> - -<p>For some years the difficulties which the colonists encountered -were almost overwhelming. There seemed at times even to be -danger that death by starvation would end the whole enterprise. -But they were a stout-hearted, patient, industrious -people, and labour gradually brought comfort. The virgin soil -began to yield them abundant harvests. They fished with such -success that they manured their fields with the harvest of the -sea. They spun and they weaved. They felled the timber of -their boundless forests. They built ships, and sent away to -foreign countries the timber, the fish, the furs which were not required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -at home. <span class="sidenote">1643 A.D.</span> Ere many years a ship built in Massachusetts -sailed for London, followed by “many prayers of the -churches.” Their infant commerce was not without its -troubles. They had little or no coin, and Indian corn -was made a legal tender. Bullets were legalized in room of -the farthings which, with their other coins, had vanished to pay -for foreign goods. But no difficulty could long resist their -steady, undismayed labour.</p> - -<p>They were a noble people who had thus begun to strike -their roots in the great forests of New England. Their peculiarities -may indeed amuse us. The Old Testament was their -statute-book, and they deemed that the institutions of Moses -were the best model for those of New England. They made -attendance on public worship compulsory. They christened -their children by Old Testament names. They regulated female -attire by law. They considered long hair unscriptural, and -preached against veils and wigs.</p> - -<p>The least wise among us can smile at the mistakes into which -the Puritan Fathers of New England fell. But the most wise -of all ages will most profoundly reverence the purity, the -earnestness, the marvellous enlightenment of these men. From -their incessant study of the Bible they drew a love of human -liberty unsurpassed in depth and fervour. Coming from under -despotic rule, they established at once a government absolutely -free. They felt—what Europe has not even yet fully apprehended—that -the citizens of a State should be able to guide the -affairs of that State without helpless dependence upon a few -great families; that the members of a Church ought to guide -the affairs of that Church, waiting for the sanction of no patron, -however noble and good. It was one of their fundamental laws -that all strangers professing the Christian religion and driven -from their homes by persecutors, should be succoured at the -public charge. The education of children was almost their -earliest care. The Pilgrims bore with them across the sea a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -deep persuasion that their infant State could not thrive without -education. Three years after the landing, it was reported of -them among the friends they had left in London, that “their -children were not catechised, nor taught to read.” The colonists -felt keenly this reproach. They utterly denied its justice. They -owned, indeed, that they had not yet attained to a school, much -as they desired it. But all parents did their best, each in the -education of his own children. In a very few years schools -began to appear. Such endowment as could be afforded was -freely given. Some tolerably qualified brother was fixed upon, -and “entreated to become schoolmaster.” And thus gradually -the foundations were laid of the noble school system of New -England. Soon a law was passed that every town containing -fifty householders must have a common school; every town of -a hundred householders must have a grammar school. Harvard -College was established within fifteen years of the landing.</p> - -<p>The founders of New England were men who had known at -home the value of letters. Brewster carried with him a library -of two hundred and seventy-five volumes, and his was not the -largest collection in the colony. The love of knowledge was -deep and universal. New England has never swerved from her -early loyalty to the cause of education.</p> - -<p>Every colonist was necessarily a soldier. The State provided -him with arms, if poor; required him to provide himself, if rich. -His weapons were sword, pike, and matchlock, with a forked -stick on which to rest his artillery in taking aim. The people -were carefully trained to the use of arms. In the devout spirit -of the time, their drills were frequently opened and closed with -prayer.</p> - -<p>Twenty-three years after the landing of the Pilgrims the -population of New England had grown to twenty-four thousand. -Forty-nine little wooden towns, with their wooden churches, -wooden forts, and wooden ramparts, were dotted here and there -over the land. There were four separate colonies, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -hitherto had maintained separate governments. They were -Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven. There -appeared at first a disposition in the Pilgrim mind to scatter -widely, and remain apart in small self-governing communities. -For some years every little band which pushed deeper into the -wilderness settled itself into an independent State, having no -political relations with its neighbours. But this isolation could -not continue. The wilderness had other inhabitants, whose -presence was a standing menace. Within “striking distance” -there were Indians enough to trample out the solitary little -English communities. On their frontiers were Frenchmen and -Dutchmen—natural enemies, as all men in that time were to -each other. <span class="sidenote">1643 A.D.</span> For mutual defence and encouragement, the -four colonies joined themselves into the United Colonies -of New England. This was the first confederation in a -land where confederations of unprecedented magnitude were -hereafter to be established.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE NEW ENGLAND PERSECUTIONS.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Puritans left their native England and came to -the “outside of the world,” as they called it, that -they might enjoy liberty to worship God according -to the way which they deemed right. They had -discovered that they themselves were entitled to toleration. -They felt that the restraints laid upon themselves were very -unjust and very grievous. But their light as yet led them no -further. They had not discovered that people who differed -from them were as well entitled to be tolerated as they themselves -were. We have no right to blame them for their backwardness. -Simple as it seems, men have not all found out, even -yet, that every one of them is fully entitled to think for himself.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1631 A.D.</span> And thus it happened that, before the Pilgrims had enjoyed -for many years the cheerful liberty of their new home, -doctrines raised their heads among them which they -felt themselves bound to suppress. One February day -there stepped ashore at Boston a young man upon whose -coming great issues depended. His name was Roger Williams. -He was a clergyman—“godly and zealous”—a man of rare -virtue and power. Cromwell admitted him, in later years, to a -considerable measure of intimacy. He was the friend of John -Milton—in the bright days of the poet’s youth, ere yet “the -ever-during dark” surrounded him. From him Milton acquired -his knowledge of the Dutch language. He carried with him to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -the New World certain strange opinions. Long thought had -satisfied him that in regard to religious belief and worship man -is responsible to God alone. No man, said Williams, is entitled -to lay compulsion upon another man in regard to religion. The -civil power has to do only with the “bodies and goods and outward -estates” of men; in the domain of conscience God is the -only ruler. New England was not able to receive these sentiments. -Williams became minister at Salem, where he was held -in high account. In time his opinions drew down upon him -the unfavourable notice of the authorities. The General Court -of Massachusetts brought him to trial for the errors of his -belief. His townsmen and congregation deserted him. His -wife reproached him bitterly with the evil he was bringing -upon his family. Mr. Williams could do no otherwise. He -must testify with his latest breath, if need be, against the -“soul oppression” which he saw around him. The court heard -him, discovered error in his opinions, declared him guilty, and -pronounced upon him sentence of banishment.</p> - -<p>All honour to this good and brave, if somewhat eccentric -man. He of all the men of his time saw most clearly the beauty -of absolute freedom in matters of conscience. He went forth -from Salem. He obtained a grant of land from the Indians, -and he founded the State of Rhode Island. Landing one day -from a boat in which he explored his new possessions, he climbed -a gentle slope, and rested with his companions beside a spring. -It seemed to him that the capital of his infant State ought to be -here. He laid the foundations of his city, which he named -Providence, in grateful recognition of the Power which had -guided his uncertain steps. His settlement was to be “a shelter -for persons distressed for conscience.” Most notably has it been -so. Alone of all the States of Christendom, Rhode Island has -no taint of persecution in her statute-book or in her history. -Massachusetts continued to drive out her heretics; Rhode -Island took them in. They might err in their interpretation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -Scripture. Pity for themselves if they did so. But while they -obeyed the laws, they might interpret Scripture according to the -light they had. Many years after, Mr. Williams became -President of the colony which he had founded. The neighbouring -States were at that time sharply chastising the Quakers -with lash and branding-iron and gibbet. Rhode Island was -invited to join in the persecution. Mr. Williams replied that -he had no law whereby to punish any for their belief “as to -salvation and an eternal condition.” He abhorred the doctrines -of the Quakers. In his seventy-third year he rowed thirty -miles in an open boat to wage a public debate with some of the -advocates of the system. Thus and thus only could he resist -the progress of opinions which he deemed pernicious. In beautiful -consistency and completeness stands out to the latest hour -of his long life this good man’s loyalty to the absolute liberty of -the human conscience.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1651 A.D.</span> And thus, too, it happened that when seven or eight men -began to deny that infants should be baptized, New -England never doubted that she did right in forcibly -trampling out their heresy. The heretics had started a -meeting of their own, where they might worship God apart -from those who baptized their infants. One Sabbath morning -the constable invaded their worship and forcibly bore them -away to church. Their deportment there was not unsuitable to -the manner of their inbringing. They audaciously clapped on -their hats while the minister prayed, and made no secret that -they deemed it sin to join in the services of those who practised -infant baptism. For this “separation of themselves from God’s -people” they were put on trial. They were fined, and some of -the more obdurate among them were ordered to be “well -whipped.” We have no reason to doubt that this order was -executed in spirit as well as in letter. And then a law went -forth that every man who openly condemned the baptizing of -infants should suffer banishment. Thus resolute were the good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -men of New England that the right which they had come so far -to enjoy should not be enjoyed by any one who saw a different -meaning from theirs in any portion of the Divine Word.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1656 A.D.</span> Thus, too, when Massachusetts had reason to apprehend the -coming of certain followers of the Quaker persuasion, -she was smitten with a great fear. A fast-day was -proclaimed, that the alarmed people might “seek the -face of God in reference to the abounding of errors, especially -those of the Ranters and Quakers.” As they fasted, a ship was -nearing their shores with certain Quaker women on board. -These unwelcome visitors were promptly seized and lodged in -prison; their books were burned by the hangman; they themselves -were sent away home by the ships which brought them. -All ship-masters were strictly forbidden to bring Quakers to the -colony. A poor woman, the wife of a London tailor, left her -husband and her children, to bring, as she said, a message from -the Lord to New England. Her trouble was but poorly bestowed; -for they to whom her message came requited her with -twenty stripes and instant banishment. The banished Quakers -took the earliest opportunity of finding their way back. Laws -were passed dooming to death all who ventured to return. A -poor fanatic was following his plough in distant Yorkshire, -when the word of the Lord came to him saying, “Go to -Boston.” He went, and the ungrateful men of Boston hanged -him. Four persons in all suffered death. Many were whipped; -some had their ears cut off. <span class="sidenote">1661 A.D.</span> But public opinion, which has -always been singularly humane in America, began to -condemn these foolish cruelties. And the Quakers had -friends at home—friends who had access at Court. -There came a letter in the King’s name directing that the -authorities of New England should “forbear to proceed further -against the Quakers.” That letter came by the hands of a -Quaker who was under sentence of death if he dared to return. -The authorities could not but receive it—could not but give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -effect to it. The persecution ceased; and with it may be said -to close, in America, all forcible interference with the right of -men to think for themselves.</p> - -<p>The Quakers, as they are known to us, are of all sects the -least offensive. A persecution of this serene, thoughtful, self-restrained -people, may well surprise us. But, in justice to New -England, it must be told that the first generation of Quakers -differed extremely from succeeding generations. They were a -fanatical people—extravagant, disorderly, rejecters of lawful -authority. A people more intractable, more unendurable by -any government, never lived. They were guided by an “inner -light,” which habitually placed them at variance with the laws -of the country in which they lived, as well as with the most -harmless social usages. George Fox declared that “the Lord -forbade him to put off his hat to any man.” His followers were -inconveniently and provokingly aggressive. They invaded -public worship. They openly expressed their contempt for the -religion of their neighbours. They perpetually came with -“messages from the Lord,” which it was not pleasant to listen -to. They appeared in public places very imperfectly attired, -thus symbolically to express and to rebuke the spiritual nakedness -of the time. After a little, when their zeal allied itself -with discretion, they became a most valuable element in -American society. But we can scarcely wonder that they -created alarm at first. The men of New England took a very -simple view of the subject. They had bought and paid for -every acre of soil which they occupied. Their country was a -homestead from which they might exclude whom they chose. -They would not receive men whose object was to overthrow all -their institutions, civil and religious. It was a mistake, but a -most natural mistake. Long afterwards, when New England -saw her error, she nobly made what amends she could, by giving -compensation to the representatives of those Quakers who had -suffered in the evil times.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When the Pilgrims left their native land, the belief -in witchcraft was universal. England, in much -fear, busied herself with the slaughter of friendless -old women who were suspected of an alliance with -Satan. King James had published his book on Demonology a -few years before, in which he maintained that to forbear from -putting witches to death was an “odious treason against God.” -England was no wiser than her King. All during James’s life, -and long after he had ceased from invading the kingdom of -Satan, the yearly average of executions for witchcraft was -somewhere about five hundred.</p> - -<p>The Pilgrims carried with them across the Atlantic the -universal delusion, which their way of life was fitted to -strengthen. They lived on the verge of vast and gloomy -forests. The howl of the wolf and the scream of the panther -sounded nightly around their cabins. Treacherous savages -lurked in the woods watching the time to plunder and to -slay. Every circumstance was fitted to increase the susceptibility -of the mind to gloomy and superstitious impressions. -But for the first quarter of a century, while every ship brought -news of witch-killing at home, no Satanic outbreak disturbed -the settlers. The sense of brotherhood was yet too -strong among them. Men who have braved great dangers -and endured great hardships together, do not readily come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -to look upon each other as the allies and agents of the Evil -One.</p> - -<p>In 1645 four persons were put to death for witchcraft. -During the next half century there occur at intervals solitary -cases, when some unhappy wretch falls a victim to the lurking -superstition. It was in 1692 that witch-slaying burst forth in -its epidemic form, and with a fury which has seldom been -witnessed elsewhere.</p> - -<p>In the State of Massachusetts there is a little town, then -called Salem, sitting pleasantly in a plain between two rivers; -and in the town of Salem there dwelt at that time a minister -whose name was Paris. In the month of February the daughter -and niece of Mr. Paris became ill. It was a dark time for -Massachusetts; for the colony was at war with the French -and Indians, and was suffering cruelly from their ravages. -The doctors sat in solemn conclave on the afflicted girls, and -pronounced them bewitched. Mr. Paris, not doubting that it -was even so, bestirred himself to find the offenders. Suspicion -fell upon three old women, who were at once seized. And then, -with marvellous rapidity, the mania spread. The rage and fear -of the distracted community swelled high. Every one suspected -his neighbour. Children accused their parents; parents accused -their children. The prisons could scarcely contain the -suspected. The town of Falmouth hanged its minister, a man -of intelligence and worth. Some near relations of the Governor -were denounced. Even the beasts were not safe. A dog was -solemnly put to death for the part he had taken in some -satanic festivity.</p> - -<p>For more than twelve months this mad panic raged in the -New England States. It is just to say that the hideous cruelties -which were practised in Europe were not resorted to in the -prosecution of American witches. Torture was not inflicted to -wring confession from the victim. The American test was -more humane, and not more foolish, than the European. Those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -suspected persons who denied their guilt, were judged guilty -and hanged; those who confessed were, for the most part, set -free. Many hundreds of innocent persons, who scorned to -purchase life by falsehood, perished miserably under the fury -of an excited people.</p> - -<p>The fire had been kindled in a moment; it was extinguished -as suddenly. The Governor of Massachusetts only gave effect -to the reaction which had occurred in the public mind, when he -abruptly stopped all prosecutions against witches, dismissed all -the suspected, pardoned all the condemned. The House of -Assembly proclaimed a fast—entreating that God would pardon -the errors of his people “in a late tragedy raised by Satan and -his instruments.” One of the judges stood up in church in -Boston, with bowed down head and sorrowful countenance, -while a paper was read, in which he begged the prayers of the -congregation, that the innocent blood which he had erringly -shed might not be visited on the country or on him. The -Salem jury asked forgiveness of God and the community for -what they had done under the power of “a strong and general -delusion.” Poor Mr. Paris was now at a sad discount. He -made public acknowledgment of his error. But at his door -lay the origin of all this slaughter of the unoffending. His part -in the tragedy could not be forgiven. The people would no -longer endure his ministry, and demanded his removal. Mr. -Paris resigned his charge, and went forth from Salem a broken -man.</p> - -<p>If the error of New England was great and most lamentable, -her repentance was prompt and deep. Five-and-twenty years -after she had clothed herself in sackcloth, old women were still -burned to death for witchcraft in Great Britain. The year of -blood was never repeated in America.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE INDIANS.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The great continent on which the Pilgrims had landed -was the home of innumerable tribes of Indians. -They had no settled abode. The entire nation -wandered hither and thither as their fancy or their -chances of successful hunting directed. When the wood was -burned down in their neighbourhood, or the game became -scarce, they abandoned their villages and moved off to a more -inviting region. They had their great warriors, their great -battles, their brilliant victories, their crushing defeats—all as -uninteresting to mankind as the wars of the kites and crows. -They were a race of tall, powerful men—copper-coloured, with -hazel eye, high cheek-bone, and coarse black hair. In manner -they were grave, and not without a measure of dignity. They -had courage, but it was of that kind which is greater in suffering -than in doing. They were a cunning, treacherous, cruel -race, among whom the slaughter of women and children took -rank as a great feat of arms. They had almost no laws, and -for religious beliefs a few of the most grovelling superstitions. -They worshipped the Devil because he was wicked, and might -do them an injury. Civilization could lay no hold upon them. -They quickly learned to use the white man’s musket; they -never learned to use the tools of the white man’s industry. -They developed a love for intoxicating drink passionate and -irresistible beyond all example. The settlers behaved to them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -as Christian men should. They took no land from them; what -land they required they bought and paid for. Every acre of -New England soil was come by with scrupulous honesty. The -friendship of the Indians was anxiously cultivated—sometimes -from fear, oftener from pity. But nothing could stay their -progress towards extinction. Inordinate drunkenness and the -gradual limitation of their hunting-grounds told fatally on their -numbers. And occasionally the English were forced to march -against some tribe which refused to be at peace, and to inflict a -defeat which left few survivors.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1646 A.D.</span> Early in the history of New England, efforts were made to -win the Indians to the Christian faith. The Governor of -Massachusetts appointed ministers to carry the gospel -to the savages. Mr. John Eliot, the Apostle of the -Indians, was a minister near Boston. Moved by the pitiful -condition of the natives, he acquired the language of some -of the tribes in his neighbourhood. He went and preached -to them in their own tongue. He printed books for them. -The savages received his words. Many of them listened to his -sermons in tears. Many professed faith in Christ, and were -gathered into congregations. He gave them a simple code of -laws. It was even attempted to establish a college for training -native teachers; but this had to be abandoned. The slothfulness -of the Indian youth, and their devouring passion for strong -liquors, unfitted them for the ministry. These vices seemed -incurable in the Indian character. No persuasion could induce -them to labour. They could be taught to rest on the Sabbath; -they could not be taught to work on the other six days. And -even the best of them would sell all they had for spirits. These -were grave hindrances; but, in spite of them, Christianity made -considerable progress among the Indians. The hold which it then -gained was never altogether lost. And it was observed that in all -the misunderstandings which arose between the English and the -natives, the converts steadfastly adhered to their new friends.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">NEW YORK.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-d.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">During the first forty years of its existence, the -great city which we call New York was a Dutch -settlement, known among men as New Amsterdam. -<span class="sidenote">1609 A.D.</span> That region had been discovered for the -Dutch East India Company by Henry Hudson, who was still -in search, as Columbus had been, of a shorter route to -the East. The Dutch have never displayed any aptitude -for colonizing. But they were unsurpassed in mercantile -discernment, and they set up trading stations with much judgment. -Three or four years after the Pilgrims landed at -Plymouth, the Dutch West India Company determined to enter -into trading relations with the Indians along the line of the -Hudson river. They sent out a few families, who planted -themselves at the southern extremity of Manhattan Island. -A wooden fort was built, around which clustered a few wooden -houses—just as in Europe the baron’s castle arose and the huts -of the baron’s dependants sheltered beside it. The Indians sold -valuable furs for scanty payment in blankets, beads, muskets, -and intoxicating drinks. The prudent Dutchmen grew rich, -and were becoming numerous. <span class="sidenote">1643 A.D.</span> But a fierce and prolonged war -with the Indians broke out. The Dutch, having taken -offence at something done by the savages, expressed -their wrath by the massacre of an entire tribe. All the -Indians of that region made common cause against the dangerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -strangers. All the Dutch villages were burned down. -Long Island became a desert. The Dutchmen were driven in -to the southern tip of the island on which New York stands. -They ran a palisade across the island in the line of what is now -Wall Street. To-day, Wall Street is the scene of the largest -monetary transactions ever known among men. The hot fever -of speculation rages there incessantly, with a fury unknown -elsewhere. But then, it was the line within which a disheartened -and diminishing band of colonists strove to maintain -themselves against a savage foe.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1645 A.D.</span> The war came to an end as wars even then required to do. -For twenty years the colony continued to nourish under -the government of a sagacious Dutchman called Petrus -Stuyvesant. Petrus had been a soldier, and had lost a -leg in the wars. He was a brave and true-hearted man, but -withal despotic. When his subjects petitioned for some part -in the making of laws, he was astonished at their boldness. -He took it upon him to inspect the merchants’ books. He -persecuted the Lutherans and “the abominable sect of -Quakers.”</p> - -<p>It cannot be said that his government was faultless. The -colony prospered under it, however, and a continued immigration -from Europe increased its importance. But in the twentieth -year, certain English ships of war sailed up the bay, and, -without a word of explanation, anchored near the settlement. -Governor Petrus was from home, but they sent for him, and he -came with speed. He hastened to the fort and looked out into -the bay. There lay the ships—grim, silent, ominously near. -Appalled by the presence of his unexpected visitors, the -Governor sent to ask wherefore they had come. His alarm was -well founded; for Charles II. of England had presented to his -brother James of York a vast stretch of territory, including the -region which the Dutch had chosen for their settlement. It -was not his to give, but that signified nothing either to Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -or to James. These ships had come to take possession in the -Duke of York’s name. A good many of the colonists were -English, and they were well pleased to be under their own -Government. They would not fight. The Dutch remembered -the Governor’s tyrannies, and they would not fight. Governor -Petrus was prepared to fight single-handed. He had the -twenty guns of the fort loaded, and was resolute to fire upon -the ships. So at least he professed. But the inhabitants begged -him, in mercy to them, to forbear; and he suffered himself to -be led by two clergymen away from the loaded guns. It was -alleged, to his disparagement, afterwards, that he had “allowed -himself to be persuaded by ministers and other chicken-hearted -persons.” Be that as it may, King Charles’s errand was done. -The little town of fifteen hundred inhabitants, with all the -neighbouring settlements, passed quietly under English rule. -And the future Empire City was named New York, in honour -of one of the meanest tyrants who ever disgraced the English -throne. With the settlements on the Hudson there fell also -into the hands of the English those of New Jersey, which the -Dutch had conquered from the Swedes.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">PENNSYLVANIA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">It was not till the year 1682 that the uneventful -but quietly prosperous career of Pennsylvania -began. The Stuarts were again upon the throne -of England. They had learned nothing from -their exile; and now, with the hour of their final rejection at -hand, they were as wickedly despotic as ever.</p> - -<p>William Penn was the son of an admiral who had gained -victories for England, and enjoyed the favour of the royal -family as well as of the eminent statesmen of his time. The -highest honours of the State would in due time have come -within the young man’s reach, and the brightest hopes of his -future were reasonably entertained by his friends. To the -dismay of all, Penn became a Quaker. It was an unspeakable -humiliation to the well-connected admiral. He turned his son -out of doors, trusting that hunger would subdue his intractable -spirit. After a time, however, he relented, and the youthful -heretic was restored to favour. His father’s influence could not -shield him from persecution. Penn had suffered fine, and had -lain in the Tower for his opinions.</p> - -<p>Ere long the admiral died, and Penn succeeded to his -possessions. It deeply grieved him that his brethren in the -faith should endure such wrongs as were continually inflicted -upon them. He could do nothing at home to mitigate the -severities under which they groaned, therefore he formed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -great design of leading them forth to a new world. King -Charles owed to the admiral a sum of £16,000, and this doubtful -investment had descended from the father to the son. Penn -offered to take payment in land, and the King readily bestowed -upon him a vast region stretching westward from the river -Delaware. Here Penn proposed to found a State free and self-governing. -It was his noble ambition “to show men as free and -as happy as they can be.” He proclaimed to the people already -settled in his new dominions that they should be governed by -laws of their own making. “Whatever sober and free men -can reasonably desire,” he told them, “for the security and -improvement of their own happiness, I shall heartily comply -with.” He was as good as his word. The people appointed -representatives, by whom a Constitution was framed. Penn -confirmed the arrangements which the people chose to adopt.</p> - -<p>Penn dealt justly and kindly with the Indians, and they -requited him with a reverential love such as they evinced to no -other Englishman. The neighbouring colonies waged bloody -wars with the Indians who lived around them—now inflicting -defeats which were almost exterminating—now sustaining -hideous massacres. Penn’s Indians were his children and most -loyal subjects. No drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by -Indian hand in the Pennsylvanian territory. Soon after Penn’s -arrival he invited the chief men of the Indian tribes to a conference. -The meeting took place beneath a huge elm-tree. The -pathless forest has long given way to the houses and streets of -Philadelphia, but a marble monument points out to strangers -the scene of this memorable interview. Penn, with a few companions, -unarmed, and dressed according to the simple fashion -of their sect, met the crowd of formidable savages. They met, -he assured them, as brothers “on the broad pathway of good -faith and good will.” No advantage was to be taken on -either side. All was to be “openness and love;” and Penn -meant what he said. Strong in the power of truth and kindness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -he bent the fierce savages of the Delaware to his will. -They vowed “to live in love with William Penn and his -children as long as the moon and the sun shall endure.” They -kept their vow. Long years after, they were known to recount -to strangers, with deep emotion, the words which Penn had -spoken to them under the old elm-tree of Shakamaxon.</p> - -<p>The fame of Penn’s settlement went abroad in all lands. -Men wearied with the vulgar tyranny of Kings heard gladly -that the reign of freedom and tranquillity was established on the -banks of the Delaware. An asylum was opened “for the good -and oppressed of every nation.” Of these there was no lack. -Pennsylvania had nothing to attract such “dissolute persons” -as had laid the foundations of Virginia. But grave and God-fearing -men from all the Protestant countries sought a home -where they might live as conscience taught them. The new -colony grew apace. Its natural advantages were tempting. -Penn reported it as “a good land, with plentiful springs, the -air clear and fresh, and an innumerable quantity of wild-fowl -and fish; what Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob would be well-contented -with.” During the first year, twenty-two vessels arrived, -bringing two thousand persons. In three years, Philadelphia -was a town of six hundred houses. It was half a century from -its foundation before New York attained equal dimensions.</p> - -<p>When Penn, after a few years, revisited England, he was able -truly to relate that “things went on sweetly with Friends in -Pennsylvania; that they increased finely in outward things and -in wisdom.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">GEORGIA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The thirteen States which composed the original -Union were, Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, -Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Delaware, -Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, -North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1732 A.D.</span> Of these the latest born was Georgia. Only fifty years had -passed since Penn established the Quaker State on the -banks of the Delaware. But changes greater than -centuries have sometimes wrought had taken place. -The Revolution had vindicated the liberties of the British -people. The tyrant house of Stuart had been cast out, and -with its fall the era of despotic government had closed. The -real governing power was no longer the King, but the Parliament.</p> - -<p>Among the members of Parliament during the rule of Sir -Robert Walpole was one almost unknown to us now, but deserving -of honour beyond most men of his time. His name was -James Oglethorpe. He was a soldier, and had fought against -the Turks and in the great Marlborough wars against Louis -XIV. In advanced life he became the friend of Samuel -Johnson. Dr. Johnson urged him to write some account of -his adventures. “I know no one,” he said, “whose life would -be more interesting: if I were furnished with materials I should -be very glad to write it.” Edmund Burke considered him “a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -more extraordinary person than any he had ever read of.” -John Wesley “blessed God that ever he was born.” Oglethorpe -attained the great age of ninety-six, and died in the year 1785. -The year before his death he attended the sale of Dr. Johnson’s -books, and was there met by Samuel Rogers the poet. “Even -then,” says Rogers, “he was the finest figure of a man you ever -saw; but very, very old—the flesh of his face like parchment.”</p> - -<p>In Oglethorpe’s time it was in the power of a creditor to imprison, -according to his pleasure, the man who owed him money -and was not able to pay it. It was a common circumstance that -a man should be imprisoned during a long series of years for a -trifling debt. Oglethorpe had a friend upon whom this hard -fate had fallen. His attention was thus painfully called to the -cruelties which were inflicted upon the unfortunate and helpless. -He appealed to Parliament, and after inquiry a partial remedy -was obtained. The benevolent exertions of Oglethorpe procured -liberty for multitudes who but for him might have ended -their lives in captivity.</p> - -<p>This, however, did not content him. Liberty was an incomplete -gift to men who had lost, or perhaps had scarcely ever -possessed, the faculty of earning their own maintenance. Oglethorpe -devised how he might carry these unfortunates to a new -world, where, under happier auspices, they might open a fresh -career. <span class="sidenote">1732 A.D.</span> He obtained from King George II. a charter by -which the country between the Savannah and the -Alatamaha, and stretching westward to the Pacific, was -erected into the province of Georgia. It was to be a refuge -for the deserving poor, and next to them for Protestants suffering -persecution. Parliament voted £10,000 in aid of the -humane enterprise, and many benevolent persons were liberal -with their gifts. In November the first exodus of the insolvent -took place. Oglethorpe sailed with one hundred and twenty -emigrants, mainly selected from the prisons—penniless, but of -good repute. He surveyed the coasts of Georgia, and chose a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -site for the capital of his new State. He pitched his tent where -Savannah now stands, and at once proceeded to mark out the -line of streets and squares.</p> - -<p>Next year the colony was joined by about a hundred German -Protestants, who were then under persecution for their beliefs. -The colonists received this addition to their numbers with joy. -A place of residence had been chosen for them which the devout -and thankful strangers named Ebenezer. They were charmed -with their new abode. The river and the hills, they said, reminded -them of home. They applied themselves with steady -industry to the cultivation of indigo and silk; and they prospered.</p> - -<p>The fame of Oglethorpe’s enterprise spread over Europe. All -struggling men against whom the battle of life went hard looked -to Georgia as a land of promise. They were the men who -most urgently required to emigrate; but they were not always -the men best fitted to conquer the difficulties of the immigrant’s -life. The progress of the colony was slow. The poor persons -of whom it was originally composed were honest but ineffective, -and could not in Georgia more than in England find out the -way to become self-supporting. Encouragements were given -which drew from Germany, from Switzerland, and from the -Highlands of Scotland, men of firmer texture of mind—better -fitted to subdue the wilderness and bring forth its treasures.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1736 A.D.</span> With Oglethorpe there went out, on his second expedition -to Georgia, the two brothers John and Charles Wesley. -Charles went as secretary to the Governor. John was -even then, although a very young man, a preacher of -unusual promise. He burned to spread the gospel among the -settlers and their Indian neighbours. He spent two years in -Georgia, and these were unsuccessful years. His character was -unformed; his zeal out of proportion to his discretion. The -people felt that he preached “personal satires” at them. He -involved himself in quarrels, and at last had to leave the colony<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -secretly, fearing arrest at the instance of some whom he had -offended. He returned to begin his great career in England, -with the feeling that his residence in Georgia had been of much -value to himself, but of very little to the people whom he sought -to benefit.</p> - -<p>Just as Wesley reached England, his fellow-labourer George -Whitefield sailed for Georgia. There were now little settlements -spreading inland, and Whitefield visited these, bearing to them -the word of life. He founded an Orphan-House at Savannah, -and supported it by contributions—obtained easily from men -under the power of his unequalled eloquence. He visited -Georgia very frequently, and his love for that colony remained -with him to the last.</p> - -<p>Slavery was, at the outset, forbidden in Georgia. It was opposed -to the gospel, Oglethorpe said, and therefore not to be -allowed. He foresaw, besides, what has been so bitterly experienced -since, that slavery must degrade the poor white labourer. -But soon a desire sprung up among the less scrupulous of the -settlers to have the use of slaves. Within seven years from -the first landing, slave-ships were discharging their cargoes at -Savannah.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SLAVERY.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In the month of December 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers -landed from the <i>Mayflower</i>. Their landing takes -rank among our great historical transactions. The -rock which first received their footsteps is a sacred -spot, to which the citizens of great and powerful States make -reverential pilgrimages. And right it should be so; for the -vast influence for good which New England exerts, and must -ever exert, in the world’s affairs, has risen upon the foundation -laid by these sickly and storm-wearied Pilgrims.</p> - -<p>A few months previously another landing had taken place, -destined in the fulness of time to bear the strangest of fruits. In -the month of August a Dutch ship of war sailed up the James -river and put twenty negroes ashore upon the Virginian coast. -It was a wholly unnoticed proceeding. No name or lineage had -these sable strangers. No one cared to know from what tribe they -sprang, or how it fared with them in their sorrowful journeying. -Yet these men were Pilgrim Fathers too. They were the first -negro slaves in a land whose history, during the next century -and a half, was to receive a dark, and finally a bloody, colouring -from the fact of Negro Slavery.</p> - -<p class="tb">The negro slave trade was an early result of the discovery of -America. To utilize the vast possessions which Columbus had -bestowed upon her, Spain deemed that compulsory labour was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -indispensable. The natives of the country naturally fell the -first victims to this necessity. Terrible desolations were wrought -among the poor Indians. Proud and melancholy, they could not -be reconciled to their bondage. They perished by thousands -under the merciless hand of their new task-masters.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1542 A.D.</span> Charles V. heard with remorse of this ruin of the native -races. Indian slavery was at once and peremptorily -forbidden. But labourers must be obtained, or those -splendid possessions would relapse into wilderness. -Spanish merchants traded to the coasts of Africa, where they -bought gold dust and ivory for beads and ribands and scarlet -cloaks. They found there a harmless idle people, whose simple -wants were supplied without effort on their part; and who, -in the absence of inducement, neither laboured nor fought. -The Spaniards bethought them of these men to cultivate their -fields, to labour in their mines. They were gentle and tractable; -they were heathens, and therefore the proper inheritance -of good Catholics; by baptism and instruction in the faith their -souls would be saved from destruction. Motives of the most -diverse kinds urged the introduction of the negro. At first the -traffic extended no further than to criminals. Thieves and -murderers, who must otherwise have been put to death, enriched -their chiefs by the purchase-money which the Spaniards were -eager to pay. But on all that coast no rigour of law could -produce offenders in numbers sufficient to meet the demand. -Soon the limitation ceased. Unoffending persons were systematically -kidnapped and sold. The tribes went to war in the -hope of taking prisoners whom they might dispose of to the -Spaniards.</p> - -<p>England was not engaged in that traffic at its outset. Ere -long her hands were as deeply tainted with its guilt as those of -any other country. But for a time her intercourse with Africa -was for blameless purposes of commerce. And while that -continued the English were regarded with confidence by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -Africans. <span class="sidenote">1557 A.D.</span> At length one John Lok, a shipmaster, stole five -black men and brought them to London. The next Englishman -who visited Africa found that that theft had -damaged the good name of his countrymen. His voyage -was unprofitable, for the natives feared him. When this was -told in London the mercantile world was troubled, for the -African trade was a gainful one. The five stolen men were -conveyed safely home again.</p> - -<p>This was the opening of our African slave-trade. Then, for -the first time, did our fathers feel the dark temptation, and thus -hesitatingly did they at first yield to its power. The traffic in -gold dust and ivory continued. Every Englishman who visited -the African coast had occasion to know how actively and how -profitably Spain, and Portugal too, traded in slaves. He knew -that on all that rich coast there was no merchandise so lucrative -as the unfortunate people themselves. It was not an age when -such seductions could be long withstood. The English traders -of that day were not the men to be held back from a gainful -traffic by mere considerations of humanity.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1562 A.D.</span> Sir John Hawkins made the first English venture in slave-trading. -He sailed with three vessels to Sierra Leone. There, -by purchase or by violence, he possessed himself of three -hundred negroes. With this freight he crossed the -Atlantic, and at St. Domingo he sold the whole to a -great profit. The fame of his gains caused sensation in England, -and he was encouraged to undertake a second expedition. Queen -Elizabeth and many of her courtiers took shares in the venture. -After many difficulties, Hawkins collected five hundred negroes. -His voyage was a troublous one. He was beset with calms; -water ran short, and it was feared that a portion of the cargo -must have been flung overboard. “Almighty God, however,” -says this devout man-stealer, “who never suffers his elect to -perish,” brought him to the West Indies without loss of a man. -But there had arrived before him a rigorous interdict from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -King of Spain against the admission of foreign vessels to any -of his West Indian ports. Hawkins was too stout-hearted to -suffer such frustration of his enterprise. After some useless -negotiation, he landed a hundred men with two pieces of cannon; -landed and sold his negroes; paid the tax which he himself had -fixed; and soon in quiet England divided his gains with his -royal and noble patrons. Thus was the slave-trade established -in England. Three centuries after, we look with horror and -remorse upon the results which have followed.</p> - -<p>In most of the colonies there was unquestionably a desire for -the introduction of the negro. But ere many years the colonists -became aware that they were rapidly involving themselves in -grave difficulties. The increase of the coloured population alarmed -them. Heavy debts, incurred for the purchase of slaves, disordered -their finances. The production of tobacco, indigo, and -other articles of Southern growth, exceeded the demand, and -prices fell ruinously low. There were occasionally proposals -made—although not very favourably entertained—with a view -to emancipation. But the opposition of the colonists to the -African slave-trade was very decided. Very frequent attempts -to limit the traffic were made even in the Southern colonies, -where slave labour was most valuable. <span class="sidenote">1787 A.D.</span> Soon after the -Revolution, several Slave-owning States prohibited the -importation of slaves. The Constitution provided that -Congress might suppress the slave-trade after the lapse of twenty -years. But for the resistance of South Carolina and Georgia -the prohibition would have been immediate. <span class="sidenote">1807 A.D.</span> And at length, -at the earliest moment when it was possible, Congress -gave effect to the general sentiment by enacting “that -no slaves be imported into any of the thirteen United -Colonies.”</p> - -<p>And why had this not been done earlier? If the colonists -were sincere in their desire to suppress this base traffic, why -did they not suppress it? The reason is not difficult to find.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -England would not permit them. England forced the slave-trade -upon the reluctant colonists. The English Parliament -watched with paternal care over the interests of this hideous -traffic. During the first half of the eighteenth century Parliament -was continually legislating to this effect. Every restraint -upon the largest development of the trade was removed with -scrupulous care. Everything that diplomacy could do to open -new markets was done. When the colonists sought by imposing -a tax to check the importation of slaves, that tax was repealed. -Land was given free, in the West Indies, on condition that the -settler should keep four negroes for every hundred acres. Forts -were built on the African coast for the protection of the trade. -So recently as the year 1749 an Act was passed bestowing -additional encouragements upon slave-traders, and emphatically -asserting “the slave-trade is very advantageous to Great Britain.” -There are no passages in all our history so humiliating -as these.</p> - -<p>It is marvellous that such things were done—deliberately, -and with all the solemnities of legal sanction—by men not unacquainted -with the Christian religion, and humane in all the -ordinary relations of life. The Popish Inquisition inflicted no -suffering more barbarously cruel than was endured by the -victim of the slave-trader. Hundreds of men and women, with -chains upon their limbs, were packed closely together into the -holds of small vessels. There, during weeks of suffering, they -remained, enduring fierce tropical heat, often deprived of water -and of food. They were all young and strong, for the fastidious -slave-trader rejected men over thirty as uselessly old. But the -strength of the strongest sunk under the horrors of this voyage. -Often it happened that the greater portion of the cargo had to -be flung overboard. Under the most favourable circumstances, -it was expected that one slave in every five would perish. In -every cargo of five hundred, one hundred would suffer a miserable -death. And the public sentiment of England fully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -sanctioned a traffic of which these horrors were a necessary -part.</p> - -<p>At one time the idea was prevalent in the colonies that it -was contrary to Scripture to hold a baptized person in slavery. -The colonists did not on that account liberate their slaves. They -escaped the difficulty in the opposite direction. They withheld -baptism and religious instruction. England took some pains to -put them right on this question. The bishops of the Church -and the law-officers of the Crown issued authoritative declarations, -asserting the entire lawfulness of owning Christians. -The colonial legislatures followed with enactments to the same -effect. The colonists, thus reassured, gave consent that the -souls of their unhappy dependants should be cared for.</p> - -<p>Up to the Revolution it was estimated that three hundred -thousand negroes had been brought into the country direct -from Africa. The entire coloured population was supposed to -amount to nearly half a million.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_I_CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EARLY GOVERNMENT.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">There was at the outset considerable diversity of -pattern among the governments of the colonies. -As time wore on, the diversity lessened, and one -great type becomes visible in all. There is a -Governor appointed by the King. There is a Parliament chosen -by the people. Parliament holds the purse-strings. The -Governor applies for what moneys the public service seems to -him to require. Parliament, as a rule, grants his demands; but -not without consideration, and a distinct assertion of its right -to refuse should cause appear. As the Revolution drew near, -the function of the Governor became gradually circumscribed by -the pressure of the Assemblies. When the Governor, as representing -the King, fell into variance with the popular will, the -representatives of the people assumed the whole business of -government. The most loyal of the colonies resolutely defied -the encroachments of the King or his Governor. They had a -pleasure and a pride in their connection with England; but -they were at the same time essentially a self-governing people. -From the government which existed before the Revolution it -was easy for them to step into a federal union. The colonists -had all their interests and all their grievances in common. It -was natural for them, when trouble arose, to appoint representatives -who should deliberate regarding their affairs. These -representatives required an executive to give practical effect to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -their resolutions. The officer who was appointed for that purpose -was called, not King, but President; and was chosen, not -for life, but for four years. By this simple and natural process -arose the American Government.</p> - -<p>At first Virginia was governed by two Councils, one of which -was English and the other Colonial. Both were entirely under -the King’s control. In a very few years the representative -system was introduced, and a popular assembly, over whose -proceedings the Governor retained the right of veto, regulated -the affairs of the colony. Virginia was the least democratic of -the colonies. Her leanings were always towards monarchy. -She maintained her loyalty to the Stuarts. Charles II. ruled -her in his exile, and was crowned in a robe of Virginian silk, -presented by the devoted colonists. The baffled Cavaliers sought -refuge in Virginia from the hateful triumph of Republicanism. -Virginia refused to acknowledge the Commonwealth, and had -to be subjected by force. When the exiled House was restored, -her joy knew no bounds.</p> - -<p>The New England States were of different temper and different -government. While yet on board the <i>Mayflower</i>, the -Pilgrims, as we have seen, formed themselves into a body -politic, elected their Governor, and bound themselves to submit -to his authority, “confiding in his prudence that he would not -adventure upon any matter of moment without consent of the -rest.” Every church member was an elector. For sixty years -this democratic form of government was continued, till the -despotic James II. overturned it in the closing years of his -unhappy reign. The Pilgrims carried with them from England -a bitter feeling of the wrongs which Kings had inflicted on -them, and they arrived in America a people fully disposed to -govern themselves. They cordially supported Cromwell. Cromwell, -on his part, so highly esteemed the people of New England, -that he invited them to return to Europe, and offered -them settlements in Ireland. They delayed for two years to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -proclaim Charles II. when he was restored to the English -throne. They sheltered the regicides who fled from the King’s -vengeance. They hailed the Revolution, by which the Stuarts -were expelled and constitutional monarchy set up in England. -Of all the American colonies, those of New England were the -most democratic, and the most intolerant of royal interference -with their liberties.</p> - -<p>New York was bestowed upon the Duke of York, who for a -time appointed the Governor. Pennsylvania was a grant to -Penn, who exercised the same authority. Ultimately, however, -in all cases, the appointment of Governor rested with the King, -while the representatives were chosen by the people.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="Book_Second">Book Second.</h3> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">GEORGE WASHINGTON.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In the year 1740 there fell out a great European war. -There was some doubt who should fill the Austrian -throne. The emperor had just died, leaving no son -or brother to inherit his dignities. His daughter, -Maria Theresa, stepped into her father’s place, and soon made -it apparent that she was strong enough to maintain what she -had done. Two or three Kings thought they had a better right -than she to the throne. The other Kings ranged themselves on -this side or on that. The idea of looking on while foolish -neighbours destroyed themselves by senseless war, had not yet -been suggested. Every King took part in a great war, and sent -his people forth to slay and be slain, quite as a matter of course. -So they raised great armies, fought great battles, burned cities, -wasted countries, inflicted and endured unutterable miseries, all -to settle the question about this lady’s throne. But the lady -was of a heroic spirit, well worthy to govern, and she held her -own, and lived and died an empress.</p> - -<p>During these busy years, a Virginian mother, widowed in -early life, was training up her eldest son in the fear of God—all -unaware, as she infused the love of goodness and duty into -his mind, that she was giving a colour to the history of her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -country throughout all its coming ages. That boy’s name -was George Washington. He was born in 1732. His father—a -gentleman of good fortune, with a pedigree which can be -traced beyond the Norman Conquest—died when his son was -eleven years of age. Upon George’s mother devolved the care -of his upbringing. She was a devout woman, of excellent sense -and deep affections; but a strict disciplinarian, and of a temper -which could brook no shadow of insubordination. Under her -rule—gentle, and yet strong—George learned obedience and -self-control. In boyhood he gave remarkable promise of those -excellences which distinguished his mature years. His schoolmates -recognized the calm judicial character of his mind, and -he became in all their disputes the arbiter from whose decision -there was no appeal. He inherited his mother’s love of command, -happily tempered by a lofty disinterestedness and a love -of justice, which seemed to render it impossible that he should -do or permit aught that was unfair. His person was large and -powerful. His face expressed the thoughtfulness and serene -strength of his character. He excelled in all athletic exercises. -His youthful delight in such pursuits developed his physical -capabilities to the utmost, and gave him endurance to bear the -hardships which lay before him.</p> - -<p>Young gentlemen of Virginia were not educated then so -liberally as they have been since. It was presumed that -Washington would be a mere Virginian proprietor and farmer, -as his father had been; and his education was no higher than -that position then demanded. He never learned any language -but his own. The teacher of his early years was also the -sexton of the parish. And even when he was taken to an -institution of a more advanced description, he attempted no -higher study than the keeping of accounts and the copying of -legal and mercantile papers. A few years later, it was thought -he might enter the civil or military service of his country; and -he was put to the study of mathematics and land-surveying.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<p>George Washington did nothing by halves. In youth, as in -manhood, he did thoroughly what he had to do. His school -exercise books are models of neatness and accuracy. His plans -and measurements made while he studied land-surveying were -as scrupulously exact as if great pecuniary interests depended -upon them. In his eighteenth year he was employed by Government -as surveyor of public lands. Many of his surveys were -recorded in the county offices, and remain to this day. Long -experience has established their unvarying accuracy. In all -disputes to which they have any relevancy, their evidence is -accepted as decisive. During the years which preceded the -Revolution he managed his estates, packed and shipped his own -tobacco and flour, kept his own books, conducted his own correspondence. -His books may still be seen. Perhaps no clearer -or more accurate record of business transactions has been kept -in America since the Father of American Independence rested -from book-keeping. The flour which he shipped to foreign -ports came to be known as his, and the Washington brand was -habitually exempted from inspection. A most reliable man; -his words and his deeds, his professions and his practice, are -ever found in most perfect harmony. By some he has been -regarded as a stolid, prosaic person, wanting in those features -of character which captivate the minds of men. It was not so. -In an earlier age George Washington would have been a true -knight-errant with an insatiable thirst for adventure and a -passionate love of battle. He had in high degree those -qualities which make ancient knighthood picturesque. But -higher qualities than these bore rule within him. He had -wisdom beyond most, giving him deep insight into the wants of -his time. He had clear perceptions of the duty which lay to -his hand. What he saw to be right, the strongest impulses of -his soul constrained him to do. A massive intellect and an -iron strength of will were given to him, with a gentle, loving -heart, with dauntless courage, with purity and loftiness of aim.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -He had a work of extraordinary difficulty to perform. History -rejoices to recognize in him a revolutionary leader against -whom no questionable transaction has ever been alleged.</p> - -<p>The history of America presents, in one important feature, a -very striking contrast to the history of nearly all older countries. -In the old countries, history gathers round some one grand -central figure—some judge, or priest, or king—whose biography -tells all that has to be told concerning the time in which he -lived. That one predominating person—David, Alexander, -Cæsar, Napoleon—is among his people what the sun is in the -planetary system. All movement originates and terminates in -him, and the history of the people is merely a record of what he -has chosen to do or caused to be done. In America it has not -been so. The American system leaves no room for predominating -persons. It affords none of those exhibitions of solitary, -all-absorbing grandeur which are so picturesque, and have been -so pernicious. Her history is a history of her people, and of no -conspicuous individuals. Once only in her career is it otherwise. -During the lifetime of George Washington her history -clings very closely to him; and the biography of her great chief -becomes in a very unusual degree the history of the country.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">BENJAMIN FRANKLIN.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">While Washington’s boyhood was being passed on -the banks of the Potomac, a young man, destined -to help him in gaining the independence of the -country, was toiling hard in the city of Philadelphia -to earn an honest livelihood. His name was Benjamin -Franklin; his avocations were manifold. He kept a small -stationer’s shop; he edited a newspaper; he was a bookbinder; -he made ink; he sold rags, soap, and coffee. He was also a -printer, employing a journeyman and an apprentice to aid him -in his labours. He was a thriving man; but he was not -ashamed to convey along the streets, in a wheelbarrow, the -paper which he bought for the purposes of his trade. As a boy -he had been studious and thoughtful; as a man he was prudent, -sagacious, trustworthy. His prudence was, however, somewhat -low-toned and earthly. He loved and sought to marry a -deserving young woman, who returned his affection. There was -in those days a debt of one hundred pounds upon his printing-house. -He demanded that the father of the young lady should pay -off this debt. The father was unable to do so. Whereupon the -worldly Benjamin decisively broke off the contemplated alliance.</p> - -<p>When he had earned a moderate competency he ceased to -labour at his business. Henceforth he laboured to serve his -fellow-men. Philadelphia owes to Franklin her university, her -hospital, her fire-brigade, her first and greatest library.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> - -<p>He earned renown as a man of science. It had long been his -thought that lightning and electricity were the same; but he -found no way to prove the truth of his theory. <span class="sidenote">1752 A.D.</span> At length he -made a kite fitted suitably for his experiment. He stole -away from his house during a thunder-storm, having told -no one but his son, who accompanied him. The kite was -sent up among the stormy clouds, and the anxious philosopher -waited. For a time no response to his eager questioning was -granted, and Franklin’s countenance fell. But at length he felt -the welcome shock, and his heart thrilled with the high consciousness -that he had added to the sum of human knowledge.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1766 A.D.</span> When the troubles arose in connection with the Stamp Act, -Franklin was sent to England to defend the rights of -the colonists. The vigour of his intellect, the matured -wisdom of his opinions, gained for him a wonderful -supremacy over the men with whom he was brought into -contact. He was examined before Parliament. Edmund -Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined -by a parcel of schoolboys, so conspicuously was the witness -superior to his interrogators.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1777 A.D.</span> Franklin was an early advocate of independence, and aided -in preparing the famous Declaration. In all the councils of -that eventful time he bore a leading part. He was the -first American Ambassador to France; and the good -sense and vivacity of the old printer gained for him -high favour in the fashionable world of Paris. He lived to -aid in framing the Constitution under which America has enjoyed -prosperity so great. <span class="sidenote">1799 A.D.</span> Soon after he passed away. A few -months before his death he wrote to Washington:—“I -am now finishing my eighty-fourth year, and probably -with it my career in this life; but in whatever state of -existence I am placed hereafter, if I retain any memory of -what has passed here, I shall with it retain the esteem, respect, -and affection with which I have long regarded you.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE VALLEY OF THE OHIO.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which gave a brief -repose to Europe, left unsettled the contending -claims of France and England upon -American territory. <span class="sidenote">1748 A.D.</span> France had possessions -in Canada and also in Louisiana, at the extreme south, many -hundreds of miles away. She claimed the entire line of the -Mississippi river, with its tributaries; and she had given effect -to her pretensions by erecting forts at intervals to connect her -settlements in the north with those in the south. Her claim -included the Valley of the Ohio. This was a vast and fertile -region, whose value had just been discovered by the English. -It was yet unpeopled; but its vegetation gave evidence of -wealth unknown to the colonists in the eastern settlements. -The French, to establish their claim, sent three hundred soldiers -into the valley, and nailed upon the trees leaden plates which -bore the royal arms of France. They strove by gifts and persuasion -to gain over the natives, and expelled the English -traders who had made their adventurous way into those recesses. -The English, on their part, were not idle. A great -trading company was formed, which, in return for certain -grants of land, became bound to colonize the valley, to establish -trading relations with the Indians, and to maintain a -competent military force. This was in the year 1749. In that -age there was but one solution of such difficulties. Governments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -had not learned to reason; they could only fight. Early -in 1751 both parties were actively preparing for war. That war -went ill with France. When the sword was sheathed in 1759, -she had lost not only Ohio, but the whole of Canada.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1754 A.D.</span> When the fighting began it was conducted on the English -side wholly by the colonists. Virginia raised a little -army. Washington, then a lad of twenty-one, was -offered the command, so great was the confidence already -felt in his capacity. It was war in miniature as yet. The -object of Washington in the campaign was to reach a certain -fort on the Ohio, and hold it as a barrier against French encroachment. -He had his artillery to carry with him, and to -render that possible he had to make a road through the wilderness. -He struggled heroically with the difficulties of his position, -but he could not advance at any better speed than two -miles a-day; and he was not destined to reach the fort on the -Ohio. After toiling on as he best might for six weeks, he -learned that the French were seeking him with a force far outnumbering -his. He halted, and hastily constructed a rude intrenchment, -which he called Fort Necessity, because his men -had nearly starved while they worked at it. He had three -hundred Virginians with him, and some Indians. The Indians -deserted so soon as occasion arose for their services. The -French attack was not long withheld. Early one summer -morning a sentinel came in bleeding from a French bullet. All -that day the fight lasted. At night the French summoned -Washington to surrender. The garrison were to march out with -flag and drum, leaving only their artillery. Washington could -do no better, and he surrendered. Thus ended the first campaign -in the war which was to drive France from Ohio and Canada. -Thus opened the military career of the man who was to drive -England from the noblest of her colonial possessions.</p> - -<p>But now the English Government awoke to the necessity of -vigorous measures to rescue the endangered Valley of the Ohio.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -A campaign was planned which was to expel the French from -Ohio, and wrest from them some portions of their Canadian -territory. The execution of this great design was intrusted to -General Braddock, with a force which it was deemed would -overbear all resistance. Braddock was a veteran who had seen -the wars of forty years. Among the fields on which he had -gained his knowledge of war was Culloden, where he had borne -a part in trampling out the rebellion of the Scotch. He was a -brave and experienced soldier, and a likely man, it was thought, -to do the work assigned to him. But that proved a sad miscalculation. -Braddock had learned the rules of war; but he -had no capacity to comprehend its principles. In the pathless -forests of America he could do nothing better than strive to -give literal effect to those maxims which he had found applicable -in the well-trodden battle-grounds of Europe.</p> - -<p>The failure of Washington in his first campaign had not deprived -him of public confidence. Braddock heard such accounts -of his efficiency that he invited him to join his staff. Washington, -eager to efface the memory of his defeat, gladly accepted -the offer.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1755 A.D.</span> The troops disembarked at Alexandria. The colonists, little -used to the presence of regular soldiers, were greatly -emboldened by their splendid aspect and faultless discipline, -and felt that the hour of final triumph was at -hand. After some delay, the army, with such reinforcements -as the province afforded, began its march. Braddock’s object -was to reach Fort Du Quesne, the great centre of French influence -on the Ohio. It was this same fort of which Washington -endeavoured so manfully to possess himself in his disastrous -campaign of last year.</p> - -<p>Fort Du Quesne had been built by the English, and taken from -them by the French. It stood at the confluence of the Alleghany -and Monongahela; which rivers, by their union at this -point, form the Ohio. It was a rude piece of fortification, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -the circumstances admitted of no better. The fort was built of -the trunks of trees; wooden huts for the soldiers surrounded -it. A little space had been cleared in the forest, and a few -patches of wheat and Indian corn grew luxuriantly in that rich -soil. The unbroken forest stretched all around. Three years -later the little fort was retaken by the English, and named -Fort Pitt. Then in time it grew to be a town, and was called -Pittsburg. And men found in its neighbourhood boundless -wealth of iron and of coal. To-day a great and fast-growing city -stands where, a century ago, the rugged fort with its cluster of -rugged huts were the sole occupants. And the rivers, then so -lonely, are ploughed by many keels; and the air is dark with -the smoke of innumerable furnaces. The judgment of the -sagacious Englishmen who deemed this a locality which they -would do well to get hold of, has been amply borne out by the -experience of posterity.</p> - -<p>Braddock had no doubt that the fort would yield to him -directly he showed himself before it. Benjamin Franklin looked -at the project with his shrewd, cynical eye. He told Braddock -that he would assuredly take the fort if he could only reach it; -but that the long slender line which his army must form in its -march “would be cut like thread into several pieces” by the -hostile Indians. Braddock “smiled at his ignorance.” Benjamin -offered no further opinion. It was his duty to collect horses -and carriages for the use of the expedition, and he did what was -required of him in silence.</p> - -<p>The expedition crept slowly forward, never achieving more -than three or four miles in a day; stopping, as Washington said, -“to level every mole-hill, to erect a bridge over every brook.” -It left Alexandria on the 20th April. On the 9th July Braddock, -with half his army, was near the fort. There was yet -no evidence that resistance was intended. No enemy had -been seen; the troops marched on as to assured victory. So -confident was their chief, that he refused to employ scouts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -and did not deign to inquire what enemy might be lurking -near.</p> - -<p>The march was along a road twelve feet wide, in a ravine, -with high ground in front and on both sides. Suddenly the -Indian war-whoop burst from the woods. A murderous fire -smote down the troops. The provincials, not unused to this -description of warfare, sheltered themselves behind trees and -fought with steady courage. Braddock, clinging to his old rules, -strove to maintain his order of battle on the open ground. A -carnage, most grim and lamentable, was the result. His undefended -soldiers were shot down by an unseen foe. For three -hours the struggle lasted; then the men broke and fled in utter -rout and panic. Braddock, vainly fighting, fell mortally -wounded, and was carried off the field by some of his soldiers. -The poor pedantic man never got over his astonishment at a -defeat so inconsistent with the established rules of war. “Who -would have thought it?” he murmured, as they bore him from -the field. He scarcely spoke again, and died in two or three -days. Nearly eight hundred men, killed and wounded, were -lost in this disastrous encounter—about one-half of the entire -force engaged.</p> - -<p>All the while England and France were nominally at peace. -But now war was declared. The other European powers fell -into their accustomed places in the strife, and the flames of war -spread far and wide. On land and on sea the European people -strove to shed blood and destroy property, and thus produce -human misery to the largest possible extent. At the outset -every fight brought defeat and shame to England. English -armies under incapable leaders were sent out to America and -ignominiously routed by the French. On the continent of -Europe the uniform course of disaster was scarcely broken by a -single victory. Even at sea, England seemed to have fallen -from her high estate, and her fleets turned back from the presence -of an enemy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - -<p>The rage of the people knew no bounds. The admiral who -had not fought the enemy when he should have done so, was -hanged. The Prime Minister began to tremble for his neck. -One or two disasters more, and the public indignation might -demand a greater victim than an unfortunate admiral. The -Ministry resigned, and William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, -came into power.</p> - -<p>And then, all at once, the scene changed, and there began a -career of triumph more brilliant than even England had ever -known. The French fleets were destroyed; French possessions -all over the world were seized; French armies were defeated. -Every post brought news of victory. For once the English -people, greedy as they are of military glory, were satisfied.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1759 A.D.</span> One of the most splendid successes of Pitt’s administration -was gained in America. The colonists had begun to lose -respect for the English army and the English Government, -but Pitt quickly regained their confidence. They -raised an army of 50,000 men to help his schemes for the -extinction of French power. A strong English force was sent -out, and a formidable invasion of Canada was organized.</p> - -<p>Most prominent among the strong points held by the French -was the city of Quebec. Thither in the month of June came a -powerful English fleet, with an army under the command of -General Wolfe. Captain James Cook, the famous navigator, -who discovered so many of the sunny islands of the Pacific, was -master of one of the ships. Quebec stands upon a peninsula -formed by the junction of the St. Charles and the St. Lawrence -rivers. The lower town was upon the beach; the upper was -on the cliffs, which at that point rise precipitously to a height -of two hundred feet. Wolfe tried the effect of a bombardment. -He laid the lower town in ruins very easily, but the upper town -was too remote from his batteries to sustain much injury. It -seemed as if the enterprise would prove too much for the English, -and the sensitive Wolfe was thrown by disappointment and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -anxiety into a violent fever. But he was not the man to be -baffled. The shore for miles above the town was carefully -searched. An opening was found whence a path wound up the -cliffs. Here Wolfe would land his men, and lead them to the -Heights of Abraham. Once there, they would defeat the French -and take Quebec, or die where they stood.</p> - -<p>On a starlight night in September the soldiers were embarked -in boats which dropped down the river to the chosen landing-place. -As the boat which carried Wolfe floated silently down, -he recited to his officers Gray’s “Elegy in a Country Churchyard,” -then newly received from England; and he exclaimed at -its close, “I would rather be the author of that poem than take -Quebec to-morrow.” He was a man of feeble bodily frame, but -he wielded the power which genius in its higher forms confers. -Amid the excitements of impending battle he could walk, with -the old delight, in the quiet paths of literature.</p> - -<p>The soldiers landed and clambered, as they best might, up the -rugged pathway. All through the night armed men stepped -silently from the boats and silently scaled those formidable cliffs. -The sailors contrived to drag up a few guns. When morning -came, the whole army stood upon the Heights of Abraham ready -for the battle.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1759 A.D.</span> Montcalm, the French commander, was so utterly taken by -surprise that he refused at first to believe the presence of the -English army. He lost no time in marching forth to meet his -unexpected assailants. The conflict which followed was fierce -but not prolonged. The French were soon defeated and put to -flight; Quebec surrendered. But Montcalm did not make that -surrender, nor did Wolfe receive it. Both generals fell in the -battle. Wolfe died happy that the victory was gained. -Montcalm was thankful that death spared him the -humiliation of giving up Quebec. They died as enemies; -but the men of a new generation, thinking less of the accidents -which made them foes than of the noble courage and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -devotedness which united them, placed their names together -upon the monument which marks out to posterity the scene of -this decisive battle.</p> - -<p>France did not quietly accept her defeat. Next year she -made an attempt to regain Quebec. It was all in vain. In -due time the success of the English resulted in a treaty of peace, -under which France ceded to England all her claims upon -Canada. Spain at the same time relinquished Florida. England -had now undisputed possession of the western continent, from -the region of perpetual winter to the Gulf of Mexico.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">AMERICA ON THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">A century and a half had now passed since the first -colony had been planted on American soil. The -colonists were fast ripening into fitness for independence. -They had increased with marvellous -rapidity. Europe never ceased to send forth her superfluous -and needy thousands. America opened wide her hospitable -arms and gave assurance of liberty and comfort to all who came. -The thirteen colonies now contained a population of about three -million.</p> - -<p>They were eminently a trading people, and their foreign commerce -was already large and lucrative. New England built -ships with the timber of her boundless forests, and sold them to -foreign countries. She caught fish and sent them to the West -Indies. She killed whales and sent the oil to England. New -York and Pennsylvania produced wheat, which Spain and Portugal -were willing to buy. Virginia clung to the tobacco-plant, -which Europe was not then, any more than she is now, wise -enough to dispense with. The swampy regions of Carolina and -Georgia produced rice sufficient to supply the European demand. -As yet cotton does not take any rank in the list of exports. But -the time is near. Even now Richard Arkwright is brooding -over improvements in the art of spinning cotton. When these -are perfected the growing of cotton will rise quickly to a supremacy -over all the industrial pursuits.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - -<p>England had not learned to recognize the equality of her -colonists with her own people. The colonies were understood -to exist not for their own good so much as for the good of the -mother country. Even the chimney-sweepers, as Lord Chatham -asserted, might be heard in the streets of London talking boastfully -of their subjects in America. Colonies were settlements -“established in distant parts of the world for the benefit of -trade.” As such they were most consistently treated. The -Americans could not import direct any article of foreign production. -Everything must be landed in England and re-shipped -thence, that the English merchant might have profit. One exemption -only was allowed from the operation of this law—the -products of Africa, the unhappy negroes, were conveyed direct -to America, and every possible encouragement was given to -that traffic. Notwithstanding the illiberal restrictions of the -home government, the imports of America before the Revolution -had risen almost to the value of three million sterling.</p> - -<p>New England had, very early, established her magnificent -system of Common Schools. For two or three generations these -had been in full operation. The people of New England were -now probably the most carefully instructed people in the world. -There could not be found a person born in New England unable -to read and write. It had always been the practice of the -Northern people to settle in townships or villages where education -was easily carried to them. In the South it had not been -so. There the Common Schools had taken no root. It was -impossible among a population so scattered. The educational -arrangements of the South have never been adequate to the -necessities of the people.</p> - -<p>In the early years of America, the foundations were laid of -those differences in character and interest which have since produced -results of such magnitude. The men who peopled the -Eastern States had to contend with a somewhat severe climate -and a comparatively sterile soil. These disadvantages imposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -upon them habits of industry and frugality. Skilled labour -alone could be of use in their circumstances. They were thus -mercifully rescued from the curse of slavery—by the absence of -temptation, it may be, rather than by superiority of virtue. -Their simple purity of manners remained long uncorrupted. -The firm texture of mind which upheld them in their early -difficulties remained unenfeebled. Their love of liberty was not -perverted into a passion for supremacy. Among them labour -was not degraded by becoming the function of a despised race. -In New England labour has always been honourable. A just-minded, -self-relying, self-helping people, vigorous in acting, -patient in enduring—it was evident from the outset that they, -at least, would not disgrace their ancestry.</p> - -<p>The men of the South were very differently circumstanced. -Their climate was delicious; their soil was marvellously fertile; -their products were welcome in the markets of the world; unskilled -labour was applicable in the rearing of all their great -staples. Slavery being exceedingly profitable, struck deep roots -very early. It was easy to grow rich. The colonists found -themselves not the employers merely, but the owners of their -labourers. They became aristocratic in feeling and in manners, -resembling the picturesque chiefs of old Europe rather than mere -prosaic growers of tobacco and rice. They had the virtues of -chivalry, and also its vices. They were generous, open-handed, -hospitable; but they were haughty and passionate, improvident, -devoted to pleasure and amusement more than to work of any -description. Living apart, each on his own plantation, the education -of children was frequently imperfect, and the planter -himself was bereft of that wholesome discipline to mind and to -temper which residence among equals confers. The two great -divisions of States—those in which slavery was profitable, and -those in which it was unprofitable—were unequally yoked together. -Their divergence of character and interest continued -to increase, till it issued in one of the greatest of recorded wars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> - -<p>Up to the year 1764, the Americans cherished a deep reverence -and affection for the mother country. They were proud of -her great place among the nations. They gloried in the splendour -of her military achievements; they copied her manners -and her fashions. She was in all things their model. They -always spoke of England as “home.” To be an Old England -man was to be a person of rank and importance among them. -They yielded a loving obedience to her laws. They were -governed, as Benjamin Franklin stated it, at the expense of -a little pen and ink. When money was asked from their -Assemblies, it was given without grudge. “They were led by -a thread,”—such was their love for the land which gave them -birth.</p> - -<p>Ten or twelve years came and went. A marvellous change -has passed upon the temper of the American people. They have -bound themselves by great oaths to use no article of English -manufacture—to engage in no transaction which can put a -shilling into any English pocket. They have formed “the inconvenient -habit of carting,”—that is, of tarring and feathering -and dragging through the streets such persons as avow friendship -for the English Government. They burn the Acts of the -English Parliament by the hands of the common hangman. -They slay the King’s soldiers. They refuse every amicable proposal. -They cast from them for ever the King’s authority. -They hand down a dislike to the English name, of which some -traces lingered among them for generations.</p> - -<p>By what unhallowed magic has this change been wrought so -swiftly? By what process, in so few years, have three million -people been taught to abhor the country they so loved?</p> - -<p>The ignorance and folly of the English Government wrought -this evil. But there is little cause for regret. Under the fuller -knowledge of our modern time, colonies are allowed to discontinue -their connection with the mother country when it is their -wish to do so. Better had America gone in peace. But better<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -she went, even in wrath and bloodshed, than continued in paralyzing -dependence upon England.</p> - -<p>For many years England had governed her American colonies -harshly, and in a spirit of undisguised selfishness. America was -ruled, not for her own good, but for the good of English commerce. -She was not allowed to export her products except to -England. No foreign ship might enter her ports. Woollen -goods were not allowed to be sent from one colony to another. -At one time the manufacture of hats was forbidden. In a liberal -mood Parliament removed that prohibition, but decreed that no -maker of hats should employ any negro workman, or any larger -number of apprentices than two. Iron-works were forbidden. -Up to the latest hour of English rule the Bible was not allowed -to be printed in America.</p> - -<p>The Americans had long borne the cost of their own government -and defence. But in that age of small revenue and profuse -expenditure on unmeaning continental wars, it had been often -suggested that America should be taxed for the purposes of the -home Government. Some one proposed that to Sir Robert -Walpole in a time of need. The wise Sir Robert shook his -head. It must be a bolder man than he was who would attempt -that. A man bolder, because less wise, was found in due time.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1764 A.D.</span> The Seven Years’ War had ended, and England had added a -hundred million to her national debt. The country was -suffering, as countries always do after great wars, and it -was no easy matter to fit the new burdens on to the -national shoulder. The hungry eye of Lord Grenville searched -where a new tax might be laid. The Americans had begun -visibly to prosper. Already their growing wealth was the -theme of envious discourse among English merchants. The -English officers who had fought in America spoke in glowing -terms of the magnificent hospitality which had been extended to -them. No more need be said. The House of Commons passed -a resolution asserting their right to tax the Americans. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -solitary voice was raised against this fatal resolution. Immediately -after, an Act was passed imposing certain taxes upon silks, -coffee, sugar, and other articles. The Americans remonstrated. -They were willing, they said, to vote what moneys the King required -of them, but they vehemently denied the right of any -Assembly in which they were not represented to take from them -any portion of their property. They were the subjects of the -King, but they owed no obedience to the English Parliament. -Lord Grenville went on his course. He had been told the -Americans would complain but submit, and he believed it. -Next session an Act was passed imposing Stamp Duties on -America. The measure awakened no interest. Edmund Burke -said he had never been present at a more languid debate. In -the House of Lords there was no debate at all. With so little -trouble was a continent rent away from the British Empire.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1765 A.D.</span> Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that America -would never submit to the Stamp Act, and that no -power on earth could enforce it. The Americans made -it impossible for Government to mistake their sentiments. -Riots, which swelled from day to day into dimensions -more “enormous and alarming,” burst forth in the New England -States. Everywhere the stamp distributers were compelled to -resign their offices. One unfortunate man was led forth to -Boston Common, and made to sign his resignation in presence -of a vast crowd. Another, in desperate health, was visited in -his sick-room and obliged to pledge that if he lived he would -resign. A universal resolution was come to that no English -goods would be imported till the Stamp Act was repealed. The -colonists would “eat nothing, drink nothing, wear nothing that -comes from England,” while this great injustice endured. The -Act was to come into force on the 1st of November. That -day the bells rang out funereal peals, and the colonists wore the -aspect of men on whom some heavy calamity has fallen. But -the Act never came into force. Not one of Lord Grenville’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -stamps was ever bought or sold in America. Some of the -stamped paper was burned by the mob; the rest was hidden -away to save it from the same fate. Without stamps, marriages -were null; mercantile transactions ceased to be binding; suits -at law were impossible. Nevertheless the business of human -life went on. Men married; they bought, they sold; they went -to law;—illegally, because without stamps. But no harm came -of it.</p> - -<p>England heard with amazement that America refused to obey -the law. There were some who demanded that the Stamp Act -should be enforced by the sword. But it greatly moved the -English merchants that America should cease to import their -goods. William Pitt—not yet Earl of Chatham—denounced -the Act, and said he was glad America had resisted. <span class="sidenote">1766 A.D.</span> Pitt and the merchants triumphed, and the Act was -repealed. There was illumination in the city that -night. The city bells rang for joy; the ships in the Thames -displayed all their colours. The saddest heart in all London -was that of poor King George, who never ceased to lament -“the fatal repeal of the Stamp Act.” All America thrilled -with joy and pride when news arrived of the great triumph. -They voted Pitt a statue; they set apart a day for public rejoicing; -all prisoners for debt were set free. A great deliverance -had been granted, and the delight of the gladdened people -knew no bounds. The danger is over for the present; but -whosoever governs America now has need to walk warily.</p> - -<p>It was during the agitation arising out of the Stamp Act that -the idea of a General Congress of the States was suggested. A -loud cry for union had arisen. “Join or die” was the prevailing -sentiment. The Congress met in New York. It did little more -than discuss and petition. It is interesting merely as one of the -first exhibitions of a tendency towards federal union in a country -whose destiny, in all coming time, this tendency was to fix.</p> - -<p>The repeal of the Stamp Act delayed only for a little the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -fast-coming crisis. A new Ministry was formed, with the Earl -of Chatham at its head. But soon the great Earl lay sick and -helpless, and the burden of government rested on incapable -shoulders. Charles Townshend, a clever, captivating, but most -indiscreet man, became the virtual Prime Minister. The feeling -in the public mind had now become more unfavourable to -America. Townshend proposed to levy a variety of taxes from -the Americans. The most famous of his taxes was one of threepence -per pound on tea. All his proposals became law.</p> - -<p>This time the more thoughtful Americans began to despair -of justice. The boldest scarcely ventured yet to suggest revolt -against England, so powerful and so loved. But the grand final -refuge of independence was silently brooded over by many. The -mob fell back on their customary solution. Great riots occurred. -To quell these disorders English troops encamped on Boston -Common. The town swarmed with red-coated men, every one -of whom was a humiliation. Their drums beat on Sabbath, and -troubled the orderly men of Boston, even in church. At intervals -fresh transports dropped in, bearing additional soldiers, till a -great force occupied the town. The galled citizens could ill brook -to be thus bridled. The ministers prayed to Heaven for deliverance -from the presence of the soldiers. The General Court of -Massachusetts called vehemently on the Governor to remove -them. The Governor had no powers in that matter. He called -upon the court to make suitable provision for the King’s troops,—a -request which it gave the court infinite pleasure to refuse.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1770 A.D.</span> The universal irritation broke forth in frequent brawls between -soldiers and people. One wintry moonlight night in -March, when snow and ice lay about the streets of -Boston, a more than usually determined attack was -made upon a party of soldiers. The mob thought the -soldiers dared not fire without the order of a magistrate, and -were very bold in the strength of that belief. It proved a -mistake. The soldiers did fire, and the blood of eleven slain or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -wounded persons stained the frozen streets. This was “the -Boston Massacre,” which greatly inflamed the patriot antipathy -to the mother country.</p> - -<p>Two or three unquiet years passed, and no progress towards -a settlement of differences had been made. From all the -colonies there came, loud and unceasing, the voice of complaint -and remonstrance. It fell upon unheeding ears, for England -was committed. To her honour be it said, it was not in the -end for money that she alienated her children. The tax on tea -must be maintained to vindicate the authority of England. But -when the tea was shipped, such a drawback was allowed that -the price would actually have been lower in America than it -was at home.</p> - -<p>The Americans had, upon the whole, kept loyally to their -purpose of importing no English goods, specially no goods on -which duty could be levied. Occasionally, a patriot of the more -worldly-minded sort yielded to temptation, and secretly despatched -an order to England. He was forgiven, if penitent. -If obdurate, his name was published, and a resolution of the -citizens to trade no more with a person so unworthy soon -brought him to reason. But, in the main, the colonists were -true to their bond, and when they could no longer smuggle they -ceased to import. The East India Company accumulated vast -quantities of unsaleable tea, for which a market must be -found. <span class="sidenote">1773 A.D.</span> Several ships were freighted with tea, and sent -out to America.</p> - -<p>Cheaper tea was never seen in America; but it bore upon it -the abhorred tax which asserted British control over the property -of Americans. Will the Americans, long bereaved -of the accustomed beverage, yield to the temptation, and barter -their honour for cheap tea? The East India Company never -doubted it; but the Company knew nothing of the temper of -the American people. The ships arrived at New York and -Philadelphia. These cities stood firm. The ships were promptly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -sent home—their hatches unopened—and duly bore their rejected -cargoes back to the Thames.</p> - -<p>When the ships destined for Boston showed their tall masts -in the bay, the citizens ran together to hold council. It was -Sabbath, and the men of Boston were strict. But here was an -exigency, in presence of which all ordinary rules are suspended. -The crisis has come at length. If that tea is landed it will be -sold, it will be used, and American liberty will become a byword -upon the earth.</p> - -<p>Samuel Adams was the true King in Boston at that time. -He was a man in middle life, of cultivated mind and stainless -reputation—a powerful speaker and writer—a man in whose -sagacity and moderation all men trusted. He resembled the -old Puritans in his stern love of liberty—his reverence for the -Sabbath—his sincere, if somewhat formal, observance of all -religious ordinances. He was among the first to see that there -was no resting-place in this struggle short of independence. -“We are free,” he said, “and want no King.” The men of -Boston felt the power of his resolute spirit, and manfully followed -where Samuel Adams led.</p> - -<p>It was hoped that the agents of the East India Company would -have consented to send the ships home; but the agents refused. -Several days of excitement and ineffectual negotiation ensued. -People flocked in from the neighbouring towns. The time was -spent mainly in public meeting; the city resounded with impassioned -discourse. But meanwhile the ships lay peacefully -at their moorings, and the tide of patriot talk seemed to flow in -vain. Other measures were visibly necessary. One day a -meeting was held, and the excited people continued in hot debate -till the shades of evening fell. No progress was made. -At length Samuel Adams stood up in the dimly-lighted church, -and announced, “This meeting can do nothing more to save -the country.” With a stern shout the meeting broke up. Fifty -men disguised as Indians hurried down to the wharf, each man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -with a hatchet in his hand. The crowd followed. The ships -were boarded; the chests of tea were brought on deck, broken -up, and flung into the bay. The approving citizens looked on -in silence. It was felt by all that the step was grave and -eventful in the highest degree. So still was the crowd that no -sound was heard but the stroke of the hatchet and the splash of -the shattered chests as they fell into the sea. All questions -about the disposal of those cargoes of tea at all events are now -solved.</p> - -<p class="tb">This is what America has done; it is for England to make -the next move. Lord North was now at the head of the British -Government. It was his lordship’s belief that the troubles in -America sprang from a small number of ambitious persons, and -could easily, by proper firmness, be suppressed. “The Americans -will be lions while we are lambs,” said General Gage. The King -believed this, and Lord North believed it. In this deep ignorance -he proceeded to deal with the great emergency. He closed -Boston as a port for the landing and shipping of goods. He -imposed a fine to indemnify the East India Company for their -lost teas. He withdrew the Charter of Massachusetts. He -authorized the Governor to send political offenders to England -for trial. Great voices were raised against these severities. -Lord Chatham, old in constitution now, if not in years, and -near the close of his career, pled for measures of conciliation. -Edmund Burke justified the resistance of the Americans. Their -opposition was fruitless. All Lord North’s measures of repression -became law; and General Gage, with an additional force -of soldiers, was sent to Boston to carry them into effect. Gage -was an authority on American affairs. He had fought under -Braddock. Among blind men the one-eyed man is king; -among the profoundly ignorant, the man with a little knowledge -is irresistibly persuasive. “Four regiments sent to -Boston,” said the hopeful Gage, “will prevent any disturbance.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -He was believed; but, unhappily for his own comfort, he was -sent to Boston to secure the fulfilment of his own prophecy. -He threw up some fortifications and lay as in a hostile city. -The Americans appointed a day of fasting and humiliation. -They did more. They formed themselves into military companies; -they occupied themselves with drill; they laid up stores -of ammunition. Most of them had muskets, and could use -them. He who had no musket now got one. They hoped that -civil war would be averted, but there was no harm in being -ready.</p> - -<p class="tb"><span class="sidenote">Sept. 5, 1774 A.D.</span> While General Gage was throwing up his fortifications at -Boston, there met in Philadelphia a Congress of delegates, -sent by the States, to confer in regard to the -troubles which were thickening round them. Twelve -States were represented. Georgia as yet paused timidly -on the brink of the perilous enterprise. They were notable -men who met there, and their work is held in enduring honour. -“For genuine sagacity, for singular moderation, for solid -wisdom,” said the great Earl of Chatham, “the Congress of -Philadelphia shines unrivalled.” The low-roofed quaint old -room in which their meetings were held, became one of the -shrines which Americans delight to visit. George Washington -was there, and his massive sense and copious knowledge were a -supreme guiding power. Patrick Henry, then a young man, -brought to the council a wisdom beyond his years, and a fiery -eloquence, which, to some of his hearers, seemed almost more -than human. He had already proved his unfitness for farming -and for shop-keeping. He was now to prove that he could utter -words which swept over a continent, thrilling men’s hearts like -the voice of the trumpet, and rousing them to heroic deeds. -John Routledge from South Carolina aided him with an -eloquence little inferior to his own. Richard Henry Lee, with -his Roman aspect, his bewitching voice, his ripe scholarship, his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -rich stores of historical and political knowledge, would have -graced the highest assemblies of the Old World. John Dickenson, -the wise farmer from the banks of the Delaware, whose -Letters had done so much to form the public sentiment—his -enthusiastic love of England overborne by his sense of wrong—took -regretful but resolute part in withstanding the tyranny of -the English Government.</p> - -<p>We have the assurance of Washington that the members of -this Congress did not aim at independence. As yet it was their -wish to have wrongs redressed and to continue British subjects. -Their proceedings give ample evidence of this desire. They -drew up a narrative of their wrongs. As a means of obtaining -redress, they adopted a resolution that all commercial intercourse -with Britain should cease. They addressed the King, imploring -his majesty to remove those grievances which endangered their -relations with him. They addressed the people of Great Britain, -with whom, they said, they deemed a union as their greatest -glory and happiness; adding, however, that they would not be -hewers of wood and drawers of water to any nation in the -world. They appealed to their brother colonists of Canada for -support in their peaceful resistance to oppression. But Canada, -newly conquered from France, was peopled almost wholly by -Frenchmen. A Frenchman of that time was contented to -enjoy such an amount of liberty and property as his King was -pleased to permit. And so from Canada there came no response -of sympathy or help.</p> - -<p>Here Congress paused. Some members believed, with -Washington, that their remonstrances would be effectual. -Others, less sanguine, looked for no settlement but that which -the sword might bring. They adjourned, to meet again next -May. This is enough for the present. What further steps the -new events of that coming summer may call for, we shall be -prepared, with God’s help, to take.</p> - -<p>England showed no relenting in her treatment of the Americans.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -The King gave no reply to the address of Congress. -The Houses of Lords and of Commons refused even to allow that -address to be read in their hearing. The King announced his -firm purpose to reduce the refractory colonists to obedience. -Parliament gave loyal assurances of support to the blinded -monarch. All trade with the colonies was forbidden. All -American ships and cargoes might be seized by those who were -strong enough to do so. The alternative presented to the -American choice was without disguise—the Americans had to -fight for their liberty, or forego it. The people of England had, -in those days, no control over the government of their country. -All this was managed for them by a few great families. Their -allotted part was to toil hard, pay their taxes, and be silent. If -they had been permitted to speak, their voice would have vindicated -the men who asserted the right of self-government—a -right which Englishmen themselves were not to enjoy for many -a long year.</p> - -<p class="tb"><span class="sidenote">1775 A.D.</span> General Gage had learned that considerable stores of ammunition -were collected at the village of Concord, eighteen -miles from Boston. He would seize them in the King’s -name. Late one April night eight hundred soldiers set -out on this errand. They hoped their coming would be unexpected, -as care had been taken to prevent the tidings from being -carried out of Boston. But as they marched, the clang of bells -and the firing of guns gave warning far and near of their -approach. In the early morning they reached Lexington. -Some hours before, a body of militia awaited them there. But -the morning was chill and the hour untimely, and the patriots -were allowed to seek the genial shelter of the tavern, under -pledge to appear at beat of drum. Seventy of them did so, -mostly, we are told, “in a confused state.” Major Pitcairn -commanded them to disperse. The patriots did not at once -obey the summons. It was impossible that seventy volunteers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -could mean to fight eight hundred British soldiers; it is more -likely they did not clearly understand what was required of -them. Firing ensued. The Americans say that the first shot -came from the British. Major Pitcairn always asserted that he -himself saw a countryman give the first fire from behind a wall. -It can never be certainly known, but there was now firing -enough. The British stood and shot, in their steady unconcerned -way, at the poor mistaken seventy. The patriots fled -fast. Eighteen of their number did not join the flight. These -lay in their blood on the village green, dead or wounded men. -Thus was the war begun between England and her colonies.</p> - -<p>The British pushed on to Concord, and destroyed all the -military stores they could find. It was not much, for there had -been time to carry off nearly everything. By noon the work -was done, and the wearied troops turned their faces towards -Boston.</p> - -<p>They were not suffered to march alone. All that morning -grim-faced yeomen—of the Ironside type, each man with a musket -in his hand—had been hurrying into Concord. The British -march was mainly on a road cut through dense woods. As -they advanced, the vengeful yeomanry hung upon their flanks -and rear. On every side there streamed forth an incessant and -murderous fire, under which the men fell fast. No effort could -dislodge those deadly but almost unseen foes. During all the -terrible hours of that return march the fire of the Americans -never flagged, and could seldom be returned. It was sunset -ere the soldiers, half dead with fatigue, got home to Boston. -In killed, wounded, and prisoners, this fatal expedition had cost -nearly three hundred men. The blood shed at Lexington had -been swiftly and deeply avenged.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">BUNKER HILL.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The encounters at Lexington and Concord thoroughly -aroused the American people. The news rang -through the land that blood had been spilt—that -already there were martyrs to the great cause. -Mounted couriers galloped along all highways. Over the bustle -of the market-place—in the stillness of the quiet village church—there -broke the startling shout, “The war has begun.” All -men felt that the hour had come, and they promptly laid aside -their accustomed labour that they might gird themselves for -the battle. North Carolina, in her haste, threw off the authority -of the King, and formed herself into military companies. -Timid Georgia sent gifts of money and of rice, and cheering -letters, to confirm the bold purposes of the men of Boston. In -aristocratic and loyal Virginia there was a general rush to -arms. From every corner of the New England States men -hurried to Boston. Down in pleasant Connecticut an old -man was ploughing his field one April afternoon. His name -was Israel Putnam. He was now a farmer and tavern-keeper—a -combination frequent at that time in New England, and -not at all inconsistent, we are told, “with a Roman character.” -Formerly he had been a warrior. He had fought the Indians, -and had narrowly escaped the jeopardies of such warfare. Once -he had been bound to a tree, and the savages were beginning -to toss their tomahawks at his head, when unhoped-for rescue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -found him. As rugged old Israel ploughed his field, some one -told him of Lexington. That day he ploughed no more. He -sent word home that he had gone to Boston. Unyoking his -horse from the plough, in a few minutes he was mounted and -hastening towards the camp.</p> - -<p>Boston and its suburbs stand on certain islets and peninsulas, -access to which, from the mainland, is gained by one isthmus -which is called Boston Neck, and another isthmus which is -called Charlestown Neck. A city thus circumstanced is not -difficult to blockade. The American Yeomanry blockaded -Boston. There were five thousand soldiers in the town; but -the retreat from Concord inclined General Gage to some measure -of patient endurance, and he made no attempt to raise -the blockade.</p> - -<p>The month of May was wearing on, and still General Gage -lay inactive. Still patriot Americans poured into the blockading -camp. They were utterly undisciplined, and wholly without -uniform. The English scorned them as a rabble “with -calico frocks and fowling-pieces.” But they were Anglo-Saxons -with arms in their hands, and a fixed purpose in their minds. -It was very likely that the unwise contempt of their enemies -would not be long unrebuked.</p> - -<p>On the 25th, several English ships of war dropped their -anchors in Boston Bay. It was rumoured that they brought -large reinforcements under Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton—the -best generals England possessed. Shortly it became known -that Gage now felt himself strong enough to break out upon his -rustic besiegers. But the choice of time and place for the encounter -was not to be left with General Gage.</p> - -<p>On Charlestown peninsula, within easy gun-shot of Boston, -there are two low hills, one of which, the higher, is called -Bunker Hill, and the other Breed’s Hill. In a council of war -the Americans determined to seize and fortify one of these -heights, and there abide the onslaught of the English. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -was not a moment to lose. It was said that Gage intended to -occupy the heights on the night of the 18th June. But Gage -was habitually too late. On the 16th, a little before sunset, -twelve hundred Americans were mustered on Cambridge Common -for special service. Colonel Prescott, a veteran who had -fought against the French, was in command. Putnam was -with him, to be useful where he could, although without specified -duties. Prayers were said; and the men, knowing only -that they went to battle, and perhaps to death, set forth upon -their march. They marched in silence, for their way led them -under the guns of English ships. They reached the hill-top -undiscovered by the supine foe. It was a lovely June night—warm -and still. Far down lay the English ships—awful, but -as yet harmless. Across the Charles river, Boston and her -garrison slept the sleep of the unsuspecting. The “All’s well” -of the sentinel crept, from time to time, dreamily up the hill. -Swift now with spade and mattock, for the hours of this midsummer -night are few and precious—swift, but cautious, too, -for one ringing stroke of iron upon stone may ruin all!</p> - -<p>When General Gage looked out upon the heights next morning, -he saw a strong intrenchment and swarms of armed men -where the untrodden grass had waved in the summer breeze a -few hours before. He looked long through his glass at this -unwelcome apparition. A tall figure paced to and fro along -the rude parapet. It was Prescott. “Will he fight?” asked -Gage eagerly. “Yes, sir,” replied a bystander; “to the last -drop of his blood.”</p> - -<p>It was indispensable that the works should be taken, and a -plan of attack was immediately formed. It was sufficiently -simple. No one supposed that the Americans would stand the -shock of regular troops. The English were therefore to march -straight up the hill and drive the Americans away. Meanwhile -reinforcements were sent to the Americans, and supplies of -ammunition were distributed. A gill of powder, to be carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -in a powder-horn or loose in the pocket, two flints and fifteen -balls, were served out to each man. To obtain even the fifteen -balls, they had to melt down the organ-pipes of an Episcopal -church at Cambridge.</p> - -<p>At noon English soldiers to the number of two thousand -crossed over from Boston. The men on the hill-top looked out -from their intrenchments upon a splendid vision of bright -uniforms and bayonets and field-pieces flashing in the sun. -They looked with quickened pulse but unshaken purpose. To -men of their race it is not given to know fear on the verge of -battle.</p> - -<p>The English soldiers paused for refreshments when they -landed on the Charlestown peninsula. The Americans could -hear the murmur of their noisy talk and laughter. They saw -the pitchers of grog pass along the ranks. And then they saw -the Englishmen rise and stretch themselves to their grim morning’s -work. From the steeples and house-tops of Boston—from -all the heights which stand round about the city—thousands -of Americans watched the progress of the fight.</p> - -<p>The soldiers had no easy task before them. The day was -“exceeding hot,” the grass was long and thick, the up-hill -march was toilsome, the enemy watchful and resolute. As if -to render the difficulty greater, the men carried three days’ -provision with them in their knapsacks. Each man had a -burden which weighed one hundred and twenty pounds in -knapsack, musket, and other equipments. Thus laden they -began their perilous ascent.</p> - -<p>While yet a long way from the enemy they opened a harmless -fire of musketry. There was no reply from the American -lines. Putnam had directed the men to withhold their fire till -they could see the white of the Englishmen’s eyes, and then to -aim low. The Englishmen were very near the works when the -word was given. Like the left-handed slingers of the tribe of -Benjamin, the Americans could shoot to a hairbreadth. Every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -man took his steady aim, and when they gave forth their volley -few bullets sped in vain. The slaughter was enormous. The -English recoiled in some confusion, a pitiless rain of bullets -following them down the hill. Again they advanced almost to -the American works, and again they sustained a bloody repulse. -And now, at the hill-foot, they laid down their knapsacks and -stripped off their great-coats. They were resolute this time to -end the fight by the bayonet. The American ammunition was -exhausted, and they could give the enemy only a single volley. -The English swarmed over the parapet. The Americans had -no bayonets, but for a time they waged unequal war with stones -and the butt-ends of their muskets. They were soon driven out, -and fled down the hill and across the Neck to Cambridge, the -English ships raking them with grape-shot as they ran.</p> - -<p>They had done their work. Victory no doubt remained with -the English. Their object was to carry the American intrenchments, -and they had carried them. Far greater than this was -the gain of the Americans. It was proved that, with the help -of some slight field-works, it was possible for undisciplined -patriots to meet on equal terms the best troops England could -send against them. Henceforth the success of the Revolution -was assured. “Thank God,” said Washington, when he heard -of the battle, “the liberties of the country are safe.” Would -that obstinate King George could have been made to see it! -But many wives must be widows, and many children fatherless, -before those dull eyes will open to the unwelcome truth.</p> - -<p>Sixteen hundred men lay, dead or wounded, on that fatal -slope. The English had lost nearly eleven hundred; the -Americans nearly five hundred. Seldom indeed in any battle -has so large a proportion of the combatants fallen.</p> - -<p class="tb">The Americans, who had thus taken up arms and resisted -and slain the King’s troops, were wholly without authority for -what they had done. No governing body of any description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -had employed them or recognized them. What were still more -alarming deficiencies, they were without a general, and -without adequate supply of food and ammunition. <span class="sidenote">1775 A.D.</span> Congress -now, by a unanimous vote, adopted the army, and -elected George Washington Commander-in-Chief of the patriot -forces. They took measures to enlist soldiers, and to raise -money for their support.</p> - -<p>When Washington reached the army before Boston, he found -it to consist of fourteen thousand men. They were quite undisciplined, -and almost without ammunition. Their stock of -powder would afford only nine rounds to each man. They could -thus have made no use of their artillery. Their rude intrenchments -stretched a distance of eight or nine miles. At any moment -the English might burst upon them, piercing their weak -lines, and rolling them back in hopeless rout. But the stubborn -provincials were, as yet, scarcely soldiers enough to know -their danger. Taking counsel only of their own courage, they -strengthened their intrenchment, and tenaciously maintained -their hold on Boston.</p> - -<p>From a convenient hill-top Washington looked at his foe. -He saw a British army of ten thousand men, perfect in discipline -and equipment. It was a noble engine, but, happily for -the world, it was guided by incompetent hands. General Gage -tamely endured siege without daring to strike a single blow at -the audacious patriots. It was no easy winter in either army. -The English suffered from small-pox. Their fleet failed to secure -for them an adequate supply of food. They had to pull down -houses to obtain wood for fuel, at the risk of being hanged if -they were discovered. They were dispirited by long inaction. -They knew that in England the feeling entertained about them -was one of bitter disappointment. Poor Gage was recalled by -an angry Ministry, and quitted in disgrace that Boston where -he had hoped for such success. General Howe succeeded to -his command, and to his policy of inactivity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> - -<p>Washington on his side was often in despair. His troops -were mainly enlisted for three months only. Their love of -country gave way under the hardships of a soldier’s life. Washington -was a strict disciplinarian, and many a free-born back -was scored by the lash. Patriotism proved a harder service -than the men counted for. Fast as their time of service expired -they set their faces homeward. Washington plied them -with patriotic appeals, and even caused patriot songs to be sung -about the camp. Not thus, however, could the self-indulgent -men of Massachusetts and Connecticut be taught to scorn delights -and live laborious days. “Such dearth of public spirit,” -Washington writes, “and such want of virtue, such fertility -in all the low arts, I never saw before.” <span class="sidenote">1776 A.D.</span> When January -came he had a new army, much smaller than the old, -and the same weary process of drilling began afresh. -He knew that Howe was aware of his position. The inactivity -of the English general astonished Washington. He could explain -it no otherwise than by believing that Providence watched -over the liberties of the American people.</p> - -<p>In February liberal supplies of arms and ammunition reached -him. There came also ten regiments of militia. Washington -was now strong enough to take a step.</p> - -<p>To the south of Boston city lie the Heights of Dorchester. If -the Americans can seize and hold these heights, the English must -quit Boston. The night of the 4th of March was fixed for the -enterprise. A heavy fire of artillery occupied the attention of -the enemy. By the light of an unclouded moon a strong working-party -took their way to Dorchester Heights. A long train -of waggons accompanied them, laden with hard-pressed bales of -hay. These were needed to form a breastwork, as a hard frost -bound the earth, and digging alone could not be relied upon. -The men worked with such spirit, that by dawn the bales of hay -had been fashioned into various redoubts and other defences of -most formidable aspect. A thick fog lay along the heights, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -the new fortress looked massive and imposing in the haze. -“The rebels,” said Howe, “have done more work in one night -than my whole army would have done in a month.”</p> - -<p>And now the English must fight, or yield up Boston. The -English chose to fight. They were in the act of embarking to -get at the enemy when a furious east wind began to blow, -scattering their transports and compelling the delay of the -attack. All next day the storm continued to rage, and the -English, eager for battle, lay in unwilling idleness. The vigorous -Americans never ceased to dig and build. On the third -day the storm abated. But it was now General Howe’s opinion -that the American position was impregnable. It may be that -he was wisely cautious; it may be that he was merely fearful. -But he laid aside his thoughts of battle, and prepared to evacuate -Boston. On the 17th the last English soldier was on -board, and all New England was finally wrested from King -George.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">INDEPENDENCE.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-e.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Even yet, after months of fighting, the idea of final -separation from Great Britain was distasteful to a -large portion of the American people. To the -more enlightened it had long been evident that no -other course was possible, but very many still clung to the -hope of a friendly settlement of differences. Some, who were -native Englishmen, loved the land of their birth better than -the land of their adoption. The Quakers and Moravians were -opposed to war as sinful, and would content themselves with -such redress as could be obtained by remonstrance. Some, who -deeply resented the oppressions of the home Government, were -slow to relinquish the privilege of British citizenship. Some -would willingly have fought had there been hope of success, but -could not be convinced that America was able to defend herself -against the colossal strength of England. The subject was discussed -long and keenly. The intelligence of America was in -favour of separation. All the writers of the colonies urged -incessantly that to this it must come. Endless pamphlets and -gazette articles set forth the oppressions of the old country, and -the need of independence in order to the welfare of the colonies. -Conspicuous among those whose writings aided in convincing -the public mind stands the unhonoured name of Thomas Paine -the infidel. Paine had been only a few months in the colonies, -but his restless mind took a ready interest in the great question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -of the day. He had a surprising power of direct, forcible argument. -He wrote a pamphlet styled “Common Sense,” in which -he urged the Americans to be independent. His treatise had, -for those days, a vast circulation, and an extraordinary influence.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1776 A.D.</span> The time was now ripe for the consideration by Congress of -the great question of Independence. It was a grave and -most eventful step, which no thinking man would lightly -take, but it could no longer be shunned. On the -7th of June a resolution was introduced, declaring “That the -United Colonies are and ought to be free and independent.” -The House was not yet prepared for a measure so decisive. -Many members still paused on the threshold of that vast change. -Pennsylvania and Delaware had expressly enjoined their delegates -to oppose it; for the Quakers were loyal to the last. -Some other States had given no instructions, and their delegates -felt themselves bound, in consequence, to vote against the -change. Seven States voted for the resolution; six voted -against it. Greater unanimity than this was indispensable. -With much prudence it was agreed that the matter should -stand over for two or three weeks.</p> - -<p>On the 4th of July the Declaration of Independence was -adopted, with the unanimous concurrence of all the States. In -this famous document the usurpations of the English Government -were set forth in unsparing terms. The divinity which -doth hedge a King did not protect poor King George from a -rougher handling than he ever experienced before. His character, -it was said, “was marked by every act which can define -a tyrant.” And then it was announced to the world that the -Thirteen Colonies had terminated their political connection with -Great Britain, and entered upon their career as free and independent -States.</p> - -<p>The vigorous action of Congress nerved the colonists for their -great enterprise. The paralyzing hope of reconciliation was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -extinguished. The quarrel must now be fought out to the end, -and liberty must be gloriously won or shamefully lost. Everywhere -the Declaration was hailed with joy. It was read to the -army amidst exulting shouts. The soldiers in New York expressed -their transference of allegiance by taking down a leaden -statue of King George and casting it into bullets to be used -against the King’s troops. Next day Washington, in the dignified -language which was habitual to him, reminded his troops -of their new duties and responsibilities. “The general,” he said, -“hopes and trusts that every officer and soldier will endeavour -so to live and act as becomes a Christian soldier, defending the -dearest rights and liberties of his country.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">AT WAR.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-e.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">England put forth as much strength as she deemed -needful to subdue her rebellious colonists. She -prepared a strong fleet and a strong army. She -entered into contracts with some of the petty German -princes to supply a certain number of soldiers. It was a -matter of regular sale and purchase. England supplied money -at a fixed rate; the Duke of Brunswick and some others supplied -a stipulated number of men, who were to shed their blood -in a quarrel of which they knew nothing. Even in a dark age -these transactions were a scandal. Frederick of Prussia loudly -expressed his contempt for both parties. When any of the -hired men passed through any part of his territory he levied on -them the toll usually charged for cattle—like which, he said, -they had been sold!</p> - -<p class="tb">So soon as the safety of Boston was secured, Washington -moved with his army southwards to New York. Thither, in -the month of June, came General Howe. Thither also came -his brother, Lord Howe, with the forces which England had -provided for this war. These reinforcements raised the British -army to twenty-five thousand men. Lord Howe brought with -him a commission from King George to pacify the dissatisfied -colonists. He invited them to lay down their arms, and he -assured them of the King’s pardon. His proposals were singularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -inopportune. The Declaration of Independence had just -been published, and the Americans had determined to be free. -They were not seeking to be forgiven, and they rejected with -scorn Lord Howe’s proposals. The sword must now decide -between King George and his alienated subjects.</p> - -<p>Lord Howe encamped his troops on Staten Island, a few -miles from New York. His powerful fleet gave him undisputed -command of the bay, and enabled him to choose his point of -attack. The Americans expected that he would land upon -Long Island, and take possession of the heights near Brooklyn. -He would then be separated from New York only by a narrow -arm of the sea, and he could with ease lay the city in ruins. -Washington sent a strong force to hold the heights, and throw -up intrenchments in front of Brooklyn. General Putnam was -appointed to the command of this army. Staten Island lies -full in view of Brooklyn. The white tents of the English army, -and the formidable English ships lying at their anchorage, were -watched by many anxious eyes, for the situation was known to -be full of peril. Washington himself did not expect success in -the coming fight, and hoped for nothing more than that the -enemy’s victory would cost him dear.</p> - -<p>After a time it was seen that a movement was in progress -among the English. One by one the tents disappeared. One -by one the ships shook their canvas out to the wind, and moved -across the bay. Then the Americans knew that their hour of -trial was at hand.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Aug. 27, 1776 A.D.</span> Putnam marched his men out from their lines to meet the -English. At daybreak the enemy made his appearance. -The right wing of the American army was attacked, -and troops were withdrawn from other points to resist -what seemed the main attack. Meanwhile a strong -English force made its way unseen round the American left, and -established itself between the Americans and their intrenchments. -This decided the fate of the battle. The Americans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -made a brave but vain defence. They were driven within their -lines after sustaining heavy loss.</p> - -<p>Lord Howe could easily have stormed the works, and taken -or destroyed the American army. But his lordship felt that his -enemy was in his power, and he wished to spare his soldiers -the bloodshed which an assault would have caused. He was to -reduce the enemy’s works by regular siege. It was no part of -Washington’s intention to wait for the issue of these operations. -During the night of the 29th he silently withdrew his broken -troops, and landed them safely in New York. So skilfully was -this movement executed, that the last boat had pushed off from -the shore before the British discovered that their enemies had -departed.</p> - -<p>But now New York had to be abandoned. Washington’s -army was utterly demoralized by the defeat at Brooklyn. The -men went home, in some instances, by entire regiments. Washington -confessed to the President of Congress with deep concern -that he had no confidence “in the generality of the troops.” To -fight the well-disciplined and victorious British with such men -was worse than useless. He marched northwards, and took up -a strong position at Haerlem, a village nine miles from New -York. But the English ships, sweeping up the Hudson river, -showed themselves on his flank and in his rear; the English -army approached him in front. There was no choice but -retreat. Washington crossed his soldiers over to the Jersey -side of the river. The English followed him, after storming a -fort in which nearly three thousand men had been left, the -whole of whom were made prisoners.</p> - -<p>The fortunes of the revolted colonies were now at the very -lowest ebb. Washington had only four thousand men under -his immediate command. They were in miserable condition—imperfectly -armed, poorly fed and clothed, without blankets, or -tents, or shoes. An English officer said of them, without extreme -exaggeration, “In a whole regiment there is scarce one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -pair of breeches.” This was the army which was to snatch a -continent from the grasp of England! As they marched towards -Philadelphia the people looked with derision upon their -ragged defenders, and with fear upon the brilliant host of -pursuers. Lord Howe renewed his offer of pardon to all who -would submit. This time his lordship’s offers commanded some -attention. Many of the wealthier patriots took the oath, and -made their peace with a Government whose authority there was -no longer any hope of throwing off.</p> - -<p>Washington made good his retreat to Philadelphia, so hotly -pursued that his rear-guard, engaged in pulling down bridges, -were often in sight of the British pioneers sent to build them -up. When he crossed the Delaware he secured all the boats -for a distance of seventy miles along the river-course. Lord -Howe was brought to a pause, and he decided to wait upon the -eastern bank till the river should be frozen.</p> - -<p>Washington knew well the desperate odds against him. He -expected to be driven from the Eastern States. It was his -thought, in that case, to retire beyond the Alleghanies, and in -the wilderness to maintain undying resistance to the English -yoke. Meantime he strove like a brave strong man to win -back success to the patriot cause. It was only now that he -was able to rid himself of the evil of short enlistments. Congress -resolved that henceforth men should be enlisted to serve -out the war.</p> - -<p>Winter came, but Lord Howe remained inactive. He himself -was in New York; his army was scattered about among -the villages of New Jersey, fearing no evil from the despised -Americans. All the time Washington was increasing the number -of his troops, and improving their condition. But something -was needed to chase away the gloom which paralyzed the -country. Ten miles from Philadelphia was the village of -Trenton, held by a considerable force of British and Hessians. -At sunset on Christmas evening Washington marched out from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -Philadelphia, having prepared a surprise for the careless garrison -of Trenton. The night was dark and tempestuous, and the -weather was so intensely cold that two of the soldiers were -frozen to death. The march of the barefooted host could be -tracked by the blood-marks which they left upon the snow. At -daybreak they burst upon the astonished Royalists. The Hessians -had drunk deep on the previous day, and they were ill -prepared to fight. Their commander was slain as he attempted -to bring his men up to the enemy. After his fall the soldiers -laid down their arms, and surrendered at discretion.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1777 A.D.</span> A week after this encounter three British regiments spent a -night at Princeton, on their way to Trenton to retrieve -the disaster which had there befallen their Hessian -allies. Washington made another night march, attacked -the Englishmen in the early morning, and after a stubborn -resistance defeated them, inflicting severe loss.</p> - -<p>These exploits, inconsiderable as they seem, raised incalculably -the spirits of the American people. When triumphs like -these were possible under circumstances so discouraging, there -was no need to despair of the Commonwealth. Confidence in -Washington had been somewhat shaken by the defeats which -he had sustained. Henceforth it was unbounded. Congress -invested him with absolute military authority for a period of -six months, and public opinion confirmed the trust. The infant -Republic was delivered from its most imminent jeopardy by the -apparently trivial successes of Trenton and Princeton.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SYMPATHY BEYOND THE SEA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-f.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">France still felt, with all the bitterness of the vanquished, -her defeat at Quebec and her loss of Canada. -She had always entertained the hope that -the Americans would avenge her by throwing off -the English yoke. To help forward its fulfilment, she sent -occasionally a secret agent among them, to cultivate their good-will -to the utmost. When the troubles began she sent secret -assurances of sympathy, and secret offers of commercial advantages. -She was not prepared as yet openly to espouse the -American cause. But it was always safe to encourage the -American dislike to England, and to connive at the fitting out -of American privateers, to prey upon English commerce.</p> - -<p>The Marquis de Lafayette was at this time serving in the -French army. He was a lad of nineteen, of immense wealth, -and enjoying a foremost place among the nobility of France. -The American revolt had now become a topic at French dinner-tables. -Lafayette heard of it first from the Duke of Gloucester, -who told the story at a dinner given to him by some French -officers. That conversation changed the destiny of the young -Frenchman. “He was a man of no ability,” said Napoleon. -“There is nothing in his head but the United States,” said -Marie Antoinette. These judgments are perhaps not unduly -severe. But Lafayette had the deepest sympathies with the -cause of human liberty. They may not have been always wise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -but they were always generous and true. No sooner had he -satisfied himself that the American cause was the cause of -liberty than he hastened to ally himself with it. He left his -young wife and his great position, and he offered himself to -Washington. His military value may not have been great; -but his presence was a vast encouragement to a desponding -people. He was a visible assurance of sympathy beyond the -sea. America is the most grateful of nations; and this good, -impulsive, vain man has ever deservedly held a high place in -her love. Washington once, with tears of joy in his eyes, presented -Lafayette to his troops. Counties are named after him, -and cities and streets. Statues and paintings hand down to -successive generations of Americans the image of their first and -most faithful ally.</p> - -<p>Lafayette was the lightning-rod by which the current of -republican sentiments was flashed from America to France. -He came home when the war was over and America free. He -was the hero of the hour. A man who had helped to set up a -Republic in America was an unquiet element for old France to -receive back into her bosom. With the charm of a great name -and boundless popularity to aid him, he everywhere urged that -men should be free and self-governing. Before he had been -long in France he was busily stirring up the oppressed Protestants -of the south to revolt. Happily the advice of Washington, -with whom he continued to correspond, arrested a course which -might have led the enthusiastic Marquis to the scaffold. Few -men of capacity so moderate have been so conspicuous, or have -so powerfully influenced the course of human affairs.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WAR CONTINUES.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-s.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Spring-time came—“the time when Kings go out -to battle”—but General Howe was not ready. -Washington was contented to wait, for he gained -by delay. <span class="sidenote">1777 A.D.</span> Congress sent him word that he was to -lose no time in totally subduing the enemy. Washington could -now afford to smile at the vain confidence which had -so quickly taken the place of despair. Recruits flowed -in upon him in a steady, if not a very copious stream. -The old soldiers whose terms expired were induced, by bounties -and patriotic appeals, to re-enlist for the war. By the middle of -June, when Howe opened the campaign, Washington had eight -thousand men under his command, tolerably armed and disciplined, -and in good fighting spirit. The patriotic sentiment was -powerfully reinforced by a thirst to avenge private wrongs. -Howe’s German mercenaries had behaved very brutally in New -Jersey—plundering and burning without stint. Many of the -Americans had witnessed outrages such as turn the coward’s -blood to flame.</p> - -<p>Howe wished to take Philadelphia, then the political capital -of the States. But Washington lay across his path, in a strong -position, from which he could not be enticed to descend. Howe -marched towards him, but shunned to attack him where he lay. -Then he turned back to New York, and embarking his troops, -sailed with them to Philadelphia. The army was landed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -25th August, and Howe was at length ready to begin the summer’s -work.</p> - -<p>The American army waited for him on the banks of a small -river called the Brandywine. The British superiority in numbers -enabled them to attack the Americans in front and in flank. -The Americans say that their right wing, on which the British -attack fell with crushing weight, was badly led. One of the -generals of that division was a certain William Alexander—known -to himself and the country of his adoption as Lord -Stirling—a warrior brave but foolish; “aged, and a little deaf.” -The Americans were driven from the field; but they had fought -bravely, and were undismayed by their defeat.</p> - -<p>A fortnight later a British force, with Lord Cornwallis at its -head, marched into Philadelphia. The Royalists were strong -in that city of Quakers—specially strong among the Quakers -themselves. The city was moved to unwonted cheerfulness. -On that September morning, as the loyal inhabitants looked -upon the bright uniforms and flashing arms of the King’s -troops, and listened to the long-forbidden strains of “God save -the King,” they felt as if a great and final deliverance had been -vouchsafed to them. The patriots estimated the fall of the -city more justly. It was seen that if Howe meant to hold -Philadelphia, he had not force enough to do much else. Said -the sagacious Benjamin Franklin,—“It is not General Howe -that has taken Philadelphia; it is Philadelphia that has taken -General Howe.”</p> - -<p>The main body of the British were encamped at Germantown, -guarding their new conquest. So little were the Americans -daunted by their late reverses, that, within a week from the -capture of Philadelphia, Washington resolved to attack the -enemy. At sunrise on the 4th October the English were -unexpectedly greeted by a bayonet-charge from a strong American -force. It was a complete surprise, and at first the success -was complete. But a dense fog, which had rendered the surprise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -possible, ultimately frustrated the purpose of the assailants. -The onset of the eager Americans carried all before it. But as -the darkness, enhanced by the firing, deepened over the combatants, -confusion began to arise. Regiments got astray from -their officers. Some regiments mistook each other for enemies, -and acted on that belief. Confusion swelled to panic, and the -Americans fled from the field.</p> - -<p>Winter was now at hand, and the British army returned to -quarters in Philadelphia. Howe would have fought again, but -Washington declined to come down from the strong position to -which he had retired. His army had again been suffered to -fall into straits which threatened its very existence. A patriot -Congress urged him to defeat the English, but could not be persuaded -to supply his soldiers with shoes or blankets, or even -with food. He was advised to fall back on some convenient -town where his soldiers would find the comforts they needed so -much. But Washington was resolute to keep near the enemy. -He fixed on a position at Valley Forge, among the hills, twenty -miles from Philadelphia. Thither through the snow marched -his half-naked army. Log-huts were erected with a rapidity of -which no soldiers are so capable as Americans. There Washington -fixed himself. The enemy was within reach, and he -knew that his own strength would grow. The campaign which -had now closed had given much encouragement to the patriots. -It is true they had been often defeated, but they had learned -to place implicit confidence in their commander. They had -learned also that in courage they were equal, in activity greatly -superior, to their enemies. All they required was discipline and -experience, which another campaign would give. There was no -longer any reason to look with alarm upon the future.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE SURRENDER AT SARATOGA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In the month of June, when Howe was beginning to -win his lingering way to Philadelphia, a -British army set out from Canada to conquer -the northern parts of the revolted -territory. <span class="sidenote">1777 A.D.</span> General Burgoyne was in command. He was resolute -to succeed. “This army must not retreat,” he said, when -they were about to embark. The army did not retreat. On a -fair field general and soldiers would have played a part of which -their country would have had no cause to be ashamed. But -this was a work beyond their strength.</p> - -<p>Burgoyne marched deep into the New England States. But -he had to do with men of a different temper from those of New -York and Philadelphia. At his approach every man took down -his musket from the wall and hurried to the front. Little discipline -had they, but a resolute purpose and a sure aim. Difficulties -thickened around the fated army. At length Burgoyne -found himself at Saratoga. It was now October. Heavy rains -fell; provisions were growing scanty; the enemy was in great -force, and much emboldened by success. Gradually it became -evident that the British were surrounded, and that no hope of -fighting their way out remained. Night and day a circle of fire -encompassed them. Burgoyne called his officers together. They -could find no place for their sorrowful communing beyond reach -of the enemy’s musketry, so closely was the net already drawn.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -There was but one thing to do, and it was done. The British -army surrendered. Nearly six thousand brave men, in sorrow -and in shame, laid down their arms. The men who took them -were mere peasants, no two of whom were dressed alike. The -officers wore uncouth wigs, and most of them carried muskets -and large powder-horns slung around their shoulders. No -humiliation like this had ever befallen the British arms.</p> - -<p>These grotesque American warriors behaved to their conquered -enemies with true nobility. General Gates, the American commander, -kept his men strictly within their lines, that they might -not witness the piling of the British arms. No taunt was -offered, no look of disrespect was directed against the fallen. -“All were mute in astonishment and pity.”</p> - -<p>England felt acutely the shame of this great disaster. Her -people were used to victory. For many years she had been -fighting in Europe, in India, in Canada, and always with brilliant -success. Her defeat in America was contrary to all expectation. -It was a bitter thing for a high-spirited people to hear -that their veteran troops had surrendered to a crowd of half-armed -peasantry. Under the depressing influence of this calamity -it was determined to redress the wrongs of America. -Parliament abandoned all claim to tax the colonies. Every -vexatious enactment would be repealed; all would be forgiven, -if America would return to her allegiance. Commissioners -were sent bearing the olive-branch to Congress. Too late—altogether -too late! Never more can America be a dependency -of England. With few words Congress peremptorily declined -the English overtures. America had chosen her course; for -good or for evil she would follow it to the end.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HELP FROM EUROPE.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">A great war may be very glorious, but it is also -very miserable. Twenty thousand Englishmen -had already perished in this war. <span class="sidenote">1778 A.D.</span> Trade -languished, and among the working-classes -there was want of employment and consequent want of food. -American cruisers swarmed upon the sea, and inflicted enormous -losses upon English commerce. The debt of the country -increased. And for all these evils there was no compensation. -There was not even the poor satisfaction of success in our unprofitable -undertaking.</p> - -<p>If it was any comfort to inflict even greater miseries than she -endured, England did not fight in vain. The sufferings of -America were very lamentable. The loss of life in battle and -by disease, resulting from want and exposure, had been great. -The fields in many districts were unsown. Trade was extinct; -the trading classes were bankrupt. English cruisers had -annihilated the fisheries and seized the greater part of the -American merchant ships. Money had well-nigh disappeared -from the country. Congress issued paper-money, which proved -a very indifferent substitute. The public had so little confidence -in the new currency, that Washington declared, “A waggon-load -of money will scarcely purchase a waggon-load of provisions.”</p> - -<p>But the war went on. It was not for England, with her high -place among the nations, to retire defeated from an enterprise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -on which she had deliberately entered. As for the Americans, -after they had declared their resolution to be independent, they -could die, but they could not yield.</p> - -<p>The surrender of Burgoyne brought an important ally to the -American side. The gods help those who help themselves. So -soon as America proved that she was likely to conquer in the -struggle, France offered to come to her aid. France had always -looked with interest on the war; partly because she hated -England, and partly because her pulses already throbbed with -that new life, whose misdirected energies produced, a few years -afterwards, results so lamentable. Even now a people contending -for their liberties awakened the sympathies of France. -America had sent three Commissioners—one of whom was -Benjamin Franklin—to Paris, to cultivate as opportunity offered -the friendship of the French Government. For a time they -laboured without visible results. But when news came that -Burgoyne and his army had surrendered, hesitation was at an -end. A treaty was signed by which France and America -engaged to make common cause against England. The King -opposed this treaty so long as he dared, but he was forced to -give way. England, of course, accepted it as a declaration of -war.</p> - -<p>Spain could not miss the opportunity of avenging herself -upon England. Her King desired to live at peace, he said, and -to see his neighbours do the same. But he was profoundly interested -in the liberties of the young Republic, and he was bound -by strong ties to his good brother of France. Above all, England -had in various quarters of the world grievously wronged -him, by violating his territory and interfering with the trade of -his subjects. And so he deemed it proper that he should waste -the scanty substance of his people in equipping fleets and armies. -When his preparations were complete he joined France and -America in the league, and declared war against England.</p> - -<p>The fleets of France and Spain appeared in the English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -Channel, and England had to face the perils of invasion. The -spirit of her people rose nobly to meet the impending trial. -The southern counties were one great camp. Voluntary contributions -from all parts of the country aided Government to equip -ships and soldiers. The King was to head his warlike people, -should the enemy land, and share their danger and their glory. -But the black cloud rolled harmlessly away, and the abounding -heroism of the people was not further evoked. The invading -admirals quarrelled. One of them wished to land at once; the -other wished first to dispose of the English fleet. They could -not agree upon a course, and therefore they sailed away home -each to his own country, having effected nothing.</p> - -<p>The war spread itself over a very wide surface. In the north, -Paul Jones with three American ships alarmed the Scotch coast -and destroyed much shipping. Spain besieged Gibraltar, but -failed to regain that much-coveted prize. On the African coast, -the French took Senegal from the English, and the English took -Goree from the French. In the West Indies, the French took -St. Vincent and Granada. On the American Continent, from -New York to Savannah, the same wasteful and bloody labour -was ruthlessly pursued.</p> - -<p>The remaining years of the war were distinguished by few -striking or decisive enterprises. The fleet sent by France sailed -hither and thither in a feeble manner, accomplishing nothing. -When General Howe was made aware of its approach, he abandoned -Philadelphia and retired to New York. Washington -followed him on his retreat, but neither then nor for some time -afterwards could effect much. Congress and the American -people formed sanguine expectations of the French alliance, and -ceased to put forth the great efforts which distinguished the -earlier period of the war. The English overran Georgia and the -Carolinas. The Americans captured two or three forts. The -war degenerated into a series of marauding expeditions. Some -towns, innumerable farm-houses, were burned by the English.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -Occasional massacres took place. With increasing frequency, -prisoners were, under a variety of pretexts, put to death. On -both sides feeling had become intensely bitter. On both sides -cruelties of a most savage type were perpetrated.</p> - -<p>To the very end Washington’s army was miserably supplied, -and endured extreme hardships. Congress was a weak, and, it -must be added, a very unwise body. The ablest men were in -the army, and Congress was composed of twenty or thirty persons -of little character or influence. They had no authority to impose -taxes. They tried to borrow money in Europe, and failed. -They had only one resource—the issue of paper currency, and -this was carried to such a wild excess that latterly a colonel’s -pay would not buy oats for his horse. Washington ceased to -have the means of purchasing. Reluctantly, and under -pressure of extreme necessity, he forcibly exacted supplies of -meat and flour from the neighbourhood. Not otherwise could -he save his army from dissolution and the country from ruin.</p> - -<p>But there was one respect in which the cause grew constantly -in strength. Men do not fight for eight years, in a war like -this, without learning to hate each other. With a deep and -deadly hatred the American people hated the power which -ruthlessly inflicted upon them such cruel sufferings. Under the -growing influence of this hatred, men became soldiers with increasing -alacrity. The hardships of soldier-life no longer -daunted them, so long as they had the English to resist. The -trouble of short enlistments had ceased, and Washington was at -length at the head of an army, often ill fed and always ill clad, -but disciplined and invincibly resolved that their country should -be free.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">MAJOR ANDRÉ.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Americans had a strong fortress at West Point, -on the Hudson river. It was one of the most important -places in the country, and its acquisition -was anxiously desired by the English. Possession -of West Point would have given them command of the Hudson, -up which their ships of war could have sailed for more than a -hundred miles. But that fort, sitting impregnably on rocks -two hundred feet above the level of the river, was hard to win; -and the Americans were careful to garrison effectively a -position so vitally important.</p> - -<p>In the American army was an officer named Arnold, who had -served, not without distinction, from the beginning of the war. -He had fought in Canada when the Americans unsuccessfully -invaded that province. His courage and skill had been conspicuous -in the engagements which led to the surrender of -Burgoyne. He was, however, a vain, reckless, unscrupulous -person. He had by extravagance in living involved himself in -debt, which he aggravated hopelessly by ill-judged mercantile -speculations. He had influence with Washington to obtain the -command of West Point. There is little doubt that when he -sought the appointment it was with the full intention of selling -that important fortress to the enemy. He opened negotiations -at once with Sir Henry Clinton, then in command of the English -army at New York.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> - -<p>Clinton sent Major André to arrange the terms of the contemplated -treachery. A mournful interest attaches to the name -of this young officer: the fate which befell him was so very -sad. He was of French descent—high-spirited, accomplished, -affectionate, merry-hearted. It was a service which a high-principled -man would scarcely have coveted. But André -desired eagerly to have the merit of gaining West Point, and -he volunteered for this perilous enterprise.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sept. 1780 A.D.</span> At midnight Major André landed from the boat of a British -ship of war, at a lonely place where Arnold waited him. -Their conference lasted so long that it was deemed unsafe -for André to return to the ship. He was conducted to -a place of concealment within the American lines, to -await the return of darkness. He completed his arrangement -with Arnold, and received drawings of the betrayed fortress. -His mission was now accomplished. The ship from which he -had come lay full in view. Would that he could reach her! -But difficulties arose, and it was resolved that he must ride to -New York, a distance of fifty miles. Disguising himself as he -best could, André reluctantly accepted this very doubtful -method of escape from his fearful jeopardy.</p> - -<p>Within the American lines he had some narrow escapes, -but the pass given by Arnold carried him through. He was -at length beyond the lines. His danger might now be considered -at an end, and he rode cheerfully on his lonely journey. -He was crossing a small stream—thick woods on his right hand -and his left enhanced the darkness of the night. Three armed -men stepped suddenly from among the trees and ordered him -to stand. From the dress of one of them, André thought he -was among friends. He hastened to tell them he was a -British officer, on very special business, and he must not be -detained. Alas for poor Major André, they were not friends; -and the dress which deceived him had been given to the -man who wore it when he was a prisoner with the English,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -in place of a better garment of which his captors had stripped -him.</p> - -<p>André was searched; but at first nothing was found. It -seemed as if he might yet be allowed to proceed, when one of -the three men exclaimed, “Boys, I am not satisfied. His boots -must come off.” André’s countenance fell. His boots were -searched, and Arnold’s drawings of West Point were discovered. -The men knew then that he was a spy. He vainly offered -them money; they were incorruptible. He was taken to the -nearest military station, and the tidings were at once sent to -Washington, who chanced to be then at West Point. Arnold -had timely intimation of the disaster, and fled for refuge to a -British ship of war.</p> - -<p>André was tried by a court formed of officers of the American -army. He gave a frank and truthful account of his part -in the unhappy transaction—bringing into due prominence the -circumstance that he was brought, without intention or knowledge -on his part, within the American lines. The court judged -him on his own statement, and condemned him to be hanged -as a spy.</p> - -<p>His capture and sentence caused deep sensation in the English -army, and every effort was made to save him. But Washington -was resolute that he should die. The danger to the -patriot cause had been too great to leave any place for relenting. -There were dark intimations of other treasons yet unrevealed. -It was needful to give emphatic warning of the perils -which waited on such unlawful negotiations. André begged -that he might be allowed to die a soldier’s death. Even this -poor boon was refused to the unhappy young man. Since the -awful lesson must be given, Washington considered that no circumstance -fitted to enhance its terrors should be withheld. -But this was mercifully concealed from André to the very last.</p> - -<p>Ten days after his arrest, André was led forth to die. He -was under the impression that his last request had been granted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -and that he would die by the bullet. It was a fresh pang -when the gibbet, with its ghastly preparations, stood before -him. “How hard is my fate,” he said; “but it will soon be -over.” He bandaged his own eyes; with his own hands -adjusted the noose to his neck. The cart on which he stood -moved away, and poor Major André was no longer in the world -of living men. Forty years afterwards his remains were -brought home to England and laid in Westminster Abbey.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-d.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">During the later years of the war the English kept -possession of the Southern States, which, as -we have seen, they had gained so easily. <span class="sidenote">1781 A.D.</span> -When the last campaign opened, Lord -Cornwallis with a strong force represented British authority in -the South, and did all that he found possible for the suppression -of the patriots. But the time was past when any real progress -in that direction could be made. A certain vigorous and -judicious General Greene, with such rough semblance of an -army as he could draw together, gave Lord Cornwallis many -rude shocks. The English gained little victories occasionally, -but they suffered heavy losses, and the territory over which -they held dominion was upon the whole becoming smaller.</p> - -<p>About midsummer, the joyous news reached Washington -that a powerful French fleet, with an army on board, was -about to sail for America. With this reinforcement, Washington -had it in his power to deliver a blow which would break -the strength of the enemy, and hasten the close of the war. -Clinton held New York, and Cornwallis was fortifying himself -in Yorktown. The French fleet sailed for the Chesapeake, and -Washington decided in consequence that his attack should be -made on Lord Cornwallis. With all possible secrecy and -speed the American troops were moved southwards to Virginia. -They were joined by the French, and they stood before Yorktown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -a force twelve thousand strong. Cornwallis had not -expected them, and he called on Clinton to aid him. But it -was too late. He was already in a grasp from which there was -no escaping.</p> - -<p>Throughout the war, the weakness of his force often obliged -Washington to adopt a cautious and defensive policy, which -grievously disappointed the expectations of his impatient -countrymen. It is not therefore to be imagined that his leadership -was wanting in vigour. Within his calm and well-balanced -mind there lurked a fiery energy, ready to burst forth when -occasion required. The siege of Yorktown was pushed on with -extraordinary vehemence. The English, as their wont is, made -a stout defence, and strove by desperate sallies to drive the -assailants from their works. But in a few days the defences -of Yorktown lay in utter ruin, beaten to the ground by the -powerful artillery of the Americans. The English guns were -silenced; the English shipping was fired by red-hot shot from -the French batteries. Ammunition began to grow scarce. The -place could not be held much longer, and Clinton still delayed -his coming. Lord Cornwallis must either force his way out -and escape to the North, or surrender. One night he began to -embark his men in order to cross the York river and set out on -his desperate march to New York; but a violent storm arose -and scattered his boats. The men who had embarked got back -with difficulty, under fire from the American batteries. All -hope was now at an end. In about a fortnight from the opening -of the siege, the British army, eight thousand strong, laid -down its arms.</p> - -<p>The joy of America over this great crowning success knew -no bounds. One highly emotional patriot was said to have -expired from mere excess of rapture. Some others lost their -reason. In the army, all who were under arrest were at once -set at liberty. A day of solemn thanksgiving was proclaimed -and devoutly observed throughout the rejoicing States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1782 A.D.</span> Well might the colonists rejoice, for their long and bitter -struggle was now about to close. Stubborn King George would -not yield yet. But England and her Parliament were sick -of this hopeless and inglorious war. The House of -Commons voted that all who should advise the continuance -of the war were enemies to the country. A new -Ministry was formed, and negotiations with a view to peace -were begun. The King had no doubt that if America were -allowed to go, the West Indies would go—Ireland would go—all -his foreign possessions would go; and discrowned -England would sink into weakness and contempt. But -too much heed had already been given to the King -and his fancies. <span class="sidenote">Jan. 20, 1783 A.D.</span> Peace was concluded with France -and Spain, and the independence of America was at length -recognized.</p> - -<p class="tb">Eight years had passed since the first blood was shed at -Lexington. Thus long the unyielding English, unused to -failure, had striven to regain the lost ascendency. Thus long -the colonists had borne the miseries of invasion, not shaken in -their faith that the independence which they had undertaken to -win was well worth all it cost them. And now they were free, -and England was the same to them as all the rest of the world,—“in -peace, a friend; in war, a foe.” They had little left them -but their liberty and their soil. They had been unutterably -devastated by those eight bloody years. Their fields had been -wasted; their towns had been burned; commerce was extinct; -money had almost disappeared from the country. Their public -debt reached the large sum of one hundred and seventy million -dollars. The soldiers who had fought out the national independence -were not paid till they showed some disposition to -compel a settlement. There was nothing which could be called -a Government. There were thirteen sovereign States, loosely -knit together by a Congress. That body had power to discuss<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -questions affecting the general good; to pass resolutions; to -request the several States to give effect to these resolutions. -The States might or might not comply with such request. -Habitually they did not, especially when money was asked for. -Congress had no power to tax. It merely apportioned among -the States the amounts required for the public service, and each -State was expected to levy a tax for its proportion. But in -point of fact it became utterly impossible to get money by this -process.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1786 A.D.</span> Great hardships were endured by the labouring population. -The impatience of a suffering people expressed itself in -occasional sputterings of insurrection. Two thousand -men of Massachusetts rose in arms to demand that the -collection of debts should be suspended. It was some weeks -before that rising could be quelled, as the community generally -sympathized with the insurgents. During four or five years -the miseries of the ungoverned country seemed to warrant the -belief that her war of independence had been a mistake.</p> - -<p>But a future of unparalleled magnificence lay before this -sorely vexed and discouraged people. The boundless corn-lands -of the west, the boundless cotton-fields of the south, waited to -yield their wealth. Pennsylvania held unimagined treasures of -coal and iron—soon to be evoked by the irresistible spell of -patient industry. America was a vast store-house, prepared by -the Great Father against the time when his children would have -need of it. The men who are the stewards over its opulence -have now freed themselves from some entanglements and hindrances -which grievously diminished their efficiency, and stand -prepared to enter in good earnest upon that high industrial -vocation to which Providence has called them.</p> - -<p>There had been periods during the war when confidence in -Washington’s leadership was shaken. He sustained many -reverses. He oftentimes retreated. He adhered tenaciously -to a defensive policy, when Congress and people were burning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -with impatience to inflict crushing defeat upon the foe. The -deplorable insufficiency of his resources was overlooked, and the -blame of every disaster fell on him. And when at length the -cause began to prosper, and hope brightened into triumph, timid -people were apt to fear that Washington was growing too -powerful. He had become the idol of a great army. He had -but to signify his readiness to accept a throne, and his soldiers -would have crowned him King. It was usual in the revolutions -of the world that a military chief should grasp at supreme -power; and so it was feared that Washington was to furnish -one example more of that lawless and vulgar lust of power by -which human history has been so largely dishonoured.</p> - -<p>But Washington sheathed his sword, and returned gladly to -his home on the banks of the Potomac. He proposed to spend -his days “in cultivating the affections of good men, and in the -practice of the domestic virtues.” He hoped “to glide gently -down the stream which no human effort can ascend.” He -occupied himself with the care of his farm, and had no deeper -feeling than thankfulness that he was at length eased of a load -of public care. The simple grandeur of his character was now -revealed beyond possibility of misconception. The measure of -American veneration for this greatest of all Americans was full. -Henceforth Mount Vernon was a shrine to which pilgrim feet -were ever turned—evoking such boundless love and reverence -as never were elsewhere exhibited on American soil.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE THIRTEEN STATES BECOME A NATION.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Washington saw from the beginning that his -country was without a government. Congress was -a mere name. There were still thirteen sovereign -States—in league for the moment, but liable to be -placed at variance by the differences which time would surely -bring. Washington was satisfied that without a central government -they could never be powerful or respected. Such a -government, indeed, was necessary in order even to their -existence. European powers would, in its absence, introduce -dissensions among them. Men’s minds would revert to that -form of government with which they were familiar. Some -ambitious statesman or soldier would make himself King, and -the great experiment, based upon the equality of rights, would -prove an ignominious failure.</p> - -<p>The more sagacious Americans shared Washington’s belief on -this question. Conspicuous among these was Alexander Hamilton—perhaps, -next to Washington, the greatest American of -that age. Hamilton was a brave and skilful soldier, a brilliant -debater, a persuasive writer, a wise statesman. In his nineteenth -year he entered the army, at the very beginning of the -war. The quick eye of Washington discovered the remarkable -promise of the lad. He raised him to high command in the -army, and afterwards to high office in the government. It was -Hamilton who brought order out of the financial chaos which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -followed the war. It was Hamilton who suggested the convention -to consider the framing of a new Constitution. Often, -during the succeeding years, Hamilton’s temperate and sagacious -words calmed the storms which marked the infancy of the great -Republic. His career had a dark and bloody close. <span class="sidenote">1804 A.D.</span> In his forty-seventh year he stood face to face, one -bright July morning, with a savage politician named -Aaron Burr—a grandson of Jonathan Edwards the great divine. -Burr had fastened a quarrel upon him, in the hope of murdering -him in a duel. Hamilton had resolved not to fire. Burr fired -with careful aim, and Hamilton fell, wounded to death. One of -the ablest men America has ever possessed was thus lost to her.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1783 A.D.</span> Immediately after the close of the war, Hamilton began to -discuss the weakness of the existing form of government. -He was deeply convinced that the union of the States, in -order to be lasting, must be established on a solid basis; -and his writings did much to spread this conviction among his -fellow-countrymen. Washington never ceased from his retirement -to urge the same views. Gradually the urgent need of a -better system was recognized. It indeed soon became too -obvious to be denied. Congress found it utterly impossible to -get money. Between 1781 and 1786, ten million dollars -were called for from the States, but only two million and a -half were obtained. The interest on the debt was unpaid; the -ordinary expenses of the government were unprovided for. -The existing form of government was an acknowledged failure. -Something better had to be devised, or the tie which bound the -thirteen States would be severed.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1787 A.D.</span> Hamilton obtained the sanction of Congress to his proposal -that a convention of delegates from the several States -should be held. This convention was to review the -whole subject of the governing arrangement, and to -recommend such alterations as should be considered adequate -to the exigencies of the time. Philadelphia, as usual, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -the place of meeting. Thither, in the month of May, came -the men who were charged with the weighty task of framing a -government under which the thirteen States should become a -nation.</p> - -<p>Fifty-five men composed this memorable council. Among -them were the wisest men of whom America, or perhaps any -other country, could boast. Washington himself presided. -Benjamin Franklin brought to this—his latest and his greatest -task—the ripe experience of eighty-two years. New York sent -Hamilton—regarding whom Prince Talleyrand said, long afterwards, -that he had known nearly all the leading men of his -time, but he had never known one on the whole equal to -Hamilton. With these came many others whose names are -held in enduring honour. Since the meeting of that first Congress -which pointed the way to independence, America had seen -no such Assembly.</p> - -<p>The convention sat for four months. The great work which -occupied it divided the country into two parties. One party -feared most the evils which arise from weakness of the governing -power, and sought relief from these in a close union of the -States under a strong government. Another party dwelt more -upon the miserable condition of the over-governed nations of -Europe, and feared the creation of a government which might -grow into a despotism. The aim of the one was to vest the -largest possible measure of power in a central government. -Hamilton, indeed—to whom the British Constitution seemed -the most perfect on earth—went so far as to desire that the -States should be merely great municipalities, attending only, -like an English corporation, to their own local concerns. The -aim of the other was to circumscribe the powers accorded to the -general government—to vindicate the sovereignty of the individual -States, and give to it the widest possible scope. These two -sets of opinions continued to exist and conflict for three-quarters -of a century, till that which assigned an undue dominion to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -what were called State Rights, perished in the overthrow of the -great Rebellion.</p> - -<p>Slowly and through endless debate the convention worked -out its plan of a government. The scheme was submitted to -Congress, and thence sent down to the several States. Months -of fiery discussion ensued. Somewhat reluctantly, by narrow -majorities, in the face of vehement protests, the Constitution -was at length adopted under which the thirteen States were -to become so great.</p> - -<p class="tb">Great Britain has no written Constitution. She has her laws; -and it is expected that all future laws shall be in tolerable -harmony with the principles on which her past legislation has -been founded. But if Parliament were to enact, and the -Sovereign to sanction, any law at variance with these principles, -there is no help for it. Queen, Lords, and Commons are our -supreme authority, from whose decisions there lies no appeal. In -America it is different. There the supreme authority is a written -Constitution. Congress may unanimously enact, and the President -may cordially sanction, a new law. Two or three judges, -sitting in the same building where Congress meets, may compare -that law with the Constitution. If it is found at variance with -the Constitution, it is unceremoniously declared to be no law, -and entitled to no man’s obedience. With a few alterations, -this Constitution remains in full force now—gathering around -it, as it increases in age, the growing reverence of the people. -The men who framed it must have been very wise. The people -for whom it was framed must possess in high degree the precious -Anglo-Saxon veneration for law. Otherwise the American -paper Constitution must long ago have shared the fate of the -numerous documents of this class under which the French -vainly sought rest during their first Revolution.</p> - -<p>Each of the thirteen States was sovereign, and the government -of America hitherto had been merely a league of independent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -powers. Now the several States parted with a certain -amount of their sovereignty, and vested it in a General Government. -The General Government was to levy taxes, to coin -money, to regulate commercial relations with foreign countries, -to establish post-offices and post-roads, to establish courts of -law, to declare war, to raise and maintain armies and navies, -to make treaties, to borrow money on the credit of the United -States. The individual States expressly relinquished the right -to perform these sovereign functions.</p> - -<p>These powers were intrusted to two Houses of Legislation -and a President. The House of Representatives is composed of -two hundred and forty-three members. The members hold -their seats for two years, and are paid five thousand dollars -annually. Black men and Indians were not allowed to vote; -but all white men had a voice in the election of their representatives. -To secure perfect equality of representation, members -are distributed according to population. Thus, in 1863 a member -was given to every 124,000 inhabitants. Every ten years -a readjustment takes place, and restores the equality which the -growth of the intervening period has disturbed.</p> - -<p>The large States send necessarily a much larger number of -members to the Lower House than the small States do. Thus -New York sends thirty-one, while Rhode Island sends only two, -Delaware and Florida only one. The self-love of the smaller -States was wounded by an arrangement which resembled absorption -into the larger communities. The balance was redressed in -the constitution of the Upper Chamber—the Senate. That -body is composed of seventy-six members, elected by the legislatures -of the States. Every State, large or small, returns two -members. The small States were overborne in the Lower -House, but in the Senate they enjoyed an importance equal to -that of their most populous neighbours. The senators are -elected for six years, and are paid at the same rate as the -members of the House of Representatives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> - -<p>The head of the American Government is the President. He -holds office for four years. Each State chooses a number of -persons equal to the total number of members whom it returns -to the Houses of Legislation. These persons elect the President. -They elect also a Vice-President, lest the President should be -removed by death or otherwise during his term of office. All -laws enacted by Congress must be submitted to the President. -He may refuse to pass them—sending them back with a statement -of his objections. But should both Houses, by a vote of -two-thirds of their number, adhere to the rejected measures, they -become law in spite of the President’s veto. The President -appoints his own Cabinet Ministers, and these have no seats in -Congress. Their annual reports upon the affairs of their departments -are communicated to Congress by the President, along -with his own Message. The President is Commander-in-Chief -of the Army and Navy. With concurrence of the Senate, he -appoints ambassadors, judges of the Supreme Court, and other -public officers.</p> - -<p>Every State has a government after the same pattern, composed -of two Houses of Legislation and a Governor. These -authorities occupy themselves with the management of such -affairs as exclusively concern their own State, and have, therefore, -not been relinquished to the General Government. They -legislate in regard to railway and other public companies. They -see to the administration of justice within their own territory, -unless in the case of crimes committed against the Government. -They pass such laws as are required in regard to private property -and rights of succession. Above all, they retained all the -powers of which they were ever possessed in regard to slavery. -The Constitution gave Congress authority to suppress the importation -of slaves after the year 1808. Not otherwise was the -slave-question interfered with. That remained wholly under -the control of the individual States.</p> - -<p>But the men who framed this Constitution, however wise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -were liable to err. And if they were found in after years to -have erred, what provision—other than a revolution—was made -for correcting their mistakes? A very simple and very effective -one. When two-thirds of both Houses of Legislation deem it -necessary that some amendment of the Constitution should be -made, they propose it to the legislatures of the several States. -When three-fourths of these judicatories adopt the proposal, it -becomes a part of the Constitution. There have been in all -fifteen amendments adopted, most of them very soon after the -Constitution itself came into existence.</p> - -<p class="tb">And now the conditions of the great experiment are adjusted. -Three million Americans have undertaken to govern themselves. -Europe does not believe that any people can prosper in -such an undertaking. Europe still clings to the belief that, in -every country, a few Heaven-sent families must guide the -destinies of the incapable, child-like millions. America—having -no faith in Heaven-sent families—believes that the millions are -the best and safest guides of their own destinies, and means to -act on that belief. On her success great issues wait. If the -Americans show that they can govern themselves, all the other -nations will gradually put their hands to the same ennobling work.</p> - -<p class="tb"><span class="sidenote">1789 A.D.</span> The first step to be taken under the new Constitution was to -elect a President. There was but one man who was -thought of for this high and untried office. George -Washington was unanimously chosen. Congress was -summoned to meet in New York on the 4th of March. But -the members had to travel far on foot, or on horseback. Roads -were bad, bridges were few; streams, in that spring-time, were -swollen. It was some weeks after the appointed time before -business could be commenced.</p> - -<p>That Congress had difficult work to do, and it was done -patiently, with much plain sense and honesty. As yet there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -was no revenue, while everywhere there was debt. The General -Government had debt, and each of the States had debt. There -was the Foreign Debt—due to France, Holland, and Spain. -There was the Army Debt—for arrears of pay and pensions. -There was the Debt of the Five Great Departments—for supplies -obtained during the war. There was a vast issue of paper -money to be redeemed. There were huge arrears of interest. -And, on the other hand, there was no provision whatever for -these enormous obligations.</p> - -<p>Washington, with a sigh, asked a friend, “What is to be done -about this heavy debt?” “There is but one man in America -can tell you,” said his friend, “and that is Alexander Hamilton.” -Washington made Hamilton Secretary to the Treasury. The -success of his financial measures was immediate and complete. -“He smote the rock of the national resources,” said Daniel -Webster, “and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He -touched the dead corpse of the public credit, and it sprang -upon its feet.” All the war debts of the States were assumed -by the General Government. Efficient provision was made -for the regular payment of interest, and for a sinking fund -to liquidate the principal. Duties were imposed on shipping, -on goods imported from abroad, and on spirits manufactured -at home. The vigour of the Government inspired public confidence, -and commerce began to revive. In a few years the -American flag was seen on every sea. The simple manufactures -of the country resumed their long interrupted activity. -A National Bank was established. Courts were set up, and -judges were appointed. The salaries of the President and the -great functionaries were settled. A home was chosen for the -General Government on the banks of the Potomac; where the -capital of the Union was to supplant the little wooden village—remote -from the agitations which arise in the great centres of -population. Innumerable details connected with the establishment -of a new government were discussed and fixed. Novel as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -the circumstances were, little of the work then done has required -to be undone. Succeeding generations of Americans have -approved the wisdom of their early legislators, and continue unaltered -the arrangements which were framed at the outset of the -national existence.</p> - -<p class="tb">Thirty years of peace succeeded the War of Independence. -There were, indeed, passing troubles with the Indians, ending -always in the sharp chastisement of those disagreeable savages. -<span class="sidenote">1804 A.D.</span> There was an expedition against Tripoli, to avenge certain -indignities which the barbarians of that region had -offered to American shipping. There was a misunderstanding -with the French Directory, which was carried to a -somewhat perilous extreme. <span class="sidenote">1789 A.D.</span> A desperate fight took -place between a French frigate and an American frigate, -resulting in the surrender of the former. But these -trivial agitations did not disturb the profound tranquillity of the -nation, or hinder its progress in that career of prosperity on -which it had now entered.</p> - -<p>Washington was President during the first eight years of the -Constitution. <span class="sidenote">1799 A.D.</span> He survived his withdrawal from public life only -three years, dying, after a few hours’ illness, in the sixty-eighth -year of his age. His countrymen mourned him -with a sorrow sincere and deep. Their reverence for -him has not diminished with the progress of the years. Each -new generation of Americans catches up the veneration—calm, -intelligent, but profound—with which its fathers regarded the -blameless Chief. To this day there is an affectionate watchfulness -for opportunities to express the honour in which his name -is held. To this day the steamers which ply upon the Potomac -strike mournful notes upon the bell as they sweep past Mount -Vernon, where Washington spent the happiest days of his life, -and where he died.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_II_CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">America was well contented during many years to -be merely a spectator of the Great European War. -In spite of some differences which had arisen, she -still cherished a kindly feeling towards France—her -friend in the old time of need. She had still a bitter -hatred to England, her tyrant, as she deemed, and her cruel -foe. But her sympathies did not regulate her policy. She had -no call to avenge the dishonour offered to royalty by the people -of France. As little was it her business to strengthen France -against the indignation of outraged monarchs. Her distance -exempted her from taking any part in the bloody politics of -Europe, and she was able to look quietly on while the flames of -war consumed the nations of the Old World. Her ships enjoyed -a monopoly. She traded impartially with all the combatants. -The energies of Europe were taxed to the uttermost by -a gigantic work of mutual destruction. The Americans conveyed -to the people thus unprofitably occupied the foreign -articles of which they stood in need, and made great gain of -their neighbours’ madness.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1806 A.D.</span> But the time came when France and England were to put -forth efforts more gigantic than before, to compass the -ruin of each other. England gave out a decree announcing -that all the coasts of France and her allies were -in a state of blockade, and that any vessels attempting to trade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -with the blockaded countries were liable to seizure. At that -time nearly all the Continent was in alliance with France. -Napoleon replied by declaring the British Isles in a state of -blockade. These decrees closed Europe against American -vessels. Many captures were made, especially by English -cruisers. American merchants suffered grievous losses, and -loudly expressed their just wrath against the wicked laws -which wrought them so much evil.</p> - -<p>There was another question out of which mischief arose. -England has always maintained that any person who has once -been her subject can never cease to be so. He may remove to -another country; he may become the citizen of another state. -English law recognizes no such transaction. England claims -that the man is still an English subject—entitled to the advantages -of that relation, and bound by its obligations. America, -on the other hand, asserted that men could lay down their -original citizenship, and assume another—could transfer their -allegiance—could relinquish the privileges and absolve themselves -from the obligations which they inherited. The Englishmen -who settled on her soil were regarded by her as American -citizens and as nothing else.</p> - -<p>Circumstances arose which bestowed dangerous importance -upon these conflicting doctrines. England at that time obtained -sailors by impressment. That is to say, she seized men who -were engaged on board merchant vessels, and compelled them to -serve on board her ships of war. It was a process second only -to the slave-trade in its iniquity. The service to which men -were thus introduced could not but be hateful. There was a -copious desertion, as opportunity offered, and America was the -natural refuge. English ships of war claimed the right to search -American vessels for men who had deserted; and also for men -who, as born English subjects, were liable to be impressed. It -may well be believed that this right was not always exercised -with a strict regard to justice. It was not always easy to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -an Englishman from an American. Perhaps the -English captains were not very scrupulous as to the evidence on -which they acted. The Americans asserted that six thousand -men, on whom England had no shadow of claim, were ruthlessly -carried off to fight under a flag they hated; the English Government -admitted the charge to the extent of sixteen hundred men. -The American people vehemently resented the intolerable pretension -of England. Occasionally an American ship resisted it, -and blood was freely shed.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1807 A.D.</span> When England and France decreed the closing of all European -ports against commerce, America hastened to show that she -could be as unwise as her neighbours. Congress prohibited -commerce with the European powers which had -so offended. The people, wiser than their rulers, disapproved -this measure; but the Government enforced it. The -President was empowered to call out militia and employ armed -vessels to prevent cargoes of American produce from leaving -the country. It was hoped that England and France, thus -bereaved of articles which were deemed necessary, would be -constrained to repeal their injurious decrees.</p> - -<p>Thus for four years commerce was suspended, and grass grew -on the idle wharves of New York and Philadelphia. The -cotton and tobacco of the Southern States, the grain and timber -of the North, were stored up to await the return of reason to the -governing powers of the world. Tens of thousands of working -people were thrown idle. The irritation of the impoverished -nation was fast ripening towards war.</p> - -<p>America wanted now the wise leadership which she enjoyed -at the period of her revolutionary struggle. Washington had -never ceased to urge upon his countrymen the desirableness of -being on good terms with England. But Washington was dead, -and his words were not remembered. Franklin was dead, -Hamilton had fallen by the murdering hand of Aaron Burr. -There was a strong party eager for war. The commercial towns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -on the sea-board dreaded the terrible ships of England, and -desired to negotiate for redress of grievances. The people of -the interior, having no towns to be bombarded, preferred to try -their strength with England in battle. Some attempts -at negotiation resulted in failure. <span class="sidenote">June 18, 1812 A.D.</span> At length Congress -ended suspense by passing a Bill which declared war -against Great Britain.</p> - -<p>It was a bolder challenge than America supposed it to be. -England, indeed, had her hands full, for the power of her great -foe seemed to be irresistible. But even then the axe was laid -to its roots. In that same month of June Napoleon crossed the -river Niemen and entered Russia upon his fatal march to -Moscow. A few weeks before, the Duke of Wellington had -wrenched from his grasp the two great frontier fortresses of -Spain, and was now beginning to drive the French armies out -of the Peninsula. England would soon have leisure for her new -assailant; but all this was as yet unseen.</p> - -<p>When war was declared, England possessed one thousand -ships of war, and America possessed twenty. Their land forces -were in like proportion. England had nearly a million of men -under arms. America had an army reckoned at twenty-four -thousand, many of them imperfectly disciplined and not yet -to be relied upon in the field. Her treasury was empty. She -was sadly wanting in officers of experience. She had declared -war, but it was difficult to see what she could do in the way of -giving effect to her hostile purposes.</p> - -<p>But she held to these purposes with unfaltering tenacity. -Four days after Congress had resolved to fight, England repealed -those blockading decrees which had so justly offended the Americans. -There remained now only the question of the right of -search. The British Minister at Washington proposed that an -attempt should be made to settle peaceably this sole remaining -ground of quarrel. The proposal was declined. The American -war party would not swerve from its unhappy determination.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -The first efforts of the Americans were signally unsuccessful. -They attacked Canada with an army of two thousand five hundred -men. But this force had scarcely got upon Canadian ground -when it was driven back. <span class="sidenote">August, 1812 A.D.</span> It was besieged in Fort Detroit -by an inferior British army and forced to surrender. The -unfortunate General Hull, who commanded, was brought -to trial by his angry countrymen and sentenced to be shot. He -was pardoned, however, in consideration of former services.</p> - -<p>A second invasion followed, closed by a second surrender. -During two other campaigns the Americans prosecuted their -invasion. Ships were built and launched upon the great lakes -which lie between the territories of the combatants. Sea-fights -were fought, in one of which the American triumph was so complete -that all the British vessels surrendered. Many desperate -engagements took place on shore. Some forts were captured; -some towns were burned. Many women and children were -made homeless; many brave men were slain. But the invaders -made no progress. Everywhere the Canadians, with the help -of the regular troops, were able to hold their own. It was a -coarse method of solving the question which was in dispute -between the countries, and it was utterly fruitless.</p> - -<p>At sea a strange gleam of good fortune cheered the Americans. -It was there England felt herself omnipotent. She, with her -thousand ships, might pardonably despise the enemy who came -against her with twenty. But it was there disaster overtook her.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1812 A.D.</span> During the autumn months a series of encounters took place -between single British and American ships. In every -instance victory remained with the Americans. Five -English vessels were taken or destroyed. The Americans -were in most of these engagements more heavily manned and -armed than their enemies. But the startling fact remained. -Five British ships of war had been taken in battle by the -Americans; five defeats had been sustained by England. Her -sovereignty of the sea had received a rude shock.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> - -<p>The loss of a great battle would not have moved England -more profoundly than the capture of these five unimportant -ships. It seemed to many to foretell the downfall of her maritime -supremacy. She had ruled the seas because, heretofore, -no other country produced sailors equal to hers. But a new -power had now arisen, whose home, equally with that of -Britannia herself, was upon the deep. If America could achieve -these startling successes while she had only twenty ships, what -might she not accomplish with that ampler force which she -would hereafter possess? England had many enemies, all of -whom rejoiced to see in these defeats the approaching decay of -her envied greatness.</p> - -<p class="tb">Among English sailors there was a burning eagerness to wipe -out the unlooked-for disgrace which had fallen upon the flag. -A strict blockade of American ports was maintained. On board -the English ships which cruised on the American coasts impatient -search was made for opportunities of retrieving the -honour of the service.</p> - -<p>Two English ships lay off Boston in the summer of 1813, under -the command of Captain Broke. Within the bay the American -frigate <i>Chesapeake</i> had lain for many months. Captain Broke -had bestowed especial pains upon the training of his men, and -he believed he had made them a match for any equal force. He -and they vehemently desired to test their prowess in battle. -He sent away one of his ships, retaining only the <i>Shannon</i>, -which was slightly inferior to the <i>Chesapeake</i> in guns and in -men. And then he stood close in to the shore, and sent to -Captain Lawrence of the <i>Chesapeake</i> an invitation to come -forth that they might “try the fortune of their respective -flags.”</p> - -<p>From his mast-head Captain Broke watched anxiously the -movements of the hostile ship. Soon he saw her canvas shaken -out to the breeze. His challenge was accepted. The stately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -<i>Chesapeake</i> moved slowly down the bay, attended by many -barges and pleasure-boats. To the over-sanguine men of Boston -it seemed that Captain Lawrence sailed out to assured victory. -They crowded to house-top and hill to witness his success. They -prepared a banquet to celebrate his triumphant return.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">June 1, 1813 A.D.</span> Slowly and in grim silence the hostile ships drew near. No -shot was fired till they were within a stone’s-throw of -each other, and the men in either could look into the -faces of those they were about to destroy. Then began -the horrid carnage of a sea-fight. The well-trained -British fired with steady aim, and every shot told. The rigging -of their enemy was speedily ruined; her stern was beaten -in; her decks were swept by discharges of heavy guns loaded -with musket-balls. The American firing was greatly less -effective. After a few broadsides, the ships came into contact. -The <i>Shannon</i> continued to fire grape-shot from two of her guns. -The <i>Chesapeake</i> could now reply feebly, and only with musketry. -Captain Broke prepared to board. Over decks heaped with -slain and slippery with blood, the Englishmen sprang upon the -yielding foe. The American flag was pulled down, and resistance -ceased.</p> - -<p>The fight lasted but a quarter of an hour. So few minutes -ago the two ships, peopled by seven hundred men in the pride -of youth and strength, sailed proudly over seas which smiled -in the peaceful sunlight of that summer evening. Now their -rigging lies in ruins upon the cumbered decks; their sides are -riven by shot; seventy-one dead bodies wait to be thrown -overboard; one hundred and fifty-seven men lie wounded and -in anguish—some of them to die, some to recover and live out -cheerless lives, till the grave opens for their mutilated and disfigured -forms. Did these men hate each other with a hatred so -intense that they could do no less than inflict these evils upon -each other? They had no hatred at all. Their Governments -differed, and this was their method of ascertaining who was in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -the right! Surely men will one day be wise enough to adopt -some process for the adjustment of differences less wild in its -inaccuracy, less brutish in its cruelty than this.</p> - -<p>This victory, so quickly won and so decisive, restored the confidence -of England in her naval superiority. The war went on -with varying fortune. The Americans, awakening to the greatness -of the necessity, put forth vigorous efforts to increase both -army and navy. Frequent encounters between single ships -occurred. Sometimes the American ship captured or destroyed -the British; more frequently now the British ship captured or -destroyed the American. The superb fighting capabilities of -the race were splendidly illustrated, but no results of a more -solid character can be enumerated.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1814 A.D.</span> Meanwhile momentous changes had occurred in Europe. -Napoleon had been overthrown, and England was enjoying -the brief repose which his residence in Elba afforded. -She could bestow some attention now upon her American -quarrel. Several regiments of Wellington’s soldiers were sent -to America, under the command of General Ross, and an attack -upon Washington was determined. The force at General Ross’s -disposal was only three thousand five hundred men. With -means so inconsiderable, it seemed rash to attack the capital of -a great nation. But the result proved that General Ross had -not under-estimated the difficulties of the enterprise.</p> - -<p>The Americans utterly failed in the defence of their capital. -They were forewarned of the attack, and had good time to prepare. -The militia of Pennsylvania and Virginia had promised -their services, but were not found when they were needed. -Only seven thousand men could be drawn together to resist the -advance of the English. These took post at Bladensburg, where -there was a bridge over the Potomac. The English were greatly -less numerous, but they were veterans who had fought under -Wellington in many battles. To them it was play to rout the -undisciplined American levies. They dashed upon the enemy,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -who, scarcely waiting to fire a shot, broke and fled towards -Washington in hopeless confusion.</p> - -<p>That same evening the British marched quietly into Washington. -General Ross had orders to destroy or hold to ransom -all public buildings. He offered to spare the national property, -if a certain sum of money were paid to him; but the authorities -declined his proposal. Next day a great and most unjustifiable -ruin was wrought. The Capitol, the President’s residence, the -Government offices, even the bridge over the Potomac—all were -destroyed. The Navy-yard and Arsenal, with some ships in -course of building, were set on fire by the Americans themselves. -The President’s house was pillaged by the soldiers before it was -burned. These devastations were effected in obedience to -peremptory orders from the British Government, on whom rests -the shame of proceedings so reprehensible and so unusual in the -annals of civilized war. On the same day the British withdrew -from the ruins of the burning capital, and retired towards the -coast.</p> - -<p>The Americans were becoming weary of this unmeaning war. -Hope of success there was none, now that Britain had no other -enemy to engage her attention. America had no longer a ship -of war to protect her coasts from insult. Her trade was extinct. -Her exports, which were fourteen million sterling before the -war, had sunk to one-tenth of that amount. Two-thirds of the -trading classes were insolvent. Most of the trading ships were -taken. The revenue hitherto derived from customs had utterly -ceased. The credit of the country was not good, and loans -could not be obtained. Taxation became very oppressive, and -thus enhanced extremely the unpopularity of the war. Some of -the New England States refused to furnish men or money, and -indicated a disposition to make peace for themselves, if they -could not obtain it otherwise.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Feb. 11, 1815 A.D.</span> Peace was urgently needed, and happily was near at hand. -Late one Saturday night a British sloop-of-war arrived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -at New York bearing a treaty of peace, already ratified by -the British Government. The cry of “Peace! peace!” -rang through the gladdened streets. The city burst into -spontaneous illumination. The news reached Boston -on Monday morning, and Boston was almost beside herself -with joy. A multitude of idle ships had long lain at her -wharves. Before night carpenters were at work making them -ready to go to sea. Sailors were engaged; cargoes were being -passed on board. Boston returned without an hour’s delay to -her natural condition of commercial activity.</p> - -<p>British and American Commissioners had met at Ghent, and -had agreed upon terms of peace. The fruitlessness of war is a -familiar discovery when men have calmness to review its losses -and its gains. Both countries had endured much during these -three years of hostilities; and now the peace left as they had -been before the questions whose settlement was the object of -the war.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1814 A.D.</span> The treaty was concluded on the 24th December. Could the -news have been flashed by telegraph across the Atlantic, -much brave life would have been saved. But seven -weeks elapsed before it was known in the southern -parts of America that the two countries were at peace. And -meanwhile one of the bloodiest fights of the war had been -fought.</p> - -<p>New Orleans—a town of nearly twenty thousand inhabitants—was -then, as it is now, one of the great centres of the cotton -trade, and commanded the navigation of the Mississippi. The -capture of a city so important could not fail to prove a heavy -blow to America. An expedition for this purpose was organized. -Just when the Commissioners at Ghent were felicitating themselves -upon the peace they had made, the British army, in -storm and intolerable cold, was being rowed on shore within a -few miles of New Orleans.</p> - -<p>Sir Edward Pakenham, one of the heroes of the Peninsula,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -commanded the English. The defence of New Orleans was -intrusted to General Jackson. Jackson had been a soldier from -his thirteenth year, and had spent a youth of extraordinary -hardship. He was now a strong-willed, experienced, and skilful -leader, in whom his soldiers had boundless confidence. -Pakenham, fresh from the triumphs of the Peninsula, looked -with mistaken contempt upon his formidable enemy.</p> - -<p>Jackson’s line of defence was something over half a mile in -length. The Mississippi covered his right flank, an impassable -swamp and jungle secured his left. Along his front ran a deep -broad ditch, topped by a massive wall of earth. In this strong -position the Americans waited the coming of the enemy.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1815 A.D.</span> At daybreak on the 8th January the British, six thousand -strong, made their attack. The dim morning light -revealed to the Americans the swift advance of the red-coated -host. A murderous fire of grape and round shot -was opened from the guns mounted on the bastion. Brave men -fell fast, but the assailants passed on through the storm and -reached the American works. It was their design to scale the -ramparts, and, once within, to trust to their bayonets, which -had never deceived them yet. But at the foot of the ramparts -it was found that the fascines and scaling-ladders, which had -been prepared for the assault, were now amissing! The men -mounted on each other’s shoulders, and thus some of them forced -their way into the works, only to be shot down by the American -riflemen. All was vain. A deadly fire streamed incessant -from that fatal parapet upon the defenceless men below. Sir -Edward Pakenham fell mortally wounded. The carnage was -frightful, and the enterprise visibly hopeless. The troops were -withdrawn in great confusion, having sustained a loss of two -thousand men. The Americans had seven men killed and the -same number wounded.</p> - -<p>Thus closed the war. Both countries look with just pride -upon the heroic courage so profusely displayed in battle, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -upon the patient endurance with which great sacrifices were -submitted to. It is pity these high qualities did not find a -more worthy field for their exercise. The war was a gigantic -folly and wickedness, such as no future generation, we may -venture to hope, will ever repeat.</p> - -<p class="tb">On the Fourth of July 1826 all America kept holiday. On -that day, fifty years before, the Declaration of Independence was -signed, and America began her great career as a free country. -Better occasion for jubilee the world has seldom known. The -Americans must needs do honour to the Fathers of their Independence, -most of whom have already passed away; two of whom—John -Adams and Thomas Jefferson—died on this very day. -They must pause and look back upon this amazing half century. -The world had never seen growth so rapid. There were three -million of Americans who threw off the British yoke; now -there were twelve million. The thirteen States had increased -to twenty-four. The territory of the Union had been -prodigiously enlarged. <span class="sidenote">1803 A.D.</span> Louisiana had been sold by -France; <span class="sidenote">1820 A.D.</span> Florida had been ceded by Spain. Time after -time tribes of vagrant Indians yielded up their lands -and enrolled themselves subjects of the Great Republic. -The Gulf of Mexico now bounded the Union on the south, and -the lakes which divide her from Canada on the north. From -the Atlantic on the east, she already looked out upon the Pacific -on the west. Canals had been cut leading from the great lakes -to the Hudson, and the grain which grew on the corn-lands of -the west, thousands of miles away, was brought easily to New -York. Innumerable roads had been made. The debt incurred -in the War of Independence had been all paid; and the still -heavier debt incurred in the second war with England was being -rapidly extinguished. A steady tide of emigration flowed westward. -Millions of acres of the fertile wilderness which lay -towards the setting sun had been at length made profitable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -mankind. Extensive manufactories had been established, in -which cotton and woollen fabrics were produced. The foreign -trade of the country amounted to forty million sterling.</p> - -<p>The Marquis Lafayette, now an old man, came to see once -more before he died the country he had helped to save, and took -part with wonder in the national rejoicing. The poor colonists, -for whose liberties he had fought, had already become a powerful -and wealthy nation. Everywhere there had been expansion. -Everywhere there were comfort and abundance. Everywhere -there were boundless faith in the future, and a vehement, unresting -energy, which would surely compel the fulfilment of -any expectations, however vast.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="Book_Third">Book Third</h3> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">KING COTTON.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When Europeans first visited the southern parts of -America, they found in abundant growth there a -plant destined to such eminence in the future -history of the world as no other member of the -vegetable family ever attained. It was an unimportant-looking -plant, two or three feet in height, studded with pods somewhat -larger than a walnut. In the appropriate season these pods -opened, revealing a wealth of soft white fibre, embedded in -which lay the seeds of the plant. This was Cotton. It was -not unknown to the Old World, for the Romans used cotton -fabrics before the Christian era. India did so from a still remoter -period. But the extent to which its use had been carried -was trivial. Men clothed themselves as they best might in -linen or woollen cloth, or simply in the skins of the beasts -which they slew. The time was now at hand when an ampler -provision for their wants was to be disclosed to them. Socially -and politically, cotton has deeply influenced the course of -human affairs. The mightiest conquerors sink into insignificance -in presence of King Cotton.</p> - -<p>The English began to cultivate a little cotton very soon after -their settlement in America. But it was a difficult crop for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -them to handle. The plants grew luxuriantly, and when -autumn came the opening pods revealed a most satisfying -opulence. The quantity of cotton produced excited the wonder -of the planters. But the seeds of the plant adhered tenaciously -to the fibre. Before the fibre could be used the seeds had to be -removed, and this was a slow and therefore a costly process. It -was as much as a man could do in a day to separate one pound -of cotton from the seeds. Cotton could never be abundant or -cheap while this was the case.</p> - -<p>But in course of time things came to pass in England which -made it indispensable that cotton should be both abundant and -cheap. In 1768 Richard Arkwright invented a machine for -spinning cotton vastly superior to anything hitherto in use. -Next year a greater than he—James Watt—announced a greater -invention—his Steam Engine. England was ready now to begin -her great work of weaving cotton for the world. But where -was the cotton to be found?</p> - -<p>Three or four years before Watt patented his Engine, and -Arkwright his Spinning-frame, there was born in a New England -farm-house a boy whose work was needed to complete -theirs. His name was Eli Whitney. Eli was a born mechanic; -it was a necessity of his nature to invent and construct. As a -mere boy he made nails, pins, and walking-canes by novel processes, -and thus earned money to support himself at college. In -1792 he went to Georgia to visit Mrs. Greene, the widow of -that General Greene who so troubled Lord Cornwallis in the -closing years of the War of Independence. In that primitive -society, where few of the comforts of civilized life were yet -enjoyed, no visits were so like those of the angels as the visits -of a skilful mechanic. Eli constructed marvellous amusements -for Mrs. Greene’s children. He overcame all household difficulties -by some ingenious contrivance. Mrs. Greene learned to -wonder at him, and to believe nothing was impossible for him. -One day Mrs. Greene entertained a party of her neighbours.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -The conversation turned upon the sorrows of the Planter. That -unhappy tenacity with which the seeds of cotton adhered to the -fibre was elaborately bemoaned. With an urgent demand from -England for cotton, with boundless lands which grew nothing -so well as cotton, it was hard to be so utterly baffled.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Greene had unlimited faith in her friend Eli. She -begged him to invent a machine which should separate the seeds -of cotton from the fibre. Eli was of Northern upbringing, and -had never even seen cotton in seed. He walked to Savannah, -and there, with some trouble, obtained a quantity of uncleaned -cotton. He shut himself up in his room and brooded over the -difficulty which he had undertaken to conquer.</p> - -<p>All that winter Eli laboured—devising, hammering, building -up, rejecting, beginning afresh. He had no help; he could not -even get tools to buy, but had to make them with his own -hands. At length his machine was completed—rude-looking, -but visibly effective. Mrs. Greene invited the leading men of -the State to her house. She conducted them in triumph to the -building in which the machine stood. The owners of unprofitable -cotton lands looked on with a wild flash of hope lighting up -their desponding hearts. Possibilities of untold wealth to each -of them lay in that clumsy structure. The machine was put in -motion. It was evident to all that it could perform the work -of hundreds of men. Eli had gained a great victory for mankind. -In that rude log-hut of Georgia, Cotton was crowned -King, and a new era opened for America and the world.</p> - -<p>Ten years after Whitney’s Cotton-gin was invented, a huge -addition was made to the cotton-growing districts of America. -In 1803 Europe enjoyed a short respite from the mad Napoleon -wars. France had recently acquired from Spain vast regions -bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and stretching far up the -valley of the Mississippi, and westward to the Pacific. It was -certain that peace in Europe would not last long. It was -equally certain that when war was resumed France could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -hold these possessions against the fleets of England. America -wished to acquire, and was willing to pay for them. It was -better to sell to the Americans, and equip soldiers with the -price, than wait till England was ready to conquer. Napoleon -sold, and America added Louisiana to her vast possessions.</p> - -<p>Mark well these two events—the invention of a machine for -cheaply separating the seeds of cotton from the fibre, and the -purchase of Louisiana from the French. Out of these events -flows the American history of the next half century. Not any -other event since the War of Independence—not all other -events put together, have done so much to shape and determine -the career of the American people.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SLAVERY.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When America gained her independence slavery existed -in all the colonies. No State was free from -the taint; even the New England Puritans held -slaves. At an early period they had learned to -enslave their Indian neighbours. The children of the Pilgrims -owned Indians, and in due time owned Africans, without remorse. -But the number of slaves in the North was always -small. At first it was not to the higher principle or clearer -intelligence of the Northern men that this limited prevalence -of slavery was due. The North was not a region where slave -labour could ever be profitable. The climate was harsh, the soil -rocky and bleak; and labour required to be directed by intelligence. -In that comparatively unproductive land the mindless -and heartless toil of the slave would scarcely defray the cost -of his support. At the Revolution there were half a million -of slaves in the colonies, and of these only thirty to forty thousand -were in the North.</p> - -<p>It was otherwise in the sunny and luxuriant South. The -African was at home there, for the climate was like his own. -The rich soil yielded its wealth to labour in the slightest and -least intelligent form. The culture of rice, and tobacco, and -cotton supplied the very kind of work which a slave was fitted -to perform. The South found profitable employment for as -many Africans as the slave-traders were able to steal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> - -<p>And yet at the Revolution slavery enjoyed no great degree -of favour. The free spirit enkindled by the war was in violent -opposition to the existence of a system of bondage. The presence -of the slaves had disabled the South from taking the part -she ought in the War of Independence. The white men had -to stay at home to watch the black. Virginia, Washington’s -State, furnished a reasonable proportion of troops; but the -other Southern States were almost worthless. Everywhere in -the North slavery was regarded as an objectionable and decaying -institution. The leaders of the Revolution, themselves -mainly slave-owners, were eagerly desirous that slavery should -be abolished. Washington was utterly opposed to the system, -and provided in his will for the emancipation of his own -slaves. Hamilton was a member of an association for the -gradual abolition of slavery. John Adams would never own -a slave. Franklin, Patrick Henry, Madison, Munroe, were -united in their reprobation of slavery. Jefferson, a Virginian, -who prepared the Declaration of Independence, said that in -view of slavery “he trembled for his country, when he reflected -that God was just.”</p> - -<p>In the convention which met to frame a Constitution for -America the feeling of antagonism to slavery was supreme. -Had the majority followed their own course, provision would -have been made then for the gradual extinction of slavery. -But there arose here a necessity for one of those compromises -by which the history of America has been so sadly marked. -When it was proposed to prohibit the importation of slaves, -all the Northern and most of the Southern States favoured -the proposal. But South Carolina and Georgia were insatiable -in their thirst for African labour. They decisively refused to -become parties to a Union in which there was to be no importation -of slaves. The other States yielded. Instead of an immediate -abolition of this hateful traffic, it was agreed merely -that after twenty years Congress should be at liberty to abolish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -the slave-trade if it chose. By the same threat of disunion the -Slave States of the extreme South gained other advantages. -It was fixed by the Constitution that a slave who fled to a -Free State was not therefore to become a free man. He must -be given back to his owner. It was yet further conceded that -the Slave States should have increased political power in proportion -to the number of their slaves. A black man did not -count for so much as a white. Every State was to send -members to the House of Representatives according to its population, -and in reckoning that population five negroes were to -be counted as three.</p> - -<p>And yet at that time, and for years after, the opinion of the -South itself regarded slavery as an evil—thrust upon them by -England—difficult to be got rid of—profitable, it might be, but -lamentable and temporary. No slave-holder refused to discuss -the subject or to admit the evils of the system. No violence -was offered to those who denounced it. The clergy might -venture to preach against it. Hopeful persons might foretell -the approach of liberty to those unhappy captives. Even the -lowest of the slave-holding class did not yet resent the expression -of such hopes.</p> - -<p>But a mighty change was destined to pass upon the tone of -Southern opinion. The purchase of Louisiana opened a vast -tract of the most fertile land in the world to the growth of -cotton; Whitney’s invention made the growth of cotton profitable. -Slave-holding became lucrative. It was wealth to own -a little plantation and a few negroes; and there was an eager -race for the possession of slaves. Importation alone could not -supply the demand. Some of the more northerly of the -Southern States turned their attention to the breeding of slaves -for the Southern markets. Kentucky and Virginia became -rich and infamous by this awful commerce.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> While iniquity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -was not specially profitable, the Southern States were not very -reluctant to be virtuous. When the gains of wickedness became, -as they now did, enormous, virtue ceased to have a footing -in the South.</p> - -<p>During many years the leader of the slave-owners was John -C. Calhoun. He was a native of South Carolina—a tall, -slender, gipsy-looking man, with an eye whose wondrous depth -and power impressed all who came into his presence. Calhoun -taught the people of the South that slavery was good for the -slave. It was a benign, civilizing agency. The African attained -to a measure of intelligence in slavery greatly in advance -of that which he had ever reached as a free man. To -him, visibly, it was a blessing to be enslaved. From all this -it was easy to infer that Providence had appointed slavery for -the advantage of both races; that opposition to this Heaven-ordained -institution was profane; that abolition was merely an -aspect of infidelity. So Calhoun taught; so the South learned -to believe. <span class="sidenote">1850 A.D.</span> Calhoun’s last speech in Congress warned the -North that opposition to slavery would destroy the Union. -His latest conversation was on this absorbing theme. A -few hours after, he had passed where all dimness of -vision is removed, and errors of judgment become impossible!</p> - -<p>It was very pleasant for the slave-owners to be taught that -slavery enjoyed divine sanction. The doctrine had other -apostles than Mr. Calhoun. Unhappily it came to form part -of the regular pulpit teaching of the Southern churches. It -was gravely argued out from the Old Testament that slavery -was the proper condition of the negro. Ham was to be the -servant of his brethren; hence all the descendants of Ham -were the rightful property of white men. The slave who fled -from his master was guilty of the crime of theft in one of its -most heinous forms. So taught the Southern pulpit. Many -books, written by grave divines for the enforcement of these -doctrines, remain to awaken the amazement of posterity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> - -<p>The slave-owners inclined a willing ear to these pleasing assurances. -They knew slavery to be profitable; their leaders -in Church and State told them it was right. It was little -wonder that a fanatical love to slavery possessed their hearts. -In the passionate, ill-regulated minds of the slave-owning class -it became in course of years almost a madness, which was -shared, unhappily, by the great mass of the white population. -Discussion could no longer be permitted. It became a fearful -risk to express in the South an opinion hostile to slavery. It -was a familiar boast that no man who opposed slavery -would be suffered to live in a Slave State; and the slave-owners -made their word good. Many who were suspected of -hostile opinions were tarred and feathered, and turned out of -the State. Many were shot; many were hanged; some were -burned. The Southern mobs were singularly brutal, and the -slave-owners found willing hands to do their fiendish work. -The law did not interfere to prevent or punish such atrocities. -The churches looked on and held their peace.</p> - -<p>As slave property increased in value, a strangely horrible -system of laws gathered around it. The slave was regarded, -not as a person, but as a thing. He had no civil rights; nay, -it was declared by the highest legal authority that a slave had -no rights at all which a white man was bound to respect. The -most sacred laws of nature were defied. Marriage was a tie -which bound the slave only during the master’s pleasure. A -slave had no more legal authority over his child “than a cow -has over her calf.” It was a grave offence to teach a slave to -read. A white man might expiate that offence by fine or imprisonment; -to a black man it involved flogging. The owner -might not without challenge murder an unoffending slave; but -a slave resisting his master’s will might lawfully be slain. A -slave who would not stand to be flogged, might be shot as he -ran off. The master was blameless if his slave died under the -administration of reasonable correction—in other words, if he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -flogged a slave to death. A fugitive slave might be killed by -any means which his owner chose to employ. On the other -hand, there was a slender pretext of laws for the protection -of the slave. Any master, for instance, who wantonly cut out -the tongue or put out the eyes of his slave, was liable to a -small fine. But as no slave could give evidence affecting a -white man in a court of law, the law had no terrors for the -slave-owner.</p> - -<p>The practice of the South in regard to her slaves was not -unworthy of her laws. Children were habitually torn away -from their mothers. Husbands and wives were habitually -separated, and forced to contract new marriages. Public whipping-houses -became an institution. The hunting of escaped -slaves became a regular profession, and dogs were bred and -trained for that special work. Slaves who were suspected of -an intention to escape were branded with red-hot irons. When -the Northern armies forced their way into the South, many of -the slaves who fled to them were found to be scarred or mutilated. -The burning of a negro who was accused of crime was -a familiar occurrence. It was a debated question whether it -was more profitable to work the slaves moderately, and so -make them last, or to take the greatest possible amount of -work from them, even although that would quickly destroy -them. Some favoured the plan of overworking, and acted -upon it without scruple.</p> - -<p>These things were done, and the Christian churches of the -South were not ashamed to say that the system out of which -they flowed enjoyed the sanction of God! It appeared that -men who had spent their lives in the South were themselves -so brutalized by their familiarity with the atrocities of slavery, -that the standard by which they judged it was no higher than -that of the lowest savages.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">MISSOURI.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When the State of Louisiana was received into the -Union in 1812, there was left out a large proportion -of the original purchase from Napoleon. As -yet this region was unpeopled. It lay silent and -unprofitable—a vast reserve prepared for the wants of unborn -generations. It was traversed by the Missouri river. The -great Mississippi was its boundary on the east. It possessed, -in all, a navigable river-line of two thousand miles. Enormous -mineral wealth was treasured up to enrich the world for -centuries to come. There were coal-fields greater than those -of all Europe. There was iron piled up in mountains, one of -which contained two hundred million tons of ore. There was -profusion of copper, of zinc, of lead. There were boundless -forests. There was a soil unsurpassed in fertility. The climate -was kindly and genial, marred by neither the stern winters of -the North nor the fierce heats of the South. The scenery was -often of rare beauty and grandeur.</p> - -<p>This was the Territory of Missouri. Gradually settlers from -the neighbouring States dropped in. Slave-holders came, bringing -their chattels with them. They were first in the field, and -they took secure possession. The free emigrant turned aside, -and the slave-power reigned supreme in Missouri. The wealth -and beauty of this glorious land were wedded to the most gigantic -system of evil which ever established itself upon the earth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p> - -<p>By the year 1818 there were sixty thousand persons residing -in Missouri. The time had come for the admission of this Territory -into the Union as a State. It was the first great contest -between the Free and the Slave States. The cotton-gin, the -acquisition of Louisiana, the teaching of Calhoun, had done -their work. The slave-owners were now a great political power—resolute, -unscrupulous, intolerant of opposition. The next -half century of American history takes its tone very much from -their fierce and restless energy. Their policy never wavered. -To gain predominance for slavery, with room for its indefinite -expansion, these were their aims. American history is filled -with their violence on to a certain April morning in 1865, when -the slave-power and all its lawless pretensions lay crushed among -the ruins of Richmond.</p> - -<p>When the application of Missouri for admission into the -Union came to be considered in Congress, an attempt was made -to shut slavery wholly out of the new State. A struggle ensued -which lasted for nearly three years. The question was one of -vital importance. At that time the number of Free States and -the number of Slave States were exactly equal. Whosoever -gained Missouri gained a majority in the Senate. The North -was deeply in earnest in desiring to prevent the extension of -slavery. The South was equally resolute that no limitation -should be imposed. The result was a compromise, proposed by -the South. Missouri was to be given over to slavery. But it -was agreed that, excepting within the limits of Missouri herself, -slavery should not be permitted in any part of the territory -purchased from France, north of a line drawn eastward and -westward from the southern boundary of that State. Thus far -might the waves of this foul tide flow, but no further. So -ended the great controversy, in the decisive victory of the South.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HOPE FOR THE NEGRO.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The North participated in the gains of slavery. The -cotton-planter borrowed money at high interest -from the Northern capitalist. He bought his goods -in Northern markets; he sent his cotton to the -North for sale. The Northern merchants made money at his -hands, and were in no haste to overthrow the peculiar institution -out of which results so pleasant flowed. They had no -occasion, as the planter had, to persuade themselves that slavery -enjoyed special divine sanction. But it did become a very -general belief in the North that without slave-labour the cultivation -of Southern lands was impossible. It was also very -generally alleged that the condition of the slave was preferable -to that of the free European labourer.</p> - -<p>All looked very hopeless for the poor negro. The South -claimed to hold him by divine right. She looked to a future of -indefinite expansion. The boundless regions which stretched -away from her border, untrodden by man, were marked out for -slave territory. A powerful sentiment in the North supported -her claims. She was able to exercise a controlling influence -over the Federal Government. It seemed as if all authority in -the Union was pledged to uphold slavery, and assert for ever -the right of the white man to hold the black man as an article -of merchandise.</p> - -<p>But even then the awakening of the Northern conscience<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -had begun. On the 1st of January 1831, a journeyman -printer, William Lloyd Garrison, published in Boston the first -number of a paper devoted to the abolition of slavery. This is -perhaps the earliest prominent incident in the history of Emancipation. -It was indeed a humble opening of a noble career. -Garrison was young and penniless. He wrote the articles, and -he also, with the help of a friend, set the types. He lived -mainly on bread and water. Only when a number of the paper -sold particularly well, he and his companion indulged in a bowl -of milk. The Mayor of Boston was asked by a Southern -magistrate to suppress the paper. He replied that it was not -worth the trouble. The office of the editor was “an obscure -hole; his only visible auxiliary a negro boy; his supporters a -few insignificant persons of all colours.” The lordly Southerners -need not be uneasy about this obscure editor and his paltry -newspaper.</p> - -<p>But the fulness of time had come, and every word spoken -against slavery found now some willing listener. In the year -after Garrison began his paper the American Anti-slavery -Society was formed. It was composed of twelve members. -Busy hands were scattering the seed abroad, and it sprang -quickly. Within three years there were two hundred anti-slavery -societies in America; in seven years more these had -increased to two thousand. The war against slavery was now -begun in earnest.</p> - -<p>The slave-owners and their allies in the North regarded with -rage unutterable this formidable invasion. Everywhere they -opposed violence to the arguments of their opponents. Large -rewards were offered for the capture of prominent abolitionists. -Many Northern men, who unwarily strayed into Southern -States, were murdered on the mere suspicion that they -were opposed to slavery. <span class="sidenote">1835 A.D.</span> President Jackson recommended -Congress to forbid the conveyance to the South, -by the mails, of anti-slavery publications. In Boston a mob<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -of well-dressed and respectable citizens suppressed a meeting -of female abolitionists. While busied about that enterprise, -they were fortunate enough to lay hold of Garrison, whose -murder they designed, and would have accomplished, had not a -timely sally of the constables rescued him from their grasp. <span class="sidenote">1833 A.D.</span> In Connecticut a young woman was imprisoned for teaching -negro children to read. Philadelphia was disgraced -by riots in which negroes were killed and their houses -burned down. Throughout the Northern States anti-slavery -meetings were habitually invaded and broken up by the allies -of the slave-owners. The abolitionists were devoured by a zeal -which knew no bounds and permitted no rest. The slave-owners -met them with a deep, remorseless, murderous hatred, -which gradually possessed and corroded their whole nature. In -this war, as it soon became evident, there could be no compromise. -Peace was impossible otherwise than by the destruction -of one or other of the contending parties.</p> - -<p>The spirit in which the South defended her cherished institution -was fairly exemplified in her treatment of a young clergyman, -Mr. Lovejoy, who offended her by his antipathy to slavery. -Mr. Lovejoy established himself in Alton, a little town of -Illinois, where he conducted a newspaper. Illinois was itself a -Free State; but Missouri was near, and the slave-power was -supreme in all that region. Mr. Lovejoy declared himself in -his newspaper against slavery. He was requested to withdraw -from that neighbourhood; but he maintained his right of free -speech, and chose to remain. The mob sacked his printing-office, -and flung his press into the river. <span class="sidenote">1837 A.D.</span> Mr. Lovejoy -bought another press. The arrival of this new machine -highly displeased the ruffianism of the little town of -Alton. It was stored for safety in a well-secured building, -and two or three well-disposed citizens kept armed watch over -it. The mob attacked the warehouse. Shots were exchanged, -and some of the rioters were slain. At length the mob succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -in setting fire to the building. When Mr. Lovejoy -showed himself to the crowd he was fired at, and fell pierced -by five bullets. The printing-press was broken; the newspaper -was silenced; the hostile editor was slaughtered. The offended -majesty of the slave-power was becomingly vindicated.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">TEXAS.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The decaying energies of Spain were sorely wasted by -the wars which Napoleon forced upon her. Invaded, -conquered, occupied, fought for during years -by great armies, Spain issued from the struggle in -a state of utter exhaustion. It was impossible that a country -so enfeebled could maintain a great colonial dominion. Not -long after the Battle of Waterloo all her American dependencies -chose to be independent, and Spain could do nothing to -prevent it. Among the rest, Mexico won for herself the privilege -of self-government, of which she has thus far proved herself -so incapable.</p> - -<p>Lying between the Mississippi and the Rio Grande was a vast -wilderness of undefined extent and uncertain ownership, which -America, with some hesitation, recognized as belonging -to Mexico. It was called Texas. The climate was -genial; the soil was of wondrous fertility. <span class="sidenote">1829 A.D.</span> America -coveted this fair region, and offered to buy it from Mexico. -Her offer was declined.</p> - -<p>The great natural wealth of Texas, combined with the almost -total absence of government, were powerful attractions to the -lawless adventurers who abounded in the South-Western States. -A tide of vagrant blackguardism streamed into Texas. Safe -from the grasp of justice, the murderer, the thief, the fraudulent -debtor, opened in Texas a new and more hopeful career.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -Founded by these conscript fathers, Texan society grew apace. -<span class="sidenote">1836 A.D.</span> In a few years Texas felt herself strong enough to be -independent. Her connection with Mexico was declared -to be at an end.</p> - -<p>The leader in this revolution was Sam Houston, a Virginian -of massive frame—energetic, audacious, unscrupulous—in no -mean degree fitted to direct the storm he had helped to raise. -For Houston was a Southerner, and it was his ambition to gain -Texas for the purposes of the slave-owners. Mexico had -abolished slavery. Texas could be no home for the possessor -of slaves till she was severed from Mexico.</p> - -<p>When independence was declared, Texas had to defend her -newly-claimed liberties by the sword. General Houston -headed the patriot forces, not quite four hundred in -number, and imperfectly armed. Santa Anna came -against them with an army of five thousand. The Texans -retreated, and having nothing to carry, easily distanced their -pursuers. At the San Jacinto, Houston was strengthened by -the arrival of two field-pieces. He turned like a lion upon the -unexpectant Mexicans, whom he caught in the very act of crossing -the river. He fired grape-shot into their quaking ranks. -His unconquerable Texans clubbed their muskets—they had -no bayonets—and rushed upon the foe. The Mexicans fled in -helpless rout, and Texas was free. The grateful Texans elected -General Houston President of the republic which he had thus -saved.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1837 A.D.</span> No sooner was Texas independent than she offered to join -herself to the United States. Her proposals were at -first declined. But the South warmly espoused her -cause and urged her claims. Once more North and -South met in fiery debate. Slavery had already a sure footing -in Texas. If Texas entered the Union, it was as a Slave State. -On that ground avowedly the South urged the annexation; on -that ground the North resisted it. “We all see,” said Daniel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -Webster, “that Texas will be a slave-holding country; and I -frankly avow my unwillingness to do anything which shall -extend the slavery of the African race on this continent, or add -another Slave-holding State to the Union.” “The South,” said -the Legislature of Mississippi, speaking of slavery, “does not -possess a blessing with which the affections of her people are so -closely entwined, and whose value is more highly appreciated. -By the annexation of Texas an equipoise of influence in the -halls of Congress will be secured, which will furnish us a permanent -guarantee of protection.”</p> - -<p>It was the battle-ground on which all the recent great battles -of American political history have been fought. It ended, as -such battles at that time usually did, in Southern victory. In -March 1845 Texas was received into the Union. The slave-power -gained new votes in Congress, and room for a vast extension -of the slave-system.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WAR WITH MEXICO.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-m.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Mexico was displeased with the annexation of Texas, -but did not manifest so quickly as it was hoped she -would any disposition to avenge herself. Mr. Polk, -a Southern man, was now President, and he governed -in the interest of the South. A war with Mexico was a -thing to be desired, because Mexico must be beaten, and could -then be plundered of territory which the slave-owners would -appropriate. <span class="sidenote">1846 A.D.</span> To provoke Mexico the Unready, an army -of four thousand men was sent to the extreme south-western -confines of Texas. A Mexican army of six -thousand lay near. The Americans, with marvellous audacity, -erected a fort within easy range of Matamoras, a city of the -Mexicans, and thus the place was in their power. After much -hesitation the Mexican army attacked the Americans, and -received, as they might well have anticipated, a severe defeat. -Thus, without the formality of any declaration, the war was -begun.</p> - -<p>President Polk hastened to announce to Congress that the -Mexicans had “invaded our territory, and shed the blood of our -fellow-citizens.” Congress voted men and money for the prosecution -of the war, and volunteers offered themselves in multitudes. -Their brave little army was in peril—far from help, -and surrounded by enemies. The people were eager to support -the heroes, of whose victory they were so proud. And yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -opinion was much divided. Many deemed the war unjust and -disgraceful. Among these was a young lawyer of Illinois, -destined in later years to fill a place in the hearts of his countrymen -second only to that of Washington. Abraham Lincoln -entered Congress while the war was in progress, and his first -speech was in condemnation of the course pursued by the -Government.</p> - -<p>The war was pushed with vigour at first under the command -of General Taylor, who was to become the next President; and -finally under General Scott, who, as a very young man, had -fought against the British at Niagara, and, as a very old man, -was Commander-in-Chief of the American Army when the great -war between North and South began. Many officers were there -whose names became famous in after years. General Lee and -General Grant gained here their first experience of war. They -were not then known to each other. They met for the first -time, twenty years after, in a Virginian cottage, to arrange -terms of surrender for the defeated army of the Southern -Confederacy!</p> - -<p>The Americans resolved to fight their way to the enemy’s -capital, and there compel such a peace as would be agreeable to -themselves. The task was not without difficulty. The Mexican -army was greatly more numerous. They had a splendid cavalry -force and an efficient artillery. Their commander, Santa Anna, -unscrupulous even for a Mexican, was yet a soldier of some -ability. The Americans were mainly volunteers who had never -seen war till now. The fighting was severe. At Buena-Vista -the American army was attacked by a force which outnumbered -it in the proportion of five to one. The battle lasted for ten -hours, and the invaders were saved from ruin by their superior -artillery. The mountain passes were strongly fortified, and -General Scott had to convey his army across chasms and ravines -which the Mexicans, deeming them impracticable, had neglected -to defend. Strong in the consciousness of their superiority to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -the people they invaded—the same consciousness which supported -Cortes and his Spaniards three centuries before—the -Americans pressed on. At length they came in sight of Mexico, -at the same spot where Cortes had viewed it. <span class="sidenote">Sept. 14, 1847 A.D.</span> Once -more they routed a Mexican army of greatly superior -force; and then General Scott marched his little army -of six thousand men quietly into the capital. The -war was closed, and a treaty of peace was with little delay -negotiated.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CALIFORNIA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">America exacted mercilessly the penalty which usually -attends defeat. Mexico was to receive fifteen -million dollars; but she ceded an enormous territory -stretching westward from Texas to the Pacific.</p> - -<p>One of the provinces which composed this magnificent prize -was California. The slave-owners had gone to war with Mexico -that they might gain territory which slavery should possess for -ever. They sought to introduce California into the Union as a -Slave State. But Providence interposed to shield her from a -destiny so unhappy.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1848 A.D.</span> Just about the time that California became an American -possession, it was discovered that her soil was richly -endowed with gold. On one of the tributaries of the -Sacramento river an old settler was peacefully digging a -trench—caring little, it may be supposed, about the change -of citizenship which he had undergone—not dreaming that the -next stroke of his spade was to influence the history, not merely -of California, but of the world. Among the sand which he lifted -were certain shining particles. His wondering eye considered -them with attention. They were Gold! Gold was everywhere—in -the soil, in the river-sand, in the mountain-rock; gold in -dust, gold in pellets, gold in lumps! It was the land of old fairy -tale, where wealth could be had by him who chose to stoop down -and gather!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> - -<p>Fast as the mails could carry it the bewildering news thrilled -the heart of America. To the energetic youth of the Northern -States the charm was irresistible. It was now, indeed, a reproach -to be poor, when it was so easy to be rich.</p> - -<p>The journey to the land of promise was full of toil and danger. -There were over two thousand miles of unexplored wilderness -to traverse. There were mountain ranges to surmount, lofty -and rugged as the Alps themselves. There were great desolate -plains, unwatered and without vegetation. Indians, whose dispositions -there was reason to question, beset the path. But -danger was unconsidered. That season thirty thousand Americans -crossed the plains, climbed the mountains, forded the -streams, bore without shrinking all that want, exposure, and -fatigue could inflict. Cholera broke out among them, and four -thousand left their bones in the wilderness. The rest plodded -on undismayed. Fifty thousand came by sea. From all countries -they came—from quiet English villages, from the crowded cities -of China. Before the year was out California had gained an -addition of eighty thousand to her population.</p> - -<p>These came mainly from the Northern States. They had no -thought of suffering in their new home the evil institution -of the South. <span class="sidenote">1850 A.D.</span> They settled easily the constitution of -their State, and California was received into the Union -free from the taint of slavery.</p> - -<p>It was no slight disappointment to the men of the South. -They had urged on the war with Mexico in order to gain new -Slave States, new votes in Congress, additional room for the -spread of slavery. They had gained all the territory they -hoped for; but this strange revelation of gold had peopled it -from the North, and slavery was shut out for ever. To soothe -their irritation, Henry Clay proposed a very black concession, -under the disgrace of which America suffered for years in the -estimation of all Christian nations. The South was angry, and -hinted even then at secession. The North was prosperous. Her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -merchants were growing rich; her farmers were rapidly overspreading -the country and subduing waste lands to the service -of man. Every year saw vast accessions to her wealth; and -her supreme desire was for quietness. In this frame of mind -she assented to the passing of the Fugitive Slave Law. Heretofore -it had been lawful for the slave-owner to reclaim his slave -who had escaped into a Free State; but although lawful, it was -in practice almost impossible. Now the officers of the Government, -and all good citizens, were commanded to give to the -pursuer all needful help. In certain cases Government was to -defray the expense of restoring the slave to the plantation from -which he had fled. In any trial arising under this law, the -evidence of the slave himself was not to be received; the oath -of his pursuer was almost decisive against him. Hundreds of -Southern ruffians hastened to take vile advantage of this shameful -law. They searched out coloured men in the Free States, -and swore that they were escaped slaves. In too many instances -they were successful, and many free negroes as well as escaped -slaves were borne back to the miseries of slavery. The North -erred grievously in consenting to a measure so base. It is just, -however, to say, that although Northern politicians upheld it as -a wise and necessary compromise, the Northern people in their -hearts abhorred it. The law was so unpopular that its execution -was resisted in several Northern cities, and it quickly passed -into disuse.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">KANSAS.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The great Louisiana purchase from Napoleon was -not yet wholly portioned off into States. Westward -and northward of Missouri was an enormous -expanse of the richest land in the Union, having -as yet few occupants more profitable than the Indians. Two -great routes of travel—to the west and to the south-west—traversed -it. The eager searcher for gold passed that way on -his long walk to California. The Mormon looked with indifference -on its luxuriant vegetation as he toiled on to his New -Jerusalem by the Great Salt Lake. In the year 1853 it was -proposed to organize this region into two Territories, under the -names of Kansas and Nebraska. Here once more arose the -old question—Shall the Territories be Slave or Free? The -Missouri Compromise had settled that slavery should never -come here. But the slave-owners were able to cancel -this settlement. <span class="sidenote">1854 A.D.</span> A law was enacted under which the -inhabitants were left to choose between slavery and -freedom. The vote of a majority would decide the destiny of -these magnificent provinces.</p> - -<p>And now both parties had to bestir themselves. The early -inhabitants of the infant States were to fix for all time whether -they would admit or exclude the slave-owner with his victims. -Everything depended, therefore, on taking early possession.</p> - -<p>The South was first in the field. Missouri was near, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -her citizens led the way. Great slave-owners took possession -of lands in Kansas, and loudly invited their brethren from other -States to come at once, bringing their slaves with them. But -their numbers were small, while the need was urgent. The -South had no population to spare fitted for the work of colonizing, -but she had in large numbers the class of “mean whites.” -In the mean white of the Southern States we are permitted to -see how low it is possible for our Anglo-Saxon humanity to fall. -The mean white is entirely without education. His house is a -hovel of the very lowest description. Personally he walks in -rags and filth. He cannot stoop to work, because slavery has -rendered labour disreputable. He supports himself as savages -do—by shooting, by fishing, by the plunder of his industrious -neighbours’ fields and folds. The negro, out of the unutterable -degradation to which he has been subjected, looks with scorn -upon the mean white.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1855 A.D.</span> The mean whites of Missouri were easily marshalled for a -raid into Kansas. The time came when elections were -to take place—when the great question of Slave or Free -was to be answered. Gangs of armed ruffians were -marched over from Missouri. Such a party—nearly a thousand -strong, accompanied by two pieces of cannon—entered the little -town of Lawrence on the morning of the election day. The -ballot-boxes were taken possession of, and the peaceful inhabitants -were driven away. The invaders cast fictitious votes -into the boxes, outnumbering ten or twenty times the lawful -roll of voters. A legislature wholly in the interests of slavery -was thus elected, and in due time that body began to enact -laws. No man whose opinions were opposed to slavery was to -be an elector in Kansas. Any man who spoke or wrote against -slavery was to suffer imprisonment with hard labour. Death -was the penalty for aiding the escape of a slave. All this was -done while the enemies of slavery were an actual majority of -the inhabitants of Kansas!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span></p> - -<p>And then the Border ruffians overran the country—working -their own wicked will wherever they came. The outrages they -committed read like the freaks of demons. A man betted that -he would scalp an abolitionist. He rode out from the little -town of Leavensworth in search of a victim. He met a gentleman -driving in a gig, shot him, scalped him, rode back to town, -showed his ghastly trophy, and received payment of his bet. -Men were gathered up from their work in the fields, ranged in -line, and ruthlessly shot to death, because they hated slavery. -A lawyer who had protested against frauds at an election was -tarred and feathered; thus attired, he was put up to auction and -sold to the highest bidder. The town of Lawrence was attacked -by eight hundred marauders, who plundered it to their content—bombarding -with artillery houses which displeased them—burning -and destroying in utter wantonness.</p> - -<p>But during all this unhappy time the steady tide of Northern -immigration into Kansas flowed on. From the very outset of -the strife the North was resolute to win Kansas for freedom. -She sought to do this by colonizing Kansas with men who hated -slavery. Societies were formed to aid poor emigrants. In -single families, in groups of fifty to a hundred persons, the -settlers were promptly moved westward. Some of these merely -obeyed the impulse which drives so many Americans to leave -the settled States of the east and push out into the wilderness. -Others went that their votes might prevent the spread of -slavery. There was no small measure of patriotism in the -movement. Men left their comfortable homes in the east and -carried their families into a wilderness, to the natural miseries -of which was added the presence of bitter enemies. They did -so that Kansas might be a Free State. Cannon were planted on -the banks of the Missouri to prevent their entrance into Kansas. -Many of them were plundered and turned back. Often their -houses were burned and their fields wasted. But they were a -self-reliant people, to whom it was no hardship to be obliged to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -defend themselves. When need arose they banded themselves -together and gave battle to the ruffians who troubled them. -And all the while they were growing stronger by constant reinforcements -from the east. There were building, and clearing, -and ploughing, and sowing. In spite of Southern outrage -Kansas was fast ripening into a free and orderly community. -<span class="sidenote">1859 A.D.</span> In a few years the party of freedom was able to carry -the elections. A constitution was adopted by which -slavery was excluded from Kansas. <span class="sidenote">1861 A.D.</span> And at length, -just when the great final struggle between slavery and -freedom was commencing, Kansas was received as a -Free State. Her admission raised the number of States in the -Union to thirty-four.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The conflict deepened as years passed. The Abolitionists -became more irrepressible, the Slave-holders -more savage. There seemed no hope of the law -becoming just. The American people have a deep -reverence for law, but here it was overborne by their sense of -injustice. The wicked law was habitually set at defiance, and -plans were carefully framed for aiding the escape of slaves. It -was whispered about among the negroes that at certain points -they were sure to find friends, shelter, and safe conveyance -to Canada. Around every plantation there stretched dense -jungles, swamps, pathless forests. The escaping slave fled to -these gloomy solitudes. They hunted him with bloodhounds, -and many a poor wretch was dragged back to groan under -deeper brutalities than before. If happily undiscovered, he -made his way to certain well-known stations, a chain of which -passed him safely on to the protection of the British flag. This -was the Underground Railway. Now and then its agents were -discovered. In that miserable time it was a grave offence to -help a slave to escape. The offender was doomed to heavy fine -or long imprisonment. Some died in prison of the hardships they -endured. But the Underground Railway never wanted agents. -No sooner had the unjust law claimed its victim than another -stepped into his place. During many years the average number -of slaves freed by this agency was considerably over a thousand.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> - -<p>The slave-holders made it unsafe for Northerners of anti-slavery -opinions to remain in the South. Acts of brutal violence—very -frequently resulting in murder—became very -common. <span class="sidenote">1860 A.D.</span> During one year eight hundred persons were -robbed, whipped, tarred and feathered, or murdered for -suspected antipathy to slavery. The possession of an anti-slavery -newspaper or book involved expulsion from the State; -and the circulation of such works could scarcely be expiated -by any punishment but death. In Virginia and Maryland it -was gravely contemplated to drive the free negroes from their -homes, or to sell them into slavery and devote the money thus -obtained to the support of the common schools! Arkansas did -actually expel her free negroes. The slave-holders were determined -that nothing which could remind their victims of liberty -should be suffered to remain.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1858 A.D.</span> It was well said by Mr. Seward that they greatly erred who -deemed this collision accidental or ephemeral. It was -“an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring -forces.” All attempts at compromise would be -short-lived and vain.</p> - -<p class="tb">The most influential advocate of the numerous compromises -by which the strife was sought to be calmed, was Henry Clay -of Kentucky. Clay was much loved for his genial dispositions, -much honoured and trusted in for his commanding ability. -For many years of the prolonged struggle he seemed to stand -between North and South—wielding authority over both. -Although Southern, he hated slavery, and the slave-holders had -often to receive from his lips emphatic denunciations of their -favourite system. But he hated the doctrines of the abolitionists, -too, and believed they were leading towards the dissolution -of the Union. He desired gradual emancipation, and along -with it the return of the negroes to Africa. His aim was to -deliver his country from the taint of slavery; but he would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -effect that great revolution step by step, as the country could -bear it. At every crisis he was ready with a compromise. His -proposals soothed the angry passions which were aroused when -Missouri sought admission into the Union. <span class="sidenote">1850 A.D.</span> His, too, -was that unhappy compromise, one feature of which was -the Fugitive Slave Bill. If compromise could have -averted strife, Henry Clay would have saved his country. But -the conflict was irrepressible.</p> - -<p class="tb">The slave-power grew very bold during the later years of its -existence. The re-opening of the slave-trade became one of the -questions of the day in the Southern States. The Governor of -South Carolina expressly recommended this measure. Southern -newspapers supported it; Southern ruffians actually accomplished -it. Numerous cargoes of slaves were landed in the -South in open defiance of law, and the outrage was unrebuked. <span class="sidenote">1859 A.D.</span> Political conventions voted their approval of the traffic, -and associations were formed to promote it. Agricultural -societies offered prizes for the best specimens of -newly imported live Africans. It was even proposed that a -prize should be offered for the best sermon in favour of the -slave-trade! Advertisements like this were frequent in Southern -newspapers—“For sale, four hundred negroes, lately landed on -the coast of Texas.” It was possible to do such things then. -A little later—in the days of Abraham Lincoln—a certain -ruffianly Captain Gordon made the perilous experiment of -bringing a cargo of slaves to New York. He was seized, and -promptly hanged, and there was no further attempt to revive -the slave-trade. Thus appropriately was this hideous traffic -closed.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">JOHN BROWN.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The hatred of the North to slavery was rapidly growing. -In the eyes of some, slavery was an enormous -sin, fitted to bring the curse of God upon the land. -To others, it was a political evil, marring the unity -and hindering the progress of the country. To very many, on -the one ground or the other, it was becoming hateful. Politicians -sought to delay by concessions the inevitable crisis. -Simple men, guiding themselves by their conviction of the -wickedness of slavery, were growing ever more vehement in -their abhorrence of this evil thing.</p> - -<p>John Brown was such a man. The blood of the Pilgrim -Fathers flowed in his veins; the old Puritan spirit guided all -his actions. From his boyhood he abhorred slavery; and he -was constrained by his duty to God and man to spend himself -in this cause. There was no hope of advantage in it; no desire -for fame; no thought at all for himself or for his children. -He saw a huge wrong, and he could not help setting himself to -resist it. He was no politician. He was powerless to influence -the councils of the nation, but he had the old Puritan aptitude -for battle. He went to Kansas with his sons to help in the -fight for freedom; and while there was fighting to be done, -John Brown was at the front. He was a leader among the -free settlers, who felt his military superiority, and followed -him with confidence in many a bloody skirmish. He retired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -habitually into deep solitudes to pray. He had morning and -evening prayers, in which all his followers joined. He would -allow no man of immoral character in his camp. He believed -that God directed him in visions; he was God’s servant, and -not man’s. The work given him to do might be bitter to the -flesh, but since it was God’s work he dared not shrink from it.</p> - -<p>When the triumph of freedom was secured in Kansas, John -Brown moved eastward to Virginia. He was now to devote -himself in earnest to the overthrow of the accursed institution. -The laws of his country sanctioned an enormous wickedness. -He declared war against his country, in so far as the national -support of slavery was concerned. He prepared a constitution -and a semblance of government. He himself was the head of -this singular organization. Associated with him were a -Secretary of State, a Treasurer, and a Secretary of War. -Slavery, he stated, was a barbarous and unjustifiable war, -carried on by one section of the community against another. -His new government was for the defence of those whom the -laws of the country wrongfully left undefended. He was -joined by a few enthusiasts like-minded with himself, and he -laid up a store of arms. He and his friends hung about plantations, -and aided the escape of slaves to Canada. Occasionally -the horses and cattle of the slave-owner were laid under contribution -to support the costs of the campaign. Brown meditated -war upon a somewhat extensive scale, and only waited the -reinforcements of which he was assured, that he might proclaim -liberty to all the captives in his neighbourhood. But reason -appeared for believing that his plans had been betrayed to the -enemy, and Brown was hurried into measures which brought -swift destruction upon himself and his followers.</p> - -<p>Harper’s Ferry was a town of five thousand inhabitants, -nestling amid steep and rugged mountains, where the Shenandoah -unites its waters with those of the Potomac. The -National Armoury was here, and an arsenal in which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -laid up enormous stores of arms and ammunition. Brown resolved -to seize the arsenal. It was his hope that the slaves -would hasten to his standard when the news of his success -went abroad. And he seems to have reckoned that he would -become strong enough to make terms with the Government, -or, at the worst, to secure the escape to Canada of his armed -followers.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1859 A.D.</span> One Sunday evening in October he marched into Harper’s -Ferry with a little army of twenty-two men—black and -white—and easily possessed himself of the arsenal. He -cut the telegraph wires; he stopped the trains which -here cross the Potomac; he made prisoners of the workmen -who came in the morning to resume their labours at the arsenal. -His sentinels held the streets and bridges. The surprise was -complete, and for a few hours his possession of the Government -works was undisputed.</p> - -<p>When at length the news of this amazing rebellion was -suffered to escape, and America learned that old John Brown -had invaded and conquered Harper’s Ferry, the rage and alarm -of the slave-owners and their supporters knew no bounds. The -Virginians, upon whom the affront fell most heavily, took -prompt measures to avenge it. By noon on Monday a force of -militiamen surrounded the little town, to prevent the escape of -those whom, as yet, they were not strong enough to capture. -Before night fifteen hundred men were assembled. All that -night Brown held his conquest, till nearly all his men were -wounded or slain. His two sons were shot dead. Brown, -standing beside their bodies, calmly exhorted his men to be firm, -and sell their lives as dearly as possible. On Tuesday morning -the soldiers forced an entrance, and Brown, with a sabre-cut in -his head, and two bayonet-stabs in his body, was a prisoner. -He was tried, and condemned to die. Throughout his imprisonment, -and even amid the horrors of the closing scene, his -habitual serenity was undisturbed. He “humbly trusted that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -he had the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, to -rule in his heart.”</p> - -<p>To the enraged slave-owners John Brown was a detestable -rebel. To the abolitionists he was a martyr. To us he is a -true, earnest, but most ill-judging man. His actions were unwise, -unwarrantable; but his aims were noble, his self-devotion -was heroic.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND SIXTY.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In this year America made her decennial enumeration -of her people and their possessions. The industrial -greatness which the census revealed was an astonishment, -not only to the rest of the world, but even -to herself. The slow growth of the old European countries -seemed absolute stagnation beside this swift multiplication of -men and of beasts, and of wealth in every form.</p> - -<p>The three million colonists who had thrown off the British -yoke had now increased to thirty-one and a half million! Of -these, four million were slaves, owned by three hundred and -fifty thousand persons. This great population was assisted in -its toils by six million horses and two million working oxen. -It owned eight million cows, fifteen million other cattle, -twenty-two million sheep, and thirty-three million hogs. The -products of the soil were enormous. The cotton crop of this -year was close upon one million tons. It had more than -doubled within the last ten years. The grain crop was twelve -hundred million bushels—figures so large as to pass beyond -our comprehension. Tobacco had more than doubled since -1850—until now America actually yielded a supply of five -hundred million pounds. There were five thousand miles of -canals, and thirty thousand miles of railroad—twenty-two -thousand of which were the creation of the preceding ten -years. The textile manufactures of the country had reached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -the annual value of forty million sterling. America had provided -for the education of her children by erecting one hundred -and thirteen thousand schools and colleges, and employing one -hundred and fifty thousand teachers. Her educational institutions -enjoyed revenues amounting to nearly seven million -sterling, and were attended by five and a half million pupils. -Religious instruction was given in fifty-four thousand churches, -in which there was accommodation for nineteen million hearers. -The daily history of the world was supplied by four thousand -newspapers, which circulated annually one thousand million -copies.</p> - -<p>There belonged to the American people nearly two thousand -million acres of land. They had not been able to make -any use of the greater part of this enormous heritage. Only -four hundred million acres had as yet become in any measure -available for the benefit of man. The huge remainder lay unpossessed—its -power to give wealth to man growing always -greater during the long ages of solitude and neglect. The -ownership of this prodigious expanse of fertile land opened to -the American people a future of unexampled prosperity. They -needed only peace and the exercise of their own vigorous industry. -But a sterner task was in store for them.</p> - -<p class="tb">During the last few years the divisions between North and -South had become exceedingly bitter. The North was becoming -ever more intolerant of slavery. The unreasoning and passionate -South resented with growing fierceness the Northern abhorrence -of her favoured institution. In the Senate House one -day a member was bending over his desk, busied in writing. -His name was Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts. He was -well known for the hatred which he bore to slavery, and his -power as an orator gave him rank as a leader among those who -desired the overthrow of the system. While this senator was -occupied with his writing, there walked up to him two men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -whom South Carolina deemed not unworthy to frame laws for -a great people. One of them—a ruffian, although a senator—whose -name was Brooks, carried a heavy cane. With this -formidable weapon he discharged many blows upon the head -of the unsuspecting Sumner, till his victim fell bleeding and -senseless to the floor. For this outrage a trifling fine was imposed -on Brooks. His admiring constituents eagerly paid -the amount. Brooks resigned his seat, and was immediately -re-elected. Handsome canes flowed in upon him from all parts -of the slave country. The South, in a most deliberate and -emphatic manner, recorded its approval of the crime which he -had committed.</p> - -<p>To such a pass had North and South now come. Sumner -vehemently attacking slavery; Brooks vehemently smiting Sumner -upon his defenceless head—these men represent with perfect -truthfulness the feeling of the two great sections. This cannot -last.</p> - -<p>A new President fell to be elected in 1860. Never had an -election taken place under circumstances so exciting. The -North was thoroughly aroused on the slave question. The -time for compromises was felt to have passed. It was a death-grapple -between the two powers. Each party had to put forth -its strength and conquer, or be crushed.</p> - -<p>The enemies of slavery announced it as their design to prevent -slavery from extending to the Territories. They had no power -to interfere in States where the system already existed. But, -they said, the Territories belong to the Union. The proper condition -of the Union is freedom. The Slave States are merely -exceptional. It is contrary to the Constitution to carry this -irregularity where it does not already exist.</p> - -<p>The Territories, said the South, belong to the Union. All -citizens of the Union are free to go there with their property. -Slaves are property. Slavery may therefore be established in -the Territories, if slave-owners choose to settle there.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> - -<p>On this issue battle was joined. The Northern party nominated -Abraham Lincoln as their candidate. The Southerners, -with their friends in the North—of whom there were many—divided -their votes among three candidates. They were defeated, -and Abraham Lincoln became President.</p> - -<p class="tb">Mr. Lincoln was the son of a small and not very prosperous -farmer. He was born in 1809 in the State of Kentucky, but -his youth was passed mainly in Indiana. His father had chosen -to settle on the farthest verge of civilization. Around him -was a dense, illimitable forest, still wandered over by the -Indians. Here and there in the wilderness occurred a rude -wooden hut like his own, the abode of some rough settler regardless -of comfort and greedy of the excitements of pioneering. -The next neighbour was two miles away. There were -no roads, no bridges, no inns. The traveller swam the rivers -he had to cross, and trusted, not in vain, to the hospitality of -the settlers for food and shelter. Now and then a clergyman -passed that way, and from a hasty platform beneath a tree the -gospel was preached to an eagerly-listening audience of rugged -woodsmen. Many years after, when he had grown wise and -famous, Mr. Lincoln spoke, with tears in his eyes, of a well-remembered -sermon which he had heard from a wayfaring -preacher in the great Indiana wilderness. Justice was administered -under the shade of forest trees. The jury sat upon a log. -The same tree which sheltered the court, occasionally served -as a gibbet for the criminal.</p> - -<p>In this society—rugged, but honest and kindly—the youth -of the future President was passed. He had little schooling; -indeed there was scarcely a school within reach, and if all the -days of his school-time were added together they would scarcely -make up one year. His father was poor, and Abraham was -needed on the farm. There was timber to fell, there were fences -to build, fields to plough, sowing and reaping to be done.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -Abraham led a busy life, and knew well, while yet a boy, what -hard work meant. Like all boys who come to anything great, -he had a devouring thirst for knowledge. He borrowed all the -books in his neighbourhood, and read them by the blaze of the -logs which his own axe had split.</p> - -<p>This was his upbringing. When he entered life for himself, -it was as clerk in a small store. He served nearly a year there, -conducting faithfully and cheerfully the lowly commerce by -which the wants of the settlers were supplied. Then he comes -before us as a soldier, fighting a not very bloody campaign -against the Indians, who had undertaken, rather imprudently, -to drive the white men out of that region. Having settled in -Illinois, he commenced the study of law, supporting himself by -land-surveying during the unprofitable stages of that pursuit. -Finally he applied himself to politics, and in 1834 was elected -a member of the Legislature of Illinois.</p> - -<p>He was now in his twenty-fifth year; of vast stature, somewhat -awkwardly fashioned, slender for his height, but uncommonly -muscular and enduring. He was of pleasant humour, -ready and true insight. After such a boyhood as his, difficulty -had no terrors for him, and he was incapable of defeat. His -manners were very homely. His lank, ungainly figure, dressed -in the native manufacture of the backwoods, would have spread -dismay in a European drawing-room. He was smiled at even -in the uncourtly Legislature of Illinois. But here, as elsewhere, -whoever came into contact with Abraham Lincoln felt that he -was a man framed to lead other men. Sagacious, penetrating, -full of resource, and withal honest, kindly, conciliatory, his -hands might be roughened by toil, his dress and ways might be -those of the wilderness, yet was he quickly recognized as a born -king of men.</p> - -<p>During the next twenty-six years Mr. Lincoln applied himself -to the profession of the law. During the greater portion of -those years he was in public life. He had part in all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -political controversies of his time. Chief among these were -the troubles arising out of slavery. From his boyhood Mr. -Lincoln was a steady enemy to slavery, as at once foolish and -wrong. He would not interfere with it in the old States, for -there the Constitution gave him no power; but he would in -noway allow its establishment in the Territories. He desired -a policy which “looked forward hopefully to the time when -slavery, as a wrong, might come to an end.” He gained in a -very unusual degree the confidence of his party, who raised him -to the presidential chair, as a true and capable representative -of their principles in regard to the great slavery question.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SECESSION.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-s.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">South Carolina was the least loyal to the -Union of all the States. She estimated very -highly her own dignity as a sovereign State. She -held in small account the allegiance which she -owed to the Federal Government. Twenty-eight years ago -Congress had enacted a highly protective tariff. <span class="sidenote">1832 A.D.</span> South -Carolina, disapproving of this measure, decreed that it -was not binding upon her. Should the Federal Government -attempt to enforce it, South Carolina announced her purpose -of quitting the Union and becoming independent. General -Jackson, who was then President, made ready to hold South -Carolina to her duty by force; but Congress modified the tariff, -and so averted the danger. Jackson believed firmly that the -men who then held the destiny of South Carolina in their hands -wished to secede. “The tariff,” he said, “was but a pretext. -The next will be the slavery question.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1860 A.D.</span> The time predicted had now come, and South Carolina led -her sister States into the dark and bloody path. A convention -of her people was promptly called, and on the -20th of December an Ordinance was passed dissolving -the Union, and declaring South Carolina a free and independent -republic. When the Ordinance was passed the bells of Charleston -rang for joy, and the streets of the city resounded with the -wild exulting shouts of an excited people. Dearly had the joy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -of those tumultuous hours to be paid for. Four years later, -when Sherman quelled the heroic defence of the rebel city, -Charleston lay in ruins. Her people, sorely diminished by war -and famine, had been long familiar with the miseries which a -strict blockade and a merciless bombardment can inflict.</p> - -<p>The example of South Carolina was at once followed by -other discontented States. Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, -Louisiana, and Florida hastened to assert their independence, -and to league themselves into a new Confederacy. They -adopted a Constitution, differing from the old mainly in these -respects, that it contained provisions against taxes to protect -any branch of industry, and gave effective securities for the -permanence and extension of slavery. They elected Mr. Jefferson -Davis President for six years. They possessed themselves -of the Government property within their own boundaries. It -was not yet their opinion that the North would fight, and they -bore themselves with a high hand in all the arrangements which -their new position seemed to call for.</p> - -<p>After the Government was formed, the Confederacy was -joined by other Slave States who at first had hesitated. Virginia, -North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas, after -some delay, gave in their adhesion. The Confederacy in its -completed form was composed of eleven States, with a population -of nine million; six million of whom were free, and three -million were slaves. Twenty-three States remained loyal to the -Union. Their population amounted to twenty-two million.</p> - -<p>It is not to be supposed that the free population of the seceding -States were unanimous in their desire to break up the -Union. On the contrary, there is good reason to believe that a -majority of the people in most of the seceding States were all -the time opposed to secession. In North Carolina the attempt -to carry secession was at first defeated by the people. In the -end that State left the Union reluctantly, under the belief that -not otherwise could it escape becoming the battle-ground of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -contending powers. Thus, too, Virginia refused at first by -large majorities to secede. In Georgia and Alabama the minorities -against secession were large. In Louisiana twenty thousand -votes were given for secession, and seventeen thousand against -it. In many cases it required much intrigue and dexterity of -management to obtain a favourable vote; and the resolution to -quit the Union was received in sorrow by very many of the -Southern people. But everywhere in the South the idea prevailed -that allegiance was due to the State rather than to the -Federation. And thus it came to pass that when the authorities -of a State resolved to abandon the Union, the citizens of -that State felt constrained to secede, even while they mourned -the course upon which they were forced to enter.</p> - -<p>It has been maintained by some defenders of the seceding -States that slavery was not the cause of secession. On that -question there can surely be no authority so good as that of -the seceding States themselves. A declaration of the reasons -which influenced their action was issued by several States, -and acquiesced in by the others. South Carolina was the first -to give reasons for her conduct. These reasons related wholly -to slavery, no other cause of separation being hinted at. The -Northern States, it was complained, would not restore runaway -slaves. They assumed the right of “deciding on the propriety -of our domestic institutions.” They denounced slavery as sinful. -They permitted the open establishment of anti-slavery -societies. They aided the escape of slaves. They sought to -exclude slavery from the Territories. Finally, they had elected -to the office of President, Abraham Lincoln, “a man whose -opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery.”</p> - -<p>Some of the American people had from the beginning held -the opinion that any State could leave the Union at her pleasure. -That belief was general in the South. The seceding States did -not doubt that they had full legal right to take the step which -they had taken, and they stated with perfect frankness what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -was their reason for exercising this right. They believed that -slavery was endangered by their continuance in the Union. -Strictly speaking, they fought in defence of their right to secede. -But they had no other motive for seceding than that slavery -should be preserved and extended. The war which ensued -was therefore really a war in defence of slavery. But for the -Southern love and the Northern antipathy to slavery, no war -could have occurred. The men of the South attempted to break -up the Union because they thought slavery would be safer if the -Slave-owning States stood alone. The men of the North refused -to allow the Union to be broken up. They did not go to war -to put down slavery. They had no more right to put down -slavery in the South than England has to put down slavery in -Cuba. The Union which they loved was endangered, and they -fought to defend the Union.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_III_CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE TWO PRESIDENTS.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-m.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Mr. Lincoln was elected, according to usage, early -in November, but did not take possession of his -office till March. In the interval President -Buchanan remained in power. This gentleman was -Southern by birth, and, as it has always been believed, by -sympathy. He laid no arrest upon the movements of the -seceding States; nay, it has been alleged that he rather sought -to remove obstacles from their path. During all these winter -months the Southern leaders were suffered to push forward their -preparations for the approaching conflict. The North still hoped -for peace, and Congress busied itself with vain schemes of conciliation. -Meetings were held all over the country, at which an -anxious desire was expressed to remove causes of offence. The -self-willed Southerners would listen to no compromise. They -would go apart, peacefully if they might; in storm and bloodshed -if they must.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1861 A.D.</span> Early in February Mr. Lincoln left his home in Illinois on -his way to Washington. His neighbours accompanied -him to the railroad depôt, where he spoke a few parting -words to them. “I know not,” he said, “how soon I -shall see you again. A duty devolves upon me, which is, perhaps, -greater than that which has devolved upon any other -man since the days of Washington. He never would have -succeeded except for the aid of Divine Providence, upon which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -he at all times relied. I feel that I cannot succeed without the -same divine aid which sustained him, and on the same Almighty -Being I place my reliance for support; and I hope you, my -friends, will all pray that I may receive that divine assistance -without which I cannot succeed, but with which success is -certain.”</p> - -<p>With these grave, devout words, he took his leave, and passed -on to the fulfilment of his heavy task. His inauguration took -place as usual on the 4th of March. A huge crowd assembled -around the Capitol. Mr. Lincoln had thus far kept silence as -to the course he meditated in regard to the seceding States. -Seldom had a revelation involving issues so momentous been -waited for at the lips of any man. The anxious crowd stood so -still, that to its utmost verge the words of the speaker were -distinctly heard.</p> - -<p>He assured the Southerners that their fears were unfounded. -He had no lawful right to interfere with slavery in the States -where it existed; he had no purpose and no inclination to interfere. -He would, on the contrary, maintain them in the enjoyment -of all the rights which the Constitution bestowed upon -them. But he held that no State could quit the Union at -pleasure. In view of the Constitution and the laws, the Union -was unbroken. His policy would be framed upon that belief. -He would continue to execute the laws within the seceding -States, and would continue to possess Federal property there, -with all the force at his command. That did not necessarily -involve conflict or bloodshed. Government would not assail -the discontented States, but would suffer no invasion of its constitutional -rights. With the South, therefore, it lay to decide -whether there was to be peace or war.</p> - -<p class="tb">A week or two before Mr. Lincoln’s inauguration Jefferson -Davis had entered upon his career as President of the Southern -Republic. Mr. Davis was an old politician. He had long advocated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -the right of an aggrieved State to leave the Union; and -he had largely contributed, by speech and by intrigue, to hasten -the crisis which had now arrived. He was an accomplished -man, a graceful writer, a fluent and persuasive speaker. He -was ambitious, resolute, and of ample experience in the management -of affairs; but he had many disqualifications for high -office. His obstinacy was blind and unreasoning. He had -little knowledge of men, and could not distinguish “between -an instrument and an obstacle.” His moral tone was low. He -taught Mississippi, his native State, to repudiate her just debts. -A great English statesman, who made his acquaintance some -years before the war broke out, pronounced him one of the -ablest and one of the most wicked men in America.</p> - -<p>In his Inaugural Address Mr. Davis displayed a prudent -reserve. Speaking for the world to hear—a world which, upon -the whole, abhorred slavery—he did not name the grievances -which rendered secession necessary. He maintained the right -of a discontented State to secede. The Union had ceased to -answer the ends for which it was established; and in the exercise -of an undoubted right they had withdrawn from it. He -hoped their late associates would not incur the fearful responsibility -of disturbing them in their pursuit of a separate political -career. If so, it only remained for them to appeal to arms, and -invoke the blessing of Providence on a just cause.</p> - -<p>Alexander H. Stephens was the Vice-President of the Confederacy. -His health was bad, and the expression of his face -indicated habitual suffering. He had nevertheless been a laborious -student, and a patient, if not a very wise, thinker on the -great questions of his time. In the early days of secession he -delivered at Savannah a speech which quickly became famous, -and which retains its interest still as the most candid explanation -of the motives and the expectations of the South. The old -Government, he said, was founded upon sand. It was founded -upon the assumption of the equality of races. Its authors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -entertained the mistaken belief that African slavery was wrong -in principle. “Our new Government,” said the Vice-President, -“is founded upon exactly the opposite ideas; its foundations -are laid, its corner-stone rests, upon the great truth that the -negro is not equal to the white man—that slavery is his natural -and normal condition.” Why the Creator had made him so -could not be told. “It is not for us to inquire into the wisdom -of His ordinances, or to question them.” With this very clear -statement by the Vice-President, we are freed from uncertainty -as to the designs of the Southern leaders, and filled with thankfulness -for the ruin which fell upon their wicked enterprise.</p> - -<p>It is a very curious but perfectly authenticated fact, that notwithstanding -the pains taken by Southern leaders to show that -they seceded merely to preserve and maintain slavery, there were -many intelligent men in England who steadfastly maintained -that slavery had little or nothing to do with the origin of the -Great War.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="Book_Fourth">Book Fourth.</h3> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE FIRST BLOW STRUCK.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When his Inaugural Address was delivered, Mr. -Lincoln was escorted by his predecessor in office -back to the White House, where they parted—Buchanan -to retire, not with honour, into a kindly -oblivion; Lincoln to begin that great work which had devolved -upon him. During all that month of March and on to the -middle of April the world heard very little of the new President. -He was seldom seen in Washington. It was rumoured -that intense meditation upon the great problem had made him -ill. It was asserted that he endured the pains of indecision. -In the Senate attempts were made to draw forth from him a -confession of his purposes—if indeed he had any purposes. -But the grim silence was unbroken. The South persuaded -herself that he was afraid—that the peace-loving, money-making -North had no heart for fight. She was even able to believe, -in her vain pride, that most of the Northern States would -ultimately adopt her doctrines and join themselves to her -Government. Even in the North there was a party which -wished union with the seceding States, on their own principles. -There was a general indisposition to believe in war. The -South had so often threatened, and been so often soothed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -fresh concessions, it was difficult to believe now that she meant -anything more than to establish a position for advantageous -negotiation. All over the world men waited in anxious -suspense for the revelation of President Lincoln’s policy. -Mercantile enterprise languished. Till the occupant of the -White House chose to open his lips and say whether it was -peace or war, the business of the world must be content to -stand still.</p> - -<p>Mr. Lincoln’s silence was not the result of irresolution. He -had doubt as to what the South would do; he had no doubt as -to what he himself would do. He would maintain the Union;—by -friendly arrangement and concession, if that were possible; -if not, by war fought out to the bitter end.</p> - -<p>He nominated the members of his Cabinet—most prominent -among whom was William H. Seward, his Secretary of State. -Mr. Seward had been during all his public life a determined -enemy to slavery. He was in full sympathy with the President -as to the course which had to be pursued. His acute -and vigorous intellect and great experience in public affairs -fitted him for the high duties which he was called to discharge.</p> - -<p class="tb">So soon as Mr. Lincoln entered upon his office the Southern -Government sent ambassadors to him as to a foreign power. -These gentlemen formally intimated that the six States had -withdrawn from the Union, and now formed an independent -nation. They desired to solve peaceably all the questions growing -out of this separation, and they desired an interview with -the President, that they might enter upon the business to which -they had been appointed.</p> - -<p>Mr. Seward replied to the communication of the Southern -envoys. His letter was framed with much care, as its high -importance demanded. It was calm and gentle in its tone, but -most clear and decisive. He could not recognize the events -which had recently occurred as a rightful and accomplished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -revolution, but rather as a series of unjustifiable aggressions. -He could not recognize the new Government as a government -at all. He could not recognize or hold official intercourse with -its agents. The President could not receive them or admit -them to any communication. Within the unimpassioned words -of Mr. Seward there breathed the fixed, unalterable purpose of -the Northern people, against which, as many persons even then -felt, the impetuous South might indeed dash herself to pieces, -but could by no possibility prevail. The baffled ambassadors -went home, and the angry South quickened her preparations -for war.</p> - -<p class="tb">Within the bay of Charleston, and intended for the defence -of that important city, stood Fort Sumpter, a work of considerable -strength, and capable, if adequately garrisoned, of a prolonged -defence. It was not so garrisoned, however, when the -troubles began. It was held by Major Anderson with a force -of seventy men, imperfectly provisioned. The Confederates -wished to possess themselves of Fort Sumpter, and hoped at -one time to effect their object peaceably. When that hope -failed them, they cut off Major Anderson’s supply of provisions, -and quietly began to encircle him with batteries. For some -time they waited till hunger should compel the surrender of -the fort. But word was brought to them that President -Lincoln was sending ships with provisions. <span class="sidenote">April 11, 1861 A.D.</span> Fort Sumpter was -promptly summoned to surrender. Major Anderson -offered to go in three days, if not relieved. In reply -he received intimation that in one hour the bombardment -would open.</p> - -<p>About daybreak on the 12th the stillness of Charleston bay -was disturbed by the firing of a large mortar and the shriek of -a shell as it rushed through the air. The shell burst over Fort -Sumpter, and the war of the Great Rebellion was begun. The -other batteries by which the doomed fortress was surrounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -quickly followed, and in a few minutes fifty guns of the largest -size flung shot and shell into the works. The guns were admirably -served, and every shot told. The garrison had neither -provisions nor an adequate supply of ammunition. They were -seventy, and their assailants were seven thousand. All they -could do was to offer such resistance as honour demanded. -Hope of success there was none.</p> - -<p>The garrison did not reply at first to the hostile fire. They -quietly breakfasted in the security of the bomb-proof casemates. -Having finished their repast, they opened a comparatively -feeble and ineffective fire. All that day and next the Confederate -batteries rained shell and red-hot shot into the fort. -The wooden barracks caught fire, and the men were nearly -suffocated by the smoke. Barrels of gunpowder had to be -rolled through the flames into the sea. The last cartridge had -been loaded into the guns; the last biscuit had been eaten; -huge clefts yawned in the crumbling walls. Enough had been -done for honour; to prolong the resistance was uselessly to -endanger the lives of brave men. Major Anderson surrendered -the ruined fortress, and the garrison marched out with the -honours of war. Curiously enough, although heavy firing had -continued during thirty-four hours, no man on either side was -injured!</p> - -<p>It was a natural mistake that South Carolina should deem -the capture of Fort Sumpter a glorious victory. The bells of -Charleston chimed triumphantly all the day; guns were fired; -the citizens were in the streets expressing with many oaths the -rapture which this great success inspired, and their confident -hope of triumphs equally decisive in time to come; ministers -gave thanks; ladies waved handkerchiefs; male patriots quaffed -potent draughts to the welfare of the Confederacy. On that -bright April Sunday all was enthusiasm and boundless excitement -in the city of Charleston. Alas for the vanity of human -hopes! There were days near at hand, and many of them too,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -when these rejoicing citizens should sit in hunger and sorrow -and despair among the ruins of their city and the utter wreck -of their fortunes and their trade.</p> - -<p class="tb">By many of the Southern people war was eagerly desired. -The Confederacy was already established for some months, and -yet it included only six States. There were eight other Slave -States, whose sympathies it was believed were with the seceders. -These had been expected to join, but there proved to exist -within them a loyalty to the Union sufficiently strong to delay -their secession. Amid the excitements which war would -enkindle, this loyalty, it was hoped, would disappear, and the -hesitating States would be constrained to join their fortunes to -those of their more resolute sisters. The fall of Fort Sumpter -was more than a military triumph. It would more than double -the strength of the Confederacy, and raise it at once to the -rank of a great power. Everywhere in the South, therefore, -there was a wild, exulting joy. And not without reason; for -Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas now -joined their sisters in secession.</p> - -<p class="tb">In the North, the hope had been tenaciously clung to that -the peace of the country was not to be disturbed. This dream -was rudely broken by the siege of Fort Sumpter. The North -awakened suddenly to the awful certainty that civil war was -begun. There was a deep feeling of indignation at the traitors -who were willing to ruin their country that slavery might be -secure. There was a full appreciation of the danger, and an -instant universal determination that, at whatever cost, the -national life must be preserved. Personal sacrifice was unconsidered; -individual interests were merged in the general -good. Political difference, ordinarily so bitter, was for the -time almost effaced. Nothing was of interest but the question -how this audacious rebellion was to be suppressed and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -American nation upheld in the great place which it claimed -among men.</p> - -<p>Two days after the fall of Fort Sumpter, Mr. Lincoln -intimated, by proclamation, the dishonour done to the laws -of the United States, and called out the militia to the extent -of seventy-five thousand men. The Free States responded -enthusiastically to the call. So prompt was their action, -that on the very next day several companies arrived in Washington. -Flushed by their easily-won victory, the Southerners -talked boastfully of seizing the capital. In a very short space -there were fifty thousand loyal men ready to prevent that, and -the safety of Washington was secured.</p> - -<p>The North pushed forward with boundless energy her warlike -preparations. Rich men offered money with so much -liberality that in a few days nearly five million sterling had -been contributed. The school-teachers of Boston dedicated -fixed proportions of their incomes to the support of the Government, -while the war should last. All over the country the -excited people gathered themselves into crowded meetings, and -breathed forth in fervid resolutions their determination to -spend fortune and life in defence of the Union. Volunteer -companies were rapidly formed. In the cities ladies began to -organize themselves for the relief of sick and wounded soldiers. -It had been fabled that the North would not fight. With a -fiery promptitude unknown before in modern history the people -sprang to arms.</p> - -<p class="tb">Even yet there was on both sides a belief that the war would -be a short one. The South, despising an adversary unpractised -in war, and vainly trusting that the European powers would -interfere in order to secure their wonted supplies of cotton, -expected that a few victories more would bring peace. The -North still regarded secession as little more than a gigantic -riot, which she proposed to extinguish within ninety days.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -The truth was strangely different from the prevailing belief -of the day. A high-spirited people, six million in number, -occupying a fertile territory nearly a million square miles in -extent, had risen against the Government. The task undertaken -by the North was to conquer this people, and by force -of arms to bring them and their territory back to the Union. -This was not likely to prove a work of easy accomplishment.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When the North addressed herself to her task, her -own capital was still threatened by the rebels. -Two or three miles down the Potomac, and full in -view of Washington, lies the old-fashioned decaying -Virginian town of Alexandria, where the unfortunate -Braddock had landed his troops a century before. The -Confederate flag floated over Alexandria. A rebel force was -marching on Harper’s Ferry, forty miles from Washington; -and as the Government works there could not be defended, -they were burned. Preparations were being made to seize -Arlington Heights, from which Washington could be easily -shelled. At Manassas Junction, thirty miles away, a rebel -army lay encamped. It seemed to many foreign observers that -the North might lay aside all thought of attack, and be well -pleased if she succeeded in the defence of what was still left -to her.</p> - -<p>But the Northern people, never doubting either their right -or their strength, put their hand boldly to the work. The first -thing to be done was to shut the rebels in so that no help could -reach them from the world outside. They could grow food -enough; but they were a people who could make little. They -needed from Europe supplies of arms and ammunition, of clothing, -of medicine. They needed money, which they could only -get by sending away their cotton. To stop their intercourse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -with Europe was to inflict a blow which would itself prove -almost fatal. Four days after the fall of Fort Sumpter, Mr. -Lincoln announced the blockade of all the rebel ports. It was -a little time after till he had ships enough to make the blockade -effective. But in a few weeks this was done, and every rebel -port was closed. The grasp thus established was never relaxed. -So long as the war lasted, the South obtained foreign supplies -only from vessels which carried on the desperate trade of -blockade-running.</p> - -<p>Virginia completed her secession on the 23rd April. Next -morning Federal troops seized and fortified Alexandria and the -Arlington Heights. In the western portions of Virginia the -people were so little in favour of secession that they wished to -establish themselves as a separate State, loyal to the Union. -With no very serious trouble the rebel forces were driven out -of this region, and Western Virginia was restored to the Union. -Desperate attempts were made by the disloyal Governor of -Missouri to carry his State out of the Union, against the wish -of a majority of the people. It was found possible to defeat -the efforts of the secessionists and retain Missouri. Throughout -the war this State was grievously wasted by Southern raids, but -she held fast her loyalty.</p> - -<p class="tb">Thus at the opening of the war substantial advantages had -been gained by the North. They were not, however, of a -sufficiently brilliant character fully to satisfy the expectations -of the excited people. A great battle must be won. Government, -unwisely yielding to the pressure, ordered their imperfectly -disciplined troops to advance and attack the rebels in -their position at Manassas Junction.</p> - -<p class="tb">General Beauregard lay at Manassas with a rebel force variously -estimated at from thirty thousand to forty thousand men. -In front of his position ran the little stream of Bull Run, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -a narrow, wooded valley—the ground rising on both sides -into “bluffs,” crowned with frequent patches of dense wood. -General M’Dowell moved to attack him, with an army about -equal in strength. <span class="sidenote">July 21, 1861 A.D.</span> It was early Sunday morning when -the army set out from its quarters at Centreville. The -march was not over ten miles, but the day was hot, -and the men not yet inured to hardship. It was ten -o’clock when the battle fairly opened. From the heights on the -northern bank of the stream the Federal artillery played upon -the enemy. The Southern line stretched well nigh ten miles, -and M’Dowell hoped, by striking with an overwhelming force -at a point on the enemy’s right, to roll back his entire line in -confusion. Heavy masses of infantry forded the stream and -began the attack. The Southerners fought bravely and skilfully, -but at the point of attack they were inferior in number, -and they were driven back. The battle spread away far among -the woods, and soon every copse held its group of slain and -wounded men. By three o’clock the Federals reckoned the -battle as good as won, for the enemy, though still fighting, was -falling back. But at that hour railway trains ran close up to the -field of battle with fifteen thousand Southerners fresh and eager -for the fray. This new force was hurried into action. The -wearied Federals could not endure the vehemence of the attack; -they broke, and fled down the hill-side. With inexperienced -troops a measured and orderly retreat is impossible; defeat is -quickly followed by panic. The men who had fought so bravely -all the day now hurried in wild confusion from the field. The -road was choked with a tangled mass of baggage-waggons, -artillery, soldiers and civilians frenzied by fear, and cavalry -riding wildly through the quaking mob. But the Southerners -attempted no pursuit, and the panic passed away. Scarcely -an attempt, however, was made to stop the flight. Order was -not restored till the worn-out men made their way back to -Washington.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> - -<p>This was the first great battle of the war, and its results -were of prodigious importance. By the sanguine men of the -South it was hailed as decisive of their final success. President -Davis counted upon the immediate recognition of the Confederacy -by the Great Powers of Europe as now certain. The -newspapers accepted it as a settled truth that “one Southerner -was equal to five Yankees.” Intrigues began for the succession -to the presidential chair—six years hence. A controversy arose -among the States as to the location of the Capital. The success -of the Confederacy was regarded as a thing beyond doubt. -Enlistment languished; it was scarcely worth while to undergo -the inconvenience of fighting for a cause which was already -triumphant.</p> - -<p class="tb">The defeat at Manassas taught the people of the North that -the task they had undertaken was a heavier task than they -supposed, but it did not shake their steady purpose to perform -it. On the day after the battle—while the routed army was -swarming into Washington—Congress voted five hundred -million dollars, and called for half a million of volunteers. A -few days later, Congress unanimously resolved that the suppression -of the rebellion was a sacred duty, from the performance -of which no disaster should discourage; to which they -pledged the employment of every resource, national and individual. -“Having chosen our course,” said Mr. Lincoln, -“without guile, and with pure purpose, let us renew our trust -in God, and go forward without fear and with manly hearts.” -The spirit of the North rose as the greatness of the enterprise -became apparent. No thought was there of any other issue -from the national agony than the overthrow of the national foe. -The youth of the country crowded into the ranks. The patriotic -impulse possessed rich and poor alike, and the sons of -wealthy men shouldered a musket side by side with the penniless -children of toil. Once, by some accident, the money which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -should have paid a New England regiment failed to arrive in -time. A private in the regiment gave his cheque for a hundred -thousand dollars, and the men were paid. The Christian -churches yielded an earnest support to the war. In some -western churches the men enlisted almost without exception. -Occasionally their ministers accompanied them. Sabbath-school -teachers and members of young men’s Christian associations -were remarkable for the eagerness with which they obeyed the -call of their country. It was no longer a short war and an -easy victory which the North anticipated. The gigantic character -of the struggle was at length recognized; and the North, -chastened, but undismayed, made preparations for a contest on -the issue of which her existence depended.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">“ON TO RICHMOND.”</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-g.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">General M’Dowell had led the Northern army -to a defeat which naturally shook public confidence -in his ability to command. A new general was -indispensable. When the war broke out, a young -man—George B. M’Clellan by name—was resident in Cincinnati, -peacefully occupied with the management of a railroad. -He was trained at West Point, and had a high reputation for -soldiership. Several years before, Mr. Cobden was told by -Jefferson Davis that M’Clellan was one of the best generals the -country possessed. He was skilful to construct and organize, -but his power to direct successfully the movements of great -armies engaged in actual warfare was still unproved.</p> - -<p>General M’Clellan was appointed to the command of the -army a few days after the defeat at Bull Run, and sanguine -hopes were entertained that he was about to give the people -victory over their enemies. He addressed himself at once to -his task. From every State in the North men hastened to his -standard. He disciplined them and perfected their equipment -for the field. In October he was at the head of two hundred -thousand men—the largest army ever yet seen on the American -continent.</p> - -<p class="tb">The rebel Government, which at first chose for its home the -city of Montgomery in Alabama, moved to Richmond so soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -as Virginia gave in her reluctant adherence to the secession -cause. Richmond, the gay capital of the Old Dominion, sits -queen-like upon a lofty plateau, with deep valleys flanking her -on east and west, and the James river rushing past far below -upon the south—not many miles from the point where the -“dissolute” fathers of the colony had established themselves -two centuries and a half ago. To Washington the distance is -only one hundred and thirty miles. The warring Governments -were within a few hours’ journey of each other.</p> - -<p>The supreme command of the rebel forces was committed to -General Robert E. Lee—one of the greatest of modern soldiers. -He was a calm, thoughtful, unpretending man, whose goodness -gained for him universal love. He was opposed to secession, -but believing, like the rest, that he owed allegiance wholly to -his own State, he seceded with Virginia. It was his difficult -task to contend nearly always with forces stronger than his -own, and to eke out by his own skill and genius the scanty -resources of the Confederacy. His consummate ability maintained -the war long after all hope of success was gone; and -when at length he laid down his arms, even the country against -which he had fought was proud of her erring but noble son.</p> - -<p>Thomas Jackson—better known as “Stonewall Jackson”—was -the most famous of Lee’s generals. In him we have a -strange evidence of the influence which slavery exerts upon the -best of men. He was of truly heroic mould—brave, generous, -devout. His military perception was unerring; his decision -swift as lightning. He rose early in the morning to read the -Scriptures and pray. He gave a tenth part of his income for -religious uses; he taught a Sunday class of negro children; he -delivered lectures on the authenticity of Scripture; when he -dropped a letter into the post-office, he prayed for a blessing on -the person to whom it was addressed. As his soldiers marched -past his erect, unmoving figure, to meet the enemy, they saw -his lips move, and knew that their leader was praying for them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -to Him who “covereth the head in the day of battle.” And -yet this good man caused his negroes—male and female—to be -flogged when he judged that severity needful. And yet he -recommended that the South should “take no prisoners”—in -other words, that enemies who had ceased to resist should be -massacred. To the end of his life he remained of opinion that -the rejection of this policy was a mistake. So fatally do -the noblest minds become tainted by the associations of slave -society.</p> - -<p class="tb">During the autumn and early winter of 1861 the weather -was unusually fine, and the roads were consequently in excellent -condition for the march of an army. The rebel forces -were scattered about Virginia—some of them within sight of -Washington. Around Richmond it was understood there were -few troops. It seemed easy for M’Clellan, with his magnificent -army, to trample down any slight resistance which could be -offered, and march into the rebel capital. For many weeks -the people and the Government waited patiently. They had -been too hasty before; they would not again urge their general -prematurely into battle. But the months of autumn passed, -and no blow was struck. Winter was upon them, and still -“all was quiet on the Potomac.” M’Clellan, in a series of -brilliant reviews, presented his splendid army to the admiration -of his countrymen; but he was not yet ready to fight. The -country bore the delay for six months. Then it could be -endured no longer, and in January Mr. Lincoln issued a -peremptory order that a movement against the enemy should -be made. M’Clellan now formed a plan of operations, and by -the end of March was ready to begin his work.</p> - -<p class="tb">South-eastward from Richmond the James and the York -rivers fall into Chesapeake bay at a distance from each other of -some twenty miles. The course of the rivers is nearly parallel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -and the region between them is known as the Peninsula. -M’Clellan conveyed his army down the Potomac, landed at -Fortress Monroe, and prepared to march upon Richmond by -way of the Peninsula.</p> - -<p>Before him lay the little town of Yorktown—where, eighty -years before, the War of Independence was closed by the -surrender of the English army. Yorktown was held by eleven -thousand rebels. M’Clellan had over one hundred thousand -well-disciplined men eager for battle. But he deemed it injudicious -to assault the place, and preferred to operate in the -way of a formal siege. The rebels waited till he was ready to -open his batteries—and then quietly marched away.</p> - -<p>M’Clellan moved slowly up the Peninsula. In six weeks he -was within a few miles of Richmond, and in front of the forces -which the rebels had been actively collecting for the defence of -their capital. These forces were now so strong that M’Clellan -deemed himself outnumbered, and sought the protection of his -gunboats on the James river. The emboldened rebels dashed -at his retreating ranks. His march to the James river occupied -seven days, and on every day there was a battle. Nearly -always the Federals had the advantage in the fight. Always -after the fight they resumed their retreat. Once they drove -back the enemy, inflicting upon him a crushing defeat. Their -hopes rose with success, and they demanded to be led back -to Richmond. M’Clellan shunned the great enterprise which -opened before him, and never rested from his march till he lay -in safety, sheltered by the gunboats on the James river. He -had lost fifteen thousand men; but the rebels had suffered even -more. It was said that the retreat was skilfully conducted, -but the American people were in no humour to appreciate the -merits of a chief who was great only in flight. Their disappointment -was intense. The Southern leaders devoutly -announced “undying gratitude to God” for their great success, -and looked forward with increasing confidence to their final<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -triumph over an enemy whose assaults it seemed so easy to -repulse.</p> - -<p>Nor was this the only success which crowned the rebel arms. -The most remarkable battle of the war was fought while -M’Clellan was preparing for his advance; and it ended in a -rebel victory.</p> - -<p>At the very beginning of the war the Confederates bethought -them of an iron-clad ship of war. They took hold of -an old frigate which the Federals had sunk in the James river. -They sheathed her in iron plates; they roofed her with iron -rails. At her prow, beneath the water-line, they fitted an iron-clad -projection, which might be driven into the side of an -adversary. They armed her with ten guns of large size.</p> - -<p>The mechanical resources of the Confederacy were defective, -and this novel structure was eight months in preparation. <span class="sidenote">1862 A.D.</span> One morning in March she steamed slowly down the -James river, attended by five small vessels of the -ordinary sort. A powerful Northern fleet lay guarding -the mouth of the river. The <i>Virginia</i>—as the iron-clad had -been named—came straight towards the hostile ships. She -fired no shot; no man showed himself upon her deck. The -Federals assailed her with well-aimed discharges; but the shot -bounded harmless from her sides. She steered for the <i>Cumberland</i>, -into whose timbers she struck her armed prow. A huge -cleft opened in the <i>Cumberland’s</i> side, and the gallant ship -went down with a hundred men of her crew on board. The -<i>Virginia</i> next attacked the Federal ship <i>Congress</i>. At a -distance of two hundred yards she opened her guns upon this -ill-fated vessel. The <i>Congress</i> was aground, and could offer no -effective resistance. After sustaining heavy loss, she was -forced to surrender. Night approached, and the <i>Virginia</i> drew -off, intending to resume her work on the morrow.</p> - -<p>Early next morning—a bright Sunday morning—she steamed -out, and made for the <i>Minnesota</i>—a Federal ship which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -been grounded to get beyond her reach. The <i>Minnesota</i> was -still aground, and helpless. Beside her, however, as the men -on board the <i>Virginia</i> observed, lay a mysterious structure, -resembling nothing they had ever seen before. Her deck was -scarcely visible above the water, and it supported nothing but -an iron turret nine feet high. This was the <i>Monitor</i>, designed -by Captain Ericsson;—the first of the class of iron-clad turret-ships. -By a singular chance she had arrived thus opportunely. -The two iron-clads measured their strength in combat, but their -shot produced no impression, and after two hours of heavy but -ineffective firing, they separated, and the <i>Virginia</i> retired up -the James river.</p> - -<p>This fight opened a new era in naval warfare. The Washington -Government hastened to build turret-ships. All European -Governments, perceiving the worthlessness of ships of the old -type, proceeded to reconstruct their navies according to the light -which the action of the <i>Virginia</i> and the <i>Monitor</i> afforded them.</p> - -<p class="tb">The efforts of the North to crush the rebel forces in Virginia -had signally failed. But military operations were not confined -to Virginia: in this war the battle-field was the continent. -Many hundreds of miles from the scene of M’Clellan’s unsuccessful -efforts, the banner of the Union was advancing into -the revolted territory. The North sought to occupy the Border -States, and to repossess the line of the Mississippi, thus severing -Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the other members -of the secession enterprise, and perfecting the blockade which -was now effectively maintained on the Atlantic coast. There -were troops enough for these vast operations. By the 1st of -December 1861, six hundred and forty thousand men had enrolled -themselves for the war. The North, thoroughly aroused -now, had armed and drilled these enormous hosts. Her foundries -worked night and day, moulding cannon and mortars. -Her own resources could not produce with sufficient rapidity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -the gunboats which she needed to assert her supremacy on -the western waters, but she obtained help from the building-yards -of Europe. All that wealth and energy could do was -done. While the Confederates were supinely trusting to the -difficulties of the country and the personal prowess of their -soldiers, the North massed forces which nothing on the -continent could long resist. In the south and west results -were achieved not unworthy of these vast preparations.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1861 A.D.</span> During the autumn a strong fleet was sent southward to the -Carolina coast. Overcoming with ease the slight resistance -which the rebel forts were able to offer, the expedition -possessed itself of Port Royal, and thus commanded -a large tract of rebel territory. It was a cotton-growing -district, worked wholly by slaves. The owners fled, -but the slaves remained. The first experiment was made here -to prove whether the negro would labour when the lash did -not compel, and the results were most encouraging. The -negroes worked cheerfully and patiently, and many of them -became rich from the easy gains of labour on that rich soil.</p> - -<p>In the west the war was pushed vigorously and with success. -To General Grant—a strong, tenacious, silent man, destined -ere long to be Commander-in-Chief and President—was assigned -the work of driving the rebels out of Kentucky and Tennessee. -His gunboats ran up the great rivers of these States and took -effective part in the battles which were fought. The rebels -were forced southward, till in the spring of 1862 the frontier -line of rebel territory no longer enclosed Kentucky. Even -Tennessee was held with a loosened and uncertain grasp.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">March 1862 A.D.</span> In Arkansas, beyond the Mississippi, was fought the -Battle of Pea Ridge, which stretched over three days, -and in which the rebels received a sharp defeat. Henceforth -the rebels had no footing in Missouri or in Arkansas.</p> - -<p>New Orleans fell in April. Admiral Farragut with a powerful -fleet forced his way past the forts and gunboats which composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -the insufficient defence of the city. There was no army -to resist him. He landed a small party of marines, who -pulled down the Secession flag and restored that of the Union. -The people looked on silently, while the city passed thus easily -away for ever from Confederate rule.</p> - -<p>There was gloom in the rebel capital as the tidings of these -disasters came in. But the spirit of the people was unbroken, -and the Government was encouraged to adopt measures equal -to the emergency. A law was enacted which placed at the -disposal of the Government every man between eighteen and -thirty-five years of age. Enlistment for short terms was discontinued. -Henceforth the business of Southern men must be -war, and every man must hold himself at his country’s call. -This law yielded for a time an adequate supply of soldiers, and -ushered in those splendid successes which cherished the delusive -hope that the Slave-power was to establish itself as one of the -Great Powers of the world.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">LIBERTY TO THE CAPTIVE.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The slave question, out of which the rebellion sprang, -presented for some time grave difficulties to the -Northern Government. As the Northern armies -forced their way southwards, escaped slaves flocked -to them. These slaves were loyal subjects; their owners were -rebels in arms against the Government. Could the Government -recognize the right of the rebel to own the loyal man? -Again: the labour of the slaves contributed to the support of -the rebellion. Was it not a clear necessity of war that Government -should deprive the rebellion of this support by freeing all -the slaves whom its authority could reach? But, on the other -hand, some of the Slave States remained loyal. Over their -slaves Government had no power, and much care was needed -that no measure should be adopted of which they could justly -complain.</p> - -<p>The President had been all his life a steady foe to slavery, -but he never forgot that, whatever his own feelings might be, -he was strictly bound by law. His duty as President was, not -to destroy slavery, but to save the Union. When the time -came to overthrow this accursed system, he would do it with -gladdened heart. Meanwhile he said, “If I could save the -Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could -save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could -save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would do it.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - -<p>From the very beginning of the war escaped slaves crowded -within the Federal lines. They were willing to perform any -labour, or to fight in a cause which they all knew to be their -own. But the North was not yet freed from her habitual tenderness -for Southern institutions. The negroes could not yet -be armed. Nay, it was permitted to the owners of escaped -slaves to enter the Northern lines and forcibly to carry -back their property. <span class="sidenote">May 26, 1861 A.D.</span> General M’Clellan pledged himself -not only to avoid interference with slaves, but to -crush with an iron hand any attempt at insurrection on -their part. <span class="sidenote">Aug. 31.</span> General Fremont, commanding in Missouri, -issued an order which gave liberty to the slaves of -persons who were fighting against the Union. The President, -not yet deeming that measure indispensable, disallowed it. A -little later it was proposed to arm the blacks, but to that also -the President objected. He would do nothing prematurely -which might offend the loyal Slave States, and so hinder the -restoration of the Union.</p> - -<p>But in War opinion ripens fast. Men quickly learned, -under that stern teacher, to reason that, as slavery had caused -the rebellion, slavery should be extinguished. Congress met -in December, with ideas which pointed decisively towards -Abolition. Measures were passed which marked a great era in -the history of slavery. The slaves of men who were in arms -against the Government were declared to be free. Coloured -men might be armed and employed as soldiers. Slavery was -abolished within the District of Columbia. Slavery was prohibited -for ever within all the Territories. Every slave escaping -to the Union armies was to be free. Wherever the -authority of Congress could reach, slavery was now at an end.</p> - -<p>But something yet remained. Public sentiment in the North -grew strong in favour of immediate and unconditional emancipation -of all slaves within the revolted States. This view was -pressed upon Lincoln. He hesitated long; not from reluctance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -but because he wished the public mind to be thoroughly made -up before he took this decisive step. At length his course was -resolved upon. <span class="sidenote">July, 1862 A.D.</span> He drew up a Proclamation, which -gave freedom to all the slaves in the rebel States. He -called a meeting of his Cabinet, which cordially sanctioned -the measure. After New Year’s Day of 1863 -all persons held to slavery within the seceded territory were -declared to be free. “And upon this act”—thus was the Proclamation -closed—“sincerely believed to be an act of justice, -warranted by the Constitution upon military necessity, I invoke -the considerate judgment of mankind, and the gracious -favour of Almighty God.”</p> - -<p>This—one of the most memorable of all State papers—gave -freedom to over three million slaves. It did not touch -slavery in the loyal States; for there the President had no -authority to interfere. But all men knew that it involved the -abolition of slavery in the loyal as well as in the rebellious -States. Henceforth slavery became impossible on any portion -of American territory.</p> - -<p>The deep significance of this great measure was most fully -recognized by the Northern people. The churches gave thanks -to God for this fulfilment of their long-cherished desire. Congress -expressed its cordial approval. Innumerable public meetings -resolved that the President’s action deserved the support -of the country. Bells pealed joyfully in the great cities and -quiet villages of the east, and in the infant settlements of the -distant west. Charles Sumner begged from the President the -pen with which the Proclamation had been signed. The -original draft of the document was afterwards sold for a large -sum, at a fair held in Chicago for the benefit of the soldiers.</p> - -<p>The South, too, understood this transaction perfectly. It -was the triumphant and final expression of that Northern -abhorrence to slavery which had provoked the slave-owners to -rebel. It made reconciliation impossible. President Davis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -said to his Congress that it would calm the fears of those who -apprehended a restoration of the old Union.</p> - -<p>It is a painful reflection that the English Government -utterly misunderstood this measure. Its official utterance on -the subject was a sneer. Earl Russell, the Foreign Secretary -of that day, wrote to our ambassador at Washington that the -Proclamation was “a measure of a very questionable kind.” -“It professes,” he continued, “to emancipate slaves where the -United States cannot make emancipation a reality, but emancipates -no one where the decree can be carried into effect.” -Thus imperfectly had Earl Russell yet been able to comprehend -this memorable page of modern history.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CONFEDERATE SUCCESSES.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-m.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">M’Clellan’s ignominious failure disappointed but -did not dishearten the Northern people. While -M’Clellan was hasting away from Richmond, the -Governors of seventeen States assured the President -of the readiness of their people to furnish troops. The -President issued a call for an additional three hundred thousand -men; and his call was promptly obeyed.</p> - -<p>M’Clellan lay for two months, secure but inglorious, beside -his gunboats on the James river. General Lee, rightly deeming -that there was little to fear from an army so feebly led, -ranged northwards with a strong force and threatened Washington. -The Federal troops around the capital were greatly -inferior in number. President Lincoln summoned M’Clellan -northwards. M’Clellan was, as usual, unready; and a small -Federal army under General Pope was left to cope unaided -with the enemy. Pope received a severe defeat at Manassas, -and retired to the fortifications of Washington.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sept. 17, 1862 A.D.</span> General Lee was strong enough now to carry the war into -Northern territory. He captured Harper’s Ferry, and passed -into Maryland. M’Clellan was at length stimulated to -action, and having carried his troops northwards, he -attacked Lee at Antietam. The Northern army far -outnumbered the enemy. The battle was long and -bloody. When darkness sank down upon the wearied combatants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -no decisive advantage had been gained. M’Clellan’s -generals urged a renewal of the attack next morning. But -this was not done, and General Lee crossed the Potomac and -retired unmolested into Virginia. M’Clellan resumed his customary -inactivity. The President ordered him to pursue the -enemy and give battle. He even wished him to move on -Richmond, which he was able to reach before Lee could -possibly be there. In vain. M’Clellan could not move. His -horses had sore tongues and sore backs; they were lame; they -were broken down by fatigue. Lincoln had already -been unduly patient. But the country would endure -no more. <span class="sidenote">Nov. 5, 1862 A.D.</span> General M’Clellan was removed from command -of that army whose power he had so long been -able to neutralize; and his place was taken by General -Burnside.</p> - -<p>Burnside at once moved his army southwards, for it was not -yet too late for a Virginian campaign. He reached the banks -of the Rappahannock, beside the little town of Fredericksburg. -He had to wait there for many weary days till he obtained -means to cross the river. While he lay, impatient, General -Lee concentrated all the forces under his command upon the -heights which rose steeply from the opposite bank of the -stream. He threw up earthworks and strongly intrenched his -position. There he waited in calmness for the assault which -he knew he could repel.</p> - -<p>When Burnside was able to cross the Rappahannock, he lost -no time in making his attack. One portion of his force would -strike the enemy on his right flank; the rest would push -straight up the heights and assault him in front. A slight -success in the flanking movement cheered General Burnside. -But in the centre his troops advanced to the attack under a -heavy fire of artillery which laid many brave men low. The -Northern soldiers fought their way with steady courage up the -height. They were superior in numbers, but the rebels fought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -in safety within a position which was impregnable. The battle -was no fair trial of skill and courage, but a useless waste of -brave lives. Burnside drew off his troops and re-crossed the -Rappahannock, with a loss of twelve thousand men—vainly -sacrificed in the attempt to perform an impossibility.</p> - -<p class="tb">In the west there had been no great success to counter-balance -the long train of Confederate victories in the east. -The year closed darkly upon the hopes of those who strove to -preserve the Union. The South counted with certainty that -her independence was secure. The prevailing opinion of Europe -regarded the enterprise which the North pursued so resolutely, -as a wild impossibility. But the Northern people and Government -never despaired of the Commonwealth. At the gloomiest -period of the contest a Bill was passed for the construction of a -railroad to the Pacific. The Homestead Act offered a welcome -to immigrants in the form of a free grant of one hundred and -sixty acres of land to each. And the Government, as with a -quiet and unburdened mind, began to enlarge and adorn its -Capitol on a scale worthy of the expected greatness of the -reunited country.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WAR CONTINUES.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-h.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Hitherto the men who had fought for the North -had been volunteers. They had come when -the President called, willing to lay down -their lives for their country. Already -volunteers had been enrolled to the number of one million and -a quarter. But that number had been sadly reduced by -wounds, sickness, and captivity, and the Northern armies had -not proved themselves strong enough to crush the rebellion. <span class="sidenote">1863 A.D.</span> -A Bill was now passed which subjected the entire male population, -between eighteen and forty-five, to military duty when -their service was required. Any man of suitable age could -now be forced into the ranks.</p> - -<p>The blockade of the Southern ports had effected for many -months an almost complete isolation of the Confederates from -the world outside. Now and then a ship, laden with arms and -clothing and medicine, ran past the blockading squadron, and -discharged her precious wares in a Southern port. Now and -then a ship laden with cotton stole out and got safely to sea. -But this perilous and scanty commerce afforded no appreciable -relief to the want which had already begun to brood over this -doomed people. The Government could find soldiers enough; -but it could not find for them arms and clothing. The railroads -could not be kept in working condition in the absence of -foreign iron. Worst of all, a scarcity of food began to threaten.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -<span class="sidenote">April 10, 1863 A.D.</span> Jefferson Davis begged his people to lay aside all thought of -gain, and devote themselves to the raising of supplies for the -army. Even now the army was frequently on half -supply of bread. The South could look back with just -pride upon a long train of brilliant victories, gained -with scanty means, by her own valour and genius. -But, even in this hour of triumph, it was evident that her -position was desperate.</p> - -<p>The North had not yet completely established her supremacy -upon the Mississippi. Two rebel strongholds—Vicksburg and -Port Hudson—had successfully resisted Federal attack, and -maintained communication between the revolted provinces on -either side the great river. The reduction of these was indispensable. -General Grant was charged with the important enterprise, -and proceeded in February to begin his work.</p> - -<p>Grant found himself with his army on the wrong side of the -city. He was up stream from Vicksburg, and he could not -hope to win the place by attacks on that side. Nor could he -easily convey his army and siege appliances through the swamps -and lakes which stretched away behind the city. It seemed -too hazardous to run his transports past the guns of Vicksburg. -He attempted to cut a new channel for the river, along which -he might convey his army safely. Weeks were spent in the -vain attempt, and the country, which had not yet learned to -trust in Grant, became impatient of the unproductive toil. -Grant, undismayed by the failure of his project, adopted a -new and more hopeful scheme. He conveyed his soldiers -across to the western bank of the Mississippi, and marched -them southward till they were below Vicksburg. There they -were ferried across the river; and then they stood within reach -of the weakest side of the city. The transports were ordered -to run the batteries of Vicksburg and take the chances of that -enterprise.</p> - -<p>When Grant reached the position he sought, he had a difficult<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -task before him. One large army held Vicksburg; another -large army was gathering for the relief of the endangered -fortress. Soon Grant lay between two armies which, united, -greatly outnumbered his. But he had no intention that they -should unite. He attacked them in detail, and in every action -he was successful. The Confederates were driven back upon -the city, which was then closely invested.</p> - -<p>For six weeks Grant pressed the siege with a fiery energy -which allowed no rest to the besieged. General Johnston was -not far off, mustering an army for the relief of Vicksburg, and -there was not an hour to lose. Grant kept a strict blockade -upon the scantily-provisioned city. From his gunboats and -from his own lines he maintained an almost ceaseless bombardment. -The inhabitants crept into caves in the hill to find -shelter from the intolerable fire. They slaughtered their mules -for food. They patiently endured the inevitable hardships of -their position; and their daily newspaper, printed on scraps of -such paper as men cover their walls with, continued to the end -to make light of their sufferings, and to breathe defiance against -General Grant. But all was vain. On the 4th of July—the -anniversary of Independence—Vicksburg was surrendered with -her garrison of twenty-three thousand men much enfeebled by -hunger and fatigue.</p> - -<p>The fall of Vicksburg was the heaviest blow which the Confederacy -had yet sustained. Nearly one-half of the rebel territory -lay beyond the Mississippi. That river was now firmly -held by the Federals. The rebel States were cut in two, and -no help could pass from one section to the other. There was -deep joy in the Northern heart. The President thanked -General Grant for “the almost inestimable service” which he -had done to the country.</p> - -<p class="tb">But long before Grant’s triumph at Vicksburg another -humiliation had fallen upon the Federal arms in Virginia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> - -<p>Soon after the disaster at Fredericksburg, the modest Burnside -had asked to be relieved of his command. General Hooker -took his place. The new chief was familiarly known to his -countrymen as “fighting Joe Hooker,”—a title which sufficiently -indicated his dashing, reckless character. Hooker -entered on his command with high hopes. “By the blessing -of God,” he said to the army, “we will contribute something to -the renown of our arms and the success of our cause.”</p> - -<p>After three months of preparation, General Hooker announced -that his army was irresistible. The Northern cry -was still, “On to Richmond;” the dearest wish of the -Northern people was to possess the rebel capital. Hooker -marched southward, nothing doubting that he was to fulfil the -long frustrated desire of his countrymen. His confidence -seemed not to be unwarranted; for he had under his command -a magnificent army, which greatly outnumbered that opposed -to him. But, unhappily for Hooker, the hostile forces were -led by General Lee and Stonewall Jackson.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of May, Hooker was in presence of the enemy on -the line of the Rappahannock. Lee was too weak to give or -accept battle; but he was able to occupy Hooker with a series -of sham attacks. All the while Jackson was hasting to assail -his flank. His march was through the Wilderness—a wild -country thick with ill-grown oaks and a dense undergrowth—where -surprise was easy. Towards evening, on the 2nd, -Jackson’s soldiers burst upon the unexpectant Federals. The -fury of the attack bore all before it. The Federal line fell -back in confusion and with heavy loss.</p> - -<p>In the twilight Jackson rode forward with his staff to -examine the enemy’s position. As he returned, a North -Carolina regiment, seeing a party of horsemen approach, presumed -it was a charge of Federal cavalry. They fired, and -Jackson fell from his horse, with two bullets in his left arm -and one through his right hand. They placed him on a litter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -to carry him from the field. One of the bearers was shot down -by the enemy, and the wounded general fell heavily to the -ground. The sound of musketry wakened the Federal artillery, -and for some time Jackson lay helpless on ground swept by -the cannon of the enemy. When his men learned the situation -of their beloved commander, they rushed in and carried him -from the danger.</p> - -<p>Jackson sunk under his wounds. He bore patiently his -great suffering. “If I live, it will be for the best,” he said; -“and if I die, it will be for the best. God knows and directs -all things for the best.” He died eight days after the battle, -to the deep sorrow of his countrymen. He was a great soldier; -and although he died fighting for an evil cause, he was a true-hearted -Christian man.</p> - -<p>During two days after Jackson fell the battle continued at -Chancellorsville. Lee’s superior skill in command more than -compensated for his inferior numbers. He attacked Hooker, -and always at the point of conflict he was found to be stronger. -Hooker discovered that he must retreat, lest a worse thing -should befall him. After three days’ fighting he crossed the -river in a tempest of wind and rain, and along the muddy -Virginian roads carried his disheartened troops back to their -old positions. He had been baffled by a force certainly not -more than one-half his own. The splendid military genius -of Lee was perhaps never more conspicuous than in the defeat -of that great army which General Hooker himself regarded as -invincible.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">GETTYSBURG.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Confederate Government had always been eager -to carry the contest into Northern territory. It -was satisfying to the natural pride of the South, -and it was thought that some experience of the -evils of war might incline the Northern mind to peace. Lee -was ordered to march into Pennsylvania. He gathered all the -troops at his disposal, and with seventy-five thousand men he -crossed the Potomac, and was once more prepared to face the -enemy on his own soil. The rich cities of the North trembled. -It was not unlikely that he should possess himself of Baltimore -and Philadelphia. Could he once again defeat Hooker’s army, -as he had often done before, no further resistance was possible. -Pennsylvania and New York were at his mercy.</p> - -<p>Lee advanced to the little Pennsylvanian town of Gettysburg. -Hooker, after marching his army northwards, had been relieved -of the command. A battle was near; and in face of the enemy -a new commander had to be chosen. Two days before the -hostile armies met, General Meade was appointed. Meade was -an experienced soldier, who had filled with honour the various -positions assigned to him; but it was seemingly a hopeless task -which he was now asked to perform. With an oft-defeated -army of sixty thousand to seventy thousand men, to whom he -was a stranger, he had to meet Lee with his victorious seventy-five -thousand. Meade quietly undertook the work appointed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -to him, and did it, too, like a brave, prudent, unpretending -man.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">July 1, 1863 A.D.</span> The battle lasted for three days. On the first day the Confederates -had some advantage. Their attack broke and -scattered a Federal division with considerable loss. But -that night the careful Meade took up a strong position -on a crescent-shaped line of heights near the little town. -Here he would lie, and the Confederates might drive him from -it if they could.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">July 2.</span> Next day Lee attempted to dislodge the enemy. The key of -the Federal position was Cemetery Hill, and there the -utmost strength of the Confederate attack was put -forth. Nor was it in vain; for part of the Federal line was -broken, and at one point an important position had been taken -by the Confederates. Lee might fairly hope that another day’s -fighting would complete his success and give him undisputed -possession of the wealthiest Northern States. His loss had -been small, while the Federals had been seriously weakened.</p> - -<p>Perhaps no hours of deeper gloom were ever passed in the -North than the hours of that summer evening when the telegraph -flashed over the country the news of Lee’s success. The -lavish sacrifice of blood and treasure seemed in vain. A million -of men were in arms to defend the Union, and yet the northward -progress of the rebels could not be withstood. Should -Lee be victorious on the morrow, the most hopeful must despond.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">July 3.</span> The day on which so much of the destiny of America hung -opened bright and warm and still. The morning was -occupied by Lee in preparations for a crushing attack -upon the centre of the Federal position; by Meade, in carefully -strengthening his power of resistance at the point where he was -to win or to lose this decisive battle. About noon all was completed. -Over both armies there fell a marvellous stillness—the -silence of anxious and awful expectation. It was broken by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -solitary cannon-shot, and the shriek of a Whitworth shell as it -rushed through the air. That was the signal at which one hundred -and fifty Confederate guns opened their fire. The Federal -artillery replied, and for three hours a prodigious hail of shells -fell upon either army. No decisive supremacy was, however, -established by the guns on either side, although heavy loss was -sustained by both. While the cannonade still continued, Lee -sent forth the columns whose errand it was to break the Federal -centre. They marched down the low range of heights on which -they had stood, and across the little intervening valley. As -they moved up the opposite height the friendly shelter of Confederate -fire ceased. Terrific discharges of grape and shell -smote but did not shake their steady ranks. As the men fell, -their comrades stepped into their places, and the undismayed -lines moved swiftly on. Up to the low stone wall which -sheltered the Federals, up to the very muzzles of guns whose -rapid fire cut every instant deep lines in their ranks, the heroic -advance was continued.</p> - -<p>General Lee from the opposite height watched, as Napoleon -did at Waterloo, the progress of his attack. Once the smoke of -battle was for a moment blown aside, and the Confederate flag -was seen to wave within the enemy’s position. Lee’s generals -congratulate him that the victory is gained. Again the cloud -gathers around the combatants. When it lifts next, the Confederates -are seen broken and fleeing down that fatal slope, -where a man can walk now without once putting his foot upon -the grass, so thick lie the bodies of the slain. The attack had -failed; the battle was lost; the Union was saved.</p> - -<p>General Lee’s business was now to save his army. “This -has been a sad day for us,” he said to a friend, “a sad day; -but we can’t expect always to gain victories.” He rallied his -broken troops, expecting to be attacked by the victorious -Federals; but Meade did not follow up his success. Next day -Lee began his retreat. In perfect order he moved towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -the Potomac, and safely crossed the swollen river back into -Virginia.</p> - -<p>The losses sustained in this battle were terrible. Forty-eight -thousand men lay dead or wounded on the field. Lee’s army -was weakened by over forty thousand men killed, wounded, -and prisoners. Meade lost twenty-three thousand. For miles -around, every barn, every cottage contained wounded men. -The streets of the little town were all dabbled with blood. -Men were for many days engaged in burying the dead, of whom -there were nearly eight thousand. The wounded of both armies, -who were able to be removed, were at once carried into hospitals -and tenderly cared for. There were many so mangled that -their removal was impossible. These were ministered to on the -field till death relieved them from their pain.</p> - -<p>The tidings of the victory at Gettysburg came to the Northern -people on the 4th of July, side by side with the tidings of the -fall of Vicksburg. The proud old anniversary had perhaps -never before been celebrated by the American people with -hearts so thankful and so glad. Mr. Lincoln, who had become -grave and humble and reverential under the influence of those -awful circumstances amid which he lived, proclaimed a solemn -day of thanksgiving for the deliverance granted to the nation, -and of prayer that God would lead them all, “through the -paths of repentance and submission to the divine will, to unity -and fraternal peace.”</p> - -<p>The deep enthusiasm which, in those anxious days, thrilled -the American heart, sought in song that fulness of expression -which speech could not afford. Foremost among the favourite -poetic utterances of the people was this:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="center">BATTLE-HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC.</div> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord;</div> -<div class="verse">He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;</div> -<div class="verse">He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword;</div> -<div class="verse indent8">His Truth is marching on.</div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps;</div> -<div class="verse">They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps;</div> -<div class="verse">I have read His righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps;</div> -<div class="verse indent8">His Day is marching on.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">I have read a fiery gospel writ in burnished rows of steel—</div> -<div class="verse">“As ye deal with My contemners, so with you My grace shall deal;”</div> -<div class="verse">Let the Hero born of woman crush the serpent with His heel,</div> -<div class="verse indent8">Since God is marching on.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat;</div> -<div class="verse">He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment-seat;</div> -<div class="verse">Oh! be swift, my soul, to answer Him; be jubilant, my feet,—</div> -<div class="verse indent8">Our God is marching on.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea,</div> -<div class="verse">With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me;</div> -<div class="verse">As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free,</div> -<div class="verse indent8">While God is marching on.</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>These strangely musical verses were sung at all public meetings -in the North, the audience ordinarily starting to their feet -and joining in the strain, often interrupted by emotion too -deeply stirred to be concealed. President Lincoln has been -seen listening to the hymn with tears rolling down his face. -When the Battle of Gettysburg was fought there were many -hundreds of Northern officers captive in the Libby prison—a -huge, shapeless structure, once a tobacco factory, standing by -the wayside in a suburb of Richmond. A false report was -brought to them that the rebels had gained. There were many -sleepless eyes and sorrowing hearts that night among the -prisoners. But next morning an old negro brought them the -true account of the battle. The sudden joy was too deep for -words. By one universal impulse the gladdened captives burst -into song. Midst weeping and midst laughter the Battle-Hymn -of the Republic was caught up until five hundred voices were -joining in the strain. There as elsewhere it was felt with unutterable -joy and thankfulness that the country was saved.</p> - -<p>The victory at Gettysburg lifted a great load from the hearts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -of the Northern people. There was yet a work—vast and -grim—to be accomplished before a solid peace could be attained, -but there was now a sure hope of final success. It was remarked -by President Lincoln’s friends that his appearance underwent a -noticeable change after Gettysburg. His eye grew brighter; -his bowed-down form was once more erect. In the winter after -the battle part of the battle-ground was consecrated as a cemetery, -into which were gathered the remains of the brave men -who fell. Lincoln took part in the ceremony, and spoke these -memorable words: “It is for us the living to be dedicated here -to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus -far so nobly advanced. It is for us to be here dedicated to the -great task remaining before us; that from these honoured dead -we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave -the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve -that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, -under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government -of the people—by the people and for the people—shall not -perish from the earth.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE LAST CAMPAIGN.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-e.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Even before the disasters of Gettysburg and Vicksburg, -and while General Lee was still pursuing a -course of dazzling success, it had become evident to -many that the cause of the South was hopeless. A -strict blockade shut her out from the markets of Europe. Her -supplies of arms were running so low, that even if she could -have found men in sufficient numbers to resist the North, she -could not have equipped them. Food was becoming scarce. -Already the pangs of hunger had been experienced in Lee’s -army. Elsewhere there was much suffering, even among those -who had lately been rich. The soldiers were insufficiently provided -with clothing. As winter came on, they deserted and -went home in crowds so great that punishment was impossible.</p> - -<p>The North had a million men in the field. She had nearly -six hundred ships of war, seventy-five of which were iron-clads. -She had boundless command of everything which could contribute -to the efficiency and comfort of her soldiers. The rolls of -the Southern armies showed only four hundred thousand men -under arms, and of these it was said that from desertion and -other causes seldom more than one-half were in the ranks.</p> - -<p>Money was becoming very scarce. The Confederate Government -borrowed all the money it could at home, but the supply -received was wholly out of proportion to the expenditure. A -loan was attempted in England; and there proved to be there a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -sufficient number of rich but unwise persons to furnish three -million sterling—most of which will remain for ever unpaid to -the lenders. No other measure remained but to print, as fast -as machinery could do it, Government promises to pay at some -future time, and to force these upon people to whom the Government -owed money. These promises gradually fell in value. In -1862, when the rebellion was young and hopes were high, one -dollar and twenty cents in Government money would purchase -a dollar in gold. In January 1863 it required three dollars to -do that. After Gettysburg it required twenty dollars. Somewhat -later it required sixty paper dollars to obtain the one -precious golden coin.</p> - -<p>It became every day more apparent that the resources of the -South were being exhausted. Even if the genius of her generals -should continue to gain victories, the South must perish from -want of money and want of food. There was a touching weakness -in many of her business arrangements. Government appealed -to the people for gifts of jewellery and silver plate, and -published in the Richmond newspapers lists of the gold rings -and silver spoons and teapots which amiable enthusiasts bestowed -upon them! When iron-clad ships of war were needed -and iron was scarce, an association of ladies was formed to collect -old pots and pans for the purpose! The daring of these -people and the skill of their leaders might indeed gain them -victories; but it was a wild improbability that they should -come successfully out of a war in which the powerful and sagacious -North was resolute to win.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1864 A.D.</span> The Northern Government, well advised of the failing resources -of the South, hoped that one campaign more -would close the war. Bitter experience had corrected -their early mistakes, and they had at length found a -general worthy of his high place. Grant was summoned eastward -to direct the last march on Richmond. The spirit of the -country was resolute as ever. The soldiers had now the skill of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -veterans; enormous supplies were provided; everything that -boundless resources, wisely administered, could do, was now done -to bring the awful contest to a close.</p> - -<p>When the campaign opened, Grant with one hundred and -twenty thousand men faced Lee, whose force was certainly less -by one-half. The little river Rapidan flowed between. The -Wilderness—a desolate region of stunted trees and dense undergrowth—stretched -for many miles around. At midnight on the -3rd of May, Grant began to cross the river, and before next -evening his army stood on the southern side. Lee at once -attacked him. During the next eight days there was continuous -fighting. The men toiled all day at the work of slaughter, -lay down to sleep at night, and rose to resume their bloody -labour in the morning, as men do in the ordinary peaceful business -of life. Lee directed his scanty force with wondrous skill. -It was his habit to throw up intrenchments, within which he -maintained himself against the Federal assault. Grant did not -allow himself to be hindered in his progress to Richmond. -When he failed to force the Confederate position he marched -southward round its flank, continually obliging Lee to move forward -and take up a new position. His losses were terrible. -From the 5th to the 12th of May he had lost thirty thousand -men in killed, wounded, and missing. The wounded were sent -to Washington, and trains of ambulances miles in length, laden -with suffering men, passed continually through the capital, filling -all hearts with sadness and gloomy apprehension. The cost was -awful, but General Grant knew that the end was being gained. -He knew that Lee was weakened irrecoverably by the slaughter -of these battles, and he wrote that he would “fight it out on -this line, if it should take all summer.”</p> - -<p>Grant found that a direct attack on Richmond was as yet -hopeless, and he marched southwards past the rebel capital to -the little town of Petersburg, twenty-two miles off. His plan -was to wear down the rebel army by the continual attack of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -superior forces, and also to cut the railways by which provisions -were brought into Richmond. By the middle of June he was -before Petersburg, which he hoped to possess before Lee had -time to fortify the place against him. It might have been taken -by a vigorous assault; but the attacking force was feebly led, -and the opportunity was missed.</p> - -<p>And now there began the tedious bloody siege of Petersburg. -The armies had chosen their positions for the final -conflict. The result was not doubtful. General Lee was of -opinion, some time before, that the fortunes of the Confederacy -were desperate. The Northern Government and military -leaders knew that success was certain. Indeed General Grant -stated afterwards that he had been at the front from the very -beginning of the war, and that he had never entertained any -doubt whatever as to the final success of the North.</p> - -<p>All around Petersburg, at such distance that the firing did -not very seriously affect the little city, stretched the earthworks -of the combatants. Before the end there were forty miles of -earthworks. The Confederates established a line of defence. -The Federals established a line of attack, and gradually, by -superior strength, drove their antagonists back. Lee retired to -a new series of defences, where the fight was continued. The -Federals had a railway running to City Point, eleven miles -away, where their ships brought for them the amplest supplies. -Lee depended upon the railways which communicated with distant -portions of Confederate territory. These it was the aim of -Grant to cut, so that his adversary might be driven by want of -food from his position. The outposts of the armies were within -talking distance of each other. The men lay in rifle-pits or -shallow ditches, watching opportunity to kill. Any foe who -incautiously came within range died by their unerring fire. For -ten long months the daily occupation of the combatants had -been to attack each the positions of the other. The Confederates, -by constant sallies, attempted to hinder the advance of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -their powerful assailant. Grant never relaxed his hold. He -“had the rebellion by the throat,” and he steadily tightened his -grasp. By City Point he was in easy communication with the -boundless resources of the North. Men and stores were supplied -as he needed them by an enthusiastic country. On the -rebel side the last available man was now in the field. Half -the time the army wanted food. Desertions abounded. It was -not that the men shunned danger or hardship, but they knew -the cause was hopeless. Many of them knew also that their -families were starving. They went home to help those who -were dearer to them than that desperate enterprise whose ruin -was now so manifest. The genius of Lee was the sole remaining -buttress of the Confederate cause.</p> - -<p>Once the Federals ran an enormous mine under a portion of -the enemy’s works. In this mine they piled up twelve thousand -pounds of gunpowder. They had a strong column ready to -march into the opening which the explosion would cleave. -Early one summer morning the mine was fired. A vast mass -of earth, mingled with bodies of men, was thrown high into air. -The Confederate defence at that point was effaced, and the -attacking force moved forward. But from some unexplained -reason they paused and sheltered themselves in the huge pit -formed by the explosion. The Confederates promptly brought -up artillery and rained shells into the pit, where soon fifteen -hundred men lay dead. The discomfited Federals retired to -their lines.</p> - -<p class="tb">When Grant began his march to Richmond, he took care that -the enemy should be pressed in other quarters of his territory. -General Sherman marched from Tennessee down into Georgia. -Before him was a strong Confederate army, and a country -peculiarly favourable for an army contented to remain on the -defensive; but Sherman overcame every obstacle. He defeated -his enemy in many battles and bloody skirmishes. His object<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -was to reach Atlanta, the capital of Georgia. Atlanta was of -extreme value to the rebels. It commanded railroads which -conveyed supplies to their armies; it had great factories where -they manufactured cannon and locomotives; great foundries -where they laboured incessantly to produce shot and shell. -Sherman, by brilliant generalship and hard fighting, overcame -all resistance, and entered Atlanta, September 2. It was a -great prize, but it was not had cheaply. During those four -months he had lost thirty thousand men.</p> - -<p>When Sherman had held Atlanta for a few weeks, he resolved -to march eastward through Georgia to the sea. He had a magnificent -army of sixty thousand men, for whom there was no -sufficient occupation where they lay. On the sea-coast there -were cities to be taken. And then his army could march northwards -to join Grant before Petersburg.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Nov. 15, 1864 A.D.</span> When all was ready Sherman put the torch to the public -buildings of Atlanta, telegraphed northwards that all -was well, and cut the telegraph wires. Then he started -on his march of three hundred miles across a hostile -country. For a month nothing was heard of him. -When he re-appeared it was before Savannah, of which he -quickly possessed himself. His march through Georgia had -been unopposed. He severely wasted the country for thirty -miles on either side of the line from Atlanta to Savannah. He -carried off the supplies he needed; he destroyed what he could -not use; he tore up the railroads; he proclaimed liberty to the -slaves, many of whom accompanied him eastward. He proved -to all the world how hollow a thing was now the Confederacy, -and how rapidly its doom was approaching.</p> - -<p class="tb">At the north, in the valley of the Shenandoah, a strong Confederate -army, under the habitually unsuccessful General Early, -confronted the Federals under Sheridan. Could Sheridan have -been driven away, the war might again have been carried into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -Pennsylvania or Maryland, and the North humbled in her -career of victory. But Sheridan was still triumphant. -<span class="sidenote">Oct. 19, 1864 A.D.</span> At length General Early effected a surprise. He burst -upon the Federals while they looked not for him. His -sudden attack disordered the enemy, who began to retire. -Sheridan was not with his army; he had gone to Winchester, -twenty miles away. The morning breeze from the -south bore to his startled ear the sounds of battle. Sheridan -mounted his horse, and rode with the speed of a man who felt -that upon his presence hung the destiny of the fight. His army -was on the verge of defeat, and already stragglers were hurrying -from the field; but when Sheridan galloped among them, the -battle was restored. Under Sheridan the army was invincible. -The rebels were defeated with heavy loss, and were never again -able to renew the war in the valley of the Shenandoah.</p> - -<p class="tb">The Slave question was not yet completely settled. The Proclamation -had made free the slaves of all who were rebels, and -nothing remained between them and liberty but those thin lines -of gray-coated hungry soldiers, upon whose arms the genius of -Lee bestowed an efficacy not naturally their own. But the Proclamation -had no power to free the slaves of loyal citizens. In -the States which had not revolted, slavery was the same as it -had ever been. The feeling deepened rapidly throughout the -North that this could not continue. Slavery had borne fruit in -the hugest rebellion known to history. It had proclaimed irreconcilable -hostility to the Government; it had brought mourning -and woe into every house. The Union could not continue -half-slave and half-free. The North wisely and nobly resolved -that slavery should cease.</p> - -<p>Most of the loyal Slave States freed themselves by their own -choice of this evil institution. Louisiana, brought back to her -allegiance not without some measure of force, led the way. -Maryland followed, and Tennessee, and Missouri, and Arkansas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -In Missouri, whence the influence issued which murdered Lovejoy -because he was an abolitionist—which supplied the Border -ruffians in the early days of Kansas—the abolition of slavery -was welcomed with devout prayer and thanksgiving, with joyful -illuminations and speeches and patriotic songs.</p> - -<p>One thing was yet wanting to the complete and final extinction -of slavery. The Constitution permitted the existence of -the accursed thing. If the Constitution were so amended as -to forbid slavery upon American soil, the cause of this huge -discord which now convulsed the land would be removed. A -Constitutional Amendment to that effect was submitted to the -people. In the early months of 1865, while General Lee—worthy -to fight in a better cause—was still bravely toiling to -avert the coming doom of the Slave Empire, the Northern -States joyfully adopted the Amendment. Slavery was now at -length extinct. This was what Providence had mercifully -brought out of a rebellion whose avowed object it was to -establish slavery more firmly and extend it more widely.</p> - -<p>But freedom was not enough. Many of the black men had -faithfully served the Union. Nearly two hundred thousand of -them were in the ranks—fighting manfully in a cause which -was specially their own. There were many black men, as -Lincoln said, who “could remember that with silent tongue, -and clenched teeth, and steady eye, and well-poised bayonet, -they had helped mankind to save liberty in America.” But -the coloured people were child-like and helpless. They had to -be looked upon as “the wards of the nation.” <span class="sidenote">1864 A.D.</span> A Freedmen’s -Bureau was established, to be the defence of the -defenceless blacks. General Howard—a man peculiarly -fitted to give wise effect to the kind purposes of the nation—became -the head of this department. It was his duty to provide -food and shelter for the slaves who were set free by military -operations in the revolted States. He settled them, as he -could, on confiscated lands. After a time he had to see to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -education of their children. In all needful ways he was to keep -the negroes from wrong till they were able to keep themselves.</p> - -<p class="tb">Four years had now passed since Lincoln’s election furnished -the slave-owners with a pretext to rebel. Another election -had to be made, and Lincoln was again proposed as the Republican -candidate. The Democratic party nominated General -M’Clellan. The war, said the Democrats, is a failure; let us -have a cessation of hostilities, and endeavour to save the Union -by peaceful negotiation. Let us put down slavery and rebellion -by force, said the Republicans; there is no other way. These -were the simple issues on which the election turned. Mr. Lincoln -was re-elected by the largest majority ever known. “It is -not in my nature,” he said, “to triumph over any one; but I give -thanks to Almighty God for this evidence of the people’s resolution -to stand by free government and the rights of humanity.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">March 4, 1865 A.D.</span> He was inaugurated according to the usual form. His -Address was brief, but high-toned and solemn, as beseemed -the circumstances. Perhaps no State paper ever -produced so deep an impression upon the American -people. It closed thus:—“Fondly do we hope, fervently -do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may speedily -pass away. Yet if God wills that it continue until all the -wealth piled by the bondsman’s two hundred and fifty years of -unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood -drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with -the sword—as was said three thousand years ago, so still it -must be said, ‘The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous -altogether.’ With malice towards none, with charity for -all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, -let us finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, -to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his -widow and his orphans—to do all which may achieve and cherish -a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1864-5 A.D.</span> During the winter months it became very plain that the -Confederacy was tottering to its fall. These were the bitterest -months through which Virginia had ever passed. The army -was habitually now on short supply. Occasionally, -for a day, there was almost a total absence of food. -One day in December Lee telegraphed to Richmond -that his army was without meat, and dependent on a little bread. -And yet the soldiers were greatly better off than the citizens. -Provisions were seized for the army wherever they could be found, -and the owners were mercilessly left to starve. The suffering -endured among the once cheerful homes of Virginia was terrible.</p> - -<p>Every grown man was the property of the Government. It -was said the rich men escaped easily, but a poor man could not -pass along a street in Richmond without imminent risk of -being seized and sent down to the lines at Petersburg. At -railroad stations might be constantly seen groups of squalid -men on their way to camp—caught up from their homes and -hurried off to fight for a cause which they all knew to be desperate—in -the service of a Government which they no longer -trusted. It was, of course, the earliest care of these men to desert. -They went home, or they surrendered to the enemy. The spirit -which made the Confederacy formidable no longer survived.</p> - -<p>General Lee had long before expressed his belief that without -the help of the slaves the war must end disastrously. But all -men knew that a slave who had been a soldier could be a slave -no longer. The owners were not prepared to free their slaves, -and they refused therefore to arm them. In November—with -utter ruin impending—a Bill was introduced into the Confederate -Congress for arming two hundred thousand negroes. -It was debated till the following March. Then a feeble compromise -was passed, merely giving the President power to -accept such slaves as were offered to him. So inflexibly resolute -were the leaders of the South in their hostility to emancipation. -It was wholly unimportant. At that time Government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -could have armed only another five thousand men; and -could not feed the men it had.</p> - -<p>The finances of the Confederacy were an utter wreck. Government -itself sold specie at the rate of one gold dollar for -sixty dollars in paper money. <span class="sidenote">Feb. 17, 1864 A.D.</span> Mr. Davis, by a measure -of partial repudiation, relieved himself for a short space -from some of his embarrassments; but no device could -gain public confidence for the currency of a falling -power. A loaf of bread cost three dollars. It took a month’s -pay to buy the soldier a pair of stockings. The misery of the -country was deep, abject, unutterable. President Davis came -to be regarded with abhorrence, as the cause of all this -wretchedness. Curses, growing ever deeper and louder, were -breathed against the unsuccessful chief.</p> - -<p>General Grant, well aware of the desperate condition of the -Confederates, pressed incessantly upon their enfeebled lines. -He had one hundred and sixty thousand men under his command. -Sheridan joined him with a magnificent force of cavalry. -Sherman with his victorious army was near. Grant began to -fear that Lee would take to flight, and keep the rebellion alive -on other fields. <span class="sidenote">March 29, 1865 A.D.</span> A general movement of all the forces -around Richmond was decided upon. Lee struggled -bravely, but in vain, against overwhelming numbers. -His right was assailed by Sheridan, and driven back -with heavy loss—five thousand hungry and disheartened men -laying down their arms. <span class="sidenote">April 1.</span> On that same night Grant -opened, from all his guns, a terrific and prolonged -bombardment. <span class="sidenote">April 2.</span> At dawn the assault was made. Its strength -was directed against one of the Confederate forts. -The fight ceased elsewhere, and the armies looked on. -There was a steady advance of the blue-coated lines; a murderous -volley from the little garrison; wild cheers from the excited -spectators. Under a heavy fire of artillery and musketry -the soldiers of the Union rush on; they swarm into the ditch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> -and up the sides of the works. Those who first reach the -summit fall back slain by musket-shot or bayonet-thrust, but -others press fiercely on. Soon their exulting cheers tell that -the fort is won. Lee’s army is cut in two, and his position -is no longer tenable. He telegraphed at once to President -Davis that Richmond must be evacuated.</p> - -<p>It was Communion Sunday in St. Paul’s Episcopal Church, -and President Davis was in his pew among the other worshippers. -No intelligence from the army had been allowed to -reach the public for some days. But the sound of Grant’s guns -had been heard, and the reserve of the Government was ominous. -Many a keen eye sought to gather from the aspect of the -President some forecast of the future; but in vain. That -serene self-possessed face had lost nothing of its habitual reticence. -In all that congregation there was no worshipper who -seemed less encumbered by the world, more absorbed by the -sacred employment of the hour, than President Davis. The -service proceeded, and the congregation knelt in prayer. As -President Davis rose from his knees the sexton handed him a -slip of paper. He calmly read it. Then he calmly lifted his -prayer-book, and with unmoved face walked softly from the -church. It was Lee’s message he had received. Jefferson -Davis’s sole concern now was to escape the doom of the traitor -and the rebel. He fled at once, by special train, towards the -south. Then the work of evacuation commenced. The gunboats -on the river were blown up; the bridges were destroyed; -the great warehouses in the city were set on fire, and in the -flames thus wickedly kindled a third part of the city was consumed. -All who had made themselves prominent in the rebellion -fled from the anticipated vengeance of the Federals. The -soldiers were marched off, plundering as they went. Next -morning Richmond was in possession of the Northern troops. -Among the first to enter the capital of the rebel slave-owners -was a regiment of negro cavalry.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">April 4, 1865 A.D.</span> About midnight on Sunday Lee began his retreat from the -position which he had kept so well. Grant promptly -followed him. On the Tuesday morning Lee reached a -point where he had ordered supplies to wait him. By -some fatal blunder the cars laden with the food which -his men needed so much had been run on to Richmond, and -were lost to him. Hungry and weary the men toiled on, hotly -pursued by Grant. Soon a hostile force appeared in their -front, and it became evident that they were surrounded.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">April 7.</span> General Grant wrote to General Lee asking the surrender of -his army, to spare the useless effusion of blood. Lee -did not at first admit that surrender was necessary, -and Grant pressed the pursuit with relentless energy. Lee -wrote again to request a meeting, that the terms of surrender -might be arranged. <span class="sidenote">April 9.</span> The two leaders met in a -wayside cottage. They had never seen each other before, -although they had both served in the Mexican War, and Lee -mentioned pleasantly that he remembered the name of his -antagonist from that time. Grant drew up and presented in -writing the terms which he offered. The men were to lay -down their arms, and give their pledge that they would not -serve against the American Government till regularly exchanged. -They were then to return to their homes, with a -guarantee that they would not be disturbed by the Government -against which they had rebelled. Grant asked if these terms -were satisfactory. “Yes,” said Lee, “they are satisfactory. -The truth is, I am in such a position that any terms offered to -me <i>must</i> be satisfactory.” And then he told how his men had -been for two days without food, and begged General Grant to -spare them what he could. Grant, generously eager to relieve -his fallen enemies, despatched instantly a large drove of oxen -and a train of provision waggons. In half an hour there were -heard in the Federal camp the cheers with which the hungry -rebels welcomed those precious gifts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p> - -<p>Lee rode quietly back to his army, where the surrender was -expected. When its details became known, officers and men -crowded around their much-loved chief, to assure him of their -devotion, and to obtain a parting grasp of his hand. Lee was -too deeply moved to say much. “Men,” he said, with his -habitual simplicity, “we have fought through the war together, -and I have done the best I could for you.” A day -or two later the men stacked their arms and went to their -homes. The history of the once splendid Army of Northern -Virginia had closed.</p> - -<p>Lee’s surrender led the way to the surrender of all the Confederate -armies. Within a few days there was no organized -force of any importance in arms against the Union. The War -of the Great Rebellion was at an end.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE MURDER OF THE PRESIDENT.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When the closing operations against Richmond were -being arranged, President Lincoln went down to -General Grant’s head-quarters at City Point, and -remained there till Lee’s surrender. He visited -Richmond on the day it was taken, and walked through the -streets with his little boy in his hand. The freed slaves -crowded to welcome their deliverer. They expressed in a thousand -grotesque ways their gratitude to the good “Father Abraham.” -There had been dark hints for some time that there -were those among the Confederates who would avenge their -defeat by the murder of the President. Mr. Lincoln was -urged to be on his guard, and his friends were unwilling that -he should visit Richmond. He himself cared little, now that -the national cause had triumphed.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">April 9, 1865 A.D.</span> He returned unharmed to Washington on the evening of -Lee’s surrender. The next few days were perhaps the -brightest in his whole life. He had guided the nation -through the heaviest trial which had ever assailed it. -On every side were joy and gladness. Flags waved, -bells rang, guns were fired, houses were lighted up; the thanks -of innumerable grateful hearts went up to God for this great -deliverance. No heart in all the country was more joyful and -more thankful than Mr. Lincoln’s. He occupied himself with -plans for healing the wounds of his bleeding country, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> -bringing back the revolted States to a contented occupation of -their appointed places in the Union. No thought of severity -was in his mind. Now that armed resistance to the Government -was crushed, the gentlest measures which would give -security in the future were the measures most agreeable to the -good President.</p> - -<p>On the 14th he held a meeting of his Cabinet, at which -General Grant was present. The quiet cheerfulness and hopefulness -of the President imparted to the proceedings of the -council a tone long remembered by those who were present. -After the meeting he drove out with Mrs. Lincoln, to whom he -talked of the good days in store. They had had a hard time, -he said, since they came to Washington; but now, by God’s -blessing, they might hope for quieter and happier years.</p> - -<p>In the evening he drove, with Mrs. Lincoln and two or three -friends, to a theatre where he knew the people expected his -coming. As the play went on the audience were startled by a -pistol-shot in the President’s box. A man brandishing a dagger -was seen to leap from the box on to the stage, and with a wild -cry—“The South is avenged!”—disappeared behind the scenes. -The President sat motionless, his head sunk down upon his -breast. He was evidently unconscious. When the surgeon -came, it was found that a bullet had pierced the brain, inflicting -a deadly wound. He was carried to a house close by. His -family and the great officers of State, by whom he was dearly -loved, sat around the bed of the dying President. He lingered -till morning, breathing heavily, but in entire unconsciousness, -and then he passed away.</p> - -<p>At the same hour the President was murdered a ruffian broke -into the sick-room of Mr. Seward, who was suffering from a -recent accident, and stabbed him almost to death as he lay in -bed. His bloody work was happily interrupted, and Mr. Seward -recovered.</p> - -<p>The assassin of Mr. Lincoln was an actor called Booth, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -fanatical adherent of the fallen Confederacy. His leg was broken -in the leap on to the stage, but he was able to reach a horse -which stood ready at the theatre door. He rode through the -city, crossed the Potomac by a bridge, in the face of the sentinels -posted there, and passed safely beyond present pursuit. A week -later he was found hid in a barn, and well armed. He refused -to surrender, and was preparing to fire, when a soldier ended -his miserable existence by a bullet.</p> - -<p>The grief of the American people for their murdered President -was beyond example deep and bitter. Perhaps for no man -were there ever shed so profusely the tears of sorrow. Not -in America alone, but in Europe also—where President Lincoln -was at length understood and honoured—his loss was -deeply mourned. It was resolved that he should be buried -beside his old home in Illinois. The embalmed remains were -to be conveyed to their distant resting-place by a route which -would give to the people of the chief Northern cities a last -opportunity to look upon the features of the man they loved -so well. The sad procession moved on its long journey of nearly -two thousand miles, traversing the States of Maryland, Pennsylvania, -New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. -Everywhere, as the funeral train passed, the weeping people -sought to give expression to their reverential sorrow. At the -great cities the body lay in state, and all business was suspended.</p> - -<p>At length Springfield was reached. The body was taken to -the State House. His neighbours looked once more upon that -well-remembered face, wasted, indeed, by years of anxious toil, -but wearing still, as of old, its kind and placid expression.</p> - -<p>Four years before, Lincoln said to his neighbours, when he -was leaving them, “I know not how soon I shall see you again. -I go to assume a task more difficult than that which has devolved -upon any other man since the days of Washington.” -He had nobly accomplished his task; and this was the manner -of his home-coming.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE LOSSES AND THE GAINS OF THE WAR.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Great Rebellion was at an end. It was not -closed by untimely concessions which left a discontented -party, with its strength unbroken, ready -to renew the contest at a more fitting time. It -was fought out to the bitter end. The slave-power might be -erring, but it was not weak. The conflict was closed by the -utter exhaustion of one of the combatants. Lee did not surrender -till his army was surrounded by the enemy and had been -two days without food. The great questions which had been -appealed to the sword were answered conclusively and for ever.</p> - -<p>The cost had been very terrible. On the Northern side, two -million seven hundred thousand men bore arms at some period -of the war. Of these there died in battle, or in hospital of -wounds received in battle, ninety-six thousand men. There died -in hospital of disease, one hundred and eighty-four thousand. -Many went home wounded, to die among the scenes of their -infancy. Many went home stricken with lingering and mortal -disease. Of these there is no record but in the sad memories -which haunt nearly every Northern home.</p> - -<p>The losses on the Southern side have not been accurately -ascertained. The white population of the revolted States numbered -about a fourth of the loyal Northern population. At -the close of the war the North had a full million of men under -arms. The Southern armies which surrendered numbered one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> -hundred and seventy-five thousand. When to this is added -the number who went home without awaiting the formality of -surrender, it appears probable that the Southern armies bore -to the Northern the same proportion that the population did. -Presumably the loss bore a larger proportion, as the deaths -from disease, owing to the greater hardships to be endured, -must have been excessive in the rebel army. It must be under -the truth to say that one hundred and fifty thousand Southerners -perished in the field or in the hospital.</p> - -<p>The war cost the North in money seven hundred million -sterling. It is impossible to state what was the cost to the -South. The Confederate debt was supposed to amount at the -close to thirty-five hundred million dollars; but the dollar -was of so uncertain value that no one can tell the equivalent in -any sound currency. Besides this, there was the destruction -of railroads, the burning of houses, the wasting of lands, and, -above all, the emancipation of four million slaves, who had -been purchased by their owners for three or four hundred -million sterling. It has been estimated that the entire cost -of the war, on both sides, was not less than eighteen hundred -million pounds sterling.</p> - -<p>Great wars ordinarily cost much and produce little. What -results had the American people to show for their huge expenditure -of blood and treasure?</p> - -<p>They had freed themselves from the curse of slavery. That -unhappy system made them a byword among Christian nations. -It hindered the progress of the fairest section of the country. -It implanted among the people hatreds which kept them continually -on the verge of civil war. Slavery was now extinct.</p> - -<p>For three-quarters of a century the belief possessed Southern -minds that they owed allegiance to their State rather than to -the Union. Each State was sovereign. Having to-day united -itself with certain sister sovereignties, it was free to-morrow to -withdraw and enter into new combinations. America was in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> -this view no nation, but a mere incoherent concourse of independent -powers. This question had been raised when the -Constitution was framed, and it had been debated ever since. -It was settled now. The blood shed in a hundred battles, -from Manassas to Petersburg, expressed the esteem in which -the Northern people held their national life. The doctrine of -States’ Rights was conclusively refuted by the surrender of -Lee’s army, and the right of America to be deemed a nation -was established for ever.</p> - -<p>It was often said during the war that republican institutions -were upon their trial. It was possible for the war to have -resulted so that government by the people would ever after -have been deemed a failure. It has not been so. The Americans -have proved conspicuously the capacity of a free people to -guide their own destinies in war as well as in peace. They -have shown that the dependence of the many upon the few is -as unnecessary as it is humiliating. They have rung the knell -of personal government, and given the world encouragement to -hope that not the Anglo-Saxon race alone, but all other races -of men will yet be found worthy to govern themselves.</p> - -<p>Terrible as the cost of the war has been, have not its gains -been greater? The men who gave their lives so willingly have -not died in vain. America and the world will reap advantage, -through many generations, by the blood so freely shed in the -great war against the Southern slave-owners.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">AFTER THE WAR.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In all civil strifes, until now, the woe which waits -upon the vanquished has been mercilessly inflicted. -After resistance has ceased, the grim scaffold is -set up, and brave men who have escaped the -sword stoop to the fatal axe. It was assumed by many that -the Americans would avenge themselves according to the -ancient usage. Here, again, it was the privilege of America -to present a noble example to other nations. Nearly every -Northern man had lost relative or friend, but there was no cry -for vengeance; there was no feeling of bitterness. Excepting in -battle, no drop of blood was shed by the Northern people. The -Great Republic had been not merely strong, resolute, enduring—it -was also singularly and nobly humane.</p> - -<p>Jefferson Davis fled southward on that memorable Sunday -when the sexton of St. Paul’s Church handed to him General -Lee’s message. He had need to be diligent, for a party of -American cavalry were quickly upon his track. They followed -him through gaunt pine wildernesses, across rivers and -dreary swamps, past the huts of wondering settlers, -until at length they came upon him near a little town -in Georgia. <span class="sidenote">May 10, 1865 A.D.</span> They quietly surrounded his party. Davis -assumed the garments of his wife, and the soldiers saw at first -nothing more formidable than an elderly and not very well-dressed -female. But the unfeminine boots which he wore led<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -to closer inspection, and quickly the fallen President stood -disclosed to his deriding enemies.</p> - -<p>There was at first suspicion that Davis encouraged the assassination -of the President. Could that have been proved, he -would have died, as reason was, by the hand of the hangman. -But it became evident, on due examination being made, that he -was not guilty of that crime. For a time the American people -regarded Davis with just indignation, as the chief cause of all -the bloodshed which had taken place. Gradually their anger -relaxed into a kind of grim, contemptuous playfulness. He -was to be put upon his trial for treason. Frequently a time -was named when the trial would begin; but the time never -came. Ultimately Davis was set at liberty.</p> - -<p class="tb">What were the Americans to do with the million of armed -men now in their employment? It was believed in Europe that -these men would never return to peaceful labour. Government -could not venture to turn them loose upon the country. Military -employment must be found for them, and would probably be -found in foreign wars.</p> - -<p>While yet public writers in Europe occupied themselves with -these dark anticipations, the American Government, all unaware -of difficulty, ordered its armies to march on -Washington. <span class="sidenote">May 23, 24, 1865 A.D.</span> During two days the bronzed veterans -who had followed Grant and Sherman in so many -bloody fights passed through the city. Vast multitudes -from all parts of the Union looked on with a proud but -chastened joy. And then, just as quickly as the men could be -paid the sums which were due to them, they gave back the -arms they had used so bravely, and returned to their homes. -It was only six weeks since Richmond fell, and already the -work of disbanding was well advanced. The men who had -fought this war were, for the most part, citizens who had freely -taken up arms to defend the national life. They did not love<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -war, and when their work was done they thankfully resumed -their ordinary employments. Very speedily the American -army numbered only forty thousand men. Europe, when she -grows a little wiser, will follow the American example. The -wasteful folly of maintaining huge standing armies in time of -peace is not destined to disgrace us for ever.</p> - -<p class="tb">What was the position of the rebel States when the war -closed? Were they provinces conquered by the Union armies, to -be dealt with as the conquerors might deem necessary; or were -they, in spite of all they had done, still members of the Union, -as of old? The rebels themselves had no doubt on the subject. -They had tried their utmost to leave the Union. It was impossible -to conceal that. But they had not been permitted to -leave it, and they had never left it. As they were not out of -the Union, it was obvious they were in it. And so they claimed -to resume their old rights, and re-occupy their places in Congress, -as if no rebellion had occurred.</p> - -<p>Mr. Lincoln’s successor was Andrew Johnson, a man whose -rough vigour had raised him from the lowly position of tailor -to the highest office in the country. He was imperfectly -educated, of defective judgment, blindly and violently obstinate. -He supported the rebels in their extravagant pretensions. He -clung to the strictly logical view that there could be no such -thing as secession; that the rebel States had never been out of -the Union; that now there was nothing required but that the -rebels, having accepted their defeat, should resume their old -positions, as if “the late unpleasantness” had not occurred.</p> - -<p>The American people were too wise to give heed to the logic -of the President and the baffled slave-owners. They had preserved -the life of their nation through sacrifices which filled -their homes with sorrow and privation, and they would not be -tricked out of the advantages which they had bought with so -great a price. The slave-owners had imposed upon them a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -great national peril, which it cost them infinite toil to avert. -They would take what securities it was possible to obtain that -no such invasion of the national tranquillity should occur -again.</p> - -<p>It was out of the position so wrongfully assigned to the -negro race that this huge disorder had arisen. The North, -looking at this with eyes which long and sad experience had -enlightened, resolved that the negro should never again divide -the sisterhood of States. No root of bitterness should be left -in the soil. Citizenship was no longer to be dependent upon -colour. The long dishonour offered to the Fathers of Independence -was to be cancelled; henceforth American law would -present no contradiction to the doctrine that “all men are born -equal.” All men now, born or naturalized in America, were -to be citizens of the Union and of the State in which they -resided. No State might henceforth pass any law which should -abridge the privileges of any class of American citizens.</p> - -<p>An Amendment of the Constitution was proposed by Congress -to give effect to these principles. <span class="sidenote">March 30, 1870 A.D.</span> It was agreed to by -the States—not without reluctance on the part of some. -The Revolution—so vast and so benign—was now -complete. The negro, who so lately had no rights at -all which a white man was bound to respect, was now -in full possession of every right which the white man himself -enjoyed. The successor of Jefferson Davis in the Senate of the -United States was a negro!</p> - -<p>The task of the North was now to “bind up the nation’s -wounds”—the task to which Mr. Lincoln looked forward so -joyfully, and which he would have performed so well. Not a -moment was lost in entering upon it. No feeling of resentment -survived in the Northern mind. The South was utterly exhausted -and helpless—without food, without clothing, without -resources of any description. The land alone remained. -Government provided food—without which provision there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -would have been in many parts of the country a great mortality -from utter want. The proud Southerners, tamed by hunger, -were fain to come as suppliants for their daily bread to the -Government they had so long striven to overthrow.</p> - -<p>With little delay nearly all the rebels received the pardon of -the Government, and applied themselves to the work of restoring -their broken fortunes. Happily for them the means lay -close at hand. Cotton bore still an extravagantly high price. -The negroes remained, although no longer as slaves. They -had now to be dealt with as free labourers, whose services -could not be obtained otherwise than by the inducement of -adequate wages. In a revolution so vast, difficulties were inevitable; -but, upon the whole, the black men played their part -well. It had been said they would not consent to labour -when they were free to choose. That prediction was not fulfilled. -When kindly treated and justly paid, they showed -themselves anxious to work. Very soon it began to dawn upon -the planters that slavery had been a mistake. Those of their -number who were able to command the use of capital found -themselves growing rich with a rapidity unknown before. -Under the old and wasteful system, the growing crop of cotton -was generally sold to the Northern merchant and paid for to -the planter before it was gathered. Now it had become possible -to carry on the business of the plantation without being in -debt at all. Five years after the close of the war, it is perhaps -not too much to say that the men of the South would have -undergone the miseries of another war rather than permit the -re-imposition of that system which they, erringly, endured so -much to preserve.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_IV_CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">HOW THE AMERICANS CARED FOR THEIR SOLDIERS.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Wars have been, in general, made by Kings to serve -the purposes of their own ambition or revenge. -This war was made by the American people, and -willingly fought out by their own hands. The men -who fought were nearly all Americans, and mainly volunteers. -They were regarded with the deepest interest by those who -remained at home. Ordinarily, the number of soldiers who die -of diseases caused by the hardships they endure is greater than -the number of those who die of wounds. The Americans were -eager to save their soldiers from the privations which waste so -many brave lives. They erected two great societies, called the -Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission. Into the -coffers of these societies they poured money and other contributions -to the amount of four million sterling. The Sanitary -Commission sent medical officers of experience into the armies -to guide them in the choice of healthy situations for camps; to -see that drainage was not neglected; to watch over the food of -the soldiers, and also their clothing; to direct the attention of -the Government to every circumstance which threatened evil to -the health of the army. Its agents followed the armies with a -line of waggons containing all manner of stores. Everything -the soldier could desire issued in profusion from those inexhaustible -waggons. There were blankets and great-coats and -every variety of underclothing. There were crutches for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -lame, fans to soothe the wounded in the burning heat of summer, -bandages, and sponges, and ice, and even mosquito-netting for -the protection of the poor sufferers in hospital. Huge wheeled-caldrons -rolled along in the rear, and ever, at the close of battle -or toilsome march, dispensed welcome refreshment to the wearied -soldiers.</p> - -<p>The Christian Commission undertook to watch over the -spiritual wants of the soldiers. Its president was George -H. Stuart, a merchant of Philadelphia, whose name is held in -enduring honour as a symbol of all that is wise and energetic -in Christian beneficence. Under the auspices of this society -thousands of clergymen left their congregations and went to -minister to the soldiers. A copious supply of Bibles, tracts, -hymn-books, and similar reading matter was furnished. The -agents of the Commission preached to the soldiers, conversed -with them, supplied them with books, aided them in communicating -with friends at home. But they had sterner duties than -these to discharge. They had to seek the wounded on the field -and in the hospital; to bind up their wounds; to prepare for -them such food or drink as they could use;—in every way possible -to soothe the agony of the brave men who were giving -their lives that the nation might be saved. Hundreds of ladies -were thus engaged tending the wounded and sick, speaking to -them about their spiritual interests, cooking for them such dishes -as might tempt the languid appetite. The dying soldier was tenderly -cared for. The last loving message was conveyed to the -friends in the far-off home. Nothing was left undone which -could express to the men who gave this costly evidence of their -patriotism the gratitude with which the country regarded them.</p> - -<p>It resulted from the watchful care of the American Government -and people, that the loss of life by disease was singularly -small in the Northern army. There never was a war in which -the health of the army was so good, and the waste of life by -disease so small.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p> - -<p>When the war was over, the Americans addressed themselves, -sadly and reverently, to the work of gathering into national -cemeteries the bones of those who had fallen. The search was -long and toilsome, for the battle-ground had been a continent, -and men were buried where they died. Every battle-field was -searched. Every line by which an army had advanced, or -by which the wounded had been removed, was searched. -Sometimes a long train of ambulances had carried the wounded -to hospitals many miles away. At short intervals, during that -sad journey, it was told that a man had died. The train was -stopped; the dead man was lifted from beside his dying companions; -a shallow grave was dug, and the body, still warm, -was laid in it. A soldier cut a branch from a tree, flattened -its end with his knife, and wrote upon it the dead man’s name. -This was all that marked his lowly resting-place. The honoured -dead, scattered thus over the continent, were now piously -gathered up. For many miles around Petersburg the ground -was full of graves. During several years men were employed -in the melancholy search among the ruins of the wide-stretching -lines. In some cemeteries lie ten thousand, in others -twenty thousand of the men who died for the nation. An iron -tablet records the name of the soldier and the battle in which -he died. Often, alas! the record is merely that of “Unknown -Soldier.” Over the graves floats the flag which those who sleep -below loved so well. Nothing in America is more touching -than her national cemeteries. So much brave young life given -freely, that the nation might be saved! So much grateful -remembrance of those who gave this supreme evidence of their -devotion!</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="Book_Fifth">Book Fifth.</h3> - -<h4 id="US_V_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">REUNITED AMERICA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-l.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Long ago thoughtful men had foreseen that a permanent -union between slave communities and free -communities was impossible. Wise Americans -knew that their country could not continue “half -slave and half free.” Slavery was a fountain out of which -strife flowed perpetual. There was an incessant conflict of -interests. There was a still more formidable conflict of feeling. -The North was humiliated by the censure which she had to -share with her erring sisters. The South was imbittered by -the knowledge that the Christian world abhorred her most -cherished institution. The Southern character became ever -more fierce, domineering, unreasoning. Some vast change was -known to be near. Slavery must cease in the South, or extend -itself into the North. There was no resting-place for the -country between that universal liberty which was established -in the North, and the favourite doctrine of the South that the -capitalist should own the labourer.</p> - -<p>The South appealed to the sword, and the decision was against -her. She frankly and wisely accepted it. She acknowledged -that the labouring-man was now finally proved to be no article -of merchandise, but a free and responsible citizen. That<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -acknowledgment closed the era of strife between North and -South. There was no longer anything to strive about. There -was no longer North or South, in the old hostile sense, but a -united nation, with interests and sympathies rapidly becoming -identical. It has been foretold that America will yet break up -into several nations. What developments may await America -in future ages we do not know. But we do know that the only -circumstance which threatened disruption among the sisterhood -of States has been removed, and that the national existence of -America rests upon foundations at least as assured as those -which support any nation in the world.</p> - -<p>The South had laid aside all thought of armed resistance, and -in perfect good faith had acquiesced in the overthrow of slavery. -Her leaders did not, however, consent readily to those guarantees -of future tranquillity which the North demanded. At the close -of the war eleven States were without legal State government; -and the North would not permit the restoration of the forfeited -privilege until those constitutional changes were accepted by -which the political equality of the negro was secured. It had -become an easy thing to consent that the negro should be free; -it was very hard to consent that he should sit in the State -Legislatures, and exercise an influential voice in framing laws -for those who had lately owned him. Several States withheld -their concurrence from arrangements which humiliated them so -deeply, desperately choosing rather to deny themselves for the -time the privilege of self-government and to live under a government -in whose creation they had no part. Very grave evils -resulted from their pertinacious adherence to this unwise choice. -Their affairs were necessarily taken charge of by the Federal -executive, and President Grant sent them rulers from Washington. -Unworthy persons were able by dexterous intrigue to -gain positions of control, and hastened southwards, with no -purpose to heal the wounds of the war; intent merely to plunder -for their own advantage the impoverished and suffering States.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -The finances of the South were in extreme disorder. Public -debt had increased enormously during the war; but the North -averted the difficulty which this increase might have caused by -insisting that no debt incurred for the purposes of the rebellion -should be recognized as a public obligation. The temporary -rulers of the South gave prompt attention to the possibility of -obtaining loans, ostensibly for the restoration of railroads and -other necessary works. It was not yet realized how fatally -wasted the South had been, and men hastily concluded that her -advantages of soil and climate must secure for her a rapid -financial recovery. Cherishing such expectations, capitalists on -both sides of the Atlantic were found willing to make loans on -the credit of various Southern States. These moneys were -applied only in very small measure to the uses of the States in -whose name they were obtained; the larger portion was feloniously -appropriated by the unscrupulous persons whose position -gave them the opportunity of doing so. Afterwards, when -the fraud was fully exposed, the defrauded States repudiated -the obligation to repay moneys which they had not received, -and which, as they averred, had been borrowed by persons who -were in no sense their servants. The good name of the South -suffered deeply and her recovery was seriously hindered by -these unhappy transactions.</p> - -<p>The inevitable difficulties of reconstruction were seriously -aggravated by the violent conflict of opinion which raged -between President Johnson and Congress. The President would -not sanction the conditions which Congress considered it necessary -to make with the South, and he steadily vetoed all measures -which were at variance with his theory that the rebels were -entitled to be received without stipulation. His resistance was -not practically important, for the country was united, and Congress -was able to pass all its measures over the veto of the -President. The irritation caused by his opposition to the public -wish grew, however, so intense, that it led to his impeachment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -and trial before the Senate, with a view to his forcible removal -from office. His enemies failed to secure a conviction, although -they came so near that one additional hostile vote would have -brought Mr. Johnson’s presidency to an abrupt close. So -smoothly does the constitutional machinery of America now -move, that the trial and expected deposition of the head of the -government were not felt either by the commercial interests of -the country or in the carrying on of public business.</p> - -<p>For five years after the end of the war some of the Southern -States continued to refuse the terms insisted upon by the inflexible -North, and continued to endure the evils of military rule. -Gradually, however, as time soothed the bitterness of defeat, -they withdrew their refusal and consented to resume their -position in the Union on the conditions which were offered to -them. In 1870 President Grant was able to announce the -completed restoration of the Union which his own leadership -had done so much to save.</p> - -<p>The industrial recovery of the South was unexpectedly slow. -The industrial arrangements of the country were utterly overthrown. -Population had diminished; capital had disappeared; -cultivation, excepting of articles necessary for food, had ceased; -many of the coloured labourers had fled northwards, and the -labour of those who remained had to be arranged for on conditions -altogether new and unknown. The reconstruction of the -shattered fragments of an industrial system was inevitably a tedious -and difficult work. But the wholesome pressure of necessity,—laid -equally on white men and on black,—obliged both to adapt -themselves to the circumstances in which they were placed. -The planters drew together as many labourers as they could -obtain and were able to pay for, and cultivated such portions of -their lands as they could thus overtake. The negroes were -always ready to serve any man who paid regular wages; but -it very often happened, at the outset, that there was no man -with money enough to do that. In such cases the negroes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> -cultivated for their own behoof. The progress made in reconquering -the neglected soil was very slow. But in that fertile -land no effort of man is suffered to go without a bountiful -reward. Every succeeding crop left the cultivator a little -richer than he had been before. Every seed-time witnessed a -larger area under cultivation, until at length the quantity of -cotton produced is as large as it had ever been before the war, -and promises steadily to increase. A new and better industrial -system gradually arose—less picturesque than that which had -been destroyed, but no longer founded in wrong, and therefore -more enduring and more beneficial to master as well as to -servant.</p> - -<p class="tb">The rebellion had drawn forth into energetic exercise among -the Northern people a patriotic sentiment which nerved them -for every measure of self-devotion. But war cherishes also -into exceptional strength the evil that is in humanity, and this -patriot war exerted an influence not less unhallowed than other -wars have done. The fluctuating value of the currency and -consequently of all commodities, the unprecedented opportunities -of acquiring sudden wealth, fostered widespread corruption in -the cities. Reckless personal extravagance, a frantic haste to -become rich by whatever means, and a general decay of commercial -morality, characterized the years which followed the -restoration of peace. Political society, at no time distinguished -by its elevation of moral tone, was deeply tainted. Even -among the men whom President Grant had chosen as worthy of -his fullest confidence there were some who yielded to the prevailing -influence, and the President had the mortification of -finding that several members of his Cabinet had incurred the -shame of corrupt transactions. Habitual embezzlement was -practised in the management of the finances of large cities. -The municipal government of New York had fallen into hands -exceptionally rapacious and base, and the career of the plunderers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -was not arrested till the city had been robbed of many -million dollars.</p> - -<p>For several years after the close of the war the industrial interests -of America seemed to prosper exceedingly. Her foreign -trade increased rapidly. The thriving people purchased freely of -the costly luxuries imported from Europe, and the gains of merchants -were liberal. New factories arose; villages swelled into -towns; emigrants to the number of three hundred and fifty thousand -annually hastened to exchange the poverty of Europe for the -plenty of this land of promise; a million persons were added -every year to the population. New railways were laid down -at the rate of five to six thousand miles annually, involving -an annual expenditure of thirty to forty million sterling. -The confiding capitalists of Europe furnished the means -requisite to sustain this perilously rapid increase. The census -of 1870 reported that during ten years the wealth of the -people had nearly doubled, and that their annual earnings -now amounted to two thousand million sterling. It seemed -as if, for the first time in history, a prolonged and costly -war had been waged without pecuniary disadvantage to the -combatants.</p> - -<p>But the inevitable retribution was not abandoned; it was -only delayed. <span class="sidenote">Sept. 1873 A.D.</span> While the currents of commercial activity still -flowed with unwonted swiftness and smoothness, the failure of -a large financial house in New York gave the signal -for a panic, which speedily assumed an aspect of unprecedented -severity. Business stood still; the exchanges -were closed; the banks ceased to give out -money; the payment of debts became impossible. In a short -time the intensity of the excitement passed away, leaving a -deep-seated depression, which continued for six years. It was -now discovered that men had been deluding themselves with a -merely visionary prosperity—that all values had been wildly -inflated; and it became the sad and surprising experience of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -very many that their fancied wealth had, in part or wholly, -disappeared. Factories were closed; artisans were unable to -obtain employment; wages fell, step by step, till in many -industries they had undergone reductions which were not -less than forty per cent. All stocks and every description -of property sank lamentably in value; railway companies -and other borrowers of foreign capital discontinued payment -of the promised interest; immigration almost ceased—for -who would now seek a home in this afflicted and impoverished -land?</p> - -<p>America emerged from those miserable years with her vitality -undiminished; with her financial position improved; with her -industrial system organized, for the first time, upon a basis of -rigorous economy; with the views of her people corrected, and -their character braced by adversity. The operatives who were -unable to find employment in the cities of the east had made -their way westward, and were now contributing to the greatness -of the nation by cultivating the soil. Personal extravagance -ceased, and the imports of foreign commodities fell one-third. -On the other hand, the exports increased largely. America had -for many years been accustomed to use an amount of foreign -goods very much larger than she was able to pay for by her own -surplus productions. In settlement of the excess, she endured a -drain upon her store of the precious metals, or she neutralized -it for the time by the loans which her people obtained abroad. -Now all this was changed. America exported so largely of her -manufactures and of the products of her soil, and restricted so -carefully her purchase of foreign commodities, that now she -has to receive from foreigners an annual balance which exceeds -fifty million sterling. And during the painful years through -which she passed, while nearly all European countries continued -to add to their public indebtedness, America continued to reduce -hers. Her debt, which at the close of the war amounted to six -hundred million sterling, thirteen years later was only four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -hundred million.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> And whereas at one period an amount equal -to one-half of her present debt was owing to foreigners, it is -now, to the extent of five-sixths, owing to her own citizens. -Her currency, which had been long at a discount, rose in value, -step by step, till it stood at par. After seventeen years of an -inconvertible currency specie payments were resumed, without -the slightest inconvenience to the commerce of the country.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_V_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">ENGLAND AND AMERICA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">America looked to England for sympathy when the -rebellion began. England had often reproached -her, often admonished her, in regard to the question -of Slavery. The war which threatened her existence -was a war waged by persons who desired to perpetuate -slavery, and who feared the growing Northern dislike to the -institution. The North expected the countenance of England -in her time of trial. It was reasonable to expect that the deep -abhorrence of slavery which had long ruled in the mind of the -English people would suffice to decide that people against the -effort to establish a great independent slave-empire.</p> - -<p>Most unfortunately, that expectation was not wholly fulfilled. -The working-men of England perceived, as by intuition, the -merits of the dispute, and gave their sympathy unhesitatingly to -the North. In the cotton-spinning districts grievous suffering -was endured, because the Northern ships shut in the cotton of -the South and deprived the mills of their accustomed supply. -It was often urged that the English Government should take -measures to raise the Northern blockade. Hunger persuades -men to unwise and evil courses; but hunger itself could never -persuade the men of Lancashire to take any part against the -North. So genuine and so deep was their conviction that the -Northern cause was right.</p> - -<p>But among the aristocratic and middle classes of England it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -was different. Their sympathy was in large measure given to -the South. They were misled by certain newspapers, in which -they erringly trusted. They were misled by their admiration -of a brave people struggling against an enemy of overwhelming -strength. They were misled by an unworthy jealousy of the -greatness of America. Thus unhappily influenced, they gave -their good wishes to the defenders of the slave-system. The -North felt deeply the unlooked-for repulse; and a painful -alienation of feeling resulted.</p> - -<p>A variety of circumstances occurred which strengthened this -feeling. A few weeks after the fall of Fort Sumpter, England, -having in view that there had been set up in the South a new -Government which was exercising the functions of a Government, -whether rightfully or otherwise, acknowledged in haste the -undoubted fact, and recognized the South as a belligerent power. -This the North highly resented; asserting that the action of -the South was merely a rebellion, with which foreign countries -had nothing to do. A few months later the British mail-steamer -<i>Trent</i> was stopped by a rash American captain, and two gentlemen, -commissioners to England from the rebel Government, -were made prisoners. The captives were released, but the indignity -offered to the British flag awakened a strong sentiment -of indignation which did not soon pass away. Yet further: -there was built in a Liverpool dockyard a steam-ship which it -was understood was destined to serve the Confederacy by destroying -the merchant shipping of the North. The American -Ambassador requested the British Government to detain the -vessel. So hesitating was the action of Government, that the -vessel sailed before the order for her detention was issued. For -two years the <i>Alabama</i>, and some other ships also fitted in -English ports, scoured the seas, burning and sinking American -ships, and inflicting enormous loss upon American commerce. -These circumstances increased the bitter feeling which prevailed.</p> - -<p>The American Government held that England had failed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -perform the duty imposed upon her by international law, and -had therefore made herself responsible for the depredations of -the <i>Alabama</i>. English lawyers of eminence expressed the -same unacceptable opinion; and a few years after the -war closed the English Government wisely determined -to seek the settlement of the question. <span class="sidenote">1869 A.D.</span> There was -arranged by the Foreign Secretary and the American Minister -a treaty, in terms of which the subject was disposed of by -a reference to the arbitration of impartial persons. This -treaty was sent to Washington for confirmation, according to -the judicious American rule that treaties with foreign powers -must receive the sanction of the Senate. But American feeling -was not yet prepared for any adjustment of differences which -had wounded the nation so deeply. It was not that the terms -of the proposed settlement were objected to; it was rather that -no immediate settlement was desired. The American people -chose that the question should, for the time, remain an open -question. Their irritation had not yet subsided, and many of -them solaced their angry minds with the purpose that, when -England was again involved in some one of those European -embarrassments which habitually beset her, this matter of the -<i>Alabama</i> should be pressed to a settlement. The Senate gave -effect to the general wish by withholding sanction from the -treaty, and President Grant instructed his minister at the -English Court to abstain from further negotiation.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1871 A.D.</span> But the passage of a little time calmed the irritation of the -not implacable Americans. England renewed her proposal -to refer the dispute to arbitration, coupling the -offer with an expression of regret that injuries so grave -had been inflicted upon the shipping of America. She further -consented that the arbitrators should guide themselves -by a definition of neutral duties so framed that, in effect, it -condemned her conduct, and made an adverse decision inevitable. -America accepted the proposal, and a dispute which at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -an earlier period would have brought upon two nations the -miseries of a great war was found to come easily within the -scope of a peaceful arbitration. The transaction is of high -importance, for it is the largest advance which has yet been -made towards the settlement of national differences by reason -rather than by brute force.</p> - -<p>The arbitrators were five persons, named by the Queen, the -President, the King of Italy, the President of Switzerland, and -the Emperor of Brazil. Their deliberations were conducted in -the tranquil city of Geneva, remote from the influence of the -disputants. America presented a statement of her wrongs, and -of the compensation to which she deemed herself entitled. Her -case was stated with much ability, and it produced numerous -and painful evidences that the neutrality with which England -regarded the conflict had been a neutrality very full of sympathy -with the slave-holders. But the claim tabled was extravagantly -large. America argued that England should indemnify her for -the expenses of the war-ships which were employed to pursue -the piratical cruisers. She argued that, since her ship-owners -had been compelled to sell their ships to foreigners, England -should bear the losses arising from these enforced sales. Above -all, she alleged that the prolongation of the war after the battle -of Gettysburg was traceable to the influence of the pirate-ships; -and she made the huge demand that England should refund to -her the cost of nearly two years of fighting. The arbitrators -gave judgment that England was responsible for the property -destroyed by the <i>Alabama</i> and the other cruisers, and ordained -that she should repair the wrong by a payment of three million -sterling. The claim for losses arising indirectly out of these -unhappy transactions was rejected.</p> - -<p>When the claims of sufferers by the piratical vessels were -investigated it was found that the arbitrators had over-estimated -them. The American Government, having satisfied -every authenticated demand, found itself still in possession of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -about one million of the English money. It was the wish of -many Americans that this sum should be restored to England, -but Congress did not rise to the height of this generosity.</p> - -<p>When the <i>Alabama</i> dispute was closed, there remained no -cause of alienation between the two countries. All good men -on both sides of the Atlantic desire earnestly that England and -America should be fast friends. It was possible for England, -by bestowing upon the North that sympathy which we now -recognize to have been due, to have bound the two countries -inalienably to each other. Unhappily the opportunity was -missed, and a needless estrangement was caused. But this was -not destined to endure, and it has long ago passed wholly away. -England and America now understand each other as they have -never done before. The constant intercourse of their citizens -is a bond of union already so strong that no folly of Governments -could break it. It may fairly be hoped that the irritations -which arose during the war have been succeeded by an -enduring concord between the two great sections of the Anglo-Saxon -family.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_V_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">INDUSTRIAL AMERICA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The chosen career of the American people is a career -of peaceful industry. Wisely shunning the glories -and calamities of war, they have devoted themselves -to the worthier labour of developing the -resources of the continent which is their magnificent heritage. -During four years they had been obliged to give their energies -to a war, on the successful issue of which the national existence -depended. When those sad years were over, and the conflict -ceased, they turned with renewed vigour to their accustomed -pursuits.</p> - -<p>The industrial greatness of America is still, in large measure, -agricultural. Nearly one-half of her people live by the cultivation -of the soil. Upwards of three-fourths of the commodities which -she sells to foreigners are agricultural products. The total -value of the crops which she gathered in 1878 was not less than -£400,000,000. The strangers who help to build up her power -are drawn to her shores by the hope of obtaining easy possession -of fertile land. Her progress in the manufacturing arts has -been very rapid, but it cannot rival the giant growth of her -agriculture.</p> - -<p>The agricultural system of America is eminently favourable -to cheap production. Unoccupied lands are the property of the -nation, and are made over to cultivators on easy terms, and in -many cases gratuitously. A rent-paying farmer is practically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -unknown; the farmer owns the land which he tills. His farm -has cost him little, and as the invariable improvement in value -cancels even that, it may be said that it has cost him nothing. -The average farm of the Western States is one hundred and -sixty acres. It is cultivated almost without outlay of money. -The farmer and his family perform the work of the farm, with -the help of a neighbour at the great eras of sowing and reaping. -This help is requited in kind, and therefore costs nothing -in money. The rich, deep, virgin soil asks for no manure -during many years. The sole burden upon the farm is the -maintenance of the farmer and his family, and of the four oxen -or mules which share his toils. His local taxation is trivial. -His national taxation is less than one-half of that which the -English farmer bears.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The evil of distance from the great -markets of the world is neutralized by the low charge for -which his grain is carried on railway or canal.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> His husbandry -is careless, insomuch that two acres of land in the valley of the -Mississippi yield no more than one acre yields in England.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> -But if his agriculture is rude it is constantly improving; and, -meanwhile, it is so inexpensive that he can send its products to -England, four thousand miles away, and undersell the farmer -there. A vast revolution, whose results we as yet imperfectly -appreciate, is in progress around us. The antiquated, semi-feudal -land-system of England totters to its fall, unable to sustain -itself in presence of the more free and natural system of -the West.</p> - -<p>Immigration languished during the earlier years of the war. -The distracted condition of the country, and the fears in regard -to its future so widely entertained in Europe, formed sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -reason why men who were in search of a home should avoid -America. But when success crowned the efforts of the North, -her old attractiveness to the emigrating class resumed its power. -It came then to be pressed upon the public mind that the progress -of the West was frustrated by want of adequate communication. -There was no railway beyond the Missouri river. -From that point westward to the Pacific communication depended -upon a rude system of stage-coaches, or the waggon of an -adventurous pioneer. It was a journey of nearly two thousand -miles, across an unpeopled wilderness. The hardship was extreme, -and the dangers not inconsiderable; for the way was -beset by hostile Indians, and the traveller must be in constant -readiness to fight. This vast region, composed mainly of rich -prairie land, was practically closed against progress. The resources -of the country, as it seemed, could not be developed -excepting near the margins of the continent, or by the borders -of her great navigable rivers.</p> - -<p>It was now determined to construct a railway which should -connect the Atlantic with the Pacific, and open for the use of -man the vast intervening expanse of fertile soil. Stimulated -by liberal grants of national land, two companies began to -build—one eastward from San Francisco, the other westward -from the Missouri. As the extent of land given was in strict -proportion to the length of line laid down, each of the companies -pushed its operations to the utmost. The work was done in -haste, and, as many then thought, slightly; but experience -has proved its sufficiency. <span class="sidenote">1869 A.D.</span> In due time the -lines met; the last rail was laid down, not without -emotion, such as befitted the completion of a work so great. -By the help of electricity the blows of the hammer which drove -home the last spike were made audible in the chief cities of the -east. The union of east and west was now complete, and many -millions of acres of rich land, hitherto inaccessible, were added -to the heritage of man. The savage occupants of these lands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -were remorselessly pushed aside. The Indians had been dangerously -hostile to the workmen who constructed the railway, -and they showed some disposition to offer unpleasant interruption -to the trains which ran upon it. They were now gathered -up and placed in certain “reservations,” which it was well understood -would be reserved for Indians only till white men had -need of them. When the railroad was newly opened, travellers -could occasionally look out from the windows upon a vast -plain dark with innumerable multitudes of buffaloes plodding -sullenly on their customary migrations. Herds of antelopes -were seen fleeing before this new invader of their quiet lives. -The prairie-dog, sitting upon his mound of earth, watched with -curious eye the unwonted disturbance. All wild creatures were -now wantonly slain, or driven far away. A steady tide of -emigration flowed to the west. In the neighbourhood of the -railway, the little wooden farm-house became frequent; beside -stopping-places, villages arose, and swelled out into little towns; -the towns of the olden time increased rapidly and prospered. -The settlers planted trees of quick growth, and gradually, as -the line of settlement stretched westward, the monotony of -those dreary plains was brightened with groves, and dwellings, -and cultivated fields.</p> - -<p>Iowa, Indiana, Illinois ceased to be regarded as belonging -to the west, and took rank as old and fully settled central -States. Beyond the Missouri a new career opened for Kansas -and Nebraska. Down to the beginning of the war these States -had been claimed and fought for by the slave-power. Day by -day now the railway brought long trains laden with immigrants—Russian -Mennonites fleeing from persecution in Church and -despotism in State; Germans escaping from military conscription; -Englishmen and Irishmen leaving lands where the -ownership of the soil was impossible excepting to a few.</p> - -<p>Texas—once the refuge of men seeking exemption from the -restraints which criminal law imposes—even Texas prospered,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -and under the genial influence of prosperity became respectable. -Her population has risen in eight years from eight hundred -thousand to two million. Much of her vast area<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> still lies -untilled; but much of it has been reclaimed for the use of man. -Her railways still traverse dreary forests, and great, unpeopled -plains; but they also carry the traveller past many smiling -villages, and many thriving cities where a prosperous commerce -is maintained, where schools and churches abound. They reveal -to him well-appointed farm-buildings; fields rich with bountiful -crops; jungles where the peach, the orange, the banana, the -pomegranate grow luxuriantly under the fostering heat of a -semi-tropical sun; vast areas roamed over by myriads of slight, -active-looking Texan cattle, the rearing of which yields wealth -to the people. In many of the Texan cities two contrasted -types of civilization—the old Mexican and the young American—live -peaceably side by side. The palace-car meets the ox-team -and the donkey with his panniers. The blanketed Indian, -the Mexican in poncho and sombrero, the American in his -faultless broadcloth, mingle harmoniously in the streets. -Handsome mansions such as abound in the suburbs of eastern -cities are near neighbours to antique Mexican dwellings, built -of adobe, with loopholed battlements, and walls which show -still the bullet-marks of forgotten strifes.</p> - -<p>As the enormous mineral resources of the Rocky Mountains -became more certainly ascertained, crowds were attracted in -hope of sudden wealth, and the States which include the richer -portions of the range became the home of a large population. -In the remote north-west wheat crops of astonishing opulence -rewarded the simple husbandry of the settler. The law that -cultivated plants are most productive near the northern limit of -their growth was illustrated in the happy experience of Dakotah -and northern Minnesota, where the growing of wheat has -now become one of the most lucrative of industrial occupations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -The railways of those States are being extended with -all possible rapidity, and each extension is followed by a fresh -influx of settlers. Farmers of experience from the older and -less productive States are drawn to the north-west by the -unrivalled advantages which soil and climate present. During -the year 1878 not less than five million acres of land -were purchased in northern Minnesota for immediate cultivation.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p class="tb">America has never been satisfied with mere agricultural greatness. -The ambition to manufacture was coeval with her origin, -and has grown with her growing strength. Twenty years after -the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers there were bounties offered -in Massachusetts for the encouragement of the manufacture of -linen, woollen, and cotton cloths. When the Arkwright spinning -machinery was introduced into England, the Americans -were eager to possess themselves of an improvement so valuable. -But the English law which prohibited the export of -machinery was inflexibly administered, and the models prepared -in secret for shipment to America were seized and confiscated. -But no discouragement repressed the enterprising colonists. -The beginnings of their great textile industries were sufficiently -humble. The earliest motive-power applied to cotton machinery -was the hand; next to it, and as an important advance, came -the use of animal-power.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> But the growth of demand was -rapid, and before the close of last century the application of -water-power was universal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p> - -<p>The increase of consumption was more rapid in America than -the increase of production, and it had to be met by considerable -imports of English goods. England, with abundant capital -and low-priced labour, was able to produce more cheaply than -America, and the struggling native manufacturer had to complain -of a competition against which he was not able to support -himself. He appealed to the Government for protection, and -was influential enough to obtain that which he desired. For -many years the subject of the tariff was keenly disputed. The -Northern manufacturers were habitually seeking increased protection, -which the Southern planters, having no kindred interests -to protect, were often unwilling to grant. The rates -imposed rose or fell with the strength of the contending -parties and the political exigencies of the time. <span class="sidenote">1861 A.D.</span> At length, immediately after the representatives of the -South had quitted Congress, and the friends of protection were -absolute, a highly protective tariff was enacted. Duties, the -mass of which range from thirty to fifty per cent., with some -very much larger, were imposed on nearly all foreign commodities -landed at American ports. Under this law, with only -slight modification, the foreign commerce of America has been -conducted for the last eighteen years, and there has not yet -manifested itself any change in American opinion which -warrants the expectation of an early return to a more liberal -system.</p> - -<p>The large protection now enjoyed, and the active demand -occasioned by the war, stimulated the increase of productive -power. Within twelve years the machinery engaged in cotton-spinning -had doubled, rising from five to ten million spindles. -The increase in many other industries was equally rapid. Side -by side with this undue development there appeared the customary -fruits of a protective policy. There was a general -disregard of economy, a prevailing wastefulness which seemed -to neutralize the advantages enjoyed, and leave the manufacturer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -still in need of additional protection. But a new competition -had now arisen, against which protection could not be gained. -It was no longer foreign competition which marred the fortune -of the native manufacturer; it was the still more deadly competition -which resulted from excessive production at home. -Especially when the panic of 1873 diminished so suddenly the -purchasing power of the American people, it was seen that -even if the manufactures of Europe had been wholly excluded, -America could no longer consume the commodities which her -machinery was able to produce.</p> - -<p>During the years of misery which followed the panic, American -manufacturers gained experience of the “sweet uses” of -adversity. It was incumbent upon them now above all things -to study cheapness. Wages were reduced; improved appliances -by which cost might be lessened were eagerly and successfully -sought for; economy in every detail was studied with anxious -care. The result gained was of high national importance. In -a few years the American manufacturers found, in regard to -many articles of general consumption, that they were now able -to produce as cheaply as their rivals in England, and that they -were wholly independent of that legislative protection which -hitherto had been regarded as indispensable.</p> - -<p>As the skill and care of the native producer increased, the -purchases which America required to make from foreigners -underwent large diminution. Her imports in 1878 were smaller -by one-third than they had been in 1873. She ceased to purchase -railroad iron, and diminished by more than eight-tenths -her purchases of other descriptions of iron. She almost ceased -to use European watches, having signally distanced us in that -branch of industry. She diminished by nearly one-half her -use of foreign books and other publications. Where formerly -she had required the earthen and glass wares of Europe to the -value of thirteen million dollars, seven million now sufficed. -Her use of foreign carpets fell to one-tenth; of foreign cottons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -and woollens to one-half; of manufactures of wood to one-third; -of manufactures of steel to a little over one-third. <span class="sidenote">April, 1879 A.D.</span> And -in explanation of this record of decay our Secretary of -Legation at Washington contributes the ominous suggestion:—“The -decreased importation of the articles referred -to has been due in a great measure to the substitution -in the markets of this country of articles of American manufacture.”</p> - -<p>But the Americans were not contented with this limitation -of their purchases from foreign producers. A desire to become -themselves exporters of manufactured articles sprang up during -the years of depression which followed the panic. Under the -pure democracy of America a general desire translates -itself very quickly into Government action. <span class="sidenote">1877 A.D.</span> The Secretary -of State addressed to his consuls in all parts of -the world a request that they would collect for him all information -fitted to be useful to American manufacturers who -sought markets for their wares in foreign countries. The -answers have put him in possession of a mass of information -such as no Government ever before took the trouble to gather -regarding the conditions of foreign markets, and the openings -which existed or might be created in each for American manufactures. -The growth of this trade has thus far been steady, -but not rapid, and even now it has reached only moderate -dimensions. In 1870 American manufactures were exported -to the value of fifteen million sterling, while in 1878 the value -had risen to twenty-seven million. Chief among the articles -which make up this respectable aggregate are cotton cloths, -manufactures of wood, of leather, of iron and steel, including -machinery, tools, and agricultural implements. America sells -to foolish nations which have not yet grown out of their fighting -period, fire-arms, cartridges, gunpowder, and shell, to the -extent of nearly a million and a half sterling. The multiplicity -of articles which leave her ports show how keenly her foreign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -trade is being prosecuted. She sends household furniture, made -by machinery, and sells it at prices which to the British cabinet-maker -seem to be ruinous. She sends cutlery and tools of -finish and price which fill the men of Sheffield with dismay, but -do not apparently stimulate them to improvement. She sends -watches manufactured by processes so superior to those still -practised in Europe that the Swiss manufacturers have explicitly -acknowledged hopeless defeat. She sends medicines, -combs, perfumery, soap, spirits, writing-paper, musical instruments, -glass-ware, carriages. All these are articles for which, but -a few years ago, she herself was indebted to Europe. Now she -supplies her own requirements, and has an increasing surplus -for which she seeks markets abroad. Her policy of protection -has been costly beyond all calculation; but those who upheld it -now point with reasonable pride to the splendid place which -America has taken among the manufacturing nations of the -Earth.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_V_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EDUCATION IN AMERICA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Pilgrim Fathers carried with them to New -England a deep persuasion that the people of the -State which they went to found must be universally -educated. Not otherwise could the enduring success -of their great enterprise be hoped for. It was their care -from the very outset to provide in such manner as circumstances -enabled them for the education of their children. The -germ of a free-school system is to be found in each of their -youthful settlements. The records of the European countries -of the time would be searched in vain for evidence of a sentiment -so deeply seated, so widely prevalent, so enlightened as -the New England desire that all children should be educated. -Its sincerity was proved by the willingness of the people to -submit to taxation in the cause. In the early days of Connecticut -one-fourth of the revenues of the colony was applied -to the support of schools. Long before the revolution, schools -maintained by public funds and free of charge to the pupils -had extended widely over the New England States. This -love of education has never cooled. When the colonists -gained their independence and established themselves as an -association of freemen, conducting their own public affairs, -a new urgency was added to the necessity that all should be -educated. It was clearly seen, even then, that while ignorant -men might be serviceable subjects of a despotism, only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -educated citizens were capable of self-government. Northern -America sought to build the fabric of republican institutions -upon the solid and durable foundation of universal enlightenment.</p> - -<p>In the Southern States the aristocratic tendencies which -the slave-system fostered were adverse to the education of the -poor. The slave-owners desired submission; their property -was not improved in value, but the reverse, by education. -While America was still a dependency, a question was put to -the Governor of Virginia by the English Commissioners for -Foreign Plantations. “I thank God,” replied the Governor, -“there are no free schools or printing-presses, and I hope we -shall not have these hundred years.” The Governor’s hope -was more than fulfilled. The common-school system was almost -unknown in the South while slavery existed. It became -criminal to teach a slave to read; the poor white had no desire -to learn, and no one sought to teach him. At the close of the -rebellion the mass of the Southern population were as little -educated as the Russian peasants are to-day. But peace was -no sooner restored than the eager desire of the negroes for education -was met by the generous efforts of the North. Northern -teachers were quickly at work among the negro children. So -soon as the means of the ruined States permitted, the common-school -system of the North was set up. It entailed burdens -which they were then ill able to bear. But these burdens have -been borne with a willingness which is evidence that the South -now recognizes her need of education. Notwithstanding their -poverty, some of the States yield for school purposes a rate of -taxation larger for each member of the population than is that -of England.</p> - -<p>The American people manifest a profound and, as recent -reports indicate, an increasing interest in their system of common -schools. It is not merely or chiefly the personal advantage -of the individual citizen which concerns them. It is the greatness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> -and permanence of the State.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> “Free education for all -is the prime necessity of republics.” Institutions which rest -altogether upon popular support demand, as essential to their -safety, the support of an instructed people. It was the same -conviction which impressed itself upon Great Britain when, -having conceded household suffrage, she hastened to set up a -compulsory and universal system of education, that the dangers -likely to arise from the ignorance of the new electors might be -averted. Moreover, the Americans believe firmly that without -educated labour eminence in the industrial arts is not attainable. -According to an estimate which has grown out of -the experience of employers, the educated labourer is more -valuable by twenty-five per cent. than his ignorant rival. Here -is a source of national wealth which no wise State will disregard. -It is the American theory that the State—the associated -citizens—has a proprietary interest in each of its members. -For the good of the community, it is entitled to insist that -every citizen shall become as effective as it is possible to make -him; to expend public funds in order to that result is therefore -a warrantable and remunerative outlay.</p> - -<p>Looking thus upon the value of public instruction, the -American people have borne willingly the heavy costs of the -common school. They suffer taxation ungrudgingly at a rate -which, for the smaller population of England and Wales, would -amount to nine million sterling instead of the four million -actually expended. Nor is this the easy product of lands set -apart for educational purposes at a time when land was valueless. -Many of the States wisely set apart one-sixteenth of -their land to uphold their schools. But in many of the old -States the appropriation was not respected; too often, especially -in the South, the endowment was applied to other uses. The -revenue derived now from any description of endowment does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> -not exceed five per cent. of the whole; the remainder comes -from State or local taxation. At one time, in some of the -States, fees were charged from the pupils. But the opinion -came to be widely entertained that this charge impaired in -many ways the efficiency of the system. Six or eight years -ago fees were discontinued, and now the schools of the nation -are free to all. The Americans witness with approbation -the increase of their expenditure on education. During the -ten years which preceded the rebellion this expenditure -was doubled; again, during the ten years which followed -it was trebled. It has now grown to nearly eighteen million -sterling—a sum larger than all the nations of Europe -unitedly expend for the same purpose. Large as it is, however, -it is equal to no more than two-thirds of the sum -which Britain still expends upon her military and naval preparations.</p> - -<p>The common school is used by all classes of the American -people. At one time there existed among the rich a disposition -to have their children educated with others of their own social -position, and many private schools sprang up to meet their -demand. As the common schools have increased in efficiency, -and consequently in public favour, this disposition has weakened, -and private schools have decayed. Their number is much -smaller now than it was ten years ago, and continues to diminish. -With one unhappy exception, the common school satisfies the -requirements of the American people. The leaders of the -Roman Catholic body perceive that its influences are adverse -to the growth of their tenets, and do not cease to demand the -means of educating their children apart from the children of -those who hold religious beliefs differing from theirs. But -their proposals meet with no favour beyond the limits of their -own denomination, and even there only partial support is given. -The American Roman Catholic is more apt than his brethren in -Europe to fall into the disloyal practice of independent judgment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -It has not been found possible to alienate him wholly -from the common school.</p> - -<p>It is of interest to inquire in what measure the American -people have been requited by the success of their common-school -system for the vast sums which they expend on its maintenance. -At first sight the statistics of the subject seem to return a discouraging -reply to such an inquiry. When the census of 1870 -was taken it disclosed a high percentage of illiteracy. Seventeen -adult males and twenty-three adult females in every -hundred were wholly uneducated—numbers almost as high as -those of England at the same period. But the special circumstances -of the country explain these figures in a manner which -relieves the common school of all blame. The larger portion of -this illiteracy had its home in the Southern States and among -the coloured population, whose ignorance had been carefully -preserved by wicked laws and a corrupted public feeling. -Again, America had received during the ten years which preceded -the census an immigration of four and a half million -persons. The educational condition of those strangers was low, -and their presence therefore bore injuriously upon the averages -which were reported. The common school must be judged in -the Northern States and among the native white population, -for there only has it had full opportunity to act. And there it -has achieved magnificent success. In the New England States -there is not more than one uneducated native of ten years and -upwards in every hundred. In the other Northern States the -average is scarcely so favourable. The uneducated number -from two up to four in every hundred.</p> - -<p>It thus appears that the common school has banished illiteracy -from the North. The native American of the Northern States -is almost invariably a person who has received, at the lowest, a -sound primary education. The efforts by which this result has -been reached began with the foundation of each State, and have -been continued uninterruptedly throughout its whole history.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -In the rising industrial competition of the time, it must count -for much that American artisans are not only educated men -and women, but are the descendants of educated parents. A -nation which expends upon education a sum larger than all the -nations of Europe unitedly expend; which contents itself with -an army of twenty-five thousand soldiers; whose citizens are -exempt from the curse of idle years laid by the governments of -Continental Europe upon their young men,—such a nation -cannot fail to secure a victorious position in the great industrial -struggle which all civilized States are now compelled to wage -for existence.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="US_V_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EUROPE AND AMERICA.</span></h4> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-f.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">From the very dawn of her history, America has -been a powerful factor in the solution of many -great European problems. In the early days of -her settlement she offered a welcome refuge from -the oppression and poverty of the Old World. Her assertion -of independence inflamed the impulses which were preparing -the French Revolution with all its unforeseen and incalculable -consequences, and hastened the coming of that tremendous occurrence. -Throughout the half century of struggle by which -Europe vindicated her freedom, it was a constant stimulus to -patriot effort to know that, beyond the sea, there was a country -where men were at liberty to prosecute their own welfare unimpeded -by the restraints which despotism imposes. A constant -light was thrown by American experience upon the questions -which agitated Europe. Men accustomed to be told that -they were unfit to bear any part in the government of their -country, saw men such as they themselves were enjoying political -privileges in America, and governing a continent to the general -advantage. Men accustomed to be told that State support was -indispensable to the existence of the Church, saw religion -becomingly upheld in America by the spontaneous offerings of -the people. Methods of government altogether unlike those of -Europe were practised in America; and Europe had constant -opportunity of judging how far these methods surpassed or fell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -short of her own. Europe lived under a system of government -which scarcely regarded individual rights, and cared supremely -for the interests of the State—meaning ordinarily by that the -interests or caprices of a very few persons. In America the -State was an organization whose purpose was mainly the protection -of individual rights. On the eastern shores of the -Atlantic the belief still prevailed that in every nation the -Almighty had conveyed to some one man the right to deal as -he pleased with the lives and property of all the others. On -the western shores of the Atlantic a great nation acted on the -theory that national interests were merely the interests which -the aggregated individual citizens had in common,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and that -government was nothing more than an association of persons -whose duty it was to guide those interests in conformity with -the public desire. The American doctrine extended into Europe, -and contributed in no inconsiderable degree to the growth of -liberal ideas and the overthrow of despotism. The sustained -exhibition upon a scale so vast of freedom in thought and -action, with its happy results in contentment and prosperity, -could not fail to impress deeply the oppressed nations of Europe. -Here were a people who made their own laws, who obeyed no -authority which was not of their own appointment, to whom -decrees, and ukases, and all the hateful utterances of despotism -were unknown. Here were millions of men enjoying perfect -equality of opportunity to seek their own welfare; here was -life free from the burden of a class inaccessibly superior to the -great mass of the people. The daily influences of American -life sapped the fabric of privilege, and helped the European -people to vindicate the rights of which they had been deprived.</p> - -<p>The influence which America exerts upon the currents of -European history must continue to increase in power. Her -population, reinforced as it is by emigration from less happily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> -circumstanced countries, grows more rapidly than any European -population. Her artisans are better educated than those of -any other country, and they are therefore more effective for -industrial purposes. They are free from the burden of military -service, which in Continental Europe absorbs those years of a -young man’s life when the hands gain expertness and the mind -forms habits of industry. In the capacity of mechanical invention—the -breath of life to an industrial nation—they are manifestly -superior to Europe. The competition of this intelligent, -ingenious, rapidly increasing people, fired by an ambition to -become great as a manufacturing nation, cannot fail to influence -directly and powerfully the industrial future of the European -nations.</p> - -<p>As the population and the wealth of America increase, the -testimony which her example bears in favour of individual -right and absolute freedom of thought will become more conspicuous -and influential. The rebuke which her attitude of -universal peace and her inconsiderable military expenditure -administer to the diseased suspicions and measureless waste of -Europe will become more emphatic, perhaps even in some -degree more effective, than it has yet proved to be. Thus far, -the teaching of America in regard to the maintenance of huge -armies in time of peace has been rejected as inapplicable to the -existing circumstances of Europe. But it may fairly be hoped -that in course of years the industrial competition of a great -people who have freed themselves from heavy burdens which -their competitors still bear will enforce upon Europe economies -of which neither governments nor people are as yet sufficiently -educated to perceive the necessity.</p> - -<p class="tb">America has still something to learn from the riper experience -and more patient thinking of England. But it has been her -privilege to teach to England and the world one of the grandest -of lessons. She has asserted the political rights of the masses.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -She has proved to us that it is safe and wise to trust the people. -She has taught that the government of the people should be -“by the people and for the people.”</p> - -<p class="tb">Let our last word here be a thankful acknowledgment of the -inestimable service which she has thus rendered to mankind.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="POSTSCRIPT">POSTSCRIPT.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">PRESIDENT GARFIELD.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The reconstruction of the Union was completed during -General Grant’s term of office. The Presidentship -of his successor, Mr. Rutherford B. Hayes, -was uneventful. It was not on that account the -less fruitful in good results. The complete amalgamation of -the North and the South could only be the work of time. -President Hayes helped forward this useful work. He visited -the South in his first year of office, and was everywhere well -received.</p> - -<p>The Census of 1880 showed the population of the United -States to be upwards of fifty million. The increase during the -previous ten years had been eleven million and a half, or at -the extraordinary rate of more than a million a year.</p> - -<p>During Mr. Hayes’ Presidentship, two questions became -prominent, and sharply divided political parties. These were, -the resumption of cash payments, and the reform of the Civil -Service.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1878 A.D.</span> The Currency Controversy is remarkable for having brought -the President into conflict with Congress. The Bland -Silver Bill, making the silver dollar a legal tender, was -passed by large majorities both in the House of Representatives -and in the Senate. President Hayes had no faith in -the doctrine of bi-metallism, and he vetoed the Bill. The Bill<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> -was re-passed in both Houses by a two-thirds majority, and -became law in spite of the presidential veto. The conflict subjected -the Constitution to a severe strain. But the crisis passed -quietly, showing how well-grounded is the faith of the Americans -in the fitness of their Constitution to meet all exigencies.</p> - -<p>The demand for a reform in the Civil Service had been growing -for years. The revelations of electoral corruption filled -men of independent spirit with shame and confusion. The evil -practices were not confined to a particular party. Republicans -and Democrats were equally unscrupulous. It was proved by -strict inquiry that in two States the majority for President -Hayes himself had been obtained by fraudulent means. The -constitutional custom which makes every office in the Civil -Service, from the highest to the lowest, change hands whenever -power is transferred from one party to another, was felt to be -the root of the evil.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1881 A.D.</span> When President James Garfield assumed office in March -1881, he announced his intention of dealing firmly and -earnestly with the question of administrative reform. -Garfield’s election to the dignity of President was unexpected. -The chief Republican candidates were General -Grant, who had previously held the office for two terms, Secretary -Sherman, and Senator Blaine. In the Republican convention -held at Chicago for the selection of a candidate, General -Garfield acted as manager of the party which supported Sherman. -When he was first proposed he declined to become a -candidate. It was only when Sherman’s success was seen to be -impossible, and when all the parties opposed to Grant coalesced -in favour of Garfield, that his name came to the front. He -was ultimately chosen unanimously as the Republican candidate, -on the ground that he divided the party the least. In -the election itself, which was mainly determined by the vote of -New York State, Garfield defeated his Democratic opponent -General Hancock by 219 votes to 185.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span></p> - -<p>Comparatively little was known about the new President -before he was elected. Even in America his selection was a -surprise. The chief fact that was known about him was that -he had risen, like Abraham Lincoln, from the humblest origin. -He had been born in a log-hut in the forest of Ohio. He had -begun life on the tow-path as a driver of mules which dragged -a canal boat between Cleveland and Pittsburg. By his own -energy alone he had risen. He had been a professor, a preacher, -a successful soldier, a practical lawyer, a bold and ready party -leader. Throughout life he had been noted for fearless honesty. -In his public career, no taint of corruption was found attaching -to any part of his conduct. The man who should undertake to -reform the abuses in the official system of America must himself -have clean hands, and Garfield’s hands were clean.</p> - -<p>General Garfield’s election was held to be a great triumph for -the Republican party, but especially for that section of it which -advocated Civil Service reform. He had made no secret of his -opinions on that subject. In the outline of his political creed -which he issued soon after his selection as Republican candidate -he expressed his agreement with those who urged the necessity -of “placing the Civil Service on a better basis.” The remedy -to which he pointed was that “Congress should devise a method -that will determine the tenure of office.” In his inaugural -address on assuming office, he intimated his intention of taking -steps to apply this remedy. Two objects, he said, must be -aimed at. The one was to protect the executive against “the -waste of time and the obstruction to public business caused by -the inordinate pressure for place.” The other was to protect -the holders of office “against intrigue and wrong.” To effect -both objects, he would “at the proper time ask Congress to fix -the tenure of the minor offices of several executive departments, -and prescribe grounds upon which removals shall be made.” -Further, he announced his purpose “to demand rigid economy -in all expenditures of the Government, and to require honest and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> -faithful service of all the executive officers, remembering that -their offices were created, not for the benefit of the incumbents -or their supporters, but for the service of the Government.”</p> - -<p>These declarations did not give unmixed satisfaction to the -Republican party. The anti-reform section of it, which still -holds by President Jackson’s maxim, “The spoils to the victors,” -regarded them as in some sense a declaration of war. It is certain -that to the hopes of place-hunters they were a serious blow. -For his honest desire to rid the public offices of these pests, and -at the same time to purify the Government, the President was -made to pay a terrible penalty. Within the railway station at -Washington he was shot in the back by a man named Charles -Guiteau, who for several days had been importuning the authorities -at White House for place.</p> - -<p>The useless and utterly wanton crime sent a thrill of horror -through America, through England, through the civilized world. -The shot did not at once prove fatal; but that only made the -cruelty of the deed the more intense. For eleven weeks through -the heat of summer (July 2 till September 19) the President’s -life trembled in the balance. He bore his sufferings with marvellous -patience and fortitude. The calamity brought out the -manly strength and the simple beauty of his character with the -brilliancy of sunset.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse indent4">“In the reproof of chance</div> -<div class="verse">Lies the true proof of men.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Seldom if ever before has there been so striking an instance of -misfortune raising a good man to world-wide renown. Hardly less -beautiful than the President’s cheerful endurance was the heroic -devotion of his wife. “It is no exaggeration to say,” said Mr. -James Russell Lowell, the American Minister in London, “that -the recent profoundly-touching spectacle of womanly devotedness, -in its simplicity, its constancy, and its dignity, has moved -the heart of mankind in a manner without any precedent in -living memory.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span></p> - -<p>During the whole of these “eleven agonizing weeks” the bed -of the dying President was the centre of interest to men and -women of all ranks in both hemispheres. “The whole civilized -world,” said Mr. Lowell, “gathered about it; and in the -breathless suspense of anxious solicitude listened to the difficult -breathing, counted the fluttering pulse, was cheered by the -momentary rally, and saddened by the inevitable relapse.”</p> - -<p>At length the end came with startling suddenness. It was -followed by a universal wail. All humanity mourned, as if it -had lost a brother. The sentiment pervaded all classes, from -crowned heads to humble peasants. The Queen of England -was foremost in her offers of sympathy, not only with the sorrowing -widow and mother, but also with the bereaved nation; -and stanch Republicans were fain to acknowledge “how true a -woman’s heart may beat under the royal purple.” The English -Court was ordered to go into mourning, as for one of royal -blood and ancient lineage. The act was as graceful and as wise -as it was unprecedented. The head of the young Republic was, -by the spontaneous act of the head of the ancient Kingdom, -recognized in his due place as one of the community of monarchs -and princes. A hundred years ago, who could have anticipated -such an event?</p> - -<p>It would be a mistake to suppose that the death of President -Garfield created the warm feelings of sympathy between England -and America which the event revealed. It is true, however, -that the event opened at once the hearts and the eyes of -both peoples, and brought to light the depth and the strength -of their brotherhood, in a way that nothing else could have -done. The brotherly feelings on the part of England were -heartily and even touchingly reciprocated in America. After -the coffin of the deceased President had been closed, only one -wreath was allowed to rest on it; and that was the wreath sent -by the Queen of England. To the world this was a token of -peace and good-will firmly established between England and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -America—of the oneness of the English-speaking race, in their -common homage to President and to Queen. If the result -shall be to strengthen permanently the bond between the -kindred peoples—to root out jealousies and smooth over asperities, -to produce generosity in the midst of rivalry and co-operation -in good works—President Garfield will not have died in -vain.</p> - -<p>“He was no common man,” said Mr. Lowell, in his graceful -and eloquent panegyric, “who could call forth, and justly call -forth, an emotion so universal, an interest so sincere and so -human.” And that is no common country which can produce -such a man, and give him the opportunity of achieving -greatness. Garfield’s career teaches many lessons; but it shows -nothing more clearly than the great possibilities which his -country opens up to honesty and persevering labour. “The -poor lad who at thirteen could not read, dies at fifty the tenant -of an office second in dignity to none on earth; and the world -mourns his loss as that of a personal relative.”</p> - -<p class="tb">“The soil out of which such men as he were made is good -to be born on, good to live on, good to die for and to be -buried in.”</p> - -<p class="tb">The peace and naturalness with which Vice-President Arthur -at once succeeded to the presidential functions, without shock -to the political system and without detriment to the national -honour, justifies the pride of the Americans in the stability of -their institutions.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h3>FOOTNOTES</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> During the ten years, from 1840 to 1850, the annual export of slaves from the -Border States to the South averaged 23,500. These, at an average value of £150, -amounted to three million and a quarter sterling!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The local indebtedness of America has increased largely since the war, and is now -equal to one-half of the Federal debt. In many of the States the Constitution now -prohibits the State Legislature from contracting debt excepting for war and other urgent -purposes. There is a growing opinion that this wise restriction should be universally -adopted.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> State and county taxation in the west ranges from five to twenty-five cents per acre—2½d. -to 12½d. National taxation is in America 20s., and in Britain 47s. 2d., for each -of the population.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Wheat is now carried from Chicago to New York by lake and canal for 2s. 6d. per -quarter, and by rail for 4s. From the northern parts of Minnesota carriage to New York -is 8s. per quarter.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The American average is fourteen bushels of wheat per acre; the English average -is twenty-eight bushels; the Scotch average, under high farming, is thirty-four bushels.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Equal to three times the area of Great Britain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> To the north of Minnesota and across the Canadian frontier lies the province of -Manitoba, a section of the North-West Territories recently acquired by the Canadian -Government from the Hudson Bay Company. In the capability of a large portion of -its soil to produce wheat Manitoba is unsurpassed, perhaps unequalled, by any part -of the world. An active immigration is in progress: during the year 1879, when navigation -was open, the daily arrivals numbered four hundred. When communication -by rail and river is more adequate, Manitoba may be expected to take the highest -place as a wheat-producing country.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The use of animal-power was not confined to America. In England the earliest -of Cartwright’s power-looms are said to have owed their movement to the labour of a -bull.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> “We regard [the education of the people] as a wise and liberal system of police -by which property and life and the peace of society are secured.”—<i>Daniel Webster.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> “This country with its institutions belongs to the people who inhabit it.”—<i>President -Lincoln.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> This short chapter has been added since the author’s death, by another hand.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="THE_DOMINION_OF_CANADA">THE DOMINION OF CANADA.</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE DAWN OF CANADIAN HISTORY.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The dazzling success which had crowned the efforts -of Columbus awakened in Europe an eager desire -to make fresh discoveries. Henry VII. of England -had consented to equip Columbus for his voyage; -but the consent was withheld too long, and given only when it -was too late. Lamenting now the great mischance by which -the glory and the profit of these marvellous discoveries passed -away from him, Henry lost no time in seeking to possess himself -of such advantage as Spain had not yet appropriated. -There was living then in Bristol a Venetian merchant -named John Cabot. This man and his son Sebastian -shared their great countryman’s love of maritime adventure. <span class="sidenote">1496 A.D.</span> Under the patronage of the King, who claimed one-fifth -of the gains of their enterprise, they fitted out, at their -own charge, a fleet of six ships, and sailed westward into -the ocean whose terrors Columbus had so effectually -tamed. They struck a northerly course, and reached -Newfoundland. <span class="sidenote">1497 A.D.</span> Still bending northwards, they coasted Labrador, -hoping as Columbus did to gain an easy passage to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> -East. They pierced deeper into the unknown north than any -European had done before. But day by day, as they sailed -and searched, the cold became more intense; the floating -masses of ice became more frequent and more threatening; the -wished-for opening which was to conduct them to Cathay did -not reveal itself. Cabot, repulsed by unendurable cold, turned -and sought the more genial south. He steered his course -between the island of Newfoundland and the mainland, and -explored with care the gulf afterwards called by the name of -St. Lawrence. Still moving southwards, he passed bleak and -desolate coasts which to-day are the home of powerful communities, -the seat of great and famous cities. He had looked -at the vast sea-board which stretches from Labrador to Florida. -He had taken no formal possession; his foot had scarcely -touched American soil. But when he reported to Henry what -he had seen, the King at once claimed the whole as an English -possession.</p> - -<p>Many years passed before the claim of England was heard of -any more. The stormy life of Henry came to its close. His -son, around whose throne there surged the disturbing influences -of the Reformation, and who was obliged in this anxious time -to readjust the ecclesiastical relations of himself and of his -people, had no thought to spare for those distant and unknown -regions. The fierce Mary was absorbed in the congenial employment -of trampling out Protestantism by the slaughter of -its followers. The America upon which John Cabot—now an -almost forgotten name—had looked fourscore years before, was -nearly as much forgotten as its discoverer. But during the -more tranquil reign of Elizabeth there began that search for a -north-west route to the East which Europe has prosecuted from -that time till now with marvellous persistence and intrepidity. <span class="sidenote">1576 A.D.</span> Martin Frobisher, going forth on this quest, -pierced further into the north than any previous explorer -had done. He looked again upon the bleak, ice-bound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> -coasts of Labrador and of southern Greenland. <span class="sidenote">1583 A.D.</span> Sir Humphrey -Gilbert, acting under the Queen’s authority, visited -Newfoundland, and planted there an inconsiderable and -unenduring settlement. Another generation passed -before England began to concern herself about the shadowy -and well-nigh forgotten claim which she had founded upon -the discoveries of John Cabot. It was indeed a shadowy -claim; but, even with so slender a basis of right, the power -and determination of England proved ultimately sufficient to -establish and maintain it against the world. The Pope had -long ago bestowed upon the Kings of Spain and Portugal the -whole of the New World, with all its “cities and fortifications;” -but England gave no heed to the enormous pretension which -even France refused to acknowledge.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>Meanwhile, disregarding the dormant claims of England, -France had made some progress in establishing herself upon -the new continent. She too had in her service a mariner on -whose visit to the West a claim was founded. Thirty years -after Cabot’s first voyage, John Verazzani—an Italian, like -most of the explorers—sailed from North Carolina to Newfoundland; -scenting, or believing that he scented, far out at -sea the fragrance of southern forests; welcomed by the simple -natives of Virginia and Maryland, who had not yet learned to -dread the terrible strangers who brought destruction to their -race; visiting the Bay of New York, and finding it thronged -with the rude and slender canoes of the natives; looking with -unpleased eye upon the rugged shores of Massachusetts and -Maine, and not turning eastward till he had passed for many -miles along the coast of Newfoundland. When Verazzani -reported what he had done, France assumed, too hastily as the -event proved, that the regions thus explored were rightfully -hers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span></p> - -<p>But her claim obtained a more substantial support than the -hasty visit of Verazzani was able to bestow upon it. <span class="sidenote">1534 A.D.</span> Ten years later, Jacques Cartier, a famous sea-captain, -sailed on a bright and warm July day into the gulf -which lies between Newfoundland and the mainland. He saw -a great river flowing into the gulf with a width of estuary not -less than one hundred miles. It was the day of St. Lawrence, -and he opened a new prospect of immortality for that saint by -giving his name to river and to gulf. He erected a large cross, -thirty feet high, on which were imprinted the insignia of -France; and thus he took formal possession of the country in -the King’s name. He sailed for many days up the river, between -silent and pathless forests; past great chasms down -which there rolled the waters of tributary streams; under the -gloomy shadow of huge precipices; past fertile meadow-lands -and sheltered islands where the wild vine flourished. The -Indians in their canoes swarmed around the ships, giving the -strangers welcome, receiving hospitable entertainment of bread -and wine. At length they came where a vast rocky promontory, -three hundred feet in height, stretched far into the river. -Here the chief had his home; here, on a site worthy to bear the -capital of a great State, arose Quebec; here, in later days, -England and France fought for supremacy, and it was decided -by the sword that the Anglo-Saxon race was to guide the destinies -of the American continent.</p> - -<p>Cartier learned from the Indians that, much higher up the -river, there was a large city, the capital of a great country; and -the enterprising Frenchman lost no time in making his way -thither. Standing in the midst of fields of Indian corn, he -found a circular enclosure, strongly palisaded, within which -were fifty large huts, each the abode of several families. This -was Hochelaga, in reality the capital of an extensive territory. -Hochelaga was soon swept away; and in its place, a century -later, Jesuit enthusiasts established a centre of missionary operations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> -under the protection of the Holy Virgin. It too passed -away, to be succeeded by the city of Montreal, the seat of government -of an Anglo-Saxon nation.</p> - -<p>The natives entertained Cartier hospitably, and were displeased -that he would not remain longer among them. He -returned to Quebec to winter there. Great hardships overtook -him. The winter was unusually severe; his men were unprovided -with suitable food and clothing. Many died; all were -grievously weakened by exposure and insufficient nourishment; -and when their condition was at the lowest, Cartier was led to -suspect that the natives meditated treachery. So soon as the -warmth of spring thawed the frozen river, Cartier sailed for -France, lawlessly bearing with him, as a present to the King, -the chief and three natives of meaner rank.</p> - -<p>The results of Carrier’s visits disappointed France. A -country which lies buried under deep snow for half the year -had no attractions for men accustomed to the short and ordinarily -mild winters of France. The King expected gold and -silver mines and precious stones; but Cartier brought home -only a few savages and his own diminished and diseased band -of followers. There were some, however, to whom the lucrative -trade in furs was an object of desire; there were others, -in that season of high-wrought religious zeal, who were powerfully -moved to bear the Cross among the heathens of the West. -Under the influence of these motives, feeble efforts at colonization -were from time to time made. The fishermen of Normandy -and Brittany resorted to the shores of Newfoundland -and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and plied their calling there -with success such as had not rewarded their efforts in European -waters. The persecuted Calvinists sought to give effect to a -proposal made by Admiral Coligny, and find rest from the -malignity of their enemies among the forests of Canada. But -the French have little aptitude for colonizing. Down far -beyond the close of the century France had failed to establish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> -any permanent footing on the American continent. A few -mean huts at Quebec, at Montreal, and at two or three other -points, were all that remained to represent the efforts and the -sufferings of nearly a hundred years. There is evidence that -in the year 1629 “a single vessel” was expected to take on -board “all the French” in Canada; and the vessels of those -days were not large.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The fierce strifes which raged between Catholic and -Protestant during the latter half of the sixteenth -century engrossed the mind of France to the exclusion -of all that concerned her remote and discouraging -possession. But while the strong hand of Henry IV. held -the reins of government, these strifes were calmed. The hatred -remained, ready to break forth when circumstances allowed; -but meantime the authority of the King imposed salutary -restraint upon the combatants, and the country had rest. -During this exceptional quiet the project of founding a New -France on the gulf and river of St. Lawrence again received -attention.</p> - -<p>Among the favourite servants of the King was Samuel de -Champlain. This man was a sailor from his youth, which had -been passed on the shores of the Bay of Biscay. He had fought -for his King on sea and on land. He was brave, resolute, of -high ability, of pure and lofty impulses, combining the courage -with the gentleness and courtesy of the true knight-errant. In -him there survived the passionate love of exploring strange -lands which prevailed so widely among the men of a previous -generation. He foresaw a great destiny for Canada, and he -was eager to preserve for France the neglected but magnificent -heritage. Above all, he desired to send the saving light of faith -to the red men of the Canadian forests; for although a bigoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -Catholic, he was a sincere Christian. “The salvation of one -soul,” he was accustomed to say, “is of more value than the -conquest of an empire.”</p> - -<p>This man was the founder of Canada. During thirty years -he toiled incessantly to plant and foster settlements, to send out -missionaries, to repel the inroads of the English, to protect the -rights of France in the fur-trade and in the fisheries of Newfoundland. -The immediate success which attended his labours -was inconsiderable. His settlements refused to make progress; -the savage tribes for whose souls he cared were extirpated by -enemies whose hostility he had helped to incur; the English destroyed -ships which were bringing him supplies; they besieged -and captured Quebec itself. He died without seeing the greatness -of the colony which he loved, but which, nevertheless, -owed the beginnings of its greatness to him.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest concerns of Champlain was to choose a -site for the capital of the French empire in the West. As -Cartier had done three-quarters of a century before, he chose -the magnificent headland of Quebec. <span class="sidenote">1608 A.D.</span> At the foot of the -rock he erected a square of buildings, enclosing a court, -surrounded by a wall and a moat, and defended by a -few pieces of cannon. This rude fort became the centre of -French influence in Canada during the next hundred and fifty -years, till the English relieved France of responsibility and -influence on the American continent.</p> - -<p>Champlain received cordial welcome from the Huron Indians, -who were his neighbours. These savages were overmatched by -their ancient enemies the Iroquois, and they besought the -Frenchmen to lend them the help of their formidable arms. -Champlain consented—moved in part by his love of battle, in -part by his desire to explore an unknown country. He and -some of his men accompanied his new allies on their march. The -Iroquois warriors met them confidently, expecting the customary -victory. They were received with a volley of musketry, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -stretched some on the ground, and caused panic and flight of the -whole force. But Champlain had reason to regret the foreign -policy which he had adopted. The Hurons took many prisoners, -whom, as their practice was, they proceeded to torture to death. -In a subsequent expedition the allies were defeated, and Champlain -himself was wounded—circumstances which, for a time, -sensibly diminished his authority. And the hostility of the -Iroquois, thus unwisely provoked, resulted in the utter destruction -of the Hurons, and involved the yet unstable colony in -serious jeopardy.</p> - -<p>Champlain enjoyed the support of King Henry IV., who -listened to his glowing accounts of the country in which he was -so profoundly interested, who praised the wisdom of his government, -and encouraged him to persevere. But despite of royal -favour, his task was a heavy one. There were in his company -both Romanists and Calvinists, who bore with them into the -forest the discords which then made France miserable. Champlain -tells that he has seen a Protestant minister and a curé -attempting to settle with blows of the fist their controversial -differences. Such occurrences, he points out, were not likely -to yield fruit to the glory of God among the infidels whom he -desired to convert. At home his prerogatives were the playthings -of political parties. To-day he obtained vast powers and -rich grants of land; to-morrow some court intrigue swept these -all away. There was an “Association of Merchants” who had -received a valuable trading monopoly under pledge that they -would send out men to colonize and priests to instruct. But -the faithless merchants sought only to purchase furs at low -prices from the Indians. It was to their advantage that the -Indian and the wild creatures which he pursued should continue -to occupy the continent, undisturbed by the coming in of -strangers. And thus they thwarted to the utmost all Champlain’s -efforts. In defiance of authority, they paid in fire-arms -and brandy for the furs which were brought to them; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -red men, whose souls Champlain so earnestly desired to save, were -being corrupted and destroyed by the greed of his countrymen.</p> - -<p>Some years after Champlain’s first expedition, a few Englishmen -landed in mid-winter on the coast of Massachusetts, and, -without help of kings or nobles, began to grow strong by their -own inherent energy and the constant accession to their number -of persons dissatisfied at home. It was not so with the French -settlements on the St. Lawrence. Champlain was continually -returning to France to entreat the King for help; to seek a -new patron among the nobles; to compel the merchants to fulfill -their compact by sending out a few colonists. No Frenchman -was desirous to find a home beyond the sea; all bore in -quietness a despotism worse than that from which the more -impatient Englishmen had fled. The natural inaptitude of -France for the work of colonizing was vividly illustrated in the -early history of Canada.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1629 A.D.</span> Near the close of Champlain’s life the capital of the State -which he had founded was torn away from him. An -English ship, commissioned by Charles I. and commanded -by a piratical Scotchman, appeared before the -great rock of Quebec, and summoned the city to surrender. -Champlain, powerless to resist, yielded to fate and gave up his -capital. When the conquerors landed to seek the plunder for -which they had come, they found a few old muskets and cannon -and fifty poorly-fed men. The growth of twenty years had done -no more for Quebec than this.</p> - -<p>The loss of Canada caused no regret in France. There were -public men who regarded that loss as in reality a gain, and advised -that France should make no effort to regain her troublesome -dependency. But Champlain urged upon the Government -the great value of the fur trade and fisheries; he showed that -the difficulties of the settlement were now overcome, and that -progress in the future must be more rapid than in the past; he -pled that the savages who were beginning to receive the light<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> -of the true faith should not be given over to heretics. <span class="sidenote">1632 A.D.</span> His -urgency prevailed; and England, not more solicitous to -keep than France was to regain this unappreciated continent, -readily consented that it should be restored to its -former owners.</p> - -<p>Three years afterwards Champlain died. He saw nothing of -the greatness for which he had prepared the way. The colonists -numbered yet only a few hundreds. The feeble existence of -the settlement depended upon the good-will of the Englishmen -who were their neighbours on the south, and of the fierce -savages who lived in the forests around them. But Champlain -was able to estimate, in some measure, the results of the work -which he had done. He sustained himself to the end with the -hope that the Canada which he loved would one day be prosperous -and strong—peopled by good Catholics from France, and by -savages rescued from destruction by baptism and the exhibition -of the cross.</p> - -<p class="tb">The Canada of Champlain’s day was a region stretching -thirteen hundred miles northward from the frontier line of the -New England settlements, and seven hundred miles westward -from the mouth of the St. Lawrence. Besides Canada, France -possessed Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; and she claimed all -the unknown territory to the north, the character and extent -of which were veiled from human knowledge by cold so intense -that men had not yet dared to encounter it. The great river -with its tributaries, and the vast lakes out of which it flows, -opened convenient access into the heart of the country, and -made commerce easy. On the high lands were dense forests -of oak and pine and maple; beech, chestnut, and elm. In the -plains were great areas of rich agricultural land capable of supporting -a large population, but useless as yet; for the Indians -deemed agriculture effeminate, and chose to live mainly by the -chase. The climate is severe and the winter long, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -towards the mouth of the St. Lawrence, where at certain seasons -the cold becomes greater than the human frame can endure. -Everywhere the heat of summer is great, and the transition -from the fierce extreme of cold to the warmth of the delightful -Canadian spring is sudden. The desolate woods burst into rich -green foliage; the valleys clothe themselves as by magic with -grass and flowers. The great heat of summer follows with equal -suddenness, and the harvest of grain or of fruits ripens as -quickly as it sprang.</p> - -<p>The cold of the Canadian winter was greatly more influential -than the heat of the Canadian summer in fixing the character -and pursuits of the savages who occupied the country. In a -climate where frost rends asunder rocks and trees, and gives to -iron power to burn as if it were red hot, life could not be sustained -without a special defence against the intolerable severity. -Nature had amply provided for the welfare of the wild creatures -which she had called into being. The buffalo and musk -ox which wandered over the plains were endowed with masses -of shaggy hair which defied the cold even of a Canadian winter. -The bear which prepared for himself a resting-place in the -hollow trunk of an old tree, where he could sleep out the tedious -months of frost, was clothed suitably to his circumstances. The -beaver which built his house in the centre of Canadian streams -was wrapped in rich, warm, glossy fur. The fox, the wolverine, -the squirrel, and many others, enjoyed the same effective protection. -The Indians needed the skins of these creatures for -clothing, their flesh for food. And thus it came to pass that -the French found in Canada only wild things, which walked the -forests in coverings of beautiful and valuable fur; and human -beings, but one degree higher in intelligence, who lived by slaying -them. One of the strongest impulses which drew Europeans -to Canada was not her rich soil, nor the timber of her inexhaustible -forests, nor her treasures of copper and of iron, but the -skins of the beasts which frequented her valleys and her woods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span></p> - -<p>Numerous tribes of savages inhabited the Canadian wilderness. -They ordinarily lived in villages built of logs, and -strongly palisaded to resist the attack of enemies. They were -robust and enduring, as the climate required; daring in war, -friendly and docile in peace. The torture of an enemy was -their highest form of enjoyment: when the victim bore his sufferings -bravely, the youth of the village ate his heart in order -that they might become possessed of his virtues. They had -orators, politicians, chiefs skilled to lead in their rude wars. -Most of their weapons were of flint. They felled the great -pines of their forests with stone axes supplemented by the use -of fire. Their canoes were made of the bark of birch or elm. -They wore breastplates of twigs. It was their habit to occupy -large houses, in some of which as many as twenty families lived -together without any separation. Licentiousness was universal -and excessive. Their religion was a series of grovelling superstitions. -There was not in any Indian language a word to -express the idea of God: their heaven was one vast banqueting-hall -where men feasted perpetually.</p> - -<p>The origin of the American savage awakened at one time -much controversy among the learned. Had there been a -plurality of creative acts? Had Europeans at some remote -period been driven by contrary winds across the great sea? If -not, where did the red man arise, and by what means did he -reach the continent where white men found him? When these -questions were debated, it was not known how closely Asia and -America approach each other at the extreme north. A narrow -strait divides the two continents, and the Asiatic savage of the -far north-east crosses it easily. The red men are Asiatics, who, -by a short voyage without terrors to them, reached the north-western -coasts of America, and gradually pushed their way -over the continent. The great secret which Columbus revealed -to Europe had been for ages known to the Asiatic tribes of the -extreme north.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE JESUITS IN CANADA.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Reformation had made so large progress in -France that at the beginning of the seventeenth -century the Protestants were able to regard themselves -as forming one-half of the nation. They had -accomplished this progress in the face of terrible difficulties. -The false maxim prevailed in France, as in other countries, that -as there was but one king and one government, there should -be but one faith. Vast efforts were made to regain this lost -uniformity. The vain pursuit cost France thirty-five years -of civil war, and two million French lives. At its close half -her towns were in ashes; her industries had perished; her -fields were desolated. The law gave no protection to Protestants: -a Catholic noble riding with his followers past a Protestant -meeting-place occasionally paused to slaughter the little -congregation, and then resumed his journey, not doubting that -he had done to God and to the State an acceptable service. The -Protestants undertook their own armed defence; made laws for -themselves; maintained in so far as it was possible a government -distinct from that of their persecutors. There were two -nations of not extremely unequal strength living on the soil of -France, with fierce mutual hatred raging in their hearts, -and finding expression in incessant war, assassination, -massacre. <span class="sidenote">1598 A.D.</span> At length these horrors were allayed by the -Edict of Nantes, which conceded full liberty of conscience.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -The Pope cursed this hateful concession; but the strong arm of -Henry IV. maintained it. For a time the ferocity of religious -strife was mitigated, and the adherents of the new faith enjoyed -unwonted calm.</p> - -<p>The sword was no longer a weapon of theological war; the -deep and irrepressible antagonism of the old and the new beliefs -found now its inadequate expression by pen and by speech. The -interest which prevailed regarding disputed ecclesiastical questions -became exceptionally strong. Theological dogmas filled -an influential place in the politics of the time. The Protestant -Synod adopted in its Confession of Faith an article which -charged the Pope with being Antichrist. His Holiness manifested -“a grand irritation;” the King declared that this article -threatened to destroy the peace of the kingdom. For four -years a fierce contest raged, till another Synod withdrew the -offending article by express order of the King, after having -with unanimous voice declared that the charge was true. -Philippe de Mornay, one of the King’s most trusted advisers, -and a devoted adherent of Protestantism, had written a treatise -against the Real Presence, supporting his argument by five or -six thousand quotations, which he had laboriously gathered -from the writings of the early Fathers. One of the bishops -impugned his accuracy, and Mornay challenged him to a public -discussion. The meeting-place was the grand hall of the palace -of Fontainebleau. The combatants debated in presence of the -King, before a brilliant audience of great officers of State, of -lords and ladies who formed the royal court, of all great -dignitaries of the kingdom. So effectively, for the time, had -the Reformation and its consequences dispelled the religious -apathy of France.</p> - -<p>It had, indeed, left unaffected the manners of a large portion -of French society. The great lords retained professional assassins -among their followers. It was as easy then to get the address -of a stabber or a poisoner as it is now to get that of a hotel. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -the highest places licentiousness was unconcealed and unrebuked. -Crime associated itself with superstition, and the courtiers -made wax figures of their enemies, which they transfixed with -pins, hoping thus to destroy those whom the figures represented. -The religious zeal which burned in every heart and retained its -vigour amidst this enormous wickedness was nowhere stronger -than among the members of the Society of Jesus. It moulded -into very dissimilar forms, and guided into widely different -lines of action, those sworn servants of the Church. For the -most part it revealed itself in nothing higher than a readiness -to serve the purposes of the Church, however unworthy, by any -conduct, however criminal. But among the Jesuits too there -were men of pure and noble nature, whose religious zeal found -its sole gratification in toil and danger and self-sacrifice to promote -the glory of God and save perishing heathen souls.</p> - -<p>Champlain had never ceased to press upon the spiritual -chiefs of France the claims of those savages for whose welfare -he himself cared so deeply. For many years he spoke almost -in vain, and his toilsome and frustrated career had nearly -reached its close before the Jesuits entered in good earnest -upon the work of Indian conversion. <span class="sidenote">1632 A.D.</span> Six priests and -two lay-brothers, sworn to have no will but that of their -superiors, laid the foundation of the great enterprise. -Under the shadow of the rock on which Quebec stands arose a -one-story building of planks and mud, thatched with grass, and -affording but poor shelter from rain and wind. This was the -residence of Our Lady of the Angels—the cradle of the influence -which was to change the savage red men of Canada into followers -of the Cross. The Father Superior of the Mission was -Paul le Jeune, a man devoted in every fibre of mind and heart -to the work on which he had come. He utterly scorned difficulty -and pain. He had received the order to depart for Canada -“with inexpressible joy at the prospect of a living or dying -martyrdom.” Among his companions was Jean de Brébœuf, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -man noble in birth and aspect, of strong intellect and will, of -zeal which knew no limit, and recognized no obstacle in the -path of duty.</p> - -<p>The winter was unusually severe. The snow-drift stood -higher than the roof of the humble Residence; the fathers, -sitting by their log-fire, heard the forest trees crack with loud -report under the power of intense frost. Le Jeune’s earliest -care was to gain some knowledge of the savage tongue spoken -by the tribes around him. He was commended, for the prosecution -of that design, to a withered old squaw, who regaled -him with smoked eels while they conversed. After a time, he -obtained the services of an interpreter, a young Indian known -as Pierre, who could speak both languages. Pierre had been -converted and baptized; but the power of good influences -within him was not abiding, and his frequent backslidings -grieved the Father Superior. A band of savages invited Le -Jeune to accompany them on a winter hunting expedition; and -he did so, moved by the hope that he might gain their hearts -as well as acquire their language. Among the supplies which -his friends persuaded him to carry, was a small keg of wine. -Scarcely had the expedition set out when the apostate Pierre -found opportunity to tap the keg, and appeared in the camp -hopelessly and furiously intoxicated. The sufferings of the -good father from hunger and from cold were excessive.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> His -success in instructing the savages was not considerable. He -endured much from Pierre’s brother, who followed the occupation -of sorcerer. This deceptive person, being employed to -assist Le Jeune in preparing addresses, constantly palmed off -upon him very foul words, which provoked the noisy mirth of -the assembled wigwam and grievously diminished the efficacy -of his teaching. The missionary regained his home at Quebec -after five months of painful wandering. He had accomplished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> -little; but he had learned to believe that his labour was wasted -among these scanty wandering tribes, and that it was necessary -to find access to one of the larger and more stable communities -into which the Indians were divided.</p> - -<p>Far in the west, beside a great lake of which the Jesuits had -vaguely heard, dwelt the Hurons, a powerful nation with many -kindred tribes over which they exercised influence. The Jesuits -resolved to found a mission among the Hurons. Once in every -year a fleet of canoes came down the great river, bearing six or -seven hundred Huron warriors, who visited Quebec to dispose -of their furs, to gamble and to steal. <span class="sidenote">1634 A.D.</span> Brébœuf and two companions -took passage with the returning fleet, and set -out for the dreary scene of their new apostolate. The -way was very long—scarcely less than a thousand miles; -it occupied thirty toilsome days. The priests journeyed separately, -and were able to hold no conversation with one another -or with their Indian companions. They were barefooted, as -the use of shoes would have endangered the frail bark canoe. -Their food was a little Indian corn crushed between two stones -and mixed with water. At each of the numerous rapids or -falls which stopped their way, the voyagers shouldered the -canoe and the baggage and marched painfully through the -forest till they had passed the obstacle. The Indians were -often spent with fatigue, and Brébœuf feared that his strong -frame would sink under the excessive toil.</p> - -<p>The Hurons received with hospitable welcome the black-robed -strangers. The priests were able to repay the kindness -with services of high value. They taught more effective -methods of fortifying the town in which they lived. They -promised the help of a few French musketeers against an impending -attack by the Iroquois. They cured diseases; they -bound up wounds. They gave simple instruction to the young, -and gained the hearts of their pupils by gifts of beads and -raisins. The elders of the people came to have the faith explained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> -to them: they readily owned that it was a good faith -for the French, but they could not be persuaded that it was -suitable for the red man. The fathers laboured in hope, and -the savages learned to love them. Their gentleness, their -courage, their disinterestedness, won respect and confidence, -and they had many invitations from chiefs of distant villages -to come and live with them. It was feared that the savages -regarded them merely as sorcerers of unusual power; and they -were constantly applied to for spells, now to give victory in -battle, now to destroy grasshoppers. They were held answerable -for the weather; they had the credit or the blame of what -good or evil fortune befell the tribe. They laboured in deep -earnestness; for to them heaven and hell were very real, and -very near. The unseen world lay close around them, mingling -at every point with the affairs of earth. They were visited by -angels; they were withstood by manifest troops of demons. -St. Joseph, their patron, held occasional communication with -them; even the Virgin herself did not disdain to visit and -cheer her servants. Once, as Brébœuf walked cast down in -spirit by threatened war, he saw in the sky, slowly advancing -towards the Huron territory, a huge cross, which told him of -coming and inevitable doom.</p> - -<p>Some of their methods of conversion were exceedingly rude. -A letter from Father Garnier has been preserved in which -pictures are ordered from France for the spiritual improvement -of the Indians. Many representations of souls in perdition are -required, with appropriate accompaniment of flames and triumphant -demons tearing them with pincers. One picture of -saved souls would suffice, and “a picture of Christ without -beard.”<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> They were consumed by a zeal for the baptism of -little children. At the outset the Indians welcomed this ceremonial, -believing that it was a charm to avert sickness and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> -death. But when epidemics wasted them they charged the -calamity against the mysterious operations of the fathers, and -refused now to permit baptism. The fathers recognized the -hand of Satan in this prohibition, and refused to submit to it. -They baptized by stealth. A priest visited the hut where a -sick child lay—the mother watching lest he should perform the -fatal rite. He would give the child a little sugared water. -Slyly and unseen he dips his finger in the water, touches the -poor wasted face, mutters the sacramental words, and soon -“the little savage is changed into a little angel.”</p> - -<p>The missionaries were subjected to hardship such as the -human frame could not long endure. They were men accustomed -to the comforts and refinements of civilized life; they -had tasted the charms of French society in its highest forms. -Their associations now were with men sunk till humanity could -fall no lower. They followed the tribes in their long winter -wanderings in quest of food. They were in perils, often from -hunger, from cold, from sudden attack of enemies, from the -superstitious fears of those whom they sought to save. They -slept on the frozen ground, or, still worse, in a crowded tent, -half suffocated by smoke, deafened by noise, sickened by filth. -Self-sacrifice more absolute the world has never seen. A love -of perishing heathen souls was the impulse which animated -them; a deep and solemn enthusiasm upheld them under trials -as great as humanity has ever endured. That they were themselves -the victims of erring religious belief is most certain; but -none the less do their sublime faith, their noble devotedness, -and patience and gentleness claim our admiration and our -love.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1640 A.D.</span> The Huron Mission had now been established for five years. -During those painful years the missionaries had laboured -with burning zeal and absolute forgetfulness of self; but -they had not achieved any considerable success. The children -whom they baptized either died or they grew up in heathenism.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -There were some adult converts, one or two of whom -were of high promise; but the majority were eminently disappointing. -Once the infant church suffered a grievous rent -by the withdrawal of converts who feared a heaven in which, -as they were informed, tobacco would be denied to them. The -manners of the nation had experienced no amelioration. No -limitation in the number of wives had been conceded to the -earnest remonstrances of the missionaries. Captive enemies -were still tortured and eaten by the assembled nation. In -time, the patient, self-denying labour of the fathers might have -won those discouraging savages to the Cross; but a fatal interruption -was at hand. A powerful and relentless enemy, bent -on extermination, was about to sweep over the Huron territory, -involving the savages and their teachers in one common ruin.</p> - -<p>Thirty-two years had passed since those ill-judged expeditions -in which Champlain had given help to the Hurons against the -Iroquois. The unforgiving savages had never forgotten the -wrong. A new generation inherited the feud, and was at -length prepared to exact the fitting vengeance. The Iroquois -had trading relations with the Dutchmen of Albany on the -Hudson, who had supplied them with fire-arms. About one-half -of their warriors were now armed with muskets, and were able -to use them. <span class="sidenote">1642 A.D.</span> They overran the country of the Hurons; -they infested the neighbourhood of the French settlements. -Boundless forests stretched all around; on the -great river forest trees on both sides dipped their branches in -the stream. When Frenchmen travelled in the woods for a -little distance from their homes, they were set upon by the -lurking savages and often slain; when they sailed on the river, -hostile canoes shot out from ambush. No man now could -safely hunt or fish or till his ground. The Iroquois attacked in -overwhelming force the towns of their Huron enemies; forced -the inadequate defences; burned the palisades and wooden huts; -slaughtered with indescribable tortures the wretched inhabitants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -In one of these towns they found Brébœuf and one of -his companions. They bound the ill-fated missionaries to -stakes; they hung around their necks collars of red-hot iron; -they poured boiling water on their heads; they cut stripes of -flesh from their quivering limbs and ate them in their sight. -To the last Brébœuf cheered with hopes of heaven the native -converts who shared his agony. And thus was gained the -crown of martyrdom for which, in the fervour of their enthusiasm, -these good men had long yearned.</p> - -<p>In a few years the Huron nation was extinct; famine and -small-pox swept off those whom the Iroquois spared. The -Huron Mission was closed by the extirpation of the race for -whom it was founded. Many of the missionaries perished; -some returned to France. Their labour seemed to have been in -vain; their years of toil and suffering had left no trace. It -was their design to change the savages of Canada into good -Catholics, industrious farmers, loyal subjects of France. If -they had been successful, Canada would have attracted a more -copious immigration, and a New France might have been -solidly established on the American continent. The feudal -system would have cumbered the earth for generations longer; -Catholicism, the irreconcilable enemy to freedom of thought -and to human progress, would have overspread and blighted -the valley of the St. Lawrence. For once the fierce Iroquois -were the allies and vindicators of liberty. Their cruel arms -gave a new course to Canadian history. They frustrated plans -whose success would have wedded Northern America to despotism -in Church and in State. They prepared a way for the conquest -of New France by the English, and thus helped, influentially, -to establish free institutions over those vast regions -which lie to the northward of the Great Lakes.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The discovery of the Mississippi by Ferdinand de -Soto was not immediately productive of benefit. -For nearly a century and a half after this ill-fated -explorer slept beneath the waters which he had -been the first to cross, the “Father of Rivers” continued to flow -through unpeopled solitudes, unvisited by civilized men. The -French possessed the valley of the St. Lawrence. The English -had thriving settlements on the Atlantic sea-board; but the Alleghany -Mountains, which shut them in on the west, allowed room -for the growth of many years, and there was yet therefore no reason -to seek wider limits. The valley of the Mississippi remained -a hunting-ground for the savages who had long possessed it.</p> - -<p>In course of years it became evident that England and -France must settle by conflict their claims upon the American -continent. The English still maintained their right, originating -in discovery, to all the territory occupied by the French; and -from time to time they sent out expeditions to re-assert by -invasion the dormant claim. To the French, magnificent possibilities -offered themselves. The whole enormous line of the -Mississippi and its tributaries, from the Great Lakes to the -Gulf of Mexico, could be seized and held; a military settlement -could secure the mouth of the river; the English could be -hemmed in between the Alleghanies and the ocean, and the -increase of their settlements frustrated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1671 A.D.</span> Nicholas Perrot, a French officer, met, on the King’s business, -a gathering of Indian delegates, at a point near the -northern extremity of Lake Michigan. There he was -told of a vast river, called by some Mechasepé, by others -Mississippi. In what direction it flowed the savages could not -tell, but they were sure it did not flow either to the north or to -the east. The acute Frenchman readily perceived that this -mysterious stream must discharge its waters into the Pacific or -into the Gulf of Mexico, and that in either case its control -must be of high value to France.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1673 A.D.</span> An exploring party, composed of six men and furnished with -two slight bark canoes, undertook the search. They -ascended the Fox River from the point where it enters -Lake Michigan; they crossed a narrow isthmus; and -launching upon the River Wisconsin, they floated easily downwards -till they came out upon the magnificent waters of the -Mississippi. Their joy was great: the banks of the river -seemed to their gladdened eyes rich and beautiful; the trees -were taller than they had ever seen before; wild cattle in vast -herds roamed over the flowery meadows of this romantic land. -For many days the adventurers followed the course of the river. -They came where the Missouri joins its waters to those of the -Mississippi. They passed the Ohio and the Arkansas, and -looked with wonder upon the vast torrents which reinforced the -mighty river. They satisfied themselves that the Mississippi -fell into the Gulf of Mexico; and then, mistrusting the good-will -of the Spaniards, they turned back and toilsomely reascended -the stream.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1680 A.D.</span> Some years later, a young and energetic Frenchman—Sieur -de la Salle—completed the work which these explorers -had begun. The hope entertained by Columbus, that -he would discover a better route to the East, had only -now, after two hundred years of disappointment, begun to -fade out of the hearts of his followers, and it was still eagerly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -cherished by La Salle. He traversed the Mississippi from the -mouth of the Illinois River to the Gulf. He saw the vast and -dreary swamps which lie around the outlet of the Mississippi. -He erected a shield bearing the arms of France; he claimed -the enormous region from the Alleghany Mountains to the -Pacific, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, as the -possession of the French King.</p> - -<p>For a full half century France took no action to secure the -vast possession which she claimed. The later years of Louis -XIV. were full of disaster. England, persuaded by King -William that French ambition was a standing menace to -Europe, waged wars which brought France to the verge of ruin. -Her colonial possessions could receive little care when France -was fighting for existence in Europe. <span class="sidenote">1746 A.D.</span> A wise Governor of -Canada—the Compte de la Galissonnière—perceived the -rapid growth of the English settlements and the growing -danger to France which their superior strength involved. -He proposed that the line of the Mississippi should be fortified, -and that ten thousand peasants should be sent out to form -settlements on the banks of the great lakes and rivers. In -time, the growing strength of these settlements would give to -France secure possession of the valley of the Mississippi; while -the English colonists, confined within the narrow region eastward -of the Alleghany Mountains, must lie exposed to the -damaging assault of their more powerful neighbours. So -reasoned the Governor; but his words gained no attention from -the pre-occupied Government of France. To the utmost of his -means he sought to carry out the policy which would preserve -for France her vast American possessions. He endeavoured -to exclude English traders, and to persuade the Indians to -adopt a similar course. He marked out the confines of -French territory by leaden plates bearing the arms of France, -sunk in the earth or nailed upon trees. He brought a few -settlers from Nova Scotia. But all his efforts were in vain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> -The Anglo-Saxons were the appointed rulers of the American -continent; and the time was near when, brushing aside -the obstruction offered by Frenchmen and by Indians, they -were to enter into full possession of their magnificent -heritage.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE AMERICAN CONTINENT GAINED BY THE BRITISH.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The first English settlement which became permanent -in Virginia was founded in 1606. Seven years -later—while the settlement was still struggling for -existence—the colonists began to form purposes of -aggression against their still feebler neighbours in the far north. -It was their custom to send annually to the great banks of -Newfoundland a fleet of fishing-boats under convoy of an armed -ship. Once the commander of this escort was a warlike person -named Samuel Argall, whose lofty aims could not be restricted -to the narrow sphere which had been assigned to him. While -the boats which were his charge industriously plied their -calling, Argall turned his thoughts to the larger pursuit -of national aggrandizement. <span class="sidenote">1613 A.D.</span> He affirmed the right of -England to all the lands in his neighbourhood. The French -had an armed vessel on the coast: Argall attacked and captured -her. The French had formed a very feeble settlement on -Penobscot Bay: Argall landed and laid in ruins the few buildings -which composed it. He crammed seventeen of his prisoners -into an open boat and turned them adrift at sea. The others -were carried to Jamestown, where they came near to being -hanged as pirates.</p> - -<p>Thus early and thus lawlessly opened the strife which was to -close, a century and a half later, with the victory of the English -on the Heights of Abraham and the expulsion of French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -rule from the American continent. During the greater portion -of that time England and France were at war, and the infant -settlements of Acadie and Canada formed a natural prey to -English adventurers. <span class="sidenote">1628 A.D.</span> King James bestowed Acadie upon a -countryman whom he befriended, and this new proprietor -sent out a fleet to establish his claims. The lawless commander -of this expedition did not scruple, in a time of -peace, to possess himself of Quebec. Three times the English -took Acadie: once they held it jointly with France for eleven -years; then they restored it. <span class="sidenote">1713 A.D.</span> Finally, it became theirs -by the Treaty of Utrecht, and was henceforth known as -Nova Scotia. As the New England colonies increased -in strength they waged independent war with Canada. <span class="sidenote">1664 A.D.</span> A little -farther on the English conquered New York, and gradually -extended their occupation northward to the Great -Lakes. The Frenchmen of the St. Lawrence were their -natural enemies. The English sought to possess themselves of -the Canadian fur trade, and to that end made alliance with the -Iroquois Indians, who were then a controlling power in the -valley of the Hudson. There were perpetual border wars—cruel -and wasteful. Often the Englishmen of New York attacked -the Frenchmen of Canada; still more frequently they -stimulated the Indians to hostility. Always there was strife, -which made the colonies weak, and often threatened their -extinction. It was not at first that England cared to possess -Canada; it was rather that she could not witness the undisturbed -possession by France of any territory which France -seemed to prize.</p> - -<p>As years passed and the enormous value to European Powers -of the American continent was more fully discovered, the inevitable -conflict awakened fiercer passions and called forth more -energetic effort. The English were resolute to frequent the -valley of the Ohio for trading purposes; the French were -resolute to prevent them. Governors of the English colonies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> -scorning the authority of France, granted licences to traders; -when traders bearing such licences appeared on the banks of -the Ohio, they were arrested and their goods were confiscated. -The English highly resented these injuries. Attempts were -made to reach a pacific adjustment of disputes, and commissioners -met for that purpose. But the temper of both nations -was adverse to negotiation; the questions which divided them -were too momentous. It was the destiny of a continent -which the rival powers now debated. Men have not even -yet found that the peaceable settlement of such questions is -possible.</p> - -<p>The English colonies had increased rapidly, and now contained -a population upwards of a million. From France there -had been almost no voluntary emigration, and the valley of the -St. Lawrence was peopled to the extent of only sixty-five thousand. -The English were strong enough to trample out their -rivals. But they were scattered at vast distances, and conflicting -opinions hindered them from uniting their strength. <span class="sidenote">1754 A.D.</span> -And France, at this time, began to send out copious military -stores and reinforcements, as if in preparation for immediate -aggression. The two countries were still at peace, -but the inevitable conflict was seen to be at hand. The English -Governors begged earnestly for the help of regular soldiers, -in whose prowess they had unbounded confidence. Two regiments -were granted to their prayers, and they themselves provided -a strong body of bold but imperfectly disciplined troops. -They were too powerful to wait for the coming of the enemy. -A campaign was designed whose success would have shaken the -foundations of French authority on the continent. One army -under General Braddock was to cross the Alleghany Mountains -and destroy Fort du Quesne, the centre of French power on the -Ohio. Two armies would operate against the French forts on -the Great Lakes; yet another force moved against the French -settlements in the Bay of Fundy. To crown the whole, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -British fleet cruised off the banks of Newfoundland watching -the proceedings of a rival force.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1755 A.D.</span> Ruin, speedy and complete, overwhelmed the unwisely-guided -armament which followed General Braddock through the -Virginian forests.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> In the north there were fought -desperate and bloody battles. The English forced on -board their ships three thousand French peasants—peaceful -inhabitants of Nova Scotia—and scattered them among the -southern colonies. The Indian allies of the French surprised -many lonely hamlets, slaughtered many women and children, -tortured to death many fighting-men. The English fleet captured -two French ships. But no decisive advantage was -gained on either side. The problem of American destiny was -solving itself according to the customary methods—by the -desolation of the land, by the slaughter and the anguish of its -inhabitants; but the results of this bloody campaign did not -perceptibly hasten the solution after which men so painfully -groped.</p> - -<p>During the next two years success was mainly with the -French. The English were without competent leadership. -An experienced and skilled officer—the Marquis de Montcalm—commanded -the French, and gained important advantage -over his adversaries. He took Fort William Henry, and his -allies massacred the garrison. He took and destroyed two -English forts on Lake Ontario. He made for himself at -Ticonderoga a position which barred the English from access to -the western lakes. The war had lasted for nearly three years; -and Canada not merely kept her own, but, with greatly inferior -resources, was able to hold her powerful enemy on the defensive.</p> - -<p>But now the impatient English shook off the imbecile Government -under which this shame had been incurred, and the strong -hand of William Pitt assumed direction of the war. <span class="sidenote">1757 A.D.</span> When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> -England took up in earnest the work of conquest, France could -offer but feeble resistance. The Canadians were few in -number, and weakened by discontent and dissension. -Their defensive power lay in a few inconsiderable forts, -a few thousand French soldiers, and five ships of war. The -insignificance of their resources had been concealed by the skilful -leadership of Montcalm.</p> - -<p>Pitt proposed, as the work of the first campaign, to take -Louisburg—the only harbour which France possessed on the -Atlantic; to take Fort du Quesne, in the valley of the Ohio; -and Ticonderoga, in the north. He was able to accomplish -more than he hoped. Louisburg was taken; Cape Breton and -the island of St. John became English ground. Communication -between France and her endangered colony was henceforth impossible. -The French ships were captured or destroyed, and -the flag of France disappeared from the Canadian coast. Fort -du Quesne fell into English hands, and assumed the English -name of Pittsburg, under which it has become famous as a -centre of peaceful industry. France had no longer a -footing in the Mississippi valley. <span class="sidenote">1758 A.D.</span> At Ticonderoga, incapable -generalship caused shameful miscarriage: the -English attack failed, and a lamentable slaughter was sustained. -But the progress which had been made afforded ground to -expect that one campaign more would terminate the dominion -of France on the American continent.</p> - -<p>The spirit of the British nation rose with the return of that -success to which they had long been strangers. Pitt laid his -plans with the view of immediate conquest. Parliament expressed -strongly its approbation of his policy and his management, -and voted liberal sums to confirm the zeal of the colonists. -The people gave enthusiastic support to the war. Their supreme -concern for the time was to humble France by seizing all her -American possessions. The men of New England and New -York lent their eager help to a cause which was peculiarly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> -their own. The internal condition of Canada prepared an easy -way for a resolute invader. The harvest had been scanty; no -supply could now be hoped for from abroad, for the English -ships maintained strict blockade; food was scarce; a corrupt -and unpopular Government seized, under pretence of public -necessity, grain which was needed to keep in life the families -of the unhappy colonists. There were no more than fifteen -thousand men fit to bear arms in the colony, and these were for -the most part undisciplined and reluctant to fight. The -Governor vainly endeavoured to stimulate their valour by fiery -proclamations. The gloom and apathy of approaching overthrow -already filled their hearts.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1759 A.D.</span> It was the design of Pitt to attack simultaneously all the -remaining strongholds of France. An army of eleven -thousand men, moving northward from New York by -the valley of the Hudson, took with ease the forts of -Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and the fair region which lies -around Lake Champlain and Lake George passed for ever away -from the dominion of France. A smaller force attacked Fort -Niagara, the sole representative now of French authority on -Lake Ontario. This stronghold fell, and France had no longer -a footing on the shores of the Great Lakes.</p> - -<p>In the east the progress of the British arms was less rapid. -Montcalm held Quebec, strongly fortified, but insufficiently provided -with food. He had a force of twelve thousand men under -his command—heartless and ill-armed, and swarms of allied -Indians lurked in the woods, waiting their opportunity. Before -Quebec there lay a powerful British fleet, and a British army of -eight thousand men. Pitt knew that here lay the chief difficulty -of the campaign; that here its crowning success must be -gained. He found among his older officers no man to whom he -could intrust the momentous task. Casting aside the routine -which has brought ruin upon so many fair enterprises, he promoted -to the chief command a young soldier of feeble health,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> -gentle, sensitive, modest, in whom his unerring perception discovered -the qualities he required. That young soldier was -James Wolfe, who had already in subordinate command evinced -courage and high military genius. To him Pitt intrusted the -forces whose arms were now to fix the destiny of a continent.</p> - -<p>The long winter of Lower Canada delayed the opening of -the campaign, and June had nearly closed before the British -ships dropped their anchors off the Isle of Orleans, and Wolfe -was able to look at the fortress which he had come to subdue. -His survey was not encouraging. The French flag waved -defiantly over tremendous and inaccessible heights, crowned -with formidable works, which stretched far into the woods and -barred every way of approach. Wolfe forced a landing, and -established batteries within reach of the city. For some weeks -he bombarded both the upper and the lower town, and laid -both in ruins. But the defensive power of Quebec was unimpaired. -The misery of the inhabitants was extreme. “We are -without hope and without food,” wrote one: “God has forsaken -us.” Regardless of their sufferings, the French general -maintained his resolute defence.</p> - -<p>The brief summer was passing, and Wolfe perceived that no -real progress had been made. He knew the hopes which his -countrymen entertained; and he felt deeply that the exceptional -confidence which had been reposed in him called for a return of -exceptional service. <span class="sidenote">July 31, 1759 A.D.</span> He resolved to carry his men across the -river and force the French intrenchments. But disaster -fell, at every point, on the too hazardous attempt. His -transports grounded; the French shot pierced and sunk -some of his boats; a heavy rain-storm damped the ammunition -of the troops; some of his best regiments, fired by -the wild enthusiasm of battle, dashed themselves against impregnable -defences and were destroyed. The assault was a -complete failure, and the baffled assailants withdrew, weakened -by heavy loss.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p> - -<p>The agony of mind which resulted from this disaster bore with -crushing weight upon Wolfe’s enfeebled frame, and for weeks -he lay fevered and helpless. During his convalescence he invited -his officers to meet for consultation in regard to the most -hopeful method of attack. One of the officers suggested, and -the others recommended, a scheme full of danger, but with possibilities -of decisive success. It was proposed that the army -should be placed upon the high ground to the westward of the -upper town and receive there the battle which the French would -be forced to offer. The assailants were largely outnumbered by -the garrison; escape was impossible, and defeat involved ruin. -But Wolfe did not fear that the French could inflict defeat on -the army which he led. The enterprise had an irresistible -attraction to his daring mind. He trusted his soldiers, and he -determined to stake the fortune of the campaign upon their -power to hold the position to which he would conduct -them.</p> - -<p>The Heights of Abraham stretch westward for three miles -from the defences of the upper town, and form a portion of a -lofty table-land which extends to a distance from the city of -nine miles. They are from two to three hundred feet above -the level of the river. Their river-side is well-nigh perpendicular -and wholly inaccessible, save where a narrow footpath -leads to the summit. It was by this path—on which two men -could not walk abreast—that Wolfe intended to approach the -enemy. The French had a few men guarding the upper end of -the path; but the guard was a weak one, for they apprehended -no attack here. Scarcely ever before had an army advanced -to battle by a track so difficult.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sept. 12, 1759 A.D.</span> The troops were all received on board the ships, -which sailed for a few miles up stream. During the -night the men re-embarked in a flotilla of boats and -dropped down with the receding tide. They were instructed -to be silent. No sound of oar was heard, or of voice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -excepting that of Wolfe, who in a low tone repeated to his -officers the touching, and in his own case prophetic, verses of -Gray’s “Elegy in a Country Churchyard.” Quickly the landing-place -was reached, and the men stepped silently on shore. -One by one they climbed the narrow woodland path. As they -neared the summit the guard, in panic, fired their muskets -down the cliff and fled. The ships had now dropped down -the river, and the boats plied incessantly between them and the -landing-place. All night long the landing proceeded. The first -rays of the morning sun shone upon an army of nearly five -thousand veteran British soldiers solidly arrayed upon the -Heights of Abraham, eager for battle and confident of victory. -Wolfe marched them forward till his front was within a mile -of the city, and there he waited the attack of the French.</p> - -<p>Montcalm had been wholly deceived as to the purposes of -the British, and was unprepared for their unwelcome appearance -on the Heights. He had always shunned battle; for the -larger portion of his troops were Canadian militia, on whom -little reliance could be placed. He held them therefore within -his intrenchments, and trusted that the approaching winter -would drive away the assailants and save Canada. Even now -he might have sheltered himself behind his defences, and -delayed the impending catastrophe. But his store of provisions -and of ammunition approached exhaustion; and as the English -ships rode unopposed in the river, he had no ray of hope from -without. Montcalm elected that the great controversy should -be decided by battle and at once.</p> - -<p>He marched out to the attack with seven thousand five -hundred men, of whom less than one-half were regular soldiers, -besides a swarm of Indians, almost worthless for fighting such -as this. The French advanced firing, and inflicted considerable -loss upon their enemy. The British stood immovable, unless -when they silently closed the ghastly openings which the bullets -of the French created. At length the hostile lines fronted each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> -other at a distance of forty yards, and Wolfe gave the command -to fire. From the levelled muskets of the British lines -there burst a well-aimed and deadly volley. That fatal discharge -gained the battle, gained the city of Quebec—gained -dominion of a continent. The Canadian militia broke and fled. -Montcalm’s heroic presence held for a moment the soldiers to -their duty; but the British, flushed with victory, swept forward -on the broken and fainting enemy: Montcalm fell pierced -by a mortal wound; the French army in hopeless rout sought -shelter within the ramparts of Quebec.</p> - -<p>Both generals fell. Wolfe was thrice struck by bullets, and -died upon the field, with his latest breath giving God thanks -for this crowning success. Montcalm died on the following -day, pleased that his eyes were not to witness the surrender of -Quebec. The battle lasted only for a few minutes; and having -in view the vast issues which depended on it, the loss was inconsiderable. -Only fifty-five British were killed and six hundred -wounded; the loss of the French was twofold that of -their enemies.</p> - -<p>A few days after the battle, Quebec was surrendered into the -hands of the conquerors. But the French did not at once -recognize absolute defeat. <span class="sidenote">1760 A.D.</span> In the spring of the following year -a French army of ten thousand men gained a victory -over the British garrison of Quebec on the Heights of -Abraham, and laid siege to the city. But this appearance -of reviving vigour was delusive. The speedy approach of -a few British ships broke up the siege and compelled a hasty -retreat. Before the season closed, a British army, which the -French had no power to resist, arrived before Montreal and -received the immediate surrender of the defenceless city. Great -Britain received, besides this, the surrender of all the possessions -of France in Canada from the St. Lawrence to the unknown -regions of the north and the west. The militia and the Indians -were allowed to return unmolested to their homes. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -soldiers were carried back to France in British ships. All civil -officers were invited to gather up their papers and other paraphernalia -of government and take shipping homewards. For -French rule in Canada had ceased, and the Anglo-Saxon reigned -supreme from Florida to the utmost northern limit of the -continent.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">COLONIZATION BY FRANCE AND BY ENGLAND.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">A century and a half had elapsed since Champlain -laid the foundations of French empire among the -forests of the St. Lawrence valley. During those -years the nations of Western Europe were possessed -by an eager desire to extend their authority over the territories -which recent discovery had opened. On the shores of the -Northern Atlantic there were a New France, a New Scotland, a -New England, a New Netherlands, a New Sweden. Southwards -stretched the vast domain for whose future the occupation by -Spain had already prepared deadly and enduring blight. France -and England contended for possession of the great Indian -peninsula. Holland and Portugal, with a vigour which their -later years do not exhibit, founded settlements alike in Eastern -and in Western seas, gaining thus expanded trade and vast -increase of wealth.</p> - -<p>France had shared the prevailing impulse, and put forth her -strength to establish in Canada a dominion worthy to bear her -name. The wise minister Colbert perceived the greatness of the -opportunity, and spared neither labour nor outlay to foster the -growth of colonies which would secure to France a firm hold of -this magnificent territory. Successive Kings lent aid in every -form. Well-chosen Governors brought to the colony every -advantage which honest and able guidance could afford. -Soldiers were furnished for defence; food was supplied in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> -seasons of scarcity. A fertile soil and trading opportunities -which were not surpassed in any part of the continent, offered -inducements fitted to attract crowds of the enterprising and -the needy. But under every encouragement New France remained -feeble and unprogressive. When she passed under -British rule, her population was scarcely over sixty thousand, -and had been for several years actually diminishing. Quebec, -her chief city, had barely seven thousand inhabitants; Montreal -had only four thousand. The rest of the people cultivated, -thriftlessly, patches of land along the shores of the -great river and its affluents; or found, like the savages around -them, a rude and precarious subsistence by the chase. The -revenue of the colony was no more than £14,000—a sum insufficient -to meet the expenditure. Its exports were only -£115,000.</p> - -<p>While France was striving thus vainly to plant in Canada -colonies which should bear her name and reinforce her greatness, -some Englishmen who were dissatisfied with the conditions -of their life at home, began to settle a few hundred miles -away on the shores of the same great continent. They had no -encouragement from Kings or statesmen; the only boon they -gained, and even that with difficulty, was permission to be -gone. When famine came upon them, they suffered its pains -without relief; their own brave hearts and strong arms were -their sufficient defence. But their rise to strength and greatness -was rapid. Within a period of ten years twenty thousand -Englishmen had found homes in the American settlements. -Before the seventeenth century closed, Virginia alone contained -a population larger than that of all Canada. When the final -struggle opened, the thirteen English colonies contained a population -of between two and three million to contrast with the -poor sixty thousand Frenchmen who were their neighbours on -the north. The greatness of the colonies can be best measured -by a comparison with the mother country. England was then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> -a country of less than six million; Scotland of one million; -Ireland of two million.</p> - -<p>The explanation of this vast difference of result between the -efforts of the English and those of the French to colonize the -American continent is to be found mainly in the widely -different quality of the two nations. England, in the words of -Adam Smith, “bred and formed men capable of achieving such -great actions and laying the foundation of so great an empire.” -France bred no such men; or if she did so, they remained at -home unconcerned with the founding of empires abroad. The -Englishman who took up the work of colonizing, came of his -own free choice to make for himself a home; he brought with -him a free and bold spirit; a purpose and capacity to direct his -own public affairs. The Frenchman came reluctantly, thrust -forth from the home he preferred, and to which he hoped to -return. He came, submissive to the tyranny which he had not -learned to hate. He was part of the following of a great -lord, to whom he owed absolute obedience. He did not care to -till the ground: he would hunt or traffic with the Indians in -furs till the happy day when he was permitted to go back to -France. Great empires are not founded with materials such as -these.</p> - -<p>But France was unfortunate in her system no less than in -her men. Feudalism was still in its unbroken strength. The -soil of France was still parcelled out among great lords, who -rendered military service to the King; and was still cultivated -by peasants, who rendered military service to the great lord. -Feudalism was now carried into the Canadian wilderness. -Vast tracts of land were bestowed upon persons of influence, -who undertook to provide settlers. The seigneur established -his own abode in a strong, defensible position, and settled his -peasantry around him. They paid a small rent and were bound -to follow him to such wars as he thought good to wage, whether -against the Indians or the English. He reserved for his own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> -benefit, or sold to any who would purchase, the right to fish and -to trade in furs; he ground the corn of his tenantry at rates -which he himself fixed. He administered justice and punished -all crimes excepting treason and murder. When the feudal -system was about to enter on its period of decay in Europe, -France began to lay upon that unstable basis the foundation of -her colonial empire.</p> - -<p>The infant commerce of the colony was strangled by monopolies. -Great trading companies purchased at court, or favourites -obtained gratuitously, exclusive right to buy furs from the -Indians and to import all foreign goods used in the colonies—fixing -at their own discretion the prices which they were to pay -and to receive. Occasionally in a hard season they bought up -the crops and sold them at famine prices. The violation of -these monopolies by unlicensed persons was punishable by -death. The colonists had no thought of self-government; they -were a light-hearted, submissive race, who were contented with -what the King was pleased to send them. Their officials plundered -them, and with base avarice wasted their scanty stores. -The people had no power for their own protection, and their cry -of suffering was slow to gain from the distant King that justice -which they were not able to enforce.</p> - -<p>The priest came with his people to guard their orthodoxy -in this new land—to preserve that profound ignorance in which -lay the roots of their devotion. Government discouraged the -printing-press; scarcely any of the peasantry could so much as -read. At a time when Connecticut expended one-fourth of its -revenues upon the common school, the Canadian peasant was -wholly uninstructed. In Quebec there had been, almost from -the days of Champlain, a college for the training of priests. -There and at Montreal were Jesuit seminaries, in which -children of the well-to-do classes received a little instruction. -A feeble attempt had been made to educate the children of -the Indians; but for the children of the ordinary working<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -Frenchmen settled in Canada no provision whatever had been -made.</p> - -<p>The influences which surrounded the infancy of the English -colonies were eminently favourable to robust growth. Coming of -their own free choice, the colonists brought with them none of the -injurious restraints which in the Old World still impeded human -progress. The burdensome observances of feudalism were not -admitted within the new empire. Every colonist was a landowner. -In some States the settlers divided among themselves -the lands which they found unoccupied, waiting no consent of -King or of noble. In others, they received, for prices which -were almost nominal, grants of land from persons—as William -Penn, who had received large territorial rights from the sovereign. -In all cases, whether by purchase or by appropriation, -they became the independent owners of the lands which they -tilled. At the beginning, they were too insignificant to be regarded -by the Government at home: favoured by this beneficent -neglect, they were allowed to conduct in peace their own public -affairs. As their importance increased, the Crown asserted its -right of control; but their exercise of the privilege of self-government -was scarcely ever interfered with. The men who -founded the New England States carried with them into the -wilderness a deep conviction that universal education was indispensable -to the success of their enterprise. While the French -Canadian, despising agriculture, roamed the forest in pursuit of -game, ignorant himself, and the father of ignorant children, -the thoughtful New England farmer was helping with all his -might to build up a system of common schools by which every -child born on that free soil should be effectively taught. Thus -widely dissimilar were the methods according to which France -and England sought to colonize the lately-discovered continent. -An equally wide dissimilarity of result was inevitable.</p> - -<p>It was in the closing years of the great experiment that -France devised the bold conception of establishing a line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -military settlements on the Mississippi as well as on the St. -Lawrence,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> and thus confining the English between the Alleghany -Mountains and the sea. In view of the extreme inferiority -of her strength, the project seems extravagant. It was -utterly impossible to restrain, by any forces which France -could command, the expansive energy of the English colonies. -There were sixty thousand Frenchmen proposing to imprison -on the sea-coast two million Englishmen. But the constitution -of the French settlements, while it enfeebled them and -unfitted them to cope with their rivals in peaceful growth, made -them formidable beyond their real strength for purposes of -aggression. Canada was a military settlement; every Canadian -was a soldier, bound to follow to the field his feudal lord. The -English colonists were peaceful farmers or traders; they were -widely scattered, and living as they did under many independent -governments, their combination for any common warlike -purpose was almost impossible. That they should ultimately -overthrow the dominion of their rivals was inevitable; but if -the French King had been able to reinforce more liberally the -arms of his Canadian subjects, the contest must have been prolonged -and bloody. Happily, his resources were taxed to the -utmost by the complications which surrounded him at home. -The question as to which race should be supreme on the -American continent was helped to a speedy solution on the -battle-fields of the Seven Years’ War.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">AFTER THE CONQUEST.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The condition of the Canadian people at the time of -the conquest by the English was exceedingly miserable. -Every man was in the ranks, and the fields -on which their maintenance depended lay untilled. -The lucrative fur trade had ceased, for the Indian hunter and -the French trader were fighting against the English. The -scanty revenues of the colony no longer yielded support to the -officers of the Government, who plundered the wretched people -without restraint of pity or of shame. Famine prevailed, and -found many victims among the women and children, who were now -the occupants of the neglected clearings along the river-banks.</p> - -<p>At length the conquest was accomplished, and those sad years -of bloodshed closed. The French soldiers, the rapacious officials, -were sent home to France, where some of the worst offenders, -it is gratifying to know, found their way quickly to the Bastile. -The colonists laid down their arms, and returned gladly to their -long-disused industries. At first the simple people feared the -severities of the new authority into whose power they had -fallen. Some of them went home to France; but these were -chiefly the colonial aristocracy, whose presence had always been -a misfortune. The apprehensions of the settlers were soon -allayed. They had been accustomed to arbitrary and cruel -government. The rack was in regular use. Accused persons -were habitually subjected to torture. Trials were conducted in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> -secret, and without opportunity of defence. The personal -liberty of every man depended upon the pleasure of his superiors. -English rule brought at once the termination of these -wrongs, and bestowed upon the submissive Canadians the unexpected -blessings of peace, security of person and property, and -a pure administration of justice. It had been feared that the -great mass of the population would leave the province and -return to France. But the leniency of the Government, and -the open-handed kindness with which the urgent necessities of -the poor were relieved, averted any such calamity; and the -Frenchmen accepted, without repining, the new sovereignty -which the sword had imposed upon them.</p> - -<p>The English Government naturally desired to foster the settlement -of an English population in Canada. It was not, at -first, without hesitation that Britain made up her mind to -retain the territory for whose possession she had fought so -stoutly. The opinion was widely entertained, especially among -the trading class, that united North America would quickly -become too powerful to continue in dependence on the mother -country; that the subjection of our existing colonies would be -guaranteed by the wholesome presence of a rival and hostile -power on their northern frontier. But wiser views prevailed, -and Britain resolved to keep the splendid prize which she had -won. Every effort was made to introduce a British element -which should envelop and ultimately absorb the unprogressive -French. Large inducements were offered to traders, and to the -fighting men whose services were no longer required. Many -of these accepted the lands which were offered to them, and -made their homes in Canada. The novelty of the acquisition, -and the interest which attached to the conquest, brought a -considerable number of settlers from the old country. The -years immediately succeeding the conquest were years of more -rapid growth than Canada had experienced under French rule. -In twelve years the population had increased to one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> -thousand. The clearings along the shores of the St. Lawrence -increased in number and in area, and stretched backward from -the river into the forest. The influx of merchants caused a -notable increase of the towns. Thus far no printing-press had -been permitted on Canadian soil; for despotism here, as well as -elsewhere, demanded popular ignorance as a condition of its -existence. But scarcely had the French officials departed when -two enterprising men of Philadelphia arrived in Quebec with a -printing-press, and began the publication of a newspaper.</p> - -<p>The war in Europe continued for upwards of three years -after the expulsion of the French from Canada. Wearied at -length with the brutal strife, the exhausted nations desired -peace. France had suffered enormous territorial losses. The -disasters which had fallen on Spain humbled her haughty spirit, -and hastened the decay which was already in progress. Austria -and Prussia desired rest from a wasteful contest, in the advantages -of which they scarcely participated. The enormous gains -which Britain had secured satisfied for the time the ambition of -her people, and she was contented now that the sword -should be sheathed. <span class="sidenote">1763 A.D.</span> Peace was concluded. Britain -added to her dominions several islands of the West -Indies, the Floridas, Louisiana to the Mississippi, Canada, and -the islands in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, as well as Senegal. -“Never,” said the lately-crowned George III., “did England, -nor, I believe, any other power in Europe, sign such a peace.”</p> - -<p>While the war still lasted, a military Government ruled -Canada, and justice was administered by councils of officers. -When peace was restored, and the transference of Canada was -formally complete, arrangements of a more permanent character -became necessary. The situation was full of difficulty. The -colony was substantially French and Roman Catholic; only a -small minority of its people were English and Protestant. -These, however, looked with the pride of conquerors upon the -old settlers, and claimed that the institutions of the colony<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> -should be framed wholly on English models. Wise statesmanship -in this eventful hour would have averted enfeebling -divisions, wasteful strifes, discontents swelling at length into -rebellion. But wise statesmanship was denied to Canada. <span class="sidenote">October, 1763 A.D.</span> There came a Proclamation in the King’s name, promising -to the people self-government such as the Americans -enjoyed, so soon as the circumstances of the colony permitted; -briefly intimating that for the present the laws of -England were the laws of Canada. It was a revolution scarcely -surpassed in its violence and injustice; and in its results it -delayed for generations the progress of the colony. At one -stroke the laws which had been in force for a century and a -half were swept away. A new code of laws, entirely new -methods of judicial procedure, of which the people knew -nothing, were now administered in a language which scarcely -any one understood. In their haste the Government did not -pause to consider that the laws which they had thus suddenly -imposed upon this Roman Catholic colony included severe penal -statutes against Catholics. It was desired that the laws, the -language and the customs of England should displace those of -France, and that the French settlers should become absorbed -in the mass of anticipated English immigration. In course of -years, by wise and conciliatory treatment, these results would -have been gained; but the unredeemed injustice of this assault -upon the rights of the colonists postponed for generations the -hope of the desirable reconciliation. The French took up at -once the position of an oppressed people—holding themselves -studiously separate from their oppressors, cherishing feelings of -jealousy and antagonism. To uphold French customs, to reject -the English tongue, and if possible the English law—these were -now the evidences of true patriotism. Henceforth, and for -many long and unquiet years, there were two distinct and hostile -nations dwelling side by side in the valley of the St. Lawrence.</p> - -<p>It was one of the unhappy results of these ill-considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> -arrangements that no Frenchman could fill any public office, in -consequence of his ignorance of the language in which public -business was conducted. All such offices were therefore occupied -by Englishmen. For the most part the appointments -were made in London, with small regard to the fitness of the -persons who received them. Men came out to administer the -affairs of Canada in absolute ignorance of the country, of the -habits of the people, even of the language which they spoke. -These officials received no salaries, but were suffered to indemnify -themselves by fees, which they exacted rapaciously and -ruthlessly. They treated the old inhabitants with harshness -and irritating contempt. <span class="sidenote">1766 A.D.</span> There were even darker charges than -these preferred against them, warranting the assertion of the -good General Murray, who was then Governor, that -“they were the most immoral collection of men he ever -knew.” The conduct of these officials aggravated the -alienation of the French settlers, and helped to prepare the -unquiet future through which the colony was to pass.</p> - -<p>But the French Canadians were a submissive people, and -although they perceived that they were wronged, they did not -on that account turn aside from the path of peaceful industry -which opened before them. Trade was prosperous, and steadily -increasing; many persons who had left the colony returned to -it; agriculture extended; gradually the deep wounds which -years of war had inflicted were healed. The people remained -long profoundly ignorant. When Volney, the French traveller, -visited them towards the close of the century, he found that -they knew almost nothing of figures, and were incapable of the -simplest calculation. They indicated short distances by telling -how many pipes a man could smoke while he walked; a longer -distance was that which a man could or could not traverse -between sunrise and sunset. But ignorance did not prevent -that patient, incessant toil, which year by year added to their -possessions and improved their condition.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span></p> - -<p>In course of time a desire for representative institutions -sprang up among the English settlers. During all these years -they had lived under the despotic sway of a Governor and Council -appointed by the Crown. They alone among Englishmen -were without part in their own government, and they -wished the odious distinction to cease. <span class="sidenote">1773 A.D.</span> They petitioned -for the House of Assembly which the King had promised -them ten years before, and for the permanent establishment of -English law among them. The French were not sufficiently -instructed to care for representative government, but they earnestly -desired the restoration of the laws which had been so -hastily abolished after the conquest.</p> - -<p>It was during a season of anxiety and apprehension that -these conflicting opinions were pressed upon the attention of -the British Government. The differences which had arisen -between England and her American colonies were evidently now -incapable of settlement otherwise than by the sword. The men -of Boston had already thrown into their harbour the cargoes of -taxed tea which England sought to force upon them. All over -New England men were hastening to obtain muskets and to -accomplish themselves in military drill. A strong English -force, which was being steadily increased, held Boston, and -waited for the expected strife. In view of impending war, it -was the desire of the English Government to satisfy Canada, -and gain such support as she was able to afford. The great -mass of the Canadians were Frenchmen and Roman Catholics.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> -It was not doubted that in course of years men who were English -and Protestant would form the population of Canada. But -the danger was present and urgent, and it must be met by conciliating -the men who now formed that population. <span class="sidenote">1774 A.D.</span> An Act was passed by which the Proclamation of 1763 was -repealed. The Roman Catholic religion was set free<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> -from legal disability, and reinstated in its right to exact tithes -and other dues from all persons who owned its sway. French -civil law was reimposed, but the barbarous criminal code of -England was set up in preference to the milder system of -France. The House of Assembly was still denied, and the province—extended -now to the Ohio and the Mississippi—was to -be ruled by a Governor and Council appointed by the Crown, -one-third of the Council being composed of French Canadians. -This was the Quebec Act, under which Canada was governed -for the next seventeen years. It inflicted many evils upon the -colony, but it served well the immediate purpose for which it -was intended. It satisfied the old settlers, and held them firmly -to the side of England during the years of war which England -vainly waged against her alienated children.</p> - -<p>Thus far the affairs of the colonies had been administered by -the Board of Trade. The administration had been negligent; -for the greatness of the colonies was recent, and the importance -of the interests involved was not yet fully appreciated. But -the variance which was to cost England the greatest of her -colonial possessions had already revealed itself. England was -impressively reminded of the imperfections of her management, -and of the urgent need of a better system. She set up a new but -not a better system. <span class="sidenote">1774 A.D.</span> A Colonial department of Government -was created; a Colonial Secretary was appointed; -an official regulation of colonial interests began, based -upon imperfect knowledge—formal, restrictive, often unreasonable -and irritating. For many years, until the growing strength -of the colonies enabled them first to modify and then to overthrow -it, this strict official government continued to discourage -and impede settlements whose prime necessity was wide freedom -of action.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CANADA DURING THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Quebec Act roused much indignation among the -American colonists. From Pennsylvania and Virginia -twenty thousand persons had already settled -in the valley of the Ohio. These suddenly found -themselves disjoined from the colonies of which they regarded -themselves members, and subjected to the despotic rule which -was imposed upon Canada. The American patriots enrolled -the new arrangements among their grievances, and hoped that -their fellow-sufferers the Canadians would be of the same -opinion. <span class="sidenote">1774 A.D.</span> The Congress which met at Philadelphia -opened communication with the Canadians, to whom -they addressed a forcible exposition of their mutual -wrongs, coupled with the proposal that their neighbours should -take some part in the steps which they were meditating in -order to obtain redress. The handful of English Canadians -sympathized with the complaints of their countrymen, and were -not reluctant to have given help had that been possible; but -they were an inconsiderable number, living among a population -which did not share their views. The French settlers were -unaccustomed to self-government, which they did not understand -and did not desire. Their own laws had been restored to -them, the Government was not oppressive, they were suffered -to cultivate their fields in peace, and they were without motive -to enter upon that stormy path to which their more heroic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> -neighbours invited them. The American proposals did not -disturb for one moment the profound political apathy which -reigned in the valley of the St. Lawrence.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1775 A.D.</span> When the war began, the Americans lost no time in taking -hostile measures against Canada. They were able, by -the superior energy of their movements, to possess themselves -of the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, -which had not yet been prepared to offer resistance. Governor -Carleton was taken at a disadvantage by this spirited invasion, -for he had been left without an army. For the defence of the -vast territory over which his sway extended, he had no more -than eight hundred soldiers. He fell back upon the privileges -of the feudal law, and summoned the colonists to render to the -King that military service which they owed. But the colonists, -from whose minds there had not yet passed the memory of the -disastrous war which preceded the conquest, decisively repudiated -feudal obligations, and maintained that the various -seignorial dues which they paid were the full equivalent of the -advantages which they enjoyed. The embarrassed Governor -invoked the help of the clergy, who exhorted the people to -take up arms in defence of their country. But neither could -the authority of the priests rouse those unwarlike spirits. The -Frenchmen would fight when their own homes were invaded. -Meanwhile they had no quarrel with any one, and they would -not incur the miseries of war so long as it was possible for them -to remain at peace.</p> - -<p>The Americans still believed that there existed among the -Canadians a feeling of sympathy with their cause. To embolden -their secret allies, and give opportunity for the avowal -of friendly sentiment, they now despatched two expeditions, -one of which was to seize Montreal, and then descend upon -Quebec, where it would be joined by the other, approaching by -way of the river Kennebec. One wing of the expedition was -successful. Montreal fell; the larger portion of the British<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> -troops became prisoners; the Governor escaped with some difficulty, -and fled to Quebec. In the east the fortune of war was -against the invaders. They besieged Quebec, maintaining their -attack under severe hardships, imperfectly supplied with food, -and cruelly wasted by epidemic disease. After months of this -vain suffering, a British frigate appeared one morning at Quebec, -and proceeded to land a body of troops. The siege was -quickly raised, and the assailants, in much distress, effected a -disorderly retreat. Reinforcements soon began to arrive from -England, and the continued occupation of Montreal by the -Americans was found to be impossible. The invasion of Canada -served no good purpose. It was obvious that no help was to -be afforded to the party of revolution by the uncomplaining -people of Canada. It was possible to hold certain positions -on Lake Champlain and elsewhere. But that could be of no -service to the American cause; on the contrary, it withdrew -useful men from the work for which they were urgently required—the -defence of New York and Pennsylvania against -the overwhelming strength of the English attack. The invasion -of Canada ceased, leaving the Canadians better contented -with the Government under which they lived, and less disposed -to form relationships with the colonists by whom the authority -of that Government had been cast off.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In course of years the English Government fought out -its quarrel with the revolted American colonists and -was defeated. <span class="sidenote">1783 A.D.</span> A treaty of peace was concluded, -and the independence which America -had proved herself able to maintain was now acknowledged. -At the opening of the war England had borrowed a -suggestion from France, and sought, by attaching the valley of -the Mississippi to Canada, to shut in the Americans on the west -as on the north by Canadian settlements breathing the spirit of -loyalty and submissiveness. The Americans would endure no -such restriction. The southern boundary of Canada was now -the St. Lawrence river and the great lakes out of which it flows. -The vast western region with its boundless capability was made -over to the victorious colonists. England held only the north. -The two branches of the Anglo-Saxon family had divided in -nearly equal proportions the whole enormous area of the North -American continent.</p> - -<p>As one of the results of the revolutionary war, Canada gained -a large accession to her population and her prosperity. There -were among the Americans a considerable number of persons -who did not sympathize with the aims of the majority, and who -had given good wishes and occasionally active support to the -royal cause. Congress had given to the British Government a -promise that it would endeavour to mitigate the discomforts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> -which the unpopularity of the cause those persons had clung to -now entailed. But the victors did not at once forgive those -who resisted the national desire, and the position of the -royalists became intolerable. It was resolved to make provision -for them in Canada, where they could still enjoy those relations -with the English monarchy their love for which had cost them -so dear.</p> - -<p>Western Canada was still almost wholly unpeopled. There -were a few soldiers at Niagara, and some inconsiderable French -settlements near Detroit. Kingston had been abandoned; the -settlers at Toronto had been chased away during the troubles -which preceded the conquest, and the traces which they left had -been long covered by the luxuriant growth of the fertile wilderness. -The vast expanse of rich land which lies along the upper -waters of the St. Lawrence and the northern shores of Lake -Ontario still waited the coming of the husbandman.</p> - -<p>Here was the home chosen for the men who had incurred the -hatred of their neighbours by seeking to perpetuate English rule -over the American colonies. The English Government honestly -desired to requite those unfortunate supporters. It desired also -to plant them far away from the colonists who were of French -origin and sentiment. For England mistrusted now her own -children who lived within range of American influences, and it -was her aim to preserve unimpaired the submissive loyalty of -her French subjects. Therefore she chose that while the -Frenchmen prospered and increased in the lower valley of the -St. Lawrence, those Englishmen who were fleeing from triumphant -republicanism, but who had probably not altogether -escaped its taint, should open their new career on the shores of -Lake Ontario. They came in such numbers, that within a year -there were ten thousand settlers in the new colony. They came -so miserably poor, that for a time England required to feed and -clothe them. But they bore stout hearts, and hands not unaccustomed -to wield the axe and guide the plough. The country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> -was one vast forest, and the labour of clearing was great. -Every man received, free of charge, a grant of two hundred -acres; and for each child of those who had borne arms a like endowment -was reserved. The settlers worked with good-will. In -a short time each man’s lands were ready for the plough, and the -landscape was lighted up with corn-fields and the dwellings of man.</p> - -<p>During the course of peaceful years which she now enjoyed -Canada increased steadily. Emigrants were drawn from England -by the inducement of free lands in the western province; -in the east there were constant additions both to the French -and to the English section of the population. Shortly after the -close of the American War it was found that in the whole colony -there were not fewer than one hundred and fifty thousand souls. -Canada had doubled her population in the twenty years which -had elapsed since she became an English possession.</p> - -<p>Her government was still administered according to the pleasure -of the English Crown, without any concession being made -to the wishes of the people. But events now occurred in -Europe which quickened, for a space, the democratic tendency, -and disposed governments to listen to the wishes of their subjects. -The French Revolution had vindicated the right of a -nation to guide its own destiny. The influences of that great -change were keenly felt in Canada. The English colonists, who -had long been dissatisfied with the system under which they -lived, earnestly desired a representative government. Many of -the Frenchmen, who had hitherto been indifferent to the privilege, -partook of the same desire, in sympathy with the revolution -which their countrymen had effected. The English Government, -wiser now than when it undertook to deal with the discontents -of the American colonies, listened with favour to the -prayer of the Canadians. <span class="sidenote">1791 A.D.</span> A Bill was introduced by Mr. -Pitt to confer upon the colonists the long-withheld -privilege of self-government. It was not the desire of -England that the Canadians should grow strong in the enjoyment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> -of a union which might result in their independence. It -seemed prudent that the Frenchmen, who cared little for liberty, -should form a separate colony with power to bridle the more -democratic Englishmen. Therefore Canada was divided into -two provinces, which were named Upper and Lower Canada, -the boundary line being for the greater part of the distance the -Ottawa river. Each of the colonies received from the King a -Governor, an Executive Council to act as his advisers, a Legislative -Council, and a Legislative Assembly elected once in four -years by a somewhat restricted suffrage. The Roman Catholic -clergy were already endowed, and a similar provision was now -made for Protestants. One-seventh of all Crown lands which -were being settled was reserved for the teachers of Protestantism—a -reservation which proved in the coming years a -source of infinite vexation and strife. The criminal law of -England was set up in both provinces; but in all civil laws and -usages Upper Canada became wholly English; Lower Canada -remained wholly French. The English settlers opposed with -all their might this ill-advised separation. They foresaw the -enfeebling divisions which it must produce: living as they did -far in the interior, they felt that they were wronged when the -river, by which alone their products could reach the sea, was -placed under control of neighbours who must be rivals and -might be enemies. But their opposition was unheeded. The -Bill became law, and continued during fifty unquiet years to -foster strife between the provinces and hinder their growth.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WAR OF 1812.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-c.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Canada was now, for a space of two and a half -years, to be involved in war, and subjected to the -miseries of invasion. It was a war with which she -had no proper concern. The measures adopted by -England and France in order to accomplish the ruin of each -other fell injuriously upon American commerce, and the American -people were reasonably displeased that their occupations and -those of the world should be interrupted by the strifes of two -unwisely guided nations. Certain high-handed proceedings of -British ships<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> so aggravated this irritation, that America declared -war against Great Britain. She had no quarrel with -the Canadians, but she could not elsewhere express the hostile -impulses by which she was now animated. An invasion of -Canada was instantly resolved upon, and an easy victory was -expected. The country was almost undefended, for England at -that time was putting forth her utmost strength in the effort to -overthrow Napoleon, and she required, for the bloody battle-fields -of Spain, every soldier of whom she could possess herself. -In all Canada there were only four thousand regular troops and -two thousand militiamen. Many weeks must elapse before help -could come from England. Canada had grown steadily during -forty years of peace, and had now a population of three hundred -thousand. But the progress of the United States had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> -greatly more rapid, and Canada had now to encounter a hostile -nation of eight million. The expectation that the Americans -would subdue and possess the valley of the St. Lawrence seemed -easy of fulfilment.</p> - -<p>Many Americans clung to the belief that the Canadians were -dissatisfied with their government, and would be found ready -to avail themselves of an opportunity to adopt republican institutions. -But no trace of any such disposition manifested itself. -The colonists were tenaciously loyal, and were no more moved -by the blandishments than they were by the arms of their republican -invaders.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">July, 1812 A.D.</span> Soon after the declaration of war, an American army of two -thousand five hundred men set out to conquer Western Canada. -The commander of this force was General Hull, who announced -to the Canadians that he had come to bring them “peace, -liberty, and security,” and was able to overbear with ease -any resistance which it was in their power to offer. But -victory did not attach herself to the standards of General -Hull. The English commander, General Brock, was able to hold -the Americans in check, and to furnish General Hull with reasons -for withdrawing his troops from Canada and taking up position -at Detroit. Thither he was quickly followed by the daring -Englishman, leading a force of seven hundred soldiers and -militia and six hundred Indians. He was proceeding to attack -General Hull, but that irresolute warrior averted the danger by -an ignominious capitulation.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">October.</span> A little later a second invasion was attempted, the aim of -which was to possess Queenstown. It was equally unsuccessful, -and reached a similar termination—the surrender of the -invading force. Still further, an attempt to seize Montreal -resulted in failure. Thus closed the first campaign of this -lamentable war. Everywhere the American invaders had been -foiled by greatly inferior forces of militia, supported by a handful -of regular troops. The war had been always distasteful to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> -a large portion of the American people. On the day when the -tidings of its declaration were received in Boston, flags were -hung out half-mast high in token of general mourning. The -New England States refused to contribute troops to fight in -a cause which they condemned. The shameful defeats which -had been sustained in Canada encouraged the friends of peace, -and the policy of invasion was loudly denounced as unwise -and unjust. But the disposition to fight still inspired the -larger number, and although there was no longer any hope -of assistance from disaffected Canadians, a fresh campaign -was planned and new miseries prepared for the unoffending -colonists.</p> - -<p>During the next campaign the Americans gained some important -advantages. Both combatants had exerted themselves -to build and equip fleets on Lake Erie—the command of the -lake being of high importance for the defence or the attack of -Western Canada. <span class="sidenote">Sept. 1813 A.D.</span> The hostile fleets met and fought -near the western shores of the lake. The battle was -fiercely contested, and ended in the complete defeat of -the British and the capture of their entire fleet—one-third -of the crews of which were killed or wounded. Soon after -this decisive victory a small force of British and Indians was -encountered and nearly annihilated, and the conquest of Western -Canada seemed complete. An attempt to seize Montreal was, -however, baffled by a small body of Canadians. Nothing further -of importance was effected on either side. But during these many -months of alternating victory and defeat the combatants had -learned to hate each other with the wild, unreasoning hatred -which war often inspires. The Americans, in utter wantonness, -burned down a large Canadian village: the Canadians avenged -themselves by giving to the flames the town of Buffalo and -several American villages. When the campaign closed much -loss and suffering had been inflicted upon peaceful inhabitants -on both sides of the border; America held some positions in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> -the extreme west, but no real progress had been made towards -the conquest of Canada.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1814 A.D.</span> During the third campaign the Americans persisted in their -ill-judged efforts to subdue Canada. Much desultory -and indecisive fighting occurred. The British Government, -during the pause in European strife which occurred -while Napoleon occupied the island of Elba, was able to send -several regiments to Canada. The militia on both sides had -gained the experience of veterans. Larger forces were now -afoot, and were handled with increased skill. The fighting was -growing ever more obstinate, as the mutual hatred of those -engaged in it became more intense. The most protracted and -bloody of all the battles of the war occurred near the close. A -British officer, having sixteen hundred men under his command, -took up position on a little eminence at Lundy’s Lane, hard by -the Falls of Niagara. Here, about five o’clock of a July afternoon, -this force was attacked by five thousand Americans. The -assailants charged fiercely their outnumbered enemies, but were -met by a destructive fire from a few well-placed and well-served -pieces of artillery. Night fell, and the moon shone over the -field where men of the same race strove to slaughter one another -in a worthless quarrel. After some hours of battle a short -pause occurred, during which the groans of the many wounded -men who lay in agony on the slope where the British fought, -mingled with the dull roar of the neighbouring cataract. The -battle was resumed: the assailants pushed forward their artillery -till the muzzles of the guns almost met; furious charges -were met and repelled by the bayonets of the unyielding -British. Not till midnight did the Americans desist from -the attack and draw back their baffled forces. The killed -and wounded of the Americans in this pitiless slaughter were -nearly a thousand men; the British suffered a loss almost as -heavy.</p> - -<p>Many other engagements occurred, worthless in respect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> -of result, having no claim on the notice of men, excepting -for the vain heroism and the wasted lives of those who -took part in them. <span class="sidenote">Dec. 1814 A.D.</span> At length Britain and America -accomplished a settlement of their quarrel, and Canada -had rest from war.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">DOMESTIC STRIFE.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-d.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">During the ten or twelve years which succeeded the -war with America, Canada increased more rapidly -than at any previous period. The English Government -offered free conveyance and a liberal grant -of land to any person of good character who consented to accept -a home in the Upper Province. Emigration from Great Britain -was very inconsiderable during the Napoleon wars; but when -peace was restored, and employment became scarce and inadequately -paid, men sought refuge beyond the Atlantic from the -misery which had fallen so heavily on their native land. In -1815 only two thousand persons emigrated; next year the -number was twelve thousand; three years later it had risen to -thirty-five thousand. Many of these found their way to Canada. -Ten years from the close of the war the population of the Lower -Province numbered four hundred and twenty thousand; that of -the Upper Province was one hundred and twenty thousand. -In fourteen years the population had almost doubled.</p> - -<p>Immediately after the war the British people turned their -minds to the defects of their Government, and the agitation -began which gained its difficult and long-delayed triumph in the -Reform Bill of 1832. The influences of the same reforming -spirit extended themselves to Canada. The measure of political -authority enjoyed by the colonists was still extremely limited, -and contrasted unfavourably with that of their American neighbours.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> -It is true they had the appointment of the Lower -Chamber; but the Executive was not responsible to the legislative -bodies, and was therefore practically despotic. The -Governor was the representative of the Sovereign; the Upper -Chamber drew its origin from the same source. The Governor -answered to no one for the course which he chose to follow; the -members of the Legislative Council ordinarily supported him -without reserve, because they expected favours from him. They -desired the increase of his power, because thus he would be able -more bountifully to reward his friends. The sympathies of the -Assembly were with constitutional freedom, purity, and economy -of administration. At a very early period it was found that -the men who were chosen by the people were at variance on -every question of importance with the men who were nominated -by the King.</p> - -<p>In truth, the kind of government assigned to the Canadian -people was in most respects unsuitable for them. The -French colonists did not desire the popular institutions which -they received: they preferred a mild despotism. The English -colonists desired more complete liberty, and were continually -displeased by the arbitrary acts of the Executive. A still more -fatal error was the separation of the provinces, and the provision -thus made for perpetuating the French language and laws, the -gradual extinction of which was urgently desirable. The time -had now arrived when these errors were to bear their proper -fruit in jealousy and strife and mutual frustration.</p> - -<p>The people of Lower Canada remained almost devoid of -education, and they bestowed no care upon the cure of that -evil. It was quite usual to have members of the Legislature -who were unable to write. <span class="sidenote">1828 A.D.</span> Once the people were -so sorely displeased with the conduct of the Governor -that they determined to lay their grievances before the King. -Eighty-seven thousand citizens concurred in a statement of -wrongs; but of these only nine thousand possessed the accomplishment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> -of being able to write their own names—the remainder -did not rise above the ignominy of expressing their approval by -a mark. In the Upper Province the education of the people -received some attention. <span class="sidenote">1816 A.D.</span> The foundations were laid of -the present common-school system of Canada, although -as yet an annual grant of £600 formed the inadequate -provision which the Legislature was able to supply.</p> - -<p>The mutual antipathies of the French and the English colonists -colour all the history of the Lower Province at this period. The -French increased more rapidly than the English. The Council -was mainly British; the Assembly was almost entirely French. -The French, emboldened by their growing numbers, began to -dream of forming themselves into a separate nation. The -British did not conceal that they regarded the French as a -conquered people; and they deemed it a wrong that they, the -conquerors, should have no larger influence on the legislation -of the colony. Obscure strifes raged perpetually among the -several branches of the Legislature. Every shilling of Government -expenditure was eagerly scrutinized by the Assembly. The -House wrangled over the amounts and also over the forms and -methods of expenditure. Occasionally it disallowed certain -charges, which the Governor calmly continued to pay on his -own responsibility. A Receiver-General defaulted, and much -fiery debate was expended in fixing the blame of this occurrence -on the Governor. <span class="sidenote">1822 A.D.</span> The English minority sought the extinction -of French law and language, and supported a scheme -of union which would have secured that result. The -French, alarmed and indignant, loudly expressed in public -meeting and by huge petitions their opposition to the proposal. -Influential persons continually obtained large gifts of -land on unfair terms, and kept their possessions lying waste, -waiting speculatively for an advance in price, to the inconvenience -of honest settlers. Not contented with the rich crop -of grievances which sprang luxuriantly around them, the House<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> -revived the troubles of past years, and vainly impeached certain -judges who were supposed to have been the authors of forgotten -oppressions. Even the House was at war with the Governor: -not infrequently that high-handed official freed himself from -the irksome restraint by sending the members to their homes, -and conducting the government of the colony without their -help.</p> - -<p>Upper Canada had its own special troubles. A military -spirit had gone abroad among the people. When the lavish -expenditure of the war ceased, and the colonists were constrained -to return in poverty to their prosaic, everyday occupations, restlessness -and discontent spread over the land. <span class="sidenote">1817 A.D.</span> When the legislative -bodies met, the Assembly, instead of applying itself -to its proper business, proceeded angrily to inquire into -the condition of the province. The Governor would -permit no such investigation, and abruptly dismissed the House. -It was complained that a small group of influential persons—named -with abhorrence the Family Compact—monopolized all -positions of trust and power, and ruled the province despotically. -The Government connived at the shutting up of large masses of -land, of which speculators had been allowed improperly to possess -themselves. Emigration from the United States into Canada -was forbidden, to the injury of the colony, lest the political -opinions of the colonists should be tainted by association with -republicans. But the ecclesiastical grievance of Upper Canada -surpassed all others in its power to implant mutual hatred in -the minds of the people. An Act passed many years ago (1791) -had set apart one-seventh of all lands granted by Government, -“for the support of a Protestant clergy.” The Church of England -set up the monstrous claim that there were no Protestant -clergymen but hers. The Presbyterians, the Methodists, the -Baptists claimed an equal right to the appellation and to a share -in the inheritance. The Roman Catholics proposed that the -“Clergy Reserves,” now extending to three million acres, should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> -be sold, and the proceeds applied in the interests of religion and -education. No question could have been imagined more amply -fitted to break up the colony into discordant factions. In actual -fact the question of the Clergy Reserves was for upwards of -half a century a perennial source of bitter sectarian strife.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1817 A.D.</span> While the Canadians were thus dissatisfied with the political -arrangements under which they lived, there arrived -among them one Robert Gourlay, an energetic, restless, -erratic Scotchman, inspired by an intense hatred to -despotism, and a passionate intolerance of abuses. Mr. Gourlay -began at once to investigate the causes which retarded the progress -of the colony. He found many evils which were distinctly -traceable to the corruption of the governing power, and these he -mercilessly exposed. The Government replied by a prosecution -for libel, and succeeded after a time in shutting up their assailant -in prison, and ultimately sending him from the country. These -arbitrary proceedings greatly incensed the people, and deepened -the prevailing discord.</p> - -<p>In addition to these internal variances, the provinces had a -standing dispute on a question of revenue. Of the duties levied -on goods which passed up the St. Lawrence river, only one-fifth -was paid to Upper Canada. As the commerce of the province -increased, the unfairness of this distribution was more loudly -complained of. The men of the East were slow to perceive the -justice of the complaint, and maintained their hold upon the -revenue despite the exasperation of their brethren in the West.</p> - -<p>But although these now obscure strifes have been regarded -as composing the history of Canada, they were happily not its -life. The increase of its people and of their intelligence and -comfort; the growth of order and of industry; the unrecorded -spread of cultivation along the banks of the great river and far -up its tributary valleys—these silent operations of natural -causes were the life of the provinces. Their shores were sought -by crowds of emigrants. New settlements were being continually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> -formed. <span class="sidenote">1821 A.D.</span> Steamships began to ply on the river and on the -great lakes, and the improved facilities of communication -quickened the industrial development of the country. -The navigation of the river was grievously impeded -by rapids and waterfalls—the <i>portages</i> of the olden time, at -which the red man was accustomed to draw his canoe from the -water and carry it toilsomely through the forest till he had -rounded the obstacle. Canals were now formed at such points, -and ships were enabled to continue their voyages without interruption. -The revenue steadily increased, and every class was -fairly prosperous. Banks had been established in all leading -towns. Agriculture was still exceedingly rude. All agricultural -implements were in insufficient supply; the poor farmers could -not obtain so much as the ploughs they needed, and they were -fain to draw out the wealth of the fertile soil with no better -means than manual labour afforded.</p> - -<p>But these evils were in due course of years surmounted, and -in the year 1831, when an estimate of the possessions of the -Canadians was made, the result disclosed an amount of successful -industry for which the world had not given them credit. During -the seventy years which had elapsed since England conquered -the valley of the St. Lawrence, the population had increased -from sixty thousand to nearly nine hundred thousand. With -the addition of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the smaller -colonies, the American subjects of England numbered now a -million and a quarter. The lands which their toil had redeemed -from wilderness were now valued at seventeen million sterling. -Their cattle and horses were worth seven million; their dwellings -and public buildings had cost them fifteen million; they -had two million invested in the machinery by which the timber -of their boundless forests was prepared for market; in their -great cod and seal fisheries they had a fixed capital of a million -and a half. Eight hundred ships annually visited their ports -from Great Britain; in all the branches of their maritime<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> -industry two thousand five hundred arrivals were registered. -They received every year foreign or colonial goods to the value -of two million; and they exported to a somewhat larger extent. -They built ships, and sold them to England; they sent many -cargoes of timber, and much valuable fur; already they produced -food beyond their own consumption, and they sent to Europe -wheat and flour and oats and salted provisions. They shipped -fish and fish oils. They burned down masses of their abundant -timber, and having obtained the salts which combustion set free, -they manufactured them into pot and pearl ashes, and shipped -them to Europe for service in bleaching and other operations. -They supplied themselves with sugar from the sap of their maple -trees. They brewed much excellent cider and beer; they distilled -from rye, potatoes, apples, much whisky which was not excellent.</p> - -<p>Quebec and Montreal had grown up into considerable towns, -each with a population of nearly forty thousand, the vast -majority of whom were French. In the bay where Wolfe’s -boats stole unobserved and in silence to the shore, there lay now -a fleet of merchant-vessels ministering to a large and growing -commerce. The lower town which the English guns had destroyed -was a bustling, thriving sea-port. Far above, where -Montcalm and Wolfe fought, was now a well-built city, bright -with towers and spires; with its impregnable Citadel; with its -Parliament House, said to be more imposing than that in which -the Commons of Great Britain then assembled; with its Palace -for the Governor-General, and its aspect and tone of metropolitan -dignity; with college and schools; with newspapers and -banks, and libraries and charitable societies; with ship-building, -manufacturing, and all the busy marketing which beseems one -of the great haunts of commerce. Those seventy years of English -rule had raised Quebec from the rank of little more than a -village to that of an important city; and had seen the valley of -the St. Lawrence pass out of the condition of wilderness and -become the home of a numerous and prospering population.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CANADIAN REVOLUTION.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The progress of years did not allay, but, on the contrary, -steadily enhanced the fever of political discontent -which now pervaded the colonies. The -measure of representation which they enjoyed had -seemed, when the Act of Pitt conferred it upon them, fairly satisfactory; -but after the close of the great European war political -opinion ripened fast, and the freedom which had seemed ample -in 1791 was intolerably insufficient forty years later. The -colonists perceived that they were living under a despotism. -Their Executive and one of their legislative chambers were -appointed by the Crown, without regard to the popular wish. -Only the Lower Chamber was chosen by the people, and its action -was constantly frustrated by the Governor, the aristocratic -advisers by whom his policy was guided, and his ally the -Council. On their southern border lay the territories of a great -nation, whose people enjoyed complete political freedom and -appointed all their rulers. The United States had so prospered -that their population was now tenfold that of Canada; and -their more rapid growth was traced, in the general belief, to -the larger freedom of their institutions. In England the engrossing -occupation of the people had been, for many years, the -extending of their liberties, the rescue of political power from -the hands by which it had been irregularly appropriated. The -Englishmen of Canada could not remain unmoved by the things<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> -which had come to pass among the Englishmen of America and -of England.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1820 A.D.</span> When the Canadians of the Upper Province were awakening -to a perception of the evils under which they suffered, there -arrived among them an adventurous young Scotchman -destined to leave deep traces on their political history. -His name was William Lyon Mackenzie. He had -already played many parts in various Scotch and English towns, -with but indifferent success. In Canada he resumed his quest -of a livelihood; but finding nothing at first to meet his requirements, -he devoted himself to political reform, and set up a -newspaper. His love of reform and his hatred of abuses were -genuine and deep; his mind was acute and energetic; but his -temperament was too impulsive to permit sufficient consideration -of the course which he intended to pursue. The very first number -of his paper awakened the sensibilities of all who profited -by corruption. He continued his unwelcome diligence in the -investigation and exposure of abuses, and in rousing the public -mind to demand an enlargement of political privilege.</p> - -<p>There were many grounds of difference between the party -of Reform and the governing power. Justice, it was said, was -impurely administered; the Governor persisted in refusing to -yield to the Assembly control over certain important branches -of the public revenue, and continued to administer these at his -own pleasure. The Governors fell into the hands of the small influential -party known as the Family Compact, which filled all public -offices with its own adherents. The grievances of which the -Assembly complained were debated in a spirit of intense bitterness. -On one occasion the Assembly censured the Governor, and -was in turn rebuked for its want of courtesy. Mackenzie was five -times expelled from the House, and was as often elected. On -one occasion the Assembly refused to grant supplies to the -Governor, and the Governor avenged himself by rejecting the -Bill which members had passed for payment of their own salaries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> -But gradually, with growing enlightenment, all these -trivial discontents consolidated into one loud and urgent demand -for responsible government. It was perceived that with a -Ministry responsible to the Assembly an adequate measure of -constitutional liberty would be secured.</p> - -<p>The politics of the Lower Province were more complex. -There was a British Reform party, having aims identical with -those of their brethren in the west: the overthrow of the -despotic Family Compact, full control of revenue by the -Assembly, better administration of justice, improved management -of Crown lands—all summed up in the demand for responsible -government. There was also a French party, greatly -more numerous than the other, and seeming to concur with it -in many of its opinions. But the real aims of the Frenchmen -were wholly at variance with those of the British. They -desired to increase the power of the Assembly, because they -themselves composed seven-eighths of that body. It was still -their hope to establish a French nation on the banks of the -St. Lawrence; to preserve old French law and custom; to shut -out British immigrants, and possess the soil for their own -people.</p> - -<p>The British Government was bewildered by the complicated -strife in which it was constantly importuned to interfere. There -were petitions full of grievances; on one occasion there were -ninety-two resolutions, which were laid before King and Parliament -by the French party, and copiously answered by the British; -there were constant and querulous statements of wrongs presented -to the Governor. Out of doors a bitter and uncompromising strife -raged. The British were denounced as tyrants, usurpers, -foreigners. The French were scorned as a subjugated race, and -reprobated as ungrateful rebels who had been treated too leniently. -The British Government manifested an anxious desire -to understand and to heal those pernicious strifes. It decreed -Committees of Inquiry; it sent Commissions to investigate on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> -the spot; it appointed conciliatory Governors; it made numerous -small concessions, in the vain hope of appeasing the -entangled and inexplicable discontents of its distant subjects.</p> - -<p>The disaffected Frenchmen were ruled, during their unhappy -progress towards rebellion, by Louis Joseph Papineau, a man -whose years should have brought him wisdom, for he was now -in middle-life; ambitious, restless, eloquent, with power to lead -his ignorant countrymen at his pleasure, and without prudence -to direct his authority to good ends.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1837 A.D.</span> This mischievous person occupied himself in persuading the -peasants of the Montreal district to throw off the British yoke -and establish themselves as an independent nation. His efforts -were not wholly without success. The peasantry began -to arm and to drill. The symbols of French dominion, -the tri-coloured flag and the eagle, were constantly displayed; -the revolutionary songs of France were sung by turbulent -mobs in the streets of Montreal. These evidences of inflamed -feeling pointed decisively to violence. The Roman -Catholic clergy took part with the Government, and sought to -hold the excited people to their duty by threatening disturbers -of the peace with the extreme penalties of ecclesiastical law. -Many persons were restrained by the terrors thus announced, -and the dimensions of the rebellious movement were lessened. -But no considerations, sacred or secular, sufficed to restrain -Papineau and his deluded followers from a series of violent -proceedings, which have been dignified by the name of rebellion, -but which were really nothing more than serious riots. Bands -of armed peasantry ranged the country around Montreal; the -well-affected inhabitants sought shelter in the city, and their -homesteads were ravaged by the invaders. At several points a -few hundred men drew together to withstand the Government -forces and were defeated. One such body, unable to abide the -conflict which they had provoked, threw down their arms and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> -implored pardon. During a period of five or six weeks these -disorders continued, but the firm action of the Governor restored -tranquillity. Papineau, the unworthy instigator of the disturbances, -fled so soon as fighting began, and sought inglorious -security beyond the frontier. A little later, some bodies of -American marauders appeared in the Montreal district, hoping -to renew the disturbance; but they too were quickly dispersed. -The Governor acted with much leniency towards those rebels -who became his prisoners. With few exceptions they were set -at liberty; and even those who were detained for a time were -discharged on giving security for future good behaviour. Of -the foreigners who were captured in arms, several were put to -death, and many suffered lengthened captivity.</p> - -<p>The disorders of the Lower Province had scarcely been -quelled, when Mackenzie, followed by the more extreme and -injudicious advocates of reform, precipitated in Upper Canada -a movement equally insignificant and unsuccessful. These persons -went to war avowedly to secure complete responsibility of -government to the people. This was undeniably the prevailing -desire of the province; but it was found that while many -desired this excellent reform, few were prepared to incur for its -sake the evils which rebellion must necessarily bring. Fifteen -hundred men enrolled themselves under the banner of Mackenzie. -An attack upon Toronto was devised, and was defeated -with ease. <span class="sidenote">Dec. 1837 A.D.</span> Mackenzie fled to the United States, where -he was able to organize some bands of lawless men -for a marauding expedition into Canada. They, too, -were routed, and order was easily restored.</p> - -<p>These wretched disturbances served a purpose which peaceful -agitation had thus far failed to accomplish—they compelled the -earnest attention of the British Parliament to the wishes of the -colonists. On the eve of the rebellion, Government had explicitly -refused to grant the boon of ministerial responsibility, -and carried an Act by which powers were given to the Governor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> -to make certain payments which the Assembly had for some -years refused to make. The British Government of the day -was a Liberal Government. Lord John Russell was one of its -members, a man who for many years had devoted himself to -the cause of reform at home. It was Lord John Russell who -now led the House of Commons in its denial to the colonies -of that popular control over government which was deemed -essential for England. No perception of the glaring inconsistency -disturbed the minds of the most genuine reformers, for an -erring theory of the true position and rights of colonists still -prevailed. Even the Liberal party had not yet learned to -recognize an Englishman who had taken up his abode in the -valley of the St. Lawrence as the equal in political right of the -Englishman who remained at home. A colony was still an -association of persons who had established themselves on some -distant portion of national territory, and whose affairs were to be -administered with reference chiefly to the interests of the mother -country. Colonists were not allowed to trade freely where they -chose. They must purchase from England all the goods which -they might require; all their surplus productions must be sent -home for sale. Their attempts to manufacture were sternly -repressed. It was expected of them that they should cultivate -that portion of the national soil which had been assigned to -them, reserving for the mother country the profitable supply of -all their wants, the profitable disposal of all their productions. -The ships of strangers were rigorously excluded; no foreign -keel had ploughed the waters of the St. Lawrence since French -ships bore home to Europe the men whom Wolfe defeated.</p> - -<p>No less clear was the political inferiority of the colonist. A -colony was still regarded as a subordinate and dependent portion -of the empire, whose position rendered impossible its -admission to equality of privilege. It could not be intrusted -with the unqualified control of its own destinies; it must needs -accept also the guidance of the Colonial Office. This was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> -tie which bound the colony to the mother country; but for this -Canada would certainly yield to the influences of prosperous -republicanism in its neighbourhood, and cast off the authority -of the Crown. So reasoned the Whig statesmen of forty years -ago; and their reasoning was replied to by widespread discontent, -the depth of which was revealed by lurid and ominous -flashes of rebellion. It became necessary to revise the traditional -estimate of colonial right.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">October, 1839 A.D.</span> The progress of ministerial opinion made itself apparent in the -despatches of Lord John Russell. His Lordship would -not yet explicitly acknowledge the responsibility of the -Executive to the representatives of the people. But he -assured the colonists that Her Majesty would in future -look to their “affectionate attachment” as the best security for -permanent dominion, and that she would not maintain among -them any policy which opinion condemned. The friends of responsible -government perceived that their hour of triumph was near.</p> - -<p>Many evils had flowed from the separation of the provinces -effected by Pitt fifty years before. It still suited the interests -of the unreforming party in the Upper Province and the -French Canadians in the Lower to maintain the separation. -But it was clear to all men who sought merely the public good -that existing arrangements had become unendurable. The -position of both colonies called urgently for measures of reconstruction. -The constitution of Lower Canada had been suspended -during the rebellion, and had not yet been restored. -The finances of the Upper Province were in disorder; public -works were discontinued; business was paralyzed; immigration -had ceased. It was widely felt that industrial progress was -fatally impeded by separation; that the only remedy for the -evils under which Canada suffered was the legislative union of -the two provinces.</p> - -<p>The British Government was known to favour this measure; -the Liberals in both provinces were eager in its support; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> -Conservatives of the Upper Province ceased from resistance under -loyal impulses; the French Canadians had by their attitude -during the late disturbances forfeited their claim to consideration. <span class="sidenote">July, 1840 A.D.</span> The Union Bill was passed by the Legislatures of both -provinces and by the Imperial Parliament, and the enfeebling -separation which the jealousies of an earlier -time had imposed was finally cancelled.</p> - -<p>Canada was henceforth to be ruled by a Governor, a -Legislative Council, and a Legislative Assembly. The Governor -and Council were appointed by the Crown; the Assembly -was chosen by the people. The representation was shared -equally by the provinces—ten members of Council, and forty-two -members of Assembly being assigned to each. The Assembly -had control of all branches of the public revenue. -The Governor was advised by an Executive Council of eight -members, who, if they were members of Assembly, required -re-election when they accepted a place in the Council. When -the Council no longer commanded a majority in the Assembly -it ceased to hold office. The long-desired boon of responsible -government was thus at length secured; the traditional inferiority -of the colonist was cancelled; it was recognized that -an Englishman who bore his part in building up new empires -in distant places did not therefore forfeit the rights of a -free-born English subject. To insure and hasten the use of -this new method of colonial government, a command came to -the Governor-General, in the Queen’s name, to the effect that -he should rule in accordance with the feelings and opinions of -the people, as these were expressed by the popular representatives. -For a few years there was an imperfect application of a -principle hitherto unknown in Canadian history; but gradually -the people learned to enforce and the Government to recognize -the newly conferred privilege. The great revolution which -raised the Canadians to the rank of a fully self-governing people -was complete.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span></p> - -<p>The foundations were now laid upon which the colonists -could peacefully build themselves up into a great industrial -nation. But the antipathies of race which had hitherto vexed -and frustrated them were not immediately allayed. The -united British population of the two provinces now outnumbered -the French, and was able to give law to the -colony. The French element was surrounded by a British -element of superior strength, of superior intelligence and -energy, attracting continually reinforcements from the mother -country. The hope of erecting a French power in the valley of -the St. Lawrence was now extinct, and the Frenchmen had no -longer any higher prospect than that of peaceful citizenship -under the rule of men whom they regarded as foreigners. -They remained apart, following their own customs, cherishing -their own prejudices, refusing to intermingle with the British -population among whom they lived.</p> - -<p>Political animosity was for some years exceptionally bitter. -Soon after the union it was roused to unwonted fury by a proposal -to compensate those persons in Lower Canada who had -suffered destruction of their property during the rebellion. -The British Conservative party offered a discreditable resistance -to this proposal. It was not intended that any persons engaged -in the rebellion should participate in the benefits of the -measure. But the unreasonable British asserted that they, -the loyal men, were being taxed for the advantage of rebels. -<span class="sidenote">1849 A.D.</span> When the Bill was passed, the rabble of Montreal pelted with -stones Lord Elgin, who was then Governor-General; -they threatened, in their unbridled rage, to annex themselves -with the United States; they invaded and dispersed -the Assembly; they burned to the ground the building -in which their Parliament held its sittings. From that day -Montreal ceased to be the seat of Government. For a few years -Parliament alternated between Quebec and Toronto. That -system having been found inconvenient, the Queen was requested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> -to select a permanent home for the Government of the -colony. <span class="sidenote">1858 A.D.</span> Her Majesty’s choice fell upon Bytown, a thriving -little city, occupying a situation of romantic beauty, on -the river which divided the provinces. The capital of -the Dominion received a name more fully in keeping -with its metropolitan dignity, and was henceforth styled -Ottawa.</p> - -<p>The course of prosperous years soothed the bitterness of -party hatred, and the Canadian Legislature applied itself to -measures of internal amelioration and development. Thus far -the inestimable advantage of municipal institutions had not -been enjoyed in Canada. The Legislature regulated all local -concerns;—took upon itself the charge of roads, bridges, and -schools; of the poor; of such sanitary arrangements as existed; -and the people contracted the enfeebling habit of leaving their -local affairs to be administered by the Government. <span class="sidenote">1849 A.D.</span> This grave evil was now corrected; the Legislature was -relieved of unnecessary burdens; and the people learned -to exercise an intelligent interest in the conduct of their own -local business.</p> - -<p>Canada had now to accept the perfect freedom of trade -which the mother country had at length adopted for herself. <span class="sidenote">1846-50 A.D.</span> All restraints were now withdrawn; all duties which bestowed -upon the colonist advantages over his foreign rival -ceased. The Canadians might now buy and sell where -they chose. Foreign ships were now free to sail -the long-forbidden waters of the St. Lawrence. The change -was not, in the outset, a welcome one. The Canadians were -not fully prepared for an open competition with their neighbours -of the United States. For a time trade languished, and -there was a loud and bitter cry that the mother country disregarded -the interests of her dependency. But the wholesome -discipline of necessity taught the Canadians self-reliance. The -adoption of a policy of unaided and unrestricted commerce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> -inaugurated for the Canadians a period of enterprise and -development such as they had not previously known.</p> - -<p>After some years of steadily growing commerce, the -Canadians bethought them of the mutual benefits which would -result from freedom of trade between themselves and their -neighbours of the United States. <span class="sidenote">1854 A.D.</span> Lord Elgin, who was then -Governor-General, was able to arrange a treaty by -which this end was gained. The products of each -country were admitted, without duty, to the other. -The Americans gained free access to the great fisheries of -Canada, to the rivers St. Lawrence and St. John, and all the -canals by which navigation was facilitated. For eleven years -this treaty remained in force, to the advantage of both the contracting -powers. But the idea of protection had gained during -those years increased hold upon the minds of the American -people. <span class="sidenote">1866 A.D.</span> The American Government now resolved to -terminate the treaty. Grave inconveniences resulted to -many classes of Americans. The New England States -missed the supplies of cheap food which their manufacturing -population received from Canada. The brewers of New York -and Philadelphia had to find elsewhere, and at higher prices, -the barley which Canada was accustomed to send. Woollen -manufacturers could not obtain the serviceable varieties of raw -material which the flocks of their northern neighbours supplied. -Railway companies experienced the sudden loss of a large and -lucrative traffic. Canada did not suffer materially by the termination -of the Reciprocity Treaty. She found new outlets -for her products, and the growth of her commerce was not -appreciably interrupted.</p> - -<p>The progress of education had in the Upper Province kept -pace with the increase of population. But the common school -was yet very insufficiently established in Lower Canada. The -polite, genial, industrious French <i>habitant</i> was almost wholly -uninstructed, and suffered his children to grow up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> -blind ignorance of which he himself had not even discovered -the evils. <span class="sidenote">1850 A.D.</span> There was now set up an educational system -adapted to his special requirements, but of which he -was not swift to avail himself.</p> - -<p>The question of the Clergy Reserves had been for generations -a perennial source of vexation. The Episcopalians persisted in -asserting themselves as the only Protestant Church; the Presbyterians -and Methodists rejected with indignation and scorn -the audacious pretension. In all countries where religious -divisions prevail, the exaltation of any one sect above the -others is obviously unjust, and must in its results disturb the -harmony of the nation. Especially is this true of a colony -where the notion of equality is indigenous, and men do not so -easily, as in an old country, reconcile themselves to the assumption -of superiority by a favoured class. The existence of a -State Church became intolerable to the Canadian people. <span class="sidenote">1854 A.D.</span> An Act was passed which severed the connection of Church and -State. All life-interests—Episcopalian and Presbyterian—having -been provided for, the lands and funds which remained were -divided among the several municipalities on the basis -of the population which they possessed. No important -question of an ecclesiastical nature has since that time -disturbed the tranquillity of the colony, if we except the demand -of the Roman Catholics for a system of education apart -from that of the common school.</p> - -<p>The feudal tenure of lands still prevailed among the Frenchmen -of the Lower Province. The seigneurs to whose ancestors -Louis XIV. had granted large tracts of land, in the hope of -building up a Canadian aristocracy, still levied their dues; still -enforced their right to grind, at oppressive rates of charge, all -the corn grown upon their land; still imposed upon the -Canadians those cruel exactions which Frenchmen of seventy -years ago had been unable to endure. The system was long -complained against as a grievance which held the French population<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> -in a position of inferiority to the British. <span class="sidenote">1859 A.D.</span> The rights -of the seigneurs were now purchased by the province -for a payment of one million dollars, and this antiquated -and barbarous method of holding ceased to press -upon the interests of the colony.</p> - -<p>For some years after the union of the provinces there had -been a sudden influx of settlers attracted from the old country -by the improving prospects of the colony. In the quarter century -which followed the battle of Waterloo, half a million of -emigrants left Britain for Canada. But in the two years of -1846-47, the number was a quarter of a million, and the -average for ten years had been nearly sixty thousand. Means -were now used to stimulate these enriching currents. Hitherto -the emigrant had been unregarded. He was suffered to take -his passage in ships which were not seaworthy, and which were -fatally overcrowded. When he arrived, often poor and ignorant, -sometimes plague-stricken, he was uncared for. Now he -was welcomed as a stranger who came to contribute to the -wealth and greatness of the Dominion. Officers were appointed -to protect him from the plunderers who lay in wait for him. -His urgent wants were supplied; information was given him -by which his future course might safely be guided.</p> - -<p>The passion for constructing railways, which raged in England -in the year 1845, sent its influences into Canada. The colonists -began to discuss arrangements for connecting the great -cities of their extended Dominion. But the need in Canada -was less urgent than elsewhere, and the difficulties were greater. -The inhabited region lay for the most part on the shores of -the Great Lakes, or of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, -where easy communication by steam-boat was enjoyed. On the -other hand, distances were great, population was scanty; capital -for the construction of railways and traffic for their support -were alike awanting. For years Canada was unable to pass -beyond the initial stage of surveys and reports and meetings to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span> -discuss, and vain attempts to obtain help from the imperial -exchequer. <span class="sidenote">1852 A.D.</span> After seven years thus passed, a railway -mania burst out in Canada. In one session of Parliament -fifteen railway Bills were passed, and the number -rose to twenty-eight in the following session. The most notable -of the projects thus authorized was the Grand Trunk Railway—a -gigantic enterprise, which proposed to connect Montreal -with Toronto, and Quebec with Rivière du Loup. So urgent -was now the desire for railways, that the Legislature incurred -liabilities on account of this undertaking to the enormous -amount of nearly five million sterling; to which extent the colonial -exchequer is and will probably always remain a loser.</p> - -<p>The financial position of Canada had been hitherto satisfactory. -Her entire debt was four million and a half; an expenditure -of £600,000 met all her requirements, and her revenue -largely exceeded this sum; her securities bore a premium -on the Stock Exchanges of England. <span class="sidenote">1852 A.D.</span> But now Canada, -in her eagerness for more rapid development, began with -liberal hand to offer aid to industrial undertakings. She -contributed freely to the making of railways. She encouraged -the municipalities to borrow upon her security for the construction -of roads and bridges, and for other necessary public works. -The municipalities, with responsive alacrity, borrowed and expended; -a genial activity pervaded all industries; and the -development of Canada advanced with more rapid step than at -any previous period. But the country was providing for wants -which had not yet arisen, and the premature expenditure -brought upon her unwelcome and oppressive burdens of debt -and of taxation.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CONFEDERATION.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The political system which existed in British America -before the union of the two provinces was in a -high degree inconvenient. There were, in all, six -colonies—Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince -Edward Island, Newfoundland, and the two Canadas. They -were the subjects of the same Monarch, but they possessed no -other bond of union. Their interests were often in conflict; -their laws and customs differed widely; each had its own currency; -each maintained its own custom-house, to tax or to -exclude the products of the others. They were without any -bond of union, excepting that which the common sovereignty of -England supplied; and they were habitually moved by jealousies -and antipathies, which were more powerful to divide than this -was to unite. Along their frontiers lay the territory of prosperous -States, living under a political system which bound them -together by community of interest, while it adequately preserved -and guaranteed the free individual action of each. The success -of confederation, as seen on the vast arena of the United States, -silently educated the British settlements for the adoption of -that political system which alone met the necessities of their -position.</p> - -<p>The union of Upper and Lower Canada was the largest progress -then possible in the direction of removing the evils which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> -prevailed. This union closed some of the most injurious of -existing divisions, and allowed a more rapid development of -the national resources than had been previously experienced. -But the permanent form of Canadian government had not yet -been reached. The difference of race and interest still operated -to mar the harmonious action of the united Legislature. The -childish jealousy of the imperfectly reconciled sections led, -among other evils, to wasteful expenditure; for no grant of -money could be voted for necessary public works to either section -without an equal grant being made needlessly to the other. -At the time of the union, an equality in number of representatives -was accepted as just to both provinces. But Upper Canada -increased more rapidly than the sister province, and in ten -years contained a larger population. <span class="sidenote">1857 A.D.</span> A demand arose for -representation according to population, and without regard -to the division of provinces. This proposal was -keenly opposed in Lower Canada, as a violation of the terms -of union. It was as keenly pressed in the western province; it -became the theme of much fervid eloquence, and for a time the -rallying cry at elections. The leader of this movement was -George Brown—a Scotchman and Presbyterian, a man of great -ability and energy, and an earnest reformer of abuses. It was -the hope of Mr. Brown and his followers, that by gaining the -parliamentary majority, to which Upper Canada was now by -her numbers entitled, they would frustrate the demand for -sectarian schools, and would equip completely a common-school -system for the whole of both provinces. Still further, Upper -Canada would control the revenue, and by useful public works -would develop the resources of the great North-West.</p> - -<p>The controversy was bitter and exasperating, and resulted in -nothing more than a deepened feeling that some important -modification of existing arrangements had become -indispensable. <span class="sidenote">1860 A.D.</span> Mr. Brown gave expression to the -opinion now widely entertained in Upper Canada, in two resolutions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> -which he invited the Legislature to accept. These asserted -that the union, from difference of origin, local interest, and -other causes, had proved a failure; and suggested, as the only -remedy, the formation of local governments for the care of sectional -interests, and the erection of a joint authority for the -regulation of concerns which were common to all. In this form -the proposal of a confederated government, following as closely -as possible the model of the United States, was placed before -the country. The idea was not new. <span class="sidenote">1822 1839 A.D.</span> Once it had been -recommended by the Colonial Office; once by Lord -Durham, during his rule as Governor-General. Often -in seasons of political difficulty it had been the hope of -embarrassed statesmen. But the time had not yet come, and -Mr. Brown’s resolutions were rejected by large majorities.</p> - -<p>The succeeding years were unquiet and even alarming. -Political passion rose to an extreme degree of violence. The -mutual hatred of parties was vehement and unreasoning. -Every question with which the Legislature had to deal was the -arena on which a furious battle must needs be waged. The -opposing parties met in fiery conflict over the construction of -railways, over the tariff, over the defence of the colony against -a possible invasion by the Americans, over the proposed confederation, -over every detail of the policy of Government. The -public interests suffered; the natural progress of the colony was -frustrated by these unseemly dissensions. At length the leaders -of the contending factions became weary of strife. <span class="sidenote">1864 A.D.</span> George -Brown, on behalf of the reforming party, wisely offered terms -of peace to his opponents. A coalition Government was -formed, with the express design of carrying out a confederation -of the two Canadas, with a provision for the -reception of the other provinces and of the North-West Territory. -The new Cabinet entered promptly upon the task which it had -undertaken. <span class="sidenote">October, 1864 A.D.</span> Within a few weeks there met in Quebec for -conference on this momentous question thirty-three men, representing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> -the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, -Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. They met -in private, and discussed for seventeen days the details -of a union which should harmonize and promote the -interests of all. The desired reconciliation was not easily -attained; for each province estimated with natural exaggeration -the advantages which it brought into the confederation, and -sought a higher position than the others were willing to concede. -But in the end a scheme of union was framed, and the -various Governments pledged themselves that they would spare -no effort to secure its adoption by the Legislatures. A party -of resistance arose, and years of debate ensued. But time -fought on the side of union. The evils of the existing political -system became increasingly apparent in the light thrown by -incessant discussion. The separated provinces were weak for -purposes of defence; their commerce was strangled by the restrictive -duties which they imposed on one another. United, -they would form a great nation, possessing a magnificent territory, -inhabited by an intelligent and industrious people; formidable -to assailants; commanding a measure of respect to -which they had hitherto been strangers; with boundless capabilities -of increase opening to all their industrial interests.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1866 A.D.</span> Under the growing influence of views such as these, the confederation -of the provinces was at length resolved on by -the Legislatures of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick; -and in the following year a Royal Proclamation -announced the union of these provinces into one Dominion, -which was styled Canada. A little later, Manitoba, British -Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were received into the -union. Newfoundland refused to join her sister States, and -still maintains her independent existence.</p> - -<p>Under the constitution which the Dominion now received, -executive power is vested in the Queen, and administered by -her representative, the Governor-General. This officer is aided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> -and advised by a Privy Council, composed of the heads of the -various great departments of State. The Senate is composed -of seventy-eight members appointed by the Crown, and holding -office for life. The House of Commons consists of two hundred -and six members. These are chosen by the votes of -citizens possessing a property qualification, the amount of which -varies in the different provinces. Canada gives the franchise -to those persons in towns who pay a yearly rent of £6, and to -those not in towns who pay £4; New Brunswick demands the -possession of real estate valued at £20, or an annual income of -£80; and Nova Scotia is almost identical in her requirements. -The duration of Parliament is limited to five years, and its -members receive payment. The Parliament of the Dominion -regulates the interests which are common to all the provinces; -each province has a Lieutenant-Governor and a Legislature for -the guidance of its own local affairs. Entire freedom of trade -was henceforth to exist between the provinces which composed -the Canadian nation.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE MARITIME PROVINCES.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-o.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">On the outer margin of the great bay into which the -waters of the St. Lawrence discharge themselves, -there lie certain British provinces which had till -now maintained their colonial existence apart from -the sister States of the interior. The oldest and most famous -of these was Nova Scotia—the Acadie of the French period—within -whose limits the Province of New Brunswick had been -included. Northwards, across the entrance to the bay, was the -island of Newfoundland. The Gulf Stream, moving northwards -its vast currents of heated water, meets here an ice-cold -stream descending from the Arctic Sea, and is turned eastward -towards the coasts of Europe. The St. Lawrence deposits here -the accumulations of silt which its waters have disengaged in -their lengthened course, and forms great banks which stretch -for many hundreds of miles out into the ocean. These banks are -the haunt of icebergs escaping from the frozen North; perpetual -fogs clothe them in gloom. But they offer to man -wealth such as he cannot elsewhere win from the sea. The -fisheries of the Newfoundland Banks were the earliest inducement -which led Europeans to frequent those seemingly inhospitable -shores. The Maritime Provinces were more easily -accessible than Canada, for they abounded in commodious inlets -where ships could enter and lie secure. They were placed at -the difficult entrance to the St. Lawrence valley, and their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> -value was more immediately apparent. Their possession was -keenly contended for, at a time when England had not made -up her mind to seek, and France scarcely cared to retain, the -interior of the northern continent.</p> - -<p>The Cabots were the first Europeans who looked upon the -rugged shores of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and England -therefore claimed those regions as her own. But France -actually took possession of the Acadian peninsula. Small -settlements were founded here and there, and a profitable trade -in furs was carried on with the Indians, who came from great -distances on the mainland to acquire the attractive wares which -the white men offered. During its first century Acadie had an -unquiet life. England would allow the poor colonists no repose. -During those periods—and they constantly recurred—when -the two great European powers were at war, the roving -ships of England were sure to visit the feeble Acadian settlements, -bringing ruin, sudden and deep. The colonists of Massachusetts -or of distant Virginia, now grown strong, did not wait -for the pretext of war, but freely invaded Acadie even during -the intervals of peace. The French incautiously provoked the -resentment of their Indian neighbours, and the treacherous -savages exacted bloody vengeance for their wrongs. And as if -foreign hostility were not sufficient, civil wars raged among the -Acadians. At one unhappy time there were rival governors -in Acadie, with battles, sieges, massacres of Frenchmen by -French hands. But even these miseries did not prevent some -measure of growth. Before Acadie finally passed away from -France, there were twenty thousand Frenchmen engaged in its -fisheries and its fur trade.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1713 A.D.</span> A hundred years after the first French settlement on the -Acadian peninsula, there came to a close, in the reign of -Queen Anne, the desolating war against Louis XIV., -which King William had deemed essential to the welfare -of Europe. England, as was her practice at such seasons, had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> -possessed herself of Acadie. Hitherto she had been accustomed -to restore Acadie at the close of each war. Now she determined -to retain it; and exhausted France submitted, by the -treaty of Utrecht, to the loss. Acadie became Nova Scotia; -Port Royal became Annapolis, in honour of the English Queen. -Cape Breton, an island adjoining Acadie on the north, was suffered -to remain a French possession; and here France hastened, -at vast expense, to build and fortify Louisburg, for the protection -of her American trade. Thirty years later, the English -besieged and took Louisburg. France strove hard, but vainly, -to regain a fortress the loss of which shook her hold of all her -American possessions. A great fleet sailed from France to -achieve this conquest. But evil fortune attended it from the -outset. The English captured some of the ships; tempest -wrecked or scattered the others. Fresh efforts invited new disasters; -the attempt to repossess Louisburg was closed by the -destruction or capture of an entire French fleet. But France -had fought more successfully in India, and when the terms of -the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle came to be adjusted, she -received back Louisburg in exchange for Madras. <span class="sidenote">1748 A.D.</span> It remained in her possession for ten years more, and then -passed finally away from her, along with all the rest of her -American territory.</p> - -<p>The first care of England, when Nova Scotia became decisively -hers, was to provide herself with a fortified harbour -and naval station adequate to the wants of her extended -dominion. Her ships in large numbers frequented those Western -waters, intent upon the protection of her own interests and -the overthrow of the interests of France. Some well-defended -and easily-accessible position was required, where fleets could -rendezvous, where ships could refit, from which the possessions -of France in the north and of Spain in the south could be -menaced. A site was chosen on the eastern shore of the island, -where a magnificent natural harbour opens to the sea. Here,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> -on a lofty slope, arose the town of Halifax, the great centre -of British naval influence on the American coast. <span class="sidenote">1749 A.D.</span> Four -thousand adventurers arrived from England, tempted -by liberal offers of land. During the months of one brief -summer, houses were built, and defences were erected against -unfriendly neighbours. The forest trees of that lovely hill-side -disappeared, and in their place arose a busy English town.</p> - -<p>The Indians of Nova Scotia did not look with approval upon -the occupation of their territory by the English. They lurked -in the woods around Halifax, or they stole silently along by -night in their light canoes, and as they found fitting opportunity -they plundered and slew. Once they burst upon the -sleeping crews of two vessels lying in the harbour, murdering -some, and carrying away others to be sold to the French at -Louisburg. England held the Frenchmen of the province responsible -for these outrages. The Acadians were a simple, -light-hearted people, living contentedly in the rude comfort -which the harvest of sea and of land yielded to them. But they -did not at once assent to the revolution which handed them -over to a foreign power, and they refused to swear allegiance to -the English King. The Governor dealt very sternly with these -reluctant subjects. <span class="sidenote">1755 A.D.</span> He gathered up as many as he could find, -and having crowded them on board his ships, he scattered -them among the southern English colonies. He -burned their houses, he confiscated their goods. Nearly -one-half of the Acadians were thus sent forcibly away from -homes which were rightfully their own. Of the others, some -escaped into the woods, and finally into Canada. Many perished -under this cruel treatment, and nearly all fell from comparative -ease and comfort into extreme wretchedness.</p> - -<p>For some years Nova Scotia was without any semblance of -representative government, contenting herself with the mild -despotism of the Governor. At length, when this arrangement -ceased to give satisfaction, an Assembly chosen by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> -people met in Halifax. Henceforth Nova Scotia enjoyed the -privilege of self-government, and her political history -runs for the most part parallel with that of Canada. <span class="sidenote">1758 A.D.</span> She had the same prolonged conflict with the Governor -in regard to control of the revenue, the same grievance -of a despotic family compact, the same determination that the -advisers of the Governor should be responsible to the Assembly. -The population was mixed and inharmonious. There were -Germans and Dutchmen; there were some remnants of the -Acadians who had been permitted to return; there were -American loyalists fleeing before triumphant republicanism; -there were the English who founded Halifax. Soon, however, -the preponderance of the English element was decisive, and -Nova Scotia was spared those envenomed dissensions which -difference of race originated in the Canadian provinces. At -the close of her separate existence Nova Scotia did not embrace -with entire cordiality the project of confederation. A strong -minority opposed union. But wiser counsels in the end prevailed, -and this province, although not without hesitation, cast -in her lot with the others.</p> - -<p>Nova Scotia has an area equal to rather more than one-half -that of Scotland, with a population of four hundred thousand -persons; and as nearly all of these are natives of the province, -it does not appear that many strangers have recently sought -homes upon her soil. The country is beautifully diversified -with valley and with hill, and bright with river and with lake. -Much of the land is abundantly fertile, and a careful and intelligent -system of cultivation is practised. Near the sea-board -are vast treasures of coal and iron, of copper and tin. -No equal length of coast in any part of the world has been -more abundantly supplied with convenient harbours. In a -distance of one hundred miles there are no fewer than twelve -harbours capable of receiving the largest vessels in the British -navy. The salmon rivers of Acadie are second only to those of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> -Scotland. The ocean-fishings are so productive that Nova -Scotia exports products of the sea to the annual value of one -million sterling.</p> - -<p>New Brunswick is the latest born of the American settlements. -For many years after the conquest her fertile soil lay -almost uncultivated, and her population was nothing more than -a few hundred fishermen. It was at the close of the American -War of Independence that the era of progress in New Brunswick -began. Across the frontier, in the New England States, were -many persons who had fought in the British ranks, to perpetuate -a system of government which their neighbours had -agreed to reject as tyrannical and injurious. These men were -now regarded with aversion, as traitors to the great cause. -Finding life intolerable amid surroundings so uncongenial, they -shook from their feet the dust of the revolted provinces, and -moved northwards with their families in quest of lands which -were still ruled by monarchy. Five thousand came in one -year. They came so hastily, and with so little provision for -their own wants, that they must have perished, but for the -timely aid of the Government. <span class="sidenote">1785 A.D.</span> But their presence added -largely to the importance of New Brunswick, which was -now dissociated from Nova Scotia, and erected into a -separate province. At this time, when she attained the -dignity of an administration specially her own, her population -was only six thousand, scattered over an area nearly equal to -that of Scotland. But her soil was fertile; she abounded in -coal and in timber; her fisheries were inexhaustibly productive. -Her progress was not unworthy of the advantages with which -Nature had endowed her. In twenty years her inhabitants had -doubled. In half a century the struggling six thousand had -increased to one hundred and fifty thousand. To-day the population -of New Brunswick exceeds three hundred thousand. -This rate of increase, although the numbers dealt with are not -large, is greatly higher than that of the United States themselves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> -In the treaty by which England recognized the independence -of her thirteen colonies, the boundary of New Brunswick -and of Maine was fixed carelessly and unskilfully. It -was defined to be, on the extreme east, a certain river St. Croix. -Westward from the source of that river it was a line drawn -thence to the highlands, dividing the waters which flow to the -Atlantic from those which flow to the St. Lawrence. The records -even of diplomacy would be searched in vain for an agreement -more fertile in misunderstanding. The negotiators were -absolutely ignorant of the country whose limits they were -appointed to fix. Especially were they unaware that the -devout Frenchmen who first settled there were accustomed to -set up numerous crosses along the coast, and that the name La -Croix was in consequence given to many rivers. In a few -years it was found that the contracting powers differed as to -the identity of the river St. Croix. The Americans applied the -name to one stream, the British to another. That portion of -the controversy was settled in favour of Britain. But a more -serious difficulty now rose to view. The powers differed as to -the locality of the “highlands” designated by the treaty, and -a “disputed territory” of twelve thousand square miles lay -between the competing boundary-lines. For sixty years angry -debate raged over this territory, and the strife at one period -came to the perilous verge of actual war. The people of New -Brunswick exercised the privilege of felling timber on -the disputed territory. <span class="sidenote">1839 A.D.</span> The Governor of Maine sent an -armed force to expel the intruders, and called out ten -thousand militiamen to assert the rights of America. The -Governor of New Brunswick replied by sending two regiments, -with a competent artillery. Nova Scotia voted money and -troops. But the time had passed when it was possible for -England and America to fight in so light a quarrel as this. -Lord Ashburton was sent out by England; Daniel Webster, -on the part of America, was appointed to meet him. <span class="sidenote">1842 A.D.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> -The dispute was easily settled by assigning seven thousand square -miles to America and five thousand to New Brunswick.</p> - -<p>Newfoundland was the earliest of the British settlements -on the northern shores of America, and it was also, down to -a late period, the most imperfectly known. Even from the time -of its discovery by Cabot the value of its fisheries was perceived. -English fishing-vessels followed their calling on the Newfoundland -coast during the reign of Henry VIII., and the trade then -begun was never interrupted. England had always asserted -proprietary rights over the island; but she did not at first -attempt to enforce exclusive possession of its shores, and the -ships of all European nations were at liberty to fish without -obstruction. But the vast importance of those fisheries became -more and more apparent. It was not merely or chiefly the -liberal gain which the traffic yielded. Of yet greater account -was the circumstance that the fisheries were a nursery in which -was trained a race of hardy and enterprising sailors, capable -of upholding the honour of the English flag. A century after -Cabot’s voyage, the sovereignty of Newfoundland and the -exclusive right to fish on its shores were claimed for England; -and the claim was enforced by the confiscation of certain -foreign ships, which were peacefully returning home, laden with -the gains of a successful season.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the seventeenth century there were -upon the island three hundred and fifty families, scattered in -fifteen or sixteen petty settlements. By this time the persons -who resorted to the fisheries had become sensitively alive to -the preservation of the trade, and looked with disfavour upon -the increase of a permanent population. They were able to -obtain from the reckless Government of Charles II. an order -that the settlers should depart from the island; and the barbarous -edict was enforced by burning down the houses and wasting -the fields of the inhabitants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span></p> - -<p>It was not England alone to which the fisheries of Newfoundland -were of value. France was equally in earnest in her -desire to gain control of the coveted territory. <span class="sidenote">1696 A.D.</span> She had one or -two small settlements, and she had been able by one -happy stroke to gain possession of the whole island. -The triumph, however, was not enduring, for England -speedily reclaimed all that she had lost. <span class="sidenote">1713 A.D.</span> By the treaty -of Utrecht, when Louis XIV. was reduced by the victorious -arms of Marlborough to the last extremity of -exhaustion, France ceded to England all her claims upon Newfoundland; -preserving still, however, her right to participate in -the fisheries.</p> - -<p>Down almost to the close of last century Newfoundland was -without any proper government or administration of justice. -England would not recognize the island as a colony, but persisted -in regarding it as a mere fishery. The substitute for -government was probably the rudest device which has ever -been adopted by any civilized country. <span class="sidenote">1690 A.D.</span> The master of the -fishing-vessel which arrived first on the coast was the “Admiral” -for the season, charged with the duty of maintaining -order among the crews of the other ships, governing -the island from the deck of his vessel. The -great industry of Newfoundland—her fisheries—was always -prosperous, and yielded large gains to the mother-country. -But her infant settlements struggled up to strength and importance -in the face of many discouragements, which were -negligently or wilfully inflicted.</p> - -<p>The area of Newfoundland is equal to two-thirds that of -England and Wales, and her population is one hundred and -fifty thousand. For three hundred and fifty years after Cabot’s -discovery the interior of the island had never been explored by -Europeans, and was wholly unknown, excepting to a few Indian -hunters. Only so recently as 1822 an adventurous traveller -accomplished for the first time a journey across the island.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> -The enterprise was attended with much difficulty and some -danger. The country was found to be rugged and broken. -Innumerable lakes and marshes opposed the traveller’s progress, -and imposed tedious deviations from his course. The -journey occupied two months, during which the traveller and -his Indian companions were obliged to subsist by the chase. -No traces of cultivation were discovered, and no inhabitants. -The natives of Newfoundland were the only race of American -savages who persistently refused to enter into relations with -the white men. They maintained to the end a hostile attitude, -and were shot down and finally exterminated as opportunity -offered.</p> - -<p>Newfoundland has on her western coast, and along the -valleys through which her rivers flow, some tracts of rich land -on which grain might be grown. She has, too, much good -pasturage; and although her winters are long and severe, her -brief summer has heat enough to ripen many varieties of fruit -and vegetables. She has coal, iron, and limestone. Her savage -inhabitants fed on the flesh of deer, which wandered in vast -herds in the woods; and they clothed themselves in the rich -furs of bears, wolves, beavers, and other wild creatures. The -first settlers found the noble Newfoundland dog living in a -very debased condition—hunting in packs, and manifesting -tendencies not superior to those of the wolf. But his higher -nature made him amenable to civilizing influences, and he -quickly rose to be the trusted companion and friend of man.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PROVINCES OF THE NORTH-WEST.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The boundary-line which marks the southern limit of -British territory divides the continent into two not -very unequal portions. On one side stretches out -the vast area covered by the United States—the -home of fifty million people—the seat of the manifold industries -which their energy has called into existence. On the -other side there lies a yet wider expanse of territory, whose -development is still in the future. Northward and westward -of the original line of settlement in the valley of the St. Lawrence -the possessions of Great Britain are nearly equal in extent -to the whole of Europe. Towards the Atlantic vast pine-forests -cover the ground. Towards the Pacific are great mountain-ranges, -rich with mineral treasures, destined to yield wealth to -the men of future generations. The central portion of the continent -is a vast expanse of rich farm-land, where the slightest -efforts of the husbandman yield lavish increase.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Great navigable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span> -rivers, which take their origin in the Rocky Mountains, -traverse the continent, and wait, silent and unused, to bear the -traffic which coming years must bring. The Saskatchewan, -after a course of thirteen hundred miles, and the Red River, -whose sources are very near those of the Mississippi, after -flowing nearly seven hundred miles, pour their ample floods -into Lake Winnipeg—a vast sheet of water, covering an area -equal to one-third that of Scotland. The Nelson River carries -the waters of Lake Winnipeg into Hudson Bay by a course of -three hundred miles, which could easily be rendered navigable -for ships of large burden.</p> - -<p>Lake Winnipeg is in the latitude of England; but the -genial influences of the Gulf Stream do not visit those stern -coasts, whose temperature is largely governed by the ice-cold -currents of the Arctic Ocean. The climate is severe, the -winter is long. During five or six months of the year the -country lies under a covering of snow; river and lake are fast -bound by frost; the thermometer occasionally sinks to fifty -degrees below zero. This stern dominion does not pass gradually -away; it ceases almost suddenly. The snow disappears as -if by magic; the streams resume their interrupted flow; trees -clothe themselves with foliage; the plains are gay with grass -and flower. At one stride comes the summer, with its fierce -heat, with its intolerable opulence of insect life, with its swift -growth and ripening of wild fruits, and of the seeds which the -sower has scattered over the fertile soil.</p> - -<p>At the coming of Europeans into America this magnificent -region was possessed by numerous tribes of Indians, who gained -their food and clothing almost wholly by the chase. In course -of years the white man found that the Indian would sell, for -trivial payment, rich furs which were eagerly desired in Europe. -The Indian came to understand that he could exchange his -easily obtained furs for the musket which the strangers -brought and taught him to use, for the beads with which he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> -loved to ornament himself, for the seductive liquors which -quickly asserted a destructive mastery over his savage nature. -Out of these experiences there arose trading relations between -the Indians of the North-West and the adventurous Europeans -who from time to time made their way into those mysterious -regions. A sagacious Frenchman perceived the advantage -which was to be gained by an organized and systematic prosecution -of this lucrative commerce. <span class="sidenote">1668 A.D.</span> He proposed the enterprise -to his countrymen, but it failed to command their support. -The baffled projector made his way to England, and obtained -access to Prince Rupert, to whom he unfolded his -scheme. A quarter of a century had passed since the -fierce charges of Rupert’s cavalry swept down the troops -of the Parliament at Naseby and Newark, since he himself had -been chased from Marston Moor by the stern Ironsides of -Cromwell. The prince was now a sedate man of fifty. The -vehemence of his youth had mellowed itself down to a love of -commercial adventure. He lent a willing ear to the ingenious -Frenchman. His influence with the public procured the formation -of a company, whose paid-up capital was £10,500. His -influence with his cousin, King Charles, sufficed to obtain a -charter. <span class="sidenote">1670 A.D.</span> The liberal monarch bestowed half a continent -upon these speculators, on no more burdensome terms -than that they should pay two elks and two black -beavers to the sovereign whensoever he visited their territory. -“The Governor and Company of Adventurers trading into -Hudson Bay” were endowed by this liberal monarch with “all -countries which lie within the entrance of Hudson’s Straits, -in whatever latitude they may be, so far as not possessed by -other Christian States.” Thus largely privileged, the adventurers -entered upon a career of unusual success. In a few -years they paid a dividend at the rate of fifty per cent.; a -little later they trebled their capital out of profits, and paid to -shareholders twenty-five per cent. upon the increased amount;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> -still later the capital was once more trebled from the same -source, without diminution of the rate of dividend.</p> - -<p>The fur trade was one of the most lucrative of which merchants -had any experience. The savages who overthrew the -Roman empire had introduced to Southern Europe the beautiful -furs of the north. Henceforth the article was in urgent -demand. Great ladies sought eagerly, for purposes of ornament, -such furs as those with which the northern savage -clothed himself and his children—sought eagerly, but often -unsuccessfully, for demand outstripped supply. It was certain -that Europe would purchase at liberal prices all the furs which -the adventurers were able to bring.</p> - -<p>The Hudson Bay Company entered with vigour upon this -inviting field. They established a fort near the coast, and -made it known among the Indians that they were prepared to -trade. With as little delay as possible they pushed their settlement -far into the interior. Scattered at great intervals across -the continent arose the little trading-stations. They were composed -of a few wooden huts, with a strong surrounding palisade -or wall; with well-barred gates; with loop-holes, from which, -in case of need, the uncertain clients of the Company could be -controlled by musketry. These posts were ordinarily established -near rivers, accessible to the savages by canoe or by -sledge. Their loneliness was extreme. For hundreds of miles -on every side stretched the dense forest or the boundless -prairie, untrodden by man. At fixed seasons—once or twice -in the year—the natives appeared, bearing the spoils of the -chase—skins, oil, the tusk of the walrus, feathers, dried fish. -Ordinarily the entire tribe come on this great mission. They -encamp before the fort. An officer goes forth, and the gate is -jealously barred behind him. Gifts are exchanged and speeches -effusively affectionate and confiding. Within the fort are stores -filled with wares, which the Company has brought from afar,—blankets, -beads, scalping-knives, fish-hooks, muskets, ammunition,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> -tea, sugar, red and yellow paints for purposes of -personal adornment. These strange traders enter in groups of -three or four, for they cannot be trusted in larger numbers. -They deposit the articles which they offer; the Company’s -servants put a value upon these, and hand over an equivalent, -according to the choice of their customer. Money, until lately, -would have been worthless to the Indian, and none was offered. -At one time spirits were supplied, with frightful results in -uproar and violence; but this evil practice has been discontinued -or carefully restricted. When the negotiation is concluded, -the Indians withdraw and resume their wanderings.</p> - -<p>The Company supplied such government as the unpeopled -continent required. They had many rivals in the lucrative -commerce which they carried on, and it was often needful for -them to defend by arms their coveted monopoly. The French -strove during many years to drive out the English and possess -the fur trade. French ships of war appeared in the bay; -French soldiers attacked the posts of the Company. Scarcely -had those angry debates been silenced by the victory of Wolfe, -when a yet more formidable competition arose. <span class="sidenote">1784 A.D.</span> Some -enterprising Canadians founded a rival Company, and -traded so prosperously that in a few years they had established -numerous stations, and possessed themselves of much of -the trade which had hitherto been enjoyed by the older Company. -Perpetual strife raged between the servants of the rival -institutions. Battles were fought; much blood was shed; the -revenues of the Hudson Bay Company decayed; its rich -dividends wholly ceased. <span class="sidenote">1816 A.D.</span> At length a union of the Companies -closed these wasteful feuds, and restored the -almost forgotten era of prosperity.</p> - -<p>For a century and a half from the formation of the Company -there was no attempt to colonize the vast region over which -its dominion extended. The Englishmen and Scotchmen who -occupied the trading-stations were the only civilized inhabitants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span> -of the North-West. The stations were in number about one -hundred; the entire white population did not exceed one or two -thousand. There were stations on the Mackenzie River, within -the Arctic circle, where the cold was so intense that hatchets of -ordinary temper shivered like glass at the first blow. There -were stations on the Labrador coast, and twenty-five hundred -miles away from these there were stations on the Pacific. The -Company did not desire to carry civilization into this wilderness. -The interests of the fur trade are not promoted by civilization. -That industry cannot live within sound of the settler’s -axe, or where the yellow corn waves in the soft winds of -autumn. It prospers only where the silence of the forest is -unbroken; where the fertile glebe lies undisturbed by the -plough. The Company gave no encouragement to the coming -in of human beings, in presence of whom the more profitable -occupancy of beaver and bison and silver fox must cease. At -length, and for the only time, the traditional policy was departed -from. <span class="sidenote">1812 A.D.</span> While the struggle with the rival Company still raged, -Lord Selkirk, who was then chairman of the Hudson -Bay Company, bethought him of sending out a number -of Scotch Highlanders to found a permanent settlement, -and thus give preponderance to the interests of which he was -the guardian. At that time the Duke of Sutherland was in -process of removing small farmers from his estates in Sutherlandshire, -in order that he might give effect to modern ideas on the -subject of sheep-farming. Lord Selkirk collected a band of -these dispossessed Highlanders, and settled them in the solitudes -of the Winnipeg valley. The point which he selected -was near the confluence of the Red River and the Assiniboine, -and forty miles from the lake into which these rivers fall. It -was many hundred miles from a human habitation; this lonely -colony was the only seat of population on all the northern -portion of a vast continent. But the soil possessed remarkable -fertility; and the Scotchmen were robust and industrious.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> -Gradually they were joined by other adventurers to whom the -severity of the climate was without terrors. Ejected Highland -crofters, soldiers disbanded after Waterloo, sought in little -groups this remote and dimly-known region. The retired servants -of the Company came to spend the evening of their days -in the settlement. A line of block houses and of cultivated -farms stretched for many miles up the valleys of the Assiniboine -and Red River. A cluster of wooden huts received the name -of Winnipeg, and started upon its career as a prairie town at a -rate of progress so leisurely that in 1871 it held no more than -four hundred inhabitants. Fort Garry, the chief seat of the -Company’s authority, added to the dignity of the colony, which -soon became the recognized metropolis of all the north-western -region. Its growth has not been rapid, but it has been steady; -and the population, if we accept the mean of very diverse -estimates, is probably now about fifteen thousand souls. These -are largely Scotch; but there are also French and Indians, and -there has been a copious admixture of the European and native -races. There are Scotch half-breeds and French half-breeds, in -whom the aspect and the qualities of both races are combined, -and many of whom are not inferior in intelligence and education -to their European parentage.</p> - -<p>In course of years political government by trading companies -became utterly discredited in England. The government of the -East India Company had long been regarded with disapproval; -after the great mutiny of 1857 occurred, it was felt to be intolerable. -No voice of authority was raised in favour of its longer -continuance, and the political functions of the Company were -extinguished as inconsistent with the general welfare. The -Hudson Bay Company was not more fortunate in its rule than -the great sister Company had been. Latterly it had failed to -maintain order among the scanty population over which it presided. -Occasionally, when its officers pronounced an unacceptable -sentence, the friends of the offender forced the prison-doors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> -and set the prisoner free. The Company was willing to be -relieved from the burden of an authority which it was no longer -able to exercise. The new Dominion of Canada desired to add -to its possessions the vast domain of the Hudson Bay -Company. <span class="sidenote">1869 A.D.</span> A transfer which was sought for on both sides -was not difficult to arrange. The Company received the -sum of £300,000 and certain portions of land around its trading-stations. -All besides passed into the hands of the Canadian -Government.</p> - -<p>The authorities who negotiated this transaction seem to have -thought mainly of the land, and very little of the people who -dwelt upon it. The people now claimed to express themselves, -and they did so by methods which were rude and inconvenient. -The French and French half-breed population refused to concur -in a transfer which they regarded as injurious to their rights. -They were sensitive on the subject of their title to the properties -which they occupied; and with reason, for many of them had no -claim excepting that which occupancy may be supposed to confer. -It was rumoured among them that their new rulers -intended to eject them from their holdings; and the entrance -upon the scene of various surveying-parties was accepted -as evidence of this purpose. <span class="sidenote">1869 A.D.</span> The excited people took up -arms, and formed a provisional government. Their -leader in the rebellion by which they hoped to throw off the -authority of Canada and Great Britain, and establish themselves -as an independent nation, was Louis Riel, an ambitious but -reckless young French Canadian. Riel became President of -the new Republic, and gathered an armed force of six hundred -men to uphold the national dignity. He turned back at the -frontier the newly-appointed Governor; he seized Fort Garry, -in which were ample stores of arms and provisions; he imprisoned -all who offered active opposition to his rule. The -distant Canadian Government looked on at first as amused with -this diminutive rebellion. They did not think of employing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span> -force to restore order; they sought the desired end by persuasion. -The Roman Catholic archbishop of the district was -then in Rome, occupied in solving the problem of papal infallibility. -He was invited to desist from the absorbing pursuit; -to return to the Red River and incline his erring flock to -thoughts of peace. He made the sacrifice; he left Rome, and -arrived in Canada. But while he was still toiling homewards -across the snowy wilderness, events occurred which fatally complicated -the position and rendered an amicable solution impossible.</p> - -<p>A party of loyal inhabitants made a hasty and ill-prepared -rising against the authority of the provisional government. -They were easily beaten back by the superior forces under -Riel’s command, and some of them were taken prisoners. -Among these was a Canadian named Scott, who had distinguished -himself by his obstinate hostility to the rule of the -usurpers. Riel determined to overawe his enemies, and compel -the adherence of his friends by an act of conspicuous and unpardonable -severity. <span class="sidenote">March, 1870 A.D.</span> Poor Scott was subjected to the trial of a -mock tribunal, whose judgment sent him to death. An hour -later he was led forth beyond the gate of the fort. Kneeling, -with bandaged eyes, among the snow, he was shot -by a firing-party of intoxicated half-breeds almost before -he had time to realize the cruel fate which had befallen -him.</p> - -<p>This shameful murder invested the Red River rebellion with -a gravity of aspect which it had not hitherto worn. There -arose in Canada a vehement demand that the criminals should -be punished and the royal authority restored. The despatch of -a military force sufficiently strong to overbear the resistance of -the insurgent Frenchmen was at once resolved upon.</p> - -<p>Unusual difficulty attended this enterprise. Fort Garry was -twelve hundred miles distant from Toronto. One-half of this -distance could be accomplished easily by railway and by steam-boat;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> -but beyond the northern extremity of Lake Superior -there were six hundred miles of dense and pathless forest -traversed by a chain of rivers and of lakes. On these waters, -broken by dangerous rapids and impassable falls, no vessel but -the light birch canoe of the Indian had ever floated. By this -seemingly impracticable route it was now proposed that an -army carrying with it the elaborate equipment of modern war -should make its way to the valley of the Winnipeg.</p> - -<p>Happily there was at that time in Canada an officer endowed -with rare power in the department of military organization. -To this officer, now well known as Sir Garnet Wolseley, was -intrusted the task of preparing and commanding the expedition. -No laurels were gained by the forces which Colonel Wolseley -led out into the wilderness; for the enemy did not abide their -coming, and their modest achievements were unnoticed amid -the absorbing interest with which men watched the tremendous -occurrences of the war then raging between Germany and -France. Nevertheless the Red River expedition claims an -eminent place in the record of military transactions. It is -probably the solitary example of an army advancing by a -lengthened and almost impracticable route, accomplishing its -task, and returning home without the loss of a single life either -in battle or by disease. And the wise forethought which provided -so effectively for all the exigencies of that unknown -journey is more admirable than the generalship which has sufficed -to gain bloody victories in many of our recent wars.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">May 21, 1870 A.D.</span> In little more than two months from the commission -of the crime which it went to avenge, the army set -forth. It was composed of twelve hundred fighting men, -of whom two-thirds were Canadian volunteers, and the -remainder British regulars. Two hundred boats, a few pieces -of light artillery, and provisions for sixty days, formed part of -its equipment. The expedition passed easily along Lake Huron -and Lake Superior, and disembarked in Thunder Bay. From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> -this point to the little Lake Shebandowan was a distance of -fifty miles. There was a half-formed road for part of the way, -and a river scarcely navigable. So toilsome was this stage of -the journey that six weeks passed before those fifty miles were -traversed. At length the boats floated on the tranquil waters -of Lake Shebandowan. In an evening of rare loveliness the -fleet moved from the place of embarkation, and the forest rung -to the rejoicing cheers of the rowers.</p> - -<p>Thus far the troops had been toiling up steep ascents. Now -they had reached the high land forming the water-shed, from -which some streams depart for Hudson Bay, others for Lake -Superior and the St. Lawrence. For many days their route -led them along a chain of small lakes, on which they rowed -easily and pleasantly. But at the transition from lake to lake, -there ordinarily presented itself a portage—a name of fear to -the soldiers. At the portage all disembarked. The innumerable -barrels which held their supplies, the artillery, the ammunition, -the boats themselves, were taken on shore, and carried -on men’s shoulders or dragged across the land which divided -them from the next lake. Forty-seven times during the progress -to Lake Winnipeg was this heavy labour undergone. But in -the face of all difficulties the progress was rapid. The health -of the men was perfect, their spirits were high, and their carrying -power so increased by exercise that they were soon able to -carry double the load which they could have faced at the outset. -No spirituous liquors were served out, and perfect order reigned -in the camp. The heat was often oppressive; the attacks of -mosquitoes and similar insects were intolerable. But the forethought -of the general had provided for each man a veil which -protected his face, and each boat carried a jar of mosquito oil to -fortify the hands. In the early days of August the boats -passed along Rainy Lake, a beautiful sheet of water fifty miles -in length, and entered the river of the same name. Rainy -River is a noble stream, eighty miles in length, and three to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> -four hundred yards in width. The scenery through which it -flows is of great beauty. Oak-trees of large growth, open glades -stretching far into the forest, luxuriant grass, flowers in endless -variety and rich profusion, all suggested to the men the parks -which surround great houses in England. Helped by the -current, Rainy River was traversed at the rate of five or six -miles an hour, and the expedition reached the Lake of the -Woods. Issuing thence, it entered the Winnipeg River.</p> - -<p>Here the difficulties of the expedition thickened. The Winnipeg -is a magnificent stream, one hundred and sixty-three miles -in length—broad and deep, flowing with a rapid current, often -between lofty cliffs of granite. In its course, however, there -are numerous falls in which boats cannot live. Twenty-five -times the stores were unshipped, and the boats drawn on shore. -Frequent rapids occurred, down which the boats were guided, -not without danger, by the skilful hands of the Indian boatmen. -No loss was sustained, and after five days of this toilsome and -exciting work the boats entered Lake Winnipeg. For one day -they steered across the south-eastern portion of the lake; for -one day more they held their course up Red River. They left -their boats at two miles’ distance from Fort Garry, and under -rain falling in torrents, and by roads ankle-deep with tenacious -mud, they advanced to seek the enemy.</p> - -<p>Colonel Wolseley had used precautions to prevent any knowledge -of his approach from being carried to the fort. He was -unable to learn what Riel intended to do, and the men marched -forward in the eager hope that the enemy would abide their -coming. As they neared the fort, the gates were seen to be -shut, and cannon looked out from the bastions and over the -gateways. But on a closer view it was noticed that no men were -beside the guns, and the hopes of the assailants fell. A moment -later, and the fort was known to be abandoned; men were seen -at a little distance in rapid flight. Riel, it appeared, had meditated -resistance, if he could induce his followers to fight. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> -had been able to build some hope, too, upon the six hundred -miles of almost impassable country which lay between him and -Lake Superior. <span class="sidenote">Aug. 24, 1870 A.D.</span> Soothing his anxieties by this dream, the President -of the Red River Republic breakfasted tranquilly on this -closing day of his career. But just as his repast was ended -there were seen from the windows of the fort, at a distance of -a few hundred yards, and marching with swift step -towards him, the twelve hundred men who had come so -far to accomplish his overthrow. The blood of Scott -was upon his guilty hands. The wretched man saddled -a horse and galloped for life; and the victors did not seek -to interrupt his flight. The Red River rebellion was suppressed, -and British authority was restored in the valley of the -Winnipeg.</p> - -<p>Until very recently the vast wheat-field of the North-West -was almost worthless to man; even now its development has -only begun. It is difficult to over-estimate the influence on the -future course of human affairs which this lonely and inaccessible -region is destined to exert. In the valleys of Lake Winnipeg and -its tributary streams two hundred million acres of land, unsurpassed -in fertility, wait the coming of the husbandman. Its -average production of wheat may be stated at thirty bushels per -acre—more than double that of the valley of the Mississippi, -and rather more than can be gained from the soil of England -by careful and expensive cultivation.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Great Britain imports -annually one hundred million bushels of wheat—scarcely more -than one-sixtieth part of the production of the Winnipeg valley -were its enormous capability fully drawn out. The soil is of -surpassing richness, and yields its ample fruits so easily that in -an ordinary season the cost of producing a quarter of wheat is -on an average no more than thirteen shillings. Port Nelson on -the Hudson Bay—the natural shipping point of all this region—is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> -eighty miles nearer than New York is to Liverpool and the -markets of England.</p> - -<p>The valley of the Winnipeg has been hitherto practically inaccessible. -The Red River expedition spent three months on -the journey. Many of the settlers had required even longer -time to reach the secluded paradise which they sought. To a -vast majority of the British people the existence of this territory -is still unknown. The boats of the Hudson Bay Company -formed its only medium of communication with the outside -world. Until the Winnipeg valley has been opened by railway -or by steam-boat, it must remain valueless for any better use -than as a preserve for the wild creatures which yield fur, and -as a home for the Indians who pursue them.</p> - -<p>But the needful facility of transport is now being gained; the -distance which has shut out the human family from this splendid -domain is now in course of being abridged. Winnipeg, now -grown into a town of about twelve thousand inhabitants, and -rapidly increasing, has a direct railway connection with St. Paul, -the chief city of Minnesota. The Northern Pacific—a line -whose progress was delayed for years by financial disaster—is -now advancing westward from its starting-point on Lake -Superior, and will soon be opened through to the western -ocean. The Canadian Pacific, largely subsidized by Government, -is pushing its way westward towards Columbia and the -ocean. The obstacles to navigation in the Nelson river have -been carefully examined with a view to their removal, so that -vessels of large size may pass from Lake Winnipeg to Europe.</p> - -<p>These increased facilities of transport have produced their -expected result. A large inflow of settlers began two or three -years ago, and continues year by year to increase. Many -thousand immigrants came to the Winnipeg valley in 1877-78. -Up to the present time over four million acres of rich wheat-lands -have been taken up—an area capable of adding to the supply of -human food a quantity almost equal to the entire British import<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> -of wheat. The new settlers are, for the most part, experienced -farmers, who have been attracted hither by the superior -advantages of the soil. Some of them come from Europe, but a -larger number come from the old Canadian provinces and from -those States of the Union which lie near the frontier. Most of -them are men who have sold the lands which they formerly -owned, and come with capital sufficient to provide the most -approved agricultural appliances. The price for which land can -be obtained is inconsiderable; and while the average holding -does not exceed two hundred acres, many persons have acquired -large tracts.</p> - -<p>The rapid settlement of this central territory of Canada is -one of the great social and political factors of the future for -Canada and for Europe. The development of the vast resources -of Manitoba must hasten the progress of the Dominion to -wealth and consideration. To the growers of food on the -limited and highly-rented fields of Europe it furnishes reasonable -occasion for anxiety. To those who are not producers, but -only consumers, it gives, in stronger terms than it has ever -previously been given, the acceptable assurance that the era of -famine lies far behind—that the human family, for many generations -to come, will enjoy the blessing of abundant and low-priced -food.</p> - -<p class="tb">Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific there lies a -vast tract of fertile land, possessing an area equal to six times -that of England and Wales. This is British Columbia—the -latest-born member of the confederation, which it entered only -in 1871. The waters of the Pacific exert upon its climate the -same softening influence which is carried by the Gulf Stream to -corresponding latitudes in Europe, and the average temperature -of Columbia does not differ materially from that of England. -Gold is found in the sands of the rivers which flow down from -the Rocky Mountains; coal in abundance lies near the surface;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> -large tracts are covered with pine forests, whose trees attain -unusual size;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> many islands stud the placid waters which wash -the western shores of the province; many navigable inlets sweep -far into the interior—deep into forests, for the transport of -whose timber they provide ample convenience. In the streams -and on the coasts there is an extraordinary abundance of fish; on -the banks of the Fraser River the English miner and the Indian -fisherman may be seen side by side pursuing their avocations -with success. The wealth of Columbia secures for her a prosperous -future; but as yet her development has only begun. -Her population is about twelve thousand, besides thirty thousand -Indians. Her great pine forests have yet scarcely heard -the sound of the axe; her rich valleys lie untilled; her coal and -iron wait the coming of the strong arms which are to draw forth -their treasures; even her tempting gold-fields are cultivated but -slightly. Columbia must become the home of a numerous and -thriving population, but in the meantime her progress is delayed -by her remoteness and her inaccessibility.</p> - -<p>Columbia herself feels deeply this temporary frustration of -her destiny. Her recent political history has been in large -measure the history of a grievance. <span class="sidenote">1871 A.D.</span> When she entered the -Confederation, the Dominion Government engaged that -in two years there should be commenced, and in ten years -there should be completed, the construction of a railway -to connect the sea-board of Columbia with the railway system of -Canada. In that time of universal inflation such engagements -were contracted lightly. A little later, when cool reflection -supervened, it was perceived that the undertaking was too vast -for the time allowed. Canada took no action beyond the ordering -of surveys; Columbia, in her isolation, complained loudly of the -faithlessness of her sisters. The impracticable contract was -reviewed, and a fresh engagement was given to the effect that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> -the work should begin so soon as surveys could be made, and -should reach completion in sixteen years. <span class="sidenote">1874 A.D.</span> The work is -now in progress; and Columbia, not without impatience -and some feeling of wrong, has consented to postpone the -opening of that era of prosperity which she full surely knows -to be in store.</p> - -<div class="smaller tb"> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1881 A.D.</span> [With a view to the prospective development of the Hudson Bay route, a -charter was recently obtained for the construction of a railway, to follow -the line of the Nelson River, from Norway House on Lake Winnipeg -to York Factory on Hudson Bay, thus connecting the over-sea navigation -available from the latter point with steam-boat lines plying inland from -the former. There would still, however, seem to be considerable diversity of -opinion among people on the spot, as to whether the route in question can -successfully compete, at least for a good many years to come, with the -facilities which will soon be offered by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. -The line now being built by that enterprising body of capitalists has already -been carried about 250 miles west of Winnipeg, and is expected, by the -close of next year, to have reached the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. -At present, there is an outlet from Manitoba, by rail, to Duluth on Lake -Superior and to Chicago on Lake Michigan; but the opening, which cannot -now be long delayed, of the Canadian Pacific line between Winnipeg and the -west end of the former lake, in conjunction with the enlargement of the -Welland Canal, so as to enable large vessels to pass the Falls of Niagara, -will provide a new rail and water route to Montreal, by which, it is believed, -wheat may be carried that distance for something less than the nine shillings -and sixpence per quarter which it now costs by Duluth. The construction -of the railway along the north side of Lake Superior, which the Canadian -Pacific Company is taken bound to complete within ten years, will ultimately -afford all-rail communication right through to the eastern sea-board: -and it remains to be seen whether, with such means of transit at command, -any considerable proportion of traffic will follow a route which, it is alleged, -can only be depended upon for three months in the year, and which, in the -opinion of some seafaring men, may occasionally be found difficult to work -even during that period from the presence of ice in Hudson Strait. On the -other hand, there comes, of course, the consideration that, if the development -of the north-west should answer the expectations generally entertained, -there may by-and-by be sufficient surplus produce for exportation to keep a -Hudson Bay railway and steam-boat line, as well as all the other practicable -outlets of that vast region, in remunerative operation.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="CANADA_CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PROGRESS OF THE CANADIAN NATION.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-c.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Canada is, in respect of extent, the noblest colonial -possession over which any nation has ever exercised -dominion. It covers an area of three million three -hundred and thirty thousand square miles. Our -great Indian Empire is scarcely larger than one-fourth of its -size. Europe is larger by only half a million square miles; the -United States is smaller to nearly the same extent. The distances -with which men have to deal in Canada are enormous. -From Ottawa to Winnipeg is fourteen hundred miles—a journey -equal to that which separates Paris from Constantinople: -the adventurous traveller, who would push his way from -Winnipeg to the extreme north-west, has a farther distance of -two thousand miles to traverse. The representatives of Vancouver -Island must travel two thousand five hundred miles in -order to reach the seat of Government. The journey from -London to the Ural Mountains is not greater in distance, and -is not by any means so difficult. From Halifax, the capital -of Nova Scotia, to New Westminster, the capital of British -Columbia, there is a distance of four thousand miles—about the -distance as that which intervenes between London and -Chicago, or between London and the sources of the Nile.</p> - -<p>The people on whom has devolved this vast heritage are in -number about four million. It is greatly beyond their powers, -as yet, to subdue and possess the continent upon whose fringes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> -they have settled. Nevertheless, their progress is now so rapid -in numbers and industrial development, and the wealth which -lies around them is so great, that year by year they must fill a -larger place in the world’s regard, and exercise a wider influence -upon the course of human affairs. At the beginning of the -century they numbered scarcely a quarter of a million—the -slow growth of two hundred years of misgovernment and strife. -Twenty-five years thereafter their numbers had more than -doubled; in the following quarter of a century they had trebled. -During the ten years from 1851 to 1861 the annual increase -was one hundred and twenty thousand; in the following decade -it was at the rate of sixty thousand, of which less than one-half -was by immigration. The increase is mainly rural; there are -no very powerful influences favouring the growth of great cities. -Montreal has a population of one hundred and seven thousand; -Quebec, of sixty thousand; Toronto has grown to fifty thousand; -Halifax to thirty thousand. All European nations are represented -on Canadian soil. Of English, Scotch, and Irish there are -over two million; of Frenchmen over one million. Germans, -Russians, Dutchmen, Swiss make up the remainder. The fusion -of races has yet made imperfect progress; the characteristic aspect -and habits of each nationality remain with little modification.</p> - -<p>The Canadian people maintain a large and growing commerce, -one-half of which is with the mother country. Their exports -are £18,000,000; their imports are £26,000,000. They purchase -iron largely in England, the time having not yet come -when their own abundant stores of this article can be made -available. They import annually four million tons of coal; but -the approaching close of this traffic is already foreshadowed by -the circumstance that they also export the product of their own -mines to the extent of four hundred thousand tons. Textile -manufactures are steadily gaining importance in Canada; but as -yet the people clothe themselves to a large extent in the woollen -and cotton fabrics of the old country.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span></p> - -<p>Canada sells annually the produce of her forests to the extent -of five million sterling, and of her fields to the extent of four -million. The harvest of the sea yields a value of over two -million, of which one-half is sent abroad; the furs which her -hunters collect bear a value of half a million. She extracts -from the maple-tree sugar to the annual value of four million; -her frugal cottagers gather annually two million pounds of -honey from the labours of the bee.</p> - -<p>The lumber trade is the most characteristic of Canadian industries. -On the eastern portion of the Dominion, stretching -northwards towards the Arctic regions, illimitable forests clothe -the ground. For the most part these are yet undisturbed by man. -But in the valleys of streams which flow into the St. Lawrence, -notably in the valley of the picturesque Ottawa, the lumber -trade is prosecuted with energy. Year by year as autumn -draws towards its close numerous bands of woodsmen set out -for the scene of their invigorating labours. A convenient -locality is chosen near a river, whose waters give motion to a -saw-mill, and will in due time bear the felled timber down to -the port of shipment. A hut is hastily erected to form the -home of the men during the winter months. The best trees in -the neighbourhood are selected, and fall in thousands under the -practised axe of the lumberman. When the warmth of approaching -summer sets free the waters of the frozen stream, -the trees are floated to the saw-mill, and cut there into manageable -lengths. They are then formed into great rafts, -on which villages of huts are built for the accommodation of -the returning woodsmen. The winter months are spent in -cutting down the timber; the whole of the summer is often -spent in conducting to Quebec or the Hudson the logs and -planks which have been secured. The forests of Canada are -a source of great and enduring wealth. They form also -the nursery of a hardy, an enduring, and withal a temperate -population; for the lumberman ordinarily dispenses with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> -the treacherous support of alcohol, and is content to recruit -his energies by the copious use of strong tea and of salted -pork.</p> - -<p>The occupation of about one-half of the Canadian people is -agriculture. In the old provinces there are nearly five hundred -thousand persons who occupy agricultural lands. Of these, -nine-tenths own the soil which they till; only one-tenth pay -rent for their lands, and they do so for the most part only until -they have gained enough to become purchasers. The agricultural -labourer—a class so numerous and so little to be envied -in England—is almost unknown in Canada. No more than -two thousand persons occupy this position, which is to them -merely a step in the progress towards speedy ownership. Land -is easily acquired; for the Government, recognizing that the -grand need of Canada is population, offers land to every man -who will occupy and cultivate, or sells at prices which are little -more than nominal. The old provinces are filling up steadily if -not with rapidity. During the ten years from 1851 to 1861 the -land under cultivation had become greater by about one-half. -During the following decade the increase was in the same -proportion. Schools of agriculture and model farms have been -established by Government, and the rude methods by which -cultivation was formerly carried on have experienced vast -ameliorations. Agriculture has become less wasteful and more -productive. Much attention is given to the products of the -dairy. Much care has been successfully bestowed upon the -improvement of horses and cattle. The manufacture and use -of agricultural implements has largely increased. The short -Canadian summer lays upon the farmer the pressing necessity -of swift harvesting, and renders the help of machinery specially -valuable. In the St. Lawrence valley the growing of fruit is -assiduously prosecuted; and the apples, pears, plums, peaches, -and grapes of that region enjoy high reputation. Success almost -invariably rewards the industrious Canadian farmer. The rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> -fields, the well-fed cattle, the comfortable farm-houses, all tell -of prosperity and contentment.</p> - -<p>The fisheries of the Dominion form one of its valuable industries. -The eastern coasts are resorted to by myriads of -fishes, most prominent among which is the cod-fish, whose preference -for low temperatures restrains its further progress southward. -Sixty thousand men and twenty-five thousand boats -find profitable occupation in reaping this abundant harvest. A -Minister of Fisheries watches over this great industry. Seven -national institutions devote themselves to the culture of fish, -especially of the salmon, and prosecute experiments in regard -to the introduction of new varieties.</p> - -<p>The Mercantile Navy of the Dominion is larger than that of -France. It comprises seven thousand ships, of the aggregate -tonnage of one million and a quarter; while the tonnage of -Great Britain is six million. Canada has invested in her shipping -a capital of seven and a half million sterling. She uses -the timber of her forests in building ships for herself and for -other countries. The annual product of her building-yards is -considerably over a million sterling.</p> - -<p>The burden laid by taxation upon the Canadians is not -oppressive. Taxation is raised almost entirely in the form of -custom and excise duties, and amounts to four million sterling. -This is an average rate of one pound for each of the population; -not differing appreciably from the rate of taxation in the United -States, but being considerably less than one-half of that which -now prevails in Great Britain.</p> - -<p>Canada trusts for her defence against foreign enemies to -her militia and volunteers, of whom she has nominally a large -force. But only a handful of these are annually called out for -a few days of drill, and the Dominion spends no more than -£200,000 upon her military preparations. Her fleet is equally -modest, and consists of a few small steamers which serve on -the lakes and rivers, and mount in all about twenty guns.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p> - -<p>Besides the outlays incurred in carrying on the ordinary -business of Government, large sums, raised by loan, are annually -expended on public works. Navigation on the great rivers -of Canada is interrupted by numerous rapids and falls. Unless -these obstructions be overcome, the magnificent water-way -with which Canada is endowed will be of imperfect usefulness. -At many points on the rivers and lakes canals have been -constructed. The formidable impediment which the great Fall -of Niagara offers to navigation is surmounted by the Welland -Canal, twenty-seven miles in length, and on which, with its -branches, two and a half million sterling have been expended. -Much care is bestowed, too, upon the deepening of rivers and -the removal of rocks and other obstructions to navigation. The -vast distances of Canada render railways indispensable to her -development. The Canadian Government and people have duly -appreciated this necessity. They have already constructed -seven thousand miles of railway, and are proceeding rapidly -with further extension. The cost of railways already made -amounts to eighty million sterling, of which Government has -provided one-fourth. Very soon Canada will have a length of -railway equal to one-half that of Great Britain. But the disposition -to travel has not kept pace with the increased facilities -which have been provided. The average number of journeys -performed annually by each Englishman is seventeen, while the -Canadian average is not quite two.</p> - -<p>There still remain in the various provinces of the Dominion -about ninety thousand Indians, to represent the races who -possessed the continent when the white man found it. Two-thirds -of these are in the unpeopled wastes of Manitoba and -British Columbia; the remainder are settled in the old provinces. -The Indian policy of Canada has been from the beginning just -and kind, and it has borne appropriate fruits. The Governments -of the United States have signally failed in their management -of their Indian population. Faith has not been kept with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> -the savages. Treaties have again and again been made by the -Government and violated by the people. Lands have been -assigned to the Indians, and forcibly taken from them so soon -as possession was desired by any considerable number of white -men. Large grants of food and clothing have been given by the -Government, and shamelessly intercepted by dishonest traders. -Out of transactions such as these have sprung bitter hatreds, -ruthless massacres, inflicted now by the red man, now by the -white, and a state of feeling under which a Western American -will, on slight provocation, shoot down an Indian with as little -remorse as he would slay a stag. Canada has dealt in perfect -fairness with her Indians. She has recognized always the right -of the original occupants of the land. She has fulfilled with -inflexible faith every treaty into which she has entered. The -lands allotted to the Indians have been secured to them as effectively -as those of the white settler, or have been acquired from -them by fair process of sale and purchase. The Indians have -requited with constant loyalty the Government which has -treated them with justice. While the French ruled Canada -there was perpetual strife with the Indians, as there is to-day -in the United States. Canada under the British has never been -disturbed by an Indian war.</p> - -<p>The Indians of the older provinces have adopted settled -habits and betaken themselves to agriculture. In Ontario they -are steadily increasing in numbers and intelligence. Drunkenness -diminishes; education is eagerly sought; hunting gives -place to farming; the descendants of the barbarous Iroquois -have been transformed into industrious and prosperous citizens. -In Quebec there is also progress, but it is less rapid, and the -old drunken habits of the people have not yielded so completely -to the influences which surround them. The Indians of British -Columbia are still very drunken and debased, and their numbers -diminish rapidly. In Manitoba and the whole North-West -the condition of the Indians is very hopeful. Drunkenness is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> -almost unknown; crime is very rare; the demand for schools -and for persons who can teach how to build houses and till the -soil is universal and urgent. The buffalo has been the support -of the North-Western Indian. Its flesh was his food, its skin -was his clothing, the harness of his horse, the property by whose -sale all his remaining wants were supplied. The innumerable -multitudes of buffalo which frequented the plains maintained -in the Indian camp a rude affluence. But the buffalo gives -place before advancing civilization, and the Indians in alarm -hasten to find new means of subsistence.</p> - -<p>The problem which savage occupants present to the civilized -men who settle on their lands has been solved in Canada -by the simple but rare device of friendly and perfectly fair -dealing. The red men of Canada live contentedly under the -rule of the strangers, and prove that they are able to uphold -themselves by the white man’s industries. They adopt his -language, often to the disuse of their own, his dress, his customs, -his religion. Not only do the two races live in concord; their -blood has been largely mixed. The native race is probably -doomed to disappear, but this will not be the result of violence or -even of neglect. The history of the Indian race in Canada will -close with its peaceful absorption by the European races which -possess the continent.</p> - -<p>Thirty years ago the Canadians, borrowing largely from their -neighbours of the United States, perfected their common-school -system. Schools adequate to the wants of the population are -provided. A Board chosen by the people conducts the school -business of the district. The costs are defrayed by a local tax, -supplemented by a grant from the treasury of the province. In -general, no fees are charged; primary education is absolutely -free. The French Canadians manifest less anxiety for education -than their British neighbours, and have not yet emerged -from the ignorance which they brought with them from Europe, -and in which they were suffered for generations to remain. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> -Toronto and the maritime provinces the means of education -are ample, and are very generally taken advantage of by the -colonists.</p> - -<p class="tb">A noble heritage has been bestowed upon the Canadian -people. Treasures of the sea and of the soil, of forest and of -mine, are theirs in lavish abundance. Their climate, stern but -also kindly, favours the growth of physical and mental energy. -They enjoy freedom in its utmost completeness. Their peaceable -surroundings exempt them from the blight of war and the evils -of costly defensive preparation. For generations these inestimable -advantages were in large measure neutralized by the -enfeebling rivalries which divided the provinces. But internal -dissension has been silenced by confederation, and Canada has -begun to consolidate into a nation. Differences of religion and -of race still hold a place among the forces which are shaping -out her future, but the antipathies which they once inspired -have almost passed away. The distinctions of Catholic and -Protestant, Englishman and Frenchman, are being merged in -the common designation of Canadian, which all are proud to bear. -The welfare of Canada, her greatness in the years of the future, -are assured not merely by the vastness of her material resources, -but still more by the spirit which animates her people. The -destiny towards which the Canadian people are hastening is -fittingly indicated by the eloquent words of one of the ablest of -their Governor-Generals. <span class="sidenote">1875 A.D.</span> “However captivating,” said -Lord Dufferin, “may be the sights of beauty prepared -by the hands of Nature, they are infinitely enhanced by -the contemplation of all that man is doing to turn to their best -advantage the gifts thus placed within his reach. In every -direction you see human industry and human energy digging -deep the foundations, spreading out the lines, and marking the -inviolable boundaries upon and within which one of the most -intelligent and happiest offsets of the English race is destined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span> -to develop into a proud and great nation. The very atmosphere -seems impregnated with the exhilarating spirit of enterprise, -contentment, and hope. The sights and sounds which -caressed the senses of the Trojan wanderer in Dido’s Carthage -are repeated and multiplied in a thousand different localities in -Canada, where flourishing cities, towns, and villages are rising -in every direction with the rapidity of a fairy tale. And better -still, <i>pari passu</i> with the development of these material evidences -of wealth and happiness is to be observed the growth of -political wisdom, experience, and ability, perfectly capable of -coping with the difficult problems which are presented in a -country where new conditions, foreign to European experience, -and complications arising out of ethnological and geographical -circumstances, are constantly requiring the application of a -statesmanship of the highest order.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span></p> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h3>FOOTNOTES</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Francis I. said that he “would fain see the article in Adam’s will which bequeathed -the vast inheritance” to the Kings of Spain and Portugal.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> “One must be ready,” wrote this devout priest, full of faith, “to abandon life and all -he has; contenting himself, as his only riches, with a cross—very large and very heavy.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The fathers were wise in their generation. The Indians hated beards, and extirpated -their own. It was judicious to omit this distasteful feature from all sacred -representations.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_77">page 77</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Towards the close of her dominion in Canada, France expended about one million -sterling on her unprofitable colony, mainly in building forts along the enormous line -from Quebec to New Orleans, in order to shut in the English colonists.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> According to the best estimates, the population of Canada at this time was composed -of 100,000 Catholics and 400 Protestants.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_145">page 145</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In three years the debt had nearly doubled—rising from twenty-one to thirty-eight -million dollars. In 1859 it had further risen to fifty-four million.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> “It was here that Canada, emerging from her woods and forests, first gazed upon -her rolling prairies and unexplored North-West, and learned, as by an unexpected -revelation, that her historical territories of the Canadas—her eastern sea-boards of New -Brunswick, Labrador, and Nova Scotia; her Lawrentian lakes and valleys, corn-lands -and pastures—though themselves more extensive than half-a-dozen European kingdoms, -were but the vestibules and ante-chambers to that till then undreamt-of Dominion, -whose illimitable dimensions alike confound the arithmetic of the surveyor and the -verification of the explorer. It was hence that, counting her past achievements as but -the preface and prelude to her future exertions and expanding destinies, she took a -fresh departure, received the afflatus of a more imperial inspiration, and felt herself no -longer a mere settler along the banks of a single river, but the owner of half a continent; -and, in the magnitude of her possession, in the wealth of her resources, in the -sinews of her material might, the peer of any power on the earth.”—<i>Lord Dufferin, -Governor-General of Canada. Speech in the City Hall, Winnipeg, September 1877.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> With careful husbandry much better results are obtained. A yield of forty to fifty -bushels is common, and a prize was recently awarded to a farmer whose land yielded -one hundred and five bushels!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> In presence of Lord Dufferin a pine tree was felled whose height was two hundred -and fifty feet, and whose rings gave evidence of an age which dated from the reign of -Edward IV.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="SOUTH_AMERICA">SOUTH AMERICA.</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-c.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Columbus prosecuted, down to the close of life, the -great work of discovery to which, as he never ceased -to feel, God had set him apart. He occupied himself -almost entirely among those lovely islands to -which Providence had guided his uncertain way; seeing almost -nothing of the vast continents, on the right hand and on the -left, which he had gained for the use of civilized man. Once, -near the island of Trinidad, he was suffered to look for the only -time upon the glorious mainland, so lavishly endowed with -beauty and with wealth. Once again he sailed along the coasts -of the isthmus and landed upon its soil. But he scarcely passed, -in his researches, beyond the multitudinous islands which lay -around him on every side. He sailed among them with a heart -full, at the outset, of deep, solemn joy, over the unparalleled -victory which had been vouchsafed to him; full, towards the -close, with a bitter sense of ingratitude and perfidy. He had -made his first landing on the little island of San Salvador. -Voyaging thence he quickly found Cuba, “the most beautiful -island that eyes ever beheld, full of excellent ports and profound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> -rivers.” Then he discovered Hispaniola and Jamaica, -and a multitude of smaller islands. Thirteen years of life were -still left to him, and Columbus was content to expend them -among the sights and sounds which had caressed his delighted -senses at his first coming into this enchanted world.</p> - -<p>But there were other adventurers, allured by the success -which had crowned the efforts of Columbus, and hastening now -to widen the scope of his inquiry. Five years from the first -landing of Columbus, John Cabot had explored the northern -continent from Labrador to Florida. Many navigators who had -sailed with Columbus in his early voyages now fitted out small -expeditions, in order to make fresh discoveries on the southern -continent. Successive adventurers traversed its entire northern -coasts. One discovered the great River of the Amazons; another -passed southwards along the coasts of Brazil. Before the century -closed, almost the whole of the northern and eastern shores -of South America had been visited and explored.</p> - -<p>Ten or twelve years after Columbus had discovered the mainland, -there was a Spanish settlement at the town of Darien on -the isthmus. Prominent among the adventurers who prosecuted, -from this centre of operations, the Spaniard’s eager and ruthless -search for gold was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa—a man cruel and -unscrupulous as the others, but giving evidence of wider views -and larger powers of mind than almost any of his fellows. -Vasco Nuñez visited one day a friendly chief, from whom he -received in gift a large amount of gold. The Spaniards had -certain rules which guided them in the distribution of the spoils, -but in the application of these rules disputes continually fell -out. It so happened on this occasion that a noisy altercation -arose. A young Indian prince, regarding with unconcealed -contempt the clamour of the greedy strangers, told them that, -since they prized gold so highly, he would show them a country -where they might have it in abundance. Southward, beyond -the mountains, was a great sea; on the coasts of that sea there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> -was a land of vast wealth, where the people ate and drank from -vessels of gold. This was the first intimation which Europeans -received of the Pacific Ocean and the land of Peru on the western -shore of the continent. Vasco Nuñez resolved to be the -discoverer of that unknown sea. Among his followers was -Francisco Pizarro, who became, a few years later, the discoverer -and destroyer of Peru.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1513 A.D.</span> Vasco Nuñez gathered about two hundred well-armed men, -and a number of dogs, who were potent allies in his -Indian wars. He climbed with much toil the mountain -ridge which traverses the isthmus. After twenty-five days -of difficult journeying, his Indians told him that he was almost -in view of the ocean. He chose that he should look for the -first time on that great sight alone. <span class="sidenote">Sept. 25.</span> He made his men remain -behind, while he, unattended, looked down upon the -Sea of the South, and drank the delight of this memorable -success. Upon his knees he gave thanks to God, and -joined with his followers in devoutly singing the <i>Te Deum</i>. He -made his way down to the coast. Wading into the tranquil -waters, he called his men to witness that he took possession for -the Kings of Castile of the sea and all that it contained—a -large claim, assuredly, for the Pacific covers more than one-half -the surface of the globe.</p> - -<p>Many of the adventurers realized large gains in gold and -pearls, from their trading with the natives. But the hunger -of the Spaniards for gold was still utterly unsatisfied. No considerable -quantity of gold had been found in the islands; but -the constant report of the natives pointed to regions in the interior -where the precious metals abounded. On the mainland, -beside the Gulf of Paria, the early voyagers were able to obtain -more ample supplies. When Columbus explored the Mosquito -country and Costa Rica, he found the natives in possession of -massive ornaments of gold, on which they did not seem to -place very special value. Still the natives spoke of a country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span> -far away among the mountains where gold and precious stones -were profusely abundant. The Spaniards continued to advance -in the direction to which these rumours pointed. As they -approached the northern portions of Central America, evidences -of higher civilization and greater wealth multiplied around -them. The natives lived in houses solidly built of stone and -lime, their temples were highly ornamented, the soil was more -carefully cultivated here than elsewhere; above all, there was -much gold, which could be obtained in exchange for the worthless -trinkets offered by the strangers. <span class="sidenote">1518 A.D.</span> At length the Spaniards -arrived on the borders of Mexico, and held intercourse -with the chief who ruled over the region to which they -had come.</p> - -<p>When the Spanish Governor of Cuba heard of the tempting -wealth of Mexico, he determined to send out an expedition -sufficiently strong to effect the conquest of the country. Hernando -Cortes, then a young man of thirty-three, was intrusted -with the guidance of this arduous enterprise. Cortes was a -man of middle height and slender figure, with pale complexion -and large dark eyes; of grave aspect, and with an air of command -which secured prompt obedience; of resolution which no -danger could shake; inexhaustibly fertile of resource, and eminently -fitted, therefore, to lead men who were about to encounter -unknown perils. Cortes having placed his fleet under the protection -of St. Peter, and having kindled the enthusiasm of his -men by assurances of glory and wealth and divine favour, -sailed for the coast of Yucatan. <span class="sidenote">Feb 18, 1519 A.D.</span> His forces numbered -seven hundred Europeans and two hundred Indians. -He had fourteen pieces of artillery. His enemies had -not yet seen the horse, and Cortes sought anxiously to have the -means of overawing them by the sudden attack of cavalry. -But horses were scarce, for they had still to be brought from -Europe; and only sixteen mounted men rode in his ranks. -These diminutive forces were embarked in eleven little ships,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> -the largest of which did not exceed one hundred tons -burden.</p> - -<p>Cortes disembarked his army on a wide sandy plain where -now stands the city of Vera Cruz, the chief sea-port of Mexico. -He was within rather less than two hundred miles of the capital -of the country, and he sent to demand access to the presence -of the King. Pictures, which represented the ships and the -cannon and the horses of the Spaniards, had been forwarded to -Montezuma, who pondered with his councillors those symbols -of mysterious and terrible power. The council failed to ascertain -the true character of the strangers, and remained in doubt -whether they were supernatural beings or merely the envoys of -some distant sovereign. Montezuma came to the conclusion -that in any case they should be persuaded to depart and leave -his country in peace. He sent an embassy to point out the -dangers of the journey, and request his unwelcome visitors to -return to their own land. But, by a fatal indiscretion, the -ambassadors supported the King’s request by rich gifts:—a -helmet filled to the brim with gold; two circular plates of gold -and silver “as large as carriage-wheels;” a multitude of ornamental -articles of costly material and beautiful workmanship. -The greedy eyes of the Spaniards glistened with delight as the -treasures of the simple monarch were spread before them. -From that moment the ruin of Montezuma was sealed.</p> - -<p>Cortes prepared for his advance upon the Mexican capital -by destroying all the ships of his fleet with one solitary exception. -There were faint hearts among his men, and fears which -counselled early return to Cuba. Cortes had accepted for himself -the alternative of success or utter ruin, and he purposed -that his men should have no other. When the enfeebling possibility -of escape was withdrawn, he roused their courage by -appeals to the complex motives which swayed the Spaniards -of that day. The desire to plant the cross on the temples of -the heathen, the craving for glory and for gain, nerved the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> -hearts of the warriors, who now, trusting to the skill of their -leader and the protecting care of Divine Providence, went forth -to the conquest of a great empire.</p> - -<p>Their way led at first across plains sodden and rendered almost -impassable by the summer rain. <span class="sidenote">Aug. 16, 1519 A.D.</span> Soon they left the plain -and began to climb the long ascent of the Cordilleras, -up towards the great table-land where the city of Mexico -stands. They left, too, the warmth of the coast, and -traversed a dreary mountain-region, swept by cold winds and -tempests of sleet and snow. They passed under the shadow of -volcanic mountains whose fires had been long extinguished; -they looked down the sheer depths of dizzy precipices, and saw, -far below, the luxuriant vegetation which a tropical heat drew -forth. At length they came within the fertile and populous -territory of the Tlascalans—a bold republican people who maintained -with difficulty their independence against the superior -strength of Montezuma. Cortes sought the alliance of this -people; but they unwisely rejected his overtures and attacked -his army. It was not till the close of two days of fighting that -Cortes routed his assailants. The bold savages endured the -dreaded attack of Spanish horsemen, the murderous discharge -of Spanish artillery; they offered their defenceless bodies to the -Spanish sword and lance, and were slaughtered in thousands, -while their feeble arms scarcely harmed the invaders. The -humbled Tlascalans hastened to conclude peace, and a great -fear of the irresistible strangers spread far and wide among the -population of the plateau. Montezuma once more sent large -gifts of the gold which the Spaniards loved, and vainly begged -them to forbear from coming to his capital.</p> - -<p>Fifteen miles from Tlascala stood the city of Cholula, which -Cortes now received an invitation to visit. Cortes found Cholula -“a more beautiful city than any in Spain,” lying in a well-tilled -plain, with many lofty towers, and with a dense population. -Montezuma had enticed the Spaniards hither that he might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> -destroy them; and to that end he had prepared an ambuscade -of twenty thousand Mexican troops. But Cortes detected the -plot, and having drawn a large assemblage of the chiefs and -their followers into the great square, he gave the signal for an -indiscriminate and unsparing massacre. The defenceless people -fell in thousands; and Cortes, satisfied with the fearful lesson -he had taught, erected an altar and cross, addressed the priests -and chiefs on the excellences of the Christian religion, and -resumed his advance on Mexico.</p> - -<p>For a few leagues the way led up the steep side of a great -volcanic mountain, then in a state of eruption, although its -fires are now extinguished. A dense forest for a time impeded -their march; then, as they ascended, vegetation ceased, and -they passed within the line of everlasting snow. At length, -rounding a shoulder of the mountain, the great valley of -Mexico, seen afar in that clear air, spread itself before them, in -all its glory of lake and city, of garden and forest and cultivated -plain. There were Spaniards who looked with fear upon the -evidences of a vast population, and demanded to be led back to -the security of the coast; but for the most part the soldiers, -trusting to the skill of their leader and the favour of Heaven, -thought joyfully of the vast plunder which lay before them, and -hastened down the mountain-side.</p> - -<p>The city of Mexico contained then a population which the -Spaniards estimated at three hundred thousand souls. It was -built in a shallow salt-water lake, and was approached by -many broad and massive causeways, on some of which eight -horsemen could ride abreast. The streets were sometimes -wholly of water; sometimes they were of water flanked by solid -foot-paths. There were numerous temples; the royal palaces -excelled those of Europe in magnificence; the market-place -accommodated fifty thousand persons, and the murmur of their -bargaining spread far over the city; the dwellings and the -aspect of the common people spoke of comfort and contentment.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Nov. 8, 1519 A.D.</span> Montezuma received his unwelcome visitors with munificent -although reluctant hospitality, and assigned one of his -palaces as their place of residence while it should please -them to remain. Cortes, whose desire to convert the -heathen was of equal urgency with his desire to plunder -them, took an early opportunity to acquaint Montezuma with -the leading doctrines of the Christian faith, and to assure him -that the gods of the Mexicans were not gods at all, but “evil -things which are called devils.” But the unconvinced heathen -refused his doctrine, and expressed himself satisfied with his -gods such as they were.</p> - -<p>For several days Cortes lived peaceably as the guest of -Montezuma, pondering deeply the next step which he must -take in this marvellous career. He perceived the full danger -of his position. A handful of invaders had thrust themselves -among a vast population, whose early feelings of wonder and -fear were rapidly passing into hatred, and who would probably, -ere long, attempt their destruction. Against this danger no -guarantee was so immediately available as possession of the -King’s person. With the calm decision in which lay much of -his strength, Cortes rode down to the palace, attended by a -competent escort, and brought the astonished but unresisting -Montezuma home to the Spanish quarters. The Mexicans -revered their sovereign with honours scarcely less than divine, -and Cortes felt that while he possessed the King he was able -to command the people. In a few days more Montezuma -and his great lords professed themselves vassals of the King of -Spain.</p> - -<p>For six months Cortes ruled Mexico. He dethroned the -Mexican gods, and he suppressed the human sacrifices which the -Mexican priests offered profusely to their hideous idols. He -built ships for defence; he sowed maize for food: he gave -attention to mining, that he might have gold to satisfy the -needs of the King of Spain. While he was thus occupied, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span> -learned that eighteen ships had arrived near his little settlement -of Vera Cruz. They carried a force of eighty horsemen, fourteen -hundred foot soldiers, and twenty pieces of cannon, sent -by the Governor of Cuba, who was jealous of his success, with -instructions to arrest Cortes and his companions. It was a -threatening interruption to a victorious career. Cortes devolved -his government upon Alvarado, a rugged soldier in whom he had -confidence, and with only seventy men hastened to encounter his -new foes. By skill and daring he achieved decisive success, and -within a few weeks from the day he quitted Mexico he was -ready to return, strengthened by the arms of those whom he -had subdued, and whom he now gained over to his cause.</p> - -<p>But during those weeks events of grave import had occurred -in Mexico. The absence of Cortes resulted in a visible diminution -of the meek submission with which the Mexicans -had hitherto demeaned themselves towards their conquerors. -Rumours arose that a revolt was in contemplation. Alvarado -resolved to anticipate the expected treachery. The time of the -annual religious festival had come, and the great lords of -Mexico were engaged in the sacred dance which formed the -closing ceremonial. Suddenly a strong force of armed Spaniards -attacked the undefended worshippers, six hundred of -whom were slaughtered. The outraged city instantly rose -against its murderous tyrants. The Spaniards endured at the -hands of their despised assailants a blockade which must have -quickly ended in ruin unless Cortes had hastened to their relief.</p> - -<p>Cortes returned in time at the head of thirteen hundred -soldiers, of whom one hundred were horsemen. He found -the city wholly turned against him. <span class="sidenote">June 24, 1520 A.D.</span> The next day, a -formidable attack was made. The streets and terraced -roofs of the houses could not be seen, so densely -were they covered by assailants; stones were thrown -in such numbers that it seemed as if it rained stones; the -arrows shot by the Mexicans so covered the courts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> -fortress that it became difficult to move about. The Indians -attempted almost successfully to scale the walls, offering their -undefended bosoms, with reckless disregard of life, to the -musketry and artillery, whose discharge swept them down by -hundreds. Their feeble weapons wounded, but scarcely ever -killed; but at the close of each day Cortes found his fighting -strength diminished by the loss of sixty or eighty men. Food -could scarcely be obtained, for the people withheld supplies. -To such a measure of intensity had the cruelty of their oppressors -kindled the hatred of the Indians, that they were -willing to spend thousands of their own lives, if by the costly -sacrifice they might compass the death of one Spaniard. It -was necessary for Cortes to be gone. First, however, he would -endeavour to conjure his assailants into submission by the -voice of their King. The unhappy Montezuma came forth upon -a balcony and besought the infuriated people to cease from -resistance. But the spell had lost its power, and the fallen -monarch was struck down and fatally injured by a shower of -arrows and of stones. Cortes left the city that night. <span class="sidenote">July 1, 1520 A.D.</span> His -stealthy retreat was discovered, and the vengeful savages -caught him at fearful disadvantage. They swarmed -in their canoes around the broken bridges where the -Spaniards had to pass. In the darkness the retreat -speedily became a hopeless and bloody rout. Four hundred -and fifty Spaniards perished, with a large number of their -Indian allies and one-half of the horses. The artillery was -wholly lost. It is said that when Cortes became aware of the -ruin which had been wrought, he sat down upon a great stone -in a Mexican village and wept bitterly.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<p>Cortes withdrew to Tlascala, where his allies, unacquainted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span> -with the practice of civilized life, adhered with unswerving -loyalty to a fallen cause. Many of his soldiers were eager to -quit the scene of their crushing defeat. Cortes resolved to -maintain his hold upon the country he had won. He united -many states in a great league for the overthrow of Mexico. -He sent ships to Hispaniola for horses, men, and arms. He -ordered brigantines to be built at Tlascala. Six months after -his defeat he was again before Mexico with a force of nearly a -thousand Spaniards and a hundred thousand native allies—with -horsemen, and musketeers, and a fleet of brigantines, to -command the lake and the approaches to the city. It was -not till May, however, that active operations were commenced.</p> - -<p>The siege lasted for almost three months. During many -days Cortes forced his way constantly into the city, retiring -at nightfall to his camps in the outskirts. Always he inflicted -fearful slaughter upon the Indians, sparing neither age nor -sex: occasionally the brave savages had their revenge, and -the Spaniards, looking up to the summit of the great temple, -witnessed in horror comrades offered in sacrifice to the Mexican -gods. Unwonted horrors attended this cruel siege. The -Indian allies of Cortes frequently banqueted upon the bodies -of their slain enemies, and frequently supplied the materials -for a like ghastly feast. Famine and disease pressed heavily -on the doomed city; but no suffering or danger quelled the -heroic resistance of the despairing people. At length Cortes -resolved to destroy the beautiful city, step by step as he gained -it. The houses were pulled down and their materials thrown -into the lake. The Mexicans refused to yield; they desired -only to die. Enfeebled by hunger they ceased to fight, and -the siege became little more than a ruthless slaughter -of unresisting wretches. <span class="sidenote">Aug. 13, 1520 A.D.</span> At length the new King was -taken, and all opposition was at an end. The great -mass of the population had perished. The lake and the -houses and the streets were full of dead bodies. Palaces and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span> -temples and private dwellings had fallen. The Spanish historian,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> -who was present, and who in his time had witnessed -many horrors, “does not know how he may describe” these. -He had read the awful story of the destruction of Jerusalem, -but he doubts whether its terrors equalled those which attended -the fall of Mexico.</p> - -<p class="tb">The fame of this appalling success spread far and wide in -Central America. From great distances southward embassies -sought the conqueror, to conciliate his favour, to offer submission -to the great monarch whose servants had beaten to -the ground the power of the Aztec tyrants. A thousand miles -away Cortes had allies and vassals. Still farther to the south -was the rich province of Guatemala, with great and well-built -cities, the home of a people whose progress in the arts of -civilized life was not inconsiderable. Regarding these people -reports were carried to Cortes that they had lately manifested -to his allies dispositions less cordial than had heretofore -existed. Three years had now passed since the conquest -of Mexico, and Cortes and his followers were ready for -new enterprises. An expedition, composed of two hundred -and eighty men, with four cannon, with “much ammunition -and powder,” was sent forth under Pedro de Alvarado to -ascertain the truth of those statements which had been reported -to Cortes. <span class="sidenote">Dec. 1523 A.D.</span> Alvarado, a gallant but ruthless warrior, -forced his way into the fertile valleys of Guatemala. -He fought many battles against great native armies, -and inflicted vast slaughter—himself almost unharmed. -He slew the King; he overthrew cities; he gathered -together the chiefs of a certain province, “and as it was for the -good and pacification of this country he burned them.” The -people were given over as slaves to Spaniards who desired -them. While busied with these awful arrangements the devout<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> -Alvarado did not fail to entreat that Cortes would appoint -a solemn procession of Mexican clergy, to the effect that -Our Lady might procure for him the succour of Heaven against -the urgent perils of his enterprise. Under such auspices -Guatemala became a Spanish possession.</p> - -<p class="tb">Among the followers of Vasco Nuñez there was a middle-aged -Spanish warrior, slow, silent, but gifted with a terrible -pertinacity in following out his purposes. His name was -Francisco Pizarro. He probably heard the young Indian tell -of the wealth of Peru.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> He was beside Vasco Nuñez when -that eager discoverer waded into the waters of the Pacific. A -little later he arrested his chief and led him to a death of -violence. He had taken part in an expedition in which the -Spaniards, pursued by overwhelming forces, stabbed their -prisoners as they retreated, and left them dying on the way, -in order to hinder the pursuit. He was wholly without education, -and was unable even to sign his own name. At this -time he was living near Panama, on certain lands which he -had obtained, along with the customary allotment of Indian -labourers. Here he applied himself to cattle-farming; and -his labours and his gains were shared with two partners—Almagro, -the son of a labouring man, and De Luque, a schoolmaster. -The associates prospered in their industry, and it -seemed probable that they would live in obscurity, and die -wealthy country gentlemen. But Pizarro had never ceased -to brood over the assurances which he had heard ten years -before, that there were in the south regions whose wealth surpassed -all that the Spaniards had yet discovered. He wished -to find a shorter path to greatness than cattle-farming supplied, -and he was able to inspire his associates with the same ambition. -The scope of the copartnery was strangely widened. -The rearing of cattle was abandoned, and a formal contract<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span> -was entered into for the discovery and conquest of Peru. -Pizarro was to conduct the enterprise; Almagro was to bring -to him reinforcements and needful stores; De Luque was to -procure funds. The profits resulting from their efforts were -to be equally divided. They were ridiculed in Panama as -madmen; but the courage and tenacity of Pizarro sufficed to -crown with terrible success purposes which in their origin -seemed wholly irrational.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Nov. 1524 A.D.</span> The early history of the expedition was disastrous. Pizarro -sailed from Panama on his career of conquest, attended by -eighty men and four horses. He crept down the coast; -landing occasionally to find only a rugged and barren -country. Hunger fell on his followers, and many -died. The Indians assailed them with poisoned arrows, -and slew some. The forests were impenetrably dense; the -climate was unwholesome. Almagro brought a small reinforcement; -but the employment became intolerable, and the men, -losing heart, returned to Panama. Pizarro, with only fourteen -followers, sought shelter on an uninhabited island, “which -those who have seen it compare to the infernal regions.” -Here they spent three wretched months, living on shell-fish -and what else the sharpened eye of hunger could discover. <span class="sidenote">1527 A.D.</span> Strengthened by supplies which Almagro was -able to send, they set forth once more and moved southward -along the coast. And now they found the region of -which they had dreamed so long. They landed in the northern -part of Peru. Gold was everywhere. They found a temple -whose walls were lined with plates of gold; a palace where -every vessel, for use or for ornament, was formed of gold. -The people were gentle, and received them hospitably. But -Pizarro had no more than fourteen men with him—a force -wholly inadequate for purposes of conquest. <span class="sidenote">1528 A.D.</span> He returned -to Panama, and thence to Spain, bearing to the -King the thrilling story of his marvellous discovery. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span> -King bestowed large rights of government upon the successful -adventurer; and as the conversion of the natives was an -end steadily prosecuted by the Spanish Government, a bishopric -in the newly-found territory was assigned to his partner De -Luque. But Pizarro had omitted to obtain honours or advantages -for Almagro—an omission which drew in its train a long -series of destructive strifes among the conquerors.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Dec. 1530 A.D.</span> Once more Pizarro set forth to conquer the great kingdom -of which he now claimed to be governor. His forces consisted -of one hundred and eighty-three men and thirty-seven -horses. He found it necessary to wait for additional -strength; and he encamped in an unhealthy locality, -where his men suffered severely. At length he was -joined by a reinforcement of fifty-six men, one-half of whom -were mounted. He had incurred a delay of seven months; -but the time was well spent. While he waited the Peruvians -lightened his task by a civil war, in which multitudes perished. -To secure retreat, in event of disaster, Pizarro resolved to -found a city. He chose a convenient site, and erected several -strong buildings, among which were a church, a court-house, -and a fortress. He left fifty men to garrison his settlement, -to which he gave the name of San Miguel, in recognition of -services rendered to him by that saint in a recent battle. He -divided the neighbouring lands among his citizens, and assigned -to each a certain number of Indians—an arrangement which, -as he was assured, was not merely indispensable to the comfort -of the settlers, but “would serve the cause of religion and -tend greatly to the spiritual welfare” of the savages thus -provided for.</p> - -<p>And now his simple preparations were completed. He had -learned that at the distance of twelve days’ journey eastward -beyond the great mountain barrier of the Cordilleras the -Peruvian monarch was encamped with a powerful army, -flushed with victory in the civil war which had just closed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span> -It seemed a wild adventure to go forth with a hundred and -eighty men against an enemy computed at fifty thousand. -But Pizarro knew what Cortes had accomplished with means -apparently as inadequate; he trusted in the well-proved -courage of his men, the vast superiority of their arms, and -the favour of the saints. He had placed himself where hesitation -must draw in its train inevitable ruin. But there -was no hesitation in the steady purpose of the resolute, -tenacious Pizarro. He determined to encounter the -victorious Inca. <span class="sidenote">Sept. 24, 1532 A.D.</span> He marched forth from the gates of -his little town, eastward towards the mountains and the unknown -perils which lay beyond.</p> - -<p>For several days the march of the Spaniards led them across -the rich plains which lay between the mountains and the sea. -Their progress was easy and pleasant, and they passed several -well-built and apparently prosperous towns, whose inhabitants -hospitably supplied their wants. At length the vast heights -of the Andes cast their shadows on the little army, and the -toilsome ascent was begun. The path was so steep that the -cavalry dismounted and with difficulty led their horses upward; -so narrow that there was barely room for a horse to -walk; in many places it overhung abysses thousands of feet -in depth, into which men and horses looked with fear. As -they rose, the opulent vegetation of the tropics was left behind, -and they passed through dreary forests of stunted pine-wood. -The piercing cold was keenly felt by men and horses long accustomed -to the sultry temperature of the plains. But the -summit was reached in safety, and the descent of the eastern -slope begun. As they followed the downward path, each step -disclosed some new scene of grandeur or of beauty.</p> - -<p>On the seventh day, the hungry eyes of the adventurers -looked down on a fertile valley. A broad stream flowed -through its well-cultivated meadows; the white walls of a -little city glittered in the evening sun; far as the eye could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span> -reach there stretched along the slopes of the surrounding hills -the tents which sheltered the Peruvian army. The Spaniards -had reached their destination. They had reached the city of -Cassamarca, and they were almost in presence of the Inca -Atahualpa, whom they had come to subdue and destroy. In -the stoutest heart of that little party there was for the moment -“confusion, and even fear.” But no retreat was possible now. -Pizarro formed his men in order of battle, and with unmoved -countenance strode towards the city.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Nov. 15, 1532 A.D.</span> The Inca knew of the coming of his visitors, and had made -some preparations for their reception. Quarters were assigned -to them in a range of buildings which opened upon -a vast square. It was evening when they arrived; -but Pizarro lost no time in sending one of his -brothers, with Fernando de Soto and a small troop -of horsemen, to wait upon the Inca and ascertain his dispositions. -The ambassadors were admitted to the royal -presence and informed that next morning the monarch with -his chieftains would visit Pizarro. Riding back to their -quarters, the men thought gloomily of the overwhelming force -into whose presence they had rashly thrust themselves. Their -comrades shared the foreboding which the visit to the Peruvian -camp had inspired. When night came on they looked out almost -hopelessly upon the watch-fires of the Peruvians, which -seemed to them “as numerous as the stars of heaven.”</p> - -<p>Happily for the desponding warriors, the courage of their -chief was unshaken by the dangers which surrounded him. -Pizarro did not conceal from himself the jeopardy in which -he stood. He saw clearly that ruin was imminent. But -he saw, too, how by a measure of desperate boldness he -might not only save his army from destruction, but make -himself master of the kingdom. He would seize the Inca -in presence of his army. Once in possession of the sacred -person he could make his own terms. He could wait for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span> -the reinforcements which his success was sure to bring; at -the worst, he could purchase a safe retreat to the coast. He -informed the soldiers of his purpose, and roused their sinking -courage by assurances of divine favour and protection.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Nov. 16, 1532 A.D.</span> At sunrise next morning Pizarro began to make his -preparations. In the halls which formed the ground-floor -of the buildings beside the grand square he disposed -his horsemen and footmen. His two pieces of artillery -were planted on the fortress which looked down on the -square. The arms of the men were carefully examined, and -the chief made himself sure that swords were sharp and -arquebusses loaded. Then mass was said, and the men, who -stood ready to commit one of the foulest crimes in history, -joined devoutly in the chant, “Rise, O Lord, and judge thine -own cause.” About noon the sentinel on the fortress reported -that the Inca had set out from his camp. He himself, seated -on a throne of massive gold, was borne aloft on the shoulders -of his principal nobles; before him moved a crowd of attendants -whose duty it was to sweep every impurity from the path about -to be honoured by the advance of royalty; on either hand his -soldiers gathered towards the road to guard their King. At a -little distance from the city, Atahualpa paused, in seeming -doubt as to the measure he was adopting, and sent word to -Pizarro that he would defer his visit till the morrow. Pizarro -dreaded to hold his soldiers longer under the strain which -approaching danger laid upon them. He sent to entreat the -Inca to resume his journey, and the Inca complied with the -treacherous request.</p> - -<p>About sunset the procession reached the gates of the square. -The servants, drawing aside, opened an avenue along which -the monarch was borne. After him a multitude of Peruvians -of all ranks crowded into the square, till five or six thousand -men were present. No Spaniard had yet been seen; for Pizarro -apparently shunned to look in the face of the man whom he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span> -had betrayed. At length his chaplain advanced and began to -explain to the astonished monarch the leading doctrines of the -Christian religion. As his exposition proceeded, it was noticed -that the Peruvian troops were drawing closer to the city. -Pizarro hastened now to strike the blow which he had prepared. -A gun was fired from the fortress. At this appointed signal -the Spaniards rushed from their hiding-places. The musketeers -plied their deadly weapons. The cavalry spurred fiercely -among the unarmed crowd. High overhead flashed the swords -of the pitiless assailants. The ground was quickly heaped -with dead, and even flight was impossible until a portion of -the wall which bounded the square yielded under the pressure -of the crowd and permitted many to gain the open country. -Around the Inca a fierce battle raged,—such a battle as can -be fought between armed and steel-clad men and others without -arms, offering their defenceless bosoms to the steel of the slayer -in the vain hope that thus they might purchase the safety of -their master. The bearers of the Inca were struck down, and -he himself was taken prisoner and instantly secured. The -cavalry, giving full scope to the fierce passions which the fight -aroused, urged the pursuit of the fugitives far beyond the -limits of the city. The Peruvian army, panic-stricken by -these appalling circumstances, broke and fled. Less than an -hour ago Atahualpa was a great monarch, whose wish was -the law of a nation; the possessor of vast treasures; the commander -of a powerful army. Now his throne was overturned; -his army had disappeared; he himself was a captive in the -hands of strangers, regarding whom he knew only that their -strength was irresistible and their hearts fierce and cruel.</p> - -<p>The fallen monarch, perceiving the insatiable greed of gold -which inspired his captors, sought to regain his liberty by offers -whose magnitude bewildered the Spaniards. He offered to fill -with gold, up to a height of nine feet, a room whose area was -seventeen feet in breadth and twenty-two feet in length. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span> -room of smaller dimensions was to be twice filled with silver; -and he asked only two months to collect this enormous ransom. -The offer was accepted, and the Inca sent messengers to all his -cities commanding that temples and palaces should be stripped -of their ornaments. In a few weeks Indian bearers began to -arrive at Cassamarca, laden to their utmost capacity with silver -and gold. Day by day they poured in, bearing great golden -vessels, which had been used in the palaces; great plates of gold, -which had lined the walls and roofs of temples; crowns and -collars and bracelets of gold, which the chieftains gave up in -the hope that they would procure the liberty of their master. -At length the room was filled up to the red line which Pizarro -had drawn upon the wall as his record of this extraordinary -bargain. When it was acknowledged that the Inca had completely -fulfilled his stipulation,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Pizarro executed an Act in -presence of a notary, and proclaimed it to the sound of the -trumpet in the great square of Cassamarca. By this document -he certified that the Inca had paid the stipulated ransom, and -was now in consequence liberated. But he did not, in actual -fact, set the captive monarch free. On the contrary, he -informed him that until a larger number of Spaniards arrived -to hold the country, it was necessary for the service of the -King of Spain that Atahualpa should continue a prisoner.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile rumours became current in the camp that Atahualpa -had ordered a great rising of his people to destroy the -invaders. The Spaniards had been recently joined by Almagro -with important reinforcements; but still they were no more -than four hundred men, and they were in possession of treasure -which exposed them to apprehensions unfelt by the penniless adventurer. -It was asserted that a vast army was gathering only -a hundred miles away; at length the imaginary force was reported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span> -to be within ten miles. The cry arose that the Inca should -be brought to trial for his treasonable practices. A court was -formed, with Pizarro and Almagro as presiding judges; counsel -were named to prosecute and defend; charges were framed,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and -the unhappy Inca was placed at the bar. The evidence taken -reached the court through the doubtful channel of an Indian -interpreter, who, it was believed, sought the destruction of the -prisoner. The judges occupied themselves with discussion, not -of the guilt of the accused, but of the results which his execution -might be expected to produce. Their judgment was death -by burning, as befitted an idolater. <span class="sidenote">Aug. 29, 1533 A.D.</span> The whole army -claimed a voice in the great decision. A few condemned -the proceedings, and urged that the Inca should be sent -to Spain to wait the pleasure of the King. But the -voice of the larger number confirmed the sentence of the court, -and it was intimated to Atahualpa that he must prepare for -immediate death. The fallen monarch lost, for a moment, the -habitual calmness with which an Indian warrior is accustomed -to meet death. With many tears he besought Pizarro to spare -him. Even the stern conqueror was moved in view of misery -so deep; but he was without power to reverse the doom which -his army had spoken. Two hours after sunset, Atahualpa was -led forth, with chains on hand and foot. The great square was -lighted up by torches, and the Spanish soldiers gathered around -the closing scene in the ruin which they had wrought. The -Inca was bound to the stake, and rude hands piled high the -fagots around him. A friar who had instructed him in -Christian doctrine besought him to accept the faith, promising -in that event the leniency of death by the cord instead of the -flame. Atahualpa accepted the offered grace, and abjured his -idolatry. He was instantly baptized under the name of Juan, -in honour of John the Baptist, on whose day this conversion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span> -was achieved. With his latest breath he implored Pizarro to -have pity on his little children. While he spoke, the string of -a cross-bow was tightened around his neck, and, with the rugged -soldiers muttering “credos” for the repose of his soul, the last -of the Incas submitted to death in its most ignominious form. -Next morning they gave him Christian burial in the little -wooden church which they had already erected in Cassamarca. -His great lords, as we are assured, “received much satisfaction” -from the honour thus bestowed upon their unhappy prince.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sept. 1533 A.D.</span> Almost immediately after these occurrences Pizarro -marched southward and possessed himself easily of the -Peruvian capital—“the great and holy city of Cusco.” -Although the capital had parted with much of its treasure -in obedience to the requisition of its captive monarch, there -still remained a vast spoil to enrich the plunderers. In especial, -mention is made of ten or twelve statues of female figures, of -life size, made wholly of fine gold, “beautiful and well-formed -as if they had been alive.” The Spaniards appropriated these -and much besides. The great Temple of the Sun was speedily -rifled; for the piety of the conquerors conspired with their -avarice to hasten the downfall of idolatrous edifices. In this -temple the embalmed bodies of former Incas, richly adorned, -sat on golden thrones beside the golden image of the Sun. The -venerated mummies were now stripped and cast aside. The -image of the Sun became the prize of a common soldier, by -whom it was quickly lost in gambling. Pizarro claimed the -land for the Church as well as for the King. He overthrew -temples; he cast down idols; he set up crosses on all highways; -he erected a Christian place of worship in Cusco.</p> - -<p>Cusco was the worthy capital of a great empire. It was of -vast extent, and contained a population variously estimated at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span> -from two to four hundred thousand persons. The streets -crossed regularly at right angles; the houses were built mainly -of stone, with light thatched roofs. The numerous palaces<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> -were of great size, and splendid beyond anything the conquerors -had seen in Europe. A mighty fortress, built upon a lofty rock, -looked down on the city. It was formed of enormous blocks -of stone, fitted with such care that the point of junction could -not be discovered. Two streams descending from the mountains -flowed through the city in channels lined with masonry. -This noble city was the pride of all Peruvians. It was to them -all that Jerusalem was to the ancient Jews or Rome to the -Romans.</p> - -<p>The natives offered no considerable resistance to the entrance -of the conquerors. Vast multitudes had gathered out of the -neighbouring country. They looked with wonder and with -awe upon the terrible strangers who had slain their monarch, -who were now marching at their ease through the land, claiming -as their own whatever they desired. They heard the heavy -tramp of the war-horse and the strange thrilling notes of the -trumpet. They saw the mysterious arms before whose destructive -power so many of their countrymen had fallen, and the bright -mail within whose shelter the Spaniard could slay in safety the -undefended Indian. They may well have regarded the fierce -bearded warriors as beings of supernatural strength and supernatural -wickedness.</p> - -<p>But the time came when they could no longer endure the -measureless wrongs which had been heaped upon them; when -they were impelled to dash themselves against the mailed host -of their conquerors and perish under their blows if they could -not destroy them. No injury which it was possible for man -to inflict upon his fellows had been omitted in their bitter -experience. Their King had been betrayed and ignominiously -slain; their temples had been profaned and plundered; their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span> -possessions had been seized or destroyed; dishonour had been -laid upon them in their domestic relations; they themselves -had been subjected to compulsory service so ruthlessly enforced -that many of them died under the unaccustomed toil. They -were now to make one supreme effort to cast off this oppression, -which had already gone far to destroy the life of their nation.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Jan. 1535 A.D.</span> Pizarro—raised to the dignity of Marquis—had retired to -the coast, where he occupied himself in founding and -embellishing the city of Lima. His brother Fernando—a -stout-hearted and skilful captain—was left in charge -of Cusco. Danger was not apprehended, and the garrison -of Cusco was no more than two hundred Spaniards and a -thousand native auxiliaries. While the Spaniards enjoyed -their lordly repose in the splendid palaces of the fallen monarchy, -the Peruvian chiefs organized a formidable revolt. From -all the provinces of the empire multitudes of armed natives -gathered around Cusco, and took up position on hills where -they were safe from the attack of Spanish horsemen. Many of -them were armed with lances or axes of copper tempered so -that they were scarcely less effective than steel. Every man -in all those dusky ranks was prepared to spend his life in the -effort to rescue the sacred city from this abhorred invasion. -<span class="sidenote">Feb. 1536 A.D.</span> They set fire to the city; they forced their way into the -streets, and fought hand to hand with the Spaniards in -desperate disregard of the inequality of their arms. -They fell slaughtered in thousands; but in six days’ -fighting they had gained the fortress and nearly all of the city -which the flames had spared. The Spaniards held only the -great square and a few of the surrounding houses. Some -despaired, and began to urge that they should mount and ride -for the coast, forcing their way through the lines of the besiegers. -But the stout heart of Fernando Pizarro quailed not -in presence of the tremendous danger. In his mind, he told -them, there was not and there had not been any fear. If he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span> -were left alone he would maintain the defence till he died, -rather than have it said that another gained the city and he -lost it. The Spaniard of that day was unsurpassed in courage, -and his spirit rose to the highest pitch of daring in response to -the appeal of a trusted leader. The men laid aside all thought -of flight, and addressed themselves to the capture of the great -fortress. This strong position was fiercely attacked, and defended -with unavailing heroism. Many Spaniards were slain, among -whom was Juan, one of the Pizarro brothers, on whose -undefended head a great stone inflicted fatal injury. The -slaughter of Indians was very great. At length their ammunition -failed them—the stones and javelins and arrows with which -they maintained the defence were exhausted. Their leader had -compelled the admiration of the Spaniards by his heroic bearing -throughout the fight. When he had struck his last blow for -his ruined country he flung his club among the besiegers, and, -casting himself down from the height of the battlement, perished -in the fall. “There is not written of any Roman such a deed -as he did,” says the Spanish chronicler. <span class="sidenote">May, 1536 A.D.</span> The defence -now ceased; the Spaniards forced their way into the -fortress, and slaughtered without mercy the fifteen -hundred men whom they found there.</p> - -<p>For several weeks longer the Indians blockaded Cusco, and -the Spaniards were occasionally straitened in regard to supplies; -but always at the time of new moon the Indians withdrew for -the performance of certain religious ceremonies, and the -Spaniards were able then to replenish their exhausted granaries. -The siege languished, and finally ceased, but not till the Spaniards -had practised for some time the cruel measure of putting -to death every Indian woman whom they seized.</p> - -<p class="tb">But now misery in a new form came upon this unhappy -country. Fierce strifes arose among the conquerors themselves. -Pizarro had gained higher honours and ampler plunder than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span> -had fallen to the share of his partner Almagro, and it does not -seem that he was scrupulous in his fulfilment of the contract by -whose terms an equal division of spoil was fixed. Almagro -appeared on the scene with an overwhelming force, to assert his -own rights. For ten or twelve years from this time the history -of Peru represents to us a country ungoverned and in confusion; -a native population given over to slavery, and wasting under -the exactions of ruthless task-masters; fierce wars between the -conquerors devastating the land. <span class="sidenote">1537 A.D.</span> Tranquillity was not restored -till a large portion of the native population had perished, and till -all the chiefs of this marvellous conquest had died as -miserably as the Indians they had destroyed. Almagro -entered Cusco, and made prisoners of the two brothers -Fernando and Gonzalo Pizarro; whom, however, he soon -liberated. <span class="sidenote">1538 A.D.</span> He, in turn, fell into the hands of Fernando, -by whose orders he was brought for trial before a tribunal -set up for that occasion in Cusco. He was condemned -to die;—partly for his “notorious crimes;” partly -because, as the council deemed, his death “would prevent -many other deaths.” On the same day the old man, feeble, -decrepit, and begging piteously for life, was strangled in prison -and afterwards beheaded. Immediately after this occurrence -Fernando Pizarro sailed for Spain, where his enemies had -gained the ear of the King. Fernando was imprisoned, and -was not released for twenty-three years, till his long life of a -hundred years was near its close. <span class="sidenote">1541 A.D.</span> Three years after the -death of Almagro, the Marquis Pizarro, now a man of -seventy, was set upon in his own house in Lima and -murdered by a band of soldiers dissatisfied with the portion of -spoil which had fallen to their share. The close of that marvellous -career was in strange contrast to its brilliant course. After -a stout defence against overwhelming force, a fatal wound in the -throat prostrated the brave old man. He asked for a confessor, -and received for answer a blow on the face. With his finger he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span> -traced the figure of a cross on the ground, and pressed his -dying lips on the hallowed symbol. Thus passed the stern -conqueror and destroyer of the Peruvian nation. <span class="sidenote">1548 A.D.</span> A few -years after the assassination of the Marquis, his brother -Gonzalo was beheaded for having resisted the authority -of Spain; and he died so poor, as he himself stated on the scaffold, -that even the garments he wore belonged to the executioner -who was to cut off his head. The partnership which was -formed at Panama a quarter of a century before, had brought -wealth and fame, but it conducted those who were chiefly concerned -in it to misery and shameful death.</p> - -<p class="tb">From Peru the tide of Spanish conquest flowed southward -to Chili. The river Plate was explored; Buenos Ayres was -founded; and communication was opened from the Atlantic to -the Pacific. Forty years after the landing of Columbus, the -margins of the continent bordering on the sea had been subdued -and possessed, and some progress had been made in gaining -knowledge of the interior. There had been added to the -dominions of Spain vast regions, whose coast-line on the west -stretched from Mexico southward for the distance of six -thousand miles—regions equal in length to the whole of Africa, -and largely exceeding in breadth the whole of the Russian -Empire. It has now to be shown how ill-prepared was Spain -for this sudden and enormous addition to her responsibilities—how -huge have been the evils which her possession of the new -continent inflicted upon mankind.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE INDIANS OF SPANISH AMERICA.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The native populations with which the Spaniards -were brought into contact differed widely, in respect -of the degree of civilization to which they had -attained, from the Indians of the Northern Continent. -The first colonists of Virginia, Massachusetts, and the -St. Lawrence valley found the soil possessed by fierce tribes, -wholly without knowledge of the arts of civilized life. The -savages of the north supported themselves almost entirely by -the chase, regarding agriculture with contempt; their dwellings -were miserable huts; their clothing was the skins of the beasts -which they slew; they were without fixed places of abode, -and wandered hither and thither in the forest as their hopes -of success in hunting directed. They left no traces of their -presence on the land which they inhabited—no cleared forest, -nor cultivated field, nor fragment of building. They were still -savage and debased in a degree almost as extreme as humanity -has ever been known to reach.</p> - -<p>The inhabitants of the islands where Columbus first landed -were the least civilized of the southern races. But the genial -conditions of climate under which they lived, and the abundance -with which nature surrounded them, seemed to have -softened their dispositions and made them gentle and inoffensive -and kind. They were scarcely clothed at all, but they lived in -well-built villages and cultivated the ground. Their wants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span> -were few; and as the spontaneous bounty of nature for the -most part supplied these, they spent their days in simple, harmless -indolence. Land among them was “as common as the sun -and water.” They gave willingly, and without hope of recompense, -any of their possessions which visitors desired to obtain. -To the pleased eye of Columbus they seemed “to live in the -golden world without toil; living in open gardens, not intrenched -with dikes, divided by hedges, or defended with -walls.”</p> - -<p>The natives of Central America were of a fiercer character -and more accustomed to war than those of the islands. They -had also made greater progress in the arts; and the ornaments -of gold which the Spaniards received from them evidenced -considerable skill in working the precious metals. They wore -mantles of cotton cloth, and must, therefore, have mastered -the arts of spinning and weaving. Their achievements in -architecture and sculpture still remain to excite the wonder of -the antiquary. Here and there, wrapped almost impenetrably -in the profuse vegetation of the forest, there have been found -ruined cities, once of vast extent. These cities must have been -protected by great walls—lofty, massive, skilfully built. They -contained temples, carefully plastered and painted; and numerous -altars and images, whose rich sculptures still attest the -skill of the barbarian artist.</p> - -<p>It was, however, in the ancient monarchies of Mexico and -Peru that American civilization reached its highest development. -The Mexican people lived under a despotic Government; -but their rights were secured by a gradation of courts, with -judges appointed by the Crown, or in certain cases elected by the -people themselves, and holding their offices for life. Evidence -was given on oath, and the proceedings of the courts were -regularly recorded. A judge who accepted bribes was put to -death. The marriage ceremony was surrounded with the -sanctions of religion, and divorce was granted only as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span> -result of careful investigation by a tribunal set up for that -special business. Slavery existed; but it was not hereditary, -and all Mexicans were born free. Taxation was imposed -according to fixed rates, and regular accounts were kept by an -officer appointed to that service. The Mexicans had made no -inconsiderable progress in manufactures. They wove cotton -cloths of exceedingly fine texture, and adorned them with an -embroidery of feather-work marvellously beautiful. They -produced paper from the leaf of the Mexican aloe; they -extracted sugar from the stalk of the Indian corn. They made -and beautifully embellished vessels of gold and silver; they -produced in abundance vessels of crystal and earthenware for -domestic use. They had not attained to the use of iron; but -they understood how to harden copper with an alloy of tin till -it was fitted both for arms and for mechanical tools. Agriculture -was their most honourable employment, and was followed by -the whole population excepting the nobles and the soldiers. -It was prosecuted with reasonable skill—irrigation being -practised, land being suffered to lie fallow for the recovery of -its exhausted energies; laws being enacted to prevent the -destruction of the woods. The better class of dwellings in -cities were well-built houses of stone and lime; the streets were -solidly paved; public order was maintained by an effective -police. Europe was indebted to the Mexicans for its knowledge -of the cochineal insect, whose rich crimson was much -used for dyeing fine cotton cloths. The Mexicans were without -knowledge of the alphabet till the Spaniards brought it; -but they practised with much skill an ingenious system of -hieroglyphic painting, which served them fairly well for the -transmission of intelligence. Montezuma was informed of the -coming of the Spaniards by paintings which represented their -ships and horses and armour.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the industrial progress of this remarkable -people, their social condition was, in some respects, inexpressibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span> -debased. It was their custom to offer to their gods -multitudes of human sacrifices. Their most powerful motive -in going to war was to obtain prisoners for this purpose; and -the prowess of a warrior was judged by the number of victims -whom he had secured and brought to the sacrificing priest. -Wealthy Mexicans were accustomed to give banquets, from -which they sought to gain social distinction by the culinary -skill exercised and the large variety of delicacies presented. -One of the dishes on which the cook put forth all his powers -was the flesh of a slave slaughtered for the occasion.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The -civilization of the Mexicans was fatally obstructed by their -religion. The priesthood was numerous, and possessed of -commanding authority. The people regarded the voice of the -priest as that of the deity to which he ministered, and they -lived under the power of a bloody and degrading superstition. -Here, as it has been elsewhere, a religion which in its origin -was merely a reflection of the good and the evil existing in the -character of the people, stamped divine sanction upon their -errors, and thus rendered progress impossible.</p> - -<p>For two or three centuries before her fall, Peru had constantly -extended her dominion over her less civilized neighbours. -Her supremacy was widely recognized, and many of the surrounding -tribes were persuaded to accept peacefully the advantages -which her strong and mild government afforded. It -was her wise policy to admit her new subjects, whether they -were gained by negotiation or by force, to an equality of privilege -with the rest of the people, and to present inducements which -led quickly to the adoption of her own religion and language. -By measures such as these the empire was consolidated while -it was extended, and its tranquillity was seldom marred by -internal discontent. When the Peruvian empire received its -sudden death-blow from the Spanish conquerors, it was doing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span> -the useful work which England has done in India, and Russia -in Central Asia—subjugating the savage nations whose territories -lay around and imparting to them the benefits of a civilization -higher than their own.</p> - -<p>Peru was governed according to the principles of Communism. -A portion of land was set apart for the Sun—the national -deity—and its revenues were expended in the support of -temples and a priesthood. A second portion belonged to the -Inca—the child and representative of the Sun. The remainder -was divided annually among the people. All shared equally. -When a young man married he received a fixed addition; when -children were born to him further increase was granted. He -might not sell his land or purchase that of his neighbour; he -could not improve his condition and become rich. But neither -could he suffer from want; for the Government provided for his -support if he could not provide for it himself, and poverty was -unknown. It was equally impossible to be idle, for the Government -enforced the exercise of industrious habits.</p> - -<p>Agriculture was the national employment. To illustrate its -dignity, the Inca was wont on great public occasions to put his -own divine hand to the plough and reveal himself to his people -in the act of turning over the fruitful sod. The Peruvians -were acquainted with the virtues of the guano, which was piled -in mountains upon the islands lying along their coasts, and -were careful to protect by stern laws the sea-fowl to which they -were indebted for the precious deposit. Between the sea and -the mountains there stretched a level expanse on which rain -never fell. This otherwise profitless region was nourished -into high fertility by an elaborate system of irrigation. On -the mountains the solid rock was hewn into terraces and -covered with soil laboriously carried up from below. In the -valleys flourished the tropical banana and cassava tree. On -the lower ranges of the mountains grew the maize. At a -greater height appeared the American aloe, the tobacco plant,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> -and the coca, the favourite narcotic of the Indian. Yet further -up the mountain-side Europeans first saw the potato, then -largely cultivated in Peru, and destined at a later time to -attain vast social and even political significance in the Old -World.</p> - -<p>The public works of Peru furnish striking evidence of the -industry of the people and the enlightened views of their rulers. -Two great roads traversed the country from north to south. -One of these, whose length is estimated at fifteen hundred -miles, ascended the mountains and passed along the plateau, at -a height occasionally of twelve thousand feet; the other ran -parallel in the plain which was bordered by the sea. The -construction of the upper road was necessarily a work of prodigious -difficulty. Vast ravines had to be filled with solid -masonry; lofty masses of rock had to be pierced by galleries -or surmounted by a long succession of steps; bridges formed of -osiers twisted into huge cables had to be hung across rivers. -The roadway was formed of massive paving-stones and of -concrete; and although no wheeled vehicle or beast of burden -other than the llama passed over it, the Spaniards remarked -with grateful surprise on its perfect smoothness. There was -no road in Europe so well built and so well maintained. -Since the conquest it has been suffered to fall into ruin; but -here and there, where mountain-torrents have washed the soil -from underneath, massive fragments of this ancient work are -still to be seen hanging in air, so tenacious were the materials -used, so indestructible was the structure produced.</p> - -<p>The Peruvians had gained no inconsiderable skill in textile -manufacture. Cotton grew abundantly on the sultry plains. -Large supplies of wool of extreme fineness were obtained from the -Peruvian sheep. Two varieties of these—the llama and the alpaca—were -domesticated and carefully watched over by Government -officers. Two other varieties roamed wild upon the mountains. -But once in the year a great hunt was organized under royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> -authority; the wanderers were caught and shorn; and the -wool thus obtained was carried to the royal store-house. -Thence it was given out to the people, to be woven into garments -for themselves and for the Inca. The beauty of the -fabrics which were produced awakened the admiration of the -Spaniards, as greatly superior to the finest products of European -looms.</p> - -<p>The sons of the great nobles were instructed in the simple -learning of the country, in seminaries erected for that purpose; -beyond the narrow circle of the aristocracy education did not -pass. Some of these youths were to be priests, and they were -taught the complicated ritual of the national religion. Some -would have to do with the administration of public affairs, and -these were required to acquaint themselves with the laws. -Many would become subordinate officers of Government, having -charge of revenues; recording births and deaths—for the -registration system of the Peruvians was painstaking and -accurate; taking account of the stores received and given out -at the royal magazines. These were instructed in the Peruvian -method of keeping records—by means of knots tied upon a -collection of threads of different colours. The education of the -nobles did not extend further, for little more was known; and -as the Peruvian intellect was devoid of energy and the power -to originate, the boundaries of knowledge were not extending. -The masses of the people lived in contented ignorance; pleased -with the Government which directed all their actions and -supplied all their wants; enjoying a fulness of comfort such as -has seldom been enjoyed by any population; without ambition, -without progress, but also without repining; wholly satisfied with -the position in which they were born and in which they lived; -experiencing no rise and no fall from one generation to another.</p> - -<p class="tb">Such were the people upon whom there now fell, with awful -suddenness, the blight of Spanish conquest. Their numbers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span> -cannot be told with any approach to accuracy, for the estimates -left by the conquerors are widely diverse. The population of -the city of Mexico is set down by some writers at sixty thousand; -by others, with equal opportunity for observation, at -six hundred thousand; and a divergence equally baffling attends -most of the statements which have been supplied to us. There -is, however, abundant evidence that the Southern Continent was -the home of a very numerous population. The means of subsistence -were easily obtained; in Peru marriage was compulsory; -the duration of life and the increase of population were not -restrained, as in Northern America, by severity of climate and -the toil necessarily undergone in the effort to procure food. -Cortes, on his way to Mexico, came to a valley where for a -distance of twelve miles there was a continuous line of houses. -Everywhere near the coast the Spaniards found large villages, -and often towns of considerable size. Peru was undoubtedly -a populous State; and the great plateau over which Mexico -ruled contained many tributary cities of importance. One -Spanish writer estimates that forty million of Indians had -perished within half a century after the conquest;—beyond -doubt an extravagant estimate, but the use of such figures -by an intelligent observer is in itself evidence that the -continent was inhabited by a vast multitude of human -beings.</p> - -<p>The power of resistance of this great population was wholly -insignificant. The men were not wanting in courage; the Peruvians, -at least, were not without a rude military discipline: -but they were inferior in physical strength to their assailants; -they were without horses and without iron; their solitary hope -lay in their overwhelming numbers. They were powerfully -reinforced by the diseases which struck down the invaders; but -their own poor efforts at defence, heroic and self-devoted as -these were, sufficed to inflict only trivial injury upon their -well-defended conquerors. A vast continent, with many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> -millions of men ready to die in defence of their homes, fell -before the assault of enemies who never at any point numbered -over a few hundreds.</p> - -<p>The invaders claimed the continent and all that it held as -the property of the Spanish Sovereign, upon whom these great -possessions had been liberally bestowed by the Pope. The -grant of his Holiness conveyed not only the lands but also the -infidels by whom they were inhabited; and the Spaniards -assumed without hesitation that the Indians belonged to them, -and were rightfully applicable to any of their purposes. Upon -this doctrine their early relations with the natives were based. -The demand for native labour was immediate and urgent. -There was gold to be found in the rivers and mountains of the -islands, and the natives were compelled to labour in mining—a -description of work unknown to them before. There was no -beast of burden on all the continent, excepting the llama, which -the Peruvians had trained to carry a weight of about a hundred -pounds; but the Spaniards had much transport work to do. -When an army moved, its heavy stores had to be carried for -great distances, and frequently by ways which a profuse tropical -vegetation rendered almost impassable. Occasionally it happened -that the materials for vessels were shaped out far from the -waters on which they were to sail. Very often it pleased the -lordly humour of the conquerors to be borne in litters on men’s -shoulders when they travelled. The Indian became the beast -of burden of the Spaniard. Every little army was accompanied -by its complement of Indian bearers, governed by the lash held in -brutal hands. When Cortes prepared at Tlascala the materials -of the fleet with which he besieged Mexico—when Vasco Nuñez -prepared on the Atlantic the materials of ships which were to -be launched on the Pacific, the deadly work of transport was -performed by Indians. The native allies were compelled to -rebuild the city of Mexico, carrying or dragging the stones and -timber from a distance, suffering all the while the miseries of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span> -famine. Indians might often have been seen bearing on bleeding -shoulders the litter of a Spaniard—some ruffian, it might well -happen, fresh from the jails of Castile.</p> - -<p>The Indians—especially those of the islands, feeble in constitution -and unaccustomed to labour—perished in multitudes -under these toils. The transport of Vasco Nuñez’s ships across -the isthmus cost five hundred Indian lives. Food became -scarce, and the wretched slaves who worked in the mines of -Hispaniola were insufficiently fed. The waste of life among -the miners was enormous. All around the great mines unburied -bodies polluted the air. Many sought refuge in suicide -from lives of intolerable misery. Mothers destroyed their -children to save them from the suffering which they themselves -endured.</p> - -<p>Nor was it only excessive labour which wasted the native -population. The slightest outrage by Indians was avenged by -indiscriminate massacre. Constant expeditions went out from -Spanish settlements to plunder little Indian towns. When -resistance was offered, the inhabitants were slaughtered. If -the people gave up their gold and their slender store of provisions, -many of them were subjected to torture in order to -compel further disclosures. Vasco Nuñez, who was deemed a -humane man, wrote that on one expedition he had hanged -thirty chiefs, and would hang as many as he could seize: the -Spaniards, he argued, being so few, they had no other means of -securing their own safety. Columbus himself, conscious that -the gold he had been able to send fell short of the expectation -entertained in Spain, remitted to the King five hundred Indians, -whom he directed to be sold as slaves and their price devoted to -the cost of his majesty’s wars. Yet further: there came in the -train of the conquerors the scourge of small-pox, which swept -down the desponding and enfeebled natives in multitudes whose -number it is impossible to estimate. The number of Indian -orphans furnished terrible evidence of the rigour of the Spaniards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> -“They are numerous,” writes one merciful Spaniard, -“as the stars of heaven and the sands of the sea.” And yet -the conquerors often slew children and parents together.</p> - -<p>It was on the islanders that these appalling calamities first -fell. They fell with a crushing power which speedily amounted -to extermination. When Columbus first looked upon the -luxuriant beauty of Hispaniola, and received the hospitality of -its gentle and docile people, that ill-fated island contained a -population of at least a million. Fifteen years later the number -had fallen to sixty thousand. The inhabitants of other -islands were kidnapped and carried to Hispaniola, to take up -the labours of her unhappy people, and to perish as they had -done. In thirty years more there were only two hundred -Indians left on this island. It fared no better with many of -the others. At a later period, when most of these possessions -fell into the hands of the English, no trace of the original -population was left. On the mainland, too, enormous waste of -life occurred. No estimate lower than ten million has ever -been offered of the destruction of natives by the Spanish conquest, -and this number is probably far within the appalling -truth. Human history, dishonoured as it has ever been by the -record of blood causelessly and wantonly shed, has no page so -dreadful as this.</p> - -<p>But although there prevailed among the conquerors a terrible -unanimity in this barbarous treatment of the natives, there -were some who stood forward with noble courage and persistency -in defence of the perishing races. <span class="sidenote">1502 A.D.</span> Most prominent among -these was Bartholomew de Las Casas, a young priest, who came -to the island of Hispaniola ten years after Columbus had -landed there. He was a man of eager, fervid nature, -but wise and good—self-sacrificing, eloquent, bold to -attack the evils which surrounded him, nobly tenacious in his -life-long efforts to protect the helpless nations whom his -countrymen were destroying. He came to Hispaniola at a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span> -time when the island was being rapidly depopulated, and he -witnessed the methods by which this result was accomplished. <span class="sidenote">1511 A.D.</span> Some years later he was sent for to assist in the pacification -of Cuba. In the discharge of this task he travelled -much in the island, baptizing the children. One morning -he and his escort of a hundred men halted for breakfast in -the dry bed of a stream. The men sharpened their swords -upon stones which abounded there suitable for that purpose. -A crowd of harmless natives had come out from a neighbouring -town to gaze upon the horses and arms of the strangers. -Suddenly a soldier, influenced, as it was believed, by the devil, -drew his sword and cut down one of the Indians. In an -instant the diabolic suggestion communicated itself to the whole -force, and a hundred newly-sharpened swords were hewing at -the half-naked savages. Before Las Casas could stay this -mad slaughter the ground was cumbered with heaps of dead -bodies. The good priest knew the full horrors of Spanish -conquest.</p> - -<p>When the work of pacification in Cuba was supposed to be -complete, Las Casas received from the Governor certain lands, -with a suitable allotment of Indians. He owns that at that -time he did not greatly concern himself about the spiritual -condition of his slaves, but sought, as others did, to make profit -by their labour. It was his duty, however, occasionally to say -mass and to preach. <span class="sidenote">1514 A.D.</span> Once, while preparing his discourse, -he came upon certain passages in the book of Ecclesiasticus -in which the claims of the poor are spoken of, and -the guilt of the man who wrongs the helpless. Years before, he -had heard similar views enforced by a Dominican monk, whose -words rose up in his memory now. He stood, self-convicted, a -defrauder of the poor. He yielded a prompt obedience to the -new convictions which possessed him, and gave up his slaves; -he laboured to persuade his countrymen that they endangered -their souls by holding Indians in slavery. His remonstrances<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span> -availed nothing, and he resolved to carry the wrongs of the -Indians to Spain and lay them before the King. <span class="sidenote">1515 A.D.</span> Ferdinand—old -and feeble, and now within a few weeks of -the grave—heard him with deep attention as he told -how the Indians were perishing in multitudes, without the -faith and without the sacraments; how the country was being -ruined; how the revenue was being diminished. The King -would have tried to redress these vast wrongs, and fixed a time -when he would listen to a fuller statement; but he died before -a second interview could be held.</p> - -<p>The wise Cardinal Ximenes, who became Regent of the -kingdom at Ferdinand’s death, entered warmly into the views -of Las Casas. He asserted that the Indians were free, and he -framed regulations which were intended to secure their freedom -and provide for their instruction in the faith. He chose three -Jeronymite fathers to administer these regulations; for the best -friends of the Indians were to be found among the monks and -clergy. He sent out Las Casas with large authority, and -named him “Protector of the Indians.” <span class="sidenote">1516 A.D.</span> But in a few -months the Cardinal lay upon his death-bed, and when -Las Casas returned to complain of obstructions which he -encountered, this powerful friend of the Indians was almost -unable to listen to the tale of their wrongs. The young King -Charles assumed the reins of government, and became absorbed -in large, incessant, desolating European wars. The home -interests of the Empire were urgent; the colonies were remote; -the settlers were powerful and obstinate in maintaining their -right to deal according to their own pleasure with the Indians. -For another twenty-five years the evils of the American colonies -lay unremedied; the cruelty under which the natives were -destroyed suffered no effective restraint.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SPANISH GOVERNMENT OF THE NEW WORLD.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The ruin which fell on the native population of the -New World was at no time promoted by the rulers -of Spain; it was the spontaneous result of the unhappy -circumstances which the conquest produced. -In early life Columbus had been familiarized with the African -slave-trade; and he carried with him to the world which he -discovered the conviction that not only the lands he found, but -all the heathens who inhabited them, became the absolute -property of the Spanish Sovereigns. <span class="sidenote">1495 A.D.</span> He had not been long in -Hispaniola till he imposed upon all Indians over fourteen -years of age a tribute in gold or in cotton. But it was -found impossible to collect this tribute; and Columbus, -desisting from the attempt to levy taxes upon his subjects, -ordained that, instead, they should render personal -service on the fields and in the mines of the Spaniards. <span class="sidenote">1496 A.D.</span> Columbus had authority from his Government to reward -his followers with grants of lands, but he had yet no authority -to include in his gift those who dwelt upon the lands. But of -what avail was it to give land if no labour could be obtained? -Columbus, on his own responsibility, made to his followers such -grants of Indians as he deemed reasonable. He intended that -these grants should be only temporary, till the condition of the -country should be more settled; but the time never came when -those who received consented to relinquish them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span></p> - -<p>A few years later, when the Indians had gained some experience -of the ways of the Spaniards, they began to shun the -presence of their new masters. They shunned them, wrote Las -Casas, “as naturally as the bird shuns the hawk.” It was -reported by the Governor, Ovando, that this policy interfered -with the spread of the faith as well as with the prosperity of the -settlements. <span class="sidenote">1503 A.D.</span> He received from the Spanish Monarchs -authority to compel the Indians to work for such wages -as he chose to appoint, and also to attend mass and -receive instruction. The liberty of the Indians was asserted; -but in presence of the conditions under which they were now to -live, liberty was impossible. Ovando lost no time in acting on -his instructions. He distributed large numbers of Indians, -with no other obligation imposed upon those who received -them than that the savages should be taught the holy Catholic -faith.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Nov. 1504 A.D.</span> Next year the good Queen Isabella died. She had loved the -Indians, and her influence sufficed to restrain the evils -which were ready to burst upon them. Her death -greatly emboldened the colonists in their oppressive -treatment of their unhappy servants. The search for -gold had become eminently successful, and there arose a -vehement demand for labourers. King Ferdinand was a -reasonably humane man, but the welfare of his Indian subjects -did not specially concern him. There were many men who had -done him service which called for acknowledgment. The King -had little money to spare, but a grant of Indians was an acceptable -reward. That was the coin in which the claims of expectants -were now satisfied. The King soothed his conscience by -declaring that such grants were not permanent, but might be -revoked at his pleasure. Meantime the population of the -islands wasted with terrible rapidity.</p> - -<p>In course of time the colonists desired that their rights -should be placed upon a more stable footing, and they sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span> -messengers to the King to request that their Indians should -be given to them in perpetuity, or at least for two or -three generations. <span class="sidenote">1512 A.D.</span> Their prayer was not granted; -but the King summoned a Junta, and the Indians -became, for the first time, the subjects of formal legislation. -The legality of the system under which they were forced to -labour was now clearly established. In other respects the laws -were intended, for the most part, to ameliorate the condition of -the labourers. But it was only at a few points the new regulations -could be enforced. By most of the colonists they were -disregarded.</p> - -<p>Thirty miserable years passed, during which, although the -incessant labours of Las Casas gained occasional successes, the -colonists exercised their cruel pleasure upon the native population. -The islands were almost depopulated, and negroes were -being imported from Africa to take the place of the labourers -who had been destroyed. Mexico had fallen, with a slaughter -which has been estimated by millions. Of the numerous cities -which Cortes passed on his way to Mexico, “nothing,” says a -report addressed to the King, “is now remaining but the sites.” -In Peru it was asserted by an eye-witness that one-half or two-thirds -of men and cattle had been destroyed. The survivors of -these unparalleled calamities had fallen into a condition of -apathy and indifference from which it was impossible to arouse -them. The conquerors had not yet penetrated deeply into the -heart of the continent; but they had visited its coasts, and -wherever they had gone desolation attended their steps.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1542 A.D.</span> The Spanish Government had made many efforts to curb the -lawless greed and cruelty of the conquerors. Now a -Junta was summoned and a new code of laws enacted. -Again the freedom of the Indians was asserted, and any -attempt to enslave them forbidden. The colonists had assumed -that the allotments of Indians made to them were not subject -to recall. But it was now declared that all such allotments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span> -were only for the single life of the original possessor; at his -death they reverted to the Crown. Yet further: compulsory -service was abolished, and a fixed tribute took its place.</p> - -<p>Official persons were sent to enforce these laws in Mexico -and Peru. But the Junta had not sufficiently considered the -temper of the provinces. It was found that Mexico would not -receive the new laws, which were therefore referred to the -Government for reconsideration. The Viceroy, who carried the -laws to Peru, after bringing the country to the verge of -rebellion, was taken prisoner by the local authorities and -shipped homewards to Spain. The laws which the high-handed -conquerors thus decisively rejected were soon after annulled by -an order of the King.</p> - -<p>The Spanish Government was thus baffled in its efforts to -terminate the ruinous control which Spanish colonists exercised -over the natives. The duration of that control was gradually -extended. In seventeen years it crept up to three lives. Fifty -years later, after many years of agitation, the fourth life was -gained. Twenty years after, the still unsatisfied heirs of the -conquerors demanded that a fifth life should be included in the -grant; but here they were obliged to accept a compromise. -The system continued in force for two hundred and fifty years, -and was not abolished till near the close of the eighteenth -century.</p> - -<p>But although the Government yielded to the clamour of its -turbulent subjects, in so far as the prolongation of Spanish control -was concerned, it was inflexible in its determination to -modify the quality of that control. The prohibition of compulsory -labour was firmly adhered to. The legal right of the conquerors -was restricted to the exaction of a fixed tribute from -their subject Indians. This tribute must be paid in money or -in some product of the soil, but not compounded for by personal -service. The Indians might hire themselves as labourers, under -certain regulations and for certain specified wages, but this must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span> -be their own voluntary act. For many years the Spaniards -yielded a most imperfect obedience to these salutary restrictions, -but gradually, as the machinery of administration spread itself -over the continent, the law was more strictly enforced.</p> - -<p>The Spanish Government is entitled to the praise of having -done its utmost to protect the native populations. In the early -days of the conquest, Queen Isabella watched over their interests -with a special concern for their conversion to the true faith. -As years passed, and the gigantic dimensions of the evil which -had fallen on the Indians became apparent, her successors -attempted, by incessant legislation, to stay the progress of the -ruin which was desolating a continent. None of the other -European Powers manifested so sincere a purpose to promote -the welfare of a conquered people. The rulers of Spain were -continually enacting laws which erred only in being more just -and wise than the country in its disordered condition was able -to receive. They continually sought to protect the Indians by -regulations extending to the minutest detail, and conceived in a -spirit of thoughtful and even tender kindness.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In all that the -Government did or endeavoured to do it received eager support -from the Church, whose record throughout this terrible history -is full of wise foresight and noble courage in warning and rebuking -powerful evil-doers. The Popes themselves interposed -their authority to save the Indians. Las Casas, when he became -a bishop, ordered his clergy to withhold absolution from men -who held Indians as slaves. <span class="sidenote">1520 A.D.</span> Once the King’s Preachers, -of whom there were eight, presented themselves suddenly -before the Council of the Indies and sternly denounced -the wrongs inflicted upon the natives, whereby, said they, the -Christian religion was defamed and the Crown disgraced.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span> -Gradually efforts such as these sufficed to mitigate the sorrows -of the Indians; but for many years their influence was scarcely -perceived. The spirit of the conquerors was too high for submission -to any limitation of prerogatives which they had gained -through perils so great; their hearts were too fierce, their -orthodoxy too strict to admit any concern for the sufferings of -unbelievers. They were followed by swarms of adventurers—brave, -greedy, lawless. Success—unlooked for and dazzling—attended -the search for gold. Conquest followed conquest with -a rapidity which left hopelessly in arrear the efforts of Spain to -supply government for the enormous dependencies suddenly -thrown upon her care. Every little native community was -given over to the tender mercies of a man who regarded human -suffering with unconcern; who was animated by a consuming -hunger for gold, and who knew that Indian labour would procure -for him the gold which he sought. In course of years, the -persistent efforts of the Government and the Church bridled -the measureless and merciless rapacity of the Spanish colonists. -But this restraint was not established till ruin which could -never be retrieved had fallen on the Indians; till millions -had perished, and the spirit of the survivors was utterly broken.</p> - -<p class="tb">When the English began to colonize the northern continent -of America, their infant settlements enjoyed at the hands of -the mother country a beneficent neglect.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The early colonists -came out in little groups—obscure men fleeing from oppression, -or seeking in a new world an enlargement of the meagre fortune -which they had been able to find at home. They gained their -scanty livelihood by cultivating the soil. The native population -lived mainly by the chase, and possessed nothing of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span> -they could be plundered. The insignificance of these communities -sufficed to avert from them the notice of the monarchs -whose dominions they had quitted. And thus they escaped the -calamity of institutions imposed upon them by ignorance and -selfishness; they secured the inestimable advantage of institutions -which grew out of their own requirements and were -moulded according to their own character and habits.</p> - -<p>In the unhappy experience of Spanish America all these conditions -were reversed. There were countries in which the -precious metals abounded, and many of whose products could -be procured without labour and converted readily into money. -There was a vast native population in whose hands much gold -and silver had accumulated, and from whom, therefore, a rich -spoil could be easily wrung. There were powerful monarchies, -the romantic circumstances of whose conquest drew the attention -of the civilized world. Spain, marvelling much at her own -good fortune, hastened to bind these magnificent possessions -closely and inseparably to herself.</p> - -<p>The territories which England gained in America were regarded -as the property of the English nation, for whose advantage -they were administered. Spanish America was the property -of the Spanish Crown. The gift of the Pope was a gift, -not to the Spanish nation, but to Ferdinand and Isabella and -their successors. The Government of England never attempted -to make gain of her colonies; on the contrary, large sums were -lavished on these possessions, and the Government sought no -advantage but the gain which colonial trade yielded to the -nation. The Sovereigns of Spain sought direct and immediate -profit from their colonies. The lands and all the people who -inhabited them were their own; theirs necessarily were the -products of these lands. No Spaniard might set foot on -American soil without a license from the House of Trade. No -foreigner was suffered to go, on any terms whatever. Even -Spanish subjects of Jewish or Moorish blood were excluded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span> -The Sovereigns claimed as their own two-thirds<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> of all the gold -and silver which were obtained, and one-tenth of all other -commodities. They established an absolute monopoly in pearls -and dye-woods. They levied heavy duties on all articles which -were imported into the colonies. They levied a tax on <i>pulque</i>—the -intoxicant from which the Indians drew a feeble solace -for their miseries. They sold for a good price a Papal Bull, -which conveyed the right to eat meat on days when ecclesiastical -law restricted the faithful to meaner fare. Acting rigorously -according to financial methods such as these, the Spanish -Crown drew from the colonies a revenue which largely exceeded -the expenses of the colonial administration.</p> - -<p>The results of the first two voyages of Columbus disappointed -public expectation, and the interest which his discovery had -awakened almost ceased. But when the admiral, after his -third voyage, sent home pearls and gold and glowing accounts -of the treasures which he had at last found, boundless possibilities -of sudden wealth presented themselves, and the adventurous -youth of Spain hastened to embrace the unprecedented -opportunity. The old and rich fitted out ships and loaded -them with the inexpensive trifles which savages love; the young -and poor sought, under any conditions, the boon of conveyance -to the golden world where wealth could be gained without -labour: the King granted licenses to such adventurers, and -without sharing in their risks and outlays secured to himself a -large portion of their profits. So great was the emigration, that -in a few years Spain could with difficulty obtain men to supply -the waste of her European wars, and found herself in possession -of enormous territories and a numerous population for which -methods of government and of trade had to be provided.</p> - -<p>The government which was established had the simplicity of -a pure despotism. <span class="sidenote">1511 A.D.</span> The King established a Council which exercised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span> -absolute authority over the new possessions, and continued -in its functions so long as South America accepted -government from Spain. This body framed all the laws -and regulations according to which the affairs of the -colonies were guided; nominated to all offices; controlled the -proceedings of all officials. Two Viceroys<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> were appointed, -who maintained regal state, and wielded the supreme authority -with which the King invested them.</p> - -<p>The early colonial policy of all European nations was based -on the idea that foreign settlements existed, not for their own -benefit, but for the benefit of the nation to which they belonged. -Under this belief, colonists were fettered with numerous -restrictions which hindered their own prosperity in order to -promote that of the mother country. Spain carried this mistaken -and injurious policy to an extreme of which there is nowhere -else any example. The colonies were jealously limited -in regard to their dealings with one another, and were absolutely -forbidden to have commercial intercourse with foreign nations. -All the surplus products of their soil and of their mines must -be sent to Spain; their clothing, their furniture, their arms, -their ornaments must be supplied wholly by Spain. No ship -of their own might share in the gains of this lucrative traffic, -which was strictly reserved for the ships of Spain. Ship-building -was discouraged, lest the colonists should aspire to the possession -of a fleet. If a foreign vessel presumed to enter a -colonial port, the disloyal colonist who traded with her incurred -the penalties of death and confiscation of goods. The colonists -were not suffered to cultivate any product which it suited the -mother country to supply. The olive and the vine flourished -in Peru; Puerto Rico yielded pepper; in Chili there was -abundance of hemp and flax. All these were suppressed that -the Spanish growers might escape competition. That the trade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span> -of the colonies might be more carefully guarded and its revenues -more completely gathered in, it was confined to one Spanish -port. No ship trading with the colonies might enter or depart -elsewhere than at Seville, and afterwards at Cadiz. For two -centuries the interests of the colonies and of Spain herself languished -under this senseless tyranny.</p> - -<p>Those cities which were endowed with a monopoly of colonial -trade enjoyed an exceptional prosperity. Seville attracted to -herself a large mercantile community and a flourishing manufacture -of such articles as the colonists required. She became -populous and rich, and her merchants affected a princely splendour. -And well they might. The internal communications of -Spain were, as they always have been, extremely defective, and -the gains of the new traffic were necessarily reaped in an eminent -degree by the districts which lay around the shipping port.</p> - -<p>Once in the year, for nearly two hundred years, there sailed -from the harbour of Seville or of Cadiz the fleets which maintained -the commercial relations of Spain with her American dependencies. -One was destined for the southern colonies, the other -for Mexico and the north. They were guarded by a great force -of war-ships. Every detail as to cargo and time of sailing was -regulated by Government authority; no space was left in this -sadly over-governed country for free individual action. In no -year did the tonnage of the merchant-ships exceed twenty-seven -thousand tons. The traffic was thus inconsiderable in amount; -but it was of high importance in respect of the enormous profits -which the merchants were enabled by their monopoly to exact. -The southern branch of the expedition steered for Carthagena, -and thence to Puerto Bello; the ships destined for the north -sought Vera Cruz. To the points at which they were expected -to call there converged, by mountain-track and by river, innumerable -mules and boats laden with the products of the country. -A fair was opened, and for a period of forty days an energetic -exchange of commodities went on. When all was concluded,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span> -the colonial purchasers carried into the interior the European -articles which they had acquired. The gold and silver and -pearls, and whatever else the colonies supplied, having been embarked, -the ships met at the Havana and took their homeward -voyage, under the jealous watch of the armed vessels which -escorted them hither.</p> - -<p>The treasure-ships of Spain carried vast amounts of gold and -silver; and when Spain was involved in war, they were eagerly -sought after by her enemies. Many a bloody sea-fight has been -fought around these precious vessels; and many a galleon whose -freight was urgently required in impoverished Spain found in the -Thames an unwelcome termination to her voyage. <span class="sidenote">1804 A.D.</span> On one occasion -England, in her haste not waiting even to declare war, -possessed herself of three ships containing gold and silver -to the value of two million sterling, the property of a -nation with which she was still at peace.</p> - -<p>But her hostile neighbours were not the only foes who lay in -wait to seize the remittances of Spain. During the seventeenth -century, European adventurers—English, French, and Dutch—flocked -to the West Indies. At first they meditated nothing -worse than smuggling; but they quickly gave preference to -piracy, as an occupation more lucrative and more fully in accord -with the spirit of adventure which animated them. They -sailed in swift ships, strongly manned and armed; they recreated -themselves by hunting wild cattle, whose flesh they smoked -over their <i>boucanes</i> or wood-fires—drawing from this practice -the name of Buccaneer, under which they made themselves so -terrible. They lurked in thousands among the intricacies of the -West India islands, ready to spring upon Spanish ships; they -landed occasionally to besiege a fortified or to plunder and burn -a defenceless Spanish town. In time, the European Governments, -which once encouraged, now sought to suppress them. -This proved a task of so much difficulty that it is scarcely sixty -years since the last of the dreaded West India pirates was hanged.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span></p> - -<p>Spain sought to preserve the dependence of her American -possessions by the studied promotion of disunion among her -subjects. The Spaniard who went out from the mother country -was taught to stand apart from the Spaniard who had been -born in the colonies. To the former nearly all official positions -were assigned. The dependencies were governed by Old -Spaniards; all lucrative offices in the Church were occupied by -the same class. They looked with some measure of contempt -upon Spaniards who were not born in Spain; and they were -requited with the jealousy and dislike of their injured brethren. -There were laws carefully framed to hold the negro and the -Indian races apart from each other. The unwise Sovereigns of -Spain regarded with approval the deep alienations which their -policy created, and rejoiced to have rendered impossible any -extensive combination against their authority.</p> - -<p>The supreme desire which animated Spain in all her dealings -with her colonies was the acquisition of gold and silver, and -there fell on her in a short time the curse of granted prayers. -The foundations of her colonial history were laid in a destruction -of innocent human life wholly without parallel; influences -originating with the colonies hastened the decline of her power -and the debasement of her people. But gold and silver were -gained in amounts of which the world had never dreamed before. -The mines of Hispaniola were speedily exhausted and abandoned. -But soon after the conquest the vast mineral wealth -of Peru was disclosed. An Indian hurrying up a mountain in -pursuit of a strayed llama, caught hold of a bush to save himself -from falling. The bush yielded to his grasp, and he found -attached to its roots a mass of silver. All around, the mountains -were rich in silver. The rumoured wealth of Potosi -attracted multitudes of the adventurous and the poor, and the -lonely mountain became quickly the home of a large population. -A city which numbered ultimately one hundred and fifty thousand -souls arose at an elevation of thirteen thousand feet above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span> -sea-level: several thousand mines were opened by the eager -crowds who hastened to the spot. A little later the yet more -wonderful opulence of Mexico was discovered. During the -whole period of Spanish dominion over the New World the -production of the precious metals, especially of silver, continued -to increase, until at length it reached the large annual aggregate -of ten million sterling. Two centuries and a half passed -in the interval between the discovery of the Western mines and -the overthrow of Spanish authority. During that period there -was drawn from the mines of the New World a value of fifteen -hundred or two thousand million sterling.</p> - -<p>When this flood of wealth began to pour in upon the country, -Spain stood at the highest pitch of her strength. The divisions -which for many centuries had enfeebled her were now removed, -and Spain was united under one strong monarchy. Her people, -trained for many generations in perpetual war with their Moorish -invaders, were robust, patient, enduring, regardless of danger. -Their industrial condition was scarcely inferior to that of any -country in Europe. Barcelona produced manufactures of steel -and glass which rivalled those of Venice. The looms of Toledo, -occupied with silk and woollen fabrics, gave employment to ten -thousand workmen; Granada and Valencia sent forth silks and -velvets; Segovia manufactured arms and fine cloths; around -Seville, while she was still the only port of shipment for the -New World, there were sixteen thousand looms. So active -was the demand which Spanish manufacturers enjoyed, that at -one time the orders held by them could not have been executed -under a period of six years. Spain had a thousand merchant -ships—certainly the largest mercantile marine in Europe. Her -soil was carefully cultivated, and many districts which are now -arid and barren wastes yielded then luxuriant harvests.</p> - -<p>But Spain proved herself unworthy of the unparalleled opportunities -which had been granted to her. Her Kings turned the -national attention to military glory, and consumed the lives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span> -and the substance of the people in aggressive wars upon neighbouring -States. Her Church suppressed freedom of thought, -and thus, step by step, weakened and debased the -national intellect. <span class="sidenote">1492 A.D.</span> The Jews were expelled from Spain, -and the country never recovered from the wound which -the loss of her most industrious citizens inflicted. The easily-gained -treasure of the New World fired the minds of the people -with a restless ambition, which did not harmonize with patient -industry. The waste of life in war, and the eager rush to the -marvellous gold-fields of America, left Spain insufficiently supplied -with population to maintain the industrial position which -she had reached. Her manufactures began to decay, until -early in the seventeenth century the sixteen thousand looms of -Seville had sunk to four hundred. Agriculture shared the fall -of the sister industries; and ere long Spain was able with difficulty -to support her own diminished population. Her navy, -once the terror of Europe, was ruined. Her merchant ships -became the prey of enemies whose strength had grown as hers -had decayed. The traders of England and Holland, setting at -defiance the laws which she was no longer able to enforce, -supplied her colonies with manufactures which she in her decline -was no longer able to produce.</p> - -<p>The North American possessions of England became an inestimable -blessing to England and to the human family, because -they were the slow gains of patient industry. Their ownership -was secured not by the sword, but by the plough. Nothing -was done for them by fortune; the history of their growth is -a record of labour, undismayed, unwearied, incessant. Every -new settler, every acre redeemed from the wilderness, contributed -to the vast aggregate of wealth and power which has -been built up slowly, but upon foundations which are indestructible.</p> - -<p>The success of Spain was the demoralizing success of the -fortunate gambler. Within the lifetime of a single generation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span> -ten or twelve million of Spaniards came into possession of -advantages such as had never before been bestowed upon any -people. A vast region, ten times larger than their own country, -glowing with the opulence of tropical vegetation, fell easily -into their hands. Products of field and of forest which were -eagerly desired in Europe were at their call in boundless quantity. -A constant and lucrative market was opened for their -own productions. Millions of submissive labourers spared them -the necessity of personal effort. All that nations strive for as -their chief good—territorial greatness, power, wealth, ample -scope for commercial enterprise—became suddenly the coveted -possession of Spain. But these splendours served only to illustrate -her incapacity, to hasten her ruin, to shed a light by -which the world could watch her swift descent to the nether -gloom of idleness, depopulation, insolvency, contempt.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">REVOLUTION.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-f.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">For three hundred years Spain governed the rich -possessions which she had so easily won. At the -close of that period the population was about sixteen -million—a number very much smaller than -the conquerors found on island and continent. The increase of -three centuries had not repaired the waste of thirty years. Of -the sixteen million two were Spaniards; the remainder were -Indians, negroes, or persons of mixed descent.</p> - -<p>Spain ruled in a spirit of blind selfishness. Her aim was to -wring from her tributary provinces the largest possible advantage -to herself. Her administration was conducted by men -sent out from Spain for that purpose, and no man was eligible -for office unless he could prove his descent from ancestors of -unblemished orthodoxy. It was held that men circumstanced -as these were must remain for ever true to the pleasant system -of which they formed part, and were in no danger of becoming -tainted with colonial sympathies. This expectation was not -disappointed. During all the years of her sordid and unintelligent -rule, the servants of Spain were scarcely ever tempted, by -any concern for the welfare of the colonists, to deviate from the -traditional policy of the parent State. Corruption fostered by -a system of government which inculcated the wisdom of a rapid -fortune and an early return to Spain was excessive and audacious. -Those Spaniards who had made their home in the colonies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span> -were admitted to no share in the administration. Many -of them had amassed great wealth; but yielding to the influences -of an enervating climate and a repressive Government, they had -become a luxurious, languid class, devoid of enterprise or intelligence.</p> - -<p>In course of years the poor remnants of the native population -which had been bestowed, for a certain number of lives, upon the -conquerors, reverted to the Crown, and their annual tribute -formed a considerable branch of revenue.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> The Indians had -been long recognized by the law as freemen, but they were still -in the remoter districts subjected to compulsory service on the -fields and in the mines. They were no longer, however, exposed -to the unrestrained brutality of a race which they were too -feeble to resist. Officers were appointed in every district to -inquire into their grievances and protect them from wrong. -In their villages they were governed by their own chiefs, who -were salaried by the Spanish Government; and they lived in -tolerable contentment, avoiding, so far as that was possible, the -unequal companionship which had brought misery so great upon -their race.</p> - -<p>In the early years of the conquest, negroes were imported -from Africa on the suggestion of Las Casas,<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> and for the purpose -of staying the destruction of the native population. Negro -labour was soon found to be indispensable, and the importation -of slaves became a lucrative trade. The demand was large and -constant; for the negroes perished so rapidly in their merciless -bondage that in some of the islands one negro in every six died -annually. France enjoyed for many years the advantage -of supplying these victims. <span class="sidenote">1713 A.D.</span> But England having been -victorious over Spain in a great war, wrung from her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span> -the guilty privilege of procuring for her the slaves who were -to toil and die in her cruel service. After the Treaty of -Utrecht, the Spanish colonists were forbidden to purchase -negroes excepting from English vessels.</p> - -<p>Down to the period of the conquest the Indians had utterly -failed to establish dominion over the lower animals. Excepting -in Peru, there was almost no attempt made to domesticate, and -in Peru it extended no higher than to the sheep. There was -no horse on the continent; there were no cattle. It was the -fatal disadvantage of being without mounted soldiers which -made the subjugation of the Indians so easy. The Spaniards -introduced the horse as the chief instrument of their success in -war. From time to time as riders were killed in battle, or -died smitten by disease, their neglected horses escaped into the -wilderness. <span class="sidenote">1548 A.D.</span> Fifty years after the discovery of the New -World a Spaniard introduced cattle. On the boundless -plains of the southern continent the increase of both -races was enormous. In course of years countless millions of -horses and of cattle wandered masterless among the luxuriant -vegetation of the pampas. Their presence introduced an element -which was wanting before in the population. The pastoral -natives of the pampas, to whose ancestors the horse was -unknown, have become the best horsemen in the world. They -may almost be said to live in the saddle. They support themselves -mainly by hunting and slaughtering wild cattle. The -submissiveness of their fathers has passed away. They are -rude, passionate, fierce; and, as the Spaniards found to their -cost, they furnish an effective and formidable cavalry for the -purposes of war. A few thousands of such horsemen would -have rendered Spanish conquest impossible, and given a widely -different course to the history of the continent.</p> - -<p>In spite of the indolence of the colonial Spaniards and the -mischievous restrictions imposed by the mother country, the -trade of the colonies had largely increased. Especially was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span> -this the case when certain ameliorations, which even Spain -could no longer withhold, were introduced. <span class="sidenote">1748 A.D.</span> The annual -fleet was discontinued; single trading ships registered -for that purpose sailed as their owners found encouragement -to send them. <span class="sidenote">1765 A.D.</span> By successive steps the trade of -the islands was opened to all Spaniards trading from -the principal Spanish ports; the continental colonies -were permitted to trade freely with one another, and <span class="sidenote">1774 A.D.</span> a few years later they were permitted to trade with the -islands. These tardy concessions to the growing enlightenment -of mankind resulted in immediate expansion, and increased the -colonial traffic to dimensions of vast importance. <span class="sidenote">1809 A.D.</span> At the time -when the colonies raised the standard of revolt their -annual purchases from Spain amounted to fifteen million -sterling, and the annual exports of their own products -amounted to eighteen million. The colonial revenue was in a -position so flourishing that, after providing for all expenses on -a scale of profuse and corrupt extravagance, Spain found that -her American colonies yielded her a net annual profit of two -million sterling.</p> - -<p>The Spaniards, although, as one of the results of their prolonged -religious war against the Moorish invaders, they had -fallen under a debasing subserviency to their priests, cherished -a hereditary love of civil liberty. The Visigoths, from whom -they sprang, brought with them into Spain an elective monarchy, -a large measure of personal freedom, and even the germs of a -representative system. During the war of independence the -cities enjoyed the privilege of self-government, and were -represented in the national councils. <span class="sidenote">1504 A.D.</span> Queen Isabella, -in her will, spoke of “the free consent of the people” as -being essential to the lawfulness of taxation. A few years -afterwards, the King’s Preachers, in their noble pleading for the -Indians, assert that “a King’s title depends upon his rendering -service to his people, or being chosen by them.” Three centuries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span> -later, the Spaniards gave unexpected evidence that their -inherited love of democracy had not been extinguished by ages -of blind superstition and despotism. <span class="sidenote">1812 A.D.</span> While Europe still accepted -the practice and even the theory of personal -government, there issued from the Spanish people a -democratic constitution, which served as a rallying cry -to the nations of Southern Europe in their early struggles for -liberty and representation.</p> - -<p>The successful assertion of their independence by the thirteen -English colonies of the northern continent appealed to the -slumbering democracy of the Spanish colonists, and increased -the general discontent with the political system under which -they lived. <span class="sidenote">1780 A.D.</span> A revolt in Peru gave to Spain a warning -which she was not sufficiently wise to understand. The -revolt was suppressed. Its leader, after he had been -compelled to witness the death by burning of his wife and -children, was himself torn to pieces by wild horses in the great -square of Lima. The Spanish Government, satisfied with its -triumph, made no effort to remove the grievances which -estranged its subjects and threatened the overthrow of its colonial -empire.</p> - -<p>For thirty years more, although discontent continued to -increase, the languid tranquillity of the Spanish colonies was -undisturbed. But there had now arisen in Europe a power -which was destined to shatter the decaying political systems of -the Old World, and whose influences, undiminished by distance, -were to introduce changes equally vast upon the institutions of -the New World. Napoleon had cast greedy eyes upon the -colonial dominion of Spain, and coveted, for the lavish expenditure -which he maintained, the treasure yielded by the -mines of Peru and Mexico. <span class="sidenote">1808 A.D.</span> He placed his brother on -the throne of Spain; he attempted to gain over the -Viceroys to his side. Spain was now a dependency of France. -The colonists might have continued for many years longer in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span> -subjection to Spain, but they utterly refused to transfer their -allegiance to her conqueror. With one accord they rejected -the authority of France; and, having no rightful monarch to -serve, they set up government for themselves. At first they -did not claim to be independent, but continued to avow loyalty -to the dethroned King, and even sent money to strengthen the -patriot cause. But meantime they tasted the sweetness of -liberty. Four years later the usurpers were cast out, and the -old King was brought back to Madrid. Spain sought to replace -her yoke upon the emancipated colonies, making it plain that -she had no thought of lightening their burdens or widening -their liberties. The time had passed when it was possible for -Spanish despotism to regain its footing on American soil. -Many of the provinces had already claimed their independence, -and the others were prepared for the same decisive step. The -ascendency of Europe over the American continent had ceased. -But Spain followed England in her attempt to compel the -allegiance of subjects whose affection she had forfeited. In her -deep poverty and exhaustion she entered upon a costly war, -which, after inflicting for sixteen years vast evils on both the -Old World and the New, terminated in her ignominious defeat.</p> - -<p>The provinces which bordered on the Gulf of Mexico had a -larger intercourse with Europe than their sister States, and were -the first to become imbued with the liberal ideas which were -now gaining prevalence among the European people. They -had constant communication with the West India islands, on -one of which they had long been familiar with the mild rule -of England, while on another they had seen a free Negro State -arise and vindicate its liberties against the power of France. <span class="sidenote">1797 A.D.</span> The island of Trinidad, lying near their shores, had been -conquered by England, who used her new possession as -a centre from which revolutionary impulses could be -conveniently diffused among the subjects of her enemy. Bordering -thus upon territories where freedom was enjoyed, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span> -Colombian provinces learned more quickly than the remoter -colonies to hate the despotism of Spain, and were first to enter -the path which led to independence.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1810 A.D.</span> Seven of these northern provinces formed themselves into -a union, which they styled the Confederation of Venezuela. -They did not yet assert independence of Spain. -But they abolished the tax which had been levied from -the Indians; they declared commerce to be free; they gathered -up the Spanish Governor and his councillors, and, having put -them on board ship, sent them decisively out of the country. -Only one step remained, and it was speedily taken. Next year -Venezuela declared her independence, and prepared as she best -might to assert it in arms against the forces of Spain.</p> - -<p>One of the fathers of South American independence was -Francis Miranda. He was a native of Caraccas, and now a -man in middle life. In his youth he had fought under the -French for the independence of the English colonies on the -Northern Continent. When he had seen the victorious close of -that war he returned to Venezuela, carrying with him sympathies -which made it impossible to bear in quietness the -despotism of Spain. A few years later Miranda offered his -sword to the young French republic, and took part in some of -her battles. But he lost the favour of the new rulers of -France, and betook himself to England, where he sought to -gain English countenance to the efforts of the Venezuelan -patriots. He mustered a force of five hundred English and -Americans, and he expected that his countrymen would -flock to his standard. But his countrymen were not yet -prepared for action so decisive, and his efforts proved for the -time abortive. It was this man who laid the foundations of -independence, but he himself was not permitted to see -the triumph of the great cause. <span class="sidenote">1812 A.D.</span> The patriot arms had -made some progress, and high hopes were entertained; -but the province was smitten by an earthquake, which overthrew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span> -several towns and destroyed twenty thousand lives. -The priests interpreted this calamity as the judgment of Heaven -upon rebellion, and the credulous people accepted their teaching. -The cause of independence, thus supernaturally discredited, -was for the time abandoned. Miranda himself fell -into the hands of his enemies, and perished in a Spanish dungeon.</p> - -<p>His lieutenant, Don Simon Bolivar, was the destined vindicator -of the liberties of the South American Continent. Bolivar -was still a young man; his birth was noble; his disposition -was ardent and enterprising; among military leaders he claims -a high place. His love of liberty, enkindled by the great -deliverance which the United States and France had lately -achieved, was the grand animating impulse of his life. But -his heart was unsoftened by civilizing influences. Under his -savage guidance, the story of the war of independence becomes -a record not only of battles ably and bravely fought, but of -ruthless massacres habitually perpetrated.</p> - -<p>For ten years the war, with varying fortune, held on its -destructive course. Spain, blindly tenacious of the rich possessions -which were passing from her grasp, continued to -squander the substance of her people in vain efforts to reconquer -the empire with which Columbus and Cortes and Pizarro had -crowned her, and which her own incapacity had destroyed. -She was utterly wasted by the prolonged war which Napoleon -had forced upon her. She was miserably poor. Her unpaid -soldiers, inspired by revolutionary sympathies, rose in mutiny -against the service to which they were destined. But still -Spain maintained the hopeless and desolating strife.</p> - -<p>When the terrors of the earthquake had passed away, the -patriots threw themselves once more into the contest, with -energy which made their final success sure. On both sides a -savage and ferocious cruelty was constantly practised. The -Royalists slaughtered as rebels the prisoners who fell into -their hands. Bolivar announced that “the chief purpose of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span> -the war was to destroy in Venezuela the cursed race of Spaniards.” -Soldiers who presented a certain number of Spanish -heads were raised to the rank of officers. The decree of extirpation -was enforced against multitudes of unoffending Spaniards—even -against men in helpless age, so infirm that they could -not stand to receive the fatal bullet, and were therefore placed -in chairs and thus executed. In South America, as in France, -the revolt against the cruel despotism of ages was itself without -restraint of pity or remorse. The severity which despotism -calmly imposes, under due form of law, is in the fulness of -time responded to by the passionate and savage outburst of the -sufferers’ rage. It is lamentable that it should be so; but while -tyrant and victim remain, Nature’s stern method of deliverance -must be accepted.</p> - -<p>When Miranda first sought the help of England, he received -a certain amount of encouragement. Englishmen served in -the ranks of his first army, and English money contributed to -their equipment. <span class="sidenote">1810 A.D.</span> A little later England was in league with -Spain for the overthrow of Napoleon, and her Government -frowned upon “any attempt to dismember the -Spanish monarchy.” But when the purposes of this -union were served, the inalienable sympathy of the British -people with men struggling for liberty asserted itself openly -and energetically. <span class="sidenote">1819-20 A.D.</span> Ample loans were made to the insurgent -Governments; recruiting stations were established in the chief -towns of England; many veterans who had fought -under Wellington offered to the patriot cause the invaluable -aid of their disciplined and experienced courage.</p> - -<p>Thus reinforced, Bolivar was able to press hard upon the -discouraged Royalists. The protracted struggle was -about to close. <span class="sidenote">June, 1821 A.D.</span> Four thousand Spaniards, unable now -to meet their enemies in the field, lay in a strong position -near Carabobo. Bolivar with a force of eight -thousand watched during many days for an opportunity to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span> -attack. Of his troops twelve hundred were British veterans. -Bolivar succeeded at length in placing his forces on the flank -of the enemy and compelling him to accept battle. The -Spaniards at the outset gained important advantage, and broke -the first line of the assailants. Unaware of the presence of -British auxiliaries, they advanced as to assured victory. But -when they saw, through the smoke of battle, the advancing -ranks and levelled bayonets of the British, and heard the loud -and defiant cheers of men confident in their own superior -prowess, their hearts failed them and they fled. The victory -of Carabobo closed the war in the northern provinces. Henceforth -the liberty of Venezuela was secure.</p> - -<p class="tb">The revolutionary movement which originated on the shores -of the Gulf of Mexico extended itself quickly into all the -continental possessions of Spanish America. The overthrow of -government in Spain imposed upon every province the necessity -of determining for itself the political system under which its -affairs should be conducted. The course pursued in all was -substantially identical. There came first the establishment of -a native government, administered in the King’s name. Gradually -this insincere acceptance of an abhorred yoke was -discarded, and the colonies were unanimous in their resolution -to become independent. In each there was a Royalist element -which struggled bravely and bitterly to uphold the ancient rule -of the mother country, with all its pleasant abuses and unfathomable -evils. In each it was the care of Spain to strengthen -the Royalists and maintain the contest. During many years -Spanish America was the theatre of universal civil war. Evils -of appalling magnitude flowed from the prolonged and envenomed -strife. Population sunk in many localities to little -more than one-half of what it had formerly been. The scanty -agriculture of the continent became yet more insignificant. -Commerce lost more than one-half its accustomed volume.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span> -The supply of gold and silver well-nigh ceased. In some years -it fell to one-tenth, and during the whole revolutionary period -it was less than one-third of what it had been in quieter times. -Never before had war inflicted greater miseries upon its victims -or extended its devastations over a wider field.</p> - -<p>Peru was the last stronghold of Spanish authority. Spain -put forth her utmost effort to maintain her hold upon the -mineral treasures which were almost essential to her existence. -The desire for independence was less enthusiastic here than in -the other provinces; the insurrectionary movement was more -fitful and more easily suppressed. When independence had -triumphed everywhere besides, the Peruvian republic was -struggling, hopelessly, for existence. The Spaniards had possessed -themselves of the capital; a reactionary impulse had -spread itself among the soldiers, and numerous desertions had -weakened and discouraged the patriot ranks. The cause of -liberty seemed almost lost in Peru; the old despotism which -had been cast out of the other provinces seemed to regain its -power over the land of the Incas, and threatened to establish -itself there as a standing menace to the liberty and peace of the -continent.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1820 A.D.</span> But at this juncture circumstances occurred in Europe whose -influences reinforced the patriot cause and led to its early and -decisive victory. A revolutionary movement had broken -out in Spain, and attained strength so formidable that -the Bourbon King was forced to accept universal suffrage. -The restored monarchy of France sent an army into Spain to -suppress these disorders and re-establish the accustomed despotism. -The expedition, led by a French prince, achieved a success -which was regarded as brilliant, and which naturally gained for -France a large increase of influence in the affairs of the Peninsula. -England, not delivered even by Waterloo from her hereditary -jealousy of France, regarded this gain with displeasure. Mr. Canning, -who then directed the foreign policy of England, resolved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span> -that since France now predominated over Spain, it should be over -Spain shorn of her American possessions. As he grandly -boasted, he “called the New World into existence to redress -the balance of the Old.” <span class="sidenote">1823 A.D.</span> In simple prose, he acknowledged -the independence of the revolted Spanish provinces, -and entered into relations with them by means -of consuls. As a consequence of this recognition, large supplies -of money and of arms were received by the insurgents, -and many veteran British and French soldiers joined their -ranks.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1823 A.D.</span> These reinforcements made it possible for Bolivar to equip -a strong force and hasten to the support of the sinking republic -of Peru. He arrived at Lima with an army of ten thousand -men, many of whom had gained their knowledge of war -under Napoleon and Wellington. Here he made his -preparations for the arduous undertaking of carrying his -army across the Andes. When Pizarro entered upon the same -enterprise, he marched across a plain made fertile by the -industry of the people; among the mountains his progress was -aided by the great roads of the barbarians and the frequent -magazines and places of shelter which they had providently -erected. But three centuries of Spanish dominion had effaced -the works of the Incas, and had carried the land, by great -strides, back towards desolation. The roads and the canals for -irrigation had fallen into decay; the fruitful plain was now an -arid and sterile wilderness. Bolivar had to make roads, to -build sheds, to lay up stores of food along his line of march, -before he could venture to set out. The toil of the ascent was -extreme, and the men suffered much from the cold into which -they advanced. The Royalists did not wait for their descent, -but met them among the mountains at an elevation of twelve -thousand feet above sea-level. During many months there was -fighting without decisive result. At length the armies met for -a conflict which it was now perceived must be final. <span class="sidenote">Dec. 9, 1824 A.D.</span> On the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span> -plain of Ayacucho, twelve thousand Royalists encountered the -Republican army, numbering now scarcely more than one-half -the opposing forces. The outnumbered Independents -fought bravely, but the fortune of war seemed to -declare against them, and they were being driven from -the field with a defeat which must soon have become a rout. -At that perilous moment an English general commanding the -Republican cavalry struck with all his force on the flank of the -victorious but disordered Spaniards. The charge could not be -resisted. The Spaniards fled from the field, leaving their artillery -and many prisoners, among whom was the Viceroy. A final -and decisive victory had been gained. The war ceased; Peru -and Chili were given over by treaty to the friends of liberty, -and the authority which Spain had so vilely abused had no longer -a foothold on the soil of the great South American Continent.</p> - -<p class="tb">The process by which Spain was stripped of her American -possessions, and of which we have now seen the close, had -begun within a hundred years after the conquest. When she -ceased to obtain gold and silver from the islands of the Gulf of -Mexico, Spain ceased to concern herself about these portions of -her empire. The other nations of Europe, guided by a wiser -estimate, sought to possess themselves of the neglected islands. -Soon after the death of Queen Elizabeth, the English established -themselves on Barbadoes, and began industriously to -cultivate tobacco, indigo, and the sugar-cane. A little later, -the French formed settlements on Martinique and Guadaloupe, -as the English did on St. Christopher, and held them -against all the efforts of Spain. Oliver Cromwell seized -Jamaica, and peopled the island with “idle and disaffected” -persons, who were sent out with slight regard to their own -wishes.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The buccaneers formed many settlements, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span> -were assailed but could not be extirpated. <span class="sidenote">1665 to 1671 A.D.</span> One of these, -on the island of St. Domingo, was taken under the protection -of France. The Danes possessed themselves of -St. Thomas. During the ceaseless wars of the eighteenth -century France and England competed keenly for dominion -in the Gulf of Mexico, and the maritime supremacy of -England gave her decisive advantage in the contest. Few -wars closed without a new cession of colonial lands by France -or by Spain to England. <span class="sidenote">1763 A.D.</span> On the Northern Continent, -Florida was added to the English possessions. The vast -territory known as Mississippi passed into the hands of -the United States. The revolutionary movement of the nineteenth -century wrenched from Spain all the rich provinces -which she owned on the Southern Continent, and the battle of -Ayacucho left her with only an inconsiderable fragment of -those boundless possessions which, by a strange fortune, had -fallen into her unworthy hands.</p> - -<p>Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remain, to preserve the humiliating -memory of a magnificent colonial dominion gained and -held without difficulty; governed in shameless selfishness; -lost by utter incapacity. Puerto Rico is an inconsiderable -island, scarcely larger than the largest of our English counties, -lying off the northern shores of the continent. It holds a -population of six or seven hundred thousand persons, one-half -of whom are slaves.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Its people occupy themselves in the -cultivation of sugar and tobacco, and are still governed by -Spain according to the traditions which guided her policy -during the darkest period of her colonial history.</p> - -<p>Cuba is the noblest of all the islands which Columbus found -in the West. It lies in the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, -where Yucatan on the Southern Continent draws towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span> -Florida on the Northern to form the seaward boundaries of the -Gulf. Its area is about one-half that of Great Britain. Its -population is one million four hundred thousand,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> of whom one-fourth -are slaves. The rich soil yields two and even three -crops of corn annually; the perpetual summer of its genial -climate clothes in blossom throughout the whole year the -aromatic plants and trees which beautify its plains. The -sugar-cane, whose cultivation is the leading industry of the -island, is a source of vast wealth. To the extent of one-half -its area the island is covered with dense forests of valuable -timber still untouched by the axe. The orange tree, the -citron, the pomegranate yield, spontaneously, their rich harvest -of precious fruits.</p> - -<p>But the bounty of Nature has been neutralized by the unworthiness -of man. The blight of Spanish government has -fallen heavily on this lovely island. When the other American -possessions of Spain threw aside the yoke, the leading Cubans -assembled and swore solemnly to maintain for ever the authority -of the parent State. They still plume themselves on their -loyalty, and speak fondly of Cuba as “the ever-faithful isle.” -But neither the obedience of Cuba nor the rebellion of the other -colonies moved the blind rulers of Spain to mitigate the evils -which their authority inflicted. The ancient system was enforced -on Cuba when she became the sole care of Spain precisely -as it had been when she was still a member of a great -colonial dominion. All offices were still occupied by natives of -Spain; all Spaniards born in Cuba were still regarded with -contempt by their haughty countrymen from beyond the sea. -Governors still exercised a purely despotic authority; the home -Government still claimed a large gain from the colonial revenue; -all religions but one were still excluded. The loss of a continent -had taught no lesson to incapable Spain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span></p> - -<p>After the successful assertion of independence by the continental -States, frequent insurrections testified to the presence of -a liberal spirit in Cuba. These were suppressed without difficulty, -but not without much needless cruelty. <span class="sidenote">1868 A.D.</span> At length -there burst out an insurrection which surpassed all the -others in dimensions and duration. It continued to -rage during eight years; it cost Spain one hundred and fifty -thousand of her best soldiers; nearly one-half the sugar plantations -of the island were destroyed; population decreased; trade -decayed; poverty and famine scourged the unhappy island.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1876 A.D.</span> Spain was able at length to crush out the rebellion and -maintain her grasp over this poor remnant of her American -empire. Cuba emerged from those miserable years -in a state of utter exhaustion. Many of her people -had perished by famine or by the sword; many others had fled -from a land blighted by a government which they were not able -either to reject or to endure. Spain sought to make Cuba defray -the costs of her own subjugation, and taxation became enormous. -The expenditure of Cuba is at the rate of fifteen pounds for -each of the population, or six times the rate of that of -Great Britain. Only three-fourths of the total sum can be -wrung from the impoverished people, even by a severity of -taxation which is steadily crushing out the agriculture of the -island; and a large annual deficit is rapidly increasing the -public debt.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Already that debt has been trebled by the -rebellion and its consequences. None of the devices to which -distressed States are accustomed to resort have been omitted, -and an inconvertible currency, so large as to be hopelessly -unmanageable, presses heavily upon the sinking industries of -Cuba.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p>Spain is the largest producer and the smallest consumer of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span> -sugar. A Spaniard uses only one-sixth of the quantity of sugar -which is used by an Englishman. Spain has made the article -high-priced, in utter disregard of colonial interests, for the purpose -of cherishing her home production. The sugar of Cuba, -loaded with heavy taxes before shipment, and further discouraged -in the markets of Spain by excessive import duties, is -unable to support those iniquitously imposed burdens, and this -great industry is falling into ruin.</p> - -<p>There are sixteen thousand Government servants in Cuba—nearly -all Spaniards; all underpaid; all permitted to make -livings or fortunes by such means as present themselves. They -maintain themselves, and many of them grow rich, by corruption, -which there is no public opinion to rebuke. The ignorance -of the people is unsurpassed—not more than one-tenth of their -number having received any education at all. A few poor -newspapers, living under a strict censorship, supply the literary -wants of Havana, a city of two hundred and thirty thousand -souls. No religious teaching, excepting that which the Church -of Rome supplies, is permitted within the island. Justice is -administered according to the irresponsible pleasure of ignorant -Spanish officials, incessantly eager to be bribed. Slavery -lingers in Cuba after its rejection by all American and European -States, and is here characterized by special brutalities. Recent -English travellers have witnessed the flogging of young slave-women, -from whose arms lately-born children were removed in -order that the torture might be inflicted.</p> - -<p class="tb">The States of the Spanish mainland suffered deeply in their -struggle against the power of the mother country, but they -gained the ample compensation of independence. Unhappy -Cuba endured miseries no less extreme, but she found no deliverance. -The solace of freedom has been withheld; the abhorred -and withering despotism survives to blight the years -that are to come as it has blighted those that are past.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">INDEPENDENCE.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When the thirteen English colonies of the Northern -Continent gained their independence, they entered -upon a political condition for which their qualities -of mind and their experience amply fitted them. -They were reasonably well educated; indeed there was scarcely -any other population which, in this respect, enjoyed advantages -so great. They were men of a race which had for centuries -been accustomed to exercise authority in the direction of its -own public affairs. Since they became colonists they and -their fathers had enjoyed in an eminent degree the privilege of -self-government. The transition by which they passed into -sovereign States demanded no fitness beyond that which they -inherited from many generations of ancestors and developed in -the ordinary conduct of their municipal and national interests.</p> - -<p>With the Spanish settlements on the Southern Continent it -was altogether different. The people were entirely without -education; the printing-press was not to be found anywhere on -the continent excepting in two or three large cities. They -were of many and hostile races. There were Spaniards—European -and native. There were Indians, classed as civilized, -half-civilized, and wild. There were Negroes; there were races -formed by the union of the others. The European Spaniards -alone had any experience in the art of government, and they -were driven from the continent with all possible speed. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span> -others were wholly unpractised in the management of their -own national concerns. Spanish officials supplied, according -to their own despotic pleasure, the regulation which they -deemed needful; and the colonists had not even the opportunity -of watching and discussing the measures which were -adopted.</p> - -<p>No people ever took up the work of self-government under a -heavier burden of disadvantage and disqualification. It is not -surprising that their success thus far has been so imperfect. Nor -is their future to be despaired of because their past is so full of -wasted effort, of incessant revolution, of blood lavishly shed -in civil strife which seemed to have no rational object and no -solid result. Mankind must be satisfied if, beneath these confusions -and miseries, there can be traced some evidences of -progress towards that better political and industrial condition -which self-government has never ultimately failed to gain.</p> - -<p>The early legislation of the South American States expressed -genuine sympathy with the cause of liberty, and an unselfish -desire that its blessings should be enjoyed by all. Slavery was -abolished, and for many years the absence of that evil institution -from the emancipated Spanish settlements was a standing -rebuke to the unscrupulous greed which still maintained it -among the more enlightened inhabitants of the Northern Continent. -Constitutions were adopted which evinced a just regard -to the rights of all, combined, unhappily, with an utter disregard -to the fitness of the population for the exercise of these -rights.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> Universal suffrage and equal electoral districts were -established, and votes were taken by the ballot. Orders of -nobility were abolished, and some unjust laws which still retain -their place in the statute-book of England, as the laws of entail -and primogeniture. Entire religious liberty was decreed, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span> -it was not long till the interference of the Pope in such ecclesiastical -concerns as the appointment of bishops was resented -and repelled. The punishment of death for political offences -was abolished. In course of time an educational system, free -and compulsory, was set up in some of the States. The people -of South America had been animated in their pursuit of independence -by the example of the United States and of France, -and they sought to frame their political institutions according -to the models which these countries supplied.</p> - -<p>The institutions which were then set up remain in their great -outlines unchanged. But the wisdom and moderation which -are essential to self-government are not suddenly bestowed by -Heaven; they are the slowly accumulated gains of long experience. -There did not exist among the South Americans -that reverential submission to majorities which self-governing -nations gradually acquire. Here, as elsewhere, two opposing -parties speedily revealed themselves. One was zealously -liberal and reforming—seeking progress and desiring in each -country a federation of States as opposed to a strong centralized -Government; the other preferred centralization and a maintenance -of existing conditions. Among a people so utterly -unpractised in political life no method of settling these differences -other than the sword suggested itself. During half a -century the continent has been devastated by perpetual wars -around questions which, among nations of larger experience, -would have merely formed the theme of peaceful controversy. -And in a large number of instances the original grounds of -contest were forgotten—exchanged for an ignoble personal -struggle to gain or to hold the advantages of power.</p> - -<p>The South American States perceived the desirableness of a -popularly chosen Legislature, but their political knowledge -carried them no further. They consented to an autocratic -Executive. They placed Dictators in supreme authority. Theirs -was the idea which Napoleon in modern times originated and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span> -which his nephew developed—the idea of a despotism based on -universal suffrage. They intrusted their liberties to a selfish -oligarchy. When the struggle for independence was victoriously -closed, they had still to conquer their freedom, and the contest -has been more prolonged and bloody than that which they -waged against the tyranny of Spain.</p> - -<p class="tb">The three northern States of <span class="smcap">Venezuela</span>, <span class="smcap">New Granada</span>, and -<span class="smcap">Ecuador</span> began their independent career by forming themselves -into a great federal Republic. Their possessions extended over -an area six times larger than that of France; thinly peopled by -men of diverse races; severed by mountains well-nigh impassable, -without connection of road or navigated river. The task -of government under these circumstances was manifestly desperate. -But hopes were high in that early morning of liberty. <span class="sidenote">1821 A.D.</span> With a constitution closely resembling that of the -United States, and with Bolivar the liberator of a -continent as President, the Republic of Colombia entered -proudly upon the fulfilment of its destiny. Five years -after, the union which had been found impossible was dissolved. -Bolivar, the great and patriotic soldier, proved himself an -incapable and despotic statesman. He became Dictator of New -Granada, which he ruled according to his arbitrary pleasure. <span class="sidenote">1830 A.D.</span> The outraged people delivered themselves by a bloody -but successful revolt from a yoke scarcely more tolerable -than that of Spain; and the man to whom the continent -owed its independence died broken-hearted, by what -seemed to him the ingratitude of his countrymen.</p> - -<p>Incessant strife now raged between the party of the priests -and soldiers on the one hand and that of the people on the -other. During a period of seventeen years the country endured -a government of clerical ascendency and brute force. But -during these years the numbers and political influence of the -artisan class in towns had largely increased; and the far-reaching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span> -influences of the revolutions in Europe roused the energies of the -people. <span class="sidenote">1848 A.D.</span> They were able to wring from the Government -large promises of reform, and a decree for the -expulsion of the Jesuits. Some years followed, darkened -by incessant revolts and the alternating victory and defeat of -the opposing parties. <span class="sidenote">1854 A.D.</span> At length the Liberals took the field -with a “regenerating army” of twenty thousand men, -and were utterly defeated. The Conservatives were -now in the ascendant. But the tenacious Liberals, refusing -to accept defeat, maintained for seven years a war in -which, after a hundred battles, they were at length decisively -victorious. <span class="sidenote">1861 A.D.</span> There have been revolutions since -that time, and short-lived Conservative triumphs, but -the Liberal ascendency has never been very seriously shaken.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1826 to 1847 A.D.</span> Venezuela spent twenty tranquil years under the -military despotism of General Paez—one of Bolivar’s companions-in-arms. -But at the end of that period there -arose a cry for reform. Even the Indians and the -men of mixed race sought eagerly for the correction of the -abuses which the ruling party maintained. <span class="sidenote">1849 A.D.</span> General -Paez was banished from the country. <span class="sidenote">1863 1868 1870 A.D.</span> For some years he -troubled the Republic by armed attempts to regain -his lost authority, but the power of Liberalism could not be -shaken. Once a sudden Conservative uprising gained a -short-lived triumph. But a spirited Liberal—Guzman -Blanco—drove the enemy forth and became President of -the Republic—an office which he held for eight years. -During the period of his rule there was no more than one -revolutionary movement of importance. <span class="sidenote">1872 A.D.</span> That revolt -was closed by a desperate battle, in which the strength -of the Conservative party was utterly broken.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span></p> - -<p>Under the judicious rule of President Blanco, Venezuela has -enjoyed what to a South American Republic must seem profound -tranquillity. Priestly power has received great discouragement. -The convents and monasteries have been suppressed; civil marriage -has been established; subjection to Rome has been disavowed.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> -A compulsory system of national education has been -established—not too soon, for only one Venezuelan in ten can -read or write. Some beginning has been made in developing -the vast mineral resources of the country. Numerous roads, -canals, and aqueducts have been constructed. Population has -increased, and the trade of the republic, although not yet considerable, -grows from year to year. The industrious habits of -the people draw no reinforcement from necessity; for in that -rich soil and genial climate the labour of a single month will -maintain a family in comfort for a whole year. Nevertheless, -the people are fairly industrious; and they are honest, cheerful, -and hospitable. The tendency to redress political wrongs -by violence seems to lose its power as these wrongs diminish -in number and intensity; and the prospect of a peaceful -future, with growing intelligence and increase of industrial -well-being, steadily improves.</p> - -<p class="tb"><span class="sidenote">1822 A.D.</span> When the <span class="smcap">Mexicans</span> gained their independence, they -raised to the throne a popular young officer, whom they -styled the Emperor Augustine First. They were then -a people utterly priest-ridden and fanatical; and the clergy whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[517]</a></span> -they superstitiously revered were a corrupt and debased class. -The reformers had avowed the opinion that the Church was the -origin of most of the evils which afflicted the country. The -Emperor, while he offered equal civil rights to all the inhabitants -of Mexico, sought to gain the clergy to his cause by guaranteeing -the existence of the Catholic Church. But a monarchy proved -to be impossible, and in less than a year a republican uprising, -headed by Santa Anna, forced the Emperor to resign. <span class="sidenote">1824 A.D.</span> A Federal -Republic was then organized, with a constitution based -on that of the great Republic whose territories adjoined -those of Mexico.</p> - -<p>For the next thirty years Santa Anna is the prominent figure -in Mexican politics. He was a tall thin man, with sun-browned -face, black curling hair, and dark vehement eye. He possessed -no statesmanship, and his generalship never justified the confidence -with which it was regarded by his countrymen. But -he was full of reckless bravery and dash, and if his leading was -faulty, his personal bearing in all his numerous battles was -irreproachable. His popularity ebbed and flowed with the -exigencies of the time. <span class="sidenote">1828-39 A.D.</span> He repelled an invasion -by Spain and an invasion by France, and these -triumphs raised him to the highest pinnacle of public -favour. Then his power decayed, and he was forced to flee -from the country. When new dangers threatened the unstable -nation, he was recalled from his banishment, and placed in -supreme command. At one period one of his legs, which had been -shattered in battle, was interred with solemn funeral service -and glowing patriot oratory. A little later the ill-fated limb -was disinterred, and kicked about the streets of Mexico with -every contumelious accompaniment. His public life was closed -by a hasty flight to Havana—the second movement of that -description which it was his lot to execute.</p> - -<p>Santa Anna sought the favour of the people by the grant of -extremely democratic constitutions, but throughout his whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[518]</a></span> -career he remained the willing tool of the clerical party. The -Mexican clergy were possessed of vast wealth and vast influence. -Fully one-half the land of the country belonged to them, and a -large portion of the remainder was mortgaged to them. Their -spiritual prerogatives were held to exempt them from taxation, -and thus the whole weight of national burden fell upon the -smaller division of national property. It was the concern of -this powerful interest to maintain its own unjust privileges and -to repress the growth of liberal sentiments among the people. -So long as they were able to command the service of Santa -Anna, they were able to frustrate the general wish, and guide -the policy of the country according to their ignorant and -tyrannical pleasure.</p> - -<p>But they had not been able to shut out from the democracy -of the towns, or from the Indians in their country villages, the -political ideas to which the French Revolution of 1848 gave so -large prevalence in Europe. The influence of the United -States, which the ruling party strove to exclude, continued to -gain in power. A radical party arose which assailed the -privileges of the clergy. In course of years the growing demand -for reform overcame the stubborn priestly defence of -abuses, and the Mexicans took a large step towards the vindication -of their liberties.</p> - -<p>The leader in this revolution was Benito Juarez, a Toltec -Indian; one of that despised race which the Aztecs subdued -centuries before the Spanish invasion. This man had imbibed -the liberal and progressive ideas which now prevailed in all -civilized countries; and his personal ability and skill in the -management of affairs gained for him the opportunity of conferring -upon Mexico the fullest measure of political blessing -which she had ever received. <span class="sidenote">1855 A.D.</span> The Liberals were now a -majority in Congress, and the gigantic work of reformation -began. The first step was to declare the subjection -of the clergy to civil law. Two years later came the abolition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[519]</a></span> -of clerical privileges, liberty of religion, a free press, a reduced -tariff, the opening of the country to immigration, the beginning -of commercial relations with the United States. The Pope, -with hearty good-will, cursed all who favoured such legislation; -the Archbishop of Mexico added his excommunication of all -who rendered obedience to it. What was still more to the -purpose, the clerical party rose in civil war to crush this aggressive -liberalism, or, in their own language, to “regenerate” -Mexico. Juarez and his Government were driven for a time -from the capital, and withdrew to Vera Cruz. But this retreat -did not arrest the flow of Liberal measures. <span class="sidenote">1859 A.D.</span> From Vera -Cruz, Juarez was able to promulgate his Laws of Reform, -suppressing monastic orders, establishing civil marriage, -claiming for the nation the monstrously overgrown possessions -of the Church,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> giving fuller scope to many of the reforming -laws enacted two years before. Next year the Liberals triumphed -over their enemies, and the Government returned to its proper -home, in the city of Mexico.</p> - -<p>But the resources of the defeated Clericals were not yet -exhausted. Their aims concurred with an ambition which at that -time animated the restless mind of the Emperor Napoleon III. -The Emperor claimed to be the head of the Latin races, whose -position on the American Continent seemed to be endangered -by their own dissensions, as well as by the rapid expansion of -the Anglo-Saxons. The Mexican clergy, supported by the Court -of Rome, gave encouragement to his idle dream. An expedition -was prepared, in which England and Spain took reluctant -and hesitating part, and from which they quickly withdrew.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1863 A.D.</span> A French army entered the capital of Mexico. Juarez and -his Government withdrew to maintain a patriot war, -in which the mass of the people zealously upheld -them. An Austrian prince sat upon the throne of -Mexico without support, excepting that which the clerical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[520]</a></span> -party of Mexico and the bayonets of France supplied. A -few years earlier or later these things dared not have been -done; but when the French troops entered Mexican territory, -the United States waged, not yet with clear prospect -of success, a struggle on the results of which depended -their own existence as a nation. They had no thought to give -to the concerns of other American States, and they wisely suffered -the Empire of Mexico to run its sad and foolish course. <span class="sidenote">1865 A.D.</span> But now the Southern revolt was quelled, and the Government -of Washington, having at its call a million of -veteran soldiers, intimated to Napoleon that the further -stay of his troops on the American Continent had become impossible. -The Emperor waited no second summons. <span class="sidenote">1866 A.D.</span> When the French were gone, the patriot armies swept -over the country, and this deplorable attempt to set up -imperialism came to an ignominious close. <span class="sidenote">1867 A.D.</span> The Emperor Maximilian -fell into the hands of his enemies, and was put to -death according to the terms of a decree which his own -Government had framed.</p> - -<p>Juarez was again elected President, and returned with his -Congress to the city of Mexico. During his whole term of -office he had to maintain the Liberal cause in arms against the -tenacious priesthood and its followers. <span class="sidenote">1872 A.D.</span> When he died, a -Liberal President was chosen to succeed him. The war -has never ceased, and the clerical party has occasionally -gained important advantages. It is evident, however, -that its power is being gradually exhausted, and that the -final triumph of Liberalism is not now remote. For sixty -years Mexico has been the opprobrium of Christendom. It is -possible now to entertain the hope that ere many years pass, -this unhappy country, purged of those clerical and military -elements which have been her curse, will begin to take her -fitting place among peaceable, industrious, and prosperous States.</p> - -<p>The area of Mexico is six times larger than that of Great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[521]</a></span> -Britain and Ireland. Her population is between nine and ten -million. Two-thirds of these are pure Indians, the descendants -of the men on whom the thunderbolt of Spanish invasion fell -nearly four hundred years ago. Two and a half million are of -mixed origin; five hundred thousand are pure European. At -the time of the conquest there were among the Mexicans thirty -different races and languages, and these distinctions still survive. -The Indians have regained the cheerfulness which was crushed -out of their dispositions by Spanish cruelty, and under due -superintendence they make excellent artisans and servants. -The work of the country is performed by them; and as their -ambition has not been awakened and their wants are few, labour -is cheap. It is only recently that anything at all has been done -for their education, and they are still profoundly ignorant.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> -But they furnish abundant evidence of high capability. The -race from which President Juarez sprang may reasonably hope -that, after all its miseries, a creditable future is in store.</p> - -<p>The whites are the aristocracy of the country; the mixed -breeds are its turbulent element. They are ordinarily quiet -and indolent, but they are easily inflamed to revolt. To a -large extent the constant revolutionary movements which waste -the country have been sustained by them.</p> - -<p>The reforming laws of Juarez have been well enforced in the -great centres of population. No monk or nun, nor any Jesuit -is tolerated; no priest is to be seen in the streets in the garb of -his office; reformatories and schools are being established; the -youth of Mexico are being rescued from the priest, and made -over to the schoolmaster. In the remote provinces the execution -of the law is extremely imperfect. There the clerical party -is still powerful, and forbidden taxes are still levied in defiance -of law. The subordinate officers of Government are inordinately -corrupt. Import duties are excessive, and the temptations to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[522]</a></span> -evasion are irresistible. The officers of the custom-house habitually -conspire with merchants to defraud the revenue, and share -with them the unlawful gain. The financial condition of the -country is lamentable. Only a small portion of the public debt -is recognized by the Government, and upon that portion no -interest is paid. Expenditure constantly exceeds revenue. -Ordinarily the cost of civil war absorbs more than one-half the -national income; frequently it absorbs the whole.</p> - -<p>The country is surpassingly rich, but its progress is hindered -by insufficient means of communication. The most urgent -requirement of this inland region was that it should be brought -within easy reach of the sea-coast. The pressure of this necessity -led, so long ago as in 1852, to the attempted construction of a -railway from the city of Mexico to Vera Cruz. But the works -were stopped by the habitual national convulsions; and when -Maximilian ascended the throne, he found nothing accomplished -excepting a few miles at either end of the projected line. While -he reigned, the works were carried on, and they were stopped -when his fall drew near. They were resumed by the Liberal -Government, but the progress of any useful work is slow in a -country tormented by incessant revolution. It was seven years -more till the railway was completed for the whole distance of -two hundred and sixty-three miles. Besides this line, there are -no more than three or four hundred miles of railway yet opened -in Mexico.</p> - -<p>The silver-mines of Mexico, which ceased to produce during -the war of independence, have resumed their former importance. -They now yield silver to the annual value of three million -sterling. Besides the export of this commodity, Mexico exports -two million annually of cochineal, indigo, hides, and mahogany. -Her entire imports do not amount to more than five and a half -million. Her foreign commerce, to the extent of two-thirds -its value, is transacted with her once hated neighbour the -United States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[523]</a></span></p> - -<p>If Mexico has been the least fortunate of all the Spanish -provinces of America, <span class="smcap">Chili</span> furnishes the best example of -a well-ordered, settled, and prosperous State. Its area is only -one-fifth and its population one-fourth that of Mexico, but -its foreign commerce is nearly one-half larger.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> For this commerce -its situation is peculiarly favourable. Chili, a long and -narrow country, lies on the Pacific, with which it communicates -by upwards of fifty sea-ports. It is therefore only in small -measure dependent for its progress upon railways and navigable -rivers.</p> - -<p>For sixteen years after throwing off the Spanish yoke,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> Chili -was governed, despotically, without a constitution. During -those years constant disorders prevailed. At length the -general wish of the nation was gratified. <span class="sidenote">1833 A.D.</span> A constitution -was promulgated, under which the franchise was -bestowed on every married man of twenty-one years, and on -every unmarried man of twenty-five who was able to read and -write. With this constitution the people have been satisfied. -The government has been throughout in the hands of a moderate -Conservative party, which has directed public affairs with firmness -and wisdom, and has manifested zeal in the correction of -abuses. Opposing parties have not in Chili, as in the neighbouring -States, wasted the country by their fierce contentions for -ascendency. In the exercise of a wise but rare moderation, the -views of either party have been modified by those of the other. -A method of government has thus been reached which men of -all shades of opinion have been able to accept, and under which -the prosperous development of the country has advanced with -surprising rapidity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[524]</a></span></p> - -<p>During the last thirty years the population of Chili has -quadrupled, and her revenue has increased still more largely. -Immigration from Europe, especially from Germany, has been -successfully promoted. Formerly almost all land was held by -large owners. This pernicious system has been in great measure -destroyed. Estates have been subdivided, and the system of -small proprietorship is now widely prevalent. The public debt -of Chili is twelve million sterling; but as she, unlike her sister -republics, meets her obligations punctually, her name stands -high on the Stock Exchanges of Europe. The education of her -people receives a fair measure of attention. Of her revenue of -three and a half million, she expends a quarter million upon -schools—a proportion not equalled in Europe. But this liberal -expenditure is recent, and has not yet had time to produce its -proper results. Only one in twenty-four of the population -attends school; only one in seven can read. Even in the cities -the proportion is no greater than one in four.</p> - -<p class="tb">The neighbouring State of <span class="smcap">Peru</span> has an area four times that -of Chili, but her population is scarcely larger. And while Chili -has a very inconsiderable proportion of Indians, it is estimated -that fifty-seven per cent. of the Peruvian population are of the -aboriginal races, and twenty-three per cent. are of mixed origin. -The remainder are native Spaniards, Negroes, Chinese, with a -very few Germans and Italians. From a nation so composed, -a wise management of public affairs can scarcely be hoped for. -The government of Peru has been, since the era of independence, -a reproach to humanity. Elsewhere on the continent there has -been the hopeful spectacle of a people imperfectly enlightened, -but animated by a sincere love of liberty, and struggling against -tremendous obstacles towards a happier political situation. The -incessant strifes which have devastated Peru have no such justification. -They have no political significance at all; they do not -originate in any regard to national interests. Turbulent military<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[525]</a></span> -chiefs have, in constant succession and with shameless -selfishness, contended for power and plunder. A debased and -slothful people, wholly devoid of political intelligence, have become -the senseless weapons with which these ignoble strifes have -been waged. The vast wealth with which Nature has endowed -the land has lain undeveloped; the labour, with which the -country is so inadequately supplied, has been absorbed by the -wars of a vulgar and profligate ambition: Peru remains almost -worthless to the human family.</p> - -<p>Spain took courage, from the disorders of Peru, to meditate -the restoration of her lost colonial empire. She attacked Peru; -but her fleet was utterly defeated, after a severe engagement. <span class="sidenote">1866 A.D.</span> This victory roused the spirit of the -Peruvian people, and for a short space it seemed as if -impulses had been communicated which would open an era of -progress. For some years real industrial advance was made. -But the fair prospect was quickly marred. Two Presidents, -who manifested a patriotic desire to begin the work of reform, -were murdered. An insane war against Chili was begun. -Chili had imposed certain duties on products imported from -Bolivia; and Peru, disapproving of these duties, went to war to -avenge or annul the proceeding. The fortune of that war has -been decisively against the aggressor. Chili has proved not -merely equal to the task of holding her own; she has defeated -her enemy in many battles; she has seized portions of -her territory; she has captured her most powerful iron-clad -ship of war. The progress of Peru has utterly ceased. <span class="sidenote">1880 A.D.</span> -Her finances are in the wildest disorder. Her paper currency is -worth no more than one-tenth its nominal value. -Her ports are blockaded; her commerce is well-nigh -abolished. But her misguided rulers will listen to no -suggestion of peace, and seem resolved to maintain this discreditable -contest to the extremity of prostration and misery.</p> - -<p>Peru is believed to extract silver from her mines to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[526]</a></span> -annual value of a million sterling; an amount somewhat smaller -than these mines yielded down to the war of independence. -Peru exports chiefly articles which can be obtained without -labour or thought. The guano, heaped in millions of tons on -the islands which stud her coasts, was sold to European speculators, -and carried away by European ships. But these vast -stores seem to approach exhaustion. Fortunately for this -spendthrift Government, discovery was made some years ago of -large deposits of nitrate of soda, from the sale of which an -important revenue is gained.</p> - -<p>For Peru, lying chiefly between lofty mountain ranges remote -from the sea, railway communication is of prime importance. -In the time of one of her best Presidents there was -devised a scheme of singular boldness; and by the help of -borrowed money, on which no interest is paid, it has been -partially executed. A railway line, setting out from Lima, on -the Pacific, crosses the barren plain which adjoins the coast, -climbs the western range of the Andes to a height of nearly -sixteen thousand feet, and traverses the table-land which lies -between the great lines of mountain. When completed, it will -reach some of the tributaries of the Amazon, at points where -these become navigable—thus connecting the Pacific with the -Atlantic where the continent is at the broadest. There are, in -all, about fourteen hundred miles of railway open for traffic -in Peru, three-fourths of which are Government works.</p> - -<p class="tb"><span class="sidenote">1811 A.D.</span> <span class="smcap">Paraguay</span>, a State with an area nearly twice that of England, -and a population of a million and a half, had the good fortune -to assume her independence without any resistance from -the mother country, and therefore without requiring to -undergo the sacrifices of war. For nearly thirty years -she was ruled by a despotism not less absolute than that of -Spain. Dr. Francia became Dictator for life. He had been -educated as a theologian, and was a silent, stern, relentless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[527]</a></span> -man, who inspired his people with such fear that even after his -death they scarcely ventured to pronounce his name. Francia -did something to develop the resources of the State. But progress -was slow, for the Dictator permitted no intercourse with -other nations. Paraguay was to supply all her own wants—depending -for nothing on the outside world. Whosoever came -within her borders must remain; he who obtained permission -to go out might not return. <span class="sidenote">1840 A.D.</span> When this strange ruler -died his power fell to Carlos Lopez, who maintained -for twenty-two years a despotism not less absolute, but -guided by a policy greatly more enlightened. He encouraged -intercourse with foreigners; he constructed roads and railways; -he cared for education; he created defences and a -revenue. <span class="sidenote">1862 A.D.</span> Before he died he bequeathed his authority -to his son.</p> - -<p>This new ruler had been sent, when a young man, to Europe -to acquire the ideas which animated the enlightened Powers of -the Old World. He arrived at the time of the Crimean War, -to find a love of glory and of empire occupying the public -mind of England and of France. He was not able to withstand -the malign influence. He went home resolved to emulate the -career of the Emperor Napoleon. He, too, would become a -conqueror; he, too, would found an empire. He occupied himself -in forming a large army, in accumulating military stores. <span class="sidenote">1865 A.D.</span> When the death of his father raised him to absolute -authority, he lost no time in attacking Brazil, which he -had marked as his first victim. The Argentine Republic -and Uruguay made common cause with Brazil against -a disturber of the peace, in whose ambition they recognized a -common danger.</p> - -<p>The war continued for five years. It brought upon Paraguay -calamities more appalling than have fallen in modern times -on any State. Her territory was occupied by a victorious -foe, and one-half of it was taken away from her for ever. Her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[528]</a></span> -debt had swelled to an amount which utterly precluded hope -of payment.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Her population had sunk from a million and a -half to two hundred and twenty thousand. Of these it was -estimated that four-fifths were females. War and its attendant -miseries had almost annihilated the adult male population.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> -Paraguay yielded herself as the base instrument of an insane -ambition, and she was destroyed.</p> - -<p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Buenos Ayres</span>, a city founded during the early years of the -conquest, was the seat of one of the vice-royalties by which -the Spaniards conducted the government of the continent. It -stands on the right bank of the river Plate, not far from the ocean. -The Plate and its tributary rivers flow through vast treeless -plains, where myriads of horses and cattle roam at will among -grass which attains a height equal to their own. When the -dominion of Spain ceased, Buenos Ayres naturally assumed a -preponderating influence in the new Government. The provinces -which had composed the old vice-royalty formed themselves -into a Confederation, with a constitution modelled on -that of the United States. Buenos Ayres was the only port -of shipment for the inland provinces. Her commercial importance -as well as her metropolitan dignity soon aroused jealousies -which could not be allayed. Within a few years the Confederation -was repudiated by nearly all its members, and for -some time each of the provinces governed itself independently -of the others.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1821 A.D.</span> The next experiment was a representative Republic under -President-General Rivadavia, with Buenos Ayres as the -seat of Government. Rivadavia was a man of enlightened -views. He encouraged immigration, established -liberty of religion, took some steps to educate the people, -entered into commercial treaties with foreign powers. <span class="sidenote">1827 A.D.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[529]</a></span> -But his liberal policy was regarded unfavourably by a people not -sufficiently wise to comprehend it; and he resigned -his office after having held it for six years.</p> - -<p>The influence of Buenos Ayres now waned, and the -provinces of the interior gained what the capital lost. These -provinces were occupied by a half-savage race of mixed origin, -who lived by the capture and slaughter of wild cattle. These fierce -hunters were trained to the saddle almost from infancy, and -lived on horseback. Excellence in horsemanship was a sufficient -passport to their favour. <span class="sidenote">1829 A.D.</span> The government of the country now -fell into the hands of General Rosas, a Gaucho chief, -whose feats in the saddle have probably never been -equalled by the most accomplished of circus-riders.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> -For twenty-three years this man—cruel, treacherous, but full -of rugged vigour—maintained over the fourteen provinces a -despotism which soon lapsed into an absolute reign of terror. -One of the methods of this wretched man’s government was -the systematic employment of a gang of assassins, who murdered -according to his orders, and under whose knives many thousands -of innocent persons perished. His troops overran the -neighbouring province of Uruguay; but Monte Video, the -capital of that State, was successfully held against him, chiefly -by the skill and courage of Garibaldi. France and England -declared war against the tyrant, and for several years vainly -blockaded the city of Buenos Ayres. At length (1848) a determined -rebellion broke out and raged for four years. <span class="sidenote">1852 A.D.</span> A great -battle was fought; the army of Rosas was scattered; the -capital, wild with joy, received the thrilling news that -the tyrant had fled<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and that the country was free.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[530]</a></span></p> - -<p>The twenty-three years of despotism had done nothing to -solve the political problems which still demanded solution at -the hands of the Argentine people. The tedious and painful -work had now to be resumed. The province of Buenos Ayres -declared itself out of the Confederation, and entered upon a -separate career. The single State was wisely governed, and -made rapid progress in all the elements of prosperity. In -especial it copied the New England common-school system. -The thirteen States from which it had severed itself strove to -repress or to rival its increasing greatness. But their -utmost efforts could scarcely avert decay. <span class="sidenote">1859 A.D.</span> They declared -war, in the barbarous hope of crushing their too prosperous -neighbour. Buenos Ayres was strong enough to inflict -defeat upon her assailants. <span class="sidenote">1861 A.D.</span> She now, on her own terms, -reëntered the Confederation, of which her chief city -became once more the capital.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1865 A.D.</span> The career of the reconstructed Confederation has not been, -thus far, a wholly peaceful one. There has been a -lengthened war with Paraguay. There was a Gaucho -revolt, which it was not hard to suppress. <span class="sidenote">1870-72 A.D.</span> The important -province of Entre Rios rose in arms, and was brought back to -her duty after two years of war. Still later (1874) a -rebellion broke out on the election of a new President. -But the energy which formerly inspired revolutionary -movements seems to decay, and this latest disorder was -trampled out in a campaign of no greater duration than seventy-six -days. A milder temper now prevails, especially in the cities -of the Confederation. There are still divisions of opinion. One -party is eager to promote a consolidated and effectively national -life; another would maintain and enhance provincial separations; -a third—the party of disorder, whose strength is being -sapped by the growing prosperity of the country—seeks to foment -revolutionary movements in the hope of advantage, or in -sheer restlessness of spirit. But these antagonisms have in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[531]</a></span> -large measure lost the envenomed character which they once -bore. The only habitual disturbers of the national tranquillity -are the Indians, who are suffered to hold possession of almost -one-half the Argentine territory, and against whom murderous -frontier wars are incessantly waged.</p> - -<p>It is, however, obvious that the union of the fourteen provinces -rests upon no satisfactory or permanent basis, and that -the final adjustment can scarcely be effected otherwise than by -the customary method of force. The province of Buenos -Ayres, although it contains only one-fourth of the population, -contains three-fourths of the wealth,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> and bears fully nine-tenths -of the taxation of the confederate provinces. The other -thirteen provinces have absolute control over the government; -and the expenditure has largely increased, as it needs must -when the persons who enjoy the privilege of expending funds -are exempt from the burden of providing them. This arrangement -is highly and not unreasonably displeasing to the rich -province of Buenos Ayres; and it seems probable that the -people of this province will sooner or later force their way out -of a Confederation whose burdens and whose advantages are -so unequally distributed.</p> - -<p>The fourteen provinces of the Argentine Confederation cover -an area of 515,700 square miles, and are thus almost equal to -six countries as large as Great Britain. The population which -occupies this huge territory numbers only two million. Every -variety of temperature prevails within their borders. In -South Patagonia the cold is nearly as intense as that of Labrador. -Southern Buenos Ayres has the climate of England; -farther north the delicious climate of the south of France and -the north of Italy is enjoyed. Yet farther north comes the -fierce heat of the tropics. Westward, on the slopes of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[532]</a></span> -Andes, little rain falls; eastward, toward the sea, the rainfall -is excessive.</p> - -<p>The Argentine States have promoted immigration so successfully -that they have received in some years accessions to -their numbers of from sixty to ninety thousand persons—British, -Italian, French, German, and Swiss. They have thus -the presence of a large European element, which gives energy -to every liberal and progressive impulse. The great city of -Buenos Ayres is, to the extent of half its population (of -220,000), a city of Europeans. In most of the other cities this -European element is present and influential. Far in the interior -are many little colonies composed of Europeans, settled -on lands bestowed by Government, engaged in sheep or cattle -farming, growing rich by the rapid increase of their herds on -that fertile soil. Full religious liberty is enjoyed, and all the -various shades of Protestantism are represented in the chapels -of Buenos Ayres or in the rural colonies of the interior. Two -thousand five hundred miles of railway are in operation; direct -telegraphic communication with England is enjoyed; the provinces -are being drawn more closely together by the construction -of roads and bridges; the vast river systems of the -Confederation are traversed by multitudes of steamers. The -people have entered, seemingly, with earnestness on the task -of developing the illimitable resources of the great territory -which Providence has committed to their care.</p> - -<p class="tb">Our survey of South American history since the era of Independence -discloses much that is lamentable. It discloses -nothing, however, that is fitted to surprise, and little that is -fitted to discourage. We see priest-directed and therefore -utterly ignorant people throwing aside the yoke of an abhorred -tyranny. We see them assume the function of self-government -without a single qualification for the task. We see them become -the prey of lawless and turbulent chiefs, of a selfish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[533]</a></span> -military and priestly oligarchy. We watch their struggles as -they grope in blind fury, but still under the guidance of a -healthy instinct, after the freedom of which they have been defrauded. -At length we are permitted to mark, with rejoicing, -that they begin to emerge from the unprecedented difficulties -by which they have been beset. The path by which they must -gain the position of orderly and prosperous States is yet long -and toilsome. It is now, however, at least possible to believe -that they have entered upon it.</p> - -<p class="tb">[The disturbed condition of the Western States continues -without abatement, and without prospect of settlement. Both -Peru and Bolivia are practically at the mercy of Chili. The -war is over, but peace is made impossible by the anarchy that -prevails in the vanquished States. The President of Peru is a -fugitive. The President of Bolivia has absconded. There is -no settled government in either country with which the Chilians -can safely make terms. What seems most certain is, that the -provinces which yield most abundantly that nitrate of soda -about the export of which the war originated will be permanently -annexed to Chili. Indeed, these districts are now administered -by Chilian functionaries.</p> - -<p>The Conservative counter-revolution in Mexico, under Diaz, -lasted till 1880, when General Gonzalez was elected President. -An insurrection in the capital had to be suppressed before his -installation could take place.</p> - -<p>In Buenos Ayres, nationalism has had a further struggle with -provincialism, and another triumph over it. In August 1880 -the national troops forcibly entered the Provincial Assembly, -and ejected the deputies at the point of the sword. A few -days afterwards, General Roca, the new President, entered the -capital.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[534]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CHURCH OF ROME IN SPANISH AMERICA.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">At the time when the discovery and possession of the -New World occupied the Spaniards, the Church of -Rome exercised over that people an influence which -had no parallel elsewhere in all her wide dominion. -A religious war of nearly eight centuries had at length closed -victoriously. Twenty generations of Spaniards had spent their -lives under the power of a burning desire to expel unbelievers -from the soil of Spain, and win triumphs for the true faith. -The ministers of that religion, for which they were willing to -lay down their lives, gained their boundless reverence. To -the ordinary Spaniard religion had yet no association with -morals; it exercised no control over conduct. It was a collection -of beliefs; above all it was an unreasoning loyalty to -a certain ecclesiastical organization. To extend the authority -of the Church, and, if it had been possible, to exterminate all -her enemies, formed now the grand animating motives of the -Spanish nation.</p> - -<p>No Spaniard of them all was more powerfully influenced by -these motives than the good Queen Isabella. At the bidding -of her confessor she set up the Inquisition, for the destruction -of heretics; she consented to the expulsion of the Jews from -Spain, and the virtual confiscation of their property. She gave -encouragement to the enterprise of Columbus, in the hope of -extending the empire of the Church over benighted nations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[535]</a></span> -The King himself stated, in later years, that the conversion of -Indians was the chief purpose of the conquest. The Queen sent -missionaries to begin this great work so soon as she heard of -the discovery. In all her official correspondence her chief concern -is avowedly for the spiritual interests of her new subjects. -Columbus tells, in regard to his second voyage, that he was -sent “to see the way that should be taken to convert the -Indians to our holy faith.” He was instructed “to labour in -all possible ways to bring the dwellers in the Indies to a knowledge -of the holy Catholic faith.” Twelve ecclesiastics were -sent with him to share in these pious toils. A little later, -when the overthrow of Columbus was sought by his enemies, -one of their most deadly weapons was the charge that he did -not baptize Indians, because he desired slaves rather than -Christians.</p> - -<p>Favoured thus by the general sentiment of the mother -country, the Church quickly overspread the colonies and appropriated -no inconsiderable share of their wealth. Within four -years there were monasteries already established.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Within one -hundred years there were twelve hundred nunneries and -monasteries. There was a full equipment of patriarchs, archbishops, -bishops, prebends, abbots, chaplains, as well as parish -priests. There were monks of every variety—Franciscans, -Dominicans, Jeronymites, Fathers of Mercy, Augustines, -Jesuits. In Lima it was alleged that the convents covered -more ground than all the rest of the city. <span class="sidenote">1644 A.D.</span> From Mexico -there came a petition to the King praying that no new -monasteries should be allowed, as these institutions, if -suffered to increase, would soon absorb the whole property of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[536]</a></span> -the country. Wherever the Spaniards went they hastened to -erect churches. While the conquest of Peru was yet incomplete, -there was a church in Caxamalco to which the devout -Spaniards assigned a liberal share of the gold of which they so -villanously plundered the unhappy Inca. The magnificence of -churches and convents became in course of years so dazzling -that the European mind, it was said, could form no conception -of it. The tithes, which had been vested in the Crown, were -almost wholly made over to the Church. The free-will offerings -of a superstitious people, with an exceptionally large volume of -personal iniquity to expiate, swelled out to a huge aggregate. -The wealth of the Church continued to grow till, as we have -seen, in Mexico she possessed one-half of all the land in the -province.</p> - -<p>Among the multitudes of ecclesiastics who hastened to these -new fields of enterprise and emolument there were very many -whose characters were debased, whose lives were scandalous. -Very soon after the settlement the profligacy of churchmen -attracted general remark. Living often in secluded positions -without the control or observation of superiors, they gave free -scope to evil dispositions, and occupied themselves with the pursuits -of avarice or of licentiousness.</p> - -<p>But we should grievously wrong the Church of Rome were -we to suppose that all her ministers in the New World were of -this unworthy description. The sudden knowledge of many -millions of heathens, whose existence had been previously unsuspected, -awakened in the monasteries of Spain a strong impulse -towards missionary effort. To men who were lingering -out their idle days in the profitless repose of a religious seclusion -there opened now boundless possibilities of ennobling usefulness. -Among them were many whose singleness of purpose, whose -utter crucifixion of self, whose heroic daring and endurance -would have done honour to the purest Church. Especially was -this true concerning the Jesuits. This dreaded and upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[537]</a></span> -whole pernicious Order was distinguished, in its earlier days, as -well for the sagacity and administrative ability of its members -as for their absorbing devotion to the interests of the faith.</p> - -<p>The Indians accepted with perfect readiness the new religion -which their conquerors offered. The monks who went among -them speedily acquired commanding influence. The Franciscans -who went out on the invitation of Cortes reported that they -found the Mexicans a gentle people, given somewhat to lying -and drunkenness and needing restraint, but well disposed to -religion, and confessing so well that it was not necessary to ask -them questions. The children about the monastery already -knew much, and taught others who were less happily circumstanced; -they sang well and accompanied the organ competently.</p> - -<p>This gentle people loved the holy men who, clothed plainly -and living on the humblest fare, laboured without ceasing to do -them good. They willingly submitted to baptism to please their -teachers. Indeed, the only limit to the increase of baptized -persons was the physical capability of the missionaries. One -father baptized till he was unable any longer to lift his arms. -Of another it was asserted that he had administered this sacrament -to four hundred thousand converts. <span class="sidenote">1531 A.D.</span> Ten years -after the fall of Mexico, the bishop reported that in his -diocese there were now a million of baptized persons; -that five hundred temples and twenty thousand idols had been -destroyed; that in their room were now churches, oratories, and -hermitages; that whereas there were formerly offered up every -year to idols twenty thousand hearts of young men and young -women, the hearts of Mexican youth were now offered up with -innumerable sacrifices of praise to the Most High God.</p> - -<p>Among many races of Indians there had existed from time -immemorial a marvellous fondness for the confession of sin. -Under all grave attacks of illness they hastened to confess old -sins to any one who would listen to their tale. When they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[538]</a></span> -encountered a panther in the wilderness, they began, under the -influence of some unexplained superstition, to disclose their -iniquities to the savage beast. A people so inclined welcomed -a religion which offered them free access to the enjoyment -of their cherished privilege. They manifested, in regard -to this ordinance of the Church, “a dove-like simplicity, an -incredible fervour.” Oral confession was to these simple souls -an insufficient relief. They brought to the confessor a pictorial -representation of the special transgressions which burdened -them. Later, when many of them had learned to write, they -bore with them elaborate catalogues of their evil doings.</p> - -<p>The monks attempted to bestow upon the children under their -care the elements of a simple education. To each monastery a -school was attached. Peter of Ghent, a Flemish lay-brother of -noble devotedness, caused the erection of a large building, in -which he taught six hundred Mexican children to read, to write, -and to sing.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> This good man knew the Mexican language well, -and could preach when need was. He spent fifty toilsome -years in labours for the instruction of the conquered people; -and there were many of his brethren equally diligent.</p> - -<p>But among the teeming millions of South America, these -efforts, so admirable in quality, were wholly insignificant in -amount. They were thwarted, too, by the murderous cruelty -which the Spaniards exercised, and the people remained utterly -uninstructed. The conversion of the country made progress so -rapid that in a few years the native religions disappeared, and -the Indians seemed universally to have accepted Christianity. -But the change rested in large measure upon fear of their -tyrants, or love to their teachers, or the authority of chiefs who -had deemed it expedient to adopt the faith of men who were -always victorious in battle. It was only in a few instances the -result of intelligent conviction. The priests baptized readily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[539]</a></span> -all natives who would permit the ceremony, because that was a -sure provision for their eternal welfare. But the opinion was -entertained from an early period that the natives were incapable -of comprehending the first principles of the faith. Acting under -this belief, a council of Lima decreed their exclusion from the -sacrament of the Eucharist. Down to the close of Spanish -dominion few Indians were allowed to communicate, or to become -members of any religious order, or to be ordained as priests. -Underneath the profession of Christianity the Indians have -always retained a secret love for the pagan faith of their fathers, -and still secretly practise its rites.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> - -<p>The monks were throughout the warm friends and protectors -of the Indians. At a very early period the Dominicans preached -against Indian slavery “with very piercing and terrible words.” -They refused to confess men who were cruel to Indians—a privation -which was severely felt; for to the Spaniard of that -day, with his over-burdened conscience, confession was a -necessary of life. <span class="sidenote">1537 A.D.</span> The Pope himself pronounced the -doom of excommunication against all who reduced -Indians to slavery or deprived them of their goods. We -have seen how nobly and how vainly the good Las Casas interposed -in defence of the Indians. The efforts of the well-meaning -fathers were, in almost every direction, unsuccessful. But -this failure resulted from no deficiency either in zeal or in discretion. -The record of the Church of Rome is darkened by -manifold offences against the welfare of the human family; but -she is able to recall with just pride the heroic efforts which her -sons put forth on behalf of the deeply-wronged native races.</p> - -<p>The servants of the Church enjoyed, on two memorable -occasions, the opportunity of exhibiting their capacity for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[540]</a></span> -government in striking contrast to that of the civil rulers whom -the mother country supplied.</p> - -<p>Bordering on the province of Guatemala was a tract of forest -and mountain, inhabited by an Indian nation of exceptional -fierceness. Thrice the Spaniards had attempted the subjugation -of this people, and thrice they were driven back. They hesitated -to renew an invasion which had brought only defeat and -loss, and the brave savages continued to enjoy a precarious -independence. <span class="sidenote">1537 A.D.</span> Las Casas made offer to the -Governor that he would place this territory under the -King of Spain, on condition that it should not be given over to -any Spaniard, and that, indeed, no Spaniard, excepting the -Governor himself, should for the space of five years be suffered -to enter it. The offer was accepted, and the brave monk, -confident in the power of truth and kindness, made himself -ready to fulfil his contract.</p> - -<p>Having devoted several days to prayer and fasting, Las Casas -and his companions proceeded to draw up a statement of the -great doctrines of the Christian religion. They told of the -creation of the world, of the fall of man, of his expulsion from -the pleasant garden in which he had been placed. Then they -told of his restoration, of the death and resurrection of Christ, -and of judgment to come. They closed with emphatic denunciation -of idols and of human sacrifices. The work was in verse, -and in the language of the people for whom it was destined. -The fathers next obtained the co-operation of four native -merchants who were accustomed for commercial reasons to visit -the country of the warlike savages. These friendly traders -were taught first to repeat the verses and then to sing them to -the accompaniment of Indian instruments.</p> - -<p>The merchants were received by the chief into his own house; -and they requited his hospitality and gained his favour by offering -to him certain gifts of scissors, knives, looking-glasses, and -similar matters with which the thoughtful fathers had provided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[541]</a></span> -them. When they had finished a day of trading, they borrowed -musical instruments and proceeded to sing their message to the -crowds by whom they were surrounded. They commanded the -immediate and rapt attention of the savages, who hailed them -as the ambassadors of new gods. Every day of the next seven -the song was repeated by desire of the chief, and every repetition -seemed to deepen the effect produced. Then the merchants -told of the good fathers by whom they were sent—of their -dress, of their manner of life, of their love for the Indians, -of their indifference to that gold which other Spaniards -worshipped. An embassy was despatched to entreat a visit -from some of the fathers. The request was immediately -granted; but knowing the fickleness of the savage mind, the -prudent monks would not as yet risk the loss of more than one -of their number. Father Luis went back with the ambassador. -A church was instantly built: the chief in a short time avowed -his conversion to the new faith, and was loyally followed by his -people. The change was enduring, and the arrangements made -by Las Casas for the protection of the Indians being enforced -by the King, were in large measure effective. <span class="sidenote">1630 A.D.</span> A century -afterwards the town of Rabinal, which the monks founded, -was described by a Spaniard who visited it as in a most -flourishing condition, with a population of eight hundred Indian -families, who were in the enjoyment of “all that heart can wish -for pleasure and life of man.”</p> - -<p>A century after the conquest, the Jesuits had made their way -into the vast interior region of Paraguay. They came as -religious teachers, but they were empowered to trade with the -natives, that they might, by their commercial gains, defray the -cost of their missionary operations. In both provinces of their -enterprise they found themselves frustrated by the excesses of -their countrymen. The savages traded reluctantly with men so -unscrupulous as the commercial Spaniards; they refused to -accept a new faith on the suggestion of men so avaricious and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[542]</a></span> -so dissolute as the ecclesiastical Spaniards. The Jesuits, whose -sagacity and skill in the management of affairs were then unequalled, -obtained from the King the exclusion of all strangers -from the land of Paraguay; they in return for this privilege -becoming bound to pay to his majesty a yearly tax of one dollar -for every baptized Indian who lived under their dominion. -Thus protected, the missionaries proceeded to instruct the -savages and form them into communities. Their lives were -irreproachably pure; the sincerity of their kindness was assured -by their manifest self-denial; the wisdom of the measures which -they introduced was quickly approved by the increasing welfare -of the population. In a very few years the Jesuits had gained -the confidence of the Indians, over whom they henceforth exercised -control absolute and unlimited.</p> - -<p>They drew together into little settlements a number, fifty or -thereby, of wandering families, to whom they imparted the art of -agriculture. The children were taught to read, to write, to sing. -In each settlement a judge, chosen by the inhabitants, maintained -public order and administered justice. The savages -received willingly the faith which the good fathers commended -to their adoption. They were lenient to the superstitions of -their subjects, and the reception of the new faith was hastened -by its readiness to exist in harmonious combination with many -of the observances of the old. In time the sway of the Jesuits -extended over a population of one million five hundred thousand -persons, all of whom had received Christian baptism; and they -could place sixty thousand excellent soldiers in the field.</p> - -<p>The fathers regulated all the concerns of their subjects. All -possessions were held in common. Every morning, after hearing -mass, the people went out to labour according to the instructions -of the fathers. The gathered crops were stored for the general -good, and were distributed according to the necessities of each -family. No intoxicants were permitted. A strict discipline -was enforced by stripes administered in the public market-place,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[543]</a></span> -and received without murmuring by the submissive natives. -When strangers made their unwelcome way into the country, -the missionaries stood between their converts and the apprehended -pollution. The stranger was hospitably entertained and -politely escorted from one station to another till he reached the -frontier, no opportunity of intercourse with the natives having -been afforded.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1640 to 1770 A.D.</span> The government of the Jesuits was in a high degree beneficial -to the Paraguans. The soil was cultivated sufficiently to yield -an ample maintenance for all. Education was widely extended; -churches were numerous and richly adorned; the people were -peaceable, contented, cheerful. In every condition which makes -human life desirable, the Jesuit settlements, during a -period of considerably over a century, stand out in -striking and beautiful contrast to all the other colonial -possessions of Spain.</p> - -<p>But while the Jesuits of Paraguay were thus nobly occupied -in raising the fallen condition of the savages over whom they -ruled, their brethren in Europe had incurred the hatred of -mankind by the wicked and dangerous intrigues in -which they delighted to engage. <span class="sidenote">1767 A.D.</span> The Church of Rome -herself cast them out. They were expelled from Spain. -The Order was dissolved by the Pope. The fall of this unscrupulous -organization was in most countries a relief -from constant irritation and danger; in Paraguay it -was disastrous. <span class="sidenote">1773 A.D.</span> The country accepted new and incapable -rulers, and was parcelled out into new provinces. It -speedily fell from the eminence to which the fathers had raised -it, and sunk into the anarchy and misery by which its neighbours -were characterized.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[544]</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="SOUTH_AMERICA_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">BRAZIL.</span></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-k.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">King John of Portugal, to whom Columbus first -made offer of his project of discovery, was grievously -chagrined when the success of the great -navigator revealed the magnificence of the rejected -opportunity. Till then, Portugal had occupied the foremost place -as an explorer of unknown regions. She had already achieved -the discovery of all the western coasts of Africa, and was now -about to open a new route to the East by the Cape of Good -Hope. Suddenly her fame was eclipsed. While she occupied -herself with small and barren discoveries, Spain had found, -almost without the trouble of seeking, a new world of vast -extent and boundless wealth.</p> - -<p>Portugal had obtained from the Pope a grant of all lands -which she should discover in the Atlantic, with the additional -advantage of full pardon for the sins of all persons who should -die while engaged in the work of exploration. The sovereigns of -Spain were equally provident in regard to the new territory -which they were now in course of acquiring. They applied to -Pope Alexander Sixth, who, as vicar of Christ, possessed the -acknowledged right to dispose at his pleasure of all territories -inhabited by heathens. From this able but eminently dissolute -pontiff they asked for a bull which should confirm them in -possession of all past and future discoveries in Western seas. -The accommodating Pope, willing to please both powers, divided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[545]</a></span> -the world between them. <span class="sidenote">1493 A.D.</span> He stretched an imaginary line, from -pole to pole, one hundred leagues to the westward of the Cape -de Verd Islands: all discoveries on the eastern side -of this boundary were given to Portugal, while those on -the west became the property of Spain. Portugal, dissatisfied -with the vast gift, proposed that another line should be -drawn, stretching from east to west, and that she should be at -liberty to possess all lands which she might find between that -line and the South Pole. Spain objected to this huge deduction -from her expected possessions. <span class="sidenote">1494 A.D.</span> Ultimately Spain consented -that the Papal frontier should be removed westward -to a distance of two hundred and seventy leagues from -the Cape de Verd Islands; and thus the dispute was -happily terminated.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1500 A.D.</span> Six years after this singular transaction, by which two small -European States parted between them all unexplored portions -of the Earth, a Portuguese navigator—Pedro Alvarez -Cabral—set sail from the Tagus in the prosecution of -discovery in the East. He stood far out into the -Atlantic, to avoid the calms which habitually baffled navigation -on the coast of Guinea. His reckoning was loosely kept, and -the ocean currents bore his ships westward into regions which -it was not his intention to seek. After forty-five days of -voyaging he saw before him an unknown and unexpected land. -In searching for the Cape of Good Hope, he had reached the -shores of the great South American Continent, and he hastened -to claim for the King of Portugal the territory he had found, -but regarding the extent of which he had formed as yet no conjecture. -Three Spanish captains had already landed on this -part of the continent and asserted the right of Spain to its -ownership. For many years Spain maintained languidly the -right which priority of discovery had given. But Portugal, to -whom an interest in the wealth of the New World was an -object of vehement desire, took effective possession of the land.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[546]</a></span> -She sent out soldiers; she built forts; she subdued the savage -natives; she founded colonies; she established provincial -governments. Although Spain did not formally withdraw her -pretensions, she gradually desisted from attempts to enforce -them; and the enormous territory of Brazil became a recognized -appanage of a petty European State whose area was scarcely -larger than the one-hundredth part of that which she had so -easily acquired.</p> - -<p>For three hundred years Brazil remained in colonial subordination -to Portugal. Her boundaries were in utter confusion, -and no man along all that vast frontier could tell the limits of -Portuguese dominion. Her Indians were fierce, and bore with -impatience the inroads which the strangers made upon their -possessions. The French seized the bay of Rio de Janeiro. -The Dutch conquered large territories in the north. But in -course of years these difficulties were overcome. <span class="sidenote">1654 A.D.</span> The -foreigners were expelled. The natives were tamed, -partly by arms, partly by the teaching of zealous Jesuit -missionaries. Some progress was made in opening the vast -interior of the country and in fixing its boundaries. On the -coast, population increased and numerous settlements sprang up. -The cultivation of coffee, which has since become the leading -Brazilian industry, was introduced. <span class="sidenote">1750 A.D.</span> Some simple manufactures -were established, and the country began to -export her surplus products to Europe. There was -much misgovernment; for the despotic tendencies of the captains-general -who ruled the country were scarcely mitigated by the -authority of the distant Court of Lisbon. The enmity of Spain -never ceased, and from time to time burst forth in wasteful and -bloody frontier wars. Sometimes the people of cities rose in -insurrection against the monopolies by which wicked governors -wronged them. Occasionally there fell out quarrels between -different provinces, and no method of allaying these could be -found excepting war. <span class="sidenote">1711 A.D.</span> Once the city of Rio de Janeiro was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[547]</a></span> -sacked by the French. Brazil had her full share of the miseries -which the foolishness and the evil temper of men have -in all ages incurred. These hindered, but did not altogether -frustrate, the development of her enormous resources.</p> - -<p>During the eighteenth century the Brazilian people began to -estimate more justly than they had done before the elements of -national greatness which surrounded them, and to perceive how -unreasonable it was that a country almost as large as Europe -should remain in contented dependence on one of the most -inconsiderable of European States. The English colonies in -North America threw off the yoke of the mother country. The -air was full of those ideas of liberty which a year or two later -bore fruit in the French Revolution. A desire for independence -spread among the Brazilians, and expressed itself by an -ill-conceived rising in the province of Minas Geraes. But the -movement was easily suppressed, and the Portuguese Government -maintained for a little longer its sway over this noblest of -colonial possessions.</p> - -<p>During the earlier years of the French Revolution, Portugal -was permitted to watch in undisturbed tranquillity the wild -turmoils by which the other European nations were afflicted. -At length it seemed to the Emperor Napoleon that the -possession of the Portuguese kingdom, and especially of the -Portuguese fleet, was a fitting step in his audacious progress to -universal dominion. <span class="sidenote">1807 A.D.</span> A French army entered Portugal; -a single sentence in the <i>Moniteur</i> informed the world -that “the House of Braganza had ceased to reign.” The -French troops suffered so severely on their march, that ere they -reached Lisbon they were incapable of offensive operations. -But so timid was the Government, so thoroughly was the nation -subdued by fear of Napoleon, that it was determined to offer no -resistance. The capital of Portugal, with a population of three -hundred thousand, and an army of fourteen thousand, opened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[548]</a></span> -its gates to fifteen hundred ragged and famishing Frenchmen, -who wished to overturn the throne and degrade the country into -a French province.</p> - -<p>Before this humiliating submission was accomplished, the -Royal Family had gathered together its most precious effects, and -with a long train of followers,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> set sail for Brazil. The insane -Queen was accompanied to the place of embarkation by the -Prince Regent and the princes and princesses of the family, all -in tears: the multitudes who thronged to look upon the -departure lifted up their voices and wept. Men of heroic -mould would have made themselves ready to hold the capital of -the State or perish in its ruins; but the faint-hearted people of -Lisbon were satisfied to bemoan themselves. When they had -gazed their last at the receding ships, they hastened to receive -their conquerors and supply their needs.</p> - -<p>The presence of the Government hastened the industrial -progress of Brazil. The Prince Regent (who in a few years -became King) began his rule by opening the Brazilian ports to -the commerce of all friendly nations.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> <span class="sidenote">1815 A.D.</span> Seven years -later it was formally decreed that the colonial existence -of Brazil should cease. She was now raised to the -dignity of a kingdom united with Portugal under the same -Crown. Her commerce and agriculture increased; she began to -regard as her inferior the country of which she lately had been -a dependency.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1820 A.D.</span> The changed relations of the two States were displeasing to -the people of Portugal. The Council by which the affairs of -the kingdom were conducted became unpopular. The -demand for constitutional government extended from -Spain into Portugal. The Portuguese desired to see -their King again in Lisbon, and called loudly for his return.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[549]</a></span> -The King consented to the wish of his people reluctantly; -for besides other and graver reasons why he should -not quit Brazil, his majesty greatly feared the discomforts -of a sea-voyage. <span class="sidenote">1821 A.D.</span> His son, the heir to his throne, -became Regent in Brazil.</p> - -<p>The Brazilians resented the departure of the King. The -Portuguese meditated a yet deeper humiliation for the State -whose recent acquisition of dignity was still an offence to them. -There came an order from the Cortes that the Prince Regent -also should return to Europe. The Brazilians were now eager -that the tie which bound them to the mother country should be -dissolved. The Prince Regent was urged to disregard the -summons to return. After some hesitation he gave effect to -the general wish, and intimated his purpose of remaining in -Brazil. <span class="sidenote">1822 A.D.</span> A few months later he was proclaimed Emperor, -and the union of the two kingdoms ceased. Constitutional -government was set up. But the administration -of the Emperor was not sufficiently liberal to satisfy the wishes -of his people. <span class="sidenote">1831 A.D.</span> After nine years of deepening unpopularity, -he resigned the crown in favour of his son, then -a child five years of age, and now (1881), although still -in middle life, the oldest monarch in the world.</p> - -<p>Brazil covers almost one-half the South American Continent, -and has therefore an area nearly equal to that of the eight -States of Spanish origin by which she is bounded. She is as -large as the British dominions in North America; she is larger -than the United States, excluding the untrodden wastes of -Alaska. One, and that not the largest, of her twenty provinces -is ten times the size of England. Finally, her area is equal to -five-sixths that of Europe.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> She has a sea-coast line of four -thousand miles. She has a marvellous system of river communication; -the Amazon and its tributaries alone are navigable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[550]</a></span> -for twenty-five thousand miles within Brazilian territory. Her -mineral wealth is so ample that the governor of one of her -provinces was wont, in religious processions, to ride a horse -whose shoes were of gold; and the diamonds of the Royal -Family are estimated at a value of three million sterling. Her -soil and climate conspire to bestow upon her agriculture an -opulence which is unsurpassed and probably unequalled. An -acre of cotton yields in Brazil four times as much as an acre -yields in the United States. Wheat gives a return of thirty to -seventy fold; maize, of two hundred to four hundred fold; rice, -of a thousand fold. Brazil supplies nearly one-half the coffee -which the human family consumes. An endless variety of -plants thrive in her genial soil. Sugar and tobacco, as well as -cotton, coffee, and tea, are staple productions. Nothing which -the tropics yield is wanting, and in many portions of the -empire the vegetation of the temperate zones is abundantly productive. -The energy of vegetable life is everywhere excessive. -The mangrove seeds send forth shoots before they fall from the -parent tree; the drooping branches of trees strike roots when -they touch the ground, and enter upon independent existence; -wood which has been split for fences hastens to put forth leaves; -grasses and other plants intertwine and form bridges on which -the traveller walks in safety.</p> - -<p>But the scanty population of Brazil is wholly insufficient to -subdue the enormous territory on which they have settled and -make its vast capabilities conduce to the welfare of man. The -highest estimate gives to Brazil a population of from eleven to -twelve million.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> She has thus scarcely four inhabitants to -every square mile of her surface, while England has upwards of -four hundred. Vast forests still darken her soil, and the wild -luxuriance of tropical undergrowth renders them well-nigh -impervious to man. There are boundless expanses of wilderness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[551]</a></span> -imperfectly explored, still roamed over by untamed and -often hostile Indians. Persistent but not eminently successful -efforts have been made to induce European and now to induce -Chinese immigration. The population continues, however, to -increase at such a rate that it is larger by nearly two million -than it was ten years ago. But these accessions are trivial -when viewed in relation to the work which has still to be -accomplished. It is said that no more than the one hundred -and fiftieth part of the agricultural resources of Brazil has yet -been developed or even revealed. The agricultural products of -the country, in so far as the amount of these can be tested by -the amount exported, do not exhibit any tendency to increase.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> - -<p>Brazil is afflicted not merely by an insufficient population, -but still more by the reluctance of her people to undergo the -fatigues of agricultural labour in the exhausting heat of her -sultry plains. The coloured population choose other occupations, -and flock to the cities. Once they were held by compulsion to -field-work. Slavery was maintained in Brazil after it had been -abandoned by all other Christian States. Not till 1871 was -Brazil shamed out of the iniquitous system. In that year it was -enacted that the children of slave women should be free—subject, -however, to an apprenticeship of twenty-one years, during -which they must labour for the owners of their mothers. Since -that law was passed, there has been voluntary emancipation to -a considerable extent; and the slaves in Brazil, who numbered -at one time two and a half million, are now about one million.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> -The freedmen shun field-work, and the places which they quit -are scarcely filled by immigration or natural increase. Agricultural -progress is thus frustrated—an evil which will probably -be felt still more acutely as the emancipation of the negroes -draws towards its completion. No sufficient remedy for this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[552]</a></span> -evil can be hoped for so long as any remnants of slavery linger -on the soil.</p> - -<p>The Brazilian Legislature is elected by the people, the qualification -of a voter being an annual income of twenty pounds. -Three candidates for the office of Senator are chosen by each -constituency, and the Emperor determines which of the three -shall gain the appointment. The members of the Lower House -are chosen by indirect election. Every thirty voters choose an -elector, and the electors thus chosen appoint the deputies. The -exercise of the right of voting is compulsory; neglect to vote is -punished by the infliction of penalties. Each of the twenty -provinces into which the empire is divided has its own Legislature, -with a President appointed by the general Government. -The powers exercised by the provincial governments are necessarily -large.</p> - -<p>The constitution confers upon the Emperor a “moderating -power,” which enables him, when he chooses, to frustrate the -wishes of his Chambers. He may dismiss a minister who has -large majorities in both Houses; he may withhold his sanction -from measures which have been enacted by the Legislature. -Brazil has no hereditary nobility; but there is a lavish distribution -of distinctions which endure only for the lifetime of the recipient. -It is held that the power of bestowing these coveted -honours invests the Emperor with a measure of authority which -is not unattended with danger to the public liberties.</p> - -<p>But the career of the Brazilian Empire has been marked in -large measure by tranquillity and progress, and the masses of -the people manifest no desire for change. They have suffered -from foreign war<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> and from domestic strife; but their sufferings -have been trivial when compared with those of the Spanish -States which adjoin them. Thus far their quiet and unadventurous -Government has given them repose, and thus far -they are satisfied. Three-fourths of the Brazilian people are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[553]</a></span> -of mixed race, the leading elements in which are Indian and -Negro. They are profoundly ignorant; for although compulsory -education has been enacted, its progress is yet inconsiderable.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> -What the awakened intellect of the Brazilian nation may in -future years demand is beyond human forecast. It is not -probable that the political combinations which an ignorant and -indolent people have accepted at the hand of their rulers will -continue to satisfy when the national mind casts aside its apathy. -Brazil will be more fortunate than other States if she attain -to a stable political condition otherwise than by the familiar -path of civil contention and bloodshed.</p> - -<p class="tb">It has been said by Mr. Bright that there is no event in -history, ancient or modern, which for grandeur and for permanence -can compare with the discovery of the American Continent -by Christopher Columbus. This is a large claim, but indisputably -a just one. The discovery of America ushered in an epoch -wholly different from any which had preceded it. Nearly one-third -of the area of our world was practically worthless to the -human family—wandered over by savages who supported their -unprofitable lives by the slaughter of animals scarcely more -savage than themselves. Suddenly the lost continent is found, -and its incalculable wealth is added to the sum of human -possessions. Europe supported with difficulty, by her rude processes -of agriculture, even the scanty population which she contained; -here were homes and maintenance sufficient for all. -Europe was governed by methods yet more barbarous than her -agriculture; here was an arena worthy of the great experiment -of human freedom on which the best of her people longed to -enter. Europe was committed to many old and injurious -institutions—the legacy of the darkest ages—no one of which -could be overthrown save by wasteful strife; here, free from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[554]</a></span> -the embarrassments which time and error had created, there -could be established the institutions which the wants of new -generations called for, and Europe could inform herself of their -quality before she proceeded to their adoption. The human -family was very poor; its lower classes were crushed down by -poverty into wretchedness and vice. At once the common -heritage was enormously increased, and possibilities of well-being -not dreamed of before were opened to all. The brave -heart of Columbus beat high as he looked out from the deck of -his little ship upon the shores of a new world, and felt with -solemn thankfulness that God had chosen him to accomplish a -great work. We recognize in this lonely, much-enduring man, -the grandest human benefactor whom the race has ever known. -Behind him lay centuries of oppression and suffering, and -ignorance and debasement. Before him, unseen by the eye of -man, there stretched out, as the result of his triumph, the slow -but steadfast evolution of influences destined to transform the -world.</p> - -<p>It fell to three European States, whose united area was scarcely -larger than one-fortieth part of the American Continents, to -complete the work which Columbus had begun; to preside over -and direct the vast revolution which his work rendered inevitable. -England, Spain, and Portugal were able to possess themselves -of the lands which lie between the Atlantic and the -Pacific; and they assumed the responsibility of shaping out the -future of the nations by which those lands must ultimately be -peopled. They entered upon the momentous task under the -influence of motives which were exclusively selfish. A magnificent -prize had come into their hands; their sole concern was to -extract from it the largest possible advantage to themselves. -These enormous possessions were to remain for ever colonial -dependencies; their inhabitants were to remain for ever in the -imperfect condition of colonists—men who labour partly for -their own benefit, but still more for that of the mother country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[555]</a></span> -The European owners of America were alike in the selfishness -of their aims, in their utter misconception of the trust which -had devolved upon them. But they differed widely in regard -to the methods by which they sought to give effect to their purposes; -and the difference of result has been correspondingly great.</p> - -<p>The American colonies of England were founded by the best -and wisest men she possessed—men imbued with a passionate -love of liberty, and resolute in its defence. These men went forth -to find homes in the New World, and to maintain themselves -by honest labour. England laid unjust restrictions upon their -commerce, and suppressed their manufactures, that she herself -might profit by the supply of their wants. But so long as her -merchants gathered in the gain of colonial traffic, she suffered -the government of the colonies to be guided by the free spirit -of her own institutions. The colonists conducted their own -public affairs, and gained thus the skill and moderation which -the work of self-government demands. In course of years they -renounced allegiance to the mother country, and founded an -independent government, under which no privileged class exists, -and the equality of human rights is asserted and maintained. -To-day the English colonies form one of the greatest nations on -the Earth, with a population of fifty million, educated, in the -enjoyment of every political right, more amply endowed than -any other people have ever been with the elements of material -well-being.</p> - -<p>In the progress by which the English colonies in America -have advanced to the commanding position which they now -occupy, they have given forth lessons of inestimable value to -Europe. At a very early period in her history there came -back from America influences powerful to overthrow the evils -which men had fled there to avoid. The liberty of conscience -over which the early Pilgrims never ceased to exult, not only -drew many to follow them, but emboldened those who remained -for the successful assertion of their rights. The vindication by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[556]</a></span> -the colonists of their political independence quickened all free -impulses in Europe, and prepared the fall of despotic government. -Europe watched the rising greatness of a nation in which -all men had part in framing the laws under which they lived; in -which perfect freedom and equality of opportunity were enjoyed -by all; in which religion was becomingly upheld by the spontaneous -liberality of the individual worshippers; in which standing -armies were practically unknown, and the substance of the -people was not wasted on military preparations. Throughout -the long and bitter contest in which Western Europe vanquished -despotism, the example of America confirmed the growing -belief that liberty was essential to the welfare of man, and -strengthened every patriot heart for the efforts and the sacrifices -which the noble enterprise demanded.</p> - -<p>The history of Spanish America presents, in nearly every -respect, a striking and gloomy contrast to that of the Northern -Continent. The Spanish conquerors were men of unsurpassed -capability in battle; but they were cruel, superstitious, profoundly -ignorant. They went to the New World with the -purpose of acquiring by force or by fraud the gold and precious -stones in which the continent was rich, and then of hastening -homeward to live splendidly in Spain. In their greedy search, -they trampled down the native population with a murderous -cruelty which is a reproach to the human name. The natives, -on the other hand, were oppressed by the home Government. -Their commerce was fettered; no influence was permitted to -them in the conduct of their own public affairs; no action was -taken to dispel the ignorance which brooded over the ill-fated -continent. They learned to hate the Government which thus -abused its trust; and when they rose in arms for its overthrow, -they disclosed an untamed ferocity which the conquerors themselves -scarcely surpassed. Their half century of independence -has been filled with destructive civil wars, which have hindered -and almost forbidden progress.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[557]</a></span></p> - -<p>In Spanish hands this fair region has failed to contribute, in -any substantial measure, to the welfare of mankind. This -portion of the gift which Columbus brought fell into incapable -hands, and has been rendered almost worthless. It may reasonably -be hoped that a better future is in store for Spanish -America; but its past must be regarded as a gigantic failure. -Its people have taught the world nothing. They have served -the world by a history which is rich in warning but void of -example.</p> - -<p class="center">THE END.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h3>FOOTNOTES</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The great cypress-tree, behind which Cortes hid himself at one period during the -Noche Trista, still retains some measure of vitality. Beside it stands “The Church of -the Sad Night.” A tramway line runs to the temple at Tacuba, where he is said to -have reviewed his troops next day. Part of the temple was removed to give space for -the tramway.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Bernal Diaz.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_434">page 434</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> It has been estimated that the ransom paid by the Inca would be equal, when the -greater value of money at that time is allowed for, to three or four million sterling at -the present day. It yielded a sum equal for each foot-soldier to £4000, and for each -horseman to £8800.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The prisoner was charged with having usurped the crown and assassinated his -brother; with having squandered the revenues of the country; with idolatry and polygamy; -with attempting to incite insurrection against the Spaniards.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The gallant De Soto, in later years the discoverer of the Mississippi, was absent -from the camp when Atahualpa was put to death. On his return he reproached his -chief for the unhappy transaction, and maintained that the Inca had been basely -slandered. Pizarro, seemingly penitent, admitted that he had been precipitate.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> No Inca inhabited the palace of his predecessor; each built for himself.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> In this, however, the Mexicans were not greatly more savage than the Spaniards. -After the fall of Mexico, Cortes dismissed his Indian allies with various gifts, among -which were many bodies of slain enemies, carefully salted for preservation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> A regulation laid down by the Royal Order of 1601 illustrates the spirit which -pervades Spanish legislation. Leave is given to employ Indians in the cultivation of -coca. But inasmuch as coca is grown in rainy districts and on humid ground, and the -Indians in consequence become ill, the master of the plantation is forbidden, under -penalties, to allow Indians to begin work until they are provided with a change of -clothes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> This neglect was continued almost to the close. The Duke of Newcastle, who had -charge of the colonies during Sir Robert Walpole’s administration, neglected his duties -so entirely that he ceased even to read the letters which came to him from America. -“It would not be credited what reams of paper, representations, memorials, petitions -from that quarter of the world lay mouldering and unopened in his office.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> This intolerable exaction was in course of time reduced to one-fifth, and finally -to one-twentieth.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> These were increased to four, and finally to six, as the colonies became more -populous.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> This tribute varied in the different provinces. In Mexico it was about four shillings -annually, levied on every male between eighteen and fifty years of age. It -produced latterly about half a million sterling from all the colonies, and was collected -with difficulty, owing to the extreme poverty of the Indians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> A suggestion of which the good man bitterly repented, when the enormous evils -which sprang from it began to develop themselves.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Cromwell interested himself much in the welfare of this island. Thirty years after -the Pilgrim Fathers had settled in Massachusetts, he invited them to remove to -Jamaica. But the Fathers declined to renew their pilgrimage; they wisely elected to -remain where Providence had led them, and where their descendants were destined to -become a great nation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> A Bill was, however, passed in 1873 for the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> This was the population according to the enumeration of 1867. It has been seriously -diminished by the war which began in the following year; but the amount of loss has -not been accurately ascertained.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The expenditure of 1878 was £16,000,000, while the revenue did not exceed -£11,000,000.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The Cuban paper currency amounts to £13,000,000. Great Britain would be in -the same position if she had an inconvertible and depreciated currency of £450,000,000.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> In Venezuela, where writing was almost unknown, it was necessary to allow votes -to be given orally. For weeks before an election the priests taught their list of candidates -as a school exercise to Indians and other ignorant persons who were under their -influence.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> An incident in this defeat reminds us of one of the remarkable conditions of tropical -warfare. The routed Conservatives were driven towards a broad river swarming with -alligators. These savage creatures were probably less terrible than the victorious Liberals. -The fugitives took to the river, where, it is told, they suffered heavy loss from the alligators.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> President Blanco asks from his Congress (May 1876) a law which shall “declare the -Church of Venezuela independent of the Roman Episcopate, and order that parish -priests shall be elected by the faithful, the bishops by the rectors of parishes, and archbishops -by Congress, returning to the usage of the primitive Church, founded by Jesus -Christ and his Apostles.” Congress replies: “Faithful to our duties, our convictions, -and the holy doctrines of the religion of Jesus, we do not hesitate to emancipate the -Church of Venezuela from that Episcopate which pretends, as an infallible and omnipotent -power, to absorb the vitality of a free people.” The leading newspaper of -Venezuela discriminates with equal accuracy between the Papacy and Christianity—between -“the genuine religion of Christ and those adulterations of his law which substitute -the reign of vanity, pride, and contempt for mankind, for the doctrine of gentleness, -meekness, and love.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Amounting in value to forty million sterling.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The depth of this ignorance is illustrated by the circumstance that the Mexican -post-office carries annually one letter for each five of the population. The English -post-office carries thirty-five letters for each of the population.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> In twenty-two years (from 1855 to 1877) her foreign commerce—imports and exports -together—had doubled, rising from seven and a half to fifteen million sterling.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Chili was wise enough to offer the command of her fleet during this struggle to an -English hero whom a less wise but scarcely more ungrateful English Government had -wronged and cast out. Lord Cochrane, who combined in a singular degree prudence -with daring, performed so many marvellous achievements that the terror of his name -seemed to paralyze the enemy. Ultimately, with the inconsiderable force under his -command, he drove the Spanish fleet away, and was supreme on the Chilian coast.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> The debt of Paraguay is £117,000,000.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> The Dictator himself perished by the lance of a Brazilian soldier.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Some of his achievements were eminently fitted to bind to his cause a rude and -daring people. Standing once over a gateway, through which a troop of wild horses -were being driven at full speed, he dropped on to the back of one previously selected. -He bore in his hand a leathern rein, which he fastened securely round the mouth of the -terrified and madly-galloping horse; and in half-an-hour he rode back, the animal now -trembling and subdued.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Rosas made his way to England, where he spent the remaining twenty-six years of -his life.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> It has been said, with pardonable exaggeration, that “the Argentine Republic -consists of the province of Buenos Ayres and thirteen mud-huts.” The thirteen -provinces are so poor that for many years regular monthly remittances have been sent -them from Buenos Ayres to defray the expense of the local governments.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> So soon as the rebuilding of the city of Mexico was accomplished, in 1524, Cortes -applied to the Emperor to send him godly men who should instruct the natives in -the truths of religion. He makes it a special request that sumptuous ecclesiastics, -who wasted the substance of the Church in riotous living, should not be inflicted -on him. Twelve Dominican and twelve Franciscan friars were sent, and Cortes was -able to convene a synod of thirty-one persons to take counsel regarding the spiritual -welfare of his subjects.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Peter reported of his pupils that “they learn quickly, fast precisely, and pray -fervently.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> It is the same with the great mass of the coloured population of Hayti. While -avowedly Catholic, they are in reality faithful to the superstitions which their forefathers -brought from Africa. They worship the great serpent without poison, and -withdraw secretly into the forest to celebrate religious festivals at which human victims -are sacrificed and eaten.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> There were in all fifteen thousand persons; and it was said that they carried with -them one-half the coinage then in circulation in Portugal.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> He also ordered a printing-press to be purchased in England at a cost of £100. No -such apparatus had heretofore existed within Brazilian territory.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The area of Europe is 3,848,000 square miles; that of Brazil is 3,287,000 square -miles, although some estimates place it much higher.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Of these, it is officially estimated that one million are untamed Indians without -any fixed place of abode.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> The imports of Brazil are £19,000,000; her exports, £21,000,000.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> This is the statement made by Government. The Abolitionists, however, accuse -the Government of acting in bad faith regarding emancipation, and assert that the -number of slaves has not diminished.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The Paraguayan War cost Brazil £50,000,000.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> In 1874 the public schools were attended by only one hundred and forty thousand -pupils.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[558]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[559]</a></span></p> - -<h2>INDEX.</h2> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Abraham, Heights of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acts of the English Parliament, Burning of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, Samuel, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agriculture in Canada, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alabama, The, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Settlement of the Dispute, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alatamaha, The, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alexander, William, Lord Stirling, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Almagro, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alvarado, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">America, British, The Six Colonies of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">America, Discovery of, by Columbus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by the Cabots, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amsterdam, New, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anderson, Major, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">André, Major, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Annapolis (Port Royal), <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anna, Santa, Mexican Commander, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antietam, Battle of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anti-Slavery Society, Formation of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Argall, Samuel, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Argentine Confederation, The, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arkansas, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arkwright, Richard, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arlington Heights, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arnold, Commander of West Point, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atahualpa, Inca of Peru, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atlanta, Capture of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Augustine First, Emperor of Mexico, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ayacucho, Battle of, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baptists, Persecution of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barbadoes, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beauregard, General, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bladensburg, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blanco, Guzman, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bland Silver Bill, The, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blockade of Southern Ports, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Board of Trade, Government of the Colonies by the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bolivar, Don Simon, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Booth, Murderer of Pres. Lincoln, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boston, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Boston Common, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Boston Massacre,” The, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Braddock, General, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brandywine River, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brébœuf, Jean de, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brewster, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brock, General, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Broke, Captain, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brooklyn, Engagement at, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brown, The Honourable George, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brunswick, Duke of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buccaneer, Origin of the word, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buchanan, President, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buena-Vista, Battle of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bunker Hill, fortified by the Americans, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by the English, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burgoyne, General, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burke, Edmund, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burnside, General, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cabot, John and Sebastian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calhoun, John C., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cambridge, Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canada, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Invasion of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to England, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">appealed to by the States, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">invaded by the Americans, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Founder of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Original Extent, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Climate and Animals, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Early Inhabitants, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a British Possession, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Revenue and Exports, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Progress of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Government, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Population, <a href="#Page_359">359</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Quebec Act, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Invasion of by Americans, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[560]</a></span>Increase of Population, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Pitt’s Bill, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">another American Invasion, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Education in Lower, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Upper, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Union of the Two Provinces, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Effects of Free Trade, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Grand Trunk Railway, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Financial Position, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">The Dominion, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its Political Constitution, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Area and Population, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Commerce, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Lumber Trade, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Agriculture, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Fisheries, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Mercantile Navy, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Taxation, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Educational System, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Breton, taken by the English, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Cod Bay, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carabobo, Bolivar’s Victory at, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carleton, Governor of Canada, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carolina, North, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carolina, South, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cartier, Jacques, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Carting, The Inconvenient Habit of,” <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carver, John, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassamarca, a City of Peru, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Census, The American, of 1860, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of 1870, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of 1880, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Census of Canada, 1831, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Champlain, Samuel de, <a href="#Page_317">317-321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chancellorsville, Fighting at, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles I. of England, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles II. of England, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles V. of Spain, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charleston, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chesapeake Bay, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chesapeake</i>, The Frigate, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chili, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cholula, Massacre at, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Christian Commission, The, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Civil Service Reform, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clay, Henry, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Clergy Reserves,” The, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clinton, General, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coalition Government, The Canadian, of 1864, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cochrane, Lord, <a href="#Page_523">523</a> <i>n.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Colombia, The Republic of, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colonial Department of English Government, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colonies, The Four United, of New England, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colonization, American, the Result of Oppression in Europe, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columbia, British, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Commerce, American, Restrictions on, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compass, The Mariner’s, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concord, The Village of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Confederacy, The States of the, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Congress, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Connecticut, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Convention of Delegates from the Thirteen Original States, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cook, James, the Navigator, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cornwallis, Lord, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortes, Hernando, <a href="#Page_442">442-446</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crown Point, The Capture of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuba, <a href="#Page_507">507-510</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cusco, the Capital of Peru, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Darien, The Spanish Settlement of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davis, Jefferson, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Debt, The War, of the General Government and of the States, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at the Close of the Federal War, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Debtors and the English Law, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delaware, Lord, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delaware River, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delaware State, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">De Leon, Ponce, Expedition of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delfthaven, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">De Luque, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">De Soto, Ferdinand, Expedition of, <a href="#Page_15">15-17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dickenson, John, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dorchester, The Heights of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dufferin, Lord, Viceroy of Canada, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Du Quesne, Fort (Pittsburg), taken, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Early, General, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">East India Company sends Tea to America, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">The Tea thrown into the Sea, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ebenezer, The Town, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Education, Progress of, in New England, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Southern States, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the Union, <a href="#Page_293">293-298</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Canada, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elgin, Lord, Governor-General of Canada, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eliot, John, Apostle of the Indians, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elizabeth, Queen of England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">English, Early Settlements of the, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Wars with French Settlers, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Conquests of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Erie, Lake, Naval Fight on, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exports, American, Restrictions on, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exports of America, The, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Falmouth, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Family Compact (Canadian), <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farming, American, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farragut, Admiral, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Federal Army, Disbanding of the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Feudalism in Canada, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Abolished, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fisheries of Canada, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[561]</a></span>Florida, its Discovery, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ceded to England, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Detroit, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Du Quesne, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Necessity, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Pitt, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Sumpter, Bombardment of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fox, George, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">France, American Possessions of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her Sympathy with America, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her Treaty with America against England, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">her Aid to America, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Surrender of her Possessions, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Francia, Dr., Dictator of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frederick of Prussia, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fredericksburg, Disaster at, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freedmen’s Bureau, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fremont, General, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">French, The, in Canada, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frobisher, Martin, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gage, General, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garfield, President James, <a href="#Page_303">303-308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garibaldi, Defender of Monte Video, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garrison, William Lloyd, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gates, General, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">General Government, Powers of the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">George II., <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">George III., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Georgia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Germantown, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gettysburg, Battle of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ghent, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gibraltar, besieged by Spain, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goree, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gourlay, Robert, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Granada, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grant, General, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">President, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greene, General, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grenville, Lord, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf Stream, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Haerlem, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Halifax, Foundation of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hamilton, Alexander, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hampden, John, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harper’s Ferry, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harvard College, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hawkins, Sir John, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hayes, President R. B., <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henry, Patrick, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henry VII. of England, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hochelaga, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Homestead Act, The, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hooker, General, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">House of Representatives, Composition of the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Houston, General, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Howard, General, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Howe, General, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Howe, Lord, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hudson Bay Company, <a href="#Page_411">411-416</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hull, General, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huron Mission, The, <a href="#Page_328">328-331</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Imports of America, their Value before the Revolution, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Restrictions on, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Impressment, Results of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Independence, Declaration of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indians, The Huron, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Canadian, present Condition of, <a href="#Page_431">431-433</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Central American, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Mexican, <a href="#Page_467">467-469</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Peruvian, <a href="#Page_469">469-472</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jackson, General, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jackson, General Thomas,—“Stonewall Jackson,”—217, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">James II., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jamestown founded, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Johnson, President, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Impeachment of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Johnston, General, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juarez, Benito, <a href="#Page_518">518-520</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kentucky, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Labrador, Discovery of by the Cabots, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lafayette, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Galissonnière, Compte de, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Salle, Sieur de, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Casas, Bartholomew de, “Protector of the Indians,” <a href="#Page_476">476-478</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laud, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lawrence, Captain, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lawrence, The Town, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lee, General Robert E., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lee, Richard Henry, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lexington, Skirmish at, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lightning, Franklin’s Discovery, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lima, founded by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lincoln, President Abraham, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193-195</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lok, John, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long Island, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lopez, Carlos, Dictator of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[562]</a></span>Louisburg, taken by the English, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Louisiana, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lovejoy, Mr., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lumber Trade, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lundy’s Lane, Battle of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mackenzie, William Lyon, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manassas, Battle at, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manhattan Island, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maryland, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mayflower</i>, The, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, <a href="#Page_520">520-522</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">M’Clellan, General George B., <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">M’Dowell, General, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Meade, General, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Mean Whites” of the Southern States, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexico, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520-522</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Milton, John, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miranda, Francis, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mississippi, Discovery of the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monetary Panic of 1873, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Monitor</i>, The Turret-Ship, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monopolies in Canada, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montcalm, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monte Video, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montezuma, King of Mexico, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montgomery, The City of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montreal, Capture of, by the Americans, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Evacuation of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Attempt by the Americans to seize, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Progress of, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Political Disturbances at, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ceases to be the Seat of Government, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mount Vernon, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Navy, The Mercantile, of Canada, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neck, Boston, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Charlestown, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Brunswick, Progress and Resources of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Settlement of the Boundary, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New England States, Early Government of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Commerce of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Educational System of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Riots in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Muster of Men at Boston, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wrested from England, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">invaded by a British Army, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">taken Possession of by England, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Area and Population of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Natives of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Resources of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Granada, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Hampshire, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Haven, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Jersey, its Acquisition, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Plymouth founded, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New World, The, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New York, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">North, Lord, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nova Scotia (Acadie), a Possession of France, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a Possession of England, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Progress and Resources of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oglethorpe, James, 54</li> - -<li class="indx">Ohio, Valley of the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ontario, Lake, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ordinance of the Convention of South Carolina, dissolving the Union, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ottawa, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pacific Ocean, Discovery of, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paez, General, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paine, Thomas, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pakenham, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Papineau, Louis Joseph, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_526">526-528</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paris, Mr., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paul Jones, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paul le Jeune, Father, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pea Ridge, Battle of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peninsula, The, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Penn, William, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Penobscot Bay, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perrot, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peru, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524-526</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Petersburg, Siege of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pilgrim Fathers, their leaving England, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Settlement in Holland, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Removal to New England, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their Hardships after landing, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their Political Constitution, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their Reinforcements from England, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their Peculiarities, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their Virtues, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pitcairn, Major, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pittsburg, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pizarro, Fernando, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pizarro, Juan, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pizarro, Gonzalo, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pizarro, Francisco, the Discoverer of Peru, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plymouth, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pocahontas, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polk, President, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pope, General, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Port Hudson, Reduction of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[563]</a></span>Port Royal, Capture of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Potomac, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prescott, Colonel, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">President, Election and Powers of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Princeton, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Protective Tariff, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Providence, The City of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto Rico, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Putnam, Israel, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quakers, Persecution of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Beliefs and Character, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Loyalty of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quebec, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">First Occupants of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the French Capital, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">taken by England, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">regained by France, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">held by Montcalm, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">besieged by Wolfe, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">surrendered to the English, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Population of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Siege of, by the Americans, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Progress of, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Meeting of Delegates at, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Railway, The Atlantic and Pacific, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rapidan, Crossing of the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rappahannock, The Heights of the, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reciprocity Treaty, The, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Red River, The Settlement at, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhode Island, State of, founded, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Richmond, City of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Riel, Louis, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rivadavia, President-General, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Robinson, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rosas, General, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, and <i>note</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ross, General, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Routledge, John, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Russell, Lord John, and Canada, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sacramento, The, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salem, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sanitary Commission, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Miguel, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Anna, President of Mexico, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saratoga, The Surrender at, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Savannah, The River, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Town of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Capture of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scott, General, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scrooby, The Town of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Selkirk, Lord, his Colony, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senate, Composition of the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senegal, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seward, William H., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shakamaxon, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Shannon</i>, The War-Ship, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shenandoah, Valley of the, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheridan, General, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sherman, General, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slaves, English, sold in Virginia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slave Law, The Fugitive, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slavery, forbidden in Georgia, but afterwards allowed, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the first great Contest regarding, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the second, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the third, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">War in Defence of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Abolition of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slaves, Negro, First landing of, in America, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Importation of, begun by Spain, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carried on by Portugal, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Provision of the American Constitution regarding, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">English Legislation, regarding the Trade in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Declaration of English Bishops and Crown Lawyers regarding the holding of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the sufferings of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Enactment of Congress regarding the Importation of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Rights of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Education of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, John, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Southern States recognized as a belligerent Power by England, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, Dominions of, in the West, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, her Treaty with America against England, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Springfield, Burial-place of President Lincoln, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stamp Act, The, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Staten Island, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">States, The Secession, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Domingo, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stephens, Alexander H, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. John, Island of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Lawrence, Discovery of the, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stuart, George H., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stuyvesant, Petrus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Vincent, Island of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Subjects, English and American, The Law relating to, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sumner, Charles, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Taxation, American, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, and <i>note</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taxation in Canada, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taxes imposed on the Americans by the English Parliament, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taylor, General, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tiascalans, Overthrow of the, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ticonderoga, Capture of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tobacco, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Townshend, Charles, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Trent</i>, British Mail-Steamer, boarded by the Americans, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trenton, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tripoli, Expedition against, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Union Bill, The Canadian, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[564]</a></span>United States, The, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Valley Forge, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Venezuela, the Confederation of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the State of, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verazzani, John, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vicksburg, Reduction of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Virginia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Virginia</i>, Iron-clad Frigate, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wall Street, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Walpole, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Washington, Capital of the Union, capture of, by the British, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">threatened by the Confederates, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Washington, George, <a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Watt, James, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wesley, Charles, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wesley, John, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">West Point, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitefield, George, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitney, Eli, Inventor of Cotton-Gin, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wilderness, Federal Disaster in the, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">William, Prince of Orange, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Williams, Roger, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his Views on Religious Toleration, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">President of Rhode Island, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Winnipeg Valley, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wolfe, General, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343-346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wolseley, Sir Garnet, Expedition to the Red River, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">York, Duke of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yorktown, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -</ul> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of America, by Robert Mackenzie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICA *** - -***** This file should be named 53314-h.htm or 53314-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/1/53314/ - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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