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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6071804 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53300 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53300) diff --git a/old/53300-0.txt b/old/53300-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 01b4edb..0000000 --- a/old/53300-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21731 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nature's Teachings, by J. G. Wood - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Nature's Teachings - Human Invention Anticipated by Nature - -Author: J. G. Wood - -Release Date: October 17, 2016 [EBook #53300] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATURE'S TEACHINGS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - NATURE’S TEACHINGS - - [Illustration: The Home] - - - - - NATURE’S TEACHINGS - - _HUMAN INVENTION - ANTICIPATED BY NATURE_ - - BY THE LATE - - REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S., ETC. - - AUTHOR OF “HOMES WITHOUT HANDS,” - “MAN AND BEAST, HERE AND HEREAFTER,” ETC. - - _NEW AND REVISED EDITION_ - - LONDON - J. S. VIRTUE & CO., LIMITED, 26, IVY LANE - PATERNOSTER ROW - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED. - CITY ROAD. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -A glance at almost any page of this work will denote its object. It is -to show the close connection between Nature and human inventions, and -that there is scarcely an invention of man that has not its prototype in -Nature. And it is worthy of notice that the greatest results have been -obtained from means apparently the most insignificant. - -There are two inventions, for example, which have changed the face of -the earth, and which yet sprang from sources that were despised by men, -and thought only fit for the passing sport of childhood. I allude, of -course, to Steam and Electricity, both of which had been child’s toys -for centuries before the one gave us the fixed engine, the locomotive, -and the steamboat, and the other supplied us with the compass and the -electric telegraph. - -In the course of this work I have placed side by side a great number of -parallels of Nature and Art, making the descriptions as terse and simple -as possible, and illustrating them with more than seven hundred and -fifty figures. The corollary which I hope will be drawn from the work is -evident enough. It is, that as existing human inventions have been -anticipated by Nature, so it will surely be found that in Nature lie the -prototypes of inventions not yet revealed to man. The great discoverers -of the future will, therefore, be those who will look to Nature for -Art, Science, or Mechanics, instead of taking pride in some new -invention, and then finding that it has existed in Nature for countless -centuries. - -I ought to mention that the illustrations are not intended to be -finished drawings, but merely charts or maps, calling attention to the -salient points. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -NAUTICAL. - -CHAP. PAGE - -I. THE RAFT 1 - -II. THE OAR, THE PADDLE, AND THE SCREW 12 - -III. SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.--PART I. 23 - -IV. SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.--PART II. 34 - -V. SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.--PART III.--THE BOAT-HOOK AND -PUNT-POLE.--THE LIFE-BUOY AND PONTOON-RAFT 44 - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - -I. THE PITFALL, THE CLUB, THE SWORD, THE SPEAR AND DAGGER 50 - -II. POISON, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE.--PRINCIPLE OF THE BARB 62 - -III. PROJECTILE WEAPONS AND THE SHEATH 74 - -IV. THE NET 85 - -V. REVERTED SPIKES 102 - -VI. THE HOOK.--DEFENSIVE ARMOUR.--THE FORT 115 - -VII. SCALING INSTRUMENTS.--DEFENCE OF FORT.--IMITATION.--THE -FALL-TRAP 132 - -VIII. CONCEALMENT.--DISGUISE.--THE TRENCH.--POWER OF -GRAVITY.--MISCELLANEA 144 - - -ARCHITECTURE. - -I. THE HUT, TROPIC AND POLAR.--PILLARS AND FLOORING.--TUNNEL -ENTRANCE OF THE IGLOO.--DOORS AND HINGES.--SELF-CLOSING -TRAP-DOORS 159 - -II. WALLS, DOUBLE AND SINGLE.--PORCHES, EAVES, AND WINDOWS.--THATCH, -SLATES, AND TILES 177 - -III. THE WINDOW.--GIRDERS, TIES, AND BUTTRESSES.--THE TUNNEL.--THE -SUSPENSION-BRIDGE 190 - -IV. LIGHTHOUSES.--THE DOVETAIL.--THE DAM.--SUBTERRANEAN -DWELLINGS.--THE PYRAMIDS.--MORTAR, PAINT, AND VARNISH 207 - - -TOOLS - -I. THE DIGGING-STICK.--SPADE.--SHEARS AND SCISSORS.--CHISEL -AND ADZE.--THE PLANE AND SPOKESHAVE 222 - -II. THE SAW AND ITS VARIETIES 239 - -III. BORING TOOLS.--STRIKING TOOLS.--GRASPING TOOLS 249 - -IV. POLISHING TOOLS.--MEASURING TOOLS 263 - - -OPTICS. - -I. THE MISSIONS OF HISTORY.--THE CAMERA OBSCURA.--LONG -AND SHORT SIGHT.--STEREOSCOPE AND PSEUDOSCOPE.--MULTIPLYING-GLASSES 276 - -II. THE WATER-TELESCOPE.--IRIS OF THE EYE.--MAGIC LANTERN.--THE -SPECTROSCOPE.--THE THAUMATROPE 291 - - -USEFUL ARTS. - -I. PRIMITIVE MAN AND HIS NEEDS.--EARTHENWARE.--BALL-AND-SOCKET -JOINT.--TOGGLE OR KNEE JOINT 308 - -II. CRUSHING INSTRUMENTS.--THE NUT-CRACKERS, ROLLING-MILL, -AND GRINDSTONE.--PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERE.--SEED DIBBLES -AND DRILLS 320 - -III. CLOTH-DRESSING.--BRUSHES AND COMBS.--BUTTONS, HOOKS AND -EYES, AND CLASP 339 - -IV. THE STOPPER, OR CORK.--THE FILTER 350 - -V. THE PRINCIPLE OF THE SPRING.--THE ELASTIC SPRING.--ACCUMULATORS.--THE -SPIRAL SPRING 360 - -VI. SPIRAL AND RINGED TISSUES.--VARIOUS SPRINGS IN NATURE -AND ART 375 - -VII. FOOD AND COMFORT 390 - -VIII. DOMESTIC COMFORT 400 - -IX. ARTIFICIAL WARMTH.--RING AND STAPLE.--THE FAN 412 - -X. WATER, AND MEANS OF PROCURING IT 422 - -XI. AËROSTATICS.--WEIGHT OF AIR.--EXPANSION BY HEAT 436 - -XII. DITTO CONTINUED 447 - -XIII. TELESCOPIC TUBES.--DIRECT ACTION.--DISTRIBUTION OF -WEIGHT.--TREE-CLIMBING.--THE WHEEL 460 - -XIV. PAPER AND MOULDING 472 - -XV. ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM 482 - -XVI. TILLAGE.--DRAINAGE.--SPIRAL PRINCIPLE.--CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 492 - -XVII. OSCILLATION.--UNITED STRENGTH.--THE DOME 504 - - -ACOUSTICS. - -I. PERCUSSION.--THE STRING AND REED.--THE -TRUMPET.--EAR-TRUMPET.--STETHOSCOPE 513 - - - - -NAUTICAL. - -CHAPTER I. - - Poetry and Science.--The Paper Nautilus and the Sail.--Montgomery’s - “Pelican Island.”--The Nautilus replaced by the Velella.--The - Sailing Raft of Nature and Art.--Description of a Velella Fleet off - Tenby.--The Natural Raft and its Sail.--The Boats of Nature and - Art.--Man’s first Idea of a Boat.--The Kruman’s Canoe and the - _Great Eastern_.--Gradual Development of the Boat.--The Outrigger - Canoe a Mixture of Raft and Boat.--Natural Boats.--The - Water-snails.--The Sea-anemones.--The Egg-boat of the Gnat.--The - Skin-boat of the same Insect.--Shape and Properties of the - Life-boat anticipated in Nature.--Natural Boat of the Stratiomys. - - -THE RAFT. - -It has been frequently said that the modern developments of science are -gradually destroying many of the poetical elements of our daily lives, -and in consequence are reducing us to a dead level of prosaic -commonplace, in which existence is scarcely worth having. The first part -of this rather sweeping assertion is perfectly true, but, as we shall -presently see, the second portion is absolutely untrue. - -Science has certainly destroyed, and is destroying, many of the poetic -fancies which made a part of daily life. It must have been a -considerable shock to the mind of an ancient philosopher when he found -himself deprived of the semi-spiritual, semi-human beings with which the -earth and water were thought to be peopled. And even in our own time and -country there is in many places a still lingering belief in the -existence of good and bad fairies inhabiting lake, wood, and glen, the -successors of the Naiads and Dryads, the Fauns and Satyrs, of the former -time. Many persons will doubtless be surprised, even in these days, to -hear that the dreaded Maelström is quite as fabulous as the Symplegades -or Scylla and Charybdis, and that the well-known tale of Edgar Poe is -absolutely without foundation. - -Perhaps one of the prettiest legends in natural history is that of the -Paper Nautilus, with which so much poetry is associated. We have all -been accustomed from childhood to Pope’s well-known lines beginning-- - - “Learn of the little Nautilus to sail,” - -and some of us may be acquainted with those graceful verses of James -Montgomery, in his “Pelican Island:”-- - - “Light as a flake of foam upon the wind, - Keel upward, from the deep emerged a shell, - Shaped like the moon ere half her horn is filled. - Fraught with young life it righted as it rose, - And moved at will along the yielding water. - The native pilot of this little bark - Put out a tier of oars on either side, - Spread to the wafting breeze a two-fold sail, - And mounted up and glided down the billow - In happy freedom, pleased to feel the air, - And wander in the luxury of light. - - * * * * * - - It closed, sank, dwindled to a point, then nothing, - While the last bubble crowned the dimpling eddy - Through which mine eye still giddily pursued it.” - -So deeply ingrained is the poetical notion of the sailing powers -attributed to the nautilus, that many people are quite incredulous when -they are told that there is just as much likelihood of seeing a mermaid -curl her hair as of witnessing a nautilus under sail. How the creature -in question does propel itself will be described in the course of the -present chapter; and the reader will see that although one parallel -between Nature and Art in the nautilus does not exist, there are several -others which until later days have not even been suspected. - -It is, therefore, partially true that science does destroy romance. But, -though she destroys, she creates, and she gives infinitely more than she -takes away, as is shown in the many late discoveries which have -transformed the whole system of civilised life. Sometimes, as in the -present instance, she discovers one analogy while destroying another, -and though she shatters the legend of the sailing nautilus, she produces -a marine animal which really does sail, and does not appear to be able -to do anything else. This is the VELELLA, a figure of which, taken from -a specimen in my collection, is given in the illustration, and drawn of -the natural size. - -It is one of that vast army of marine creatures known familiarly by the -name of “jelly-fishes,” just as lobsters, crabs, shrimps, oysters, -whelks, periwinkles, and the like, are lumped together under the title -of “shell-fish.” As a rule, these creatures are soft, gelatinous, and, -in fact, are very little more than sea-water entangled in the finest -imaginable mesh-work of animal matter; so fine, indeed, that scarcely -any definite organs can be discovered. The Velella, however, is -remarkable for having a sort of skeleton, if it may be so called, -consisting of two very thin and horny plates, disposed, as shown in the -illustration, so as to form an exact imitation (or perhaps I should say -a precursor) of a raft propelled by a sail. Indeed, the Latin name -Velella signifies a little sail. - -[Illustration: VELELLA (NATURAL SIZE).] - -[Illustration: SAILING RAFT.] - -How well deserved is the name may be seen by the following graphic -account of a Velella fleet sent to me by a lady who takes great interest -in practical zoology:-- - -“The specimens which I send came from Tenby, a very rough sea having -driven a large living fleet of them on that coast. - -“When in life, they are semi-transparent, and radiant in many -rainbow-tinted colours. They came floating towards me in all their -fragile beauty on the rough sea waves. I succeeded in capturing some of -them, and preserved the only portion available for my collection. - -“They are extremely tender, and by no means with which I am acquainted -can be preserved more than these skeleton-like cartilaginous plates. -They soon dissolve in either spirits of wine or water, and lose every -vestige of their shape and substance. The upright, thin, pellucid plate -has the appearance of a fairy-like miniature sail, and apparently acted -as such when the creature was floating with its long and many-tinted -tentacles pendent from its lower surface. - -“Although widely distributed, they are seldom seen on our own coast, -although sometimes driven there from the warmer regions by stress of -wind and waves. - -“These little creatures had never before been seen at Tenby, but when I -asked a native bathing-woman whether she knew their name, she -immediately replied, ‘Sea-butterflies.’ Although the name was evidently -of her own invention, it was most appropriate and poetical. I have -always found the Welsh people abound more than any other nation in -pretty and characteristic synonyms.”[A] - - [A] By sailors the Velella is popularly known by the name of - “Sally-man;” _i.e._ Sallee-man. - -In answer to a letter in which I asked the writer for some further -information concerning the Velella, sending also an outline sketch of -the animal, which I asked the writer to fill in with the proper colours, -I received the following reply:-- - -“I will do my best to answer your questions, and to give you what -information I can concerning the creatures. - -“When seen at Tenby, they were all floating on the surface of the sea, -the tentacles only being submerged. My specimens floated for a very -short time after capture, death following so quickly that I was obliged -to set to work at once with camel’s-hair brush and penknife to take away -the gelatinous part. Indeed, decomposition took place so rapidly, that -Velellas and myself were simultaneously threatened with extermination. - -“Both raft and sail were equally enveloped in a soft, gelatinous -covering, certainly not more than the sixteenth of an inch in thickness, -except under the centre of the raft, where it became slightly thicker. -The covering of the sail was exceedingly thin, and like a transparent -and almost invisible soft skin. The sail is very firmly attached to the -raft, as they did not separate when decomposition began. - -“The tentacles were entirely composed of the same soft, jelly-like -substance as that of the envelope, and every part was iridescent in a -sort of vapoury transparent cloud of many-tinted colours, blue and pale -crimson predominating. I have filled up to the best of my memory the -little sketch, and only wish you could have seen the Velellas as I did, -in their full life and beauty.” - -Two of the specimens here mentioned are in my collection, and beautiful -little things they are. The two plates are not thicker than ordinary -silver paper, but are wonderfully strong, tough, and elastic. The oval -horizontal plate, or raft, if it may be so called, is strengthened by -being corrugated in concentric lines, and having a multitude of very -fine ribs radiating from the centre to the circumference. It is slightly -thickened on the edges, evidently for the attachment of the tentacles. - -The perpendicular plate, or sail, does not occupy the larger diameter of -the raft, but stretches across it diagonally from edge to edge, rising -highest in the centre and diminishing towards the edges, so that it -presents an outline singularly like that of a lateen sail. It is rather -curious that the magnifying glass gives but little, if any, assistance -to the observer, the naked eye answering every purpose. Even the -microscope is useless, detecting no peculiarity of structure. I tried it -with the polariscope, scarcely expecting, but rather hoping, to find -that it was sensitive to polarised light. But no such result took place, -the Velella being quite unaffected by it. - -The corresponding illustration is a sketch of a raft to which a sail is -attached. Such rafts as this are in use in many parts of the world, the -sail saving manual labour, and the large steering oar answering the -double purpose of keel and rudder. In the Velella, the tentacles, though -they may not act in the latter capacity, certainly do act in that of the -former, and serve to prevent the little creature from being capsized in -a gale of wind. - - -THE BOAT. - -There is no doubt that the first idea of locomotion in the water, -independently of swimming, was the raft; nor is it difficult to trace -the gradual development of the raft into a Boat. The development of the -Kruman’s canoe into the _Great Eastern_, or a modern ironclad vessel, is -simply a matter of time. - -It is tolerably evident that the first raft was nothing more than a -tree-trunk. Finding that the single trunk was apt to turn over with the -weight of the occupant, the next move was evidently to lash two trunks -side by side. - -Next would come the great advance of putting the trunks at some distance -apart, and connecting them with cross-bars. This plan would obviate even -the chance of the upsetting of the raft, and it still survives in that -curious mixture of the raft and canoe, the outrigger boat of the -Polynesians, which no gale of wind can upset. It may be torn to pieces -by the storm, but nothing can capsize it as long as it holds together. - -Laying a number of smaller logs or branches upon the bars which connect -the larger logs is an evident mode of forming a continuous platform, and -thus the raft is completed. It would not be long before the superior -buoyancy of a hollow over a solid log would be discovered, and so, when -the savage could not find a log ready hollowed to his hand, he would -hollow one for himself, mostly using fire in lieu of tools. The progress -from a hollowed log, or “dug-out,” as it is popularly called, to the -bark canoe, and then the built boat, naturally followed, the boats -increasing in size until they were developed into ships. - -Such, then, is a slight sketch of the gradual construction of the Boat, -based, though perhaps ignorantly, on the theory of displacement. Now, -let us ask ourselves whether, in creation, there are any natural boats -which existed before man came upon the earth, and from which he might -have taken the idea if he had been able to reason on the subject. The -Paper Nautilus is, of course, the first example that comes before the -mind; but although, as we have seen, the delicate shell of the nautilus -is not used as a boat, and its sailing and rowing powers are alike -fabulous, there is, as is the case with most fables, a substratum of -truth, and there are aquatic molluscs which form themselves into boats, -although they do not propel themselves with sails or oars. - -Many species of molluscs possess this art, but we will select one as an -example of them all, because it is very plentiful in our own country, -and may be found in almost any number. It is the common WATER-SNAIL -(_Limnæa stagnalis_), which abounds in our streams where the current is -not very strong. Even in tolerably swift streams the Limnæa may be found -plentifully in any bay or sudden curve where a reverse current is -generated, and therefore the force of the stream is partially -neutralised. These molluscs absolutely swarm in the Cherwell, and in the -multitudinous ditches which drain the flat country about Oxford into -that river as well as the Isis. - -Belonging to the Gasteropods, the Water-snail can crawl over the stones -or aquatic vegetation, just as the common garden snail or slug does on -land. But it has another mode of progression, which it very often -employs in warm weather. It ascends to the surface of the water, -reverses its position so that the shell is downward, spreads out the -foot as widely as possible, and then contracts it in the centre, so as -to form it into a shallow boat. - -[Illustration: GNAT-EGG BOAT AND THREE EGGS.] - -[Illustration: “DUG-OUT” BOAT OF VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD.] - -[Illustration: SEA-ANEMONE ACTING AS BOAT.] - -[Illustration: WATER-SNAIL ACTING AS BOAT.] - -[Illustration: BIRCH-BARK CANOE.] - -[Illustration: PUPA SKIN OF GNAT ACTING AS BOAT.] - -The carrying capacity of this boat is necessarily small, but as the -shell and nearly the whole of the animal are submerged, and therefore -mostly sustained by the water, a very small amount of flotative power is -sufficient for the purpose. Sometimes, on a fine day, whole fleets of -these natural boats may be seen floating down the stream, thus obtaining -a change of locality without any personal exertion. - -In perfectly still water, where no current can waft the Limnæa on its -easy voyage, it still is able to convey itself from one place to -another. By means of extending and contracting the foot, it actually -contrives to crawl along the surface of the water almost as readily as -if it were upon the under side of some solid body, and, although its -progress is slow, it is very steady. Another very common British -water-snail, the Pouch-shell (_Physa fontinalis_), has almost exactly -the same habits. Reference will be made to the Pouch-shell on another -page. - -The capacity for converting the body into a boat is not confined to the -molluscs, but is shared by many other animals. Take, for example, the -well-known marine animals, called popularly SEA-ANEMONES. As they appear -when planted on the rocks, they look as incapable of motion as the -flowers whose names they bear. Yet, by means of the flattened base, -which they use just as a snail uses its feet, they can manage to glide -along the rocks in any direction, though very slowly. - -The base is capable of extension and contraction, and by elongating one -side of it, fixing the elongated portion, and then raising the remainder -of the base towards it, the animal makes practically a series of very -slow steps. This mode of progression may often be seen in operation on -the glass front of an aquarium. - -The same property of expansion and contraction enables the Sea-anemones -to convert their bodies into boats, and float on the surface of the -water. When one of these animals wishes to swim, it ascends the object -to which it is clinging--say the glass of the aquarium--until it has -reached the air. It then very slowly, and bit by bit, detaches the upper -part of the base from the glass, allowing itself to hang with its -tentacles downward. These, by the way, are almost wholly withdrawn when -the animal is engaged in this business. By degrees the whole of the base -is detached from the glass except a very tiny portion of the edge. The -base is next contracted in the middle into the form of a shallow cup, -and, when this is done, the last hold of the glass is released, and the -animal floats away, supported by its hollowed base. - -Entomologists are familiar with the following facts, and were this work -addressed to them alone, a simple mention of the insect would be -sufficient. But as this work is intended for the general public, it will -be necessary to give a description, though a brief one, of the wonderful -manner in which an insect, which we are apt to think is only too common, -plays the part of a boat at its entrance to life and just before its -departure from this world, not to mention its intermediate state, to -which reference will be made under another heading. - -The insect in question is the common GNAT (_Culex pipiens_), which makes -such ravages upon those who are afflicted, like myself, with delicate -skins, and can have a limb rendered useless for days by a single -gnat-bite. - -In this insect, the beginning and the end of life are so closely -interwoven, that it is not easy to determine which has the prior claim -to description, but we will begin with the egg. - -With very few exceptions, such as the Earwig, which watches over its -eggs and young like a hen over her nest and chickens, the insects merely -deposit their eggs upon or close to the food of the future young, and -leave them to their fate. The eggs of the Gnat, however, require -different treatment. The young larvæ, when hatched, immediately pass -into the water in which they have to live, and yet the eggs are so -constituted that they need the warmth of the sun in order to hatch them. -The machinery by which both these objects are attained is singularly -beautiful. - -The shape of the egg very much resembles that of a common ninepin, and -the structure is such that it must be kept upright, so that the top -shall be exposed to the air and sun, and the bottom be immersed in the -water. It would be almost impossible that these conditions should be -attained if the eggs were either dropped separately into the water or -fixed to aquatic plants, as is the case with many creatures whose eggs -are hatched solely in or on the water. - -As is the case with many insects, each egg when laid is enveloped with a -slight coating of a glutinous character, so that they adhere together. -And, in the case of the Gnat, this material is insoluble in water, and -hardens almost immediately after the egg is deposited. Taking advantage -of these peculiarities, the female Gnat places herself on the edge of a -floating leaf or similar object, so that her long and slender hind-legs -rest on the water. In some mysterious way, the eggs, as they are -successively produced, are passed along the hind-legs, and are arranged -side by side in such a manner that they are formed into the figure of a -boat, being fixed to each other by the glutinous substance which has -already been mentioned. - -It is a very remarkable fact, which assists in strengthening the theory -on which this book is written, that the lines of the best modern -life-boats are almost identical with those of the Gnat-boat, and that -both possess the power of righting themselves if capsized. In all trials -of a new life-boat, one of the most important is that which tests her -capability of self-righting; and any one who has witnessed such -experiments, and has tried to upset a Gnat-boat, cannot but be struck -with the singular similitude between the boat made by the hand of man -and that constructed by the legs of an insect, without even the aid of -eyes. - -Push the Gnat-boat under water, and it shoots to the surface like a -cork, righting itself as it rises. Pour water on it, and exactly the -same result occurs, so that nothing can prevent it from floating. Then, -when the warm air has done its work in hatching the enclosed young, a -little trap-door opens at the bottom of the egg, lets the young larvæ -into the water, and away they swim. - -Now we come to another phase of existence in which the Gnat forms a -boat. Every one knows the little active Gnat larvæ, with their large -heads and slender bodies, much like tadpoles in miniature. When they -have reached their full growth, and assume the pupal form, their shape -is much changed. The fore part of the body is still more enlarged, as it -has to contain the wings and legs, which have so great a proportion to -the body of the perfect Gnat. And, instead of floating with its head -downwards, and breathing through its tail as it did when a larva, it now -floats with the head uppermost, and breathes through two little tubes. - -Even in its former state the creature had something almost grotesque in -its aspect, the head, when magnified, looking almost as like a human -face as does that of a skate. But in its pupal state it looks as if it -had put on a large comical mask much too large for it, very much like -those paper masks which are enclosed in crackers, and have to be worn -by those who draw them. - -In process of time the pupa changes to a perfect Gnat within this shelly -case, able to move, but unable to eat. The body shrinks in size, and the -wings and legs are formed, both being pressed closely to the body. When -the Gnat is fully developed, the pupal skin splits along the back, and -opens out into a curiously boat-like shape, the front, which contains -the heavier part of the insect, being much the largest, and consequently -being able to bear the greatest weight. - -By degrees, the Gnat draws itself out of the split pupal skin, resting -its legs on it as fast as they are released. It then shakes out its -wings to dry, and finally takes to the air. - -It is a really wonderful fact that the insect which, for three stages in -life--namely, an egg, larva, and pupa--lived in the water, should in the -fourth not only be incapable of aquatic life, but should employ its old -skin to protect it from that very element in which it was living only a -minute or two before. - -Should the reader wish to examine for himself either the egg or skin -boat of the Gnat, he can easily procure them by searching any quiet -pond, or even an uncovered water-butt. They are, of course, very small, -averaging about the tenth of an inch in length, and are nearly always to -be found close to the side either of pond or tub, being drawn there by -the power of attraction. - -I may here mention that there are other dipterous insects belonging to -the genus Stratiomys, which undergo their metamorphosis in a very -similar fashion. In these insects, the larva breathes through the tail, -and when it attains its pupal condition, the actual insect is very much -smaller than the pupal skin, only occupying the anterior and enlarged -part. Indeed, the difference of size is so great, that several -entomologists believed the future Stratiomys to be but a parasite on the -original larva. The beautiful Chameleon-fly (_Stratiomys chamæleon_) is -a familiar example of these insects. - - - - -NAUTICAL. - -CHAPTER II. - -THE OAR, THE PADDLE, AND THE SCREW. - - Propulsion by the Oar.--Parallels in the Insect World.--The - “Water-boatman.”--Its Boat-like Shape.--The Oar-like Legs.--Exact - mechanical Analogy between the Legs of the Insect and the Oars of - the human Rower.--“Feathering” Oars in Nature and Art.--The - Water-boatman and the Water-beetles.--The Feet of the Swan, Goose, - and other aquatic Birds.--The Cydippe, or Beroë.--The - Self-feathering Paddle-wheel.--Indirect Force.--The Wedge, Screw, - and Inclined Plane.--“Sculling” a Boat.--The “Tanka” Girls of - China.--Mechanical Principle of the Screw, and its Adaptation to - Vessels.--Gradual Development of the Nautical Screw.--Mechanical - Principle of the Tail of the Fish, the Otter, and the sinuous Body - of the Eel and Lampern.--The Coracle and the Whirlwig-beetle. - - -The Boat naturally reminds us of the Boatman. In the two gnat-boats -which have been described there is no propelling power used or needed, -the little vessel floating about at random, and its only object being to -keep afloat. But there are many cases where the propelling power is -absolutely essential, and where its absence would mean death, as much as -it would to a ship which was becalmed in mid ocean without any means of -progress or escape. There are, for example, hundreds of creatures, -belonging to every order of animals, which are absolutely dependent for -their very existence on their power of propulsion, and I believe that -there is not a single mode of aquatic progression employed by man which -has not been previously carried out in the animal world. There are so -many examples of this fact that I am obliged to select a very few -typical instances in proof of the assertion. - -Taking the Oar as the natural type of progression in the water, we have -in the insect world numerous examples of the very same principle on -which our modern boats are propelled. And it is worthy of notice, that -the greater the improvement in rowing, the nearer do we approach the -original insect model. - -The first which we shall notice is the insect which, from its singular -resemblance to a boat propelled by a pair of oars, has received the -popular name of WATER-BOATMAN. Its scientific name is _Notonecta -glauca_, the meaning of which we shall presently see. It belongs to the -order of Heteroptera, and is one of a numerous group, all bearing some -resemblance to each other in form, and being almost identical in habits. -Though they can fly well, and walk tolerably, they pass the greater part -of their existence in the water, in which element they find their food. - -Predacious to a high degree, and armed with powerful weapons of offence, -it is one of the pirates of the fresh water, and may be found in almost -every pond and stream, plying its deadly vocation. - -Its large and powerful wings seem only to be employed in carrying it -from one piece of water to another, while its first and second pairs of -legs are hardly ever used at all for progression. The last pair of legs -are of very great length, and furnished at their tips with a curiously -constructed fringe of stiff hairs. The body is shaped in a manner that -greatly resembles a boat turned upside down, the edge of the elytra -forming a sort of ridge very much like the keel of the boat. - -When the creature is engaged in swimming, it turns itself on its back, -so as to bring the keel downwards, and to be able to cut the water with -the sharp edge. From this habit it has derived the name of Notonecta, -which signifies an animal which swims on its back. The first and second -pairs of legs are clasped to the body, and the last pair are stretched -out as shown in the illustration, not only looking like oars, but being -actually used as oars. - -Now, I wish especially to call the reader’s attention to the curiously -exact parallel between the water-boatman and the human oarsman. As the -reader may probably know, the oar is a lever of the second order, _i.e._ -the power comes first, then the weight, and then the fulcrum. The arm of -the rower furnishes the power, the boat is the weight to be moved, and -the water is the fulcrum against which the lever acts. - -I have more than once heard objections to this definition, the objectors -saying that the water was a yielding substance, and therefore could not -be the fulcrum. This objection, however, was easily refuted by taking a -boat up a narrow creek, and rowing with the oar-blades resting on the -shore, and not in the water. - -[Illustration: OAR-LEG OF WATER-BOATMAN.] - -[Illustration: OAR OF BOAT.] - -[Illustration: WATER-BOATMAN ROWING ITSELF.] - -[Illustration: OARSMAN ROWING.] - -Now, the swimming legs of the water-boatman are exact analogues of the -oars of a human rower. The internal muscles at the juncture of the leg -with the body supply the place of the rower’s arms, the leg itself takes -the office of the oar, and the body of the insect is the weight to be -moved, and the water supplies the fulcrum. Even the broad blade at the -end of the oar is anticipated by the fringe of bristles at the end of -the leg, and its sharpened edge by the shape of the insect’s limb. - -Besides these resemblances, there is another which is worthy of notice. -All rowers know that one of their first lessons is to “feather” their -oars, _i.e._ to turn the blade edgewise as soon as it leaves the water. -Nothing looks more awkward than for a boatman to row without feathering. -(We all must remember the eulogy on the “Jolly Young Waterman,” who -“feathered his oars with skill and dexterity.”) In the first place, he -must lift his oar very high out of the water, and, in the second, he -will be impeded by any wind that happens to come against the blades. - -The Water-boatman, however, does not lift its legs out of the water -after every stroke, as a human boatman does, and therefore it has no -need to feather in the same way. But there is even greater need for a -feathering of some kind in the insect’s leg, on account of the greater -resistance offered by water than by air, and this feathering is effected -by the arrangement of the blade-bristles, which spread themselves -against the water as the stroke is made, and collapse afterwards, so as -to give as little resistance as possible when the stroke is completed. - - * * * * * - -IN Art we have invented many similar contrivances, but I believe that -there is not one in which we have not been anticipated by Nature. -Putting aside the insect which has just been described, we have the -whole tribe of water-beetles, in which the same principle is carried out -in an almost identical manner. In the accompanying illustration, the -oar, the rower, and the boat are placed above one another, and next to -them are seen one of the oar-legs of the water-boatman and the insect as -it appears when swimming on its back. - -Then, there is the foot of the duck, goose, swan, and various other -aquatic birds, in which the foot presents a broad blade as it strikes -against the water, and a narrow edge as it recovers from the stroke. -Some years ago, a steam yacht was built and propelled by feet made on -the model of those of the swan. She was a very pretty vessel, but art -could not equal nature, and at present the swan-foot propeller, however -perfect in theory, has not succeeded in action. Perhaps, if some -nautical engineer were to take it in hand, he would procure the desired -result. - -Almost exactly similar is the mode of propulsion employed by the -lobster, the prawns and shrimps, their tails expanding widely into a -fan-like shape as they strike against the water, and then collapsing -when the stroke is withdrawn, so as to allow them to pass through the -water with the least possible resistance. - -The same principle is to be seen in the lively little Acaleph, for which -there is unfortunately no popular name, and which we must therefore call -by its scientific title of CYDIPPE, or Beroë, these names being almost -indifferently used. When full grown, it is about as large as an acorn, -and very much of the same shape. It is as transparent as if made of -glass, and, when in the water, is only visible to practised eyes. - -_En passant_, I may remark that the familiar term of “water,” when -applied to diamonds, is owing to their appearance when placed in -distilled water. Those which can be at once seen are called stones of -the second water. Those which cannot be seen, because their refractive -powers are equal to those of the water, are called “diamonds of the -first water,” and are very much more valuable than the others. - -As the Cydippe is, in fact, little more than sea-water, entangled in -the slightest imaginable and most transparent tissue of animal fibre, it -is evident that the water and the Cydippe must be of almost equal -refracting power, and that therefore the acaleph must be as invisible as -diamonds of the “first water.” Indeed, I have often had specimens in a -glass jar which were absolutely invisible to persons to whom I wished to -show them. - -But an experienced eye detects the creature at once. Along its body, at -equal distances, are eight narrow bands, over which the colours of the -rainbow are, though very faint, perpetually rippling. This appearance is -caused by the machinery which impels the body, and which seems never to -cease. Each of these bands is composed of a vast number of tiny flaps, -which move up and down in regular succession, so as to cause the light -to play on their surfaces. And, as they move as if set on hinges, they -of course offer no resistance to the water after their stroke is made. - -[Illustration: CYDIPPE AND PADDLES.] - -[Illustration: PRAWN SWIMMING. - -FEET of DUCK.] - -[Illustration: SELF-FEATHERING PADDLE-WHEEL.] - -Now let us compare these works of nature with those of art. We have -already seen the parallels of the oar, and we now come to those of the -paddle-wheel. When paddle-steamers were first invented, the blades were -fixed and projected from the wheel, as if they had been continuations of -its spokes. It was found, however, that a great waste of power, together -with much inconvenience, was caused by this arrangement. Not only was a -considerable weight of water raised by each blade after it passed the -middle of its stroke, but the steam power was given nearly as much to -lifting and shaking the vessel as to propulsion. - -A new kind of paddle-wheel was then invented, in which the blades were -ingeniously jointed to the wheel, so that they presented their flat -surfaces to the water while propelling, and their edges when the stroke -was over. This, which is known by the name of the “Self-feathering -Paddle-wheel,” was thought to be a very clever invention, and so it was; -but not even the inventors were likely to have known that if they had -only looked into the book of Nature, they might have found plenty of -self-feathering paddle-wheels, beside the few which my limited space -enables me to give. - -If the reader will look at the illustration, he will see that on one -side is represented the self-feathering paddle-wheel of Art, with its -ingenious arrangement of rods and hinges. On the other side there comes, -first, the common Prawn, shown with its tail expanded in the middle of -its stroke. - -Just below it is a Cydippe of its ordinary size, showing the -paddle-bands, one of which is drawn at the side much magnified, so as to -show the arrangement of the little paddles. As to the tentacles which -trail from the body, we shall treat of them when we come to our next -division of the subject of the work. - -Lastly, there is a representation of the self-feathering feet of the -Duck, the left foot expanded in striking the water, and the right closed -so as to offer no resistance when drawn forward for another stroke. The -swan’s foot shows this action even more beautifully than does that of -the duck. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to another mode of propulsion, namely, that which is not due -to direct pressure of a more or less flat body against the water, but to -the indirect principle of the screw, wedge, or inclined plane. - -Space being valuable, I will only take two instances, namely, the -well-known mode of propelling a boat by a single oar working in a groove -or rowlock in the middle of the stern, and the ordinary screw of modern -steamers. - -Most of my readers must have seen a sailor in the act of “sculling” a -boat. A tolerably deep notch is sunk in the centre of the stern, and the -oar is laid in it, as shown in the central illustration, on the -right-hand side. The sailor then takes the handle of the oar, and works -it regularly backwards and forwards, without taking the blade out of the -water. The boat at once begins to move forward, and, when the oar is -urged by a strong and experienced man, can be propelled with wonderful -speed. The well-known “Tanka” boat-girls of China never think of using -two oars, a single oar in the stern being all-sufficient for the rapid -and intricate evolutions required in their business. - -[Illustration: TAIL OF FISH.] - -[Illustration: SCREW OF STEAMER.] - -[Illustration: TAIL OF OTTER.] - -[Illustration: “SCULLING” A BOAT.] - -[Illustration: TAIL OF SEAL.] - -[Illustration: ACTION OF RUDDER.] - -The mechanical process which is here employed is nothing more than that -of the inclined plane, or rather, the wedge, the oar-blade forming the -wedge, and the force being directed against the stern of the boat, and -so driving it through the water. - -The Rudder affords another example of a similar force, although it is -used more for directing than propelling a vessel. Still, just as the -scull is used not only for propelling, but for steering the boat, the -rudder, when moved steadily backwards and forwards, can be used for -propulsion as well as steerage. In the absence of oars, this property is -most useful, as I can practically testify. - -So different in appearance are the screw and the inclined plane, that -very few people would realise the fact that the screw is nothing but an -inclined plane wound round a cylinder, or rather, is a circular inclined -plane. The ordinary corkscrew is a good example of this principle, the -cylinder being but an imaginary one. - -Now, if the screw be turned round, it is evident that force is applied -just on the principle of the wedge, and this principle is well shown in -the various screw-presses, of which the common linen-press is a familiar -example, as was the original printing-press, which still survives as a -toy for children. - -We all know the enormous force exerted by screws when working in wood, -and how, when the screw-driver is turned in the reverse direction, the -instrument is forced backwards, though the operator is leaning against -it with all his weight. In fact, a comparatively small screw, if working -in hard wood or metal, so that the threads could not break, could lift a -heavy man. - -Substitute water for wood or metal, and the result would be the same in -principle, though the resistance would be less. As the loss of power by -friction would prevent a large vessel from being propelled by a stern -oar moved like a scull, the idea was invented of applying the same kind -of power by a large screw, which should project into the water from the -stern of the vessel. This modification, moreover, would have the -advantage of forcing the vessel forward when the screw was turned from -left to right, and drawing it back when turned in the opposite -direction, whereas the sculling oar would only drive it forward. - -The principle was right enough, but there was at first a great -difficulty in carrying it out. Firstly, several turns of a large screw -were used, and were found to need power inadequate to the effect. Then -the screw was reduced to four separate blades, and now only two are -used, as shown in the illustration, these saving friction, being equally -powerful for propulsion, and running less risk of fouling by rigging -blown overboard or other floating substances. - -So much for Art. Now for the same principle as shown in Nature, of which -I can take but a very few instances. - -The first and most obvious example is that of the Fish-tail, which any -one may observe by watching ordinary gold fish in a bowl. Their -progression is entirely accomplished by the movement of the tail from -side to side, exactly like that of the sculling oar, and moreover, like -the oar, the tail acts as rudder as well as propeller. - -The force with which this instrument can be used may be estimated by any -one who is an angler, and knows the lightning-like rush of a hooked -trout, or who has seen the wonderful spring with which a salmon shoots -clear out of the water, and leaps up a fall several feet in height. This -is not done, as many writers state, by bending the body into a bow-like -form, and then suddenly straightening it, but by the projectile force -which is gained by moving the tail backwards and forwards as a sculler -moves his oar. - -Perhaps some of my readers have seen the wonderful speed, ease, and -grace with which an Otter propels itself through the water. As the otter -feeds on fish, and can capture even the salmon itself, its powers of -locomotion must be very great indeed. And these are obtained entirely by -means of the tail, which is long, thick, and muscular, and can be swept -from side to side with enormous force, considering the size of the -animal. The legs have little or nothing to do with the act of swimming. -The fore-legs are pressed closely against the body, and the hind-legs -against each other. The latter act occasionally as assistants in -steering, but that is all. - -Then there are the various Seals, whose hind-legs, flattened and pressed -together, act exactly like the tail of the fish, that of the otter, the -oar of the sculler, or the screw of the steamer. Also, the eel, when -swimming, uses exactly the same means, its lithe body forming a -succession of inclined planes; so does the snake, and so does the pretty -little lampern, which is so common in several of our rivers, and so -totally absent from others. - -I can only now give a short description of the woodcut which illustrates -these points. - -On the right hand Art is shown by the screw-blades of the modern -steamer. In the middle is the ordinary mode of sculling a boat by an oar -in the stern, and below it is the rudder, which, like the sculling oar, -may be used either for propulsion or direction. - -On the left hand we have three examples of the same mechanical powers -as shown in Nature. The uppermost figure represents a fish as in the act -of swimming, the dotted lines showing the movement of its tail, and the -principle of the wedge. In the middle is an otter, just preparing to -enter the water, and below is a seal, both of them showing the identity -of mechanism between themselves and the art of man. I need not say that -the mechanism of art is only a feeble copy of that of nature, but -nothing more could be expected. - - * * * * * - -WHILE we are on this subject I may as well mention two more applications -of the screw principle. The first is the windmill, the sails of which -are constructed on exactly the same principle as the blades of the -nautical screw. Only, as they are pressed by the wind, and the mill -cannot move, they are forced to revolve by the pressure of the wind, -just as the screw of a steamer revolves when the vessel is being towed, -and the screw left at liberty. - -Moreover, just as the modern screws have only two blades, so, many -modern windmills have only two sails, the expense and friction being -lessened, and the power not injured. - -Again: some years ago there was a very fashionable toy called the aërial -top. It was practically nothing but a windmill in miniature, rapidly -turned by a string, after the manner of a humming-top. The edges of the -sails being turned downwards, the instrument naturally screwed itself -into the air to a height equivalent to the velocity of the motion. - -A similar idea has been mooted with regard to the guidance of balloons, -or even to aërial voyaging without the assistance of gas, but at present -the weight of the needful machinery has proved to be in excess of the -required lifting power. - -In fine, the application of the inclined plane, wedge, or screw as a -motive power, is so wide a subject that I must, with much reluctance, -close it with these few and obvious examples. - - * * * * * - -IT is worth while, by the way, to remark how curiously similar are such -parallels. I have already mentioned the very evident resemblance between -the water-boatman, the water-beetles, and the human rower, the body of -the insect being shaped very much like the form of the modern boat. I -must now draw the attention of the reader to the similitude between the -very primitive boat known by the name of Coracle, and the common -Whirlwig-beetle (_Gyrinus natator_), which may be found in nearly every -puddle. The shape of the insect is almost identical with that of the -boat, and the paddle of the coracle is an almost exact imitation of the -swimming legs of the whirlwig. And, as if to make the resemblance -closer, many coraclers, instead of using a single paddle with two broad -ends, employ two short paddles, shaped very much like battledores. - -[Illustration: WHIRLWIG BEETLE AND PADDLES.] - -[Illustration: CORACLE AND PADDLE.] - - - - -NAUTICAL. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.--PART I. - - General Sketch of the Subject.--The Mast of Wood and Iron.--Analogy - between the Iron Mast and the Porcupine Quill.--The Iron Yard and - its Shape prefigured by the same Quill.--Beams of the - Steam-engine.--Principle of the Hollow Tube in place of the Solid - Bar.--Quills and Bones of Birds.--Wheat Straws and - Bamboos.--Structure of the Boat.--The Coracle, the Esquimaux Boat, - and the Bark Canoe.--Framework of the Ship and Skeleton of the - Fish.--Compartments of Iron Ship and Skull of Elephant.--The Rush, - the Cane, and the Sugar-cane.--“Stellate” Tissue and its Varieties. - - -Having now treated of the raft, the boat, the ship, and their various -modes of propulsion and guidance, we come to the subsidiary appliances -to navigation, if they may be so called in lack of a better name. - -First in importance is necessarily the mast; and the yards, which -support the sails, are naturally the next in order. Then there come the -various improvements in the building of vessels; namely, the -substitution of planks fastened on a skeleton of beams for a mere -hollowed log, and the subsequent invention of iron vessels with their -numerous compartments, giving enormous strength and size, with very -great comparative lightness. - -Then we come to the various developments of the ropes or cables, by -which a vessel is kept in its place when within reach of ground, whether -on shore or at the water-bed. Next come the different forms of anchors -which fasten a vessel to the bed of the ocean, of grapnels by which she -can be made fast to the shore, or of “drags,” which at a pinch can -perform either office, and can besides be utilised in searching for and -hauling up objects that are lying at the bottom of the sea. - -Next we come to the boat-hook, which is so useful either as a temporary -anchor, or as a pole by which a boat can be propelled by pushing it -against the shore or the bed of the water; and then to the “punt-pole,” -which is only used for the latter purpose. - -Lastly, we come to the life-belt and life-raft, which are now occupying, -and rightly, so much of the public attention. These subjects will be -treated in their order in the present chapter, and I hope to be able to -show the reader that in all these points nature has anticipated art. - -I presume that most, if not all, of my readers are aware of the rapidly -extending use of iron in ship-building, not only in the standing -rigging, but in the material of the vessel. First there came iron -“knees,” _i.e._ the angular pieces of wood which strengthen the -junctions of the timbers. Formerly these were made of oak-branches, and, -as it was not easy to find a bough which was naturally bent at such an -angle as was required for a “knee,” such branches were exceedingly -valuable. Iron, however, was then employed, and with the best results. -It was lighter than the wooden knee, was stronger, could be bent at any -angle, and took up much less space. - -By degrees iron was used more and more, until vessels were wholly made -of that material. Then the masts, and even the yards, were made of iron, -and, strange as it may appear, were found to be lighter as well as -stronger than those made of wood. Of course, the masts and yards were -hollow, and it was found by the engineers that in order to combine -lightness with great strength, the best plan was to run longitudinal -ridges along the inside of the tube. - -A section of one of these masts is given at Fig. B, and taken from the -drawings of one of our largest engineering firms. The reader will see -that the mast is composed of rather slight material, and that it is -strengthened by four deep though thin ribs, which run throughout its -length. - -When I first saw this mast I was at once struck with the remarkable -resemblance between it and the quill of the Porcupine. These quills, as -all anglers know, are very light, and of extraordinary strength when -compared with their weight. Indeed, they are so light that they are -invaluable as penholders to those who are obliged to make much use of -their pen. I have used nothing else for a very long time, and the -drawing of the Porcupine quill which is here given at Fig. A was made -from a small piece cut from the top of the penholder which I have used -for some fifteen years, and with which all my largest and most important -works were written, including the large “Natural History,” “Homes -without Hands,” “Man and Beast,” &c., &c. A portion of the same quill is -also shown of its real size. - -If the reader will cut a Porcupine quill at right angles, make a thin -section of it, and place it under the microscope, or even under an -ordinary pocket lens, he will see that the exterior is composed of a -very thin layer of horny matter, and the interior filled with a vast -number of tiny cells, which are formed much on the same plan as the pith -of elder and other plants. The analogies of the pith will be treated in -another page. - -[Illustration: - -PORTION OF PORCUPINE QUILL. SECTION OF ENGINE BEAM. -COMPLETE QUILL. IRON YARD AND YARD-ARM. -BAMBOO. ENGINE BEAM. -SECTION OF PORCUPINE QUILL MAGNIFIED. SECTION OF IRON MAST.] - -But were the quill merely a hollow tube filled with pith, it would be -too weak to resist the strain to which it is often liable. Consequently -it is strengthened by a number of internal ribs, composed of the same -horny material as the outer coat, and arranged in exactly the same way -as those of the mast. - -There are yet other points in the structure of the Porcupine quill which -might be imitated with advantage in the mast. In the first place, the -internal ribs are much more numerous than those of the mast, but they -are very much thinner, and taper away from the base, where the greatest -strain exists, to the end, where they come to the finest imaginable -edge. This modification of structure enables the outer shell of the -quill to be exceedingly thin and light, and, moreover, gives to the -whole quill an elasticity which is quite wonderful, considering its -weight and strength. - -Then, in the iron mast the exterior is quite smooth, whereas in the -Porcupine quill it is regularly indented, exactly on the principle of -the corrugated iron, which combines great strength with great lightness. -And I cannot but think that our iron masts might be made both lighter -and stronger if the shell were thinner, the internal ribs made like -those of the Porcupine quill, and the shell corrugated instead of being -quite smooth. The internal cells of the quill are, of course, not needed -in the mast, as they are intended for nutrition, and not for strength. - - * * * * * - -BEING on this subject, we may take the shape of the Porcupine quill, and -compare it with that of the ship’s yard. It will be seen that the two -are so exactly similar in form that the outline of one would answer -perfectly well for the other. The only perceptible difference is, that -in the ship’s yard both ends are alike, whereas in the Porcupine quill -the end which is inserted in the skin is rounded and slightly bent, -while the other end is sharply pointed. - -The principal point to be noticed in the form of both quill and yard is, -that they become thicker in the centre, that being the spot on which the -greatest strain comes, and which, in consequence, needs to be stronger -than any other part. While holding and balancing the pole which Blondin -uses to preserve his balance when walking on the high rope, I was struck -with the fact that the pole, which is heavily weighted at each end, had -to be strengthened in the middle, exactly on the principle of the -Porcupine quill and the ship’s yard. It could not, of course, be -thickened, as the hands could not grasp it, but it had to be furnished -with additional strengthening. And the necessity of such strengthening -is evident from the fact that on one occasion the pole did break in the -middle, so that any one of less nerve and presence of mind must have -been killed. - -Bearing in mind, then, that in a rod or pole the centre is the part -which most requires to be strengthened, we can see, in cases too -numerous to mention, how art has followed, though perhaps unconsciously, -in the footsteps of nature. Take, for example, the beam of a -steam-engine, such as is given in the sketch, and for which the great -engine at Chatham acted as model. The reader will observe that in this -case the beam is gradually thickened towards the centre, the ends, where -the strain is slightest, being comparatively small. - -Another point also must be noticed. Equal strength could have been -obtained had the beam been solid, but at the expense of weight, and -consequent waste of power. Lightness is therefore combined with strength -by making the beam consist of a comparatively slight centre, but having -four bold ridges, as shown in the section given in the accompanying -illustration. This plan, as the reader will see, is exactly the same as -that which is adopted in the iron mast and porcupine quill, except that -the ridges are external instead of internal. The same mode of -construction is employed in ordinary cranes, the principal beam of which -is almost identical in form with that of the engine, both being thickest -in the centre, and both strengthened with external ridges. - -There are also other analogies between the hollow mast and natural -objects. Keeping still to the animal world, we find the quill feathers -of the flying birds to supply examples of the combination of great -strength with great lightness and very little expenditure of material. -Their wing bones, too, are hollow, communicating with the lungs, and are -consequently light as well as strong. - -Passing to the vegetable world, we find a familiar example of this -structure in the common Wheat Straw. The ripe ear is so heavy, when -compared with the amount of material which can be spared to carry it, -that if the stalk were solid it would give way under the mere weight of -the ear. Moreover, the full-grown corn has to endure much additional -weight when wetted with rain, and to resist much additional force when -bowed by the wind, so that a slight and solid stalk would be quite -inadequate to the task of supporting the ear. - -The material of the stalk is therefore utilised in a different manner, -being formed into a hollow cylinder, the exterior of which is coated -with a very thin shell of flint, or “silex” as it is scientifically -termed. The result of this structure is that the stem possesses -strength, lightness, and elasticity, so as to be equal to the burden -which is laid upon it. - -Then there is the common Bamboo, which is little more than a magnified -straw, being constructed in much the same manner, and possessing almost -the same constituents of vegetable matter and silex. - -Perhaps the most extraordinary of the tubal system is to be found in the -remarkable plant of Guiana called by the natives Ourah, and -scientifically known by the name of _Arundinaria Schomburgkii_. Like the -bamboo, it grows in clusters, and has a feathery top, which waves about -in the breeze. But, instead of decreasing gradually in size from the -base upwards, the Ourah, although it runs to some fifty feet in height, -is nowhere more than half an inch in diameter. The first joint is about -sixteen feet in length, and uniform in diameter throughout. - -It is scarcely thicker than ordinary pasteboard, and yet so strong and -elastic is it, that it can sustain with ease the weight and strain of -its feathery top as it blows about in the breeze. The natives of certain -parts of Guiana use this reed as a blow-gun, and I have a specimen, -presented to me by the late Mr. Waterton, which is eleven feet in -length. - -So the reader will see that when engineers found that hollow iron beams -were not only lighter, but stronger than solid beams, they were simply -copying the hollow beams formed by Nature thousands of years ago. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER great improvement in ship-building now comes before us. - -We have already seen that the earliest boats were merely hollowed logs, -just as Robinson Crusoe is represented to have made. But these had many -disadvantages. They were always too heavy. They were liable to split, on -account of flaws in the wood, and if a large vessel were needed, it was -difficult to find a tree sufficiently large, or to get it down to the -water when finished. - -So the next idea was to build a skeleton, so to speak, of light wooden -beams, and to surround it with an outer clothing, or skin, if it may be -so termed. As far as I know, the two original types of this structure -are the Coracle of the ancient Briton, and the birch-bark Canoe of the -North American Indian, and it is not a little remarkable that both exist -to the present day, with scarcely any modification. - -The Coracle has been already represented on page 22. It is, perhaps, or -was in its original form, the simplest boat in existence, next to the -“dug-out.” In the times of the very ancient Britons, who were content -with blue paint by way of dress, and lived by hunting and fishing, the -Coracle was a basin-shaped basket of wicker-work, rather longer than -wide, and covered with the skin of a wild ox. This was sufficiently -light to be carried by one man, and sufficiently buoyant to bear him -down rapids, if he were a skilful paddler, and, of course, formed a -considerable step in civilisation. - -The modern Coracle is identical in form, and almost in material. The -frame is still oval and basin-shaped, and made of wicker, but the outer -covering is not the same. An ox-hide is an expensive article in these -days, and, especially when wetted, is very heavy. So the modern Coracle -builder covers the wicker skin with a piece of tarpaulin, which is much -cheaper than the ox-hide, much lighter, is equally water-tight, and has -the great advantage of not absorbing moisture, so that it is as light -after use as before. - -The Esquimaux make a boat on very similar principles. It is simply -hideous in form, resembling a huge washing tub in shape, but, as it is -only intended for the inferior beings called women, this does not -signify. - -Best, most perfect, and most graceful of all such boats is the -Birch-bark Canoe of the North American Indians, whose shape has -evidently been borrowed from that of a fish. I have seen many of these -canoes, and have now before me several models which are exactly like the -originals, except in point of size. Instead of being mere elongated -bowls, like the coracle, they are long and slender, swelling out -considerably in the middle, and coming to an almost knife-like edge at -each end. Both stem and stern are alike, so that the canoe can be -paddled in either direction, and, as one of the paddlers always acts as -steersman, no rudder is needed. - -The mode of construction is perfectly simple. The labour is divided -between the sexes: the women cut large sheets of bark from the -birch-trees, scrape and smooth them, and then sew them together, so as -to form the outer skin, or “cloak” as it is called, of the canoe. -Meanwhile the men are making the skeleton of strips of white cedar-wood, -and binding them into shape with thongs made of the inner bark of the -same tree, just like the “bass” of our gardeners. The “cloak” is then -gradually worked over the skeleton, sewn into its place, and the canoe -is finished. A figure of this canoe, as completed, is given in the same -illustration as that which represents various forms of boat, page 7. - -The last improvement is that which was caused by the necessity for large -vessels, when planks or iron plates were fastened over the skeleton. -But, in all these cases, the vessel is built on the principle of the -thorax of a vertebrate animal, that of the whale or a fish being an -admirable example. It only needs to take the skeleton of a whale, turn -it on its back, and the ribs will be seen to form an almost exact -reproduction of those of any ship being built in the nearest dockyard. - -[Illustration: RIBS OF FISH. RIBS OF SHIP.] - -I have now before me the spine and ribs of a herring. The fish was -over-boiled, and the flesh fell off the bones as it was being lifted out -of the dish, leaving most of the ribs in their places. When held with -the spine downwards, and viewed from one end, the resemblance to the -framework of a ship is absolutely startling, the ribs representing the -beams, and the spine taking the place of the keel. I have also before me -a sketch representing a section of a Fijian canoe, and it is remarkable -that even the very curve of the ribs of the herring is reproduced in -those of the canoe. - -Whether the Fijians derived this peculiar and beautiful curve from the -ribs of a fish I cannot say, but think it very likely. - - * * * * * - -A STILL greater improvement in ship-building now comes before us, and -this also has been anticipated both in the animal and vegetable -kingdoms. There are so many examples of this anticipation that I can -only give one or two. - -The improvement to which I refer is that which is now almost universally -employed in the construction of iron ships, namely, the making the outer -shell double instead of single, and dividing it into a number of -separate compartments. Putting aside the advantage that if the vessel -were stove, only one compartment would fill, we have the fact that the -ship is at the same time enormously strengthened and very light in -proportion to her bulk. - -[Illustration: - -SECTION OF ELEPHANT SKULL. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF IRON SHIP. -STELLATE TISSUES. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF IRON SHIP.] - -Perhaps the best, and certainly the most obvious, example of this -principle in the animal world is to be found in the skull of the -Elephant. The enormous tusks, with their powerful leverage, the massive -teeth, and the large and weighty proboscis, require a corresponding -supply of muscles, and consequently a large surface of bone for the -attachments of these muscles. Now, were the skull solid in proportion to -its requisite size, its weight would be too much for the neck to endure, -however short and sturdy it might be. The mode of attaining expanse of -surface, together with lightness of structure, is singularly beautiful. - -Perhaps some of my readers may not be aware that the bone of the skull -consists of an outer and inner plate, with a variable arrangement of -cells between them. In many animals, such, for example, as man, where -the jaws are comparatively feeble, and the teeth small and light, the -size of the skull is practically that of the brain, to which it affords -a covering. The same structure may be observed in the skull of the -common sparrow, where, as in man, the two bony plates are set almost in -contact. - -But in the elephant these external and internal plates are set widely -apart, and the space between them is filled with bony cells, much -resembling those of a honeycomb. They are, in fact, just the same cells -as those which exist in the skull of man and sparrow, but they are very -much enlarged, and in consequence give a large surface, accompanied with -united strength and lightness. - -There are many other examples in the animal kingdom, but our limited -space will not allow them to be even mentioned. - - * * * * * - -AS to the vegetable examples of this principle, they are so -multitudinous that only a very slight description can be given of them. - -I suppose that most boys have seen a “cane” (whether they have felt it -or not is not to the purpose), and some boys have made sham cigars from -pieces of cane. In either case they must have noticed that the cane is -not solid, but is pierced with a vast number of holes, passing -longitudinally through it, and is, in fact, a collection of little tubes -connected and bound together by a common envelope. - -The Sugar-cane, if cut across, is seen also to consist of multitudinous -cells, which, however, are not hollow, but filled with the sweet liquid -from which sugar is obtained by boiling. Then there are many of our -common English plants, like the ordinary rush or reed, which are very -slight in diameter in comparison with their length, and in which the -cells are still further strengthened and lightened by the projection of -their sides into a number of points which meet each other, and leave -interstices between them. This modification of the cellular system is -called “Stellate” (or star-like) Tissue, and two examples of it are -given in the illustration, one being taken from the common rush, and the -other from the seed-coat of the privet. A very good specimen of stellate -tissue may be obtained by cutting a thin section of the white inner peel -of the orange. - - - - -NAUTICAL. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.--PART II. - - The Cable and its Variations.--Material of Cables.--Hempen and Iron - Cables, and Elasticity of the latter.--Natural Cables.--The - “Byssus” of the Pinna and the common Mussel.--The Water-snail and - its Cable.--A similar Cable produced by the common White Slug.--The - Principle of Elasticity.--Elastic Cable of the Garden - Spider.--Tendrilous Cables of the Pea and the Bryony.--The - Vallisneria, and its Development through the Elastic - Cable.--Proposed Submarine Telegraph Cable.--The Anchor, Grapnel, - and their Varieties.--Natural Anchors.--Spicule of Synapta.--The - Grapnel, natural and artificial.--Ice-anchor and Walrus Tusks.--The - Mushroom Kedge.--The Flesh-hook.--Eagle-claw.--The Grapple-plant of - South Africa.--The Drag. - - -Among the most important accessories to a ship are the Cable, by which -she can be anchored to the bed of the sea, and the ropes called “warps,” -by which she can be fastened to the land. - -Perhaps my readers may not know the old riddle--“How many ropes are -there on board a man-of-war?” The non-nautical individual cannot answer, -but the initiated replies that there are only three, namely, the -man-rope, the tiller-rope, and the rope’s-end, all the others being -“tacks,” “sheets,” “haulyards,” “stays,” “braces,” &c. - -Formerly cables were always made of hemp, enormously thick, and most -carefully twisted by hand. Now, even in small vessels, the hempen cable -has been superseded by the iron chain, and this for several reasons. - -In the first place, it is much smaller in bulk, and therefore does not -occupy so much room. In the next place, it is even lighter than the -hempen cable of corresponding strength; and, in the third, its specific -gravity--_i.e._ its weight when compared with an equal bulk of -water--is so great, that when submerged, it falls into a sort of -arch-like form, and so attains an elasticity which takes off much of the -strain on the anchor, and protects it from dragging. - - * * * * * - -WE will now look to Nature for Cables. - -[Illustration: - -EGG OF DOG-FISH. PINNA. ANCHORED BOAT. - WATER-SNAIL ANCHORED - TO WATER-LILY LEAF.] - -The natural cable which will first suggest itself is evidently that of -the Pinna Shell (_Pinna pectinata_), which fixes its shell to some rock -or stone with a number of silk-like threads, spun by itself, and -protruding from the base, just as a vessel on a lee shore throws out a -number of cables. The threads which compose the “byssus,” as it is -called, are only a few inches in length, and apparently slight. They -are, however, really strong, and by acting in unison enable the shell, -though sometimes two feet in length, to be held firmly to the rock. I -may here mention that they have been occasionally woven into gloves, and -other articles of apparel, to which their natural soft grey-brown hue -gives a very pleasing appearance. - -A still more familiar instance of a natural marine cable is given by the -common Mussel, which can be found in thousands on almost every solid -substance which affords it a hold. Even copper-bottomed ships are often -covered with Mussels, all clinging by their natural cables, and it is -thought that the cases which sometimes occur of being poisoned by eating -Mussels, or “musselled,” as the malady is called by the seafaring -population, are due to the fact that the Mussels have anchored -themselves to copper, and have in consequence imbibed the verdigris. - - * * * * * - -PASSING from salt to fresh water, we come to a natural cable which is -very common, and yet, on account of its practical invisibility, is -almost unknown, except by naturalists. I refer to the curious cable -which is constructed by the common Water-snail (_Limnæa stagnalis_), -which has already been mentioned in its capacity of a boat. - -This creature has a way of attaching itself to some fixed object, such -as a water-lily leaf, by means of a gelatinous thread, which it can -elongate at pleasure, and by means of which it can retain its position -in a stream, or in still water can sink itself to the bottom, and ascend -to the same spot. This cable seems to be made of the same glairy -secretion as that which surrounds the egg-masses which are found so -plentifully on leaves and stones in our fresh waters, and, like that -substance, is all but invisible in the water, so that an inexperienced -eye would not be able to see it, even if it were pointed out. - -Slight, gelatinous, and almost invisible in the water as is this thread, -its strength is very much greater than might be supposed. Not only can a -mollusc be safely moored in the water by such a cable, but it can be -actually suspended in the air, as may be seen from a letter in -Hardwicke’s _Science Gossip_ for 1875, p. 190:-- - -“Last summer (September 29) I met with the following unusual fact. In a -green-house, from a vine-leaf which was within a few inches of the glass -... a slug was hanging by a thread, which was more than four feet in -length, not unlike a spider-web, but evidently much stronger. - -“The slug was descending by means of this thread, and, as the glutinous -matter from the under part of the body was drawn out by the weight of -the creature, it was consolidated into a compact thread by the slug -twisting itself in the direction of the hands of a clock, the power of -twisting being given by the head, and the part of the body nearest the -head being turned in the direction of the twist. There was no tendency -to turn in the contrary direction. Evidently the thread became hard as -soon as it was drawn away from the body. - -“By wetting the sides of slips of glass, I secured two specimens of the -thread. In one of these, part was stretched, and part quite loose, the -latter appearing flat when seen through a microscope. The thread, which -was highly elastic, was increased about three inches in a minute. The -slug was white, and about an inch and a half in length.” - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to the elastic system of the Chain Cable, and find it -anticipated in Nature in various ways. - -One curious example was that of a Spider, which found its wheel-like net -in danger from a tempestuous wind. The Spider descended to the ground, a -depth of about seven feet, and, instead of attaching its thread to a -stone or plant, fastened it to a piece of loose stick, hauled it up a -few feet clear of the ground, and then went back to its web. The piece -of stick thus left suspended acted in a most admirable manner, giving -strength and support, and at the same time yielding partly to the wind. - -By accident the thread became broken, and the stick, which was about as -thick as an ordinary pencil, and not quite three inches in length, fell -to the ground. The Spider immediately descended, attached another -thread, and hauled it up as before. In a day or two, when the -tempestuous weather had ceased, the Spider voluntarily cut the thread, -and allowed the then useless stick to drop. - - * * * * * - -A CURIOUS example of the elastic cable is seen in the egg-case of the -Dog-fish, which is given on page 35. The egg-case is formed like that of -the common skate, and has a projection from each of its angles. But the -projections, instead of being mere flattened horns, are lengthened into -long elastic strings, tapering towards the ends, and twisted spirally, -like the tendrils of a grape-vine. - -These tendril-like appendages twist themselves round seaweeds and other -objects, and, on account of their spiral form, can hardly ever be torn -from their attachments. Sometimes after a storm the egg is thrown on the -shore, still clinging to the seaweed, but to find an egg detached is -very rarely done. - -I have already mentioned the tendrils of the vine, and their great -strength. The reader may remember the corresponding cases of the Pea and -the Bryony, the latter being a most remarkable example of the strength -gained by the spiral form. It clambers about hedges, is exposed to the -fiercest winds, has large and broad leaves, and yet such a thing as a -Bryony being blown off a hedge is scarcely, if ever, seen. I never saw -an example myself, though I have had long experience in hedges. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER excellent example of this principle is found in the Vallisneria -plant, which of late years has become tolerably familiar to us through -the means of fresh-water aquaria, though it is not indigenous to this -country. - -In this plant the elastic power of the spiral cable is beautifully -developed. It is an aquatic plant, mostly found in running waters, and -has a most singular mode of development. It is diœcious--_i.e._ the -male, or stamen-bearing, and the female, or pistil-bearing flowers, grow -upon separate plants. - -It has to deposit its seeds in the bed of the stream, and yet it is -necessary that both sets of flowers should be exposed to the air and sun -before they become able to perform their several duties. Add to this the -fact that the male flower is quite as small in proportion to the female -as is the case with the lac and scale insects, and the problem of their -reaching each other becomes apparently intricate, though it is solved in -a beautifully simple manner. - -Fertilisation cannot be conducted by means of insects, as is the case -with so many diœcious terrestrial plants, and it is absolutely -necessary that actual contact should take place between them. This -difficult process is effected as follows:-- - -The female flowers are attached to a very long spiral and closely coiled -footstalk, and, when they are sufficiently developed, the footstalk -elongates itself until the flower rests on the surface of the water, -where it is safely anchored by its spiral cable, the coils yielding to -the wavelets, and keeping the flower in its place. - -Meanwhile the tiny male flowers are being developed at the bottom of the -river, and are attached to very short footstalks. When they are quite -ripe they disengage themselves from their footstalks, and rise to the -surface of the river. Being carried along by the stream, they are sure -to come in contact with the anchored female flowers. This having been -done, and the seeds beginning to be developed, the spiral footstalk -again coils itself tightly, and brings the seeds close to the bed of the -stream, where they can take root. - -There are other numerous examples, of which any reader, even slightly -skilled in botany, need not be reminded, most of them being, in one form -or another, modifications of the leaf or the petal, which, after all, -are much the same thing. The vine and passion-flower are, however, -partial exceptions. - -I may here mention that soon after the failure of the first Atlantic -telegraph cable, an invention was patented of a very much lighter cable, -enclosed in a tube of india-rubber, and being coiled spirally at certain -distances, so that the coils might give the elasticity which constitutes -strength. The cable was never made, its manufacture proving to be too -costly; but the idea of lightness and elasticity, having been evidently -taken from the spiral tendrils of the bryony, was certainly a good one, -and I should have wished to see it tried on a smaller scale than the -Atlantic requires. - - * * * * * - -AS a natural consequence, after the cable comes the Anchor, which in -almost every form has been anticipated by Nature, whether it be called -by the name of anchor, kedge, drag, or grapnel. - -On the accompanying illustrations are shown a number of corresponding -forms of the Anchor, together with a few others, which, although they -may not necessarily be used in the water, are nevertheless constructed -on the same principle--_i.e._ for the purpose of grappling. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: SPICULES OF SYNAPTA.] - -[Illustration: ANCIENT ANCHOR.] - -One of the most startling parallels may be seen on the right hand of the -illustration, the figure having been drawn from an old Roman coin. On -the other side of the same illustration may be seen an anchor so -exactly similar in form, that the outline of the one would almost answer -for that of the other. This object is a much-magnified representation of -a spicule which is found on the skin of the Synapta, one of the -so-called Sea-slugs, which are so extensively sold under the name of -Bêche de Mer. It forms one of the curious group called the Holothuridæ. - -Each of these anchors is affixed to a sort of open-worked shield, as -shown above, and on the left hand; and it is a curious fact that in the -various species of Synapta the anchor is rather different in form, and -the shield very different in pattern. They are lovely objects, and I -recommend any of my readers who possess a microscope to procure one. -They need a power of at least 150 diameters to show their full beauties. - -An ordinary Grapnel is here shown, and in the corresponding position on -the opposite side is an almost exactly similar object, except that it is -double, having the grapnel at both ends of the stem. This is a spicule -of a species of sponge, and is one of the vast numbers of which the -sponge principally consists. - -[Illustration: LERNENTOMA.] - -[Illustration: ECHINOCOCCUS.] - -[Illustration: SPONGE-SPICULE.] - -[Illustration: GRAPNEL.] - -Next to the sponge-spicule is a still more perfect example of a natural -Grapnel. This is the head of an internal parasite called Echinococcus, -which holds itself in its position by means of the circle of hooks with -which the head is surrounded. These hooks are easily detached, and have -a curious resemblance to the claw of the lion or tiger. - -On the left-hand side is a representation of a parasitic crustacean -animal called Lernentoma, which adheres to various fishes, and is mostly -found upon the sprat, clinging to the gills by means of its -grapnel-shaped head. - -On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is an ice-anchor, -copied from one of those which were taken out in the Arctic expedition -of 1875. Opposite is the skull of the Walrus, the tusks of which are -said to be used for exactly the same purpose. Below are ice-hooks, also -used for the same expedition. - -[Illustration: TUSKS OF WALRUS.] - -[Illustration: ICE-ANCHOR AND ICE-HOOKS.] - -The next illustration exhibits a butcher’s hook and a common porter’s -hook, by which he lifts sacks on his back; and opposite them are some -sponge-spicules, the similarity of which in form is so remarkable that -the former might have been copied from the latter. - -[Illustration: SPONGE-SPICULES.] - -[Illustration: BUTCHER’S HOOK.] - -[Illustration: PORTER’S HOOK.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: MUSHROOM.] - -[Illustration: MUSHROOM KEDGE.] - -Our next sketch shows a remarkable example of similitude in form. There -are certain small anchors called Kedges, which are very useful for -mooring a boat where no great power of resistance has to be overcome, -and a large anchor would be cumbersome. One of these is called, from its -shape, the “Mushroom Kedge,” and is very useful, as, however it may be -dropped, some part of the edge is sure to take the ground. This Kedge is -shown on the right hand of the illustration, and the Mushroom, from -which its shape was borrowed, is seen on the left. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to some more examples of the principle of the Grapnel, some -of which are applied to nautical, and others to terrestrial objects. - -[Illustration: EAGLE-CLAW.] - -[Illustration: FLESH-HOOK.] - -The right-hand upper figure represents the “Flesh-hook,” used for taking -boiled meat out of the caldron, so familiar to us by the reference to it -in Exodus xxvii. 3, and the still better-known allusion to its office in -1 Samuel ii. 13, 14. In the former passage, even the material, brass, -which was really what we now call bronze, is mentioned, and it is a -curious fact that all the specimens in the British Museum, from one of -which the drawing was taken, are made of bronze. I need hardly state -that the hollow handle is meant to receive a wooden staff. - -On comparing this figure with that of the Eagle’s foot on the opposite -side, the reader cannot but be struck with the exact resemblance between -the two. Indeed, there is very little doubt that the flesh-hook was -intentionally copied from the foot of some bird of prey. Perhaps the -Osprey would have furnished even a better example than the Eagle, the -claws being sharper and more boldly curved, so as to hold their slippery -prey the better. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the next illustration is a figure of the seed-vessel -of the Grapple-plant of Southern Africa, drawn from a specimen in my -collection. The seed-vessel is several inches in length, and the -traveller who is caught by a single hook had better wait for assistance -than try to release himself. The stems of the plant are so slender, and -the armed seed-vessels so numerous, that in attempting to rescue one -portion of the dress, another portion becomes entangled, and the -traveller gets hopelessly captured. Besides the hooks of the -seed-vessels, the branches themselves are armed with long thorns, set in -pairs. The scientific name of this plant is _Uncinaria procumbens_, the -former word signifying “a hook,” and the latter “trailing.” It is also -known by the popular name of Hook-plant. - -[Illustration: GRAPPLE-PLANT.] - -[Illustration: DRAG.] - -In the late Kafir wars the natives made great use of this and other -plants with similar properties, their own naked, dark, and oiled bodies -slipping through them easily and unseen, while the scarlet coats of the -soldiers were quickly entangled, and made them an easy mark for the -Kafir’s spear. In this way many more of our soldiers were killed by the -spears than by the bullets of their enemies. - -Opposite to the Grapple-plant is shown the common Drag, which is -utilised for so many purposes. Generally it is employed for recovering -objects that have sunk to the bottom of the water, and its use by the -officers of the Humane Society is perfectly well known, the Drag being -sometimes affixed to the end of a long pole, like the flesh-hook already -described, and sometimes tied to a rope. - -It can also be used as an anchor, after the manner of a kedge, and has -been often employed in naval engagements for the purpose of drawing two -ships together, and preventing the escape of the vessel which is being -worsted. My relative, the late Admiral Sir J. Harvey, K.B., used drags -in this manner, and secured two French ships, one on either side, -namely, _L’Achille_ and _Le Vengeur_. The first was sunk, and the second -captured. - - - - -NAUTICAL. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES. - -PART III.--THE BOAT-HOOK AND PUNT-POLE.--THE LIFE-BUOY AND PONTOON-RAFT. - - The Boat-hook and its varied Uses.--The Earth-worm and the - Serpula.--Microscopic Boat-hooks.--The Life-belt.--Life-boats and - their Structure.--Uses of Cork.--Wine Corks made serviceable.--The - Life-collar.--Portuguese Man-of-war.--Captain Boyton’s - Life-dress.--The Life-raft.--Victualling a Yacht and Boat.--The - Janthina and its Air-vessels.--Cask-pontoon--Pottery-raft and its - Uses. - - -As all rowing men know, an indispensable appliance to the boat is the -Boat-hook, which can be used either as a pole, wherewith to push the -boat along, or as a grapnel, by which it can be drawn towards the shore -or a ship. As the latter portion has been discussed at the close of the -preceding chapter, we may proceed to the former. - -Every one knows how a boat may be propelled by a pole pressed against -the bank or the bottom of the water, and that there are certain boats, -called punts, which are propelled in no other way. - -Now, the punt-poles and boat-hooks, of which some examples are given in -the accompanying illustration, have long been anticipated in Nature, -there being many creatures which have no other mode of progression; -such, for example, as the common Earth-worm, which pushes itself along -by certain bristles which project from the rings of which the body is -composed, and which have the power of extension and contraction to a -wonderful extent. As, however, I shall advert to these in another part -of the work, I will content myself at present with a single example, -namely, the beautiful marine worm known as the Serpula. - -This worm lives in a shelly tube, which is lined with a delicate -membrane, up and down which it passes with ease, ascending slowly, but -generally descending with such wonderful rapidity that the eye cannot -follow its movements. The latter movement will be explained in a -subsequent part of the book, and we will at present only treat of the -former. - -[Illustration: PUSHING SPIKES OF SERPULA.] - -[Illustration: BOAT-HOOKS AND PUNT-POLES.] - -If the creature be removed from the tube, and carefully examined, a -number of projections will be seen, in each of which is a perforation. -If the animal be pressed, a slight glass-like bristle passes through the -perforation, and can easily be removed. If properly treated, and placed -under a high power of the microscope, the tiny bristle resolves itself -into the remarkable object which is shown on the left hand of the -illustration. - -It consists of a number of spear-like rods, each having a straight -shaft, and a curved and pointed tip, deeply barbed on the inner portion -of the curve. These curious bundles of spicules can be protruded or -retracted at pleasure, and, as they are all directed backwards, it is -evident that when they are pushed against the sides of the tube, either -the points or the barbs must catch against the membrane which lines the -tube, and so propel the animal upwards. When it wishes to descend, it -uses another set of implements, and withdraws the first within their -sheaths. - -This is exactly analogous to the mode of progression employed by -punters, who, after they have placed the pole against the bed of the -stream, and run along the punt so as to push it as fast as possible, -immediately withdraw the pole, and take it to the head of the punt, -ready for another push. This, as the reader will see, is exactly the -plan pursued by the Serpula in lengthening itself when it wishes to -advance, and so to press its spicules against the sides of its tube, -and in shortening itself and withdrawing the spicules ready for another -push. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER needful accessory of vessels now comes before us, namely, the -capability of forming rafts or life-belts, which will float under any -circumstances. Here, again, every human invention of which I know has -been anticipated by Nature. Take, for example, the familiar instance of -the cork life-belt and the cork edgings of the life-boat. Both are -constructed on the same principle, _i.e._ the maintenance of cells which -are filled by air instead of water, and are impervious to the latter. - -The material most used for this purpose is cork, and life-belts -constructed of it have long been in well-deserved use, the cork-bark -having the property of holding much air and excluding water. Many of our -life-boats are furnished with a broad and thick streak of cork, so that -even if the boat be filled with water and upset, she will right herself -and swim. I regret to say that many of the so-called “life-belts” which -are offered for sale ought rather to be called “death-belts,” they -having been found to be filled with hay and straw, with only a few -shavings of cork just under the covering of the belt. - -Indeed, so buoyant is this substance that a very efficient belt can be -made by stringing together three or four rows of ordinary wine corks, -and tying them round the neck like a collar. Under these circumstances -it is simply impossible to sink, and though any one may collapse from -exhaustion, drowning is almost out of the question. The now well-known -cork mattress, which is used in many ships, is another example of the -same principle. - -Lately there has been invented a “life-collar,” which possesses similar -advantages, but occupies less space when not wanted. It is nothing more -than a tube of caoutchouc, which can be inflated at pleasure, and tied -round the neck. The ordinary life-belt goes round the waist, and needs -much more material without obtaining a better result, which is simply -the keeping of the mouth and nostrils out of the water. - -Perhaps the most buoyant of living beings is the Portuguese Man-of-war -(_Physalis pelagicus_), which floats on the surface of the ocean like a -bubble. It can at pleasure distend itself with air and float, or -discharge the air and sink. - -Now, there is a very remarkable swimming dress, which, though not -entirely invented, was at least perfected by Captain Boyton, and which, -as it enabled the wearer to cross from France to England under rather -unfavourable circumstances, is clearly a most valuable invention. - -[Illustration: PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR.] - -[Illustration: CAPTAIN BOYTON’S LIFE-DRESS.] - -Whether the inventor knew it or not I cannot say, but the Boyton -life-dress is simply a modification of the Physalis, being capable of -dilatation with air at will. - - * * * * * - -SO much for the individual life-belt, and we will now pass to those -which are intended to sustain more than one individual. It has almost -invariably been found that when a ship has been wrecked on a rock, or -stove in by the sea, that, although there may be plenty of boats, there -is great difficulty in getting them into the water rightly. - -Now, if parts of the ship itself could be made of materials which could -not be sunk except by enormous pressure, and which might be released by -a touch if the vessel were sinking, it is evident that many lives would -be saved which have now been lost. - -And if such movable parts of the vessel were supplied with water and -provisions in air-tight cases, there is no doubt that the number of -“missing” ships would be very greatly diminished. I remember an instance -where a yacht was “hung up” on a mud-bank, whence there was no escape, -for twenty-four hours, and there was one sandwich on board to be divided -among the owner, two men, and a boy. Of course the boy had the sandwich, -and the men sustained themselves as well as they could with tea, of -which there was, fortunately, a canister on board. As it was, they were -some thirty-six hours without food. - -After such an experience the owner had special lockers made in the yacht -and her boat, containing biscuit, potted meats, water, wine, spirits, -tobacco, tea, an “etna” for heating the water, and matches. Of course -these were on a smaller scale in the boat; but several thick rugs were -also stowed away, in case of being separated from the yacht at night. It -so happened that they were never needed; but the sense of security which -they imparted was worth ten times the expense and trouble, which -included a careful inspection of all the stores before each voyage. - -In Nature there is just such a raft as is needed, capable of carrying a -heavy freight, and which cannot be upset. And it is rather remarkable -that it has been unconsciously imitated in various parts of the world. - -[Illustration: JANTHINA AND AIR-RAFT.] - -[Illustration: CASK-PONTOON. POTTERY-RAFT OF THE NILE.] - -This is the singular apparatus attached to the Violet Snail (_Janthina -communis_), which is common enough in the Atlantic, and derives its name -of Violet-shell from its beautiful colour. The chief interest, however, -centres in the apparatus which is popularly called the “raft,” and which -sustains the shell and eggs. It is made of a great number of -air-vessels, affixed closely to each other, and by the curious property -of bearing its cargo slung beneath it instead of being laid upon it. - -Beneath the raft are the eggs, or rather, the capsules which contain the -eggs, and at one end is the beautiful violet shell itself. The floating -power of the raft is really astonishing, and even in severe tempests, -when it is broken away from the animal, the raft continues to float on -the surface of the waves, bearing its cargo with it. - -On the opposite side of the illustration are two examples of rafts -constructed so exactly on the same principle as that of the Violet -Snail, that they both might have been borrowed from it. - -The upper is the kind of raft which has often been constructed by -sailors when trying to escape from a sinking ship, or by soldiers when -wishing to convey troops across a river, and having no regular -“pontoons” at hand. It is made simply by lashing a number of empty casks -to a flooring of beams and planks. - -The amount of weight which such a structure will support is really -astonishing, as long as the casks remain whole, and to upset it is -almost impossible. Even cannon can be taken across wide expanses of -water in perfect safety, and there is hardly anything more awkward of -conveyance than a cannon, with its own enormous and concentrated weight, -and all the needful paraphernalia of limber, ammunition (which may not -be wetted, and of immense weight), horses, and men. - -Yet even this heterogeneous mass of living and lifeless weight can be -carried on the cask-raft, which is an exact imitation of the living raft -of the Violet Snail. - - * * * * * - -BENEATH the cask-pontoon is to be seen a sketch of a very curious vessel -which is in use on the Nile, and I rather think on the Ganges also, -though I am not quite sure. It is formed in the following manner:-- - -In both countries there are whole families who from generation to -generation have lived in little villages up the river, and gained their -living by making pottery, mostly of a simple though artistic form, the -vessel having a rather long and slender neck, and a more or less -globular body. - -When a man has made a sufficient number of these vessels, he lashes them -together with their mouths uppermost, and then fixes upon them a simple -platform of reeds. The papyrus was once largely used for this purpose, -but it seems to be gradually abandoned. - -He thus forms a pontoon exactly similar in principle with the -cask-pontoon which has just been described. Then, taking his place on -his buoyant raft, he floats down the river until he comes to some -populous town, takes his raft to pieces, sells the pots and reeds, and -makes his way home again by land. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE PITFALL, THE CLUB, THE SWORD, THE SPEAR AND DAGGER. - - Analogy between War and Hunting.--The Pitfall as used for both - Purposes.--African Pitfalls for large Game, and their Armature for - preventing the Escape of Prey.--Its Use in this Country on a - miniature scale.--Mr. Waterton’s Mouse-trap.--Pitfall of the - Ant-lion, and its Armature for preventing the Escape of Prey.--The - Club and its Origin.--Gradual Development of the Weapon.--The - “Pine-apple” Club of Fiji.--The Game of Pallone and the - “Bracciale.”--The Irish Shillelagh.--Clubs and Maces of Wood, - Metal, or mixed.--The Morgenstern.--Ominous Jesting.--Natural - Clubs.--The Durian, the Diodon, and the Horse-chestnut.--The Sword, - or flattened and sharpened Club.--Natural and artificial Armature - of the Edge.--The Sword-grass, Leech, and Saw-fish.--Spears and - Swords armed with Bones and Stones.--The Spear and Dagger, and - their Analogies.--Structure of the Spear.--The Bamboo as a Weapon - of War or Hunting.--Singular Combat, and its Results. - - -The two subjects which are here mentioned are practically one, the -warfare being in the one case carried on against mankind, and in the -other against the lower animals, the means employed being often the same -in both cases. - - -THE PITFALL. - -One of the simplest examples of this double use is afforded by the -Pitfall, which is employed in almost every part of the world, and, -although mostly used for hunting, still keeps its place in warfare. - -On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown a section of -the Pitfall which is so commonly used in Africa for the capture of large -game. It is, as may be seen, a conical hole, the bottom of which is -armed with a pointed stake. Should a large animal fall into the pit, the -shape of the sides forces it upon the stake, by which it is transfixed. -Even elephants of the largest size often fall victims to this simple -trap. It is only large enough to receive the fore-legs and chest, but -that is quite sufficient to cause the death of the animal, the stake -penetrating to the heart. - -Many a hunter has fallen into these traps, and found great difficulty in -escaping, while some have not escaped at all. Indeed, in many parts of -Southern Africa, when part of one tribe is about to visit another, the -pitfalls are always unmasked, lest the intended guests should fall into -them. - -[Illustration: PITFALL OF ANT-LION FOR CATCHING INSECTS.] - -[Illustration: AFRICAN PITFALL FOR CATCHING LARGE GAME.] - -Even without the spike, the elephant would scarcely be able to save -itself, owing to its enormous weight, unless helped out by its comrades -before the hunters came up. Indeed, many pitfalls are intentionally made -for this purpose, and are of a different shape, _i.e._ about eight feet -in length and four in breadth. - -In those which are made for the capture of the giraffe, the pit is very -deep, and the place of the stake is occupied by a transverse wall, which -prevents the feet of the captive from touching the ground, and keeps it -suspended until the hunters can come and kill it at leisure. - -Even in Belgium and our own country the pitfall is in use. When the -field-mice were devastating the districts about Liege some years ago, -their ravages were effectually checked by pitfalls, in which they were -caught by bushels, the pitfalls being simple holes some two feet deep, -and made wider below than above. - -The late Mr. Waterton contrived to rid his garden of field-mice by -pitfalls constructed on the same principle, though more permanent. -Finding that the little animals made great havoc among his peas just as -they were starting out of the ground, he buried between the rows a -number of earthen pickle-jars, sinking them to the level of the ground. -He then rubbed the inside of the neck with bacon, and left them. The -mice stooped down to lick off the bacon, fell into the jars, and, the -neck being narrow and the sides slippery, they could not get out again. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration is the section of a pitfall made by -the well-known Ant-lion (_Myrmeleo_), of which there are several -species. The history of this wonderful insect is so familiar to us that -it need not be repeated at length. Suffice it to say that it digs -conical pitfalls in loose sandy soil, and that it places itself at the -bottom of the pit, securing the insect victims with its jaws just as the -larger animals are secured by the stake of the human hunter. - -It makes no false cover, as does the human hunter, but it always chooses -soil so loose that if an insect approach the edge, the sand gives way, -and it goes sliding down into the pit, whence its chance of escape is -very small, even were there no deadly jaws at the bottom ready to -receive it. - - -THE CLUB. - -The simplest of all offensive weapons is necessarily the CLUB. At first, -this was but a simple stick, such as any savage might form from a branch -of a tree by knocking off the small boughs with a stone or another -stick. Such clubs are still used in Australia, and I have several in my -collection. - -Then the inventive genius of man improved their destructive power by -various means. The most obvious plan was to add to the force of its blow -by simply making one end much thicker and heavier than the other. This -is done in the “Knob-kerry” of Southern Africa, and it is worthy of -remark that in Fiji a weapon exists so exactly like the short knob-kerry -of Africa, that an inexperienced eye would scarcely be able to -distinguish between them. - -The next plan was to arm the enlarged head with projecting pieces or -spikes, sometimes cut out of the solid wood, and sometimes artificially -inserted. The “Shillelagh” of Ireland is a simple example of this kind -of club. One of the best and most elaborate examples of this sort of -weapon is the “Pine-apple” Club of Fiji, a figure of which may be seen -in the illustration, drawn from a specimen in my collection. - -It is made in the most ingenious manner from a tree which is trained for -the purpose. There are certain trees belonging to the palm tribe which -possess “aërial” roots, _i.e._ subsidiary roots, which surround the -trunk at some distance from the ground, and assist in supporting it. -Some trees have no central root, and are entirely upborne by the aërial -roots, while others have both. - -One of these latter is selected, and when it is very young is bent over -and fastened to the ground almost at right angles, as shown in the -illustration. When it has grown to a sufficient age it is cut to the -requisite length, the central root is sharpened to a point, and the -aërial roots are also cut down in such a way that they radiate very much -like the projections on a pine-apple. This is really an ingenious -weapon, for if the long and sharpened end should miss its aim, the -projections would be tolerably sure to inflict painful if not -immediately dangerous injuries. - -[Illustration: DURIAN.] - -[Illustration: POLLEN OF HOLLYHOCK. HORSE-CHESTNUT.] - -[Illustration: WOODEN AND METAL CLUBS.] - -As the pine-apple is so well known, I have given in the opposite side of -the illustration a figure of the Durian, a large Bornean fruit, which is -covered with projections almost identical in appearance with those of -the pine-apple club, and almost equally hard and heavy. - -Perhaps some of my readers may have heard of the grand Italian game of -Pallone, the “game of giants,” as it has been called. The ball, which -is a large and rather heavy one, weighing more than twice as much as a -cricket-ball, is struck with a wooden gauntlet reaching nearly half-way -up the fore-arm. The original gauntlet was cut entirely out of the solid -wood, and exactly resembled the exterior of the Durian. The modern -gauntlet, however, has the spikes fixed separately into a wooden frame, -so that they can be replaced if broken in the course of the game. The -principle, however, is identical in all three cases. The technical name -of this gauntlet is Bracciale. - -The next improvement was to add still further to the destructive powers -of the club by arming it with stones, so as to make it harder and -heavier. Sometimes a stone is perforated, and the end of the club forced -into it. Sometimes the stone is lashed to the club, and sometimes a hole -is bored in the club, and the stone driven into it. This kind of club, -made of a sort of rosewood, may be found among some of the tribes -inhabiting the district of the Essequibo. - -The next improvement was to make the weapon entirely of metal, and such -clubs are plentiful in every good collection of arms. There was, for -example, the common mace, which was used for the purpose of stunning an -adversary clothed in armour which the sword could not penetrate. As -this, however, was nothing more than an ordinary wooden club executed in -iron, we need not produce examples. - -Other and more complicated forms were soon made, and were wonderfully -valuable until the rapidly improving firearms kept combatants at a -distance, and rendered a hand-to-hand fight almost impossible. - -Three examples of such clubs are given in the illustration, and are -taken from Demmin’s valuable work called “Weapons of War.” - -The upper left-hand specimen is called Morgenstern, _i.e._ Morning Star. -It is a large, heavy wooden ball studded with steel spikes, and affixed -to a handle usually some six or seven feet, but sometimes exceeding -eleven feet, in length. It was chiefly used by infantry when attacking -cavalry, the long shaft enabling the foot-soldier to be tolerably sure -of dealing the cavalier or his horse a severe blow, while himself out of -reach of the latter’s sword. - -Behind it is another Morgenstern in which there is an improvement, the -armed ball being furnished at the end with a spike, so that it could be -used either as a mace or a spear. - -The commonest form of the Morning Star is shown below, and is thus -described by Demmin:-- - -“This mace had generally a long handle, and its head bristled with -wooden or iron points. It was common among the ancients, for many -museums possess several fragments of these weapons belonging to the age -of bronze. - -“The Morning Star was very well known and much used in Germany and -Switzerland. It received its name from the ominous jest of wishing the -enemy ‘good morning’ with the Morning Star when they had been surprised -in camp or city. - -“This weapon became very popular on account of the facility and -quickness with which it could be manufactured. The peasants made it -easily with the trunk of a small shrub and a handful of large nails. It -was also in great request during the wars of the peasantry which have -devastated Germany at different times, and the Swiss arsenals possess -great numbers of them.” - -One of these primitive weapons may be seen in the lower figure of the -illustration. - -Sometimes the spiked ball was attached to a chain, and fastened to the -end of a handle varying greatly in length, measuring from two to ten -feet. One of these weapons may be seen in the Guildhall of London, being -held by one of the celebrated giants. - - * * * * * - -IF the reader will now turn to the illustration on page 53, he will see -that on the right of the Durian there are two spherical objects covered -with spikes. The upper is the pollen of the Hollyhock, and the lower the -common Horse-chestnut. The reader will see that these are precisely -similar in form to the spiked balls of the Morgenstern, whether they be -used at the end of a staff or slung to a chain. There are many similar -examples in the vegetable kingdom which will doubtless suggest -themselves to the reader, but these are amply sufficient for this -purpose. - -Then, in the animal world, the curious Diodons, sometimes called -Urchin-fishes, or Prickly Globe-fishes, are good examples. These fishes -are covered with sharp spines, and, as they have the power of swelling -their bodies into a globular form, the spikes project on all sides just -like those of the pollen or chestnut. There is a specimen in my -collection, which, if the tail and fins were removed, and a cast taken -in metal, would make a very good Morgenstern ball. - - -THE SWORD. - -The next improvement on the club was evidently to flatten it, and -sharpen one or both edges, so as to make it a cutting as well as a -stunning implement--in fact, the club was changed into a SWORD. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: SWORD-GRASS MAGNIFIED.] - -[Illustration: SHARK-TOOTH SWORD OF MANGAIA.] - -A good example of this weapon in its simplest form is the wooden sword -of Australia, now an exceedingly rare weapon. It looks like a very large -boomerang, but is nearly straight, and is made from the hard, tough wood -of the gum-tree. Travellers say that the natives can cut off a man’s -head with this very simple weapon. - -I just missed obtaining one of these swords from a man-of-war, but, -unfortunately, a few hours before my arrival the zealous first -lieutenant had ordered a large collection of savage weapons to be thrown -overboard, among which were several Australian swords. - -Finding that the edges were not sufficiently sharp, and were liable to -break, the maker next turned his attention to arming them with some -substance harder than wood. Various materials were used for this -purpose, some of which will be mentioned. - -One of these is given in the illustration, and is taken from a specimen -in my collection. It is made of wood, rather more than two feet in -length, and would in itself be an insignificant weapon but for its -armature. - -This consists of a number of sharks’ teeth, which are fixed along either -side, and are a most formidable apparatus, each tooth cutting like a -lancet-blade, and not only being very sharp, but having their edges -finely notched like the teeth of a saw. I have a series of these weapons -in my collection, some being curved, some straight, and one very -remarkable weapon having four blades, one straight and long blade in the -centre, and three curved and short blades springing from the handle -towards the point. - -Opposite the shark-tooth sword is an object which might almost be taken -for a similar weapon, but is, in fact, nothing but a common grass-blade, -such as may be found in any of our lanes. I suppose that most of my -readers must at some time have cut their fingers with grass, and the -reason why is shown in the illustration, which represents a -much-magnified blade of grass. The edges of the leaf are armed with -sharp teeth of flint, set exactly like those of the sword, with their -points directed towards the tip of the blade. The whole of the under -surface of the blade is thickly set with similar but smaller teeth, -arranged in the same manner. I have just brought a blade of grass from a -lane near my house, and when it was placed under the half-inch power of -the microscope, the resemblance to the sword was absolutely startling to -some spectators who came to look at it. - -As if to make the resemblance closer, many savage weapons are edged with -flat stones, flint chips, or pieces of obsidian, so that the flint teeth -of the grass are exactly copied by the flint edgings of the sword. The -old Mexican swords were nearly all edged with obsidian, as is seen in -the lower right-hand figure of the next illustration. I possess a number -of obsidian flakes which were intended for that purpose, but do not -appear to have been used. - -The second figure from the top represents the head of a spear similarly -armed, and I possess a small Australian implement in which the flakes of -obsidian are set only on one side, so that the instrument can be used as -a rude saw. - -Between these two weapons is a spear-head armed with shark-teeth. I have -a very remarkable weapon of this kind, made in Mangaia. It is eleven -feet in length, and, besides being armed with a double row of sharks’ -teeth nearly to the handle, it has three curved blades similarly armed, -set at distances of about two feet, and projecting at right angles. -Thus, if the foe were missed with the point of the spear, he would -probably be wounded by one of the blades. - -[Illustration: SWORD-GRASS. LEECH JAW. SAW-FISH]. - -[Illustration: SPEARS AND SWORD ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN AND SHARKS’ TEETH.] - -The upper figure represents a weapon where the natural bone of the -sting-ray has been used as the point. - -On the opposite side are seen three natural objects similarly armed. The -uppermost is another species of sword-grass, like that which has already -been described. - -Next comes a magnified view of one of the three cutting instruments of -the leech, showing the serrated teeth set along its edge, by means of -which it produces the sharply-cut wounds through which it sucks the -blood. - -The last figure represents the head of the common Saw-fish, in which a -vast number of flat and sharply-edged teeth are set upon the blade-like -head. The fish has been observed to use this weapon just as the Mangaian -uses his sword-spear. It dashes among a shoal of fish, sweeps its head -violently backwards and forwards, and then, after they have dispersed, -picks up at its leisure the dead and disabled. - - -THE SPEAR AND THE DAGGER. - -It is tolerably evident that the invention of the spear and dagger must -have been nearly, if not quite, contemporaneous with that of the club. I -place these weapons together because there is great difficulty in -assigning to either of them the precedence, the spear being but a more -or less elongated dagger, and the dagger a shortened spear. - -As a good example of this fact, I have in my collection a number of -spears and daggers belonging to the Fan tribe of Western Africa. In -every case the weapons correspond so closely with each other, that if -the daggers were attached to shafts they would exactly resemble the -spears, and if the spears were cut off within a few inches of the head, -they would be taken for daggers. - -I may here mention that as this part of the subject merely involves the -employment of a pointed or thrusting weapon, instead of the club or -sword, both of which are used for striking, the question of poison, -barbs, and sheaths will be treated on another page. - -The primary origin of the Spear is probably the thorn, as a savage who -had been wounded by a thorn would easily pass to the conclusion that a -thorn of larger size would enable him to kill an enemy in war, or an -animal in hunting. Anything of sufficient dimensions, which either -possessed a natural point or could be sharpened into a point, would be -available for the purpose of the hunter or warrior. - -Accordingly we find that such objects as the beak of the heron or stork, -the sharp hind-claw of the kangaroo, the bone of the sting-ray, the beak -of the sword-fish, and many similar objects, are employed for the heads -of spears, or used simply as daggers. - -As to artificial spears, nothing is easier than to scrape a stick to a -point, and then, if needful, to harden it in the fire. This is, indeed, -one of the commonest forms of primitive spears, and I have in my -collection many examples of such weapons. Another simple form of this -weapon is that which is made by cutting a stick or similar object -diagonally. - -Hollow rods--such, for example, as the bamboo--are the best for this -purpose. I have now before me a cast of a most interesting weapon -discovered by Colonel Lane Fox. It is the head of a spear, and is formed -from part of the leg-bone of a sheep. At one end there is a simple round -hole, which acted as a socket for the reception of the shaft, and the -other end is cut away diagonally, so as to leave a tolerably sharp -point. - -As to the bamboo, it has a great advantage in the thinness of its walls, -and the coating of flinty substance with which it is surrounded, and -which gives its edges a knife-like sharpness. Indeed, so very sharp is -the silex, that splinters of bamboo are still used as knives, and with -them a skilful operator can cut up a large hog as expeditiously as one -of our pork-butchers could do with the best knife that Sheffield -produces. - -I possess several of these weapons, and formidable arms of offence they -are. If the reader can imagine to himself a toothpick, a foot or more in -length, made from bamboo instead of quill, and having its edges nearly -as sharp as a razor, he can realise the force of even so simple a -weapon. In the case of the bamboo, too, celerity of manufacture has its -value, for any one can make a couple of spears in less than as many -minutes. All he has to do is to cut down a joint of bamboo transversely, -and then with a diagonal blow of his knife at the other end to form the -point. - -The force of such a weapon may be inferred from a remarkable combat that -took place some sixty years ago, when the roads were not so safe as they -are at present. - -A gentleman, who happened to be a consummate master of the sword, was -going along the highway at night, and was attacked by two footpads, he -having no weapon but a bamboo cane. - -One of them he temporarily disabled by a severe kick, and then turned to -the other, whom he found to be pretty well as good a swordsman as -himself, and to possess a good stick instead of a slight cane. The -footpad soon discovered the discrepancy of weapons, and with a sharp -blow smashed the cane to pieces, leaving only about eighteen inches in -his antagonist’s hand. - -Almost instinctively Baron ---- sprang under the man’s guard, and dashed -the broken cane in his face. The footpad staggered with a groan, put his -hands to his face, and ran away, followed by his companion, who did not -desire another encounter with such an antagonist. When the victor -reached his destination, he found that the footpad’s face must have been -torn to pieces, for the clefts of the split bamboo were full of scraps -of skin, flesh, and whisker hair. - -It is worthy of notice that the combination of the club and the dagger -is common to savage and civilised life, as may be seen by reference to -the illustration in page 53, where the wooden club of savage warfare and -the metal club and maces of civilisation are alike armed with a piercing -as well as a bruising apparatus. Mostly the dagger is on the head of the -mace or battle-axe, but, in some cases, the end of the handle acts as -the dagger, and the head as the axe or mace. - -A very good example of this formation is found in the wooden battle-axe, -or “Patoo,” of New Zealand, a weapon which has been long superseded by -modern fire-arms. A specimen in my possession is rather more than five -feet in length. The head is just like that of an ordinary axe, while the -handle tapers gradually to the end, where it terminates in a sharp -spike. In actual combat the point was used much more than the axe. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -POISON, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE.--PRINCIPLE OF THE BARB. - - Poison as applied to Weapons.--Its limited Use.--Animal and - Vegetable Poisons.--Animal Poisons.--The Malayan Dagger, or Kris, - and two Modes of poisoning it.--The Bosjesmans and their - Arrows.--Snake Poison and its Preparation.--The Pseudo-barb.--The - Poison-grub, or N’gwa.--Simple Mode of Preparation, and its - terrible Effects.--Vegetable Poisons.--The Upas of Malacca.--The - Wourali Poison of Tropical America.--Mode of preparing the various - Arrows.--The Fan Tribe of West Africa, and their poisoned - Arrows.--Subcutaneous Injection.--Examples in Nature.--The - Poison-fang of the Serpent.--Sting of the Bee.--Tail of the - Scorpion.--Fang of the Spider.--Sting of the Nettle.--Exotic - Nettles and their Effects.--The Barb and its Developments.--The - “Bunday” of Java.--Reversed Barbs of Western Africa.--Tongans and - their Spears.--The Harpoon and Lernentoma, or Sprat-sucker.--The - Main Gauche, or Brise-épée. - - -Another advance, if it may so be called, lay in increasing the deadly -effect of the weapons by arming them with poison. - -Without the poison, it was necessary to inflict wounds which in -themselves were mortal; but with it a comparatively slight wound would -suffice for death, providing only that the poison mixes with the blood. -It is worthy of notice that cutting weapons, such as swords and axes, -seldom, if ever, have been envenomed, the poison being reserved for -piercing weapons, such as the dagger, the spear, and the arrow. - - -ANIMAL POISONS. - -Perhaps the most diabolical invention of this kind was the Venetian -stiletto, made of glass. It came to a very sharp point, and was hollow, -the tube containing a liquid poison. When the dagger was used, it was -driven into the body of the victim, and then snapped off in the wound, -so that the poison was able to have its full effect. - -Such poisons are of different kinds, and invariably animal or vegetable -in their origin. Taking the animal poisons first, we come to the curious -mode of poisoning the Malayan dagger, or “Kris.” The blade of the weapon -is not smooth, but is forged from very fibrous steel, and then laid in -strong acid until it is covered with multitudinous grooves, some of them -being often so deep that the acid has eaten its way completely through -the blade. - -Among some tribes the kris is poisoned by being thrust into a putrefying -human body, and allowed to remain there until the grooves are filled -with the decaying matter. It is also said that if the kris be similarly -plunged into the thick stem that grows just at the base of the -pine-apple, the result is nearly the same. - -As a rule, however, the Arrow is generally the weapon which is poisoned, -and a few examples will be mentioned of each kind of poisoning. - -The two most formidable animal poisons are those which are made by the -Bosjesmans of Southern Africa. Their bows are but toys, and their arrows -only slender reeds. But they arm these apparently insignificant weapons -with poison so potent, that even the brave and bellicose Kafir warrior -does not like to fight a Bosjesman, though he be protected by his -enormous shield. - -There are two kinds of animal poison used by the Bosjesmans. The first -is made from the secretion of the poison-glands of the cobra, -puff-adder, and cerastes. Knowing the sluggish nature of snakes in -general, the Bosjesman kills them in a very simple manner. He steals -cautiously towards the serpent, boldly sets his foot upon its neck, and -cuts off its head. The body makes a dainty feast for him, and the head -is soon opened, and the poison-glands removed. - -By itself, the poison would not adhere to the point of the weapon, and -so it is mixed with the gummy juice of certain euphorbias, until it -attains a pitch-like consistency. It is then laid thickly upon the bone -point of the arrow, and a little strip of quill is stuck into it like a -barb. The object of the quill is, that if a man, or even an animal, be -wounded, and the arrow torn away, the quill remains in the wound, -retaining sufficient poison to insure death. I have a quiverful of such -arrows in my collection. - -That arrows so armed should be very terrible weapons is easily to be -imagined, but there is another kind of poison which is even more to be -dreaded. This is procured from the innocent-looking, but most venomous, -Poison-grub. It is called N’gwa by the Bosjesmans, and is the larval -state of a small beetle. When the arrow is to be poisoned, the grub is -broken in half, and the juices squeezed upon the arrow in small spots. - -Both Livingstone and Baines give full and graphic accounts of the -horrible effect produced by this dread poison, which, as soon as it -mixes with the blood, drives the victim into raging madness. A lion -wounded by one of these arrows has been known nearly to tear himself to -pieces in his agonies. M. Baines was good enough to present me with the -N’gwa grub in its different stages, together with an arrow which has -been poisoned with its juices. - -The Bosjesmans are themselves so afraid of the weapon, that they always -carry the arrows with the points reversed, the poisoned end being thrust -into the hollow reed which forms the shaft of the arrow. Not until the -arrow is to be discharged does its owner place the tip with its point -uncovered. - - -VEGETABLE POISONS. - -We now come to the Vegetable Poisons, the two best known of which are -the Upas poison of Borneo, and the Wourali of South America. It is -rather remarkable that in both these cases the arrows are very small, -and are blown through a hollow tube, after the manner of the well-known -“Puff-and-dart” toy of the present day. - -The Upas poison is simply the juice of the tree, and it does not retain -its strength for more than a few hours after it has been placed on the -arrow-points. A supply of the same liquid is therefore kept in an -air-tight vessel made of bamboo, the opening being closed by a large -lump of wax kneaded over it at the mouth. One of these little flasks, -taken from a specimen in my collection, is seen on the extreme right of -the illustration. - -The Wourali poison owes all its power to its vegetable element, though -certain animal substances are generally mixed with it. The principal -ingredient is the juice of one of the strychnine vines, which is -extracted by boiling, and then carefully inspissated until it is about -the consistency of treacle. This poison differs from the Upas in the -fact that it retains its potency after very many years, if only kept -dry. I have a number of arrows poisoned with the Wourali. They were -given to me by the late Mr. Waterton, who procured them in 1812, and -even in the present year (1875) they are as deadly as when they were -first made. - -A bundle of these tiny arrows, surmounted by the little wheel which is -used to guard the hand from being pricked, is seen next to the Bornean -poison-flask. - -[Illustration: SERPENT-FANG.] - -[Illustration: BEE-STING.] - -[Illustration: SCORPION-STING.] - -[Illustration: NETTLE-STING.] - -[Illustration: SPIDER-FANG.] - -[Illustration: INJECTING SYRINGE.] - -[Illustration: POISONED ARROWS AND POISON-FLASK.] - -Beside these little arrows, which are only about ten inches in length, -very much larger arrows are used both for war and hunting, and are -propelled by the bow, and not with the breath. Many of these arrows are -nearly six feet in length. In all, the head is movable fitting quite -loosely into a socket, so that when an animal is struck and springs -forward, the shaft is shaken off, to be picked up by the hunter, and -fitted with another point, while the poisoned head remains in the wound. - -Another kind of poison, also of a vegetable origin, is used by the Fan -tribe. The arrows are mere little slips of bamboo, and are propelled by -a slight crossbow. But the poison is so potent, that even these tiny -weapons produce a fatal effect. - -Nearly in the centre of the illustration is seen a rather curiously -formed syringe, with an extremely long and slender tip. This is a -recently invented instrument, used for the purpose of subcutaneous -injection--_i.e._ of injecting any liquid under the skin. It is mostly -employed for injecting opium and other drugs of similar qualities, for -the purpose of obtaining relief from local pain. The slender spike-like -point is hollow, and ends in a sharp tip, formed like the head of a -lance. Just below the head there is a little hole, communicating with -the interior of the tube. - -The mode of operating is simple enough. The syringe is filled with the -drug, and the point introduced under the skin at any given spot. -Pressure on the piston then forces out the liquid, and causes it to mix -with the blood. - - -NATURAL ANIMAL POISONS. - -Now, both in the animal and vegetable worlds may be found several -examples of an apparatus which acts in exactly the same manner. - -The first is the poison-fang of the Serpent, a specimen of which is -given on the left hand of the illustration. This fang answers in every -respect to the syringe above mentioned. The long and slender fang is -hollow, and answers to the pipe of the syringe. It communicates at the -base with a reservoir of liquid poison, which answers to the body of the -syringe, and there is a little hole, or rather slit, just above the -point, which allows the poison to escape. - -When the serpent makes its stroke, the base of the fang is driven -against the reservoir, so that the liquid is urged through the hollow -tube, and forced into the wound. Even in large serpents these fangs are -very small. I have now before me some fangs of the cobra, puff-adder, -rattlesnake, and viper, and it is astonishing how small and slender are -these most deadly weapons. The figure in the illustration is much -magnified, in order to show the aperture at the base, where -communication is made with the interior of the fang. As the exit hole is -on the upper curve of the fang, it is not visible in the figure. - -Next to the serpent’s fang is a representation of the Bee-sting, the -poisonous reservoir being seen at the base, and having attached to it -the tiny thread-like gland by which the poison is secreted. - -In the centre is seen the tail of a Scorpion, with its hooked sting. -The last joint is formed just like the serpent’s fang, being hollow, -having a sharp point with a slit near the end, and a poison reservoir in -the rounded base. When the scorpion attacks an enemy, it strikes -violently with the tail, and the force of the blow drives out the poison -just as is done with the serpent’s fang. - -At the bottom of the illustration is shown the poison-fang of a Spider, -which, as the reader may see, is formed just on the principle of the -scorpion-sting. - - -NATURAL VEGETABLE POISONS. - -So much for animal poisons. We will now pass to the vegetable world. - -Of the vegetable sting-bearers none are more familiar to us than the -Nettle, three species of which inhabit this country. The two commonest -are the Great Nettle (_Urtica diœcea_) and the Small Nettle (_Urtica -urens_), and both of them are armed with venomous stings, which cause -the plants to be so much dreaded. - -The structure of these stings is very simple, and can be made out with -an ordinary microscope, or even a good pocket lens. Each of these stings -is, in fact, a rather elaborately constructed hair, hollow throughout -its length, coming to a point at the tip, and having the base swollen -into a receptacle containing the poisonous juice. When any object--such, -for example, as the human hand--touches a nettle, the points of the -stings slightly penetrate the skin, and the hair is pressed downwards -against the base, so that the poison is forced through the hole. - -One of these hairs is shown in the left-hand bottom corner of the -illustration. - -Even the tiny stings of our English nettles are sufficiently venomous to -cause considerable pain, and, in some cases, even to affect the whole -nervous system. But some of the exotic nettles are infinitely more -formidable, and are, indeed, so dangerous that, when they are grown in a -botanical garden, a fence is placed round them, so as to prevent -visitors even from touching a single leaf. - -The two most dreaded species are called _Urtica heterophylla_ and -_Urtica crenulata_. The former is thought to be the more dangerous of -the two, and a good idea of its venomous qualities may be gathered from -an account of an adventure with _Urtica crenulata_. The narrator is M. -L. de la Tour. - -“One of the leaves slightly touched the first three fingers of my left -hand; at the time I only perceived a slight pricking, to which I paid no -attention. This was at seven in the morning. The pain continued to -increase, and in an hour it became intolerable; it seemed as if some one -were rubbing my fingers with a hot iron. Nevertheless, there was no -remarkable appearance, neither swelling, nor pustules, nor inflammation. - -“The pain spread rapidly along the arm as far as the armpit. I was then -seized with frequent sneezing, and with a copious running at the nose, -as if I had caught a violent cold in the head. About noon I experienced -a painful attack of cramp at the back of the jaws, which made me fear an -attack of tetanus. I then went to bed, hoping that repose would -alleviate my suffering, but it did not abate. On the contrary, it -continued nearly the whole of the following night; but I lost the -contraction of the jaws about seven in the evening. - -“The next morning the pain began to leave me, and I fell asleep. I -continued to suffer for two days, and the pain returned in full force -when I put my hand into water. I did not finally lose it for nine days.” - -There is another of these formidable nettles, called in the East by a -name which signifies “Devil’s Leaf,” and which is sufficiently venomous -to cause death. There is but little doubt, however, that in the present -instance, if a larger portion of the body--say the whole arm--instead of -three fingers, had been stung, death would have ensued from the injury. - - -THE BARB. - -We now come to another improvement, or rather addition, in the various -piercing weapons. Sometimes, as in the case of the dagger or the -hand-spear, it was necessary that when a blow had been struck the weapon -should be easily withdrawn from the wound, so as not to disarm the -assailant, and to enable him to repeat the stroke if needful. But in the -case of a missile weapon, such as a javelin or an arrow, it was often -useful, both in war and hunting, to form the head in such a way that -when it had once entered it could scarcely be withdrawn. For this -purpose the Barb was invented, taking different forms, according to the -object of the weapon and the nationality of the maker. - -As in this work I prefer to show the gradual development of human -inventions, I shall take my examples of barbs entirely from the weapons -of uncivilised nations, six examples of which are given in the -accompanying illustration, and five of them being drawn from specimens -in my collection. - -[Illustration: BARBED WEAPONS.] - -The upper left-hand figure is rather a curious one, the position of the -barbs being nearly reversed, so that they serve to tear the flesh rather -than adhere to it. The opposite figure represents an arrow with a doubly -barbed point. It is chiefly used for shooting fish as they lie dozing on -or near the surface of the water, but it is an effective weapon for -ordinary hunting purposes, and, as the shaft is fully five feet in -length, is quite formidable enough for war. - -The left-hand bottom figure represents a very remarkable instrument, for -it can hardly be called a weapon, and is, in fact, the head of a -policeman’s staff. It is peculiar to Java, and is called by the name of -“Bunday.” As may be seen by reference to the illustration, the head of -the Bunday is formed of two diverging slips of wood. To each of these is -lashed a row of long and sharp thorns, all pointing inwards, and the -whole is attached to a tolerably long shaft. - -When a prisoner is brought before the chief, a policeman stands behind -him, armed with the Bunday, and, if the man should try to escape, he is -immediately arrested by thrusting the weapon at him, so as to catch him -by the waist, neck, or arm, or a leg. Escape is impossible, especially -as in Java the prisoner wears nothing but his waist-cloth. - -A weapon formed on exactly the same principle was used in the fifteenth -and sixteenth centuries, and was employed for dragging knights off -their horses. It was of steel instead of wood, and the place of the -thorns was taken by two movable barbs, working on hinges, and kept open -by springs. When a thrust was made at the knight’s neck the barbs gave -way, so as to allow the prongs to envelop the throat, and they then -sprang back again, preventing the horseman from disengaging himself. -This weapon is technically named a “catchpoll.” - -An illustration of one of these weapons will be given on another page. - -The right-hand central figure is an arrow from Western Africa. In a -previous illustration (page 65) a head of one of these arrows is given -on rather a larger scale, so as to show the very peculiar barbs. These -are of such a nature that when they have well sunk into the body they -cannot be withdrawn, but must be pushed through, and drawn out on the -opposite side. This is drawn from one of my own specimens. - -In some cases, with an almost diabolical ingenuity, the native -arrow-maker has set on a couple of similar barbs, directed towards the -point, so that the weapon can neither be pushed through nor drawn back. -One of these arrows is shown in the illustration, but, for want of -space, the artist has placed the opposing barbs too near each other. - -In some parts of Southern Africa a similar weapon was used for securing -a prisoner, the barbed point being thrust down his throat and left -there. If it were pushed through the neck it killed him on the spot, and -if it remained in the wound the man could not eat nor drink, and the -best thing for him was to die as soon as he could. - -With similar ingenuity, the Tongans and Samoans made their war-spears -with eight or nine barbs, and, before going into action, used to cut the -wood almost through between each barb, so that when the body was -pierced, the head, with several of the barbs, was sure to break off and -leave a large portion in the wound. In Mariner’s well-known book there -is an admirable account of the mode employed by a native surgeon for -extracting one of these spear-heads. So common was this weapon that -every Tongan gentleman carried a many-barbed spear about five feet long, -and used it either as a walking-stick or a weapon. It is needless to say -that this spear is almost an exact copy of the tail-bone of the -Stingray. A dagger made of this bone was used in the Pelew Islands in -1780, but seemed to be rather scarce. - -The left-hand central figure is a Fijian fish-spear of four points, and -the last figure on the right hand represents a large four-pronged spear -of Borneo. Both these weapons are in my collection. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER example of a weapon where a large and powerful barb is needful -is the Harpoon. As the harpoon is used in capturing the whale, the -largest and most powerful of living mammalia, it is evident that a barb -which will hold such a prey must be rather peculiarly made. The head and -part of the shaft of the harpoon are shown in the right-hand figure of -the accompanying illustration. - -[Illustration: LERNENTOMA.] - -[Illustration: HARPOON.] - -The left-hand figure represents a curious parasitic crustacean, -popularly called the Sprat-sucker, because it is usually found on -sprats. It affixes itself mostly to the eye, the deeply barbed head -being introduced between the eye and the socket. In some seasons this -remarkable parasite is quite plentiful, while in others scarcely a -specimen can be found. Its total length is slightly under an inch, and -its scientific name is _Lernentoma Spratti_. - -The following graphic account of some prototypic weapons belonging to a -marine worm is given by Mr. Rymer Jones, and is well worthy of perusal, -not only for the vividness of the description, but for its exact -accuracy:-- - -“Here is a Polynoe, a curious genus, very common under stones at low -water on our rocky shores. - -“It is remarkable on several accounts. All down the back we discover a -set of oval or kidney-shaped plates, which are called the back-plates -(_dorsal elytra_); these are flat, and are planted upon the back by -little footstalks, set on near the margin of the under surface: they are -arranged in two rows, overlapping each other at the edge. These -kidney-shaped shields, which can be detached with slight violence, are -studded over with little transparent oval bodies, set on short -footstalks, which are, perhaps, delicate organs of touch. The -intermediate antennæ, the tentacles, and the cirrhi or filaments of the -feet, are similarly fringed with these little appendages, which resemble -the glands of certain plants, and have a most singular appearance. - -“If we remove the shields, we discover, on each side of the body, a row -of wart-like feet, from each of which project two bundles of spines of -exquisite structure. The bundles, expanding on all sides, resemble so -many sheaves of wheat, or you may more appropriately fancy you behold -the armoury of some belligerent sea-fairy, with stacks of arms enough to -accoutre a numerous host. - -“But, if you look closely at the weapons themselves, they rather -resemble those which we are accustomed to wonder at in missionary -museums,--the arms of some ingenious but barbarous people from the South -Sea Islands,--than such as are used in civilised warfare. Here are long -lances, made like scythe-blades, set on a staff, with a hook on the tip, -as if to capture the fleeing foe, and bring him within reach of the -blade. Among them are others of similar shape, but with the edge cut -into delicate slanting notches, which run along the sides of the blade -like those on the edge of our reaping-hooks. - -“These are chiefly the weapons of the lower bundle; those of the upper -are still more imposing. The outermost are short curved clubs, armed -with a row of shark’s teeth to make them more fatal; these surround a -cluster of spears, the long heads of which are furnished with a double -row of the same appendages, and lengthened scimitars, the curved edges -of which are cut into teeth like a saw. - -“Though a stranger might think I had drawn copiously on my fancy for -this description, I am sure, with your eye upon what is on the stage of -the microscope at this moment, you will acknowledge that the -resemblances are not at all forced or unnatural. To add to the effect, -imagine that all these weapons are forged out of the clearest glass -instead of steel; that the larger bundles may contain about fifty, and -the smaller half as many each; that there are four bundles upon every -segment, and that the body is composed of twenty-five such segments, and -you will have a tolerable idea of the garniture and armature of this -little worm, which grubs about in the mud at low-water mark.” - -[Illustration: PART OF WASP-STING.] - -[Illustration: MAIN GAUCHE.] - -Somewhere between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a sort of -anomalous weapon was in use, namely, a dagger, with a number of very -deep and bold barbs. It was not, however, employed for offence, but for -defence, and was used in the “rapier and dagger” mode of fighting, when -the dagger, which was held in the left hand, was employed to parry the -thrusts of the rapier, which was held in the right. From the mode of -holding it, the weapon was called “Main Gauche.” - -Sometimes the blade was quite plain, and, indeed, an ordinary dagger -answered the purpose. But in most cases the Main Gauche was made for -this special purpose, and was furnished either with strong diverging -projections, or with a series of deep notches, so that the sword of the -enemy might be caught in them and broken. In consequence of this use -these notched or guarded weapons were also called by the name of -_Brise-épée_, or Sword-breaker. - -The resemblance between this weapon and the blade of a wasp’s sting can -be seen at a glance. There is another form of the _Brise-épée_ which is -so strangely like the cutting apparatus of one of the saw-flies, that an -outline sketch of the one would answer very well for the other. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -PROJECTILE WEAPONS AND THE SHEATH. - - Propulsive Power.--The Pea-shooter and its Powers.--An Attack - repulsed.--Clay Bullets.--Puff and Dart.--The Sumpitan of Borneo, - and its Arrows.--The Zarabatana or Pucunha of South America, and - its Arrows.--The Air-gun.--Modern Firearms.--The Chœtodon, or - Archer-fish.--The Pneumatic Railway.--The Throwing-stick and its - Powers.--Australians, Esquimaux, and New Caledonians.--Principle of - the Sheath.--Waganda Spears.--Sheathed Piercing Apparatus of the - Gnat, Flea, and Bombylius.--Indian Tulwar and Cat’s Claw.--The - Surgeon’s Lancet, and Piercing Apparatus of the Gad-fly and - Mosquito. - - -We will now take some of the analogies between Projectile Weapons of Art -and Nature, selecting those in which the propulsive power is air or -gases within a tube. Whether the weapon be a blow-gun, an air-gun, or a -firearm of any description, the principle is the same. We will take them -in succession, choosing first those of the simplest and most primitive -character. - -Taking ourselves as examples, and looking upon the toys of children as -precursors of more important inventions, we find that the simplest and -most primitive of projectiles is the Pea-shooter, so familiar to all -boys. - -Insignificant as is the little tin tube, and small as are the missiles -which are propelled through it, the blow which can be struck by a pea -properly shot is no trifle. At college I have seen a night attack upon -an undergraduate’s rooms successfully repelled by a pea-shooter made for -the nonce of a glass tube, the owner of the rooms having a taste for -chemicals, and possessing a fair stock of the usual apparatus. Though -the assaulted rooms were on the top set, and the assailants began their -storming approaches below, the peas were too much for the stones, -taking stinging effect on the hands and faces, and preventing any good -aim being taken at the windows. Only two panes of glass were broken -through a siege that lasted for several hours. - -There is another toy which is a development of the pea-shooter, and -carries a small clay bullet instead of a pea. When the tube is quite -straight and the balls fit well, the force of this missile is very -great, as it can be used for killing small birds. Indeed, such an -instrument is largely employed by the native hunters in procuring -humming-birds for the European market. These weapons are generally lined -with metal in this country, but a simple bamboo tube is sufficient for -the native hunters. - -A still further improvement occurs where the place of the bullet is -taken by a small dart or arrow, which is usually made to fit the bore by -having a tuft of wool, or some similar substance, at the butt. The arrow -is aimed at a target, and the toy is popularly known as “Puff and Dart.” - -With us this apparatus is only a toy, but in several parts of the world -it becomes a deadly weapon, namely, in Borneo and over a large part of -tropical America. In both cases the arrows are poisoned, as has already -been mentioned when treating of poisoned weapons. - - * * * * * - -THE first and best known of these weapons is the dreaded Sumpitan, or -Blow-gun, of Borneo, the arrows of which are poisoned with the deadly -juice of the upas-tree. Here I may as well mention that the scientific -name of the upas-tree is _Antiaris toxicaria_. It belongs to a large -group of plants, all of which have an abundance of milk-like and -sometimes poisonous juice. We are most of us familiar with the old story -of the upas-tree and its deadly power, and how the tree stood in a -valley, in which nothing else could live, and that condemned criminals -might compound for their inevitable fate by venturing into the valley of -death and bringing back a flask of the dread poison. Even birds were -supposed to be unable to fly over the valley, but to fall into it, being -poisoned by the exhalations of the tree. - -Now, there is a saying that there is no smoke without fire, and though -this account is evidently incredible, it is not altogether without -foundation. In Java, as in many other parts of the world, there are -low-lying places where carbonic acid gas exudes from the earth, and no -living creature can exist in them. Even in this country scarcely a year -passes without several deaths occurring from inhalation of the same -fatal gas, which has collected in some disused excavation. That there -is, therefore, a deadly valley in Java may be true enough, and it is -also true that the juice of the upas-tree is poisonous when it mixes -with the blood. But the two have no connection with each other, and, so -far from the upas-tree poisoning the valley by its exhalations, it could -not exist in such an atmosphere. - -Now for the Sumpitan and the arrows. The former is a tube, some seven -feet in length, with a bore of about half an inch in diameter, and often -elaborately inlaid with metal. I have one in which the whole of the -mouthpiece is brass, and the other end of the weapon has been fitted -with a large spear-head, exactly on the principle of the bayonet. - -The arrows are very slight, and, in order to make them fit the tube, are -furnished at their bases with a conical piece of soft wood. In -themselves they would be almost useless as weapons, but when the poison -with which their points are armed is fresh, these tiny arrows, of which -sixty or seventy are but an ordinary handful, carry death in their -points. Though they have no great range, they are projected with much -force, and with such rapidity that they cannot be avoided, their slender -shafts being almost invisible as they pass through the air. - - * * * * * - -THE second weapon is the still more dangerous blow-gun of tropical -America, called Zarabatana, or Pucunha, according to the locality. Some -of these tubes measure more than eleven feet in length, and through them -the arrow can be propelled with wonderful force. I have often sent an -arrow to a distance of a hundred yards, and with a good aim. - -A native, however, can send it much farther, knack, and not mere -capacity of lung, supplying the propelling power, just as it is with the -pea-shooter. When the arrow is properly blown through the zarabatana a -sharp “pop” ought to be heard, like the sound produced by a finger -forced into a thimble and quickly withdrawn, or a cork drawn from a -bottle. - -As to seeing the diminutive arrow in its flight, it is out of the -question, and no agility can be of the least use in avoiding it. One of -my friends, a peculiarly sharp-sighted officer of artillery, has often -tested this point, and although there was but one arrow to watch, and it -was blown in the open air, he could not see it until it either struck or -passed him (of course the poisoned end was cut off). What, then, would -be the result of a number of these deadly missiles hurled out of a dense -bush may easily be imagined. - -An account of the poison with which these arrows are armed will be found -on p. 64. - - * * * * * - -THE reader will please to remember that in all these cases the missile -is propelled by air which is compressed by the aid of the lungs, and -forced into the tube behind the bullet or arrow. Now, the AIR-GUN, which -really can be made a formidable weapon, is constructed on exactly the -same principle as the pea-shooter and the blow-guns, except that the air -is compressed by the human arm instead of the human lungs. There are -various modifications of this weapon, but in all of them air is driven -into a strong chamber by means of a forcing syringe, and is released by -the pull of the trigger, so as to drive out the missile which has been -placed in the barrel. - -It is worthy of notice that the term “noiselessly destructive” weapon, -as applied to the air-gun, is entirely false. I have already mentioned -that with the blow-gun of tropical America a definite explosion -accompanies the flight of each arrow. The same result occurs with the -air-gun, the loudness of the report being in exact proportion to the -force of the air, each successive report becoming slighter and the -propulsive power weaker until a new supply of air is forced into the -chamber. - - * * * * * - -HOWEVER dissimilar in appearance may be the cannon, rifle, pistol, or -any other firearm, to the pea-shooter and its kin, the principle is -exactly the same in all. It has been already mentioned that in the -blow-guns the air is compressed by the exertion of human lungs, and in -the air-gun the compression is achieved by human hands. - -But with the firearm a vast volume of expansible gas is kept locked up -in the form of gunpowder, gun-cotton, fulminating silver, or other -explosive compound, and is let loose, when wanted, by the aid of fire. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: CHŒTODON, OR ARCHER-FISH.] - -[Illustration: BLOW-GUNS--CANNON.] - -In the illustration are represented on the right hand the blow-guns of -America and Borneo, and below them is the cannon as at present made. On -the left hand of the same illustration is seen a representation of a -natural gun which has existed for thousands of years before gunpowder -was invented, and very long before the savage of Borneo or America -discovered the blow-gun. - -It is the ARCHER-FISH (_Chœtodon_), which possesses the curious power -of feeding itself by shooting drops of water at flies, and very seldom -failing to secure its prey. - -There are several species of this very curious fish spread over the -warmer parts of the world, and their remarkable mode of obtaining prey -is very well known in all. There is, indeed, scarcely any phenomenon in -Nature more remarkable than the fact of a fish being able to shoot a fly -with a drop of water projected through its tubular beak, if we may use -that expression for so curiously modified a mouth. - -Indeed, so certain is the fish of its aim, that in Japan it is kept as a -pet in glass vases, just as we keep gold fish in England, and is fed by -holding flies or other insects to it on the end of a rod a few inches -above the surface of the water. The fish is sure to see the insect, and -equally sure to bring it down with a drop of water propelled through its -beak. - -It is worthy of remark that the same principle was once, though -unsuccessfully, employed in the propulsion of carriages, under the name -of the Pneumatic Railway. Some of my readers may remember the railway -itself, or at all events the disused tubes which lay for so many years -along the Croydon Railway. Speed was obtained, as I can testify from -personal experience, but the expense of air-pumps and air-tight tubing -was too great to be covered by the income, especially as the rats ate -the oiled leather which covered the valves. - - * * * * * - -I FIND some little difficulty in arranging the subject which comes next -in order. It might very properly be ranked among the Levers, which will -be treated of in another chapter; or it might be placed among the -examples of centrifugal force, together with the sling, the “governor” -of the steam-engine, &c., all of which will be more fully described in -their places. However, as we are on the subject of Projectiles, we may -as well take it in the present place. - -It is the THROWING-STICK, by which the power of the human arm is -enormously increased, when a spear is to be hurled. Perhaps the most -expert spear-throwers in the world are to be found among the Kafir -tribes of Southern Africa, and yet the most experienced among them could -not make sure of hitting a man at any distance above thirty or forty -yards. But the throwing-stick gives nearly double the range, and I have -seen the comparatively slight and feeble Australian hurl a spear to a -distance of a hundred yards, and with an aim as perfect as that of a -Kafir at one-fourth of the distance. - -The mode in which this feat is performed is shown in the accompanying -diagram. Instead of holding the spear itself, the native furnishes -himself with a “Throwing-stick.” This weapon varies greatly in shape and -size, but a very good idea of its form, and the manner of using it, may -be obtained from the accompanying illustration, which was drawn from the -actual specimen as held by an Australian native. - -The throwing-stick is armed at the tip with a short spike, which fits -into a little hole in the but of the spear. The stick and spear being -then held as shown in the illustration, it is evident that a powerful -leverage is obtained, varying according to the length of the stick. I -possess several of these instruments, no two of which are alike. - -It is rather remarkable that among the Esquimaux a throwing-stick is -also used, exactly similar in principle, but differing slightly in -structure, the but of the spear fitting into a hole at the end of the -throwing-stick. Wood being scarce among the Esquimaux, these -instruments are mostly made of bone. I possess one, however, which is -made of wood, beautifully polished, and adorned with a large blue stone, -something like a turquoise, set almost in its middle. One of the most -curious points in the formation of the Esquimaux weapon is, that the but -is grooved and channelled so as to admit the fingers and thumb of the -right hand. The average length of this instrument is twenty inches. - -[Illustration: JAW OF SNAKE.] - -[Illustration: THROWING-STICK.] - - * * * * * - -IN New Caledonia the natives use a contrivance for increasing the power -of the spear, which is based on exactly identical principles, though the -mode of carrying them out is different. A thong or cord of some eighteen -inches in length is kept in the right hand, one end being looped over -the forefinger, and the other, which is terminated by a button, being -twisted round the shaft of the spear. When the weapon is thrown, the -additional leverage gives it great power; and it is a noteworthy fact -that the sling-spear of New Caledonia has enabled us to understand the -otherwise unintelligible “amentum” of the ancient classic writers. - - * * * * * - -PASSING from Art to Nature, we have in the jaw of the serpent an exact -type of the peculiar leverage by which the spear is thrown. If the -reader will refer to the illustration, he will see that the lower jaw of -the snake, instead of being set directly on the upper jaw, is attached -to an elongated bone, which gives the additional leverage which is -needful in the act of swallowing prey, after the manner of serpents. - - * * * * * - -IN War and in Peace we have been long accustomed to shield the edges and -points of our sharp weapons with sheaths, and even the very savages have -been driven to this device. I have in my collection a number of -sheathed weapons from nearly all parts of the world, and it is a -remarkable fact that the Fan tribe, who are themselves absolutely naked, -sheathe their daggers and axes as carefully as we sheathe our swords and -bayonets. In some points, indeed, they go beyond us; for the most -ignorant Fan savage would never think of blunting the edge of his weapon -by sheathing it in a metal scabbard. Their sheaths are beautifully made -of two flat pieces of wood, just sufficiently hollowed to allow the -blade to lie between them, and bound together with various substances. -For example, the sheaths of one or two daggers in my possession are made -of wood covered with snake-skin, while others are simply wood bound with -a sort of rattan. Even the curious missile-axe which the Fan warrior -uses with such power is covered with a sheath when not in actual use. - -[Illustration: - -PIERCING APPARATUS AND SHEATHS. SHEATHED SPEARS OF WAGANDA. -GNAT. FLEA. BOMBYLIUS.] - -The figure on the right hand of the illustration represents the heads of -two spears of Waganda warriors. When they present themselves before -their king, the warriors must not appear without their weapons, and it -would be contrary to all etiquette to show a bare blade except in -action. The sheath can be slipped off in a moment, but there it is, and -any man who dared to appear before his sovereign without his weapon, or -with an unsheathed spear, would lose his life on the spot, so exact is -the code of etiquette among these savages. - -The sheathed spears of Nature are shown in the same illustration. On the -left is a side view of the piercing apparatus of the common Gnat. - -In the middle is the compound piercing apparatus of the common Flea, -with which we are sometimes too well acquainted, the upper figure -showing the lancets and sheaths together, and the lower exhibiting them -when separated. - -On the right is shown the group of mouth-lancets belonging to one of the -Humble-bee flies (_Bombylius_). These flies do not suck blood like the -Mosquito, the Flea, and the Gad-fly, but they use the long proboscis for -sucking the sweet juices out of flowers, and in consequence it is nearly -of the same form as if it were meant for sucking blood. Indeed, there -are some insects which do not seem to care very much whether the juice -which they suck is animal or vegetable. - -[Illustration: 8 CLAW.--SHEATH OPENING ALONG THE CURVED BACK.] - -[Illustration: INDIAN TULWAR.--SHEATH OPENING ALONG THE CURVED BACK.] - -On the right hand of the illustration is seen an Indian sword, or -“Tulwar,” drawn from one of my own specimens. I have selected this -example on account of the structure of the sheath. It is evident, from -the form of the blade, that the sword cannot be sheathed point foremost, -and that therefore some other plan must be used. In this weapon the -sheath is left open on one side, the two portions being held together by -the straps which are shown in the figure. Of course there is loss of -time in sheathing and drawing such a sword, but the peculiar shape of -the blade entails a necessity for a special scabbard. - -On the other side is shown one of the fore-claws of a cat, which, as we -all know, can be drawn back into its simple sheath between the toes, -when it is not in use. This sheath is exactly the same in principle as -that of the Indian tulwar, and any one can examine it by looking at the -foot of a good-tempered cat. I have done so even with a chetah, which is -not a subject that would generally be chosen for such a purpose. - -On the next illustration is shown an ordinary Lancet, in which the blade -is guarded between a double sheath, the two halves and the blade itself -working upon a common pivot. As for the ordinary sword and dagger -sheaths, it is not worth while to figure them. - - * * * * * - -TURNING to the opposite side of the illustration, we shall see a few of -the innumerable examples in which the principle of the sheath was -carried out in Nature long before man came on the earth. - -The reader should compare this figure with the side view of the Gnat’s -lancets given on p. 81. - -[Illustration: LANCETS OF TABANUS - -CLOSED.] - -[Illustration: LANCETS OF MOSQUITO - -PARTLY OPEN.] - -[Illustration: SURGEON’S LANCET - -PARTLY OPEN.] - -They represent the cutting and piercing instruments of several insects, -all of which are very complicated, and are sheathed after the manner of -the lancet. Indeed, they are popularly known as “mouth-lancets,” and -with reason, as the reader may see by reference to the illustration. - -On the extreme left are shown the head and closed lancets of a foreign -Gad-fly, the lancets being all in their sheaths, and showing the -character of the weapon which enables a small fly to be master, or -rather mistress, of the forest. I say mistress, because in all these -cases it is the female alone that possesses these instruments of -torture. - -Next it is a magnified representation of the lancets of the common -Mosquito, as seen from above, both lancets being removed from their -sheaths and separated. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - The Net, as used in Hunting and War.--The Seine-net, as used for - Fishing.--Also as a means of Hunting.--Net for - Elephant-catching.--Steel Net for Military Purposes.--Web of the - Garden Spider.--The Casting-net, as used in Fishing.--Also as - employed in the Combats of the ancient Circus.--Various Kinds of - Casting-nets.--The Argus Star-fish and the Barnacle.--The Rod and - Line.--Angling of various Kinds.--The Polynesian as an Angler.--The - Angler-fish.--“Playing” a Fish.--The Nemertes and its Mode of - Feeding.--Mr. Kingsley’s Account of it.--Power of Elongation and - Contraction.--The Cydippe.--Spring-traps.--The Gin, Rat-trap, and - Man-trap.--Jaws of Dolphin, Porpoise, and Alligator.--Legs of - Phasma.--Baited Traps.--Carnivorous Plants and their Mode of - Feeding.--Birdlime.--“Pegging” for Chaffinches.--Curious Mode of - Tiger-killing.--Ant-eater and its Mode of Feeding.--The - Drosera.--Web of Spider and its Structure. - - -THE NET. - -Although the Net is but seldom employed for the purposes of general -warfare, it was once largely used in individual combats, of which we -will presently treat. In hunting, however, especially in fishing, the -Net has been in constant use, and is equally valued by savages and the -most civilised nations. - -To begin with the fisheries. Even among ourselves there are so many -varieties of fishing-nets that even to enumerate them would be a work of -time. However, they are all based on one of two principles, _i.e._ the -nets which are set and the nets which are thrown. - -We will begin with the first. - - * * * * * - -ON the right hand of the illustration, and at the bottom, may be seen a -common Seine-net being “shot” in the sea. This form of net is very long -in proportion to its width, some of these nets being several miles long. -The upper edge of the net is furnished with a series of cork bungs, -which maintain it on the surface, while the lower edge has a -corresponding set of weights, which keep the net extended like a wall of -meshes. Any fish which come against this wall are, of course, arrested, -and are generally caught by the gill-covers in their vain attempts to -force themselves through the meshes. - -We may see representations of fishing with the seine-net in the -sculptures and paintings of Egypt and Assyria; and in the Berlin Museum -there is a part of an Egyptian seine-net with the leads still upon the -lower edge, and the upper edge bearing a number of large pieces of wood, -which acted as buoys, and served the same purpose as our corks. - -[Illustration: SPIDER-WEB. HUNTING-NET. THE SEINE-NET.] - - * * * * * - -IN hunting, this plan has been adopted for many centuries, the upper -edge of the net being supported on poles, and the lower fastened to the -ground in such a manner as to leave the net hanging in loose folds. -While this part of the business is being completed by the servants, the -hunters are forming a large semicircle, in which they enclose a number -of wild beasts, which they drive into the nets or “toils” by gradually -contracting the semicircle. The ancient sculptures give us accounts of -nets used in exactly this manner. There are represented the nets rolled -up ready for use, and being carried on the shoulders of several -attendants, who are bearing them to the field. Then there are the nets -set up on their poles, and having enclosed within them a number of wild -animals, such as boars and deer. - -In various parts of India, hunting with the net is one of the chief -amusements of their principal men, and the variety of game driven into -the toils is really surprising, and affords a magnificent sight to those -who view it for the first time. Even the tiger himself cannot leap over -the nets because they are so high, nor force his way through them, -because their folds hang so lightly that they offer no resistance to his -efforts. - -A very simple net on similar principles is used for catching elephants. -It is formed of the long creeping plants that fling themselves in -tangled masses from tree to tree. These creepers are carefully twisted -into a net-like form, without being removed from the trees, and when a -sufficient space has been enclosed the elephants are driven into it. Not -even their gigantic strength and tons of weight are capable of breaking -through a barrier which, apparently slight, is as strong as if it were -built of the tree-trunks on which the creepers are hung. - -This net is seldom used for military purposes, though I have seen one, -which I believe still exists, and would do good service. In one of our -largest fortresses there is a subterranean corridor, through which it is -desirous that the enemy should not penetrate. One mode of defence -consists of a large net made of steel hanging loosely across it. The -meshes are about ten inches square, so that the defenders can fire from -their loopholes through the meshes, while the assailants, even if they -knew of its position, would find that nothing smaller than a field-gun -would have any effect on this formidable net. - - * * * * * - -THE natural analogy of the fixed net is evidently the web of the common -Garden Spider, or Cross Spider (_Epeira diadema_), whose beautiful nets -we all must have admired, especially when we are wise enough to get up -sufficiently early in the morning to see the webs with the dewdrops -glittering on them. - -Last year there was a wonderful sight. Within a mile of my house there -is a long iron fence, which in one night had been covered with the webs -of the garden spider. The following morning, though bright, was chilly, -so that the dewdrops were untouched. I happened to pass by the fence -soon after sunrise, and was greatly struck with the astonishing effects -which could be produced with such simple materials as water and web. The -dewdrops were set at regular intervals upon the web, so as to produce a -definite and beautiful pattern, the whole line of fence looking as if -it had been woven in fine lace. - -Then, as the fence runs north and south, and the path is on the westward -of it, every passenger saw the rays of the rising sun dart through these -tiny globules, and convert every one of them into a jewel of -ever-changing colours. It seemed a pity that such beauty could but last -for an hour or so, or that these exquisite webs should only be used for -catching flies. - - * * * * * - -NEXT comes the Casting-net in its various forms. This net is mostly -circular, and is loaded round the edge with small leaden plummets. It is -evident that, if such a net could be laid quite flat upon the water, it -would assume a dome-like shape, in consequence of the circumference -being heavier than the centre, and would sink to the bottom, enclosing -anything which came within its scope. - -The difficulty is to place the net in such a manner, and this is -accomplished by throwing it in a very peculiar way. The net is gathered -in folds upon the shoulder, which it partially envelops. By a sudden -jerk the thrower causes it to fly open with a sort of spinning movement, -and when well cast it will fall on the water perfectly flat. - -After allowing it to sink to the bottom, the fisherman draws it very -gently by a cord attached to its middle. As he raises it the weights of -the leaded circumference are drawn nearer and nearer together by their -own weight, and finally form it into a bag, within which are all the -living creatures which it has enclosed. - -Though the Casting-net has never been used in warfare, it was one of the -favourite implements in gladiatorial combats among the Romans. Two men -were opposed to each other; one, called the Retiarius or Netsman, being -quite naked, except sometimes a slight covering round the waist, and -armed with nothing but a Casting-net and a slight trident, which could -not inflict a deadly wound. The other, called the Secutor or Follower, -from his mode of fighting, was armed with a visored helmet, a broad -metal belt, and armour for the legs and arms. He also carried a shield -large enough to protect the upper part of the body, and a sword. It will -be seen, therefore, how great was the power of the Casting-net, when it -enabled its naked bearer to face such odds of offensive and defensive -armour. - -[Illustration: ARGUS STAR FISH. “FAN” OF BARNACLE. RETIARIUS.] - -When the two met in combat, the Retiarius tried to fling his net over -his adversary, and if he succeeded, the fate of the latter was sealed. -Entangled in the loose meshes, he could scarcely move his limbs, while -the sharp prongs of the long-shafted trident came darting in at every -exposed point, and exhausting the man with pain and loss of blood. The -trident was in itself so feeble a weapon, that if the Secutor were -vanquished and condemned to death by the spectators, his antagonist -could not kill him, but had to call another Secutor to act as -executioner with his sword. - -Should he fail in his cast, the Retiarius drew back his net by the -central cord, and took to flight, followed by the Secutor, who tried to -wound him before he could re-fold his net upon his shoulder, ready for -another cast. It is worthy of notice that in these singular combats the -netsman seems generally to have been the victor. A Retiarius with his -net is shown in the illustration. - -I may mention that our ordinary bird-catchers’ nets, and even the -entomologist’s insect-net, are only modifications of the Casting-net. - - * * * * * - -NOW for Nature’s Casting-nets, two examples of which are figured, though -there are many more. These two have been selected because they are -familiar to all naturalists. - -The first is the Argus Star-fish, Basket-urchin, or Sea-basket. The -innumerable rays and their subdivisions, amounting to some eighty -thousand in number, act as the meshes of the net. All the rays are -flexible and under control. When the creature wishes to catch any animal -for prey, it throws its tentacles over it, just like the meshes of a -net. It then draws the tips of the rays together, just as is done by the -circumference of the casting-net, and so encloses its prey effectually. - - * * * * * - -THE next specimen is the net-like apparatus of the common Acorn -Barnacles, with which our marine rocks are nearly covered. These curious -beings belong to the Crustacea, and the apparatus which is figured on -page 89, and popularly called the “fan,” is, in fact, a combination of -the legs and their appendages of bristles, &c. When the creature is -living and covered with water, the fan is thrust out of the top of the -shell, expanded as far as possible, swept through the water, closed, and -then drawn back again. With these natural casting-nets the Barnacles -feed themselves, for, being fixed to the rock, they could not in any -other way supply themselves with food. There are many similar examples -in Nature, but these will suffice. - - -THE ROD AND LINE. - -That both terrestrial and aquatic nets should have their parallels in -Nature is clear enough to all who have ever seen a spider’s web, or -watched the “fan” of the barnacle. But that the rod and baited line, as -well as the net, should have existed in Nature long before man came on -earth, is not so well known. Yet, as we shall presently see, not only is -the bait represented in Nature, but even our inventions for “playing” a -powerful fish are actually surpassed. - -We will begin with the Bait. - -In nearly all traps a bait of some kind is required, in order to attract -the prey, and when we come from land to attract the dwellers in water to -our hooks, it is needful that bait of some kind should be used, were it -only to deceive the eye, though not the nostrils or palate, of the fish. - -A notable example of the deception is given in the common artificial -baits of the present day, which are made to imitate almost any British -insect which a fish might be disposed to eat. - -Perhaps the best instance of this deception is that which is practised -by sundry Polynesian tribes. They have seen that the Coryphene or -Dorado, and other similar fish, are in the habit of preying upon the -flying-fish, and springing at them when they are tolerably high in the -air. So these ingenious semi-savages dress up a hook made of bone, -ormer-shell, and other materials, making the body of it into a rudely -designed form of a fish. A hole is bored transversely through it at the -shoulders, and a bunch of stiff fibres is inserted to represent the -wings. Another bunch does duty for the tail. - -The imitation bait being thus complete, it is hung to a long and slender -bamboo rod, which projects well beyond the stern of a canoe, and is so -arranged that the hook is about two feet or so from the surface. The -Coryphene, seeing this object skimming along, takes it for a -flying-fish, leaps at it, and is caught by the hook. There are in -several collections specimens of these ingenious hooks, and I possess -one which is made on similar principles, but intended for use in the -water, and not in the air. It is, in fact, a “spoon-bait.” - -One point of ingenuity must be mentioned, as it really belongs to the -principle of the bait. These same savages, having noticed that large -sea-birds are in the habit of hovering over the flying-fish, and would -probably be seen by the Coryphenes, rig up a very long bamboo rod, tie -to its end a large bundle of leaves and fibres, and then fix it in the -stern of the boat, the sham bird being hung some twenty feet above the -sham fish. There is a refinement of deception here, for which we should -scarcely give such savages their due credit. - - * * * * * - -IN Art, then, we bait our hooks either with real or false food, and so -attract the fish. - -In Nature we have a most accomplished master of the art of baiting, who -has the wonderful power of never needing a renewal of his bait. A glance -at the left-hand figure of the next illustration will show that I allude -to the Angler-fish, sometimes called the Fishing-frog (_Lophius -piscatorius_). This remarkable creature has a most enormous mouth, and -comparatively small body. On the top of its head are some curious bones, -set just like a ring and staple, so as to move freely in every -direction. A figure of this piece of mechanism will be given in a -future page. At the end of these bones are little fleshy appendages, -which must be very tempting to most fish, which are always looking out -for something to eat. As they are being waved about, they look as if -they were alive. The fish darts at the supposed morsel, and is at once -engulfed in the huge jaws of the Angler-fish, which, but for this -remarkable apparatus, would be scarcely able to support existence, as it -is but a sluggish swimmer, and yet needs a large supply of food. The -illustration, representing on the right hand a fish attracted to a bait, -and on the left, the Angler-fish, with its bait-like appendage to the -head, speaks for itself. - -[Illustration: ANGLER-FISH. ANGLING.] - - * * * * * - -PASSING to the art of Angling with a rod and line, we now arrive at -another development. - -Supposing a fish to have taken the bait, and to have been firmly hooked, -how is it to be landed? The simplest plan is, of course, to have a very -thick and strong line which will not break with the weight of any -ordinary fish. - -This is very well in sea-fishing, where a line made of whip-cord will -answer the purpose in most cases. But, in river fishing, we have the -fact that the fish are so shy that a linen thread would scare them, and -so strong and active, that even whip-cord would not prevent them from -breaking the line, or tearing the hook out of their mouths. So the -modern angler sets himself to the task of combating both these -conditions. In the first place, he makes the last yard or two of his -line of “silkworm-gut”--a curious substance made from the silk-vessels -of silkworms, and nearly invisible in the water. In the next place, he -has a very elastic rod; and, in the third, he has forty or more yards of -line, though perhaps only twenty feet are in actual use until the fish -is hooked. The remainder of the line is wound upon a winch fixed to the -handle of the rod. Thus, when a powerful fish is hooked and tries to -escape, the line is gradually let loose, so as to yield to its efforts. -When it becomes tired by the gradual strain, the line is again wound in, -and in this way a fish which would at the first effort smash rod and -line of a novice will, in the hands of an experienced fisherman, be -landed as surely as if it were no bigger than a gudgeon. - - * * * * * - -NATURE has in this case also anticipated Art, and surpassed all her -powers. - -[Illustration: NEMERTES. “PLAYING” A FISH.] - -There is a wonderful worm, common on our southern coasts, and bearing, -as far as I know, no popular name. It is known to the scientific world -as _Nemertes Borlasii_. It possesses the power of extension and -contraction more than any known creature, and uses those powers for the -purpose of capturing prey. The fishermen say that this worm can extend -itself to a length of ninety feet, and as Mr. Davis found one to measure -twenty-two feet, after being immersed in spirits of wine, it is likely -that their account may be true, especially as the spirit greatly -contracted the animal in point of length. - -A most vivid description of this worm is given by C. Kingsley, in his -“Glaucus,” and was written before he knew its name. - -“Whether we were intruding or not, in turning this stone, we must pay a -fine for having done so; for there lies an animal as foul and monstrous -to the eye as ‘hydra, gorgon, or chimæra dire,’ and yet so wondrously -fitted to its work that we must needs endure for our own instruction to -handle and to look at it. Its name I know not (though it lurks here -under every stone), and should be glad to know. It seems some very ‘low’ -Ascarid or Planarian worm. - -“You see it? That black, shiny, knotted lump among the gravel, small -enough to be taken up in a dessert spoon. Look now, as it is raised and -its coils drawn out. Three feet, six, nine at least; with a capability -of seemingly endless expansion; a slimy tape of living caoutchouc, some -eighth of an inch in diameter, a dark chocolate black, with paler -longitudinal lines. - -“Is it alive? It hangs helpless and motionless, a mere velvet string, -across the hand. Ask the neighbouring Annelids and the fry of the -rock-fishes, or put it into a vase at home, and see. It lies motionless, -trailing itself among the gravel; you cannot tell where it begins or -ends; it may be a dead strip of seaweed, _Himanthalia lorea_, perhaps, -or _Chorda filum_, or even a tarred string. - -“So thinks the little fish who plays over and over it, till he touches -at last what is too surely a head. In an instant a bell-shaped sucker -mouth has fastened to his side. In another instant, from one lip, a -concave double proboscis, just like a tapir’s (another instance of the -repetition of forms), has clasped him like a finger; and now begins the -struggle: but in vain. He is being ‘played’ with such a fishing-line as -the skill of a Wilson or a Stoddart never could invent; a living line, -with elasticity beyond that of the most delicate fly-rod, which follows -every lunge, shortening and lengthening, slipping and twining round -every piece of gravel and stem of seaweed, with a tiring drag such as no -Highland wrist or step could ever bring to bear on salmon or on trout. - -“The victim is tired now; and slowly, and yet dexterously, his blind -assailant is feeling and shifting along his side, till he reaches one -end of him; and then the black lips expand, and slowly and surely the -curved finger begins packing him end foremost down into the gullet, -where he sinks, inch by inch, till the swelling which marks his place is -lost among the coils, and he is probably macerated to a pulp long before -he has reached the opposite extremity of his cave of doom. - -“Once safe down, the black murderer slowly contracts again into a -knotted heap, and lies, like a boa with a stag inside him, motionless -and blest.” - -The accuracy as well as the pictorial effect of this description cannot -be surpassed. The “velvety” feel of the creature is most wonderful, as -it slips and slides over and among the fingers, and makes the task of -gathering it together appear quite hopeless. - -This astonishing worm is drawn on the left hand of the illustration on -page 93, so as to show the way in which the body is contracted or -relaxed at will. On the other side of the illustration is an angler, -armed with all the paraphernalia of his craft, and doing imperfectly -that which the Nemertes does with absolute perfection. - -A similar property belongs to the long, trailing tentacles of the -Cydippe, which is described and figured on page 16. When they come in -contact with suitable prey, all struggle is useless, the tentacles -contracting or elongating to suit the circumstances, and at last lodging -the prey within the body of the Cydippe. - - -THE SPRING-TRAP. - -We are all familiar with the common Spring-trap, or Gin, as it is -sometimes called. - -It varies much in form and size, sometimes being square and sometimes -round; sometimes small enough to be used as a rat-trap, and sometimes -large enough to catch and hold human beings, in which case it was known -by the name of man-trap. This latter form is now as illegal as the -spring-gun, and though the advertisement “Man-traps and Spring-guns are -set in these grounds” is still to be seen, neither one nor the other can -be there. - -They are all constructed on the same principle, namely, a couple of -toothed jaws which are driven together by a spring, when the spring is -not controlled by a catch. They are evidently borrowed from actual jaws, -the same words being used to signify the movable portions and notches of -the trap as are employed to designate the corresponding parts in the -real jaw. - -In both figures of the accompanying illustration we shall see how exact -is the parallel. On the right hand is a common rat-trap, or gin, such as -is sold for eightpence, with the jaws wide open, so as to show the -teeth. On the left is a sketch of the upper and lower jaws of the -Dolphin, in which an exactly analogous structure is to be seen. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF DOLPHIN (OPEN). RAT-TRAP (OPEN).] - -The figure on the right hand of the lower illustration shows a man-trap -as it appears when closed, the teeth interlocking so as exactly to fit -between each other. The same principle is exhibited in the jaws of the -Porpoise, which are seen on the left of the illustration. The jaws of an -Alligator or Crocodile would have answered the purpose quite as well, -inasmuch as their teeth interlock in a similar fashion, but I thought -that it would be better to give as examples the jaws of allied animals. -The reason for this interlocking is evident. All these creatures feed -principally on fish, and this mode of constructing the jaws enables them -to secure their prey when once seized. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF PORPOISE (CLOSED). MAN-TRAP (CLOSED).] - -[Illustration: FORE-LEGS OF PHASMA. MOUSE-TRAP.] - -Another example of such teeth is to be found in the fore-legs of various -species of Phasma and Mantis, as may be seen by reference to the -illustration. The latter insects are wonderfully fierce and pugnacious, -fighting with each other on the least provocation, and feeding mostly on -other insects, which they secure in their deeply-toothed fore-legs. -They use these legs with wonderful force and rapidity, and it is said -that a pair of these insects fighting remind the observer of a duel with -sabres. - - -THE BAITED TRAP. - -Our space being valuable, we are not able to give many examples of -Baited Traps, whether in Art or Nature. - -The most familiar example of this trap is the common Mouse-trap, the -most ordinary form of which is shown at the right hand of the -illustration on page 96. In all the varieties of these traps, whether -for mice or rats, the prey is induced to enter by means of some tempting -food, and then is secured or killed by the action of the trap. Sometimes -these traps are made of considerable size for catching large game, and -in Africa are employed in the capture of the leopard, in India for -taking both tigers and leopards, and in North America for killing bears. - -We have already noticed one instance of a bait in the Angler-fish, -described in page 92, but in this case the bait serves only for -attraction, and the trap, or mouth, is not acted upon by the prey. - -There are, however, many examples in the botanical world, where the -plant is directly acted upon by the creature which is to be entrapped, -such being known by the now familiar term “Carnivorous Plants.” Of these -there is a great variety, but under this head I only figure two of them. - -[Illustration: CEPHALOTUS. DIONEA.] - -The plant on the right hand is the Venus Fly-trap (_Dionea muscipula_), -which is common in the Carolinas. The leaves of this plant are -singularly irritable, and when a fly or other insect alights on the -open leaf, it seems to touch a sort of spring, and the two sides of the -leaf suddenly collapse and hold the insect in their grasp. The strange -point about it is, that not only is the insect caught, but is held until -it is quite digested, the process being almost exactly the same as if it -had been placed in the stomach of some insect-eating animal. - -So carnivorous, indeed, is the Dionea, that plants have been fed with -chopped meat laid on the leaves, and have thriven wonderfully. -Experiments have been tried with other substances, but the Dionea would -have nothing to do with them. The natural irritability of the leaves -caused them to contract, but they soon opened and rejected the spurious -food. - -On the left is the Cephalotus. This plant, instead of catching the -insect by the folding of the leaf, secures it by means of a sort of -trap-door at the upper end. The insect is attracted by the moisture in -the cup, and, as soon as it enters, the trap-door shuts upon it, and -confines it until it is digested, when the door opens in readiness to -admit more prey. - - -BIRDLIME. - -By a natural transition we pass to those traps which secure their prey -by means of adhesive substances. - -With us, the material called “birdlime” is usually employed. This is -obtained from the bark of the holly, and is of the most singular -tenacity. An inexperienced person who touches birdlime is sure to repent -it. The horrid stuff clings to the fingers, and the more attempts are -made to clear them, the more points of attachment are formed. The novice -ought to have dipped his hands in water before he touched the birdlime, -and then he might have manipulated it with impunity. - -The most familiar mode of using the birdlime is by “pegging” for -chaffinches. - -In the spring, when the male birds are all in anxious rivalry to find -mates, or, having found them, to defend them, the “peggers” go into the -fields armed with a pot of birdlime and a stuffed chaffinch set on a peg -of wood. At one end of this peg is a sharp iron spike. They also have a -“call-bird,” _i.e._ a chaffinch which has been trained to sing at a -given signal. - -When the “peggers” hear a chaffinch which is worth taking, they feel as -sure of him as if he were in their cage. They take the peg, and stick it -into the nearest tree-trunk. Round the decoy they place half-a-dozen -twigs which have been smeared with birdlime, and arrange them so that no -bird flying at the decoy can avoid touching one of them. - -[Illustration: - -ANT-BEAR. DROSERA. SPIDER’S WEB. -PEGGING CHAFFINCHES. TIGER AND LIMED LEAVES.] - -The next point is, to order the call-bird to sing. His song is taken as -a personal insult by the chaffinch, which is always madly jealous at -this time of year. Seeing the stuffed bird, he takes it for a rival, -dashes at it, and touches one of the twigs. It is all over with him, for -the more he struggles and flutters, the tighter is he bound by the -tenacious cords of the birdlime, and is easily picked up by the -“pegger.” - - * * * * * - -EVEN the fierce and powerful tiger is taken with this simple, but -terrible means of destruction. It is always known by what path a tiger -will pass, and upon this path the native hunter lays a number of leaves -smeared with birdlime. The tiger treads on one of them, and, cat-like, -shakes his paw to rid himself of it. Finding that it will not come off, -he rubs his paw on his head, transferring the leaf and lime to his face. - -By this time he is in the middle of the leaves, and works himself into a -paroxysm of rage and terror, finishing by blinding himself with the -leaves that he has rubbed upon his head. The hunters allow him to -exhaust his strength by his struggles, and then kill him, or, if -possible, capture him alive. - -Both these scenes are represented on the right hand of the illustration. - -On the left hand are several examples of natural birdlime, if we may use -the term. The upper represents the Ant-bear, or Great Ant-eater. This -animal feeds in a very curious manner. It goes to an ant-hill, and tears -it open with its powerful claws. The ants, of course, rush about in wild -confusion. Now, the Ant-eater is provided with a long, cylindrical -tongue, which looks very like a huge earth-worm, and which is covered -with a tenacious slimy secretion. As the ants run to and fro, they -adhere to the tongue, and are swept into the mouth of their destroyer. - -Below the Ant-eater is the common Drosera, or Sundew, one of our British -carnivorous plants. It captures insects, just as has been narrated of -the Dionea. But, instead of the leaf closing upon the insect, it arrests -its prey by means of little globules of viscous fluid, which exude from -the tips of the hairs with which the surface of the leaf is covered. As -soon as the insect touches the hairs, they close over it, bind it down, -and keep it there until it is digested. Several species of Drosera are -known in England, and are found in wet and marshy places. - -Another plant, the Green-winged Meadow Orchis (_Orchis morio_), has been -known to act the part of the Drosera. A fly had contrived to push its -head against the viscous fluid of the stigmatic surface, and, not being -able to extricate itself, was found sticking there. - -Next comes a portion of the web of the common Garden Spider (_Epeira -diadema_). We have already treated of this web as a net, and we will now -see how it comes within the present category. - -In the web of the spider there are at least two distinct kinds of -threads. Those which radiate from the centre to the circumference are -strong and smooth, while those which unite them are much slighter, and -are covered with tiny globules set at regular intervals. When the web is -newly spun, these globules are found to be nearly as tenacious as -birdlime, and it is by these means that an insect which falls into the -web is arrested, and cannot extricate itself until the spider can seize -it. After awhile the globules become dry, refuse to perform their -office, and then the spider has to construct another web. So numerous -are these globules that, according to Mr. Blackwall’s calculations, an -ordinary net contains between eighty and ninety thousand. Below the -figure of the web itself are shown the two kinds of thread, the upper -bearing the globules, and the lower representing one of the plain -radiating threads. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Reverted Spikes and their Modifications.--The Wire - Mouse-trap.--George III. and the Trap.--Fate of a Royal - Finger.--The Crab and Lobster Pot.--The Eel-pot.--Cocoon of the - Emperor-moth and its Structure.--“Catchpoll” of the Middle - Ages.--Deer-trap of India.--Jaws of Pike and Serpent.--The - Grass-snake.--Jaws of Shark and their Power.--Spiked Defences.--The - Park Fence, the Garden Wall, and the Chevaux-de-frise.--The - “Square” of Infantry Manœuvres.--The Abattis, and its Structure - and Power.--Ranjows and Caltrops.--Ancient Ranjows in - Ireland.--Hedgehog.--Porcupine Echidna.--House-builder Caterpillar - and its Home.--Repagula of Ascalaphus.--Tearing Weapons.--The - “Wag-nuk” of India.--Armed Gauntlet of the Middle - Ages.--Shark-tooth Gauntlet of Samoa, and the Uses to which it was - put.--A terrible Warrior.--The Tiger’s Claw.--Sport and Earnest. - -REVERTED SPIKES. - - -I am not quite satisfied with this title, but it is the best that I can -find. By it I mean that mode of mechanism which, by means of an array of -sharp spikes, permits an animal to enter a passage easily, and yet -prevents it from emerging. - -[Illustration: COCOON OF EMPEROR-MOTH. CRAB-POT. EEL-POT. MOUSE-TRAP.] - -Whether or not this principle be now employed in warfare I cannot say, -but it is at all events used extensively in a small way of hunting, the -best known of which is the wire Mouse-trap, one of which is shown at -Fig. C on the illustration. A glance at the figure will explain the -trap, even to those who have never seen it. It is composed entirely of -wire, and has several round holes just above its lower edge. Each of -these holes is the entrance to a conical tunnel made of wires with -sharpened ends. - -The mouse, being attracted by a bait placed within the trap, tries to -get at it. The doomed animal soon finds its way to one of the entrances, -and with little difficulty pushes itself through the tunnel. Entering, -however, is one thing, and returning is another. The wire yielded easily -enough in one direction, but for the mouse to force itself against the -converging points is an impossible task. - -Readers of the last century literature may perhaps remember, in the -pages of “Peter Pindar,” a very clever and sarcastic account of the -astonishment created in the mind of George III. by a mouse-trap seen -accidentally in the house of a widow living at Salt Hill. - - “Eager did Solomon, so curious, clap - His rare round optics on the widow’s trap, - That did the duty of a cat. - And, always fond of useful information, - Thus wisely spoke he with vociferation,-- - ‘What’s that? what? what? Hæ, hæ? what’s that?’ - - To whom replied the mistress of the house, - ‘A trap, an’t please you, sir, to catch a mouse.’ - - ‘Mouse--catch a mouse!’ said Solomon with glee; - ‘Let’s see, let’s see--’tis comical--let’s see-- - Mouse! mouse!’--then pleased his eyes began to roll-- - ‘Where, where doth he go in?’ he marvelling cried. - ‘There,’ pointing to the hole, the dame replied. - ‘What! here?’ cried Solomon, ‘this hole? this hole?’ - Then in he pushed his finger ’midst the wire, - That with such pains that finger did inspire, - He wished it out again with all his soul.” - -For my part I think that the King was quite right. If he did not know -the philosophy of a mouse-trap he ought to have asked, and to have been -rewarded, as in that case, by catching with a trap of his own baiting, -six mice on six successive days. - -At Fig. B on the same illustration is shown the simple apparatus by -which crabs and lobsters are caught. The reader will see that the -principle is exactly the same in both cases, the only difference being -in material, the mouse-trap being made of wire, and the crab-pot of -wicker. - -At Fig. D is shown the common Eel-pot, or Eel-basket. In order to suit -the peculiar shape of an eel, this basket is much longer in proportion -to its diameter than either of the preceding traps, but it is formed on -the same plan. An eel can easily pass into the basket through the -conical tunnel, but it is next to impossible that it should find its way -out again. - - * * * * * - -SO much for Art, and now for Nature. - -On the left hand of the illustration, at Fig. A, is the cocoon of the -common Emperor-moth (_Saturnia pavonia minor_), the cocoon having been -stripped of its outer envelope, so as to allow its structure to be -better seen. - -The reader will at once perceive that the entrance of the cocoon is -guarded by an arrangement exactly like that of the above-mentioned -traps, except that the cone is reversed, so as to allow of exit and to -debar entrance. Guarded by this conical arrangement of stout bristly -appendages, the pupa can remain in quiet during the time of its -transformation, for nothing can force its way through such a defence, -and yet the moth, when fully developed, can push its way out with -perfect ease. - -So admirably is this cocoon formed, that even after the moth has -escaped, it is impossible to tell by mere sight whether or not it is -within, the elastic wires closing on it after its passage. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER modification of the same principle now comes before us. In the -above-mentioned examples the arrangement of the reverted spikes is more -or less conical, and they lead into a chamber. In the present instances, -however, the mere reversion of the points is all that is needed. - -The upper figure on the right hand represents the “Catchpoll” of the -Middle Ages, an allusion to which has already been made. The reverted -spikes turn on hinges, and are kept apart by springs. This beautifully -formed head was attached to a long shaft, and was used for the purpose -of dragging horsemen from the saddle. It was thrust at the neck of the -rider, generally from behind. If a successful thrust were made, the -spring-points gave way, sprang back again, and thus clasped the neck -with a hold that was fatal to the rider. - - * * * * * - -BELOW it is the Deer-trap which is used in many parts of India, and to -which allusion has already been made. The reader will see at once that -if a deer should get its foot through the converging spikes, its doom -is sealed, especially as there is a heavy log of wood attached to the -trap by a rope. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration are two examples of the same -principle taken from Nature, one belonging to fresh and the other to -salt water. - -[Illustration: PIKE-JAWS. SHARK-JAWS. CATCHPOLL. DEER-TRAP.] - -The upper figure represents the jaws of a Pike, with their terrible -array of reverted teeth. The Pike, as every one knows, feeds upon other -fish, and eats them in a curious manner. It darts at them furiously, and -generally catches them in the middle of the body. After holding them for -a time, for the purpose, as I imagine, of disabling them, it loosens its -hold, makes another snap, seizes the fish by the head, and swallows it. - -The Pike is so voracious that it will attack and eat fish not very much -smaller than itself, for its digestion is so rapid that the head and -shoulders of a swallowed fish have been found to be half digested, while -the tail was sticking out of the Pike’s mouth. Unless, therefore, the -teeth of the Pike were so formed as to resist any retrograde movement on -the part of the prey, the fish would starve; for, lank and lean as it -is, the Pike is one of the most voracious creatures in existence, never -seeming able to get enough to eat, and yet, as is often found in such -cases, capable of sustaining a lengthened fast. - -How well adapted is this arrangement of teeth for preventing the escape -of prey, any one can tell who, in his early days of angling, caught a -Pike, and, after killing it, tried to extract the hook without -previously propping the jaws open. If once the hand be inserted between -the jaws, to get it out again is almost impossible without assistance, -and often has the spectacle been exhibited of a youthful angler -returning disconsolately home, with his right hand in the mouth of a -Pike, and supporting the weight of the fish with his left. - - * * * * * - -THE teeth of a serpent are set in a similar manner, as can be seen by -reference to the illustration on page 80. An admirable example of the -power of this arrangement may be seen in the jaws of our common Grass or -Ringed Snake (_Coluber natrix_). The teeth are quite small, very short, -and not thicker than fine needle-points. Yet, when once the snake has -seized one of the hind-feet of a frog, all efforts to escape on the part -of the latter are useless. The lower jaw is pushed forward, and then -retracted, and at each movement the leg is drawn further into the -snake’s mouth, until it reaches the junction. - -The snake then waits quietly until the frog tries to free itself by -pushing with its other foot against the snake’s mouth. That foot is then -seized, the leg gradually following its companion, and in this way the -whole frog is drawn into the interior of the snake. I have seen many -frogs thus eaten, but never knew one to escape after it had been once -seized by the snake. As these reptiles are perfectly harmless, it is -easy to try the experiment by putting the finger into a snake’s mouth, -when it will be found that the assistance of the other hand will be -needful in order to extricate it. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the head of the pike is a view of a Shark’s jaws, as seen from the -front. - -Here, again, we have a similar arrangement of teeth, row after row of -which lie with their points directed towards the throat of the fish. As, -however, the pike and the snake swallow their prey whole, their teeth -need be nothing but points. But, as the Shark is obliged to mangle its -prey, and seldom swallows it whole, its teeth are formed on a different -principle, each tooth being flat, wide, sharply pointed, and having a -double edge, each of which cuts like a razor. So knife-like are they, -indeed, that when a whale is killed, the sharks which surround it bite -off huge mouthfuls of blubber, and, as they swarm by hundreds, cause no -small loss to the whalers. - -Many a man has lost a leg by a shark, the fish having bitten it -completely through, bone and all, and there have been cases where a -shark has actually severed a man’s body, going off with one half, and -leaving the other clinging to the rope by which he was trying to haul -himself on board. - - -SPIKED DEFENCES. - -This mode of defence is, perhaps, one of the most primitive in -existence, and takes a wonderful variety of forms. The spiked railings -of our parks and gardens, the broken glass on walls, and even the spiked -collars for dogs, are all modifications of this principle. - -On the illustrations are several examples of spikes used for military -purposes. The first is known by the name of “Chevaux-de-frise,” and is -extensively used in forming an extemporised fence where no great -strength is needed. The structure is perfectly simple, consisting of a -number of iron bars with sharpened ends, and an iron tube some inches in -diameter, which is pierced with a double set of holes. When not in use, -the bars and tube can be packed in a small compass, but when they are -wanted, the bars are thrust through the holes as shown in the -illustration, and the fence is completed in a few minutes. The -horizontal bars are linked together by chains, so as to prevent them -from being shifted, and a defence such as this is generally used for -surrounding parks of artillery and the like. - - * * * * * - -ALL who have the least acquaintance with military matters must be -familiar with the “Square,” and its uses in the days of old. I say in -the days of old, because in the present day the rapid development of -guns and rifles has entirely destroyed the old arrangement. So lately, -for example, as the day of Waterloo, troops might manœuvre in safety -when they were more than two hundred yards from the enemy. Now, a -regiment that attempted to manœuvre in open ground would be cut to -pieces by the rifles of the enemy at a thousand yards’ distance. - -In those days, however, the square was a tower of safety when rightly -formed. It was formed in several rows. The outer line knelt, with the -butts of their muskets on the ground, and the bayonet pointing upwards -at an angle of forty-five. The others directed their muskets towards -the enemy in such a manner that nothing was presented to him but the -points of bayonets and the muzzles of loaded muskets. In all probability -the battle of Waterloo would have been lost but for the use of the -“square,” against which the French cuirassiers dashed themselves -repeatedly, but in vain. - -However admirable may be the organization of the square, whether it be -hollow, or whether it be solid, like the “rallying square,” the -principle is the same as that of the chevaux-de-frise. - - * * * * * - -IN the next illustration is shown the “Abattis,” one of the most -important elements of extemporised fortifications, and as simple as it -is important. - -[Illustration: TREE-CADDIS.] - -[Illustration: CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE.] - -In any wooded country an abattis can be made in a very short time by -practised hands. All that is required is to cut down the requisite -number of trees, strip off the leaves and twigs, and then cut off the -smaller branches with sloping blows of the axe, so as to leave a -tolerably sharp point on each. The trees are then laid side by side, -with the ends of the branches towards the enemy, and, the trunks being -chained together, a wonderfully effective defence is constructed. - -Not only is it almost impossible for the bravest and strongest man to -force his way through the branches, even if the abattis were undefended, -but the tree-trunks afford shelter for swarms of riflemen, who can pick -off their assailants by aiming between the branches, themselves being -almost unseen, and entirely covered. - -[Illustration: CALTROPS.] - -[Illustration: RANJOWS.] - -[Illustration: ABATTIS.] - -In Southern Africa, during the late wars, the abattis was found to -afford the best defence against the Kafirs, and that when the waggons -and abattis were united so as to form a fortress, not even the naked -Kafir, with all his daring courage, could force his way through them. -Even artillery has but little power against the abattis, which allows -the shot to pass between the branches, and is very little the worse for -it. Accordingly, it is in great use for defending roads, especially -those which are bounded by high banks, and makes a formidable obstacle -in front of gates. - - * * * * * - -THE two figures on the left of the same illustration represent two modes -of carrying out the same principle, the one showing it as used in -European warfare, and the other as a weapon of defence which has been -employed from time immemorial, and is now in full use in many parts of -the world. - -Both these weapons are intended either to obstruct the approach of an -enemy, or to cover the flight of a retreating force. The most simple and -most ancient is the Ranjow, which is shown on the right hand of the -illustration. The ranjow is nothing but a wooden stick varying in length -from eighteen inches to nearly three feet, and sharply pointed at each -end. In Borneo, China, &c., the ranjows are almost invariably made of -bamboo, as that plant can be cut to a sharp point by a single stroke of -a knife. (See page 59.) - -When they are to be used, each soldier carries about a dozen or so of -them, and sticks one end of them into the ground, taking care to make -the upper end lean towards the enemy. Simple as are these weapons, they -are extremely formidable, for it is necessary to pull up every ranjow -before the troops can advance. Sometimes it has happened that a body of -soldiers are driven over their own ranjows, and then the slaughter is -terrible. - -Some years ago a number of sketches were taken on the spot from scenes -in the Chinese war. Among them was one that was absolutely terrible in -its grotesqueness. It represented a piece of ground thickly planted with -ranjows, over which the Chinese who had fixed them had been driven. They -were simply hung with human bodies in all imaginable and unimaginable -attitudes, some transfixed on a single ranjow, and others hanging on -three or four, the body and limbs being alike pierced by them. - -That ranjows were once used in Great Britain is evident from a discovery -made by Col. Lane Fox. He had been excavating the soil around an old -Irish fort, and deep beneath the bog he found a vast quantity of ranjows -still set as the ancient warriors had left them. They were evidently -used to defend a passage leading to the fort, and all of them were -carefully set with their points outwards. Col. L. Fox was good enough to -present me with several of these ancient weapons, which are now in my -collection. - - * * * * * - -ON the left is seen a piece of ground strewed with Caltrops, or -Crow’s-feet, as they are sometimes called. These very unpleasant -implements are made of iron, and have four sharp points, all radiating -from one centre, so that no matter how they may be thrown, one point -must be uppermost. They are used chiefly for the purpose of impeding -cavalry, but I should think, judging from the specimens which I have -seen, that infantry would find them very awkward impediments. - - * * * * * - -AS for natural ranjows, they are so numerous that only a very few -examples can be given. - -The most perfect and most familiar example is, perhaps, the common -Hedgehog, which, when rolled up, displays an array of sharp points so -judiciously disposed, that it fears but very few foes. The same may be -said of the Australian Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-eater, and the -Porcupine itself. Whether the radiating bristles of the larva of the -Tiger-moth, commonly called the Woolly Bear, come under the same -category, I cannot say, but think it very likely. - -Among vegetables the analogues are multitudinous. See, for example, the -spikes of the Spanish and Horse Chestnuts, and especially the hair-like -but formidable bristles which defend the common Prickly Pear. Indeed, -all that tribe of plants is furnished so abundantly with natural -ranjows, that a hedge of prickly pear forms the best defence which a -house and garden can have. - -Another example of natural ranjows is seen in the Tree-caddis, one of -which is shown in the illustration on page 108, as it appears when -suspended from a twig. It is the work of one of the House-builder Moths -of the West Indies, and forms a sort of house in which the caterpillar -can rest securely. It is built of bits of twigs and thorns, the latter -being disposed so that their points are outwards, much after the fashion -of a hedgehog’s spines. - -I possess many specimens of Tree-caddis, evidently belonging to several -species, and in all of them the principle is the same, _i.e._ a number -of spikes set with their ends outwards in order to defend a central -position. - -Sometimes these spikes are left exposed, as shown in the illustration, -and sometimes they are covered with a slight but strong web. The -principle, however, is the same in all. - - * * * * * - -NOW I shall have to use two very long words, and much against my will. I -very much fear that, if most of my readers were to hear any one speak of -the “repagula of Ascalaphus,” they would not be much the wiser. And yet -there are no other words that can be used. - -In the first place, Ascalaphus is a name belonging to a genus of -Ant-lions, remarkable for having straight, knobbed antennæ, very much -like those of a butterfly. This insect deposits its eggs in a double row -on twigs, and then defends them with a series of natural ranjows, set in -circular rows, and supposed to be without analogies in the animal -creation. They are transparent, reddish, and “are expelled by the female -with as much care as though they were real eggs, and are so placed that -nothing can approach the brood; nor can the young ramble abroad until -they have acquired strength to resist the ants and other insect -enemies.” - -The word “repagulum,” by the way, signifies a bar or barrier. A -turnpike gate when closed would be a repagulum, and so would a -chevaux-de-frise. - - -TEARING WEAPONS. - -We have already had examples of weapons, like the Club, which bruise; of -weapons, like the Spear and Dagger, which pierce; and of weapons, like -the Sword, which cut. We now come to a totally distinct set of weapons, -those which wound by tearing, and not by any of the preceding modes. - -In civilised warfare we have long abandoned such weapons, as belonging -to a barbarous age, but they are even yet employed in some parts of the -world. - -[Illustration: - -WAG-NUK OF INDIA. - -HIND-CLAWS OF TIGER. - -CLAWED GAUNTLET. - -SHARK-TOOTH GAUNTLET.] - -The accompanying illustration shows three examples of such weapons. One -is the celebrated Tiger-claw of India, known by the native name of -Wag-nuk. It is about two inches and a half in length, and is made to fit -on the hand. The first and fourth fingers are passed through the rings, -and the curved claws are then within the hand, and hidden by the -fingers. The mode of employing this treacherous weapon was by engaging a -foe in conversation, pretending to be very friendly, and then ripping up -his stomach with an upward blow of the right hand. - -It is comparatively a modern weapon, having been invented about two -hundred years ago. A Hindoo, named Sewaja, was the inventor, and by -means of the Wag-nuk he committed many murders unsuspected, the wounds -being exactly like those which are made by the claw of the tiger. -Sometimes there were four claws instead of three, as is the case with a -specimen one in the Meyrick collection. - -Perhaps the reader may be aware that the Transatlantic “knuckle-duster” -is fitted on the hand in the same manner, only its object is to strike a -heavy blow, and not to tear. History repeats itself, and the large and -clumsy “cestus” of the ancient athlete is reproduced in the small but -scarcely less formidable “knuckle-duster” of the modern rowdy. - -The figures are remarkable, one representing the remaining epoch of -chivalry, and the other that of barbarism. The upper figure shows a -curious Gauntlet of the Middle Ages, in which the hand is not only -defended by steel plates, but is also rendered an offensive weapon by -the addition of four sharp spikes set just at the junction of the -fingers with the hand. As long as the fingers are extended the spikes -lie parallel with them, and are as harmless as a cat’s claws in their -sheaths. But when the fingers are closed, as shown in the illustration, -the spikes come into use, and can be made into a formidable weapon of -offence, just as are the cat’s claws when protruded. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the gauntlet of civilised warfare is one of savage war, which has -for many years been discontinued, partly on account of the introduction -of firearms, and partly owing to the superficial coating of civilisation -which is so easily adopted by the singular varieties of the human race -which populate the isles where this remarkable weapon was once worn. The -figure is taken from a specimen in the United Service Museum. - -It is a Gauntlet, having at one end a band through which the whole hand -is passed, and at the other three loops for the fingers, just like those -of the Wag-nuk, which has already been described. The body of the weapon -is made of cocoa-nut fibre, and upon it are strung six rows of sharks’ -teeth, the tips all pointing backwards. It is a Samoan weapon, some of -the most renowned warriors never using club nor spear, but trusting -entirely to their terrible gauntlets. With these they struck right and -left, dashing beneath the clubs and spears of their enemies, and always -trying to rip up their stomachs, just as is done with the Wag-nuk. In -order to guard against this weapon, the Samoan warrior wears a belt of -cocoa-nut fibre some eight inches wide, and thick enough to defy the -best gauntlet that could be made. - -One celebrated Samoan warrior, a man of gigantic stature and strength, -was addicted to the amusement of seizing his enemies with the -shark-tooth gauntlets, breaking their backs across his knee, throwing -them down, and going off after another victim. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration is seen the hind-foot of the Tiger. -I have chosen the hind-foot for two reasons: firstly, because the -fore-foot has already been figured; and secondly, because the hind-foot -is used for tearing open the abdomen of the prey. Any one who has played -with a kitten has noticed how the animal throws itself on its back, -clasps the wrist with its fore-paws, and kicks vigorously with its -hind-legs. It does not mean to hurt its playfellow, but the hand does -not easily escape without sundry scratches. - -Child’s play though it may be in the kitten, it is no play at all with -the tiger, or even the leopard, for either of these animals, when hard -pressed, will throw itself on its back, clasp the foe in its fore-paws, -and with the talons of the hind-feet tear him to pieces. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE HOOK.--DEFENSIVE ARMOUR.--THE FORT. - - Anglers and their Hooks.--Single and double Hooks.--Hook of British - Columbia.--Seed of Galium, or Goose-grass, and its Armature of - Hooks.--Seed of the Burdock, and its Annoyance to Sheep.--Hooked - Sponge-spicules.--“Snatching” Fish.--The Fish-rake of British - Columbia.--The “Gaff” and its Uses.--The Jaguar as a - Fisher--Defensive Armour and its Varieties.--Plate and Chain - Mail.--The Shield.--Australian and West African Shields.--Fibre - Armour.--Seal’s-tooth Cuirass.--Joints of - Armour.--“Tassets.”--Scale Armour in Art and Nature.--The Manis and - the Fish.--Feather Armour.--“Madoc in Aztlan.”--Quilted Armour of - Silk or Cotton.--Terrible Results from the latter.--Mr. Justice - Maulstatute.--Natural Quilt Armour.--The Rhinoceros and the - Whale.--The Testudo of the ancient Romans, and its Uses.--The - common Tortoise.--The Fort.--Curious Transitions in Fort building; - first Earth, then Stone, then Earth again.--Advantage of Earthen - Mounds.--Natural Snow-fort made by the Elk, and its Defensive - Powers against the Wolf. - - -THE HOOK. - -Having now seen that the rod and line of anglers have their prototypes -in Nature, we will proceed to the hook, by which the fish are secured. - -The two figures on the right hand of the accompanying illustration -represent hooks which are familiar to every angler. The lower is the -ordinary fish-hook, which can be used in so many ways. Generally it is -employed singly, being fastened to the end of a line, and armed with a -bait, either real or artificial. Sometimes, however, these hooks are -whipped together, back to back, three or even four being so employed, -and thus forming a combination of the hook and grapnel, and rendering -the escape of a fish almost impossible. - -Above it is a double hook, such as is used in “trolling” for pike, and -with the use of which many of my readers are probably acquainted. - -The third is a singularly ingenious hook made by the natives of British -Columbia. It is almost entirely made of wood, with the exception of the -barb, which is of bone. This, as the reader will see, is fixed, not to -the point of the hook, as with us, but to its base, the point being -directed towards the central portion of the curve. - -[Illustration: - -HYMEDESMIA. FRUIT OF GALIUM. VANCOUVER HOOK. DOUBLE AND - SINGLE HOOKS.] - -At first sight this seems to be a singular arrangement, but it is a very -effective one, as any one may see by placing the point between the -fingers and pushing it through them. It will be found impossible to -force it back again, the sharp point of the bone-barb coming against -them and retaining them. - -It has also another advantage. Very large fish, for which this hook is -intended, are apt in their struggles to reverse the hook, and so to -weaken its hold. In this hook, however, such a proceeding is impossible; -for, even should the hook be reversed, it still retains its hold, the -barb becoming the point, and the point keeping the lip of the fish -against the tip of the barb. The figure is drawn from a specimen in my -collection. - - * * * * * - -IF the reader will look at the illustration, he will see a globular -object covered with little hooks. This is a magnified representation of -the seed-vessel of the common Goose-grass (_Galium_), which is so -luxuriant in our hedges, and often intrudes itself into our gardens. Its -long, trailing stems, with their tightly-clinging leaves, are familiar -to all, and there are few who have not, while children, pelted each -other with the little round green seed-vessels during the time that the -fruit is in season. That they clung so tightly as not to be removed -without difficulty, we all knew, but we did not all know the cause. The -magnifying-glass, however, reveals the secret at once. The whole of the -surface is covered with little sharp prickles, curved like hooks, and -turned in all directions, so that, however it may be thrown, some of -them are sure to catch. - -So readily do these hooks hold to anything which they touch, that if a -lady only sweeps her dress against a plant of Goose-grass, she is sure -to carry off a considerable number of the seed-vessels, and to waste -much time afterwards in picking them off. - -The seed-vessel of the common Burdock, known popularly by the name of -Bur, is armed in a similar manner, but, as it is much larger, it is -easily avoided. Sheep suffer greatly from burs, which twist themselves -among the wool so firmly that it is hardly possible to remove them -without cutting away bur and wool together. As to a Skye terrier, when -once he gets among burs, his life is a misery to him (I was going to -say, a burden to him, but it would have looked like a pun). - -Below, and on the left of the Galium-seed, are some spicules of the -Hymedesmia, a sponge which is found on the coast of Madeira. The -following account of it occurs in the _Intellectual Observer_, vol. ii. -p. 312:-- - - “FISH-HOOK SPICULÆ.--We have received from Mr. Baker, of Holborn, a - slide containing spicules of the _Hymedesmia Johnsonii_, which are - stated to be rare objects in this country. They have the form of a - double fish-hook, and on the inner surface of each hook is an - extremely sharp knife-edge projection, corresponding with a similar - and equally sharp projection from the inside of the shank.” - - “These minute knife-blades are so arranged that in addition to - their cutting properties, they would act as barbs, obstructing the - withdrawal of the hook. The two hooks attached to one shank are not - in the same place, but nearly at right angles with one another, so - that when one is horizontal the other is vertical, or nearly so. A - magnification of four or five hundred linear does not in any way - detract from the sharp appearance of the knife-edges, and they may - take their place with the anchors of the Synapta as curious - illustrations of the occurrence in living organisms of forms which - man was apt to fancy were exclusively the products of his own - contrivance and skill. - - “We presume that these hooks of the Hymedesmia answer the usual - purpose of spiculæ in strengthening the soft tissue, but they must - likewise render the sponge an awkward article for the Madeira - sea-slugs to eat.” - -For an account and figures of the Synapta anchor-spicules see page 39. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to another modification of the hook. I presume that many of -my readers have heard of the practice called “snatching” fish, though I -hope that they have never been unsportsmanlike enough to follow it. - -This plan, which is only worthy of poachers, consists in taking several -flights of treble or quadruple hooks, dropping them gently by the side -of the fish, and then, with a sudden jerk, driving them into any part of -its body which they may happen to strike. Most anglers have snatched -fish accidentally, but to do so intentionally is ranked among the worst -of an angler’s crimes, and is equivalent to cheating at cards, or -playing with false dice. - -In some parts of the world, however, there are certain small fish which -are never taken in any other way, and, indeed, are raked out of the -water just as a gardener rakes dead leaves off the path or beds. - -[Illustration: JAGUAR AND CLAW. FISH-RAKE. GAFF.] - -In British Columbia there are certain lakes tenanted largely with small -fish which form a considerable portion of the natives’ diet. They swim -in vast shoals close to the surface of the water, and are captured by -veritable rakes, one of which is shown in the illustration. The points -of the rake are slightly curved, and very sharp, and so numerous are the -fish that when the native has struck his rake among the shoal, and drawn -it into the boat, he generally finds a fish on every tooth, while it -often happens that two or three are transfixed by the same tooth. A -sharp knock against the side of the boat shakes off the prey, and the -fisherman again strikes his rake into the shoal. By this simple mode of -fishing a couple of men will, in a few hours, load a canoe with small -but valuable fish. - -Below the rake is the “Gaff,” an instrument, not to say a weapon, which -is indispensable when salmon or other large fish are to be caught. For -ordinary-sized fish a landing-net is sufficient, but no landing-net -could either receive or retain a salmon of any size. - -Recourse is then had to the Gaff, which is simply a huge hook at the end -of a handle. The fish being “played” until it can be drawn within reach, -the gaff is slipped under it, struck into the side of the salmon, and by -its aid the fish is easily lifted out of the water. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration are two figures showing how the -principle of the fish-rake and gaff has been anticipated in Nature. - -It is a well-known fact that the Jaguar feeds largely on fish, which it -catches for itself. It goes down to the river-side as close to the water -as possible, and waits patiently for its prey. As soon as a fish comes -within reach, the Jaguar stretches out its paw to the fullest extent, -and, with a stroke of the curved claws, hooks the fish on shore, just as -the Vancouver Islander does with his fish-rake, or the English angler -with his gaff. - -Many persons have practically experienced the gaff-like powers of the -feline claw by the loss of their gold-fish. It is seldom safe to leave a -globe of gold-fish within reach of a cat. Nearly all cats are madly fond -of fish, and, in spite of their instinctive hatred of water, will hook -out the fish with their claws, and eat them. Indeed, there are several -instances on record where a cat has regularly caught fish, and brought -them home to its owner. Mr. F. Buckland gives an account of a -fisherman’s cat, which used to go out with her master, jump into the -sea, secure a fish, and then be lifted on board with her prey. - -Above the Jaguar is drawn a single claw, so as to show the form of the -instrument by which the fish is captured. - - -ARMOUR. - -We will now take the subject of Defensive Armour, by which warriors are -enabled to protect themselves against the offensive weapons of the -enemy. - -As many readers will probably know, armour reached its greatest -development in the Middle Ages, when the knight was so completely cased -in steel that no weapon then in use could penetrate his panoply. - -The head, body, and limbs were covered with steel plates curiously -articulated at the joints, so as to give freedom of motion, while -guarding the wearer from any ordinary weapon. A warrior might be beaten -from his horse by a mace, or struck down by a lance, or the horse itself -might be killed under him. - -[Illustration: - - LOBSTER. - ARMADILLO. -PICHICIAGO. CHITON. - -PLATE AND SCALE ARMOUR -OF MIDDLE AGES.] - -In either of these cases the fallen knight was not much the worse, until -a weapon called the “Misericorde,” or dagger of mercy, was invented. -This was a poniard with a very slender and very sharp blade, so -constructed that it could be driven between the joints of the armour, -and thus inflict a mortal wound. The Misericorde, however, was baffled -by the use of chain or scale armour under the plate-mail, and then the -only way of getting at the fallen knight was by breaking up the armour -with hammers which were made for this express purpose. - -Perhaps the reader may wonder that any one should lie quietly and allow -himself to be so badly treated. The very strength of the armour, -however, which rendered its wearer unassailable by ordinary weapons, -involved so much weight, that when a knight had fallen, it was -impossible for him to rise, much less to mount a horse, without help. -Moreover, the first blow of a weighty hammer on the helmet would, -although it could not kill the wearer, cause such a jar to his brain as -partially, if not wholly, to stun him. - -The rapidly increasing power of firearms soon caused armour to be laid -aside, and now the only remains of it are to be found in the helmets and -cuirasses worn by our dragoons. - - * * * * * - -THERE are few parts of the world where armour of some sort is not used. -Putting aside civilised or semi-civilised nations, we find that in most -cases, wherever there is war, there is armour of some kind. Sometimes it -is movable, and in that case is called a shield. - -The most singular shields that I know are those made by the Australians, -which are so shaped that no one who did not know their use would take -them for shields. They are about three feet long, four inches wide at -the back, six inches or so thick in the middle, tapering towards the -ends, and coming to an edge in front. They are held by the centre with -one hand, so that they can be rapidly twisted from side to side, and so -serve to parry the spear or stop the boomerang. The weight of the shield -enables it to withstand the shock of the boomerang, which whirls through -the air with terrific force. - -Several warlike savage tribes have, however, no armour of any kind, such -as the New Zealanders, the Samoans, and the Fijians. - -Sometimes the armour is affixed to the body, and of such protection many -examples are to be found in various museums, among which the Christy -collection is pre-eminent. - -Among the Polynesians cocoa-nut fibre was at one time employed as the -material for armour. It was twisted into small cords, and with these a -sort of armour was constructed, quite strong enough to resist any weapon -that an enemy of their own kind could bring against them. Sometimes this -armour was merely a belt wide enough to protect the abdomen, but -sometimes the whole body was defended, from the neck to the hips. - -In the United Service Museum there is a very remarkable cuirass, which -is made of successive rows of seals’ teeth, each row overlapping the -other like the tiles of a house. It is very heavy, weighing quite as -much as a steel cuirass, and was probably quite as effective against the -primitive weapons which could be brought to bear upon it. - - * * * * * - -NOW for Natural Armour. - -There are so many examples of armour, as furnished by Nature, that I can -only mention a few. - -Any one who looks at a lobster, crayfish, prawn, or shrimp, must at once -see that in it lies the prototype of plate armour. That portion of the -lobster which is popularly called the head, and is scientifically known -as the “carapace,” is not jointed, and corresponds with the cuirass of -ancient or modern armour. Then comes the part called the “tail,” the -joints of which are exactly like those employed in the shoulders, -elbows, knees, and ankles of ancient armour. The lobster tail will again -be mentioned in connection with another branch of human art. - -As for the heavy, ungraceful armour which was used in tilting, we have -an admirable example in the Trunk-fish of the tropical seas -(_Ostracion_), the whole of which is enclosed in a bony case, the fins -and tail protruding through openings in it. In fact, the scales, instead -of being separate, are fused together so as to form a continuous -covering. The Box-tortoise of South America is another good example, the -creature being furnished with bony flaps with which it covers the -apertures through which the head, legs, and tail are protruded, and so -is as impervious as the knight of old. - -In the later ages of armour, the thighs, instead of being enclosed in -steel coverings with cuisses, were defended by a number of steel plates -called “tassets.” Now these tassets are exactly like the defensive -armour of the Armadillo’s back, and, though it is not likely that the -inventor of tassets should have seen an Armadillo, the fact still -remains, that Art has been anticipated by Nature. - -Exactly the same principle is seen in that wonderful little animal, the -Pichiciago of South America, which is shown in the lower left-hand -figure of the illustration. This creature is not only furnished with -bony rings on the body like those of the Armadillo, but has likewise a -flap which comes over the hindquarters, and effectually defends it -against the attacks of any foe that might pursue it into its burrow. - -In the lower right-hand corner of the illustration is seen a figure of a -Chiton, several species of which are common on most of our coasts. This -is one of the molluscs, which adheres to the rock just as limpets do. -But, whereas the shell of the limpet is all in one piece and inflexible, -that of the Chiton is composed of several pieces, which are arranged -exactly like the tassets of armour, and enable the Chiton to accommodate -itself to the inequalities of the rocks to which it is adhering. - -The common Pill Millipede, which rolls itself up in a ball when alarmed, -is a familiar instance of similar defensive armour, and much the same -may be said of the Julus Millipede. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: SCALES OF MANIS. SCALE-MAIL.] - -We now come to Scale Armour, which is one of the earliest modes of -protecting the body, and the idea of which was clearly taken from animal -life. In Scale Armour, flat plates of metal, horn, or bone are sewn to a -linen or leathern vest in such a way that the scales overlap each other, -and so tend to throw off the blow of a weapon. One great advantage of -this armour is its lightness and flexibility, the former quality -allowing of more prolonged exertion than could be possible with the -heavy plate armour, and the latter rendering that exertion less -fatiguing to the limbs. - -A glance at the preceding illustration will show how the scale armour of -the human warrior has been anticipated by Nature. - -On the right hand is an example of ordinary scale armour, while on the -opposite side is a portion of a scaly surface. This figure represents -some of the scales of a Manis. These scales are wonderfully hard, and -scarcely to be penetrated. I have in my collection the skin of a -Short-tailed Manis, which had been kept for some time in an Indian -compound, but which made itself such a nuisance by its perpetual -burrowing, that its owner was forced to condemn it to death. - -So he took a Colt’s revolver, and fired at it from a distance of a yard -or two. The only result was to knock over the Manis, which rolled itself -up, and appeared to be none the worse. A second and a third shot were -fired with similar results, and the last bullet recoiled upon the firer. -At last, the animal was killed by introducing the point of a dagger -under the scales, and driving it in with a mallet. The Manis itself is -given in the illustration on page 189. - -[Illustration: SKIN OF SINGLETHORN. SCALE-MAIL.] - -Again, the scales of most fishes afford excellent examples of scale -armour. I have selected one, the Japanese Singlethorn, on account of the -strength of the scales, each of which is deeply ridged and furrowed. The -reader will probably have noticed that the skin of the animal, into -which are inserted the bases of the scales, is analogous to the linen or -leathern foundation upon which the artificial scales are sewn. - -Even feathers give a better protection than might be imagined from their -individually fragile structure. This is well shown in the case of -aquatic birds, whose feathers are very closely pressed together, each -overlapping the next, and set in regular order. Not only is the plumage -rendered water-tight, but it is able to resist a severe blow. This is -well known by sportsmen, who do not fire at ducks or geese while they -are approaching, knowing that their shot would only glide harmlessly -from the feather-mail of the bird. - -They wait until the birds have passed, and then find no difficulty in -killing them, the shot penetrating under the feathers just as did the -dagger under the scales of the manis. Even the diminutive puffin, or -sea-parrot, as it is sometimes called, cares little for shot while it is -sitting on the rocks with closed wings and feathers pressed together. -When, however, it takes to flight, it can be killed without difficulty. - -Perhaps some of my readers may be aware that the ancient Mexican -warriors wore armour made of feathers, which I presume must have been -arranged much after the fashion of those of a duck’s breast. - -This remarkable Feather-mail is mentioned by Southey in his poem, “Madoc -in Aztlan.” In canto xviii, is recounted the single combat between Madoc -and Coanocotsin, the King of Aztlan. The contrasting armour and weapons -of each are graphically described, and especial mention is made of the -cuirass:-- - - “Over the breast, - And o’er the golden breastplate of the King, - A feathery cuirass, beautiful to eye, - Light as the robe of peace, yet strong to save; - For the sharp faulchion’s baffled edge would glide - From its smooth softness.” - -Then, in the course of the combat, when the King has been grappled in -Madoc’s arms and forced to drop his buckler and club, the narrative -proceeds:-- - - “Which when the Prince beheld, - He thrust him off, and drawing back, resumed - The sword that from his wrist suspended hung, - And twice he smote the King. Twice from the quilt - Of plumes the iron glides.” - -If such armour could in truth resist the weapons which have been -discovered, it must have been a wonderfully strong garment, for the -Mexican swords, though made of wood, are edged with flakes of obsidian, -which cuts like a razor. I have a number of these flakes, which have -evidently been intended for the edges of a sword, but have not been -used. - - * * * * * - -THERE is another kind of armour which is still used in some parts of the -world, and at one time was employed in this country. This is the Quilt -Armour, which is made by enclosing a thick layer of some fibre, such as -silk or cotton, between two pieces of fabric, and then sewing them -across and across, so as to keep the lining or stuffing in its place. - -The eider-down quilts are familiar examples of such fabrics, and so are -the quilted petticoats, which are so comfortable in winter. Horsehair -and flock mattresses are made in a similar manner. - -Insufficient as it may appear to be, the quilt armour, when well made, -is really proof against most weapons, even against firearms, as we shall -presently see. Being very much lighter than steel, it was easier for the -wearer, its chief drawback being that its extreme thickness gave it a -very clumsy and awkward look. Those who wore it, however, cared more for -their safety than their appearance, as was exemplified by James I., who -lived in perpetual fear of assassination, but who had a nervous dislike -to arms, whether offensive or defensive. He therefore wore a cuirass -quilted with silk, which answered every purpose of defence, while it did -not offend his nerves. - -Perhaps the reader may remember that in “Peveril of the Peak” Sir Walter -Scott gives a ludicrous picture of the timid justice, his fears of the -Popish plot, his suit of quilted armour, and his “Protestant Flail” with -which he hits himself on the head instead of striking his supposed -enemy:-- - -“Some ingenious artist, belonging, we may presume, to the worshipful -Mercers’ Company, had contrived a species of armour of which neither the -horse armoury in the Tower, nor Gwynnap’s Gothic Hall, no, nor Dr. -Meyrick’s invaluable collection of ancient arms, has preserved any -specimen. - -“It was called Silk-armour, being composed of a doublet and breeches of -quilted silk, so closely stitched, and of such thickness, as to be proof -against either bullet or steel, while a thick bonnet of the same -materials, with ear-flaps attached to it, and on the whole much -resembling a nightcap, completed the equipment, and ascertained the -security of the wearer from the head to the knee. Master Maulstatute, -among other worthy citizens, had adopted this singular panoply, which -had the advantage of being soft, and warm and flexible, as well as -safe. And he was sat in his judicial elbow-chair--a short, rotund -figure, hung round, as it were, with cushions, for such was the -appearance of the quilted garments--and with a nose protruded from under -the silken casque, the size of which, together with the unwieldiness of -the whole figure, gave his worship no indifferent resemblance to the -sign of the Hog in Armour, which was considerably improved by the -defensive garment being of a dusky orange colour, not altogether unlike -the hue of those half-wild swine which are to be found in the forests of -Hampshire.” - -Roger Nutt gives as a reason for the security of quilted armour, that it -made the wearer look so ridiculous that no one could hit him for -laughing. The reader will probably remember that the sign of the Hog in -Armour was really a representation of the rhinoceros. - -That such a cuirass is really impervious to ordinary weapons is shown by -the following anecdote:--During one of the late Indian wars a trooper -discharged his pistol close to the back of a fleeing horseman. The shot -produced no apparent effect, and the man rode off. Presently, however, a -thin cloud of smoke was seen to rise from his shoulders. The smoke -thickened, then burst into flame, and after riding at desperate speed in -hopes of overtaking his comrades, the unfortunate man fell from his -horse, and was miserably burned to death. - -[Illustration: INDIAN RHINOCEROS. QUILTED ARMOUR.] - -The fact was that cotton being cheaper than silk, he had wadded his -cuirass with cotton fibre. Had he chosen silk, he would have got off in -safety. Among the Chinese this cotton mail is largely used. In -consequence, many Chinese soldiers were found who had been burned to -death in exactly the same way as the Indian warrior. - -Towards the south-western parts of Africa there is a nation called the -Begharmis. Their soldiers are mounted, and are all furnished with suits -of quilted mail, which fall below the knee as the rider is seated on his -horse. Not only is the rider thus defended, but the horse also, which is -covered with quilted armour like that of its rider, the appearance of -both being exceedingly grotesque. - - * * * * * - -THERE are several examples of such armour in the animal world, the -principal of which is the Indian Rhinoceros. Any one who has seen this -animal, or even a good portrait of it, will at once recognise the -parallel between the heavy folds of its thick skin and the padded flaps -of the quilted mail. The blubber with which the whale is so thickly -coated affords another example of the parallel between Nature and Art. - - * * * * * - -IN the days of ancient Rome there was a curious military manœuvre, by -which the defensive armour of individual soldiers might be made -collectively useful. This manœuvre was called Forming a Tortoise -(_testudinem facere_), and is thus described in Smith’s “Dictionary of -Greek and Roman Antiquities:”-- - -“The name of Testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close -body of soldiers, who placed their shields over their heads to screen -themselves against the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so closely -together as to present one unbroken surface without any interstices -between them, and were so firm that men could walk upon them, and even -horses and chariots be driven over them. - -[Illustration: TORTOISE. ROMAN TESTUDO.] - -“A Testudo was formed either in battle, to ward off the arrows and other -missiles of the enemy, or, which was more frequently the case, to form a -protection to the soldiers when they advanced to the walls or gates of a -town for the purpose of attacking them. - -“Sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make the -Testudo slope. The soldiers in the first line stood upright, those in -the centre stooped a little, and each line successively was a little -lower than the preceding, down to the last, where the soldiers rested on -one knee. Such a disposition of the shields was called _Fastigata -Testudo_, on account of their sloping like the roof of a building. - -“The advantages of this plan were obvious. The stones and missiles -thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from a roof; besides -which, other soldiers frequently advanced upon them to attack the enemy -upon the walls. The Romans were accustomed to form this kind of Testudo -as an exercise in the games of the Circus.” - -On the right hand of the illustration is shown a portion of a Testudo of -three ranks, taken from the Antonine column. On the left is an ordinary -Tortoise. Sometimes the Testudo was a covered machine on wheels, and -guarded above with a supplementary roof of wet hides arranged in scale -fashion, so as to prevent it from being set on fire by the besieged, and -to throw off the heavy missiles which were dropped upon it. Under cover -of this Testudo, the soldiers could either undermine the walls, or bring -a battering-ram to bear upon them, while the men who worked it were -safely under cover. As to the battering-ram itself, we shall presently -treat of it. - - -THE FORT. - -As we have treated of one of the modes by which Forts were assaulted, we -will now come to the Fort itself. - -The transitions in Fort-making are too curious to be omitted from the -present book. As soon as war became organized, a Fort of some kind was -necessary. The simplest mode of making a Fort was evidently to dig a -deep trench, and throw up the earth on the inside, so as to form a wall. -Let such a trench be square or circular, and there is a simple but -powerful Fort, by means of which a comparatively small garrison could -defend themselves against a superior force. - -The Romans were great masters of this art, fighting as much with the -spade as the sword. So strong and thorough was the old Roman work that -many of their camps still remain, and will remain for centuries if man -does not deface them. Such, for example, are Cæsar’s camp, near -Aldershot, and the fine camp at Lyddington, in Wiltshire, almost every -detail of which is preserved. Roman camps are all constructed on the -same model, the general’s place, or Prætorium, being in the centre, -whence he issued his orders, and the commanders under him occupying the -corners. Thus, no matter how he might be shifted from one corps to -another, every Roman soldier knew his way about the camp without needing -to see it, and could tell at any moment where to find any officer. - -[Illustration: ELK FORT.] - -[Illustration: MOUND FORT.] - -Other nations made their Forts circular, an example of which I lately -saw a few miles from Bideford, while others consisted of nearly parallel -lines, enclosures, and demi-lunes, like those wonderful dykes near -Clovelly, which occupy more than thirty acres of land. One of the -circular Forts is shown on the right hand of the illustration. - -As time went on, stone took the place of earth, and the principal object -of the builder was to give considerable thickness below, so as to resist -the battering-ram, and great height both to walls and towers, so as to -be comparatively out of the reach of the arrows and other missiles of -the besiegers. - -For awhile, such castles were impregnable, and the owners thereof were -the irresponsible despots of the neighbourhood, recognising no law but -their own will, robbing, torturing, and murdering at pleasure, and -setting the king at open defiance. When, however, the tremendous powers -of artillery became developed, the age of stone castles passed away. -Height was found to be equivalent to weakness, as the strongest tower in -existence could be knocked to pieces in an hour or two, and do infinite -harm within the fortress by its falling fragments. - -Fortification then returned to its original principles. Earth took the -place of stone or brick; and at the present day, instead of erecting -lofty walls and stately towers, the military engineer sinks his -buildings as far as he can into the ground, and protects them with banks -of simple earth, which is found to be the best defence against heavy -shot. There is no masonry in existence that will endure the artillery -fire of the present day, and even the solid rock can be knocked to -pieces by it. But an earth-mound is a different business, and will -absorb as many shot and shell as can be poured into it, without being -much the worse for it. See, for example, the Proof-mound at Woolwich, -which receives the shot of guns as they are being proved. Now, this -mound has undergone perpetual battering for many years, and is as strong -as ever. The same thing may be said of the celebrated Mamelon before -Sebastopol. - - * * * * * - -SO much for the Fort made by the hand of man. We now come to that which -is formed by the feet of animals. - -The Elk, or Moose, an inhabitant of Northern Europe, finds itself in -great danger during the winter, the wolves being its chief enemies. At -certain times of the year there comes a partial thaw during the day, -followed by a frost at night. The result is, that a slight cake of ice -forms on the surface of the snow, too slight to bear the weight of so -heavy an animal, and strong enough to cut the legs of the elk as it -ploughs its way along. Now, the wolves are sufficiently light to pass -over the frozen surface without breaking it, and accordingly, they can -easily run down and secure the elk. - -In order, therefore, to counteract the wolves, a number of elks select a -convenient spot where they can find food, and unite in trampling the -snow down so as to sink themselves nearly to their own height below its -surface. The wolves never dare attack an Elk-yard, as this enclosure is -termed. In the first place, they are always haunted with suspicions of -traps, and do not like the look of the yard; and in the next place, if -some of the wolves did venture within the fort, the elks would soon -demolish them with hoofs and horns. One of these Elk-yards is seen on -the left hand of the illustration. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -SCALING INSTRUMENTS.--DEFENCE OF FORT.--IMITATION.--THE FALL-TRAP. - - Scaling-forks.--The Climbing-spur and its Use.--Larva of the - Tiger-beetle.--Hooks of Serpula.--Mr. Gosse’s Description.--Falling - Stones.--A Stone rolling down a Precipice.--The Polar Bear and the - Walrus.--Imitation.--The Polar Bear and the Seal.--The Esquimaux - Hunter “Seal-talking.”--Enticing Mother by means of Young.--The - Fall-trap and its Variations.--The Schoolboy’s - “Booby-trap.”--Curious Mode of killing Elephants.--The - Elephant-spear.--The Hippopotamus-trap of Southern Africa.--The - Mangrove and its Seeds.--The Spring-gun and Spring-bow. - - -Before dismissing the subject of the Fortress, we will glance at the -Attack and Defence, as seen in Nature and Art. - - -SCALING INSTRUMENTS. - -We have already seen how the Battering-ram could be worked against the -walls of a fort, or how the assailants could scale them by means of the -Testudo. There must, however, be occasions when it would be impossible -to bring together a sufficiently large body of men to form the Testudo, -or even to place ladders, and in such instances it would be necessary -that each soldier should be furnished with an instrument by which he -could haul himself up the wall. - -There are many examples still extant of such weapons, which were called -“Scaling-forks,” and their general appearance may be known by the two -right-hand figures of the cut. The handles of these weapons were very -long, and by them the soldier hauled himself to the top of the wall. In -some of these instruments the shafts were armed with projecting pegs, -set at regular intervals, so that they acted as the steps of a ladder, -and rendered the ascent comparatively easy. - -Many of the long-handled partisans, such as the well-known Jedwood axe, -were furnished with a hook upon the back of the blade, so that the -weapon served the purpose of a scaling-fork as well as a battle-axe. - -The Scaling-fork (German _Sturmgabel_), which is shown on the right hand -of the illustration, was in use somewhere about A.D. 1500. That which is -shown next to it is about a hundred years later. - -[Illustration: - -WALRUS TUSKS. LARVA OF TIGER-BEETLE. CLIMBING-SPUR. SCALING-FORKS. -HOOKS OF SERPULA.] - -Demmin, from whose work these figures are taken, mentions that at the -siege of Mons, in 1691, the grenadiers of the elder Dauphin’s regiment -stormed the walls under the command of Vauban, and, by means of the -Scaling-fork, carried the breastwork, which they assaulted. As a mark of -honour to these gallant men, Louis XIV. ordered that the sergeants of -the regiment should carry scaling-forks instead of halberds, which had -been the peculiar weapon of the sergeant until comparatively late days, -just as the spontoon, or half-pike, was the weapon of the infantry -officer from A.D. 1700 to A.D. 1800, or thereabouts. - -The English student will remember that in the writings of Sterne, -Fielding, and Smollett the half-pike is frequently mentioned as the -weapon of a subaltern officer. Demmin states that the last spontoons -used in France were carried by the French Guards in 1789. - - * * * * * - -PERHAPS the Climbing-spur may be familiar to some of my readers, and -bring back a reminiscence of boyhood. There is nothing more tantalising -to a boy than to see a hawk, or magpie nest at the top of a tree which -is too large to be climbed in the ordinary way, and which has no -branches within many feet of the ground. However, boyish ingenuity has -brought almost any tree within the power of a bird’s-nester by the -invention of the Climbing-irons. - -These are made so as to pass under the foot like a stirrup, and can be -secured to the leg by leathern straps, the hooks being, of course, on -the inside of the leg. The cut represents the Climbing-iron of the right -leg. By means of these instruments, a very large tree can be mounted, -the irons being struck firmly into the bark, and the legs moved -alternately, and not in the usual manner of climbing. Sometimes the hook -of the Climbing-iron is terminated by a single instead of a double -point, but the principle is the same in all. - - * * * * * - -WE will now look for similar examples in Nature. - -On the right of the left-hand group is shown the larva or grub of the -common Tiger-beetle, which is itself a curious creature. - -It lives in perpendicular burrows, feeding upon those insects which come -within its reach. Its usual position is at the upper part of the burrow, -with its jaws widely extended, so as to snap up any insect that may -venture too near. - -When it has secured its prey, it seeks the bottom of its burrow, makes -its meal in quiet, and reascends. How it does so we shall soon see. -Towards the end of the body, one of the segments is much enlarged, and -has a bold prominence upon the back. On the summit of this prominence -there are two horn-like hooks, shaped as seen in the illustration. These -hooks are used exactly like the boy’s climbing-spurs, the alternate -elongation and contraction of the body answering the same purpose as the -movements of the boy’s legs. When the larva has seized its prey and -wishes to retreat, all that it has to do is to withdraw the hooks, -straighten the body, and down it falls by its own weight. - - * * * * * - -IN the nautical branch of this subject I have already treated of the -curious pushing-poles by means of which the Serpula protrudes itself -from its tube. As all must have noticed who have seen these creatures -alive, the Serpula protrudes itself very slowly, but flies back into its -tube with such velocity that the eye can scarcely follow its movements. -Its difference of motion shows that there must be a difference in the -means by which these movements are produced. - -Referring to the illustration on page 45, the reader will see that the -instruments with which the Serpula propels itself are used just after -the fashion of punt-poles, and cannot act with any great swiftness. -When, however, the creature wishes to withdraw itself, it employs a -curious apparatus, consisting of many rows of little hooks. The points -of these hooks readily catch against the lining of the tube, and by -their aid the worm jerks itself back with wonderful celerity. - -Three rows of these hooks are shown next to the Tiger-beetle larva. - -The structure of these remarkable organs is elaborately described by Mr. -Gosse in his “Evenings with the Microscope:”-- - -“If you look again at this Serpula recently extracted, you will find -with a lens a pale yellow line running along the upper surface of each -foot, transversely to the length of the body. This is the border of an -exceedingly delicate membrane, and, on placing it under a high power -(say six hundred diameters), you will be astonished at the elaborate -provision here made for prehension.” - -“This yellow line, which cannot be appreciated by the unassisted eye, is -a muscular ribbon, over which stand edgewise a multitude of what I will -call combs, or rather subtriangular plates. These have a wide base, and -the apex of the triangle is curved over into an abrupt hook, and then -this cut into a number (from four to six) of sharp and long teeth.” - -“The plates stand side by side, parallel to each other, along the whole -length of the ribbon, and there are muscular fibres seen affixed to the -basal side of each plate, which doubtless give it independent motion. - -“I have counted one hundred and thirty-six plates on one ribbon. There -are two ribbons on each thoracic segment, and there are seven such -segments. Hence, we may compute the total number of prehensile comb-like -plates on this portion of the body to be about one thousand nine -hundred, each of which is wielded by muscles at the will of the animal; -while, as each plate carries on an average five teeth, there are nearly -_ten thousand teeth_ hooked into the lining membrane of the cell, when -the animal chooses to descend.” - -“Even this, however, is far short of the total number, because long -ribbons of hooks of a similar structure, but of smaller dimensions, run -across the abdominal segments, which are more numerous than the -thoracic. No wonder, with so many muscles wielding so many -grappling-hooks, that the descent is so rapidly effected.” - -Lastly, we come to the Walrus, whose strangely elongated upper canine -teeth can be used for just the same purposes as the scaling-fork or -climbing-spur. As, however, reference has already been made to these -tusks, in connection with another department of this work, there is no -necessity for occupying space with a second description. - - -DEFENCE OF FORT. - -So much for attack; now for defence. - -The simplest mode of defending a fort, or even a mountain pass, is by -throwing or rolling rocks and heavy stones against the enemy. - -Simple as it may appear, it is a very effective one, as can be well -understood by those who have rolled a huge stone down a long and steep -slope. The stone goes gently enough at first, but rapidly gains speed, -until at last it makes great bounds from the earth, tearing and crashing -through everything as if it had been shot from a cannon. - -I have seen a stone which was too heavy to be lifted, and had to be -prised over the edge with levers, spring completely through the topmost -branches of a high tree, scattering the boughs in all directions, and -then, alighting on another stone, split into many fragments, just like -the pieces of a burst shell. That one stone would have swept off a whole -party of soldiers had they encountered it while trying to ascend the -slope. - -This invention has also been anticipated in Nature. - -Putting aside the obvious reflection that the most primitive warriors -must have noticed the effects of stones falling over a precipice, we -have, in Captain Hall’s “Life with the Esquimaux,” a curious account of -the Polar Bear and its mode of killing the Walrus. Gigantic as is this -animal, and terrible as are its tusks, the Polar Bear will sometimes -attack it in a very singular manner. The Bear springs on a sleeping -Walrus, and clings to its shoulders with one paw, and with repeated -blows from the other, fractures its skull. - -Still, the combat is sure to be a severe one, and so the Polar Bear -will, if he can, secure his prey by some other method. - -“The natives tell many most interesting anecdotes of the Bear, showing -that they are accustomed to watch his movements closely. He has a very -ingenious method of killing the Walrus. - -[Illustration: BEAR KILLING WALRUS.] - -[Illustration: WARRIORS DEPENDING A PASS.] - -“In August, every fine day, the Walrus makes its way to the shore, draws -its huge body upon the rocks, and basks in the sun. If this happen near -the base of a cliff, the ever-watchful Bear takes advantage of the -circumstance to attack his formidable game in this way. The Bear mounts -the cliff, and throws down upon the animal’s head a large rock, -calculating the distance and the curve with astonishing accuracy, and -thus crushing the thick, bullet-proof skull. - -“If the Walrus is not instantly killed, or simply stunned, the Bear -rushes down to it, seizes the rock, and hammers away at the head until -the skull is broken. A fat feast follows. Unless the Bear is very -hungry, it eats only the blubber of the walrus, seal, and whale.” - - -IMITATION. - -As is the case with the Norwegians, the Esquimaux have the greatest -respect for the intellectual as well as the bodily powers of the Bear, -and avowedly imitate it in its modes of hunting. One of these methods -will now be mentioned. - -It must first be premised that the Seal is a most wary animal, and when -it lies down on the shore to sleep, it takes its repose by snatches, -lifting up its head at very short intervals, looking all round in search -of foes, and then composing itself to rest again. To approach so -cautious an animal is evidently a difficult task, but the Bear is equal -to it. The following is Captain Hall’s account:-- - -“From the Polar Bear the Innuits (_i.e._ Esquimaux) learn much. - -[Illustration: POLAR BEAR HUNTING SEAL.] - -[Illustration: ESQUIMAUX HUNTING SEAL.] - -“The manner of approaching the Seal, which is on the ice by its hole, -basking in the sunshine, is from him. The Bear lies down and crawls by -hitches towards the Seal, ‘talking’ to it, as the Innuits say, until he -is within striking distance, when he pounces upon it with a single jump. -The natives say that if they could ‘talk’ as well as the Bear, they -could catch many more Seals. - -“The procedure of the Bear is as follows. - -“He proceeds very cautiously towards the black speck, far off on the -ice, which he knows to be a Seal. When still a long way from it, he -throws himself down and hitches himself along towards his game. The -Seal, meanwhile, is taking its naps of about ten seconds each, -invariably raising its head and surveying the entire horizon before -composing itself again to brief slumber. - -“As soon as it raises its head, the Bear ‘talks,’ keeping perfectly -still. The Seal, if it sees anything, sees but the head, which it takes -for that of another Seal. It sleeps again. Again the Bear hitches -himself along, and once more the Seal looks around, only to be ‘talked’ -to and again deceived. Thus the pursuit goes on until the Seal is -caught, or till it makes its escape, which it seldom does.” - -It is remarkable that while this “talk” is going on, the Seal appears to -be charmed, raises and shakes its flippers about, rolls over on its side -and back, as if delighted, and then lies down to sleep. - -Now, the Esquimaux hunters imitate, as nearly as they can, the -proceedings of the Bear, but are not so successful. Captain Hall -mentions several instances where the native hunter failed even to come -within gunshot without alarming the Seal, which instantly plunged into -its hole and was lost. - - * * * * * - -THE same author mentions another instance where the Esquimaux hunter has -copied the Bear. - -[Illustration: POLAR BEAR CATCHING SEAL, ETC.] - -When an Esquimaux hunter catches a young Seal, he takes care not to kill -it at once, as he wishes to use it as a decoy. He ties a long line round -one of the hind flippers, and then drops the little Seal into the hole -through the ice by which it enters and leaves the water. The struggles -of the young are nearly sure to attract the mother, and when she has -discovered its condition the young Seal is cautiously drawn up on the -ice. The mother follows, too intent on rescuing her young to think about -herself, and, as soon as she is within reach, she is struck with the -harpoon. - -The Polar Bear, however, preceded the Esquimaux in this mode of hunting. -The young Seal lives in a hemispherical dwelling scooped out of the -snow, and communicating with the water by means of a hole through the -ice. This dwelling will be described and figured when we come to the -subject of Architecture. - -Finding out, by scent or some other means, the habitation of the young -Seal, the Polar Bear leaps upon the snow, bringing his feet together, -and with his enormous weight breaking through the roof of the dwelling. -He instantly captures the young Seal before it can make its escape. -Then, driving the talons of one paw into its hind flipper, he lets it -into the hole, and allows it to flounder about in the water. When the -mother is attracted to her young, he draws his prey slowly up on the -ice. The anxious mother follows, and is at once secured by the talons of -the other foot, as is represented in the illustration. - - -THE FALL-TRAP. - -This is a stratagem which is often employed in War and Hunting, though -its use is mostly confined to the latter. Schoolboys often avail -themselves of this principle when they wish to play a practical joke, -and to amuse themselves by setting a “Booby-trap.” This trap is easily -manufactured, and consists of a partially opened door, with a basin or -jug of water balanced upon it. The natural result is, that any one who -opens the door without proper precautions receives the jug and its -contents upon his head, and is thoroughly drenched. - -On the right hand of the illustration is seen a curious spear, the butt -of which, instead of being lighter than the head, is very much heavier. -The weight, however, is exactly where it is wanted, and indeed, in -actual use, is trebled by a mass of tenacious clay, kneaded upon it. -This figure is taken from a very perfect specimen in my own collection. - -It is an African weapon, not used for war, but for hunting, and, as far -as I know, exclusively employed against the elephants. These animals -have a way of forming roads or tracks for themselves through the woods, -very much like those almost invisible paths which are made by the -half-wild sheep of the great Wiltshire Downs, except that they traverse -thick forests instead of broad downs. - -The native hunters know all the elephant paths, and if a herd of -elephants be seen approaching, the path which they will take is -tolerably certain. - -[Illustration: MANGROVE SEEDS.] - -[Illustration: HIPPOPOTAMUS TRAP AND ELEPHANT SPEAR.] - -Armed with this knowledge, the native hunters climb the trees, and seat -themselves on the branches which overhang the path, each hunter being -supplied with one of these spears. As the elephants pass beneath him, -the experienced hunter selects a bull elephant with good tusks, and, -taking a careful aim, drops the spear on its back. - -On receiving the stroke, the elephant rushes off in mixed terror and -rage. As the animal uses the legs of each side alternately, it sways its -huge body from side to side at every step. With each movement, the spear -also sways about, its weighted end giving it such a leverage, that the -sharp edges of the head cut the poor animal to pieces. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER kind of Fall-trap, which is common in many parts of Southern -Africa, is not dependent upon the skill of the hunter, but, like the -“booby-trap” above mentioned, is set in motion by the victim. - -A figure of this trap is given in the illustration. - -If the native hunter can find a spot where the Hippopotamus path passes -under an overhanging branch, he makes a simple but most effective trap. -He takes a heavy log of wood, and into one end of it he drives a -spear-point. The log is then hung with its point downwards to the -branch, the rope which is connected with its trigger or catch being -stretched across the path at a few inches from the surface of the -ground, and carried at right angles across the path. - -The Hippopotamus takes no notice of the cord, which is usually made of -one of the creepers or “bush-ropes” that are so common in hot countries. -No sooner, however, does its foot strike the cord, than the trigger is -released, and down falls the heavy log, driving its iron point deeply -into the back of the victim. Even if the weapon were simple iron, such a -wound must be mortal, but, as it is almost invariably poisoned, the -wounded animal can scarcely travel forty or fifty yards before it lies -down and dies. - -One of these traps is shown in the illustration. In the foreground is -shown the Fall-trap, pointed with iron, and weighted with large stones -at the lower end, so as to bring it down with more force, and to prevent -it from falling transversely. - -The Spring-gun, once so formidable a protector of our coverts, was -managed in a similar manner, except that the missile was discharged -horizontally, and not vertically. The gun, loaded with shot, was fixed -some eighteen inches from the ground, and a long and slight wire -fastened to the trigger. The opposite end of the wire was made fast to a -tree or other fixed object, and, as the gun was directed on the line of -the wire, it is evident that any one who stumbled against it would -discharge the gun, and receive the contents in his legs. - -In France the gun was generally loaded with little pieces of bay salt, -and I very much pity the unfortunate poacher who came across one of -these guns. The pain would prevent him from escaping, and I think that -the hardest-hearted of game preservers could not bring himself to -prosecute a man who had already suffered so much. - -Of a similar character are the Spring-bows which were once common in -this country, and are still used in various parts of Asia. A bow and -arrow are substituted for firearms, and the bow, after being drawn by -the united efforts of several men, is held in its position by a stick, -one end of which presses against the centre of the bow, and the other -against the string. - -A large arrow is then placed on the bow, and a cord is tied to the -middle of the stick, led forwards in a line with the direction of the -arrow, and fastened, as in the case of the spring-gun. As soon as the -line is struck, the stick is jerked from its place, and the arrow is -discharged, piercing the body of the trespasser. Tigers, bears, and -leopards are the usual victims of this trap. - - * * * * * - -IT is remarkable that in the same country there is a production of -Nature which may in all probability have given to the native hunter the -idea of the Fall-trap. This is the Mangrove-tree, which is remarkable -for the wonderful extent of ground which it will cover, and the nearly -impenetrable thickets which it forms. In the present part of the work we -have nothing to do with the aërial roots, several of which are shown in -the illustration, and only restrict ourselves to the Seeds, and the -curious manner in which they are planted by Nature. - -In the illustration, on the left hand, the growth of the Mangrove is -seen. The drawing is taken from a sketch by the late Mr. Baines, and -generously placed at my disposal, as were all his drawings and journals. - -The Mangrove is a wet-loving tree, never flourishing unless rooted in -mud; and whether the moisture of the mud be attributable to fresh or -salt water seems to make little difference to the Mangrove, which, of -the two, appears to prefer the latter. Now, the seeds of the Mangrove -look very much like elongated skittles, except that one end comes to a -sharp point. As they hang on the tree, the point is downwards. When they -are ripe, they fall from the branch, and by their own weight are driven -deeply into the mud, where they develop roots and leaves, and become the -progenitors of the future Mangrove race. - -I cannot but think that the native hunter, having seen the tremendous -force with which the Mangrove seed buries itself in the mud, has applied -the same principle to a weapon which shall bury itself in the body of an -elephant. - - - - -WAR AND HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CONCEALMENT.--DISGUISE.--THE TRENCH.--POWER OF GRAVITY.--MISCELLANEA. - - Concealment needed in Modern Warfare.--Concealment by - Covering.--Masking Guns.--Birnam Wood.--The Reduvius.--The - Cuckoo-spit and the Spider-crab.--Concealment by - Disguise.--Stratagem of the Barea.--Complete Deception.--Larva of - Geometra.--The Leaf-insect.--The Luppet-moth.--The Ptarmigan and - the Ermine.--Principle of the Trench.--The Hunter’s “Skärm.”--The - Wax-moth or Galleria-moth, and its Tunnel.--Fate of a - Collection.--The Termites and the Travelling Ants of South - America.--The Power of Gravity.--The Battering-ram and its - Force.--Miscellanea.--War by Suffocation.--The Stink-pot.--The - Chili-plant.--The Sulphur-room.--The Bombardier-beetle.--The - Bullet-making Machine and the Silkworm. - - -CONCEALMENT. - -We will first take Concealment by means of Covering. - -If History repeats herself, so does Warfare. I have already shown the -repetition of History in the Fortress--I shall now show it in the Field. - -In former days, when arms of precision were not invented, concealment -was not needed. No soldier ever was visited with a dream so wild as that -of taking definite aim at the enemy, and reserving the fire until the -aim was certain. I have in my collection several of the French and -English muskets used about the time of Waterloo, and, though a fair -rifle-shot, would not engage to hit a haystack with either of them at a -distance of a hundred yards. With the Snider or Martini-Henry in the -hands of a skilful adversary, he would be a bold man who would offer -himself for a target at a thousand yards. Indeed, if the first shot -happened to miss, the marksman would be tolerably sure to notice the -failure, and to correct his aim with fatal certainty. - -In those days, therefore, concealment was rather ridiculed than praised, -the power of the new arm not being as yet appreciated. I well recollect, -in the earliest days of the Volunteer movement, hearing a Volunteer -captain declare, amid the cheers of his company, that “he had never -sneaked behind a tree in all his life, and was not going to begin now.” - -In the present day, the power of the missile has been developed with -such astounding rapidity, that to be exposed to the fire of rifles or -cannon is almost certain death. Indeed, the only safety of the defence -lay in the fact that the smoke soon rendered very accurate shooting -impossible at long ranges, and that at short ranges, if a man got a -bullet through his body, it mattered little to him whether the missile -were a spherical musket-ball or a conical rifle-bullet. - -[Illustration: REDUVIUS (MAGNIFIED).] - -[Illustration: CUCKOO-SPIT.] - -[Illustration: SPIDER-CRAB.] - -[Illustration: MASKING GUNS.] - -[Illustration: BIRNAM WOOD.] - -Just, then, as forts have latterly sunk into the earth for the purpose -of strength, so have our modern soldiers found that the true principle -of modern warfare is never to lose sight of the enemy, and never to -allow the enemy to see yourself or the disposal of your troops. - -Everything must be revealed to the commander-in-chief, everything must -be concealed from the enemy. - -In the late Franco-German war the principle of concealment was largely -used, and when cannon were brought into the field by the Germans for the -purpose of attacking fortresses, they were always hidden under branches -of trees, so that the enemy should not distinguish them from the -ordinary features of the country, and that the sparkle of the sunbeams -upon them might not be seen. - -It would be almost superfluous to remind the reader of Malcolm’s -stratagem when besieging Dunsinane Castle:-- - - “Let every soldier hew him down a bough, - And bear’t before him; thereby shall we shadow - The numbers of our host, and make discovery - Err in report of us.” - -Precisely similar modes of concealment are to be found in the animal -world. - -There is a certain insect belonging to the Heteroptera, and -scientifically named _Reduvius personatus_. I am not aware whether it -has any popular name. It is insectivorous, and ought to be welcomed in -houses, as it is particularly fond of the too common bed-bug. So -carnivorous are these insects that one of the Reduviidæ killed and -sucked a companion of her own sex, her own mate, and, after only a few -days’ fast, her own young, and then sucked her own eggs. - -During its larval and pupal stages of existence, the Reduvius covers its -body and limbs with dust and any other refuse which it can find. In this -manner it disguises its form so completely that it scarcely looks like -an insect. Occasionally it seems to be dissatisfied with its coat of -dust, throws it off, and sets to work at a new one. - -One of these creatures, as it appears when covered with its dusty -coating, is seen in the upper left-hand corner of the illustration. It -is slightly magnified. - -Below the Reduvius is the common Cuckoo-spit (_Aphrophora spumaria_), -whose frothy masses are so plentiful in our hedgerows and gardens. - -If one of these masses be carefully opened, there will be found in it a -little green creature with small, round, dot-like eyes. This is either -the larval or pupal state of the Frog-hopper, as the insect is called -in its perfect state, from its habit of taking long and sudden leaps -when alarmed. - -I well remember my delight when, as a child, I set to work at examining -these froth-masses, and succeeded in tracing the insect through all its -changes. The froth is derived from the sap of the tree, which is sucked -through the proboscis, passed through the digestive organs, and then -ejected in a succession of little bubbles. After awhile a little drop of -clear liquid is seen to collect at the bottom of the froth, to increase, -and then to fall, when another immediately begins to be formed. One -species of Cuckoo-spit, which inhabits Madagascar, acts almost like a -siphon on the tree, and pours out large quantities of clear water during -the hottest part of the day. - -Within this froth-mass the insect lies concealed, and, though utterly -helpless, is safe from most of the enemies that would attack it if it -were left exposed. - -Beneath the Cuckoo-spit is the common Spider-crab, sometimes called the -Thornback-crab, from the numerous spines with which its body is covered. -Its scientific name is _Maia squinado_. - -When the Spider-crab attains to a tolerable size, its rough surface -forms attachment for various marine beings, chiefly those belonging to -the zoophytes. In some cases these zoophytes grow to such a size that -the Crab is completely covered by them, and its original shape -effectually concealed. When one of these creatures is seen in a living -state it presents the curious spectacle of a large bunch of zoophytes -and corallines moving about from place to place without any perceptible -limbs, the whole of the surface of the Crab being covered with -extraneous growths. - - -DISGUISE. - -Next comes concealment by means of Disguise. - -On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown a singular -mode of concealment adopted by the Barea, a warlike and predatorial -tribe of Abyssinia. When Mr. Mansfield Parkyns was resident in Abyssinia -he fell in with the Barea, through whose country he had to pass. - -“Scarcely had we passed the brook of Mai-Chena when one of our men, a -hunter, declared that he saw the slaves. Being at that time -inexperienced in such matters, I could see nothing suspicious. He then -pointed out to me a dead tree standing on an eminence at a distance of -several hundred yards, and charred black by last year’s fire.” Here I -must explain that in Abyssinia, as in several other parts of the world, -the ground is annually, cleared of its superabundant vegetation by -setting fire to it, and allowing the flames to burn themselves out. - -[Illustration: LEAF-INSECT.] - -[Illustration: PTARMIGAN.] - -[Illustration: CATERPILLAR OF GEOMETRA.] - -[Illustration: LAPPET-MOTH.] - -[Illustration: BAREA STRATAGEM.] - -“However, all I saw was a charred stump of a tree and a few blackened -logs or stones lying at its feet. The hunter declared that neither the -tree nor the stones were there the last time we passed, and that they -were simply naked Barea, who had placed themselves in that position to -observe us, having no doubt seen us for some time, and prepared -themselves. - -“I could scarcely believe it possible they could be so motionless, and -determined to explore a little. The rest of the party advised me to -continue quietly in the road, as it was possible that, from our -presenting a rather formidable appearance, we should pass unmolested; -but so confident was I of his mistake, that, telling the rest to go on -slowly, as if nothing had been observed, I dropped into the long grass -and stalked up towards them.” - -“A shot from my rifle at a long distance (I did not venture too close) -acted on the trees and stones as powerfully as the fiddle of Orpheus, -but with the contrary effect; for the tree disappeared, and the stones -and logs, instead of running after me, ran in the opposite direction.” - -“I never was more astonished in my life, for so complete was the -deception that even up to the time I fired I could have declared the -objects before me were vegetable or mineral--anything, indeed, but -animal. The fact was that the cunning rascals who represented stones -were lying flat, with their little round shields placed before them as -screens.” - -This stratagem is shown on the right hand of the illustration. - - * * * * * - -ON the left are a few of the innumerable instances in Nature where -Concealment is obtained by imitation. - -The three examples which are here given are familiar to all -entomologists. - -The upper figure represents two of the Geometra or Looper Caterpillars, -as they appear when at rest, and affixed to a twig. This appears to be a -singular attitude of rest, but it is one in which they delight, and in -which they remain for hours together, the claspers at the end of the -body tightly grasping the branch, and the whole body held out so -straight and motionless that it is hardly possible to believe that a -veritable twig is not before the eye. The colour is that of the twig, -and the different segments of the body look exactly like the little -irregularities and projections of a young twig. - -I have more than once seen a novice in entomology unable to distinguish -these larvæ, even when the branch was pointed out, and there were -several upon it. - -Just below the Loopers, and on the left hand of the illustration, is -shown the well-known Leaf-insect (_Phyllium_). These strange beings have -the elytra and the flattened appendages of the legs so exactly like -leaves that the most experienced eye can scarcely distinguish them from -the leaves among which they are placed. Even when they have been on a -small plant, such as a myrtle in a flower-pot, I have had the greatest -difficulty in finding them, and have seen people examine the plant, and -then go away declaring that no insects were on it. - -On the right hand, and just below the looper caterpillar, is the common -Lappet-moth of this country, shown in its position of rest. - -When it assumes this attitude, it looks exactly like a withered leaf, -the resemblance extending not only to the form, but the colour. All -entomologists are familiar with many similar examples in insect life. -The common Tortoise-shell Butterfly, for example, has a way of settling -on patches of red soil, with which it harmonizes so well that it can -hardly be seen. The various moths, also, are in the habit of resting on -tree-bark, palings, and other objects, to which they instinctively know -that they assimilate in hue. Many a beginner in entomology will pass a -wooden fence or a wall, and not see an insect on either, while an adept -will follow him and take twenty or thirty good specimens. - -The last figure in the illustration represents a Ptarmigan (_Lagopus -vulgaris_) in its winter dress. These birds have two differently -coloured dresses, one for summer and the other for winter, and both -adapted for concealment by imitation. In the former dress it is mottled -with various shades of blackish brown, yellow, and white. As the bird is -in the habit of settling among the grey lichen-covered stones on the -sides of rocky hills, these colours harmonize so exactly with them that -a Ptarmigan may almost be trodden upon before it is perceived. - -In the winter, when the snow covers the whole country with one uniform -sheet of white, except where the wind blows the snow aside, and exposes -the underlying stones, the Ptarmigan assumes a different plumage, being -almost entirely white, except a black streak over the eye, and the outer -feathers of the tail, which are also black. Thus the bird becomes almost -indistinguishable from a snow-covered stone, especially as it has a -habit of squatting motionless and silent when it takes alarm. - -The reader may, perhaps, remember that the common Stoat also has a -summer and winter dress. The ordinary colour is rich reddish brown -above, and white beneath, with a black tip to the tail. In the severe -winters of Northern Europe the Stoat exchanges his ruddy coat for one of -pure white, and is then known by the name of Ermine. It is remarkable -that in the winter dress both of the Ptarmigan and Stoat the tail is -black, while the rest of the coat is white. - - -THE TRENCH. - -We now come to a third mode of concealment in war, namely, that which is -obtained by means of Trenches or Pits. - -Even in hunting the pit or partial trench is largely used. In Southern -Africa the hunter often employs such a trench, called technically a -“Skärm.” It is very simple in idea, and easily made, being based on the -principle that lions, elephants, &c., look for their assailants on the -level of the earth, and seldom, if ever, look above or below it. -Accordingly the hunter, having marked some pool or lake whereunto the -wild animals resort at night to quench their thirst, chooses a -convenient spot, and there digs a trench some seven feet in length and -four deep, and covers it in with stout tree-branches and logs of various -size. The whole is roofed in with sods, and the only entrance is at one -end. - -Here the hunter sits and waits, and, as his ear is on a level with the -surface of the ground, he can hear at a considerable distance sounds -which would have escaped him had he been erect. - -Waiting for a favourable opportunity, as the various beasts come to -drink, the hunter chooses one, takes careful aim, and fires one of his -heaviest guns. It is but seldom that the rest of the animals charge in -the direction of the Skärm, but even if they do, the hunter is quite -safe under the shelter of his strong roof, which is able to resist even -the heavy tread of an elephant. - -[Illustration: Galleria-Moth (Larva).] - -[Illustration: Military Trench.] - -In modern warfare, and especially during sieges, the trench is largely -used, and is constructed on the most scientific principles, so as to -shelter the assailants, while enabling them to proceed nearer and nearer -to the fortress. A portion of one of these trenches is shown in the -right hand of the illustration. - - * * * * * - -ON the opposite side of the same illustration is shown the same -principle as carried out in Nature. - -There is a certain little insect, called the Wax-moth, or Galleria-moth -(_Galleria alvearia_), which, although quite harmless in its perfect -form, is in its larval state extremely injurious to beehives. - -The mother moth contrives, aided by her tiny form and sombre colouring, -to slip past the sentries at the mouth of the hive, and to lay her eggs -among the combs. This done, she dies, but the evil of her visit lives -after her. - -Each of the eggs is hatched into a little caterpillar, having a soft -grey body, but a hard, horny head of a black-brown colour. As soon as -they are hatched they begin to feed, eating not only the waxen combs, -but the honey and the bee-bread which were intended for the support of -the legitimate inhabitants. - -The reader may ask why the bees do not destroy this marauder on their -premises. They would be only too glad to do so, but they cannot touch -it. As it eats its way along, it constructs a strong silken tube, within -which it lives, and which it gradually lengthens. This tube or gallery -is exceedingly tough, and perfectly capable of resisting the bee’s -sting. Moreover, the caterpillar traverses its tube with such rapidity -that the bee has no chance of knowing whereabouts the caterpillar may be -when it makes its attack. When it feeds it only protrudes its armed -head, the horny covering of which is an effectual protection against the -sting. - -When these creatures fairly get hold of a hive, the damage which they do -is terrible, the whole of the combs being enveloped in the -ever-increasing labyrinth of tubes. Even the bees themselves fall -victims to the Galleria-moth, for the silken tunnels are driven through -and through the combs, enveloping the broad cells as in the meshes of a -net. Consequently, when the young bees are developed, they cannot escape -from their cells, and perish miserably. - -Nor do these tiresome insects confine themselves to hives; but they have -an extraordinary facility for discovering bee-combs after they are -removed from the hive. Some years ago I was making a collection of -various insect habitations, and had brought together a carefully -selected set of combs, showing the internal structure of the hive, and -the different cells which are inhabited by the worker, the drone, and -the queen bee. - -One day, when about to arrange the collection in a glass case, I found -that the whole of the combs had been destroyed by the Wax-moth. Scarcely -a square inch of comb remained, and the contents of the box were little -more than a congeries of Wax-moth galleries. Even the Wasp and Hornet -nests which had been placed in the same box had been attacked, and, -although they had not been so utterly destroyed as the waxen cells, they -had been sufficiently injured to render them unfit for exhibition. - -Many other insects work on the same principle. Certain Termites, for -example, construct tunnels of clay, in order to conceal them on their -travels, and have the art, even in the hottest and driest weather, of -mixing their clay with some liquid which renders it, when dry, nearly as -hard as stone. Indeed, there have been instances where the Termites have -attacked the wooden beams of houses, and literally transformed them into -beams of stone. - -Then there are many Ants, notably several species of South America, -which cover their approach by tunnels, and never venture into the open -air. - - -GRAVITY AS A PROPULSIVE AGENT. - -The two figures on the accompanying illustration will almost speak for -themselves. - -We have already seen how the same force of gravitation which causes the -avalanche to thunder down the precipice may be utilised as a means of -projecting missiles in time of war. When, however, the stones or beams -were once sent on their destructive mission, they were out of the -control of those who launched them. We now come to a modification of the -force of Gravity, by which the missile, if we may so term it, is kept -under control, its power increased or diminished at will, and its point -of attack shifted according to the requirements of the moment. - -[Illustration: Ram.] - -[Illustration: Head of Battering-Ram.] - -Before the invention of artillery, the Battering-ram was by far the most -formidable engine that could be brought against a fortified place. The -principle of the Battering-ram was simple enough. A long and heavy -beam, generally the trunk of a tree, was suspended by ropes at the -centre of gravity, so that it could be swung backwards and forwards. -Although a simple beam was an effective weapon, its value was much -enhanced by loading the thickest end with a heavy mass of metal, usually -iron, and, when there was time for adornment, roughly modelled into the -form of a ram’s head. - -Generally the Battering-ram was mounted on an elevated platform, and the -soldiers who worked it protected by a roof, which was called by the name -of Testudo, or Tortoise. The force of this weapon was tremendous, and no -wall, however strong, could resist it. Sometimes the beam was -considerably more than a hundred feet in length, being composed of -several pieces bolted and banded together with iron. - -It may easily be imagined that such a weapon as this must have been a -most terrible one, and, indeed, the whole success of the siege -practically depended upon it. The assailants did their best to bring the -Battering-ram into position under the walls, and the besieged did their -best either to keep it away, or to neutralise its effects by catching it -with nooses, dropping large stones upon it so as to break or dismount -it, or, if they could not succeed in either of these attempts, they -deadened the force of its blows as well as they could by interposing -large sacks of wool between the wall and the head of the ram. - -Considering the style of architecture which was then used in -fortification, namely, a combination of height with thickness, the force -of the Battering-ram would be even greater than that of artillery. The -regular and rhythmical swing of the ram would soon communicate a -vibratory motion to the wall, which would of itself tend to disintegrate -the whole structure, while the blows of the iron head beneath broke away -the stones, and rendered the downfall of the fort a mere matter of time. - -The reader need hardly be reminded that the Battering-ram was so called -because its mode of attack was practically the same as that of the -animal from which it took its title. - - -MISCELLANEA. - -By slow degrees, mankind, as they advance in civilisation, have robbed -warfare of many horrors. Non-combatants, for example, are now left -unharmed. Poisoned weapons have, by common consent, been abolished, and -so have those instruments of warfare which, though they do not simply -poison the blood by means of bodily wounds, do so by means of noxious -vapours poured into the lungs. - -It is sometimes rather unfortunate when civilisation and semi-barbarism -meet in battle; the former respecting the customs of honourable warfare, -and the latter ignoring them. For example, in olden times, one of the -most potent weapons in naval combat was the “stink-pot”--_i.e._ a vessel -filled with sulphur and other ingredients, and emitting a smoke which -was death when inhaled. Among the American Indians the well-known -Chili-plant was much used for this purpose, the very first breath that -was taken of the thin and almost invisible smoke causing the throat to -contract as if clutched by a strong hand. If then any enemies had taken -refuge in a cave, or were suspected of having done so, a fire was -lighted at the entrance, a quantity of chilis thrown on it, and the rest -left to time. No being could endure that smoke and live, and they must -either stay in the cave and die, or come out and deliver themselves up -to their foes. The former was the better part to take, as suffocation, -however slow, is only an affair of a few minutes, while death by torture -is prolonged through hours. - -[Illustration: Bombardier-Beetle.] - -[Illustration: Chinese Stink-Pots.] - -In the late Chinese war the stink-pot was extensively used, and our -sailors took it in very bad part that the enemy should be allowed to -employ such weapons, and they should be debarred from using them. - -Whether this principle is still retained in the defence of fortresses I -do not know. I recollect, however, some twenty years ago, going over a -fortress in which suffocation was employed as a means of defence. A long -gallery was so placed that the assailants were tolerably sure to force -their way into it, thinking that it led to the interior of the fort. - -It was, however, nothing but a trap, for it had no exit. As soon as a -number of the assailants had poured into this trap, their exit was -suddenly cut off by machinery provided for the purpose, and at the same -time a quantity of sulphur and lighted charcoal was shot into the -gallery from above, and the aperture instantly closed. It would be -absolutely impossible that any one who had been enclosed in that -terrible chamber should escape with life, for the first breath of that -deadly vapour would render the strongest man insensible. - - * * * * * - -NATURE, as usual, has anticipated Art even in this particular. - -In several parts of England, and especially along the shores of the -Thames towards Gravesend, a little beetle is to be found under the flat -stones of the river bank. Its scientific name is _Brachinus crepitans_. -When this insect is alarmed, it has the power of ejecting a peculiar -liquid, which, when it comes in contact with the atmosphere, bursts into -a sort of pale blue-green flame, followed by a kind of smoke. Sometimes, -when a tolerably large stone is lifted, the little explosions will go -popping about in a most curious manner. Indeed, they carry reminiscences -of school days, when it was a joy to distribute single grains of coarse -gunpowder on the bars of the grate, and watch them melt, take fire, -explode, and send forth little clouds of smoke. The insect is popularly -called the Bombardier-beetle. Whether or not this capability be given as -a means of defence I cannot say, but it assuredly answers that purpose. - -There are several of the voracious Carabidæ, or Ground-beetles, which -would be very glad to make a meal of the Brachinus. When, however, the -Bombardier-beetle finds itself on the point of being overtaken, it -elevates the abdomen with a peculiar gesture, and ejects the liquid. The -effect on the pursuer is remarkable. It seems overwhelmed and stupefied -by the sudden attack, moves about for awhile as if blinded, and, by the -time that it has recovered its sense, the Bombardier-beetle is out of -sight. - -In some of the hotter parts of the world there are several species of -Bombardier-beetles which attain considerable size, and their discharge -is powerful enough to discolour the skin of the human hand. - - * * * * * - -I HAVE felt some little difficulty in classifying the curious invention -which will now be described, but, as it is used for the purpose of -making bullets, I have placed it in the category of War. - -[Illustration: SILK APPARATUS OF SILKWORM.] - -[Illustration: BULLET-MAKING APPARATUS.] - -In the days of “Brown Bess,” as the old musket used to be called, -precision of aim was not required, for no commander dreamt of opening -fire until the enemy were at comparatively close quarters. In those days -the bullets were spherical, and cast in moulds. After a time, when the -Enfield rifle displaced the musket, and did double the execution at -three times its range, bullets were still cast, though their shape was -altered, and they took a sugar-loaf form instead of being spherical. - -The rifle-testing machine at Woolwich, however, soon showed that at long -ranges a cast bullet was nearly useless, one part being always lighter -than another, and air-bubbles often taking the place of lead. After -being cast, therefore, the bullets were placed in a “swedge,” or -“swage,” _i.e._ a machine by which the lead was forcibly compressed -until it was of a tolerably uniform density. Even this process, however, -did not insure absolute exactness, and then a machine was invented by -means of which the process of casting was superseded, and the bullets -were pinched or squeezed, so to speak, out of cold lead. - -On the right hand of the illustration is a plan of the ingenious -apparatus by which the lead is supplied to the machine which actually -forms the bullets. The sketch is not meant as a drawing of the actual -machine, but is merely intended to show the principle. - -The chief parts in this machine are a hollow cylinder, a piston, and a -delivery tube. The cylinder is shown at A, and when used, is filled with -melted lead. The piston, B, is then forced upwards by hydraulic -pressure, driving the lead through the delivery tube. As it issues into -the air it hardens, and thus forms a solid rod of lead, C. This rod is -then passed into the next machine, where it is cut into regular lengths, -and these pieces are then placed in moulds, and forced into form by -enormous pressure. Were it not for this ingenious machinery, the -wonderful scores which are now made at long distances would be -impossible. - - * * * * * - -NOW let us compare Art with Nature, as seen on the left hand of the -illustration, which is a chart or plan of the spinning apparatus of the -Silkworm. - -When I first saw the bullet-making machine at work, I at once perceived -that it was nothing more than a repetition in metal of the beautiful -mechanism which I had so often admired in this insect. In order to show -the close analogies of the two objects, I have marked them with similar -letters. - -A represents the upper part of the reservoir or vessel which contains -the silk in a liquid state, B B are the muscles which contract the -reservoir and force the liquid matter out. It will be seen that both -these vessels terminate in a delivery tube, identical in office with -that of the bullet-making machine. As soon as the liquid silk passes -into the air it is hardened, and is formed into a silken rod, C, just as -is the lead in the machine. The only difference between the two, if it -can be called a difference, is, that in the silkworm the rod is double, -whereas in the machine it is single. The principle, however, is -identical in both cases. The webs of spiders, and the threads by which -so many caterpillars suspend themselves, and with which they make their -nests, are all formed on the same design, namely, a reservoir containing -a liquid which is squeezed through a tube, and hardens when it comes in -contact with the air. - - - - -ARCHITECTURE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - THE HUT, TROPIC AND POLAR.--PILLARS AND FLOORING.--TUNNEL ENTRANCE - OF THE IGLOO.--DOORS AND HINGES.--SELF-CLOSING TRAP-DOORS. - - Primitive Architecture evidently borrowed from the Lower - Animals.--Roof Hut of the Nshiego Mbouvé of Western - Africa.--Platform Hut of the Orang-outan of Borneo.--Lake Dwellers - and their Huts.--Tree-huts of Southern Africa, and their - Uses.--Ascendancy of the Wild Beast over Man.--Snow-hut of the Seal - copied by Esquimaux, and its Value shown.--Pillars and - Flooring.--Crypt and Cathedral.--The Cuttle “Bone” and its - many-pillared Structure.--The Wasp-nest, its Pillars and - Floors.--Tunnel Entrances to Igloo.--Sudden Formation of - Snow.--Nest of the Fairy Martin.--The Sand-wasp and its Mode of - Building.--Doors and Hinges.--Eggs of the Gnat and - Rotifer.--Cocoons of Ichneumon-flies.--Habitations of - Microgaster.--Trap-doors in Nature and Art.--Habitation of the - Trap-door Spider.--A Nest upon a Pillar. - - -THE HUT. - -There can be little doubt that mankind has borrowed from the lower -animals the first idea of a dwelling, and it is equally true, as we -shall presently see, that not only primitive ideas of Architecture are -to be found in Nature, but that many, if not all, modern refinements -have been anticipated. - -To begin at the beginning. The first idea of a habitation is evidently a -mere shelter or roof that will keep off rain from the inhabitant. When -Mr. Bowdich was travelling in Western Africa, he was told that the -Njina--another name for the Gorilla--made huts for itself from branches, -the natives also saying that it defended these huts with extemporised -spears. A more truthful account is given of the Mpongwe and Shekiani, -namely, that the animal builds a hut, but lives on the roof, and not -under it. - -Although this information has since proved to be false, there was a -foundation of truth in it, for there really is an ape in that part of -Africa which makes huts, or rather roofs, for itself. This animal is the -Nshiego Mbouvé (_Troglodytes calvus_). - -This remarkable ape has a curious way of constructing a habitation. -Choosing a horizontal branch at some distance from the ground for its -resting-place, the animal erects above it a roof composed of fresh -branches, each laid over the other in such a way that rain would shoot -off them as it does from a thatched roof. M. du Chaillu gives the -following account of this habitation:-- - -[Illustration: NEST OF NSHIEGO MBOUVÉ.] - -[Illustration: AFRICAN TREE-HUT.] - -“As we were not in haste, I bade my men cut down the trees which -contained the nests of these apes. I found them made precisely as I have -before described, and as I have always found them, of long branches and -leaves laid one over the other very carefully and thickly, so as to -render the structure capable of shedding water. - -“The branches were fastened to the tree in the middle of the structure -by means of wild vines and creepers, which are so abundant in these -parts. The projecting limb on which the ape perched was about four feet -long. - -“There remains no doubt that these nests are made by the animal to -protect it from the nightly rains. When the leaves begin to dry to that -degree that the structure no longer sheds water, the owner builds a new -shelter, and this happens generally once in ten or fifteen days. At this -rate the Nshiego mbouvé is an animal of no little industry.” - -The roof which this ape builds is from six to eight feet in diameter, -and is tolerably circular, so that it looks something like a large -umbrella. When the animal is at rest it sits on the branch with one arm -thrown round the stem of the tree, in order to support itself during -sleep. In consequence of this attitude the hair is rubbed away on one -side, thus earning for the ape the specific title of _calvus_, or bald. - - * * * * * - -IT is rather remarkable that the Orang-outan of Borneo is likewise a -house-builder, though not in the same manner as the African ape which -has just been mentioned. This animal has a way of weaving together the -branches of trees, so as to make a platform on which it can repose, its -enormously powerful arms being of great service in this task. The animal -seems to make its platform in quite a mechanical manner, and it has been -noticed that when an Orang-outan has been mortally wounded, it has -expended its last energies in twisting the branches together so as to -form a couch on which it can lie down and die. - - * * * * * - -PUTTING aside those cases where huts have been erected in trees by way -of amusement, we may find instances where human beings have been forced -to make their habitations in trees. - -In some places, such as certain parts of South America, the natives are -forced to make their houses in trees, partly on account of the climate, -and partly for the purpose of avoiding the mosquitoes. - -The delta of the Orinoco River is nearly half as large as England, and -for a considerable part of the year is deep in water. Yet this tract is -inhabited by the Warau tribe, who find in it their only mode of escape -from the tiny but terrible mosquito. We in England know but little of -the miseries inflicted by these insects, which are so plentiful in some -parts of America that they are gathered in bags, pressed into thick -cakes about as large as ordinary dinner-plates, and an inch in -thickness, and then cooked and eaten. - -Now it is found that although the mosquito infests the banks of rivers, -it cannot venture far from land. The Waraus, therefore, make for -themselves habitations which are far enough from land to baffle the -mosquitoes, and near enough to be easily reached in canoes. - -Fortunately for them, there is a tree called the Ita Palm, belonging to -the genus Mauritia, which loves moisture, and grows abundantly in this -delta. The Waraus, therefore, make their habitations in these trees, -connecting several of them together with cross-beams, and laying planks -upon them so as to form the flooring of their simple huts. Here they -maintain themselves chiefly by fishing, but are sometimes obliged to -visit the mainland, in spite of the mosquitoes. When, however, they -return, they halt at some distance from the shore, and with green boughs -carefully beat out every mosquito from the canoe before they dare to -approach their dwellings. - -The once-celebrated Lake Dwellers of Switzerland evidently lived after a -similar fashion. - - * * * * * - -IN this case insects drive human beings into trees, but there are -instances where nobler animals have produced the same effect. - -Some years ago there lived in Southern Africa a powerful chief called -Moselekatze, who spent his whole life in warfare, converting all the -male inhabitants into soldiers, dividing them into regiments, ruling -them with the extreme of discipline, and by their aid devastating the -neighbouring countries. He swept off all the cattle, which constitutes -the wealth of the Kafir tribes, and either killed the male inhabitants -or pressed them into his service. - -The land was in consequence deprived of its natural defenders, and the -wild beasts, especially the lions, increased rapidly, so that the -position of the survivors was a really terrible one. They had no cattle -to furnish the milk which is the chief food of the Kafir tribes; their -weapons had been taken by Moselekatze; and they were forced to live -almost entirely on locusts and wild plants. By degrees the lions became -so numerous and daring, that the slight Kafir huts were an insufficient -protection during the night, and the disarmed and half-starved -inhabitants were perforce obliged to make their habitations in trees. - -Dr. Moffat, the well-known missionary, saw one tree in which there were -no less than twenty huts. They were conical, and made of sticks and -grass, the base resting upon a platform or scaffold laid upon the fork -of a horizontal branch. The only mode of approach to these huts was by -notches cut in the trunk of the tree. - -How needful were these precautions was shown by the fact that the -missionary himself spent a night in one of these aërial huts, and had -the pleasure of hearing a number of lions snarl and growl all night over -a rhinoceros hump which he had placed in an oven made of a deserted -ant-hill. The oven, however, was too hot for the lions, and they had to -retreat at daylight. - - * * * * * - -PASSING from the tropics to the polar regions, we now take an instance -where man has acknowledgedly copied an animal in the construction of his -dwelling. - -In Esquimaux-land, where no trees can grow, where for months together -the sun never rises above the horizon, where the temperature is many -degrees below zero, and where the land and ice are alike covered with a -mantle of snow so thick that every landmark is abolished, it would seem -that no human beings could support life for one week. There is neither -timber for house-building nor wood for fuel, so that shelter, warmth, -and cookery seem to be equally impossible, and as these are among the -prime necessities of human life, it is not easy to see how mankind could -exist. - -[Illustration: SNOW-HOUSE OF SEAL IN ESQUIMAUX-LAND.] - -[Illustration: SNOW-HOUSE OF ESQUIMAUX.] - -Yet these very regions are inhabited by sundry animals, and it is by -copying them that Man can keep his place. We have already seen how the -Esquimaux hunter copies the Polar Bear, and we have now to see how he -copies the Seal in the material and form of his dwelling-house, and not -only contrives to live, but to enjoy life all the more for the singular -conditions in which he is placed. Captain Hall mentions, in his “Life -with the Esquimaux,” that one of the natives, named Kudlago, who was -returning to his native country after visiting the United States, died -while on board the ship. Towards the end of his life he was yearning for -ice, and his last intelligible words were, “Do you see ice? Do you see -ice?” - -On the vast plains of ice that are formed in the winter-time the snow -lies thickly, and yet upon such an inhospitable spot the mother seal has -to make a home for her tender young. This she does in the following -manner:-- - -She has already preserved a “breathing hole” in the ice, through which -she can inhale air. How she finds so small a hole under the surface of -the ice, where there are no landmarks to guide her, is a marvel to every -swimmer. She has to chase fish and follow them in all their winding -courses, and yet, when she is in want of air, is able to go straight to -her breathing hole, and there take in a fresh supply of oxygen. - -When she is about to become a mother, she enlarges this breathing hole -so as to make it into a perpendicular tunnel. She then, with the sharp -nails of her fore-paws, or flippers, scoops away the snow in a dome-like -form, as shown in the illustration, taking the snow down with her -through the ice, and allowing it to be carried away by the water. By -degrees she makes a tolerably large excavation of a hemispherical shape, -and when her young is born she deposits it on the ice-ledge around the -tunnel. From ordinary foes the young Seal is safe, and nothing can -discover the position of the house unless guided by the sense of smell. - -How the Polar Bear and the Esquimaux hunter discover the dwelling and -capture the inmates we have already described in the chapter treating of -War and Hunting. Our present business is with the dwelling itself. -Comparatively few of these snow-houses, or _igloos_, as they are called, -are discovered, and they remain intact until the summer sun melts the -roof and exposes the habitation. By this time, however, the young Seal -has grown sufficiently to shift for itself, and no longer needs the -shelter of a dwelling. - - * * * * * - -THE winter hut, or igloo, of the Esquimaux is made of exactly the same -shape and of similar materials to the dwelling of the Seal, the chief -difference being that it is built instead of excavated. - -In order to save time, the igloo is generally erected by two men, one of -whom supplies the material, and the other acts as bricklayer and -architect in one. Each begins by tracing a suitably sized circle in the -snow, which he clears away to some depth, so as to preserve a firm -surface, either as a floor or as the material for the wall. In this work -both men are equally valuable, for the skill required to cut the slabs -of snow into such a shape that they can be formed into a hemispherical -dome is quite as much as that which is needed for putting them together. -I will call them the cutter and the builder. Sometimes a young hand is -employed by way of labourer, and passes the snow slabs to the builder as -fast as they are cut. - -The builder receives the slabs, and arranges them in regular order, -always taking care to “break the joints,” just as do our bricklayers of -the present day. Always remaining within the circle, he gradually builds -himself in, and when he has quite finished the house, he cuts a hole -through the side, emerges, and, by the help of his partner, puts on the -finishing touches. He usually also adds a sort of tunnel to the door, -through which any one must creep on his hands and knees if he wishes to -enter the igloo. This part of Esquimaux architecture will presently be -noticed more in full. - -Perhaps the reader may wish to know what provision there is for -ventilation. The answer is simple enough. There is none, the Esquimaux -not requiring ventilation any more than they require washing. The two, -indeed, generally go together; and it may be observed, even in our own -country, that those who object to fresh air, and are always complaining -of draughts, have a very practical aversion to the use of fresh water, -and but little confidence in what Thackeray calls the “flimsy artifices -of the bath.” - -The Esquimaux never washes, and knows not the use of linen. -Consequently, it is no matter of surprise that a sailor of Captain -Hall’s crew could not make up his mind to enter an igloo. “Whew!” -exclaimed the man, “by thunder, I’m not going in _there_! It’s crowded, -and smells horribly. How it looms up!” - -Considering that there were inside that igloo a dozen Esquimaux, all -feasting on a raw, newly killed, and yet warm seal, the sailor had -reason enough to decline a visit. Captain Hall, however, determined, in -his character of explorer, to brave the strange odours, and moreover to -join the inmates in their feast, knowing that as he would have to live -among the Esquimaux for some two years, he would be forced to live as -they did, and might as well begin at once. Consequently on this resolve, -he drank the still steaming blood, and quaffed it from a cup which an -Esquimaux woman had just licked clean. - - -FLOORS AND PILLARS. - -One decided step in Architecture is the invention of the Pillar, and its -capabilities of aiding to sustain another floor above it. We see this -principle carried out in our great cathedrals, where the use of the -Pillar is almost infinite. Take, for example, Canterbury Cathedral. A -heedless visitor might easily pass through the nave, enter the choir, -visit the various side-chapels, and “Becket’s Crown,” without thinking -that under his feet is a vast chamber, and that the floor on which he -stands is, in fact, the roof of a great crypt. - -[Illustration: WASP-COMBS.] - -[Illustration: SLAVE SHIP.] - -The weight of the Cathedral, with its lofty towers, is so tremendous, -that the building could not be erected simply upon the ground, but rests -upon a complicated substratum of pillars and arches, whereby the weight -is spread over a large surface. In fact, the Cathedral is really two -buildings, the one erected upon the other. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature there are many instances of pillars supporting different -floors. One of the most beautiful examples is to be seen in the common -Cuttle-bone, as it is called, this being the internal skeleton, if it -may be so termed, of the common Sepia (_Sepia officinalis_), which is so -often found on our coasts, especially after a gale. This year (1875) I -found eight of these Cuttle-bones on the Margate sands, and all within a -space of some twelve feet square. - -This so-called bone is really composed of the purest chalk, for which -reason it is in great request as a dentifrice, being easily scraped to -almost impalpable powder when wanted, and not liable to be spilled, as -is the case with any ordinary tooth-powder. - -It is exceedingly light--so light, indeed, that it floats like a cork, -even in fresh water. Now, as chalk is very much heavier than water, we -may naturally ask ourselves how this lightness is obtained. If the upper -surface be examined, it will be seen to be traversed by a vast number of -wavy lines, something like the markings of “watered” silk. These show -the lines of demarcation between the multitudinous rows of pillars of -which the whole structure is formed. - -If the “bone” be sharply snapped in the middle, and the particles of -white dust blown away, a wonderful structure presents itself, which can -be partially discerned by the naked eye, though a microscope is required -to bring out its full beauties. - -Even with an ordinary pocket lens we can make out some of its wonders. -The object looks like a vast collection of basaltic columns, except that -the pillars are white instead of black, and they are arranged in rows -with the most perfect accuracy, just as if the place of each had been -laid down with rule and compass. They are scarcely thicker than ordinary -hairs, but they are beautifully perfect, and rise in tier after tier as -if they were parts of a many-storied building. As a definite space -exists between the pillars, the reader will understand why the whole -structure should be so much lighter than water. In order, however, to -see these wonderful pillars in perfection, a very thin section should be -taken, and viewed with polarised light. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER excellent example of Pillars and Flooring is to be found in the -nests of various Wasps, including that of the Hornet. - -In these nests the combs are arranged horizontally, and not vertically, -like those of the bees, and in consequence they have to be supported in -some way. This object is achieved by means of multitudinous pillars made -of the same papier-mâché of which the combs are formed, and attached to -the successive rows of combs. There is, however, one curious point of -difference between the Wasp-comb and human architecture, namely, that -the pillars do not support floors, or rest upon them, but sustain the -weight of those which hang from them. The mouths of the cells are all -downwards, and the combs are therefore suspended from the pillars, -instead of being supported by them. - - -TUNNEL ENTRANCE TO THE DWELLING. - -We have already found occasion to treat of the snow-house, or igloo, of -the Esquimaux, and have now to speak of a subsidiary, though necessary, -part of Esquimaux architecture. - -Perhaps the reader may have been unfortunate enough to travel by rail in -the depth of winter, and to be associated with fellow-passengers who -will insist on closing every window, even though the carriage be -crowded. Suppose that on such a day, the weather being perfectly fine, -the train stops at a station, and the guard outside opens the door to -see if another passenger can be accommodated with a place. - -No sooner is the door opened than a shower of snow at once fills the -carriage. This is simply the moisture suspended in the air and generated -by human lungs. The rush of cold air at once freezes this moisture and -converts it into snow, thus showing those who will condescend to learn, -that they have been breathing and re-breathing the air that has passed -through a variety of human lungs, and is charged with their different -moistures. I have seen the same phenomenon at a dinner party, where, -after the withdrawal of the ladies, one of the windows was opened. - -Now, in Esquimaux-land, it is absolutely necessary to conserve every -atom of heat, for the cold is so intense that if a cask of water be near -a coal fire, only the part next the fire will be thawed, the rest being -ice. Cold, therefore, is a foe which has to be fought and kept away from -the household. Then there are other foes--such as Polar Bears, for -instance--which would be only too glad to get into an igloo and make a -meal of its inhabitants. The Esquimaux architect, therefore, avails -himself of an ingenious device by which he can set both foes at -defiance. - -In summer-time he contents himself with a hut made of skins, and merely -hangs a skin over the entrance by way of a door. But in the winter, when -he is driven to his snow-house for shelter, he acts in a very different -manner. Instead of merely cutting an aperture for a door in the side of -the igloo, he constructs a long, low, arched tunnel, so small that no -one can enter the igloo except by traversing this tunnel on his hands -and knees. Sometimes a number of huts are connected with each other, one -or two tunnels leading into the air, and the rest serving merely as -passages from one hut to the other. - -[Illustration: NESTS OF FAIRY MARTIN. TOWERS OF SAND-WASP.] - -[Illustration: HUTS OF ESQUIMAUX.] - - * * * * * - -IN Nature are several examples of tunnels constructed on the same -principle. - -There are, for instance, the curious nests of the Fairy Martin of -Southern Australia (_Hirundo Ariel_), which bear a singular resemblance -to oil-flasks, the body of the nest being rather globular, and the only -entrance being through a tolerably long, tunnel-like neck. - -Then there are the various Weaver-birds of Africa, with their -long-necked nests. Some of these strange edifices look almost like -horse-pistols suspended by the butt, so round is the nest, and so long -and narrow is the tunnel-like entrance. - - * * * * * - -PASSING to the insect world, we find the same principle carried out by -the now familiar Mason-wasp (_Odynerus murarius_), some of whose nests -are represented in the illustration. - -This insect makes a burrow, and at the bottom of it deposits an egg, -together with a number of little caterpillars on which the grub, when -hatched, will feed. The mother Wasp is not allowed to pursue this task -without taking precautions against the admission of enemies to her -burrow, especially the ichneumon-flies. As may be inferred from its -popular name, the Sand-wasp always selects a sandy spot for its burrow, -and generally chooses a piece of tolerably hard sandstone, which it is -able to bite into little pellets, aided by a kind of liquid which it -secretes. - -The following account of the manner in which the Mason-wasp forms and -defends its home is taken from the invaluable “Insect Architecture,” by -Rennie. - -The author begins by describing the form and depth of the burrow, and -the soil in which it is made. He then proceeds to show the wonderful -manner in which the mother Wasp purveys food for the use of her future -young whom she will never see. Guided by instinct, she places in the -burrow exactly the number of caterpillars which the young Mason-wasp -will have to consume before it attains its perfect condition. It is -believed that she partially paralyzes them with her sting before placing -them in the burrow. At all events, when they are once packed away, they -never move, so that the tiny Wasp grub can feed upon them quite at its -leisure. - -Here is Rennie’s account of the Sand-wasp and her burrow-making:-- - -“When this wasp has detached a few grains of the moistened sand, it -kneads them together into a pellet about the size of one of the seeds of -a gooseberry. - -“With the first pellet which it detaches, it lays the foundation of a -round tower, as an outwork, immediately over the mouth of its nest. -Every pellet which it afterwards carries off from the interior is added -to the wall of this outer round tower, which advances in height as the -hole in the sand increases in depth. Every two or three minutes, -however, during these operations, it takes a short excursion, for the -purpose probably of replenishing its store of fluid wherewith to moisten -the sand. Yet so little time is lost, that Réaumur has seen a mason-wasp -dig in an hour a hole the length of its body, and at the same time build -as much of its round tower. - -“For the greater part of its height this round tower is perpendicular, -but towards the summit it bends into a curve, corresponding to the bend -of the insect’s body, which, in all cases of insect architecture, is the -model followed. The pellets which form the walls of the tower are not -very nicely joined, and numerous vacuities are left between them, giving -it the appearance of filigree-work. - -“That it should be thus slightly built is not surprising, for it is -intended as a temporary structure for protecting the insect while it is -excavating its hole, and as a pile of materials, well arranged and ready -at hand, for the completion of the interior building,--in the same way -that workmen make a regular pile of bricks near the spot where they are -going to build. This seems, in fact, to be the main design of the tower, -which is taken down as expeditiously as it has been reared. - -“Réaumur thinks, that by piling in the sand which has previously been -dug out, the wasp intends to guard its progeny for a time from being -exposed to the too violent heat of the sun; and he has sometimes even -seen that there were not sufficient materials in the tower, in which -case the wasp had recourse to the rubbish she had thrown out after the -tower was completed. By raising a tower of the materials which she -excavates, the wasp produces the same shelter from external heat as a -human being would who chose to inhabit a deep cellar of a high house. - -“She further protects her progeny from the ichneumon-fly, as the -engineer constructs an outwork to render more difficult the approach of -an enemy to the citadel. Réaumur has seen this indefatigable enemy of -the wasp peep into the mouth of the tower, and then retreat, apparently -frightened at the depth of the cell which she was anxious to invade.” - -It is no wonder that the Sand-wasp should be so anxious to insure the -safety of her nest, for her foes are multitudinous. Putting aside the -ordinary Ichneumon-flies, we have the predatory Tachinæ, which are -always hovering over such nests, and trying to deposit eggs therein. For -many years I have been in the habit of receiving letters from novices in -entomology, wanting to know whether I am aware that the common Housefly -is in the habit of acting as a parasite. Of course, the writer has -mistaken the Tachina for a house-fly, but I cannot regret the fact that -some one has really begun to observe Nature, and not only to read books. - - -DOORS AND HINGES. - -Having seen that both in Nature and Art the entrances to dwellings are -guarded by tunnel-like approaches, we come naturally to another mode of -guarding the entrance, namely, by a door moving on hinges. As to the -multitudinous examples of doors and hinges in modern civilisation, we -need hardly discuss them, except to show the exact analogies which occur -in Art and Nature. - -Doors moving on hinges are very plentiful in Nature, even where we -should least expect them. Take, for example, an egg, especially the egg -of an insect, and we shall see that it is just about the last object in -which we should expect to find a hinged door. Yet, if the reader will -refer to the illustration on page 7, he will see that the tiny eggs of -the common Gnat, numerous as they may be, are each furnished with a door -which opens as soon as the inmate is hatched, and allows the little -larva to escape into the water. - -Another still more remarkable instance of a hinged door in an egg is to -be found in one of the Rotifers, or Wheel-Animalcules, so called because -they possess an apparatus of movable cilia, which, when set in motion, -looks exactly like a wheel running round and round. As the full-grown -creature is barely one thirty-sixth of an inch in total length, the -structure of its eggs must be infinitesimally beyond the range of human -vision. - -Yet, just as the telescope sets at partial defiance the vast spaces that -intervene between our earth and her sister planets, so the microscope -performs a similar task in the infinitesimally minute. And, under the -all-revealing lens of the microscope, the little egg of the Brachionus, -though absolutely invisible to the unaided eye, yields up its secrets. - -Fortunately, the shell is so transparent that the interior of the egg -can be seen through it as if it were a mere film of glass. The -astonishing division and re-division of the yolk take place before our -eyes, being divided first into two, then into four, then into eight, -then into sixteen, then into thirty-two, and so on, until the whole mass -of the yolk is cloven into divisions too numerous to count. - -By degrees, the form of the young Brachionus is developed within the -egg, even to the very teeth, which work away as persistently as if large -stores of food were being passed through them. - -When the young is ready to take its place in the world, a new -development occurs, which has been well related by Mr. Gosse:-- - -“All these phenomena have appeared in the egg we are now watching; and -at this moment you see the crystalline little prisoner, writhing and -turning impatiently within its prison, striving to burst forth into -liberty. - -“Now, a crack, like a line of light, shoots round one end of the egg, -and in an instant, the anterior third of the egg is forced off, and the -wheels of the infant Brachionus are seen rotating as perfectly as if the -little creature had had a year’s practice. - -“Away it glides, the very image of its mother, and swims to some -distance before it casts anchor, beginning an independent life. At the -moment of escape of the young, the pushed-off lid of the egg resumes its -place, and the egg appears nearly whole again, but empty and perfectly -hyaline (_i.e._ all but transparent), with no evidence of its fracture, -except a slight interruption of its outline, and a very faint line -running across it.” - -To pass from the egg to a more advanced stage in life. All practical -entomologists have been greatly annoyed, in their earlier years of -collecting, to lose larva after larva, from the attacks of -Ichneumon-flies. It _is_ certainly rather beyond the limits of ordinary -patience to discover, watch over, and secure successfully a rare -caterpillar, and then to find that it has been “stung” by an -Ichneumon-fly. - -The veteran entomologist, however, troubles himself very little about -such minor misfortunes, and, as a rule, more than compensates for them -by preserving the intrusive Ichneumon-fly, and giving in his diary full -details of the insect on which it was parasitic, of the plant on which -the caterpillar lived, the date of its appearance, and its numbers. - -Now, there are many of these parasitic insects, notably those belonging -to the genus Microgaster, which invariably make doors in their cocoons. -I have now before me groups of cocoons made of the two commonest British -species, namely, _Microgaster glomeratus_ and _Microgaster alvearius_, -and in both of them each tiny cocoon is furnished with a hemispherical, -hinged door. I have also some exquisitely beautiful groups of -Microgaster cocoons found in the West Indies. They are the purest white, -shine with a satiny lustre, and are arranged round a hollow centre, much -as if they had been gummed to the outside of a very large thimble. There -are many hundreds of them, and every one has its little door still open -as it was when the fully developed insect first made its escape. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER curious example of a natural door may be seen by those who will -look for it. - -On plants infested with aphides, or “green blight,” as the gardeners -quaintly term them, may often be seen dead aphides much larger than the -rest, globular, brown, and shining. These aphides have been “stung,” as -it is called, by a little Ichneumon-fly belonging to the genus Ophion, -and having, like all its congeners, a flat and sickle-shaped abdomen. -The egg which has been laid in the aphis soon hatches, and the young -Ophion absorbs into itself all the juices of the aphis. It remains -within the body of its involuntary host until it is fully developed, -when it cuts a tiny, but beautifully perfect circular door in the skin, -and emerges, leaving the door open and still attached by its little -hinge. - -Considering the small size of the aphis, and that the diameter of the -door is only one-eighth of the length of the insect, the perfection of -its form is really remarkable. - - * * * * * - -ONE of the achievements of modern Architecture is the Self-closing Door, -especially where it must of necessity close by its own weight, and when -the fitting is so exact, that even the most experienced eye can -scarcely detect it. Such a door is to be found guarding the nest of the -Trap-door Spiders, several species of which are found scattered over all -the warm parts of the earth. A side view of one of these extraordinary -nests is given in the accompanying illustration, and on the other side -is the common trap-door of our cellars. - -[Illustration: DOOR OF TRAP-DOOR SPIDER.] - -[Illustration: TRAP-DOOR OF COAL-CELLAR.] - -The Spiders which make these extraordinary dwellings generally begin by -excavating a nearly perpendicular tunnel in the ground. They line it -with a silken web, and construct a door which exactly fits the orifice, -and which is bevelled so that it shall not sink too far, and thus betray -itself. I have seen and handled one, where the burrow had been sunk -among lichens and mosses, and the trap-door of the nest had been most -ingeniously covered with the same growths. Although the surface of the -slab of earth in which the nest was made is only a few inches square, it -is almost impossible to detect the entrance, so admirably do the mosses -on the door correspond with those outside it. - -Almost invariably the nest is sunk in the ground, but I have a specimen -sent to me from India, in which the Spider must absolutely have carried -the clay to a fluted pillar, burrowed in it, and then made its beautiful -habitation. The nest and its inhabitant were sent to me by an officer in -the 108th Regiment, accompanied by the following letter:-- - -“The packet contains a large Spider and the upper portion of its -peculiar nest, the history of which is as follows. - -“On the thirtieth of last month (September, 1870), while searching for -caterpillars on a bush growing close to one of the pillars of my -verandah, which is a very low one, reaching to within a foot of the -ground, I saw in part of the chunam masonry at the foot of the pillar -what I at first sight took to be a couple of seeds sticking to a stone. -On trying to pull one off, I found that it came up with ease, bringing -with it what I thought was the stone. - -“But I had scarcely got it up when it was smartly pulled back. This -excited my curiosity, and I raised it again with a little force. I now -saw, to my wonder and admiration, that what I had fancied was a stone -was a small circular door with a pretty broad hinge, made all of silk; -and then distinctly observed a large black spider dart down the hole to -which the above door gave an entrance. But, not knowing the depth, I -broke it. - -“This piece I send to you, together with its original owner, who, at the -beginning of my digging operations, ran up suddenly, shut the door in my -face, and hung on to it like grim death when I tried to reopen it. He -soon came away with the upper piece, still keeping the door resolutely -closed.” - - - - -ARCHITECTURE. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - WALLS, DOUBLE AND SINGLE.--PORCHES, EAVES, AND WINDOWS.--THATCH, - SLATES, AND TILES. - - The Wall and its Materials.--Bricks as they are and might - be.--Trade Unionism.--Double Walls and their Uses.--Double - Clothing.--The Refrigerator.--Cooking Vessels.--Fire-proof - Safes.--Cocoon of the Silkworm, and its treble Walls.--Nest of the - Little Ermine, Processionary, Gold-tailed, and Brown-tailed - Moths.--Mud Walls.--Nests of the Termite.--Porches, Eaves, and - Windows.--Nests of the Myrapetra and an Indian Ant.--The Sociable - Weaver-bird and its Nest.--Thatching.--Arms of the - Orang-outan.--Japanese and Chinese Rain-cloaks.--Eggs of the - Gold-tailed Moth.--Action of Fur.--Slates and Tiles.--Scales of - Butterfly’s Wing.--Shell of Tortoise.--Scales of Manis, Fish, and - Armadillo. - - -We now come to the Walls of the house, in which there is more variety -than might be imagined. - -Take, for example, our modern houses of the “villa” type. They are -nothing but the merest shells, made of the flimsiest imaginable -materials. Some years ago, while walking through a suburb where some -very showy houses were being built, I amused myself by going over them -and testing them. There was scarcely a room in which I could not thrust -an ordinary walking-stick through the wall. When they were “finished” -and “pointed,” the houses looked beautiful, but their heat in summer, -cold in winter, and moisture in wet weather, can easily be imagined, -especially as the sand with which the mortar was mixed had been procured -from the banks of a tidal river. - -There is not the least necessity for such buildings. It is absurd to run -up such edifices as that, and then charge £120 per annum for rent. The -whole system is as rotten as the houses, and there is nothing but -prejudice and trade-unionism to prevent our houses being cool in summer, -warm in winter, and dry in all weathers. - -It is well known that air is practically a non-conductor of heat, and -that therefore a layer of air between two very slight walls is just as -warm as if the wall had been made of solid stone. Now, there are several -inventions whereby the present brick could be made half its present -weight, twice its present strength, hard and smooth as earthenware, so -that it could not absorb water like our common brick, and pierced with -holes through which air could pass. - -[Illustration: FUR.] - -[Illustration: NEST OF LITTLE ERMINE-MOTH.] - -[Illustration: ICE-HOUSE.] - -Unfortunately, however, there is a stringent rule among brickmakers and -bricklayers that they are to play into each other’s hands, and that no -bricklayer is to touch a brick which has not been made in some definite -district. Should he do so, he is a marked man, and will stand but little -chance of getting even a day’s work. - -The power of the double wall may be seen in many ways. For example, in -the old days of coaching, when one had to pass hour after hour on the -roof of the coach, it was known by practical experience that double body -linen, and two pairs of stockings, worn one over the other, formed the -best preparation for the journey. The reason was, that air became -entangled between the layers of fabric, and acted as a non-conductor of -heat. - -Another mode of utilising the principle of the double wall is seen in -the refrigerators which add so much to the comfort of the household in a -hot summer. The one principle of these refrigerators is, to keep a layer -of air between the ice and the surrounding atmosphere. The same -principle may be used in a reverse way, and heat be preserved instead of -repelled. Those cooking-pots are now well known, where half-cooked meat -can be inserted in the morning, and at luncheon-time be turned out quite -hot and perfectly cooked. The fact is, that the vessels in question are -covered with a very thick layer of felt. The felt, however, is only a -device for entangling air, and a double wall would answer the purpose as -well, if not better. - -The now well-known fire-resisting safes are made on this principle, and -after they have been for hours in a raging fire, and the outer case has -become red-hot, the interior is quite safe, the papers uninjured, and -even a watch continuing to go. - -Then there is the ordinary Ice-house, a sketch of which is given in the -illustration. A pit is first dug in the ground, and thickly lined with -dry branches, straw, &c. The roof is constructed in the same manner, -only the non-conducting power is increased by a thick coating of earth -over the sticks and straw. The door, which is approached by a shelving -cutting, is similarly protected, the covering only being removed when -the door is opened. - -I once made a very effective refrigerator out of two hampers, putting a -small hamper inside a large one, and packing the space between them with -straw. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature we find many examples of this principle, which enables the -inhabitants to bid defiance to frost. - -A familiar example may be found in the cocoon of the common Silk-worm -(_Bombyx mori_), and indeed in that of almost any silk-producing insect. -When the caterpillar is about to make its cocoon, it begins by a number -of rather strong threads attached to different points, and making a sort -of scaffolding, so to speak, for the cocoon itself. Upon these is spun a -slight outer cocoon of very loose and vague texture--the “floss silk” of -commerce, and within that is the cocoon proper, in which the insect lies -enclosed. It will be seen, therefore, that there are really three -cocoons, one within the other, namely, the scaffold cocoon, the floss -cocoon, and the silk cocoon itself, so that the inmate is protected from -variations of temperature. - -The cocoon of the emperor-moth, which has already been described, is -made on the same principle. - -There are several caterpillars which are social in their early stages, -and which construct a common habitation. The Little Ermine-moth. -(Hyponomeuta padella) affords a familiar example of this structure. The -caterpillars are great roamers in search of food by day, and travel from -branch to branch on their strong silken threads. At night, however, they -return to a large white silken habitation which they have spun, and -which they divide into many compartments, as may easily be seen by -cutting the nest open with very sharp scissors. Within this habitation -the caterpillars spin their separate cocoons, so that the system of -double walls is thoroughly carried out. - -There is another insect, very common on the Continent, but, happily for -us, not introduced into England. It is called the Processionary Moth, -from its curious habit of marching in exact lines, the head of the -second caterpillar touching the tail of the first, and so on. These -insects have likewise a common home, and spin their own separate cocoons -within it. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: NEST OF PROCESSIONARY MOTH.] - -[Illustration: COCOON OF SILK-WORM.] - -[Illustration: FIREPROOF SAFE.] - -There are two other sociable British Moths which make nests on a similar -principle. These are the Gold-tailed Moth (_Porthesia chrysorrhœa_) -and the Brown-tailed Moth (_Porthesia auriflua_). They are both -beautifully white insects, but may easily be distinguished from each -other, the Gold-tailed Moth having some brown-black spots on the upper -wings, and a tuft of golden-yellow hairs at the end of the body; while -the Brown-tailed Moth is without spots, and the tail-tuft is brown. - -In habits they are very similar, and the description of the nest made by -one will answer for that made by the other. I believe that broods of -these two species have been known to construct a common nest. The nest -is extremely variable in form, because it depends much on the number of -twigs which it includes. Interiorly, it is divided into a considerable -number of chambers, each containing one or several individuals. - -As the caterpillars are hatched late in summer, they have to undergo the -frosts of winter before they can attain their perfect state. -Accordingly, before the winter-time comes on, they strengthen both the -external walls and internal partitions of their nest, and then wait -until the spring brings forth the leafage of the new year. - -The nest is a beautiful structure, and I strongly recommend the reader -to look for one in a hedgerow, take it home, and cut it up carefully. I -would, however, advise him, if, like myself, he be subjected to a very -sensitive skin, to be cautious in his handling of the nest. The hairs -with which the pretty black, red, and white caterpillars are studded are -irritant in the extreme. - -I have several times suffered from them, and would much rather be -severely stung by nettles than undergo the fierce irritation, mixed with -dull heavy pain, which always accompanies the presence of these hairs. -With me, as I suppose would be the case with persons of similar -organization, these hairs cause large, hard tubercles to rise, just as -if potatoes had been placed under the skin. The hairs of the -Processionary Caterpillar have a similar effect, and in France the -authorities have several times been obliged to close the public gardens -for months, so severe was the pain which the caterpillars inflicted on -persons who passed through the spots infested by them. - - -MUD WALLS. - -There is a mode of wall-building which is much in vogue in some parts of -England, and has much to commend itself. This is the Mud or Concrete -Wall. - -At first sight, the very name of a mud house gives an idea of poverty -and misery, and is apt to be connected with hovels and pigsties. Mud -walls, however, if properly built, are far warmer and drier than those -of brick, and are even preferred to those of stone, when the latter can -be easily and cheaply obtained. In Devonshire, for example, where even -the cattle-sheds, or “linhays” (pronounced _linny_), and the pigsties -are made of the rich red stone of the county, it is a common thing to -see village houses built of mud. Sometimes the houses are built of stone -to the height of some ten or twelve feet, and the upper parts made of -mud. - -[Illustration: NEST OF TERMITE.] - -[Illustration: MUD WALL.] - -If the builders are in any way fastidious, they make their walls of a -uniform surface by placing two rows of planks on their edges at a -distance from each other proportionate to the thickness of the wall, -pouring the mud between them, and, when it has sufficiently hardened, -shifting the planks. This, however, is not necessary, and detracts much -from the picturesque look of a genuine mud wall, especially when it is -of that rich red which characterizes the Devonshire soil. These mud -walls are locally known by the name of Cob. - - * * * * * - -WE have not to go very far in Nature to find good examples of the -strength which can be attained by mud walls. - -In all parts of the world where Termites, popularly but wrongly called -White Ants, are to be found, the strength and endurance of the mud wall -can easily be tested. Of gigantic dimensions when compared with the size -of the architect, they not only endure the rain-torrents which wash over -them, but can sustain the weight of the wild cattle, which are in the -habit of using them as watch-towers, and this although they are hollow, -and filled with chambers and galleries. - -In Southern Africa these nests are much utilised. There is an animal -called by the Dutch settlers the Aard-vark, which feeds almost wholly -on Termites. At night it issues from its burrow, and, being armed with -large and powerful claws, tears a great hole in the side, and devours -the inmates. - -These deserted nests are sometimes used as ovens, as we have already -seen, a fire having been kindled within them for some time, the meat, -well enveloped in leaves, being thrust into them, and the opening closed -with clay. Sometimes they are used as graves, the corpse being placed in -them, and the hollow filled up with earth, while the wall of the Termite -nest, when pounded and mixed with water, is found to be the most -tenacious clay that can be used for building or flooring huts. - - -PORCHES, EAVES, AND WINDOWS. - -We now come to some of the appendages of a house, namely, the Porch by -which the rain is kept from a doorway, the Eaves by which it is kept -from the walls, and the Windows which will admit light and air, but will -prevent the entrance of intruders. - -We first take the Porch, two examples of which are shown in the -accompanying illustration, one being the work of human hands, and the -other that of an insect. - -The figure on the right hand represents an old-fashioned Porch, such as -is often to be seen attached to old village churches, and which, being -furnished with seats, serves also as a resting-place for those who are -weary. - -[Illustration: NESTS OF MYRAPETRA, WITH PORCHES.] - -[Illustration: PORCH.] - -The figure on the left hand of the illustration is a wonderful example -of the Porch, as constructed by insects. It is the nest of a -honey-making Brazilian wasp named _Myrapetra scutellaris_. The -peculiarity of this nest consists in its exterior being covered with a -vast number of projections made of the same material as the walls of the -nest, but more solid and much harder. The colour of the nest is blackish -brown. - -The object of all these projections has not been ascertained, but there -is no difficulty as regards some of them. Without a very careful -examination, it is exceedingly difficult to see any opening by which the -inhabitants of the nest can go in and out. It will be found, however, -that there are many entrances, which are set in a row round the nest, -each opening being situated under a projection, which thus performs the -office of a porch as well as that of concealment. - -Another hymenopterous insect carries out the principle of the Porch in -its nest. This is the _Myrmica Kirbyi_, a tiny reddish Ant which -inhabits India. It makes its nest of cow-dung, which it works up into a -texture very like that of an ordinary wasp-nest. A series of large -flakes of this substance overhang the entrances, so that the inhabitants -can enter freely, while rain is kept out. For the purpose of greater -security, one very large flake covers the roof in umbrella fashion. The -whole nest is globular, and about eight inches in diameter. - - * * * * * - -NEXT we come to the projecting Eaves, like those of our houses, and -serving to preserve the body of the edifice itself from wet. On the -right hand of the illustration there is an example of the eaves as they -are still to be seen in some of our country places, where the less -picturesque slates have not yet superseded the old thatch. In some -places these eaves extend considerably beyond the walls, and I know of -several instances, especially in North Devon, where a supplementary set -of eaves extends, like a penthouse, throughout the length of the -building, and just above the windows of the ground-floor. - -The reader will remark that the projections upon the Myrapetra’s nest -may very well fulfil the office of eaves as that of porches, and not -only shelter the entrances, but serve to shoot the wet off the walls of -the nest. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration are several instances of eaves as -existing in Nature. - -In the centre is the compound nest of the Sociable Weaver-bird of -Southern Africa (_Philetœrus socius_). - -This is a dwelling constructed very much after the fashion adopted by -many hymenopterous insects, namely, that each pair of birds make their -own individual nest, but unite with their companions in constructing a -common roof or covering. More than three hundred nests have been found -in a single habitation, and sometimes the birds miscalculate, or rather, -do not calculate the resisting power of the branches, and, when the -rainy season comes, the additional weight of water brings down the whole -edifice with a great crash. - -[Illustration: DWELLING OF SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRD, WITH THATCH.] - -[Illustration: THATCHED EGGS OF GOLD-TAILED MOTH.] - -[Illustration: THATCHED HOUSE.] - -The thatch which covers this congeries of nests is made of the -Booschmannees-grass, whose long leaves and tough wiry stems are -admirably adapted for throwing off water, even though they be not bound -together like our more regularly constructed thatch. - -Perhaps the reader may be aware that in the Orang-outan, the Chimpansee, -and other large apes, the hairs of the arms are very long, and point in -different directions, so that if the creature should be caught in a -rain-storm, and, after the manner of its kind, fold its arms on its -breast, with the hands resting on the shoulders, the rain is shot clear -of its body, the hairs performing the duty of eaves. - -Both Japan and China have a rain-cloak, constructed on exactly the same -principle as the thatch of the Sociable Weaver-bird. They are nothing -more than successive rows of long grass-blades fastened to a network of -the proper shape. No amount of rain or snow can wet them through, and -they have the advantage of being pervious to the exhalations of the -body, though impervious to external moisture. - -In this respect they are greatly superior to our waterproof coats, for, -if the wearer has to undergo much bodily exertion, or is obliged to wear -it for any length of time, he finds his clothing nearly if not quite as -wet as if he had allowed the pure rain to fall on him from the clouds. I -possess specimens of each kind of cloak. - -When I procured them they were quite blackened with London smoke, and, -on account of their resistance to water, washing them was a very long -and troublesome business. - -Above the nest are two patches of the Booschmannees-grass, as they -appear when laid by the bird. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the nest is a group of the eggs of the Gold-tailed Moth, whose -nest has already been described. Perhaps the reader wonders where the -eggs are. Owing to the mode in which they are arranged, only a few can -be seen, and are represented by the little white spots in the lower part -of the figure. When the Gold-tailed Moth is ready for the great business -of laying her eggs, she seeks a suitable place, and then piles them up -in the form of a shallow cone. Her task, however, is not yet finished. -Having arranged her eggs, she scrapes off the long downy hairs of the -tail-tuft, and arranges them carefully on the eggs so as to cover them -with a conical thatch, very much resembling that of an ordinary -corn-rick. - -The Brown-tailed Moth acts in a similar fashion. - -Furs of various kinds act in the same manner, being impervious to wet -during the life of the animal. Such, for example, is the fur of the -Beaver, that of the Capybara, and that of the Seal, which are animals -living in our time. These, however, are exceeded in their thatch-like -powers by the three successive coatings of hair that were worn by the -ancient Mammoth, the outermost being very long and very coarse, and -hanging down in heavy tufts so as to shoot the water from them. - - * * * * * - -BEING on the subject of roofs, we will take a few more examples of the -roof as anticipated in Nature. - -[Illustration: WINGS OF BUTTERFLY.] - -[Illustration: TILES OF HOUSES.] - -That parallel fibres, whether animal or vegetable, can throw off rain -when properly arranged, has already been shown. Much more is it evident -that flat or partly flat plates will have the same effect, if they be -arranged so that the joints are “broken,” as masons and bricklayers say, -_i.e._ so that the broad part of the upper row of plates overlaps the -junction of two of the plates in the row immediately below it. - - * * * * * - -ON the right hand of the accompanying illustration are given two -sketches of a modern roof, one slated and the other tiled. The figures -on the left show that this formation has been anticipated by Nature, in -the wonderful system of scales which cover the wings of butterflies and -moths, and to which all their brilliancy of colour is owing. In spite of -their minute size, most being too small to be distinguished by the -unaided eye, they are arranged as regularly as the best workman could -lay the slates or tiles on a roof, and on exactly the same principle. - -The shapes of these scales vary in almost every species, but they are -always arranged on the same plan, namely, being placed in successive -rows, each overlapping the other. - -In consequence, it is almost impossible to wet a butterfly’s wing with -water. The insect may be plunged beneath the surface, and the long hairs -of the body will be soaked and cling together in a very miserable -fashion. But the water rolls off the wings like rain off a slated roof, -and even if a few drops remain on the surface, they can be shaken off, -and the wing will be perfectly dry. - -Mostly these scales are flat, but sometimes they are curved. I have -among my microscopic objects a piece of wing from a South American -butterfly, the scales of which are oblong and bent, just like the curved -tiles shown in the second right-hand figure of the illustration. These -beautiful scales are deep azure or warm brown, according to the -direction of the light. - -Perhaps my readers may call to mind that some architects dislike the -flat, square form in which slates are usually put on roofs, and try to -make them less formal. - -[Illustration: SHELL OF TORTOISE.] - -[Illustration: HEXAGONALLY TILED ROOF.] - -Sometimes they take their square slates, and fit them with one of the -angles uppermost, so that each slate looks something like the ace of -diamonds in a pack of cards. Sometimes they are still more ambitious, -and certainly succeed in producing a better effect, by cutting the -slates in hexagons instead of squares, and fixing them as shown in the -right-hand figure of the illustration. Putting aside the familiar -hexagons of the honeycomb, and the apparent hexagons of an insect’s -compound eye, we have in the common Tortoise an example of hexagonal -plates that exactly resembles the slate roofing. - -In the next illustration we have a variety of the same principle -exhibited in differently shaped tiles and scales. The figures on the -right hand show the pointed, the square, and the oblong tiles. These -also would answer very well as representations of different forms of -scale armour, the one being intended to throw off rain, and the other to -repel weapons. - -On the other side of the illustration are examples taken from the animal -kingdom. First comes the Bajjerkeit, or Short-tailed Manis, which has -already been mentioned, and whose imbricated scales will resist the -blows of any spear or sword. As to my own specimen, when it is struck, -it resounds as if it were a solid plate of metal, and I should think -that during the lifetime of the animal a reasonably strong axe would -not easily make its way through that coat of mail. - -Below the Manis are a pair of fish, whose scales, though not so strong -as those of the mammal, yet are arranged in the same manner, and answer -the same purpose. The last figure represents three scale-bands of the -Armadillo, an animal which has already been mentioned. I may as well -state here that in several anthropological museums there are various -portions of defensive armour made from the scale-clad skin of the -Crocodile, Manis, and similar animals. - -[Illustration: MANIS.] - -[Illustration: FISHES.] - -[Illustration: BANDS OF ARMADILLO.] - -[Illustration: TILES AND SLATES.] - - - - -ARCHITECTURE - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - THE WINDOW.--GIRDERS, TIES, AND BUTTRESSES.--THE TUNNEL.--THE - SUSPENSION-BRIDGE. - - The Window, and its Modifications according to Climate.--Bars and - Tracery.--The Wheel-window and the Caddis.--Curious Structure of - the Caddis-tube.--Object of its Window.--The Girder as applied to - Architecture.--The Radius and Ulna.--The Tie as applied to - Architecture, and its Value.--Combination of the Tie and - Girder.--Structure of the Crystal Palace.--Leaf of the Victoria - Regia.--A Gardener turned Architect.--The Buttress in Art and - Nature.--The Tunnel used as a Passage of Communication.--Natural - Tunnel of the Ship-worm.--The Thames Tunnel.--The Piddock, or - Pholas.--The Driver-ant.--The Suspension-bridge.--The Palm-wine - Maker and his Bridge.--Suspension-bridges of Borneo and South - America.--The Creepers and the Monkey Tribes.--The Spider and - Little Ermine Caterpillar. - - -THE WINDOW. - -Having traced, though but superficially, the chief parts of a building, -such as the walls, the door which is opened through the walls, and the -roof which shelters them, we naturally come to the Windows by which -light is admitted to them, and enemies excluded. - -There are, perhaps, few points in Architecture in which such changes -have been made as in the Window, which, instead of being a difficulty in -the way of the architect, is now valued as a means of increasing the -beauty of the building. Taking for example even such advanced specimens -of Architecture as those furnished by Egypt, Greece, and Rome, we find -that the Window is either absent altogether, its place being supplied by -a hole in the roof, or that, when it is present, it was made quite -subordinate to the pillars and similar ornaments of the building. - -This fact is, perhaps, greatly owing to the influence of climate. In the -parts of the world which have been mentioned in connection with this -subject, light and heat appear to be rather enemies than friends, and -the object of the architect was to enable the inhabitants of his houses -to avoid rather than to welcome both. Consequently, the Windows were -comparatively insignificant. They were not needed for the purposes of -light or air, those being generally furnished by the aperture in the -roof, and consequently were kept out of sight as much as possible. - -But when architects had to build for a sterner, a colder, and a darker -clime, where the sun never assumed that almost devouring heat and light -which in hot countries drive the inhabitants to invent endless devices -for obtaining coolness and shade, a different style of Architecture -sprang up. In this the Window became nearly the most prominent part of -the building: the elements were excluded by glass instead of stone, and -the principal modifications of light were obtained by staining the glass -in various rich colours. Perhaps the Window has attained its culminating -point in the Crystal Palace, which is all window except its foundations. - -Partly in order to enable the glass to be inserted, and partly to -increase the beauty of the building, and to avoid the mean appearance of -Windows filled in with plain iron bars crossing each other at right -angles, the interior of the Windows was adorned with stone “tracery,” -varying much according to the epoch of the building. - -[Illustration: CADDIS GRATING.] - -[Illustration: WHEEL-WINDOW.] - -One of the most beautiful forms of the Window is that which is called -the Wheel. The window itself is circular, and the tracery is disposed so -as to bear an exact resemblance to an ornamental wheel, the lines of the -tracery running from the circumference to the centre, just like the -spokes of a wheel. One of these Wheel-windows is shown on the right hand -of the illustration. - -On the other side is an object, which at a hasty glance might be taken -for another Window of the same character. It is, however, the work of an -insect, and not of man, and is magnified in order to show its structure -better. - -Any of my readers who may happen to be entomologists or anglers, or -both, are familiar with the Caddis-worm of our fresh waters. Most of us -know that the Caddis is the grub or larva of the Stone-fly -(_Phryganea_), an insect haunting the waterside, and so moth-like in its -general aspect that many persons think that it is really a brown moth. -The changes or metamorphoses of these insects are well worthy of notice. - -In one respect the Caddis resembles the larva of the Wax-moth, mentioned -on page 151, inasmuch as it has a soft, defenceless body, while the -first three segments are comparatively hard. Like the Wax-moth also, the -Caddis lives in a tube constructed by itself. Instead, however, of -having a long and fixed tube, up and down which it can pass at pleasure, -the Caddis makes a tube only a little longer than its body, and light -enough to be carried about, just as the hermit-crab carries its -supplementary shell. There are many species of Caddis-fly. - -The Caddis inhabits fresh waters, and cares nothing whether they be -ponds or running streams. In order to defend its white, plump, and -helpless body from the fishes and other enemies, it constructs a tube -around its body, strengthening it by a wonderful variety of material -according to the locality. - -Mostly the tubes are covered with little pieces of stick or grass, or -leaves, while some species use nothing but sand-grains, constructing -with them a tube very much resembling in shape an elephant’s tusk, and -reminding the conchologist of the dentalium shell. But they seem to use -almost anything that comes to hand. Taking only examples found by myself -in a single pond, these cases are formed of sand, stones, sticks, -grass-stems, leaves, shells of small water-snails, mostly the flat -planorbis, the opercula of the water-snail, empty mussel-shells, a -chrysalis of some moth which had evidently been blown into the water -from an overhanging tree, and acorn-cups. The larva, however, does not -seem to be able to fasten together any objects with smooth surfaces, and -though it has been known, when in captivity, to make its cases out of -gold-dust or broken glass, it could not use either material when in the -form of beads. - -When it is full-fed, and about to enter the pupal state, it proceeds to -prepare its habitation. As a larva, when it desired to feed, it -protruded its head and the front of its body from the mouth of the tube, -and then crawled about in search of nourishment, dragging the tube with -it, and holding it firmly by means of the claspers with which the end of -the body is furnished. But when it becomes a pupa it is no longer able -to defend itself, and is instinctively compelled to secure its safety in -some peculiar manner. - -It cannot fasten up the entrance entirely, because it would not be able -to breathe unless water could pass over its body. Accordingly, it -constructs a grated window precisely like those of the old castles, so -that water can pass freely, while no enemy can gain admittance. Unlike, -however, the grated windows of the castle, which had no pretence to -beauty, the Caddis always constructs its barriers in some definite -pattern. Each species appears to have its own peculiar pattern, but all -agree in making their window, if we may so call it, exactly like a -wheel-window before the glass is inserted. - -When the pupa is about to make its final change into the perfect form, -it cuts away the tracery with a pair of sharp jaws, with which it is -furnished for this sole purpose, emerges from the water, throws off the -pupa-skin, and issues forth as a Stone-fly. - - -GIRDERS, TIES, AND BUTTRESSES. - -Next in order come the means by which walls are supported internally by -Girders and Ties, and externally by Buttresses. - - * * * * * - -OF late years the Girder, in its many varieties, has come into general -use, especially in the construction of railway bridges and similar -edifices. - -[Illustration: RADIUS AND ULNA OF HUMAN ARM.] - -[Illustration: GIRDER (FROM A HOUSE IN BERMONDSEY).] - -On the right of the accompanying illustration is shown the Girder in its -simplest form. The figure was taken from a Girder which is used in -supporting the walls of a large building in Bermondsey. Sometimes a -transverse stay connects the centres of the two curved beams; but it is -seldom needed. - -The reader will see that if the interval between the curved beams were -to be filled up, we should obtain a form very like that of the engine -beam described in page 25; while, if we could imagine two such girders -intersecting each other at right angles throughout their length, a -section of the two would exactly resemble the section of the engine beam -as given in the uppermost figure in page 25. - - * * * * * - -IN the human body there are four admirable examples of the natural -Girder, namely, in the bones of the arms and legs. - -On the left hand of the illustration are shown the two bones of the -fore-arm, technically named the “radius” and “ulna.” It will be seen -that these bones are arranged on the principle of the girder. In men who -are especially powerful of grasp, it has been noticed that the curve of -the radius and ulna has been exceptionally bold, while we have it -developed to the greatest extent in the fore-arm of the Gorilla, an -animal whose arms are simply gigantic. - -The two bones of the legs, from the knee to the ankle, are arranged in a -similar manner, and are called the “tibia” and “fibula.” The last named -signifies a brooch, and is given to the bone because it is very slender, -nearly straight, and when in its place bears no small resemblance to the -pin of the fibula, or ancient Roman brooch. - -Nature, however, has exceeded Art in her girder. Those of man’s -manufacture can only exert their strength in one direction, and would be -of little use if force were to be applied to them in any other -direction. Those of the human body, however, have the capability of -partial revolution on each other at their points of junction, thus -enabling the Girder to apportion its strength according to the direction -of the resistance which it has to overcome. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to the Ties, _i.e._ those internal beams, whether of metal, -wood, stone, or brick, which prevent walls from falling outwards. There -is no danger of the walls falling inward, but there is very great danger -of their falling outward, especially when the weight or “thrust” of the -roof tends to force them apart. - -In some buildings, such as an old country church which I attended for -many years, the architect had openly acknowledged the tendency of the -walls to fall outward, and had counteracted it by a series of great -beams extending completely across the nave and aisle. As he had not even -troubled himself to hide their office, so he did not trouble himself to -conceal the fact that they were tree-trunks, but left them roughly -squared with the axe, lest, if he had squared them throughout their -length, he should have diminished their strength. - -The effect of the partially squared beam is, of course, far more -picturesque than that of a completely squared one. The architect, -however, need not have been so careful about strength, for if the beams -had been only half their diameter they would have been just as -effective. The strain on them is by pulling, and not by pushing. Now, as -any one can see by trying the experiment with a splinter of wood--say a -lucifer-match--an enormous power is required to break it by tearing the -ends asunder, while it can be easily broken by pushing them towards each -other. - -But for this power of resistance, we should never have had our Crystal -Palace. That apparently intricate, but really simple (and the more -beautiful for its simplicity), intersection of beams and lines -diminishing in the distance to the thickness of spiders’ webs, is -nothing more than a combination of the Girder and Tie, the two together -combining lightness and strength in a marvellous manner. - -The story of the Crystal Palace is now so well known that it need not be -repeated in detail. A vast building was required for the Exhibition of -1851, and not an architect was able to supply a plan which did not -exhibit some defect which would make the building almost useless. - -Suddenly a Mr. Paxton, who was a gardener, and not an architect, -produced (on a sheet of blotting-paper) a rough plan of a building on a -totally new principle, and not only fulfilling all the requisite -conditions, but being capable of extension in any direction and to any -amount. There have been very few bolder conceptions than that of making -iron and glass take the place of brick, stone, and timber, and the -result fully justified the expectations even of the inventor. - -How a gardener suddenly developed into an architect remains to be seen; -and, indeed, in this case the architecture was the result of the -gardening, or rather, of practical botany applied to art. Some years -before the invention of the Crystal Palace, that magnificent plant, the -Victoria Regia, had been introduced into England. Its enormous leaves, -with their wonderful power of flotation, caused a great stir at the -time, and some of my readers may remember a sketch which was engraved in -the _Illustrated London News_, and which represented a little girl -standing on one of these leaves as it floated on the water. - -[Illustration: LEAF OF VICTORIA REGIA (REVERSED).] - -[Illustration: CRYSTAL PALACE.] - -Mr. Paxton saw how this power was obtained, and the result was that he -copied in iron the lines of the vegetable cellular structure which gave -such strength to the Victoria Regia leaf, and became more eminent as an -architect than he had been as a gardener. The capabilities of the -Crystal Palace had lain latent for centuries, but the generalising eye -of genius was needed to detect it. A thousand men might have seen the -Victoria Regia leaf, and not thought very much of it; but the right man -came at the right time, the most wonderful building in the world sprang -up like the creation of a fairy dream, and the obscure gardener became -Sir Joseph Paxton. - -I have no doubt that thousands of similar revelations are at present -hidden in Nature, awaiting the eye of their revealer. - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to the principle of the Buttress, _i.e._ giving support to -the exterior, instead of the interior, and strengthening the walls by -pushing them together, instead of pulling them together. - -Putting aside the “flying” buttress, which is simply one buttress -mounted on another to support the clerestory walls, the structure of the -ordinary buttress is simple enough. - -The most primitive form of the buttress is often found in country farms, -where the farmer sees the walls of his barns and outhouses leaning -suspiciously on one side, and, instead of going to the root of things, -props them up by a stout pole or beam. - -This, however, can be nothing but a temporary arrangement, especially as -beams have a tendency to rot, and their ends to sink into the earth by -the gradual pressure of the wall. The genuine buttress was therefore -evolved, the basal part being very thick and heavy, and the upper part -comparatively thin and slight. Simple as a buttress looks, much skill is -needed in making it, and if it be not rightly built, it does infinitely -more harm than good. - -A case in point occurs within a short distance of my house. The walls of -an ancient edifice having shown symptoms of yielding, and some ominous -cracks made their appearance, a couple of very sturdy buttresses had -been erected, in order to stop further damage. Unfortunately, the -builder was ignorant of the principles of architecture, and though he -made the buttresses very strong and massive, he omitted to make a solid -foundation on which their bases should rest. Consequently he only hung -the buttresses, so to speak, on the wall, and helped to tear it asunder -by the additional weight. - -[Illustration: PADDLE-WOOD TREE.] - -[Illustration: BUTTRESSES.] - - * * * * * - -NATURE, as well as Art, supplies her buttresses. In our own country we -find the natural buttress more or less developed in our trees, as it is -wanted. - -Take, for example, any plantation, and examine the trees. It will be -found that those in the centre, which are sheltered on all sides from -the force of the wind, shoot up straight towards the light, have -comparatively slight and slender stems, and occasionally display such -energy in forcing themselves upwards, that when two branches find that -there is not room for both, they form a sort of alliance, fuse -themselves together, and force their united way towards the sky. - -Take, however, the trees in the outside rows of the plantation, and see -how they throw out their straight roots and branches towards the -outside, and how, on the inside, their trunks are as smooth and their -roots as little visible as those of the trees that grow in the centre of -the plantation. - -Almost any tree will develop itself in this fashion, showing that -instinct can rule the vegetable as well as the animal world. - -There is, however, a South American tree which far surpasses any of our -trees in its power of throwing out spurs or buttresses, principally, I -presume, because it may have to endure the fiercest storms from any -quarter and at any time. So bold are these projections that several men -would be hidden if standing between two of them, and so numerous are -they that if a section of the tree were taken at the base of the ground, -it would resemble a conventional star or asterisk, *, rather than an -ordinary tree-trunk, O. - -The scientific name of this curious tree is _Aspidomorpha excelsum_. - -The natural buttresses are so thin and so wide that they look like large -planks set on end, with one edge against the tree. Indeed, they are used -as planks, nothing more being required than to cut them from the tree. - -This is very easy, as, while the wood is green, it is so soft that a -blow from a “machete,” or native cutlass, is sufficient to separate it. -With the same instrument the native makes these flat planks into paddles -for his canoe, the soft wood yielding readily even to the imperfect edge -of the rude tool. When the wood dries, it becomes very hard, light, and -singularly elastic, all these properties qualifying it for its object. -I have several of these paddles in my collection. They are much prized -by the natives, and are always stained in various patterns with red and -black dyes. - -In consequence of the use which is made of this tree, it goes by the -popular name of “paddle-wood.” - - -THE TUNNEL USED AS A PASSAGE. - -As to this division of the subject, I have not been quite sure where it -should be placed, but think the present position a tolerably appropriate -one. - -We have already, in the igloo of the Esquimaux and the winter dwelling -of the seal, found examples of the Tunnel when used as an appendage to -the houses and a means of security. We now come to the Tunnel as -affording the means of locomotion. - -[Illustration: - -TUNNEL OF ANOMMA. -PHOLAS. -SHIP-WORM.] - -[Illustration: RAILWAY TUNNEL.] - -Take, for example, our own railway system. Had it not been for the power -of tunnelling, the railway would have lost nearly its whole value, for -it would have been restricted to local districts, and could not have -penetrated, as it now does, to all parts of the country, without -reference to hill, dale, or level ground. Our present system of -engineering has wonderfully developed the capability of tunnelling. In -former times it was thought a most wonderful feat to drive a tunnel -under the Thames, while in these days the tunnel through Mont Cenis has -been completed, and we are hoping to make a submarine tunnel from -England to France. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature we can find many examples of Tunnels used for similar -purposes. The silken tunnel of the Wax-moth larva has already been -mentioned, and we now come to Tunnels where earth in some form, and not -silk, is the material of which they are constructed. - -The lowermost figure on the left-hand side of the illustration -represents that well-known and most destructive burrower, the Ship-worm -(_Teredo_), which, by the way, in spite of its popular name, is not a -worm, but a mollusc. This creature has a peculiar interest for -engineering, inasmuch as its mode of working gave Brunel the first idea -of subaquatic tunnelling in loose, sandy soil, just as the Victoria -Regia leaf gave to Paxton the idea which afterwards developed into the -Crystal Palace. - -The plan adopted by the Ship-worm is at the same time simple and -effective. It feeds upon wood, and gradually eats its way through almost -any timber that may be submerged. It does not, however, merely bore its -way through the timber, but lines its burrow with a coating of hard, -shelly material. Taking this hint, Brunel proceeded in the same fashion -to drive his tunnel through the very ungrateful soils which form the bed -of the Thames. - -He built a “shield,” as he called it, of iron, exactly fitting the -tunnel, and divided into a number of compartments, each of which could -be pushed forwards independently of the others. In each compartment was -a single workman, and, as he excavated the earth in front of him, he -pushed forward his portion of the shield, while the interior was cased -with brickwork, just as a Teredo tunnel is cased with shell. - - * * * * * - -ABOVE the Teredo is represented another marine tunnel-maker, as it -appears in its burrow. - -This is the mollusc popularly known as the Piddock, and scientifically -as _Pholas dactylus_. It may be found abundantly in all our chalk -cliffs, boring its tunnels deeply into the stone, and aiding the sea in -its slow, but never-ending task of breaking down the cliffs on one -side, while it gradually rears them up on another. As the material into -which the Piddock burrows is so hard, there is no need for lining the -tunnel, as is done by the Teredo. In this point, too, our engineers -follow its example. When their tunnels pass through comparatively soft -ground, they line it with masonry, proportioning the thickness of the -lining to the looseness of the soil. But, when they come to solid rock, -they are content with its strength, and do not trouble themselves about -the lining. - -The mode of action adopted by the Pholas has long been a disputed point, -and even now appears to be not quite settled. I think, however, that -William Robertson has proved by his experiments that the shell and the -siphon are both brought into requisition. The shell perpetually rotates -in one direction, and then back again, just like the action of a -bradawl, and, by the file-like projections on its surface, rasps away -the chalk, converting it into a fine powder. This powder, being of -course mixed with water, passes into the interior of the animal, and is -ejected through the siphon. - -There are many species of Pholas which burrow into various substances, -even in floating cakes of wax and resin. The same species, too, will -burrow into different substances, and it is worthy of notice that those -specimens which burrow into soft ground attain a much larger size, and -their shells are in better preservation, than those which force their -way through hard rock. - - * * * * * - -THE uppermost figure represents a very remarkable tunnel, having the -peculiarity of being built instead of sunk. It is the work of an African -Ant belonging to the genus Anomma, and popularly known as the -Driver-ant, because it drives away every living creature which comes -across its course of march. - -There are many Ants which seem to rejoice in the full blaze of the -tropical sun, running about with ease on rocks which would scorch and -raise blisters on the hand if laid on it, and finding no difficulty in -obtaining the moisture needful for the mud walls of their habitations. -But the Driver-ants cannot endure the sun, and, unless compelled by -necessity, will not march except at night, or at all events during -cloudy days. Should, however, they be absolutely forced to march in the -sunshine, they construct as they go on a slight gallery, which looks -very much like the lining of a tunnel stripped of the surrounding earth. -If their path should lead them to thick herbage, sticks, &c., which form -a protection from the sun, the Driver-ants do not trouble themselves to -make a tunnel, but take advantage of the shade, and only resume the -tunnel when they reach the open ground. - -Sometimes, when they are on a marauding expedition, they construct a -tunnel in a very curious manner, their own bodies supplying the -materials. The reader must know that there are several classes of these -insects, varying in size from that of a huge earwig to that of the -little red ant of our gardens. The largest class seem to care little -about the sunshine, the protection being mostly needed by the workers. -The following is Dr. Savage’s account of their proceedings:-- - -“In cloudy days, when on their predatory excursions, or migrating, an -arch for the protection of the workers is constructed of the bodies of -their largest class. Their widely extended jaws, long, slender limbs, -and projecting antennæ, intertwining, form a sort of network that seems -to answer well their object.” - -“Whenever an alarm is given, the arch is instantly broken, and the Ants, -joining others of the same class on the outside of the line, who seem to -be acting as commanders, guides, and scouts, run about in a furious -manner in pursuit of the enemy. If the alarm should prove to be without -foundation, the victory won, or danger passed, the arch is quickly -renewed, and the main column marches forward as before, in all the order -of an intellectual military discipline.” - -How they should be able to direct their course, and to chase an enemy, -is not easy to understand; for, as far as is known, they are absolutely -blind, not even an indication of an eye being seen. - - -THE SUSPENSION-BRIDGE. - -The mention of these Ants brings us to another point in architecture. We -have already seen that they can not only build arched tunnels, but also -can form their own bodies into arches, and we shall presently see how -they can form themselves into Suspension-bridges. We will, however, -first take the Suspension-bridge, and its vegetable origin, before -passing to the animal. - -[Illustration: CREEPERS.] - -[Illustration: SUSPENSION-BRIDGE.] - -I have little if any doubt that the modern Suspension-bridge, with all -its complicated mathematical proportions, was originally suggested by -the creepers of tropical climates. There are few points in a tropical -forest, no matter in what part of the world, more striking than the -wonderful development of the creeping plants. The trees are very much -like those of our own forests, and are in no way remarkable, but the -creeping plants form the chief feature of the woods. - -They extend themselves to unknown lengths, crawling up to the very -summit of a lofty tree, hanging down to the very ground, if not caught -by a midway branch, running along the earth, making their way up another -tree, and so on _ad infinitum_. They interlace with each other, forming -almost impenetrable thickets, as has already been mentioned while -treating of Nets, and there is scarcely a tree that is not connected -with its neighbour by means of these wonderful creeping plants. - -Of course the monkey tribes make great use of them in passing from one -tree to another, thus being able to avoid the ground, which is never to -a monkey’s liking. Man, therefore, copies the example of the monkey, and -makes use, either of the creepers themselves, or of ropes stretched from -tree to tree in imitation of them. - -In some parts of the world, where palm wine, or “toddy,” is -manufactured, the native has recourse to an ingenious device which saves -a vast amount of exertion. As the calabash which receives the juice of -the palm-tree is always fixed at a considerable height, and as each tree -only yields a limited supply, the toddy-maker would be obliged to ascend -and descend a great number of trees before he could collect his supply -of palm-juice. - -In order to save himself trouble, he has the ingenuity to connect the -trees with each other by two ropes, the one about six feet above the -other. He then has only to ascend once, and descend once, for he ascends -one tree, and by means of the ropes passes from tree to tree without -needing to descend. - -The mode of traversing these ropes is simple enough, the lower rope -serving as a bridge, along which the man walks, and the upper rope being -held by the hands. Those who see these palm-wine makers for the first -time are always greatly struck. At some little distance the ropes are -quite invisible, and the man appears to be walking through the air -without any support whatever. - -In Borneo the Rattan is continually put in requisition as a bridge. It -runs to almost any length, a hundred feet more or less being of little -consequence; it is lithe and pliant, and so strong that it can hardly be -broken. The “canes” formerly so much in vogue among schoolmasters, and -now so generally repudiated, are all cut from the Rattan. Chiefly by -means of this natural rope, the Dyak of Borneo flings his rude -suspension-bridges across chasms or rivers, and really displays a -wonderful amount of ingenuity in doing so. - -The one fault of these bridges is their tendency to decay, or perhaps to -be eaten by the multitudinous wood-eating insects which swarm in that -country. However, the materials cost nothing at all, and time scarcely -more, so that when a bridge breaks down, any man can fit up another at -the expense of a few hours’ work. As, moreover, the Dyaks have a curious -way of building their houses on one side of a ravine, they find that a -bridge of this kind saves them the trouble of descending and ascending -the ravine whenever they wish to visit their house. - -In many parts of America the Suspension-bridge is almost a necessity. -The country is broken up by vast clefts, technically called “cañons.” -These cañons are ravines in the rocky ground, with sides almost -perpendicular. For the greater part of the year they are dry, but -sometimes, and without the least warning, they become the beds of -roaring torrents, rising to some thirty or forty feet in height, and -carrying away everything before them. - -Over these ravines are thrown suspension-bridges made almost entirely of -creepers, and loosely floored with rough planks. Although they are very -strong, they appear to be very fragile, and even under the tread of a -human being swing and sway about in a manner that always shakes the -nerves of one who is unaccustomed to them. Yet, even the mules of the -country can cross them, the animals picking their way with the wonderful -sure-footedness of their kind, and not in the least affected by the -swaying of the bridge. - -Passing from the vegetable to the animal world, we revert to the -Driver-ants, which have already been mentioned. It has been seen that -their soldier-ants can, with their own bodies, form a tunnel, under the -shade of which the workers can pass, and we have now to see how they -can, with the same materials, form a suspension-bridge. - -It often happens that on their march they come to water, and, as they -always advance with total disregard of difficulties, they must needs -invent some very ingenious way of overcoming the difficulty. One of them -climbs a branch which overhangs the water, clasps the undermost twig -very tightly, and allows itself to hang from it. Another at once -follows, and suspends itself from its comrade in like manner, the -powerful and sicklelike jaws doing their duty as well as the legs. A -chain of Ants is thus speedily formed. When the lowermost Ant touches -the water, it merely spreads all its legs, and awaits the development of -events. Another runs over it, holds to the first Ant by its hind-legs, -and stands in the water, spreading its limbs as much as possible over -the surface. Ant after Ant descends, until quite a long chain of the -insects is formed, and is swept downwards with the stream. By slow -degrees the chain is lengthened, until the Ants at its head are able to -seize the bank on-the opposite side of the water. When they have -succeeded in doing so, the bridge is complete, and over that living -bridge will pour a whole army of Driver-ants. - -Even in those cases where this mode of travelling would be too perilous -on account of the rapid torrent, the Ants contrive to suspend themselves -in long strings until they effect a communication with the trees of the -opposite bank. - -It is, perhaps, needless to give more than a passing reference to the -Suspension-bridges made by Spiders, by means of which they can traverse -considerable distances. The similar bridge of the Little Ermine -Caterpillar has already been mentioned, when treating of the subject of -Double Walls. - - - - -ARCHITECTURE - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - LIGHTHOUSES.--THE DOVETAIL.--THE DAM.--SUBTERRANEAN DWELLINGS.--THE - PYRAMID.--MORTAR, PAINT, AND VARNISH. - - The Eddystone Lighthouse: its Position, and the Difficulties of - building it.--Destruction of successive Lighthouses.--Smeaton’s - Idea of Form borrowed from the Tree-trunk.--Mode of - building.--Rooting it into the Rock.--Principle of the - Dovetail.--Bones of the Human Skull, and their Articulation.--The - Dam, and its Uses to Man.--The Lock and the Water-mill.--Dam of the - Beaver: its Objects and Mode of Construction.--Popular Errors with - regard to the Dam.--Subterranean Dwellings.--The Indian Palace, and - its Use in Summer.--Subterranean Dwellings in Kamschatka, and their - Use in Winter.--The Wood or Horse Ant, and its double - Dwelling.--The upper and lower Nests used according to the Amount - of Warmth required.--Section of the Nest, and a Glimpse into its - Interior.--The Pyramid.--Derivation of its Name.--Natural Objects - from which the Form was derived.--Subaquatic Mortar or Cement, and - its Use to Man.--Subaquatic Cement used by the Caddis, the - Stickleback, the Terebella, the Sabella, the Serpula, and - others.--Paint and Varnish, and their Utility to Man.--Propolis as - used by the Hive Bee, and the Source whence it is obtained. - - -We now come to some points in Architecture which cannot well be grouped -together, and must therefore be treated as Miscellanea. - -Our first example is one which was avowedly based upon an imitation of -Nature, namely, the celebrated Eddystone Lighthouse, and we shall see -that in two points--first its form, and next the mode in which the -stones were fixed together--Nature had been closely followed by the -architect. - -Unlike ordinary lighthouses, this edifice had to be constructed so as to -endure the full force of waves as well as wind. A few miles from the -southern coasts of Devon and Cornwall there is a rock which in former -times greatly endangered the ships which passed along the Channel. -Several attempts were made to build a lighthouse on this dangerous spot. -Winstanley’s lighthouse, which was finished in 1700, was wholly swept -away three years later, together with the architect himself, and some -workmen who were engaged in repairs. So terrific is the force of the -elements on this spot, that the lighthouse was entirely destroyed, and -the only vestiges of it that were ever discovered were some iron bars -and a piece of chain. - -Another lighthouse was built a few years afterwards, but was burned -down, it being of wood instead of stone. At last the work was put into -the hands of Smeaton, who saw that he must build on a totally new plan. -He took for his model the trunk of a tree, and determined to build his -lighthouse of the same form as the tree-trunk, and to fasten it into the -rock just as a tree is fastened by its roots. Accordingly, he struck out -a new principle in the construction of such edifices, and his model has -been followed ever since. The reader will see, by a glance at the -illustration, how close is the resemblance in external form. I may -mention that the tree in question was sketched from one in a paddock -opposite my house. - -[Illustration: TREE-TRUNK. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE.] - -Having settled the form of the lighthouse, and made it like a -tree-trunk, the next business was to fix it firmly in the rock, and, in -fact, to give it roots of stone. For this purpose, he made the base of -the edifice as wide as the rock would allow, so as to correspond with -the wide base of a tree-trunk, and traced a circle of about ninety feet -in circumference. Instead, however, of merely laying the stones as is -usually done, or even letting them into holes cut in the rock, he hit -upon a singularly ingenious device, whereby the building was practically -a single stone. - -Instead of cutting the stones square or oblong, as is usually done, he -had them made so as to “dovetail” into each other, much after the -fashion of a child’s puzzle toy, or the junctions at the edge of a box. -Thus, each stone fitted into those around it, while the lowest tier was -dovetailed in similar fashion into the rock. - -[Illustration: SUTURES OF SKULL - -SECTION OF EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE - -DOVETAILED BOX] - -The stone employed was that which is called Moorstone, a very hard -variety of granite. Each course of stones was carefully fitted together -on shore, and their accuracy tested, and they were then taken to the -Eddystone rock, and fixed in their places. Beside using these -precautions, Smeaton fixed the stones in their place with the strongest -cement, and furthermore fastened the stones together and united the -several courses by strong oak treenails and iron clamps. As none of the -stones weighed less than a ton, and some of them were double that -weight, the strength of such an edifice may be imagined. - -The accompanying illustration shows the arrangement of these dovetailed -stones in one of the courses. It will be seen that the central stone -must be laid first, and then the others arranged round it. The whole -edifice is rather more than eighty-five feet in height, so that the -elements have every chance of demolishing it, as they did that of -Winstanley. More than a hundred years have now passed since it was -built, and, although the fury of the tempest has been such that the -waves have washed completely over its summit, it stands as firmly as it -did when it was finished in 1760. - - * * * * * - -WHETHER the original inventor of the “dovetail” took his idea from -Nature I cannot say, but he certainly might have done so. On the left of -the illustration is part of a human skull. - -The skull is not, as many persons seem to think, made of a single bone, -but it is composed of many bones, united by “sutures,” which are, in -fact, natural dovetails. Although in early life these sutures are -comparatively loose, they hold the various parts together so firmly, -that if the head be violently struck, the bones may break, but the -sutures do not give way. - -Perhaps some of my readers may ask how it is possible to take a skull to -pieces without cutting it or fracturing the sutures. It is done in a way -equally simple and ingenious. The skull is filled through the opening -with dried peas, and then sunk under water. The peas expand with the -moisture, and, as they exert an equable force in all directions, they -slowly and quietly pull the sutures asunder, without injuring the bones. - - -THE DAM. - -In many human operations, where a certain depth of water is required in -a running stream, the reasoning powers of man have enabled him to attain -his object by building a dam, or obstacle across the stream, which -forces the water to rise to its level before it can find a passage. -Such, for example, are the Locks which render rivers navigable, and -allow even the heavily laden barges to traverse miles of water which -would otherwise have been closed to them. - -Those mills, again, which are worked by water need that a sufficient -amount of water should be ready in order that it may by its weight force -the wheel round. Such a Dam is shown on the right hand of the -illustration, the height to which it raises the water being shown by the -level of the stream below the Dam, and that of the water as it tumbles -over in a miniature cascade. - -Putting aside the natural dams made by accumulations of the various -debris that are washed down by a swollen stream, and which sometimes -raise the water to a very great height, we have an example of a natural -dam in the curious structure made by the Beaver, for the same purpose as -that of the lock in the mill-stream, namely, to insure a depth of water -sufficient for the needs of the beings that make them. - -Every one has heard of the Beaver’s dam, but there is so much -misconception on the subject, that a few words will not be out of place. - -Ingenious as is the animal in the construction of its dam, it is not -nearly so accomplished an architect as was once supposed. We were told -in the earlier books of Natural History that the Beaver felled trees, -cut off their branches into convenient lengths, and sharpened one end, -like an ordinary stake. Then they were said to drive the sharp end of -the stakes into the bed of the river, to set them side by side, to -interweave smaller branches among them, and lastly, to fill up the -interstices with mud, leaves, and similar materials. In fact, they were -supposed to build a “wattle-and-daub” wall, like that which is in use at -the present day in Southern Africa. - -[Illustration: DAM MADE BY BEAVER. DAM MADE BY MAN.] - -The Beaver does nothing of the kind. It needs a dam, and it makes one -which is far stronger than the wattle-and-daub could be. It begins by -felling a tree, and letting it lie across the stream, in some place -where the banks are high and tolerably steep. A bend of the river is -usually chosen for the new dam. Should not the tree be long enough for -the Beaver’s purpose, two trees are felled, one on either side, so that -their branches meet in the middle. - -These branches, and not any supposed stakes, are really the upright -supports of the dam. The trees being thus laid, the Beaver cuts down -branches from four to six feet in length, and lays them horizontally -among the boughs of the fallen trees. Having thus made the foundations, -so to speak, of its dam, the Beaver then proceeds to fill in the spaces -with roots, grass-tufts, leaves, mud, and, indeed, almost anything on -which it can lay its paws. - -After this, the Beaver has to take but little trouble, for the stream -itself becomes a silent, slow, but constant labourer, lodging floating -debris against the dam, and making a sloping bank which much adds to its -strength. By degrees, seeds that lodge on the dam spring into life, and -their roots act like chains, binding the materials more closely -together. Willow twigs too, if they lodge on the dam and be left -undisturbed, are sure to “strike,” as the gardeners say, and further to -bind the structure together. - -It is evident, from this short description, that the lower part of the -dam is more solid than the upper. In fact, the floods are tolerably sure -to wash away some eight or ten inches of the upper part every year, and -the Beavers have to make it afresh. The height of these dams is not -nearly so great as is generally supposed. Mr. Green, a practical -trapper, states that the highest which he ever saw was only four feet -six inches in height, and that the average is under three feet. - -The house of the Beaver is made on the same principle as the dams. Every -one knows that when sticks have been in the water for any length of -time, they become saturated and sink. These sticks are chosen by the -Beaver as the material for its house, and are laid horizontally in the -water, the heaviest being reserved for the roof, so as to make it strong -enough to ward off the attacks of predacious animals. As with the dam, -mud, leaves, &c., are used to consolidate the edifice, but no mud can be -seen from the outside, the animal always finishing off with a number of -heavy logs laid on the roof. - - -SUBTERRANEAN DWELLINGS. - -I do not intend in this place to take up the whole subject of -Subterranean Dwellings, but only to point out cases where the use of the -Subterranean Dwelling depends on the climate of the locality and the -time of year, it being sometimes used and sometimes neglected, sometimes -inhabited for the sake of warmth, and sometimes for that of coolness. - -In various parts of India there are some most remarkable Subterranean -Dwellings. They are more than mere dwellings, and are, in fact, -magnificent palaces, sunk so deeply in the earth that very little more -than their roofs appear aboveground. When, however, a visitor descends -the stairs that lead to the interior of the palace, he finds it -spacious, and with tiers of chambers one below the other, very much like -the wasp-nest which has already been described. Nussur-ed-deen, the -second King of Oude, had several of these palaces, but very seldom -visited them, he having endeavoured to Europeanise himself as much as -possible, and to cast off his native customs. He used occasionally to -visit them, but it was only out of etiquette, and he never really lived -in them. - -[Illustration: SUBTERRANEAN ANTS’ NEST. SUBTERRANEAN HOUSE OF -KAMSCHATKA.] - -However much he might have rejected the ancient customs, it is evident -that in this case, at least, he was punishing himself in rejecting these -summer dwellings, which are always cool, and where, if one set of -apartments is too warm, nothing is easier than to descend to the next. - - * * * * * - -THIS dwelling is made for the sake of coolness in summer. Another -subterranean dwelling is made for warmth in winter, the non-conducting -properties of the earth being in both cases brought into play. This is -the winter dwelling of the inhabitants of Kamschatka. - -During the summer-time the Kamschatdales live in comparatively slight -huts mounted on poles, and having the floor some ten feet from the -ground. - -During the winter, however, they live in habitations of a very different -character. - -In order to make these houses, they begin by digging a large hole in the -ground, about nine or ten feet in depth. This they line with poles and -sticks, making, in fact, a wall as of a house. A stout conical roof is -then raised over the hole, and upon the roof earth is thickly strewn and -beaten down, just as has been mentioned when treating of the ice-house. -The only access to this strange house is by a circular aperture in the -centre of the conical roof, serving at once the purpose of a door, a -chimney, and a window. A notched pole answers as a ladder, a low wooden -dais placed against the wall serves as a bed or a chair, for there is no -other, and a few stones placed together act as a fireplace. - - * * * * * - -IN looking at both these subterranean dwellings, I could not but be -reminded of a very common insect which has a double dwelling, one moiety -being aboveground, and the other moiety below it. This is the common -Wood-ant (_Formica rufa_), whose large, leafy hills are so plentiful in -some of our woods. On account of its size, this species is sometimes -called the Horse-ant. - -At first sight the nest looks something like a small haycock, made -entirely of chopped grass. When examined more nearly, it will be found -to consist mostly of grass-stems, little bits of stick, and leaves. -Those of the fir are in great request, for when they are dry they are -very light, and their form enables the Ant to interweave them with each -other, so as to form the necessary tunnels and galleries which line the -interior of the nest. The materials seem most unpromising, but they are -used with wonderful skill, such as no human fingers could equal. - -After a little while a number of entrances into the nest are visible. -They are almost invariably sheltered by projecting leaves, which act as -porches, so that when the nest is viewed from above, they are almost -entirely hidden. Each of these openings runs into one of the main -galleries of the nest, and from thence issues a perfect labyrinth of -passages. - -This, however, is only half the nest, for the galleries and tunnels -extend far beneath the surface of the earth, and have sundry enlarged -portions or chambers wherein the immature pupæ may lie during their -period of helplessness. - -Owing to the very loose structure of the upper nest, and the tendency of -the earth to fall into the galleries of the lower nest, it is very -difficult to obtain a trustworthy view of the interior. Perhaps I may -here be allowed to extract a passage from my “Insects at Home,” the -description of the nest and its interior having been written almost on -the spot:-- - -“I have, however, succeeded in obtaining an excellent view into the -interior of a Wood-ants’ nest, though it was but a short one. -Accompanied by my friend Mr. H. J. B. Hancock,[B] I was visiting some -remarkably fine Wood-ants’ nests near Bagshot. We took with us a large -piece of plate glass, placed it edgewise on the top of an Ant-hill, and, -standing one at each side, cut the nest completely in two, leaving the -glass almost wholly buried in it. - - [B] Now Sir Henry J. Burford Hancock, Chief Justice of Gibraltar. - -“After the expiration of a few weeks, during which time the ants could -repair damages, we returned to the spot, and, with a spade, removed one -side of the nest as far as the glass, which then served as a window -through which we could look into the nest. It was really a wonderful -sight. - -“The Ant-hill was honeycombed into passages and cells, in all of which -the inhabitants were hurriedly running about, being alarmed at the -unwonted admission of light into their dwellings. In some of the -chambers the pupæ were treasured, and these chambers were continually -entered by Ants, which picked up the helpless pupæ, and carried them to -other parts of the nest where the unwelcome light had not shown itself. - -“Unfortunately this view lasted only a short time. Owing to the partial -decomposition of the vegetable substances of which the Ants’ nest is -made, the interior is always hot and always moist. Now, the day on which -we visited the nest happened to be a cold one, and, in consequence, the -moisture of the nest was rapidly condensed on the inner surface of the -glass, and in a few minutes completely hid the nest from view, leaving -me only time to make a rapid sketch. Unfortunately some one discovered -the plate of glass and stole it. - -“Next time that I examine a Wood-ants’ nest, I shall take care to -insert the glass exactly east and west, and shall open its southern side -towards noon on a hot sunshiny day, so that the rays of the sun may warm -the glass and prevent evaporation.” - -Many other creatures make subterranean dwellings, but the Wood-ant is -remarkable for possessing a double dwelling, the two portions -communicating with each other, and capable of being used according to -the degree of heat required. - - -THE PYRAMID. - -We have already seen how the Eddystone lighthouse was the precursor of -many similar buildings all, like their predecessor, having their form -copied, with more or less strictness, from the outlines of a tree-stem. - -[Illustration: NATURAL MOUNTAIN.] - -[Illustration: ARTIFICIAL MOUNTAIN, OR PYRAMID.] - -Another form of building which was intended for endurance, and, indeed, -is the most enduring of all shapes, is the Pyramid. - -We are all familiar with the simple, yet grand outlines of the Pyramids -of Egypt, whose vast antiquity takes us back to the times of Isaac and -Joseph, and which seem capable of resisting the effects of Time, the -universal destroyer, for thousands of years yet to come. - -We may ask ourselves what was the natural object from which the Pyramid -was copied. The name itself, which is formed from a Greek word -signifying fire, shows that a flame was thought to have furnished the -idea of this form of building. I cannot, however, but think that the -flame had little, if anything, to do with it, and that the real model -may be found in the hills which have been formed by Nature. - -Examples of the Pyramids and the Hills are given in the accompanying -illustration. - - -SUBAQUATIC MORTAR.--PAINT AND VARNISH. - -Having now disposed of the chief points in Architecture, we take some of -the subsidiary details. - -Of late years, when the traffic between different continents has so -largely extended itself, and when shipping has increased both in the -numbers and dimensions of the vessels, it is absolutely necessary that -we should have harbours and docks enlarged and multiplied sufficiently -to meet the calls upon them. - -[Illustration: CADDIS. TEREBELLA. SERPULA. SUBMARINE MORTAR.] - -Now, it is comparatively easy to construct a building on shore, for all -the mortars and cements which are used for the purpose of fastening the -stones together are applied when wet, and incorporate themselves with -the stones as they dry. But to make a mortar which could be applied -while the stones were under water, and would “set” while beneath the -surface, was a task not easily to be overcome. Yet it has been done so -effectively that at the present day we can build beneath the surface of -the water as securely, though not as rapidly, as if the stones had been -laid on dry ground. - -Several such mortars are now known, and, as is so often the case with -human inventions, have been anticipated in Nature. - -We have already seen how the Caddis-worm of the fresh waters can cement -together, while under water, the various materials of which its tubular -house is formed. The different Sticklebacks perform similar feats, no -matter whether they inhabit fresh or salt water. - -All those who take an interest in the productions of the seashore will -have noticed upon our coasts the flexible tube of the Terebella, with -its curiously fringed ends. This tube, as any one may see at a glance, -is composed of grains of sand and similar materials, fastened strongly -together by a kind of cement exuded from the worm, and possessing the -property of hardening under water. As on some of our coasts fragments of -shell are used for the tube, the worm goes by the popular name of -Shell-binder. - -If one of these worms be taken out of its tube, placed in a vessel with -sea-water and a quantity of sand, broken shells, and little pebbles, the -mode of building will soon be seen. At the extremity of the head are a -number of extremely mobile tentacles, and these are stretched about in -all directions, seizing upon the particles of sand and shell, seeming to -balance them as if to decide whether they are suitable for the tube, and -then fixing them one by one with the cement which has already been -mentioned. - -Generally speaking, the Terebella works only in the evening, but, if it -be hastily deprived of its tube, it cannot help itself, and is perforce -obliged to work while it can. It is worthy of remark that the Terebella, -although, as a rule, it lives in a tube all its life, is capable of -swimming with the usual serpentine motion of marine worms, and, when -taken out of its tube, rushes about violently, and soon exhausts itself -by its efforts. - -Along most of our rocky seashores may be seen vast quantities of a sort -of hardened sand, penetrated with small tubes. On a closer examination -this sand-mass is resolved into a congeries of tubes, matted and twisted -together, and each being the habitation of a marine worm called the -Sabella. This name is derived from a Latin word signifying sand, and is -given to the worm in allusion to the material of which it makes its -habitation. - -Like the Terebella, the Sabella uses its tentacles for the purpose of -building the tubes, which are much stiffer than those of the Terebella. -They are strong enough, indeed, to give the feet a firm hold while -traversing the rocks, and this, is a matter of no small moment when the -tide is coming in, and the shore has to be regained without loss of -time. - -Then we have other marine worms, known as Triquetra and Serpula, which -make tubes in a somewhat similar manner, but of very fine materials and -very strong cement, so that the tube is nearly as hard as stone. - -Space would fail me if I were to enumerate these creatures at greater -length, but enough has been said to show that man’s invention of -subaquatic cement has been anticipated in Nature by the inhabitants both -of salt and fresh water. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to the subject of Paint and Varnish. Putting aside their use -as a means to increase the beauty of the object to which they are -applied, we will view them in the light of preservatives, and -acknowledge the truth of the old Dutch proverb, that “Paint costs -nothing.” Certainly, when the wood to which it is applied is thoroughly -dry from within, it not only costs nothing, but repays itself over and -over again as a preservative of the wood, and a defence against moisture -from without. - -The instances in which Paint is applied to wood are too numerous to be -mentioned. Perhaps some of my readers may remember the case of the naval -captain who, on taking command of his ship, was supplied, according to -custom, with exactly half the amount of paint required for her. The -invariable etiquette had been that the captain supplied the remaining -half at his own cost. But the officer in question was not at all -disposed to be “put upon,” and was a thorn in the sides of the “Naval -Lords.” - -Finding, by actual measurement, that the paint supplied to him was only -half the amount which was really needed for the ship, he sent his -respectful compliments to the Admiralty, asking whether they wished the -port or the starboard side of the ship to be painted, for that there was -only enough paint for one half of the ship, and he awaited instructions -as to which side of the vessel it was to be applied. He was impervious -to “minutes,” “directions,” &c., and, as far as I remember, this very -impracticable man got his way, and was supplied with the requisite -amount of paint. - - * * * * * - -LONG before man ever invented paint or varnish the Hive Bee had made use -of it. - -Every one who has kept bees knows how they always fasten the edge of the -hive to the board, and stop up any crevices that may be left open. The -material which they use for this purpose is not wax, but a substance -called “propolis.” This term is composed of two Greek words, signifying -a suburb, or the outskirts of a town, and is given to this stationary -substance in consequence of the use which is made of it. - -[Illustration: BEE VARNISHING CELLS.] - -[Illustration: PAINTER VARNISHING WOOD.] - -Not only do the bees use it for fastening the hives, but also for -strengthening their combs. Wax is a very precious material, and the -beautiful hexagonal structure of the bee-comb is intended for the -purpose of combining the greatest amount of storing space with the least -expenditure of material. The plates of wax of which the cells are -composed are so thin that their edges would break down even under the -feet of the bees as they passed over it, and accordingly the bees -strengthen the edges of the cells with propolis, as any one may see by -examining a piece of bee-comb. The propolis is of a darker colour than -the wax, and has a peculiar varnish-like appearance. - -The propolis, as distinguished from wax, is mentioned by Virgil in his -Georgics:-- - - “Collectumque hæc ipsa ad munera gluten - Et visco et Phrygiæ servant pice lentius Idæ.”--_Georg._ iv. 40. - -It is evident that the propolis cannot be obtained from the same source -as the wax. The latter is secreted by the bees under little plates or -flaps upon the abdomen, while the propolis is purely a vegetable -exudation. It is obtained from many trees, the principal being the horse -chestnut. All who have handled the buds of this tree are aware that they -are covered with a viscous and very adhesive matter, which serves as a -varnish or protection to the bud before the leaves are strong enough to -break out. This is the material which the bees gather for their -propolis, and at certain times of the year the chestnuts may be seen -swarming with bees, all busily engaged in scraping off the varnish. - - - - -TOOLS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE DIGGING-STICK.--SPADE.--SHEARS AND SCISSORS.--CHISEL AND ADZE.--THE -PLANE AND SPOKESHAVE. - - The Use of Tools a Distinction between Man and Beast.--All Men, - however savage, use Tools, but none of the lower Animals can do so - until taught by Man.--Tools needed to break up the Ground.--The - Digging-stick of savage Life: its Use and its Efficacy in practised - Hands.--Digging-sticks in Nature.--The Heart-urchin, and its Mode - of digging in the Sand.--The Spade: its Shapes and Uses.--Natural - Spades.--Fore-foot of the Mole and Mole-cricket.--The Aard-vark, - the Ant-eater, and the Mattock.--Shears and Scissors a Sign of - Civilisation, never being employed by Savages.--Mechanical - Principle of Scissors, the Inclined Plane, the Lever, and the - Cutting Edge.--Chinese Shears and the Pruning Scissors.--Use of the - Inclined Plane.--The Diagonal Knife of the Guillotine.--The Shears - in Iron-works.--The “Drawing Cut” of Swordsmen.--Jaws of the Turtle - and Tortoise.--The Snapping Turtle and the Chicken Tortoise.--The - Locust, the Cockchafer Grub, the Great Green Grasshopper, and the - Wart-biter.--The Leaf-cutter Bees and their Nests.--The Chisel and - Adze.--Structure of Rodent Tooth and Chisel.--Use of the hard Plate - of Enamel or Steel.--Combination of hard and soft Materials.--Teeth - of Hippopotamus and Hyrax.--Principle of the Adze.--Self-sharpening - and Self-renewing Tools.--The Plane and Spokeshave.--Principle on - which they are made.--The Spokeshave and its Uses.--The “Guard” - Razor.--The Hoop-shaver Bee and its Nest.--Its natural Plane, and - the Use which is made of it. - - -Among the many points of distinction between man and the lower animals, -we may consider the use of tools as one of the principal lines of -demarcation. Man stands absolutely alone in this respect. There is no -race of savages, however degraded they may be, that does not employ -tools of some kind, and there is no beast, however intelligent, that -ever used a tool except when instructed by man. - -As to the stories that are told of the larger apes using sticks and -stones by way of weapons, they are absolutely without foundation, no -animal employing any tool or weapon save those given to them by Nature. -It is true that a monkey may sometimes be seen to take a stone for the -purpose of cracking nuts which are too strong for its teeth, and to -perform that task with great deftness; but such animals have always been -taught by man, and had they remained in their own country, not one of -them would have used a stone, were the nuts ever so hard. - - -THE SPADE. - -We will begin our notice of tools by taking that which must have been -the first tool invented by man. One of the principal duties assigned to -man is the culture of the earth, and this he cannot do without tools, -increasing their number and improving their structure in proportion to -his own development in agriculture. - -Before seed can be sown, it is necessary that the earth should be broken -up, and, owing to the structure of the human frame, this task cannot be -fulfilled by man without a tool which will enable him to rival many of -the lower animals, _i.e._ make use of those digging appliances which -have been furnished by Nature. - -[Illustration: HEART-URCHIN. DIGGING-STICK.] - -It is evident that the first earth-breaking tool must have been a -pointed stick, and we find that in Southern Africa, in parts of Asia, -and in Australia the Digging-stick is still in use for the purpose of -breaking up the ground. The Australians are wonderful adepts in the use -of the Digging-stick, which is one of the simplest of instruments, being -merely a stick some two feet in length, pointed at one end, and the -point hardened in the fire. - -The mode of using it is by holding it perpendicularly, pecking it into -the ground, and throwing out the loosened soil with the hands. In this -way they can excavate with such rapidity, that a strong navvy, armed -with the best spade, would not be able to keep pace with a black man -armed only with his “katta,” or digging-stick. - -In Africa the Digging-stick is used in exactly the same manner, and is -generally made more weighty and effective by having a perforated stone -fastened on the handle. - - * * * * * - -HERE, again, man has been anticipated by Nature, and the savage of -Australia or Africa digs in exactly the same manner as the common -Heart-urchin of our shores, sometimes called the Hairy Urchin, in -consequence of the number and fineness of the spines, which look just -like hairs to the naked eye. The scientific name of this creature is -_Amphidotus cordatus_. - -Mr. Gosse, in his “Evenings at the Microscope,” gives so admirable an -account of the mode of digging employed by the Hairy Urchin that I -cannot do better than employ his own words. After describing the variety -of structure of the different spines with which the shell is so thickly -set, he proceeds as follows:-- - -“But what is the need of so much care being bestowed upon the separate -motion of these thousands of hair-like spines, that each should have a -special structure, with special muscles for its individual movement? The -hairs of our head we cannot move individually: why should the -Heart-urchin move his?” - -“Truly, these hairs are the feet with which he moves. The animal -inhabits the sand at the bottom of the sea in our shallow bays, and -burrows in it. By going carefully, with the lens at your eye, over the -shell, you perceive that the spines, though all formed on a common -model, differ considerably in the detail of their form. I have shown you -what may be considered the average shape, but in some, especially the -finer ones that clothe the sides, the club is slender and pointed; in -others, as in those behind the mouth, which are the largest and coarsest -of all, the club is dilated into a long, flat spoon; while in the long, -much-bowed spines, which densely crowd upon the back, the form is almost -uniformly taper throughout, and pointed.” - -“The animal sinks into the sand mouth downwards. The hard spoons behind -the mouth come first into requisition, scooping away the sand, each -acting individually, and throwing it outwards. Observe how beautifully -they are arranged for this purpose, diverging from the median line, -with the curve backwards and outwards. - -“Similar is the arrangement of the slender side spines; their curve is -still more backwards, the tips arching uniformly outwards. They take, -indeed, exactly the curve which the fore-paws of a mole possess,--only -in a retrograde direction, since the Urchin sinks backwards,--which has -been shown to be so effective for the excavation of the soil, and the -throwing of it outwards. - -“Finally, the long spines on the back are suited to reach the sand on -each side, when the creature has descended to its depth, and by their -motion work it in again, covering and concealing the industrious and -effective miner.” - -The reader will notice that this mode of digging is exactly like that -which is followed by the users of the Digging-stick, the earth being -first broken up, and the loosened portions thrown aside. The whole of -the description of the spines is exceedingly interesting, but, as it -does not bear directly on the present subject, I cannot admit it into -these pages. - - * * * * * - -NOW comes another development in digging tools. - -We have already seen how effective an instrument a mere piece of stick -can be in the hands of a skilful workman, and the manner in which it can -tear up a given depth of soil. But, for agricultural purposes, something -more is needed, and the ground must not only be broken up, but a certain -regularity must be observed, in order to allow space to be accurately -measured, and the crop apportioned to the area. - -Out of the Digging-stick, then, the Spade was developed, its chief -advantage being that it dispensed with the use of the bare hands, and -not only tore up the ground, but threw out the loosened soil. - -The reader will remember that in the preceding description of the -Heart-urchin it was mentioned that many of the spines are shaped at -their ends something like spoons, and that their comparatively wide -blades are used in scraping the sand and shovelling it aside. In fact, -these flattened spines are natural spades, used on the same principle as -the modern spade of civilisation. - -On the right hand of the illustration are shown two forms of spade, the -one being the ordinary garden tool, and the other a rather curious -implement which is in great use among the metal mines of Cornwall. The -use of the ordinary spade is too familiar to need explanation, and we -come to the Miner’s spade. This implement is used rather as a shovel -than as a spade, the peculiar bend near the blade preventing the foot -from being used as a means of forcing the instrument into the ground. In -fact, it is not meant for the same office as that which pertains to the -ordinary spade, neither can it be handled in the same way. - -[Illustration: - -FOOT OF AARD-VARK. FOOT OF MOLE-CRICKET. SPADES. - - FOOT OF MOLE.] - -In Devonshire there is a kind of spade in general use very much -resembling the mining spade, but having a very long handle without any -crutch at the end. The natural consequence of this shape is, that the -spade cannot be used in the ordinary way, neither can it penetrate the -earth to any depth. It can “peel” the ground, so to speak, and can cut -away successive layers of soil. But as for digging “two spits deep,” or -even one spit, the spade would be absolutely incapable of such a task, -no matter how strong might be the hands that wield it. As for the foot, -it may be put out of the question. - - * * * * * - -WE will now turn to a few examples of spades in the world of Nature. - -The lowest figure represents the fore-paw of the Mole, with its -powerful armature of strong and sharp claws, and its broad blade of a -palm. The reader will easily see that in this animal the digging powers -are wonderfully developed. The peculiar form of the fore-foot closely -resembles that of the miner’s spade, while the curvature of the palm -serves, almost without exertion, to throw out the earth which has been -scooped away by the sharp claws. - -To watch a Mole burrow is really a curious sight, the only drawback -being that the animal sinks itself so rapidly beneath the earth that a -long inspection is impossible. I have kept several moles for the purpose -of watching their habits, and have always been interested in their mode -of burrowing. I can only define it by using the word “scrabbling.” The -animal scurries and hurries about, seeking for a tolerably soft piece of -ground. When it has found one, it travels no further, but scratches away -with its fore-paws with wonderful power and rapidity, seeming to sink, -as it were, into the earth, rather than to excavate a tunnel. - - * * * * * - -THERE is an insect well known to entomologists, called the Mole-cricket, -because its structure and many of its habits are strangely similar to -those of the animal from which it derives its name. At the upper part of -the illustration is seen a portion of the fore-foot of the Mole-cricket, -and a better implement of excavation can hardly be imagined. - -The reader will probably have noticed that in both these creatures the -spade, if we may so call it, is not a mere flat plate, but is cleft into -several points. It thus answers the purpose of a fork as well as a -spade, the several points serving to break up the soil, and the flat -palm to throw the earth aside. - -This principle is carried out even more fully in the fore-paw of the -African Ant-bear, or Aard-vark (_Orycteropus Capensis_), a figure of -which is given in the illustration. This animal is a great excavator, -living in burrows of such dimensions that the wild boar is in the habit -of making its home in them after they are deserted. - -Something more, however, than a digging apparatus is needed for the -Ant-bear. This animal feeds almost wholly on the Termites, which it -obtains by tearing down the walls of their dwellings. Now, as these -wonderful buildings are nearly as hard as brick, and, indeed, are -composed of the same materials, it is necessary that the claws of the -Ant-bear should be modified so as to be able to break through the walls. -Accordingly, they are much more curved than those of the Mole and the -Mole-cricket, and so serve for tearing as well as digging, being struck -into the wall, and thus pulling it down, just as a labourer breaks down -a bank with his mattock. - -Indeed, had we wished to extend these analogies still further, we might -easily have given the claws of the Aard-vark as a prototype of our -English mattock. The same weapons as possessed by the Ant-bear of -tropical America are used in exactly the same manner, but are even -stronger, and extend to such a length that when the animal walks, it -cannot stretch its claws out in front, but is obliged to double them -under its feet. - - -SHEARS AND SCISSORS. - -These instruments are sure signs of civilisation, no savage nations -having the least idea of them. Even the Kafir and Esquimaux tribes, -which are such admirable workers in skin, never use scissors in shaping -their garments, but invariably employ knives for that purpose. The -Chinese, however, seem to have known scissors from time immemorial, and -to have shaped them almost exactly like our own instruments. I possess -one pair of tailor’s shears from China in which there is only one ring, -namely, that for the thumb. The place of the other ring is taken by an -elongated, slightly curved and moderately pointed rod of steel, which is -used for tracing the pattern on the material preparatory to cutting it. - -Simple as the scissors may seem, they combine several very important -principles, namely, the inclined plane, the lever, and the cutting edge. -Were they to be merely two edges moving directly upon each other, their -effect would be comparatively slight; but, owing to the manner in which -the blades are fixed at one end, they are drawn as it were over the -object between them, and so divide it with comparative ease. In some -instruments, such as the pruning scissors, there is only one cutting -blade, the other being used merely as a support for the branch which is -being cut. - -A well-known example of a single cutting blade is found in the -guillotine. In the earliest times of this invention an ordinary axe-head -was suspended above the neck of the criminal. It was found, however, -that its operation was very uncertain, simply because the blow was a -direct one, and not oblique. The blade was then set obliquely, as in the -present machine, and its effect was absolutely certain. - -Perhaps some of my readers may be swordsmen, and therefore know the -power of the “drawing cut,” by which a great effect may be produced with -very little apparent exertion. Even in the simple operation of cutting -bread we always use the knife diagonally, though perhaps we may be -ignorant of the principle of the inclined plane. - -Next comes the principle of the lever, as exemplified by the handles of -the scissors. By lengthening these handles, the power of the blades is -enormously increased, as may be seen in the various shears in any great -iron-works, which cut through thick iron as if it were butter. Our own -garden shears for trimming borders show very well the power of the long -arms and short blade. - - * * * * * - -IN the animal world we find many examples of natural shears, one of the -best of which is afforded by the jaws of the Tortoise or Turtle. Owing -to the manner in which they feed, whether they be vegetarians or -carnivorous, their jaws are made for cutting, and not for lacerating or -mastication. They have no teeth, but each jaw is furnished with a horny -edge, as sharp as a knife-blade, and very strongly made. With these jaws -the animal can shred to pieces the objects which it attacks, just as if -it had been furnished with a pair of veritable shears. Any one who has -possessed an ordinary Tortoise must have noticed the havoc which it will -occasionally make in a garden. I had one of these reptiles for some -years, and was obliged to keep it under restraint, in consequence of the -power of its jaws. - -Being a Tortoise of discrimination, it took a great fancy to the -strawberry beds, and invariably picked out the ripest and best-flavoured -fruit. Reversing the usual proverb of making two bites at a cherry, the -Tortoise always took two bites at a strawberry, and sometimes three or -four, according to its size. - -At last, I was obliged to restrain it by boring a hole in the edge of -its shell, passing one end of a string through it, and fastening the -other to a peg driven into the ground. At first, I tied the string to a -brick, but the Tortoise was so strong that it dragged the brick about -the garden, leaving reminiscences of its progress in the channels which -it had cut through all kinds of vegetation with its scissor-like jaws. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF TURTLE.] - -[Illustration: SHEARS.] - -The reader, in comparing the illustration of the Turtle-jaws with that -of the Shears, will see at once how exact is the analogy between the -two. The sharp-edged jaws correspond with the blades of the shears, the -joint at the skull corresponds with the pivot of the shears, and the -muscles which move the jaws, but which could not be shown in the present -illustration, are the prototypes of the handles. - -In some of these creatures, especially those which are carnivorous, the -power of the jaw is tremendous. One of them, a Snapping Turtle, has been -known to bite off several fingers of a man’s hand as easily as if they -had been carrots. Some years ago I kept some Chicken Tortoises alive, -and was much struck with the enormous proportionate power of their jaws. - -They were quite little creatures, only a few inches in length, but their -appetites were astonishing, and their mode of satisfying their hunger -remarkable. They were always ravenous after meat, and had a curious way -of seizing their food in their mouths, placing one paw on either side of -their jaws, and then pushing the meat forcibly away, so as to cut out a -slice as large as their jaws. - -They were very good-tempered little things, but, small though they were, -I should have been very sorry to have one of them take a bite at my -finger by mistake. - -Knowing their general characteristics, I took care not to have any -living creature in the same vessel. But I have heard, from those who -have had practical experience, that Chicken Tortoises ought to be -banished from any place wherein fish are kept, especially if they be -gold fish, the Tortoise having a way of coming quietly beneath them, -biting out a mouthful of their bodies, and then disappearing with its -booty. - - * * * * * - -BESIDE the Tortoise, there are many creatures which possess natural -shears, such as the Locust, whose ravages are only too notorious. Then, -taking our own country, we have plenty of examples of insect shears. -Such is to be found in the jaws of the Cockchafer larva, or “White Grub” -as it is popularly called. It lives underground, and feeds chiefly on -the roots of herbage, shredding them to pieces with its shear-like jaws. -And, as it spends on the average three years in the one task of -perpetual eating, the damage which it does can be easily imagined. - -There is a very pretty English insect which admirably exemplifies the -power of the natural scissors. This is the Great Green Grasshopper -(_Acrida viridissima_), which is equally voracious in all its stages of -existence. It is always ready to use these jaws, and I do not recommend -the reader to allow his finger to get between them, or their points will -probably meet. - -One of these insects, indeed (_Decticus griseus_), has derived the name -of Wart-biter from its supposed use in curing warts. All that was -needful was to catch a Wart-biter, and hold one of the warts to its -jaws. It was sure to seize the wart, and bite it smartly, and there was -a firm belief that any one thus bitten would be freed from the unsightly -excrescence. The bite of the shear-like jaws caused much pain at the -time, and this very pain had in all probability something to do with the -cure. - - * * * * * - -AN admirable example of the insect jaws used as scissors is to be found -in the well-known Leaf-cutter Bees, insects belonging to the genus -Megachile. - -They make their nests in burrows, sometimes in wood, and sometimes in -the ground, and form them in a very singular manner. After fixing upon a -suitable burrow, the Bee goes off to a tree, generally a rose, and, -using her jaws just as a tailor uses his shears, cuts off a nearly -semicircular piece of leaf, flies away with it to her home, and, by dint -of bending, pushing, and pulling it, she forces it to the bottom of the -cell. Successive pieces of leaf follow, until she has made a -thimble-shaped cell, and she then places at its end an egg and a supply -of honey and pollen. - -Cell after cell succeeds, each being introduced into its predecessor -just as thimbles are packed. Judging from a specimen in my collection, -there are about eight layers of leaves to form the walls of the cell, -and the average length of each piece of leaf rather exceeds half an -inch. The entire length of the cell-group is two inches and a half. The -leaf-slices are always cut from the edge, and, in my specimen of the -nest, the serrated outer edges of the leaves are all in one direction. - -Should any of my readers find one of these nests, it will be as well for -them to dip a needle point into diamond cement, and introduce it under -the outermost coating of leaves. Otherwise, when the leaves are dry, and -the insects break their way into the open air, the cells will probably -fall to pieces. - -These Bees are much more abundant than is usually thought. In -summer-time it is hardly possible to find a rose-bush on which are not a -number of leaves from which pieces of variable size and shape, but -always with a curved outline, have been cut as with scissors. While -cutting them, the Bee seems to trace out her pattern, as it were, by -using her feet like one leg of a pair of compasses, and her head as the -other leg. As soon as she has nearly finished the operation, she poises -herself on the wing, to prevent her weight from tearing away the leaf -irregularly, and then, while still on the wing, makes the last few -bites, and severs the leaf entirely. - - -THE CHISEL AND THE ADZE. - -Already we have seen how exact is the analogy between the scissors and -the turtle-jaw. As we are upon the subject of cutting instruments, we -will continue it, trying to discover some further analogies. - -On the right hand of the illustrations we see three cutting tools made -by human hands--_i.e._ the Chisel, the Stone Adze of Polynesia, and the -Steel Adze of this country. We begin with the Chisel. - -All those who have even a slight knowledge of anatomy know how curiously -exact is the resemblance of the Chisel of civilised life to the front -tooth of any Rodent animal. The head of the Beaver is here given as an -example, but the tooth of a mouse, rat, or rabbit, which can easily be -obtained, is quite as good an example. These teeth are made after a very -beautiful fashion. Their outer surface is covered with a plate of very -hard enamel, while the rest of the tooth is of bony matter, and -comparatively soft. Consequently, when the tooth is used, the enamel -plate forms a sharp edge, while the rest of it is worn away, thus -keeping the chisel-like end in its proper form. - -[Illustration: TOOTH AND JAWS OF BEAVER.] - -[Illustration: CHISEL.] - -The power of these teeth may be appreciated by any one who has been -bitten even by so small a rodent as a mouse, the sharp edges meeting in -the flesh, and causing a very painful wound. When the teeth are large, -as in the Beaver, and the jaws powerful, their force is something -wonderful, tree-trunks of considerable size being cut down quite easily. - -Perhaps some of my readers may not be aware that the Chisel is -constructed on exactly the same principle as the tooth of the Rodent -animal. It is not entirely made of steel, as is generally thought. In -the first place, a valuable material would be needlessly wasted, and, in -the next place, the tool would not keep its edge except with infinite -labour in grinding. - -The principal part of the Chisel-blade is therefore made of soft iron, a -very thin plate of steel running along the back. This plate answers the -same purpose as the enamel in the tooth, while the soft iron takes the -place of the soft bone. Axe-blades, which are, in fact, formed like two -chisels placed back to back, are made on a similar principle, except -that the steel plate occupies the centre of the blade, and the soft -iron is on either side. Thus the thin plate of steel is easily brought -to an edge, while the soft iron can be ground away without any -difficulty. - -I do not mean to state that the inventor of this combination of thin -steel and soft iron had taken his idea from the Rodent tooth, but only -to show that the invention, beautiful, simple, and ingenious as it is, -has its prototype in Nature. I may here mention that the Plane-iron, -which is, in fact, a modified Chisel, is made in exactly the same -fashion. - - * * * * * - -NEXT we come to the Adze. - -[Illustration: ADZE-TEETH OF HIPPOPOTAMUS.] - -[Illustration: STONE ADZE OF POLYNESIA. STEEL ADZE.] - -In some respects there is much resemblance between the blade of the Adze -and the teeth of the Rodent, especially in their curve, which is almost -identical in both. This form is seen in the structure of other teeth -than those of Rodents. There is, for example, the tooth of the -Hippopotamus, which is not only curved, like that of the Rodent, but -bevelled off in a similar way at the tip. With these formidable teeth, -one of which is now before me, the Hippopotamus makes terrible havoc -among the herbage, mowing it down, so to speak, and stowing it away -wholesale in its enormous stomach. A Hippopotamus indeed, when angered, -has been known to sever a man’s body completely in two with a single -bite, so trenchant are the teeth, and so powerful the jaws. - -Then there is a little animal called the Hyrax, or Rock-rabbit, which is -the coney of Scripture. This creature is really one of the -pachydermatous group, although its small size, hairy coat, its activity -among the rocks, and its apparently rodent teeth, have induced many -persons to place it among that group. These teeth, however, like those -of the Hippopotamus, are bevelled off at their tips, and, as they -perform a similar office, they take a similar curve. - -It is worthy of notice that in the Stone Adze the bevelled edge much -more resembles the rodent tooth than does the Steel Adze, the reason -being evidently that stone is more fragile than steel, and requires -greater thickness. Still, the principle is the same in both, only the -metal is more attenuated than the stone. - -The Rodent or Hippopotamus tooth has still a great advantage over any -chisel or adze made by man, whether of stone or metal. As our tools are -blunted, we are forced to spend much time in sharpening them, and by -degrees grind the tool away until it becomes useless. Now, the teeth are -so arranged that their perpetual use, instead of blunting, only sharpens -them, and in proportion as they are worn away in front they are supplied -with fresh matter from behind, and perpetually pushed forwards, so that -they are self-renewing as well as self-sharpening. - - -THE PLANE AND SPOKESHAVE. - -I have already made mention of the Plane in connection with the Chisel, -and shown that, like that tool, it is formed on the same principle as -the Rodent tooth. - -The use of this important instrument in carpentering cannot be -overrated, as is shown by the numberless varieties which are used by -carpenters, and the different uses to which they are put, sometimes -merely smoothing a level surface, and sometimes forming a “moulding” -where ornament is required. - -In principle, a Plane is a cutting edge or chisel, pushed along the -object to be worked, and, the edge being guarded, taking off a very thin -shaving from the surface. - -On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown the Plane in -action, with the thin shavings falling from it in curled masses. Perhaps -some of my readers may have visited some of the great iron-works, and -been struck with the use of the Plane as applied to metal instead of -wood, long iron shavings being taken off as easily as if they were -deal, and curling in just the same manner. - - * * * * * - -THERE is an instrument very familiar to carpenters, called the -Spokeshave, on account of its use in trimming the spokes of wheels. -Different as it may be in appearance, it is identical in principle with -the plane, having an edge guarded by a piece of wood, so that the blade -cannot cut too deeply into the object on which it is employed. The chief -distinction, indeed, is, that the workman, instead of pushing the blade -from him, draws it to him. - -[Illustration: HOOP-SHAVER BEE.] - -[Illustration: PLANE. SPOKESHAVE.] - -When shaving was more in fashion than it is in these more sensible days, -there were many inventions to lessen the trouble, not to say the perils, -of shaving. To use the razor in a hurry was anything but an agreeable -occupation, especially if the weather were frosty, and the fingers so -chilled that they hardly knew whether or not they had the razor between -them. - -In order to render this very unpleasant task less disagreeable, some -ingenious individual invented the Guard Razor. The principal part of the -invention consisted in a plate of metal sufficiently thin not to add -materially to the weight of the razor, and sufficiently strong to resist -a moderate amount of pressure. This was fixed along the blade of the -razor in such a way that it just allowed the edge to show itself, and, -in fact, converted the razor into a plane or spokeshave. The exact -amount of edge which might be shown was regulated by screws, and the -guard itself could be removed at pleasure, so as to allow of the razor -being sharpened. - -Now let us see if we can find any examples of the Plane or Spokeshave in -Nature. - - * * * * * - -I TRACE at least one example of the Plane in the insect world. More than -a hundred years ago, that very observant naturalist, Gilbert White, -noticed a bee performing a curious task. She was running up the stem of -the garden campion, holding her jaws extended, and stripping off the -down with all the dexterity of a hoop-shaver. She collected a bundle -nearly as large as herself, and then flew away with it. What she did -with her burden he knew not, but the history of the insect has been told -fully, though briefly, by Mr. F. Smith, in his “Catalogue of British -Hymenoptera:”-- - -“Although the species belonging to this genus are numerous, and are -found both in the Old and New World, there is only one found in this -country, _Anthidium manicatum_; this is truly a summer bee, not making -its appearance before the latter part of June or beginning of July. - -“This insect, so far as my own observation has enabled me to ascertain, -does not construct its own burrow, but makes use of any hole which is -adapted to its purpose. I once detected a bee entering the hole above -the wheel of the sash-line in a summer-house; but its nests are most -commonly formed in the holes bored in old willow stumps by _Cossus -ligniperda_ (the Goat-moth): formerly they were easily obtained in -Battersea Fields, where the willows abounded. - -“It is probable that when the parent insect has selected one of these -ready-formed tunnels, she enlarges the end used as the depository of the -nest, and this is easily effected, as the stumps in question, at the -depth of a couple of inches, consist of soft decayed wood. - -“The chamber being formed, the bee collects a quantity of down from -woolly-stemmed plants, with which she forms an outer coating. She then -constructs a number of cells for the reception of the pollen, or food of -the larva; they consist of a woolly material, mixed with some glutinous -matter which resists the moisture of the food they contain, and in -which the larva, being full fed, spins a brown silken cocoon. These bees -pass the winter in a larva state, and do not appear until midsummer. - -“In one respect, the sexes of this genus differ from most other bees, -the males being much larger than the females.” - -The reader will see from this account how exact is the analogy between -the carpenter’s plane and the jaws of the bee. In consequence of the -simile employed by Mr. White, the insect has been popularly known by the -title of the Hoop-shaver Bee. It is a tolerably common insect, and -abounds in the South of England. - - - - -TOOLS. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE SAW AND ITS VARIETIES. - - Cutting Tools and their working.--Structure of the Edge.--The - Kris.--Edge of a Razor.--The Sword and the Apple.--Australian - Saw.--Fretwork Saw.--Various Saw-flies.--The Pioneer’s - Saw.--Cutting Tools of Trichiosoma.--Side Teeth of the Saws.--The - Cordon Saw, or Band Saw.--Tooth-ribbon of Whelks, Slugs, and other - Molluscs.--The Dog-whelk, or Purpura.--The Circular - Saw.--Sawyer-beetles and their Mode of Work. - - -Still keeping to the Cutting Tools and their varieties, we come to the -Saw, _i.e._ the cutting tool set with teeth upon its edge. Now, in plain -fact, there is no cutting instrument that does not more or less partake -of the character of the Saw; for, in the first place, it is absolutely -impossible for man to grind an edge so fine that, when magnified, it -will not appear to be deeply notched, and, in the next place, its -cutting powers are greatly due to the notches and teeth, and the -direction of their points. - -We will take both these subjects in turn. - -First, as to the notches, or serrated edge. I have now before me two -instruments, each the best of their kind, and in both of which the -serrations are essential to efficacy. The first is a Malayan dagger, or -“kris,” and the second is a surgeon’s lancet, made by Ferguson, of -London. - -In the kris the edge is intentionally serrated, having been eaten away -by means of acids until the required effect was produced. The Malayans -know by experience that such an edge is most deadly in a weapon, and -that it will cut certain vital parts which a smoother edge might pass -without doing any damage. - -Now we will take the lancet, and put it under the microscope, when it -assumes the most curious resemblance to the kris. Its mirror-like -surface looks as if it had been very roughly treated with a coarse file, -while its thin and delicate edge, which is perfectly smooth to the eye, -and which will pass through a piece of stretched wash-leather without -any apparent opposition, becomes as rough and jagged as that of the -Malayan weapon. - -Take even, for example, the common butcher’s knife, which is perpetually -being sharpened on the “steel” that hangs at his belt. The reader may -observe that the butcher does not rub the blade of his knife backwards -and forwards on the steel, as unskilful persons do. Rapid as is the -movement gained by constant practice, any one may see that the blade is -always moved in one direction, so as to force the microscopical teeth to -point one way, and so to act as a saw when the knife is drawn across the -meat. - -The power of these teeth or notches may be inferred from a well-known -fact. If a razor, no matter how sharp, be pressed upon the human skin -without any “draw,” it will indent the skin, but not cut it, while the -slightest drawing movement will cause a deep wound. It is the knowledge -of this fact that enables an expert swordsman to sever an apple placed -on the palm of the bare hand, without even scratching the skin. I have -witnessed this feat, and at once saw that it was due to the absence of -any “draw” to the cut. The apple was laid on the palm of the hand, which -was opened as widely as possible, so as to flatten it. The sword was -then brought down on the apple with a sort of chopping movement, so -that, although it indented the skin, it did not even inflict a scratch. - -By the use of the “drawing” movement, the same sword severed a gauze -veil laid across it, the two halves floating in opposite directions. By -the same cut, I have seen some astonishing feats performed with an -Indian sword now in my collection, the objects of attack falling asunder -as if by magic, without any apparent force being used. - - * * * * * - -HAVING now glanced at the principle of the Saw, we will proceed to some -of its details. - -The simplest form of Saw in existence is that which is in use among the -Australian natives, and consists of obsidian flakes set along one side -of a stick. It looks a rude and inefficient affair enough, but it can -cut better than might have been thought, as I can testify from -experiments on such a saw in my collection. - -[Illustration: SAW OF COMMON SAW-FLY (MAGNIFIED). GROOVES CUT BY SAW IN -BARK.] - -[Illustration: HAND-SAW. TENON SAW. PIONEER’S SAW-SWORD.] - -Many as are the varieties of the Saw, the principle is the same in all, -and the chief distinction lies in the shape and arrangement of the -teeth, according to the work which they have to do. Watch-spring Saws, -for example, which have to cut metal, have their teeth so slight as to -be hardly perceptible, and arranged nearly in a line with each other. -The Fretwork Saws, which have to cut delicate patterns in wood, with the -slightest possible waste of material, are of the same character. Then we -have the long curved teeth of the Circular Saws, which tear their way -savagely through great tree-trunks, and fill the air with clouds of -sawdust. There are also the Tenon Saw, with its thin blade and broad -back; the pioneer’s saw for cutting green wood, with its double array of -teeth, so as to make a wide “kerf” in which it shall not be clogged; -together with many others that we cannot enumerate here. - - * * * * * - -WE will now examine some Saws as found in Nature. - -I need scarcely say that some of the best examples of natural saws are -furnished by those insects which are known to entomologists as -Tenthredinidæ, and to the general world as Saw-flies. These insects are -supplied by Nature with a pair of most remarkable saws, which aid them -in depositing their eggs. Indeed, without these instruments, the whole -race of Saw-flies would long ago have become extinct. - -They haunt almost every kind of tree and many plants, and one valuable -plant, the Turnip, is so devastated by them, that whole crops are -sometimes swept away. As, therefore, the knowledge of the life-history -of any insect will tell us whether to protect or destroy it, and the -best method of adopting either course, we will cast a hasty glance at -some of our commonest Saw-flies, the instruments which they employ, the -mode in which they use them, and the analogies between them and the saws -made by the hand of man. - -In the first place, it must be observed that the use of these saws is to -cut grooves in young bark, these grooves being the depositories of their -eggs. It follows, therefore, that as a tolerably wide groove is needed, -the saw-blade is a tolerably thick one, and the teeth set on the same -principle as that which is employed in the saw-sword of the pioneer. -When the microscope is applied to the cutting instrument of the Saw-fly, -it reveals the fact that there are two horny saws, which work -alternately in their grooves, and that they are strengthened by a thick -plate of horn on their backs. - -The system of toothing is very complicated. Not only are the sides as -well as the edges of the saws toothed, but each tooth is furnished with -smaller teeth, after the fashion of the shark’s wonderfully effective -cutting apparatus. These subsidiary teeth vary greatly in shape and size -according to the species, and in some cases each tooth is quite a -complicated structure. In _Trichiosoma lucorum_, for example, a bee-like -insect, very common upon hawthorn, the teeth are extremely beautiful. It -is difficult to describe them without diagrams, but I will try to give -the reader an idea of them. - -Each tooth is somewhat of a lancet shape, but is not terminated by a -single point. At the tip comes the secondary tooth, which is conical and -stands on a footstalk. The cone, however, is not simple, but is made of -some seven or eight cutting plates, each smaller than its predecessor, -and the last being a sharp conical point. The reader may imagine how -effective such a saw would be in cutting green wood, the toothed sides -and the subsidiary teeth alike preventing the blades from clogging, -while the alternate movement of the saws enables them to do double work -in the same time. - -Mr. Westwood, who examined these insects very closely, throws out, in -his “Modern Classification of Insects,” the idea which forms the subject -of this book. Writing of the cutting weapon of the Saw-flies, he remarks -that “from its admirable construction it cannot be doubted that a -careful examination of its various modifications might furnish ideas for -improved mechanical instruments.” - -Mr. Gosse, in his “Evenings at the Microscope,” points out that, -beautiful and elaborate as these instruments are, they are but the -sheaths of a still finer and more delicate pair of saws. These secondary -saws have only a few teeth on the edge, and these near the point, -whereas the sides are furnished with a number of sharp blades, set on -their edges, slightly overlapping each other, and directed backwards. -There is a similar structure on the ovipositor of the Sirex, as we shall -see when we come to treat of Boring Instruments. - -Although the saws are made expressly so that they shall not stick in the -wood, there are many instances known where female Saw-flies have been -found dead on the branches, their saws still in the last groove which -they have cut. I am inclined to think that these must be females which -have deposited all their eggs, and which have died, as do nearly all -insects under similar circumstances. This opinion is strengthened by -some observations made by Mr. J. K. Lord on the Cicada, the female of -which is furnished with a similar ovipositor:-- - -“I was curious to watch the female depositing her eggs. - -“She first clasps the branch on both sides with her legs, and with the -ends of the file very carefully slits up the bark. Then, placing the -instrument longitudinally, she files away until she has obtained -sufficient length and breadth. The _small_ teeth of the files are now -used crosswise of this fissure, until a trench is made in the soft pith. - -“When large enough, slowly down the groove in the centre of the -instrument glides a small pearly egg, pointed at both ends, and so -transparent that the little grub within is clearly discernible. Gently -she lays it within its bed, and then drops a thin gummy material on it, -to secure it from moisture. This finished, she proceeds to deposit -another, and so on, until a sufficient number are produced to fill the -fissure; then over all she drags the everted bark. It is easy to -perceive where the Cicada has been concealing her brood, by the -elevation on the branch. - -“In this manner she deposits about seven hundred eggs, going from branch -to branch, her marvellous instinct teaching her to select the most -suitable wood for the purpose. The time occupied in constructing each -nest was from fifteen to twenty minutes. Her earthly mission finished, -she drops, fainting and exhausted, from the branch, and dies. - -“The male, who is always trilling his refrain, goes on, indifferent, or -unconscious, that the task of his faithful spouse is finished, singing -even, until his time comes--then he too drops beside her. Thus the songs -one by one cease,--not only the Cicada’s, but all the forest choir, and -give place to blasts that sigh in mournful music through the leafless -trees.” - -The Sirex and several of the larger Ichneumon-flies are often found dead -in like manner, and I have no doubt from the same cause. An elaborate -description of the beautiful double saws of the Cicada is given by Mr. -Westwood in the work already quoted, together with illustrations. - - -THE RIBBON SAW, CORDON OR BAND SAW. - -Perhaps some of my readers may be acquainted with a saw which has of -late years come into extensive use--namely, the Ribbon Saw, Cordon Saw, -or Band Saw. This is an endless steel band toothed on one edge, and -passing over two wheels. It has the advantage of being of almost any -breadth, some being several inches wide, while others are mere narrow -ribbons, barely the sixth of an inch wide. The fretwork of pianos and -other articles of furniture is cut almost exclusively by the Cordon Saw. -A thick piece of wood is cut of the requisite shape, and the upper and -under surfaces planed quite true to each other. The pattern is traced on -the upper surface, and a very narrow Cordon Saw is then applied to it, -cutting completely through the thick block, and adapting itself to all -the intricacies of the pattern. The block is then cut into thin slices, -so that a number of pieces of fretwork can be made with comparative -ease. To those who have been accustomed to cutting fretwork with the -slow hand-saw, the Cordon Saw is simply fascinating, the slender steel -ribbon cutting through the wood with wonderful rapidity and very little -sound. - - * * * * * - -BEAUTIFUL as this invention is, it was long ago anticipated in Nature; -and the Cordon Saws, which we shall now see, are armed with teeth many -more in number, and far more complicated in detail, than those of any -saw made by the hand of man. I allude to the Tooth-ribbon possessed by -many of our common molluscs, such as the Limpet, the Whelk, the -Periwinkle, the Slug, &c. The last mentioned of these creatures -possesses a natural Cordon Saw with nearly twenty-seven thousand teeth, -and scarcely a tooth that is not elaborately cut into secondary teeth. - -[Illustration: PORTION OF TOOTH-RIBBON OF WHELK (HIGHLY MAGNIFIED).] - -[Illustration: RIBBON OR CORDON SAW.] - -As all these creatures have their teeth differently formed and set, -according to the species, it will be impossible to describe them -separately. I will therefore restrict myself to the Tooth-ribbon of the -common Whelk, a specimen of which is now before me. When viewed through -the microscope, it is found to consist of a flat membranous ribbon, on -which are set three rows of teeth, those of the outer row being hooked, -and those of the inner one plain. - -The outer teeth are formed somewhat like the Hebrew letter כ, both of -the points being very sharp, and the central part being furnished with -two secondary teeth. All these teeth overlap each other, so that some -care in manipulation is required before their form can be made out. - -Along the centre of the tooth-ribbon run successive rows of small, -lancet-shaped teeth, six in a row, so that altogether there are eight -teeth in each row. - -The power of this weapon is astonishing. Some of my readers may be aware -that Whelks are carnivorous beings, and that they swarm upon any dead -animal which may be found in the sea. Indeed, when we hear of the -mutilations which take place on dead corpses after a shipwreck, and -which are generally attributed to fishes, we may make up our minds that -the real delinquents are the Whelks, together with various crustacea, -and that the principal instrument in effecting such mutilation is the -tooth-ribbon which has just been described. - -The Whelks feed largely upon other molluscs, in spite of their shells. A -periwinkle has a peculiarly hard shell, and yet Mr. Rymer Jones saw a -Dog-whelk (_Purpura lapillus_) eat a periwinkle in a single afternoon, -first boring a hole through its shell with the tooth-ribbon, and then, -by means of the same weapon, licking it, so to speak, out of its shell. - -The Periwinkle itself has a similar tooth-ribbon, and so have the Limpet -and the pretty Top-shell. These creatures are vegetarians, but they are -furnished with similarly armed tongues, and use them in the same way. -Nothing is easier than to see these tooth-ribbons in use. When sea-water -is kept in glass vessels, a green flocculence is sure to collect upon -the glass and to render it opaque. - -If, however, a few Periwinkles and Top-shells are placed in the tank, -they immediately set to work at this confervoid growth, and by means of -the tooth-ribbon sweep off the green substance, leaving the glass nearly -clean. This movement can be seen with the naked eye, but with the -assistance of a pocket lens the action of the tooth-ribbon is -beautifully shown as it issues from its socket, makes its sweeping -curve, with the tiny teeth glittering like specks of glass, and then is -withdrawn ready for another sweep. - -Should sea-water and living Periwinkles not be easily obtained, the same -phenomenon may be observed in fresh water, and with the common -Pond-snail, which may be caught by thousands in any stream and in most -ponds. - - -THE CIRCULAR SAW. - -In one sense the Cordon Saw is a Circular Saw, but we now restrict the -name to the tool which has a circular blade, more or less deeply toothed -on the edge. The largest and coarsest of these saws are of enormous -diameter, have teeth several inches in length, and can cut a large -tree-trunk asunder in a wonderfully short time. - -There is a huge saw of this kind in Chatham Dockyard. It is kept in a -sort of cellar covered with flap doors, where it really has the air of -some dread monster lying in wait for prey. A tree-trunk is brought for -it to feed upon. The doors slowly open, the saw emerges, revolves so -fast that the eye cannot detect the teeth, seizes on the tree-trunk, -tears its way through with a scream and roar, and then sinks back into -its cellar. I have often watched this saw in action, and have never been -able to get over a kind of feeling that it was alive. - -[Illustration: SAWYER-BEETLE.] - -[Illustration: CIRCULAR SAW.] - -Now, if we suppose the saw to be pierced in the centre, and to have -teeth on the inside instead of the outside, it would be equally -efficacious; and, indeed, we have several tools used for cutting iron -bars or pipes, that are constructed on a similar principle, though the -cutting tooth revolves slowly instead of rapidly, and is urged by a -lever handle. - - * * * * * - -THERE is in Nature a Circular Saw of just such a character, the teeth -having their points directed inwards, and not outwards. - -In tropical America there are several large beetles which, like our -Stag-beetle, feed upon the sap of trees, and obtain it by wounding the -young branches with their jaws. - -One or two of them are pointed out as having the power of cutting a -branch completely off by seizing it in their deeply toothed jaws, and -flying round and round the branch so as to convert themselves into a -circular saw. The late Mr. Waterton showed me a branch which had fallen -on his head, and which was said to have been cut off by the -Sawyer-beetle, as the insect is called. He did not actually see the -insect at work, but he had no doubt that the natives were right who told -him that it was the work of beetles’ jaws. Certainly the cut looked -exactly as if it had been made in the way described. The branch was -somewhat thicker than an ordinary walking-stick. - -The truth of this statement has often been denied, but I have -ascertained from personal observers that it is literally true. A loud -noise is produced by the operation, and, as the female is never seen to -perform it, the general idea is that it is a call to its mate. - - - - -TOOLS. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -BORING TOOLS.--STRIKING TOOLS.--GRASPING TOOLS. - - The Bradawl and the Gimlet defined.--Natural Bradawls.--The - Ichneumon-flies.--A Pimpla engaged in Boring Operations.--Principle - of the Wedge.--Resisting Power of Earth.--Pitching Tents in - Sand.--Hidden Forces of Nature.--The Aloe-leaf and its Growth.--A - cruel Punishment.--Natural Gimlets.--Ovipositor of the Sirex, and - its Analogy to a Carpenter’s Gimlet.--The Auger and the - Gad-fly.--Striking Tools.--The Hammer.--Origin and Development of - the Tool.--The Axe.--The Woodpecker and the Nuthatch.--The - Ivory-billed Woodpecker.--Grasping Tools.--Pincers and their - Modifications.--Sugar-tongs and Coal-tongs.--Natural - Pincers.--Bivalve Molluscs.--The Clam’s Grip.--The Earwig.--Crab - and Lobster Claws. - - -BORING TOOLS. - -Next in importance to the edged tools which cut, come the pointed tools -by which holes can be bored. We have an abundance of such tools, but -they can all be reduced to two types, namely, those which, like the -Bradawl, are forced between the fibres, and those which, like the -Gimlet, cut away the material as they pass through it. - -They may, again, be shown to be different modifications of a single -principle--_i.e._ that of the Wedge or Inclined Plane, which, as has -already been shown, is identical with that of the screw. The Bradawl is, -in fact, a sharp wedge, which is forced through the fibres, sometimes -being merely forced between them, and sometimes cutting them, and thus -forcing aside the severed fibres. - -A natural example of the Bradawl is to be found in various -Ichneumon-flies, especially those with very long ovipositors, which are -intended for boring into wood. - -All the Ichneumons are parasitic, laying their eggs in the larvæ of -other insects, mostly those of moths and butterflies. Generally these -larvæ exist in the open air, and the Ichneumon-fly has little difficulty -in piercing them. But there are some which live either in wood or -underground, and, in order to reach their hidden bodies, the Ichneumon -is furnished with an extremely long and sharply pointed ovipositor. - -This wonderful instrument is not so thick as an ordinary horsehair, -although it is composed of three portions, and seems to be utterly -inadequate to the task which it has to perform. Ascertaining by its -instinct the exact locality of the caterpillar which it desires to -pierce, the Ichneumon-fly clings firmly to the tree, bends the body so -as to bring the point of the ovipositor against the wood, and, by moving -the abdomen backwards and forwards, gradually works the instrument into -the wood, sometimes piercing it to a considerable depth. - -Mr. Westwood once saw an Ichneumon-fly thus boring its way into a dry -post, the wood of which must have been very hard. When she had bored far -enough, she partially withdrew the ovipositor, and then re-plunged it -into the hole that she had made, as if she were depositing eggs. While -engaged in this operation, she stood very high on her long legs, resting -only on the extremities of the feet. She belonged to the genus Pimpla. - - * * * * * - -THE principle of the Wedge or Inclined Plane is admirably shown by -objects which we pass unheeded every day, and yet afford wonderful -examples of the power of the wedge. - -Scarcely any vegetable growth is so plentiful as grass, which has been -used in that sense by the highest of all authorities, “which to-day is, -and to-morrow is cast into the oven.” Grass forces its way -everywhere--not only in cultivated grounds, but in the wildest of lands, -where there is scarcely any nurture for it. Even among the habitations -of mankind the grass will have its way, and clothes deserted housetops -with verdure, and forces itself between the stones that pave neglected -streets. - -Place side by side some of these stones, together with a very young and -tender Grass-blade, and it will seem to be impossible that so fragile an -object should be able to exert any influence on the solid stone. Let any -one try to push a sharp skewer between the stones, and he will find that -he has to exert power sufficient to crush a thousand grass-blades. Yet -these slight and delicate objects will force themselves between the -stones, and sometimes to such an extent as to cover the whole roadway -with verdure. - -The force which is employed is simply marvellous, and can only be -appreciated by those who know the resisting power of earth, however dry -and loose it may be. Even sand has so strong a resistance that tents can -be pitched in the desert without difficulty. Of course the ordinary -tent-peg would be useless, but the desert dwellers can pitch their tents -with perfect security. They fasten the tent-rope to a branch or piece of -bush, scrape a hole in the sand, put the bush into the hole, cover it up -again, and it will withstand almost any strain, though it be only -covered with a few inches of sand. - -[Illustration: GRASS-BLADES.] - -[Illustration: WEDGE.] - -When miners blast rocks with gunpowder, they take advantage of the -resisting power of sand. They bore a suitable hole, place a charge of -gunpowder at the bottom, and then merely pour loose sand into the hole -until it is filled. When the powder explodes, the rock or coal is -shattered to pieces, but the sand is not blown out of the hole. This -operation is called “tamping.” - -Every one, again, knows how firm are gate-posts, and how they resist the -weight, jarring, and leverage of a heavy gate, all because they are sunk -a little way into the earth. - -Considering, therefore, that such fragile things as young grass-blades -can force their way through the superincumbent weight, we can but be -amazed at the aggregate of active force which is in full operation in -every pasture field and garden lawn. - -As far as I know, not being much of a botanist, every seed that springs -up does so on the wedge principle, though the form of the wedge may be -varied. - -A terrible example of the force which is exercised by this principle -among the vegetables is shown in some parts of the world where the Aloe -flourishes in a wild state. In our colder clime the Aloe, though it does -live in the open air, is a slow-growing plant. But, in its own land, it -shoots up with a surprising vigour, and its sharply pointed and -saw-edged leaves are said to grow to the extent of six inches in a -single night. - -Taking advantage of this rapid, and, at the same time, powerful growth, -the natives, when they want to punish a man with more than ordinary -severity, tie him hand and foot, and bind him to the earth just over a -sprouting aloe plant, and leave him there. In twenty-four hours the man -is nearly certain to be dead, the aloe-leaf having forced itself -completely through his body. Or, if he be not actually dead, he lives in -frightful tortures, which are continually increased by the flinty point -and notches forcing themselves slowly, but surely, through the body. - - * * * * * - -FOR an example of the Gimlet we may take the ovipositor of the Sirex, an -insect which I believe has no popular name. It is coloured much after -the same manner as the hornet, and is often mistaken for that insect by -those who are not versed in entomology. And, as its long and straight -ovipositor is generally taken for a hornet’s sting, the insect assumes a -double terror to the ignorant. - -Now, the real fact is, that in its larval stage of existence the Sirex -feeds upon the wood of the fir-tree--a diet which, to our ideas, is -about as unsatisfactory as can well be imagined. In order that the young -Sirex may be within reach of food, the egg must be introduced deeply -into the body of the tree, and, for the egg to be so received, a channel -must be cut for it. - -This is done by means of the marvellously formed ovipositor. Many -admirable descriptions have been given of the head of this instrument -and its boring powers, but I am not aware that any one has noticed the -secondary cutting blades that are set along the shaft of the principal -borer, and which answer exactly the same purpose as the spiral cutting -edge of the gimlet or auger. - -Not being desirous of repeating my own observations in different words, -I transfer to these pages a short account of the ovipositor of the -Sirex, as examined by me when writing my work on British Insects, -entitled “Insects at Home,” and published by Messrs. Longmans and Co.:-- - -“I very strongly recommend any of my readers who may obtain a female -Sirex to disengage the actual borer from its two-bladed sheath, and -examine it with the aid of a microscope. A half-inch object-glass will -give quite a sufficient power.” - -[Illustration: ŒSTRUS. BORING TOOL OF SIREX AND LARVA.] - -[Illustration: AUGERS.] - -[Illustration: BRADAWLS.] - -“It is straight, stiff, and elastic, as if made of steel, and, if bent, -will spring back to its proper form with the elasticity of a Toledo -rapier. - -“But the borer possesses an auxiliary cutting apparatus which places it -far above the rymer in point of efficacy. Even with an ordinary -magnifying lens, it is easy to see that the end of the borer is -developed into a sharp head, very much resembling that of a -boarding-pike, and that the outline of the shaft is broken into a series -of notches. - -“The half-inch glass, however, discloses a marvellous example of -mechanical excellence. The head of the borer is then seen to be armed -with long, sharp teeth, slightly curved inwards, and acting just as does -the carpenter’s ordinary centrebit. - -“So much for the head of the borer: we will now turn to the shaft. - -“It appears that, in order to make a clean-cut hole for the reception of -the egg, the shaft of the borer has to finish the task which the head -begins. Accordingly, it is armed on each of its sides with a series of -hard, sharp-edged ridges, running diagonally across it, and acting -exactly as do the sharp ridges of a coffee-mill.” - -In point of fact, the ovipositor of the Sirex is the natural type of the -improved gimlet of the present day. Instead, however, of having a -single, spiral, sharp-edged groove running along the whole length of the -shaft, it has a series of small, sharp blades, set exactly in the same -line as is taken by the spiral groove, and acting in exactly the same -manner--i.e. by cutting out successive portions of wood, and, by the -diagonal position of the blades, throwing out the debris as fast as it -is cut. - -I cannot but think that, if any modern tool manufacturer could take as -his model the saw-like ovipositor of the Tenthredinidæ, and the -auger-like ovipositor of the present insect, he would produce a series -of most valuable implements, possessing powers far beyond those of -ordinary tools. - -These short blades are arranged just like the “studs” on modern shells, -and very much resemble them in shape, though not in material. - - * * * * * - -THE Auger finds also a natural representative in the ovipositor of an -insect. - -That of the common Gad-fly (_Œstrus bovis_) is most beautifully -constructed. It is tubular in form, and is of a telescopic nature, -consisting of four tubes of different sizes, the smaller fitting into -the larger just as is done with the joints of a common telescope, or -those of a Japanese fishing-rod. - -The end of the ovipositor is developed into little projections, some of -which are armed with hard, sharp points, which act exactly like the -cutting edge of the auger. This elaborate appliance is necessary on -account of the thick, tough skin of the ox, which the Gad-fly has to -penetrate before it can deposit its eggs. Perhaps the reader may be -aware of the fact that the modern system of cutting channels in stone -with the diamond point, as was so well exemplified in the Mont Cenis -Tunnel, is but an imitation, and an imperfect one, of the method adopted -by the Gad-fly. We shall soon recur to this instrument. - - -STRIKING TOOLS. - -If we search the records of antiquity as left by races of men that have -for countless ages vanished from the face of the earth, we shall find -that in some shape or other the Hammer was a tool in constant use, and -that in principle, though not in material, there was no difference -between the Hammer of the Stone Age and that of a blacksmith of the -present day. - -The development of the instrument can easily be traced, especially as it -is a tool which does not admit of much elaboration. - -The original hammer was evidently a simple stone, and answered equally -as a tool and a weapon. As, however, man progressed towards -civilisation, he found that the stone itself was insufficient for his -needs, and that he required much more force. The most obvious mode of -doing so was to take a larger stone, but this expedient soon became -valueless, inasmuch as a large stone was a cumbrous instrument to -handle, and could not be directed with any certainty or delicacy. - -The principle of the lever was then applied to the stone, which was -affixed to a handle, and thus became elevated into the rank of a -comparatively civilised tool. Sometimes the stone had a hole bored -through it, into which the handle of the hammer was inserted, as is the -case with most of our present hammers and pickaxes. Sometimes the end of -the handle was enlarged, and the stone thrust through it, as is now done -with the axes of Southern Africa. Sometimes a long, flexible rod was -used by way of handle, the centre of it taking two turns round the -stone, and the ends being lashed together. Handles thus made may be seen -in any blacksmith’s forge of the present day. - -The tool thus made was soon developed into various forms for different -uses. By lengthening and pointing the head, it became a pick for -loosening the earth. By widening and flattening the head, it became a -hatchet; and, by performing the same alteration in the pickaxe blade, it -became an adze. I possess a singularly ingenious tool from Borneo, in -which the head is movable, so as to be used as a hatchet or adze at -pleasure. - -In Demmin’s “Weapons of War” many such hammers and axes are figured. -One of them is very remarkable. It is an ancient war-hammer made of -black stone, and is shaped exactly like a pickaxe, except that one end -of the head is carved into a semblance of some animal’s head. The handle -is passed through an oval hole in the centre, just like our pickaxes of -the present day. This remarkable example of the art of the Stone Age was -found in Russia. The head was nearly a foot in length. - - * * * * * - -NATURE possesses many examples of this principle, of which I have chosen -two, namely, the Woodpecker and the Nuthatch. - -[Illustration: NUTHATCH.] - -[Illustration: WOODPECKER.] - -[Illustration: HAMMER.] - -The wonderful power of beak possessed by both these birds is familiar to -every one, but it is not so generally known that they do not merely peck -after the usual fashion among birds, _i.e._ delivering the stroke with -the force derived from the neck alone. These birds have an additional -leverage. Grasping the tree firmly with their feet, they not only peck, -but swing their whole bodies with each stroke, bringing their weight to -bear upon the object. They thus convert themselves into living hammers, -the feet acting the part of the human hand, the body of the bird being -analogous to the handle of the hammer, and the head playing the same -part in both cases. - -In England these birds are not known as well as they ought to be, partly -because they are both very shy creatures, and partly because the gradual -extinction of forests has deprived them, and especially the Woodpecker, -of their undisturbed homes. Yet those who are early risers may see both -birds in places where their presence is quite unsuspected, except, -perhaps, by those who can recognise the signs which they have left -behind them. - -There is a common saying to the effect that “a carpenter is known by his -chips,” and the proverb is equally true of the Nuthatch and the -Woodpecker. Nutshells scientifically split asunder, and jammed into the -rough bark of a tree-trunk, betray at once the Nuthatch to the eye of a -naturalist; while an accumulation of shattered bark, splinters of wood, -and similar debris announces, in equally bold type, that a Woodpecker -has been at work. - -The power of the Woodpecker’s beak may be gathered from Wilson’s -well-known account of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker, which he had wounded -and was trying to rear. While staying at an hotel, he locked the bird in -his room, and, on returning within an hour, found an astonishing state -of things. - -“He had mounted along the side of the window, nearly as high as the -ceiling, a little below which he had begun to break through. The bed was -covered with large pieces of plaster, the lath was exposed for at least -fifteen inches square, and a hole large enough to admit the fist opened -to the weather boards, so that in less than another hour he would -certainly have succeeded in making his way through. - -“I now tied a string round his leg, and, fastening it to the table, -again left him. I wished to preserve his life, and had gone off in -search of suitable food for him. As I re-ascended the stairs, I heard -him again at work, and on entering had the mortification to perceive -that he had almost ruined the mahogany table to which he was fastened, -and on which he had wreaked his whole vengeance.” - -The beak of the Woodpecker was employed upon its new master quite as -forcibly as upon walls and furniture, but Wilson was of too generous a -nature to resent his injuries, and lamented sincerely when the bird -died. - -The reader will probably observe that the Hammer which has been given as -an illustration of this principle is the ordinary geologist’s hammer, -and that it has been selected because its head is so formed that one end -can be employed for the usual tasks of a hammer, while the other end, -with its slight curve and sharp point, is, in fact, a sort of pickaxe, -and used for the same purposes. Indeed, this instrument is an almost -exact reproduction of the stone hammer which has already-been mentioned, -the blunt end being represented by the carved head, and the sharp end by -the pickaxe point. - - -GRASPING TOOLS. - -Already we have spoken of the Shears and Scissors, together with their -mode of action and dependence upon leverage. We now come to a set of -tools which, although equally dependent on leverage, develop that power -by grasping instead of cutting. Without these tools, the arts and -sciences could have scarcely made themselves felt, as there are but few -manufactures in which the artificer does not require a grasping power -far superior to that of the human hand. - -Perhaps the enormous power of the Pincers is never shown to better -advantage than in the great iron-works, where enormous masses of -white-hot metal have to be brought under the blows of the steam hammer. -I do not know of anything which affords a more imposing realisation of -the Divine command that man is to subdue the earth as well as to -replenish it. There is the vast hammer, striking blows which are felt -throughout a large area as if a succession of earthquakes had been let -loose. In the furnace there is an enormous mass of iron, heated to such -a degree that an unpractised eye could no more dare to look at it than -to stare a midsummer sun out of face. - -Where are the armies who are to cope with such forces? A few stalwart -and grimy men come forward, each man with a curious but unmistakable air -of one who wages a war of giants. The furnace door is opened, and out -rushes a blinding light which strikes on the eyeballs like a shock of -electricity. The men seize the handles of an enormous pair of Pincers, -suspended in the middle by a chain, and though no unpractised eye can -distinguish the glowing iron from the enveloping fire, they run the -Pincers into the furnace, seize the iron, swing it to the anvil, and -turn it this way and that way as easily as if it were a feather, while -the blows of the gigantic hammer descend upon it, enveloping them in a -torrent of sparks which spurt as if they were mere splashes of water, -and seem to do them no more harm. - -Taking the minor exposition of the Pincers principle and their use, we -may mention the ordinary Pincers which are mostly used for drawing -nails. Then there are the smaller Pincers called Pliers, all of which -are constructed on the same principle, and the chief of which are the -Round-nosed Pliers, the Long-nosed Pliers, and the Gas Pliers. Sometimes -a mixture of the Hammer and the Pincers is ingeniously contrived, as in -the tool which is represented on the right hand of the illustration. - -[Illustration: MUSSEL-SHELL. EARWIG. LOBSTER-CLAW.] - -[Illustration: SUGAR-TONGS.] - -[Illustration: PINCERS.] - -Then we have the still smaller and feebler Pincers of civilised life, -such as the Sugar-tongs and the ordinary Coal-tongs of our firesides. -Anatomists could have had no practical existence without the Pincers, of -which their beautifully constructed and much-elaborated forceps are but -variations. - -Take, again, the dentist, with his series of shining instruments, which -he so carefully keeps out of sight until he has got his patient safely -in that awful chair, and which glide, as by a conjurer’s trick, empty -into an open mouth, and return in a few seconds with a tooth between -their polished jaws. - - * * * * * - -ALL these instruments have their parallels in Nature, and in many -instances the natural pincers might supply useful hints to modern -tool-makers. - -In the left-hand upper corner of the illustration is shown the common -fresh-water Mussel, which is so plentiful in almost all our rivers and -many of our ponds. Its scientific name is _Unio margaritiferus_. The -latter title, which signifies “pearl-bearing,” is given to it because -it furnishes the British pearls which were at one time so highly valued. - -Like other bivalve molluscs, this Unio has the two halves of the shell -fitting quite tightly upon each other, and, when they are drawn together -by the contraction of the internal muscles, they can give a very severe -pinch. In many uncivilised parts of the world the natives take advantage -of this property, and use them as tweezers, chiefly for the purpose of -pulling out hairs which they are pleased to think are not needed. - -I need not state that with all bivalves the power is increased in -proportion to the size of the shell. Even an Oyster can pinch most -severely, while the Giant Clam, the shell of which weighs some four -hundred pounds, could nearly take off a man’s leg if it seized him. - -Mr. J. Keast Lord, in his “Naturalist in British Columbia,” relates an -amusing story that was told to him by an old settler respecting the -power of the Clam’s grip:-- - -“You see, sir, as I was a-cruising down these flats about sun-up, the -tide jist at the nip, as it is now, I see a whole pile of -shoveller-ducks snabbling in the mud, and busy as dogfish in herring -time. So I creeps down, and slap I let ’em have it. Six on ’em turned -over, and off went the pack, gallows scared, and quacking like mad.” - -“Down I runs to pick up the dead uns, when I see an old mallard -a-playing up all kinds o’ antics, jumping, backing, flapping, but fast -by the head, as if he had his nose in a steel trap; and when I comes up -to him, blest if a large Clam hadn’t hold of him, hard and fast, by the -beak.” - -“The old mallard might ha’ tried his hardest, but may I never bait a -martin-trap again if that Clam wouldn’t ha’ held him agin any odds till -a tide run in, and then he’d ha’ been a gone shoveller sure as shooting. -So I cracked up the Clam with the butt of my old gun, and bagged the -mallard.” - -Of course the reader will remember that this was only an ordinary Clam, -and not one of the giant race. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the shell are two very perfect instances of natural Pincers, each -acting in a different manner, but on the same principle. - -The Earwig is too familiar to need much description, but I may as well -state that its pincers are not primarily intended as weapons, although -they can be so used on occasion. (I was about to say, at a pinch, but -refrain.) They resemble our ordinary pincers in that both blades move -equally, and they are so completely under the control of their owner, -that the insect uses them with a delicacy of touch that a lady’s fingers -could hardly surpass. They are really tools, and not weapons, and are -employed for the purpose of folding the wide and delicate wings under -the tiny elytra. - -There is another insect called the Scorpion-fly (_Panorpa_), the male of -which is furnished with a pair of pincers at the end of a long and -flexible tail, articulated just like the tail of a scorpion, and moved -in exactly the same manner. It is but a little insect, but its gestures -are so menacing as it flourishes its tail about, that non-entomologists -may well be pardoned for being afraid of it. Moreover, small as are the -pincers, they really can give a smart nip, and make themselves felt on -the human skin. - - * * * * * - -IF we want examples of exceedingly powerful pincers, we need only go to -the Lobsters and Crabs, especially to the latter, whose claws are often -of enormous thickness in proportion to the size of the animal. All those -who have visited the seaside know how severe is the pinch of the common -Green Crab, comparatively small though it be, and the same may be said -of the river crayfish, which is, in fact, a lobster in miniature. - -As to the lobster itself, fishermen are so well acquainted with the -power of its claws, that they tie them together with string as soon as -the animal is caught. Formerly they used to “peg” them, _i.e._ drive a -wooden peg into the joint so as to prevent it from moving. This custom, -however, is now prohibited by law on account of its cruelty. - -The power of the Crab’s claws is so great that a bite from a large Crab -will inflict a severe injury, and render a hand helpless. It has more -than once happened that men who have been feeling for Crabs in the -recesses of the rocks at low water have been seized, and seriously -imperilled, not being able to release themselves from the gripe. - -Indeed, it is said that there have been instances where the Crab has -held so tightly, that the man has been drowned by the returning tide, no -one having come to his assistance. I am, however, inclined to doubt this -statement, thinking that the Crab would not be likely to remain in its -hiding-place very long after the water came up. Still, that such an idea -should be currently believed in many parts of England shows the -estimation in which the gripe of the Crab’s claw is held. - - - - -TOOLS - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -POLISHING TOOLS.--MEASURING TOOLS. - - Files and Sand-papers.--The Sheffield File and its Structure.--The - Equisetum, Mare’s Tail, or Dutch Rush.--Beauty of its Surface when - seen through the Microscope.--Sand-paper.--Skin of Dog-fish, Skate, - and Shark.--Skate-skin used for Sword-handles.--Distinction between - the File and Sand-paper.--Measuring Tools.--The Plumb-rule and the - Level.--Their Use in Tunnelling.--The Measure and its Uses.--The - Two-foot Rule and the Tape Measure.--Ovipositor of - Gall-fly.--Tongues of the Woodpecker, Wryneck, and Creeper.--The - Spirit-level and its Uses.--Theodolite and Callipers in Nature and - Art.--The Contouring-glass.--Pincers of Earwig again.--Jaws of - Insects.--The great Sialis of Columbia. - - -FILES AND SAND-PAPERS. - -Having now examined the analogies between the cutting, boring, striking -and grasping tools of Nature and Art, we come to those finishing tools -which smooth and polish the surface. - -The first is the File, an instrument which needs but little description. -It consists of a surface of hardened steel, broken up into rough-edged -teeth of infinite variety, according to the work which the file has to -do. It is rather remarkable, by the way, that at present the English -files are infinitely superior to those produced in any other part of the -world; that their teeth are all made by hand; and that a genuine -Sheffield file will first cut its way through a piece of iron in half -the time that would be occupied by a file of any other nation, and then -would easily cut its antagonist in two. - - * * * * * - -AS long as the File is intended to work upon metal, there is little -difficulty in its manufacture, except that no machinery has yet been -invented which can give the peculiar edging of the ridges, and to which -is owing the unmistakable “bite” of a real English file. - -But there are occasions when the hand of the most cunning file-maker is -baffled, and when it is necessary to cut files so delicate that the -unaided human eye cannot trace their teeth. Art, therefore, has recourse -to Nature, and the cabinet-maker, who cannot obtain any file made by -human hands which will answer his purpose in the higher branches of his -trade, makes great use of the “Dutch Rush,” as he calls it. It is not a -rush at all, but simply a species of Mare’s Tail, or Equisetum, a plant -which fills in profusion almost every marshy spot in England. - -[Illustration: EQUISETUM.] - -[Illustration: FILE.] - -The peculiar fitness of the Equisetum for this purpose cannot be -appreciated even by those who use it until it has been viewed under the -microscope. I have now before me a small piece of Equisetum, placed -under a half-inch power, and viewed by direct illumination, it being -treated as an opaque object. - -The microscope reveals at a glance the source of the power which the -ingenuity of man has taken advantage of. The surface of the Equisetum is -seen to be composed of myriads of tiny parallel ridges, each ridge -bristling with rows of flinty spicules, looking very much like the -broken glass upon the top of a wall. Minute as they are, these spicules -can do their work, and they enable the joiner to finish off work in a -manner that could not be accomplished by any tool made by human hands. - -I find, by recent inquiries, that modern joiners scarcely, if ever, use -the Equisetum, preferring emery-paper as cheaper and more expeditious, -and knowing that the popular eye is not able to appreciate the -difference of the surface obtained by the Equisetum from that which is -given by the finest emery-paper ever made. Wood-carvers, however, if -they be of the conscientious kind, and love their work for its own sake, -adhere to the Dutch Rush, and are all the happier for it. - - * * * * * - -PASS we now to the coarser kinds of polishers, the chief of which is -popularly known as Sand-paper, and is made by coating some tissue with -glue, and scattering upon it sand of different qualities, according to -the work to be done. Sometimes, when the work is rough, the sand is -large, rough, and coarse, and sometimes, when the work is fine, the sand -is so carefully sifted before it is scattered on the glued paper, that -there is little distinction between the sand-paper and emery-paper. -Linen, by the way, is generally used instead of paper, as being more -enduring, less liable to crack, and capable of being folded so as to -obtain access to crevices which paper could not touch. - -[Illustration: DOG-FISH SKIN, MAGNIFIED.] - -[Illustration: SAND-PAPER, MAGNIFIED.] - - * * * * * - -AGAIN in Nature we find a parallel, and the coarse Sand-paper of modern -Art has long been anticipated in the scale-clad skins of many fishes. - -The accompanying illustration is taken from the skin of a Picked -Dog-fish found by myself lying dead on the rocks in Bideford Bay. I cut -off a piece for transmission to the draftsman, and found that not only -did it feel exactly like cutting through a piece of very common -sand-paper, but that it blunted the edge of a new knife in exactly the -same manner as would have been done by the roughest of sand-paper. - -This kind of skin is common to all the shark tribe (including the -Dog-fishes, which are but sharks in miniature), and to the Skate, -Saw-fish, &c. I have now before me a small, but perfect example of the -Saw-fish, the surface of which is covered with flinty scales like those -of the Dog-fish, but very much smaller, requiring the aid of a -magnifying lens to distinguish them. Even to guess at the number of them -is impossible, for they cover the whole of the body, and extend to the -very end of the beak, in some places glittering in a strong light as if -pounded glass had been sprinkled all over the fish. One of the most -interesting points in their structure is the manner in which they reach -the rounded jaws, and there become converted into teeth powerful enough -to crush the animals on which the fish live. The structure of these jaws -will be explained in a future chapter. - -Some of the skates and sharks have these scales of great size, so as to -show their formation almost without the aid of a magnifying-glass. This -is the case with a species of skate, the skin of which is used by the -Japanese for wrapping round the handles of their best swords, and which -is greatly valued by that nation, the sword being an almost sacred -article in the eyes of a Japanese. - -There is a well-known museum in which these swords are labelled as -having handles of “granulated ivory.” Now, in the first place, there is -no such thing as granulated ivory; and, in the next, a mere glance ought -to tell the observer that the so-called ivory is a skin of some sort, -worked upon the handle while wet, and kept in its place by copper studs. -Even the junction of the edges is perceptible, and yet the authorities -of the museum in question, although they have been repeatedly corrected, -still persist in calling the skate-skin by the absurd title of -granulated ivory. - -However, if ivory could be granulated, it would certainly look very much -like the skate-skin. When examined closely, the scales, whether of -Dog-fish, Skate, Shark, or Saw-fish, are seen to resemble hexagonal -cones, not coming quite to a point, but truncated, so as to have an -hexagonal flattened tip. They are almost of a flinty hardness, -especially at their tips, and on inspection of them the observer is not -surprised at the use of Dog-fish skin in place of sand-paper. - -Perhaps the reader may ask why the Equisetum should be taken as the -prototype of the file, and the skin of the Dog-fish as that of -sand-paper. The reason is this. The flinty points of the Equisetum are -set upon parallel ridges something like those of a file, while the -scales of the Dog-fish are without any apparent order, being crowded -against each other like the cutting particles upon the sand-paper. That -there should not be an order, and that a definite one, is out of the -question. But it has not yet been detected by human eyes, and therefore -may be practically treated as non-existent. - - -TOOLS OF MEASUREMENT. - -In many of the arts, more especially those which belong to engineering -and carpentering as a part of architecture, it is absolutely necessary -to make sure of a perpendicular line, _i.e._ a line which, if continued, -would reach from any point of the earth’s surface to its exact centre -below and its zenith above. Were it not for the power of producing this -line, none of the great engineering works of modern or ancient days -could have been undertaken. - -Take, for example, the wonderful tunnels which have been driven through -the earth, of which the Mont Cenis Tunnel is one of the greatest -triumphs of modern engineering. Beginning, as the workmen did, at -opposite ends of a tunnel many miles in length, and labouring only by -the lines laid down by the engineers, the men worked steadily on until -they met in the centre. - -A few blows, and the then narrow dividing wall was shattered, the men -shook hands through the aperture, and then, after enlarging it, leaped -wildly from one side to the other, having successfully solved the great -problem. With such marvellous precision had the lines been laid, that -only a few inches had to be smoothed down on either side, and the sides -or walls of the tunnel showed no traces of the junction. - -So rapid has been the progress of engineering that a tunnel of a mile in -length would, within the memory of man, have been thought as daring a -project as was the Mont Cenis Tunnel, which has just been given as an -example. Indeed, I know of a railway tunnel, not quite a mile in length, -where the engineers had committed some error, so that the two halves, -instead of meeting exactly, overlapped each other so much that the -mistake was only discovered by the workmen, who heard the strokes of -their companions’ picks on their sides, and not in front. Consequently, -a great waste of time took place, and the centre of the tunnel had to be -made with a double curve, like the letter S, and trains are obliged to -slacken speed until they have passed it. - -Those who have lived long enough to remember the current literature of -the past generation will call to mind the ridicule that was cast upon -the idea of a tunnel that should pass under the Thames. That it would be -useful if it could be completed, no one ventured to doubt, but that such -an idea could be conceived by any one out of a lunatic asylum was rather -too much for the journalists of the day. However, the tunnel was made, -and so proved the theorists wrong on the one side. And, when made, it -was of very little use, which proved them wrong on the other side. Now -the proposal to carry a submarine tunnel from England to France excites -not half the opposition that was elicited by the comparative -child’s-play of a tunnel under the Thames. - -The only mode of laying down the lines on which the men worked is by -suspending very heavy balls to very fine wires, and then, by means of -delicate optical instruments, ascertaining whether the wires are in line -with each other. - -Familiar instances of the use of this principle may be seen in the -plumb-rule and level of the builder or carpenter. The latter, with a -base of ten feet in length, is often used by the gardener when he wishes -to lay the absolutely level lawns that are required for our modern game -of croquet, where the hoops are scarcely wider than the balls, and the -lawn has in consequence to be nearly as level as a billiard table. - -I may here remark that the name plumb-rule is derived from the Latin -word _plumbum_, or lead, in allusion to the leaden weight at the end of -the string. The word “plumber” is due to the same source, and signifies -a worker in lead. - - * * * * * - -THESE invaluable aids to the development of civilisation are due to one -principle, namely, that which we call Gravitation, but which ought more -properly to be termed Attraction, and which attracts all parts of the -earth towards its centre. We are all familiar with the anecdote of -Newton and the falling apple, which may be true or not, but which at -all events bears on the present subject. No matter on what portion of -the spherical earth a tree may be, every fruit becoming disengaged from -it is attracted to the earth, the line which it takes, unless disturbed -by external forces (such as wind, &c.), being that which passes from the -zenith to the centre of the earth. - -[Illustration: FALLING FRUIT.] - -[Illustration: PLUMB-RULE.] - -[Illustration: LEVEL.] - -This imaginary line is a perfect perpendicular, and the visible line -which is formed by the delicate wire of the tunnel-boring engineering -instrument, or the comparatively coarse string of the plumb-rule and -level, are approximations sufficiently close for practical purposes. So -it is in a mathematical proposition. As mathematical lines have no -breadth, they are simply indicated or represented by the lines of the -figure, the bodily eye being incapable of seeing what is perfectly -visible to the mental eye, namely, length without width. So the wire and -string perform in practical work exactly the same office which is -fulfilled by the lines of a mathematical proposition drawn on paper. - -We have already, when treating of the Fall-trap, seen how this principle -is brought into operation by those who are utterly incapable of -discerning the physical principle, though they can apply it materially -with wonderful effect. - - * * * * * - -IT is, perhaps, needless to mention the value of the Measure to any -handicraftsman. - -I well remember that when, some twenty-four years ago, I was taking -lessons from a carpenter in the art of making ladders, gates, fences, -hurdles, and other rough-and-ready work, my quaint old tutor related an -anecdote of and against himself. He very ingeniously set me to work at -boring the auger-holes in the gate-posts which were to be united by the -mortise chisel and mallet, and to sweeten the rather severe, because -unaccustomed, labour, told me that, when he was a boy, he was doing just -the same thing. - -Being rather tired of twisting the auger handle (and no wonder either), -he withdrew the instrument, and put his finger into the hole by way of -ascertaining its depth. Immediately he found himself on his back, having -received a tremendous box on the ear from his father, whose parental -wrath was excited by the idea of his son condescending to use his finger -by way of measure, when he had a two-foot rule in its own special -pocket. - -There are, however, many cases where even a two-foot rule would be -insufficient for the work, and where a measure of thirty or forty feet -is needed. - -Now, there is no doubt that by means of a two-foot, or even a six-inch, -rule any number of feet might be measured accurately; but, considering -the number of junctions that have to be made, it is not likely that any -pretence to accuracy could be insured. - -Then, a rod of forty, or even of twenty, feet in length would be awkward -and unmanageable, and the only plan left is to take a string or cord of -the requisite length. - -Even here, however, is a difficulty. The string would not allow of short -measurements, such as inches, being written upon it. Let, however, a -broad tape of inelastic material be substituted for the string, and all -is easy enough. - -The next plan is to provide for the portability of the tape in question, -to insure its reduction into the smallest possible compass, and to be -sure that it is not twisted so as to damage its accuracy. These objects -are all attained by the ordinary Tape Measure of the present day, which, -whether it be a yard measure in a lady’s workbox, or a surveyor’s -measuring tape, is a ribbon of comparatively inelastic material, coiled -up when not wanted, and capable of being drawn out to its fullest -extreme when needed. - -Putting aside the breadth of the line, and consequently disregarding the -liability to twist, we have in the Fishing-reel of the modern angler an -exact case in point. So we have in the lady’s yard measure, and in the -gardener’s or builder’s tape, all these being modifications of the same -idea. - -[Illustration: OVIPOSITOR OF GALL-FLY.] - -[Illustration: SPRING MEASURE.] - -Suppose now that we pass to Nature, so as to ascertain whether any such -provisions were in existence before it was imitated, however -unconsciously, by man. This certainly was the case with one of the -commonest and most insignificant of our insects, the little Gall-fly, -belonging to the genus Cynips. It could not lay its eggs without the aid -of a very long ovipositor, and, owing to structural details, it cannot -carry that ovipositor in a straight line, as is done by many insects, -some of which have already been mentioned. Accordingly, it is coiled up -exactly like our measuring tapes, and can be unrolled when needed. The -long, protrusible tongues of the Wryneck, Creeper, and Woodpecker are -examples of a similar structure, the tendinous portions being coiled -round the head when not needed. - - -THE SPIRIT-LEVEL. - -Having now seen how the forces of Nature enable us to produce a -perfectly perpendicular line, we will see how the same force, though -applied in a different manner, enables us to produce a perfectly -horizontal line, the intersection of the two lines producing a right -angle. - -[Illustration: FLOATING BUBBLE.] - -[Illustration: SPIRIT-LEVEL.] - -The measuring tool in question is called the Spirit-level, and is -represented on the right hand of the accompanying illustration. Its -construction is very simple, consisting of a tube, nearly filled with -spirit, and having just one bubble of air in it. Now, owing to the force -of gravitation, the air-bubble must always be uppermost. Consequently, -if the tube be a perfect cylinder, whenever it is held so that the -bubble is in the centre, the tube must be horizontal, a hair’s breadth -of deviation altering the line. I may here mention that, as far as the -principle of the instrument goes, water would serve the purpose as -effectively as spirit. But as in cold weather the water might freeze, -and so burst the tube, as well as being useless until it was thawed, -spirit is always substituted. - -This instrument is used for various purposes. Sometimes it is employed -for levelling billiard tables, or for ascertaining the exact level of -walls and other parts of buildings. Surveyors could scarcely do their -work without the Spirit-level, which forms an important part of their -chief instrument, the theodolite. Indeed, the new science of land -drainage, by which the tough, unproductive clay soil is converted into -fertile earth, is entirely dependent on the use of the Spirit-level, -which detects the slightest rise or fall in the ground. - -A most ingenious modification of the Spirit-level is used by military -engineers, and is known by the name of the “Contouring-glass,” a term -which requires some explanation. - -It is of the utmost importance that a military engineer should be able, -whether on foot or on horseback, to ascertain the approximate heights of -the various points which he visits, the efficiency or failure of a -battery very much depending on the comparative elevation of the spot on -which the battery is placed, and that of the place against which its -fire is directed. In an unknown country, of which no detailed maps -exist, an invading force must of necessity depend on the extemporised -surveys of their engineer officers, and one of the most valuable of -their devices is the system of Contouring, invented, as far as I know, -by the late Colonel Hutchinson, R.E. - -The idea is simple enough. A hill is seen, and the engineer makes a -sketch of it before he ascends. At the foot he halts, and marks the spot -where his foot presses the earth. He then looks in front at a spot -exactly on the level of his eye, marks it, and walks to it. He then -draws a line across his sketch, at the exact spot on which he is -standing, and that is the first “contouring line.” Others follow, until -he has reached the top of the hill. - -Now, if he can trust himself to look exactly horizontally, he has -ascertained the elevation of every part of the hill. He knows the height -of his eye from the sole of his foot, and calculates accordingly. -Suppose, for example, that it be five feet, and that ten contouring -lines are marked, he knows that the entire height is fifty feet, and -that each line means an elevation of five feet. - -This is a very excellent theory, but one which is not reduced to -practice so easily as it looks. There is nothing more deceptive than a -contour, especially upon an irregular hill, the invariable mistakes -being either greatly to overrate or underrate the height of the contour. -When I took my first lesson in this art I caused much amusement to the -professor under whom I was studying, by making Shooter’s Hill consist of -about seventeen contours. However, as many military students made very -much the same mistake, I was not so humiliated as I supposed. - -Of course, if a surveying officer be mounted, he takes the contour line -as measured from his eye to the ground through the centre of the saddle. - -After some practice the eye becomes so much accustomed to the contouring -lines that they are taken almost mechanically; but, until this result be -gained, an absolute proof is needed, which is furnished by the -Contouring-glass--which, by the way, is not a glass at all, after the -common acceptation of the word. - -It is a simple brass tube about three inches long, not thicker than a -man’s little finger, and open throughout. A small spirit-level is fixed -on its lower surface, and on the very centre of the upper surface is a -tiny steel mirror, which projects downwards like a knife-blade. In order -to get a “contour,” the observer looks through the tube, slightly -depressing its end. He then gradually raises it, still looking through -it. As the tube becomes exactly horizontal the bubble in the -spirit-level is reflected in the little mirror, and the object on which -the tube is directed is in consequence on a level with the observer’s -eye. - -At first the management of the contouring-glass is rather tedious; but -after a little practice it can be used without pausing for a single -step. - - * * * * * - -INVALUABLE as is the Spirit-level, with its various modifications, it is -nothing but an adaptation of that natural law which causes the bubbles -to float on the surface of a stream instead of being submerged below -it. We have all seen the multitudinous bubbles of soda-water, or of any -effervescing liquid, and have noticed how they are very small when -generated, but enlarge quickly, and rise to the surface with a rapidity -equal to their enlargement. The same phenomena may be observed in any -water-fall, or even in the very familiar and unpoetical operation of -pouring beer from a jug into a glass. - -The reader will see that in the plumb-rule, the level, and the -spirit-level one single principle is employed, namely, the attraction of -matter towards the centre of the earth. In the two former instruments -this attraction gives a vertical line, and in the latter it gives a -horizontal line, but the principle is the same in both. - - -CALLIPERS. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF SIALIS.] - -[Illustration: CALLIPERS.] - -We conclude the history of measuring tools with the Callipers. For -ordinary purposes, and upon a plane surface, the Compasses answer every -purpose. But there are various arts, especially sculpture, in which the -compasses, with their straight legs, are absolutely valueless, and their -place must be supplied by a differently shaped instrument. For example, -no ordinary compasses could measure the exact distance from the nostril -to the back of the head, or even touch two points at opposite sides of a -limb, and it is therefore necessary to have compasses with curved legs. -These are termed Callipers, and can be used on a plane as well as on a -rounded surface. - - * * * * * - -NATURAL Callipers are plentiful enough, and may be found extensively -among the insect tribes. There are, for example, the pincers of the -Earwig, which have already been described on page 259, and which are, in -the common species, formed exactly like the Callipers of the sculptor. - -Then we have various insect jaws, especially those of the carnivorous -species, one of the most curious being the large insect which is shown -in the illustration, upon a very reduced scale. In the male the jaws are -exceedingly long and curved, as may be seen by reference to the -illustration. I have now before me a pair of sculptor’s callipers, and -the resemblance between them and the jaws of the Sialis is strangely -close, the curve being almost exactly the same in both cases. - -The scientific name of this insect is _Sialis armata_, and it is a -native of Columbia. - - - - -OPTICS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE MISSIONS OF HISTORY.--THE CAMERA OBSCURA.--LONG AND SHORT -SIGHT.--STEREOSCOPE AND PSEUDOSCOPE.--MULTIPLYING-GLASSES. - - The Camera Obscura.--Telescopes, Microscopes, and Spectroscopes, - and their separate Objects.--Structure of the Camera Obscura.--The - Double Convex Lens.--Its Use as a Burning-glass.--The Meridian Gun - in Paris.--Signification of the Word “Focus.”--The Human Eye and - its Analogies to the Camera Obscura.--Forms of various - Lenses.--Long and Short Sight.--Their Causes and Means of - Remedy.--Alteration of Sight in the Diver.--Long and Short sighted - Spectacles.--The Eye of Birds.--Its beautiful - Structure.--Washing-glasses and the “Nictitating” - Membrane.--Combination of Images.--Natural Stereoscopes.--The - Pseudoscope and its Effects on an Object.--The - Multiplying-glass.--The Eight Eyes of the Spider and their - Arrangement.--The Seventy Thousand Eyes of the Butterfly.--Form of - the Facets. - - -History seems to fall into natural divisions, and to write the records -of time in successive epochs, recording the advance of the human race. -Some of them have apparently disappeared except by the strange relics -which they have left behind, but though nothing is known of the men who -worked in these ancient times, they stamped their mark upon the earth, -and evidently left the world better than they found it. - -A very admirable treatise on this subject has been written by the late -Rev. J. Smith, called the “Divine Drama of Creation.” In this work he -divides the progress of the human race into five acts, like those of a -drama. The first act is the Hebrew Mission, the second the Greek -Mission, the third the Roman Mission and the Middle Ages, the fourth the -National Mission, and the fifth the Universal Mission. - -Certainly a scene of the last act is now in progress, and may be -entitled the Scientific Mission. The last hundred years have been indeed -the age of discovery, and, during that time, the life of civilised man -has been quite altered, so that practically his sojourn upon earth has -been doubled. Steam, with all its various applications, electricity, and -other kindred arts have become so intermingled with our lives, that it -is difficult to imagine what our state would be if we were suddenly and -utterly deprived of them. The loss to all would be incalculable, and not -the least of the losses would be that of ready communion with our -fellow-creatures. - -Of these arts we will now take that which is named at the head of this -division of the book, and see how far it is a development of natural -facts. - - -THE CAMERA OBSCURA AND THE EYE. - -I have already spoken of arts as being akin to each other. They are more -than this, and every day of the world’s progress teaches us that Art, -Science, and Manufacture are sisters, all born of one family, and all -depending mutually on each other. - -Take, for example, our present theme--namely, Optics--and see how -dependent it is upon Manufacture and Art. Without the former, man could -not construct those beautiful telescopes, microscopes, spectroscopes, of -the present day, which are evidently but the precursors of instruments -which will work still greater marvels. - -The first enables us to see solar systems without number, to which our -own, vast as it seems to us, is but as a grain of sand in the desert. -The next instrument makes revelations as marvellous of the infinitely -minute as does the telescope of the infinitely great, enabling us to see -living organizations so small that thirty-two millions could swim in a -cubic inch of water. The third, a comparatively modern instrument, -reveals the composition of objects, and can detect and register the -materials of which the sun and fixed stars are made, or detect an -adulteration in wine. It can adapt itself equally to the telescope and -microscope, and the very same instrument which will reveal the character -of an invisible gas in the Pole-star, when attached to the telescope, -can, when connected with the microscope, point out the presence of half -a corpuscle of blood where no other instrument could discover any trace -of it. - -All these instruments, together with many others, will be described in -the present division of the work, and their analogies with Nature shown. - - * * * * * - -WE will now take the subject of the Camera Obscura, an instrument with -which the photographic apparatus of the present day has made most of us -familiar. As its action depends chiefly upon the glass, or lens, through -which the rays of light pass into the instrument, we will first explain -that. - -A “lens” is a glass formed in such a manner that the rays of light which -pass through it either converge to a focus, or are dispersed, by means -of the law of refraction. Every one who has been photographed--and who -has not?--will remember that when the sitter has taken his position, the -photographer brings to bear upon him a circular glass fixed into a short -tube, and then looks through the instrument as if he were taking aim -with some species of firearm. It is no matter of wonder that when -savages see the photographic camera for the first time they are horribly -frightened, for there is really something weird-like in the appearance -of the lens thus presented. - -Now, this lens is of the shape called “double convex,” both sides being -equally rounded, so that a section of it would be shaped very much like -a parenthesis (). The effect of this form of lens is to bring the rays -of light to a point at a given distance from the centre. This point is -called the “focus,” and is well known by means of the common -burning-glass, which will set fire to objects placed in its focus, while -itself remains quite cool. - -I have seen lead pour down like water when placed in the focus of a -large burning-glass, and even the harder metals will yield to the power -of the sun’s rays when thus concentrated. - -There is nothing which gives a more vivid idea of the amount of heat -thrown on the earth by the rays of the sun than the effects of a -moderately large burning-glass--say one of six inches in diameter. If we -trace a circle of this size on the surface of the earth, it does not -seem as if any very great amount of heat can be received, but when we -catch the rays of that circle in our glass, and bring them together upon -the focus, the amount of heat can be appreciated. The well-known -meridian gun in the Palais Royal is fired by the sun. A burning-glass of -no very great size is placed over the touch-hole of the gun, with which -its focus coincides. The lens is turned in such a manner that, as the -sun attains the meridian, its rays are thrown upon the touch-hole, and -consequently fire the gun. - -The word _focus_ is the Latin term for a domestic hearth, and is used in -allusion to the heat which is manifested at the point on which the rays -of the sun converge. - -It is evident that, after reaching the focus, the rays, if they be not -intercepted by some object, will cross each other, and form a large -image, but reversed. This part of the subject will presently be -explained. - - * * * * * - -THE accompanying illustration shows two figures, one representing the -section of a double convex lens made by the hands of man, and the other -that of a double convex lens as seen in Nature. - -[Illustration: CRYSTALLINE LENS OF HUMAN EYE.] - -[Illustration: DOUBLE CONVEX LENS.] - -The former has already been explained. The latter is the double convex -lens of the human eye, by means of which the images of external objects -are conveyed to the brain. Whenever this lens becomes thickened by -disease, the sight is gradually dimmed, and at last total blindness is -the result. This disease is popularly called “cataract,” and until late -days was incurable. Now, however, any good oculist will attack a -cataract, and either partially or entirely restore the sight. This -operation is performed by carefully removing the convex lens, and -supplying its place with a glass lens, which throws the rays of light on -the same focus. - -The figure shows the double convex lens of the human eye in its place. - - * * * * * - -HAVING now seen something of the properties of the double convex lens, -we will examine its application to the Camera Obscura. - -The lens is placed on one side of the camera, and is so made that it can -be slid backwards and forwards, and the focus altered at will. The -camera itself is a box completely closed, so that no light can enter it -except that which passes through the lens. The latter is so arranged -that the rays which pass through it are crossed, and throw their image -on the opposite side of the camera. In the photographic camera a piece -of ground glass is placed at the end, so that the rays fall upon it, and -the operator can see whether the image is a good one. Of course the -figures are reversed, so that the sitter seems to be on his head, but -that is a matter of no consequence. Exactly the same effect is produced -by the marine telescope. - -[Illustration: EYE AND IMAGE.] - -[Illustration: CAMERA OBSCURA AND IMAGE.] - -The general structure of the camera is shown in the illustration, all -needless details being omitted. - -I may here remark that the term “camera obscura,” or dark chamber, -alludes to the fact that the box is completely closed, and, but for the -rays which pass through the lens, would be absolutely dark. - - * * * * * - -THE opposite illustration shows the most perfect camera obscura that can -be imagined, namely, the human eye. Here we have a dark chamber, a -double convex lens, and an image falling upon the back. Here the optic -nerve comes into play, takes cognisance of the image, and conveys the -idea to the brain. With a little trouble, a real eye, say that of an -ox, can be dissected out, and employed as a camera obscura, the operator -seeing in the back of the eye, or “retina,” the same image which the ox -would have seen if it had been alive. - -In photography, the operator, when he has found that a perfect image is -thrown upon the ground glass, which represents the retina of the eye, -substitutes for it a sensitive surface, on which the rays are projected, -and which, by chemical means, produce a permanent instead of a fleeting -object. - - * * * * * - -EXAMPLES of other lenses may be found in Nature. She, moreover, can -perform a task which man has never even attempted, namely, the change of -form in a lens according to the duty which it has to do. How this -wonderful object is attained we shall presently see. - -There is a form of lens extremely useful in Optics, namely, the -“Plano-convex” lens. This is, in fact, one half of a double convex lens, -the section being made through its edges, and the plane sides polished -as well as the convex. As, however, this is only a half of the double -convex lens, it does not need further explanation. Its natural -counterpart may be seen in the annexed illustration. - -[Illustration: HUMAN EYE: SECTION OF CORNEA, &C.] - -[Illustration: PLANO-CONVEX LENS.] - -A somewhat more complicated form of lens is called the “Meniscus,” one -side of which is convex and the other concave. A good example of the -meniscus may be found in the old-fashioned watch-glass, before -watchmakers took to flattening them, and watch-wearers were not ashamed -to carry a “turnip,” in which there was room to spare for the works. If -a section of such a glass were taken, it would assume the form of a -half-moon. This, in fact, is the meaning of the term “meniscus,” which -is a Greek word, signifying a little moon. If the same glass were solid, -or even filled with water, it would form a “plano-convex” lens. - -Of course the outer curve of the meniscus must be larger than the inner -curve, but in some cases the disproportion is very strongly marked, the -outer curve being very large, and the inner curve very small. An example -of such a meniscus may be seen in the human eye. If the reader will -refer to the illustration on page 280, in which the structure of the eye -is shown, he will see the meniscus lens in combination with the double -convex. The former has already been explained, and the latter is formed -by the vitreous humour which fills nearly the entire globe of the eye. -Its larger curve is due to the form of the eyeball, and the smaller to -the convex lens. - - -LONG AND SHORT SIGHT. - -It has already been mentioned that the focus of a convex lens is shorter -in proportion to its convexity, and that in consequence its magnifying -power is increased. For example, the large glasses through which -pictures are viewed are comparatively thin in proportion to their -diameter, while the lenses employed for the highest powers of the -microscope are scarcely larger than small shot, and nearly as globular. -It naturally follows that any instrument to which a lens is adapted, -whether it be microscope or telescope, must depend for its focus on the -greater or less convexity of the lens in question. - -[Illustration: FRAME OF OWL’S EYE. LENS OF DITTO.] - -[Illustration: SHORT AND LONG SIGHTED EYES (WITH SPECTACLES).] - -Again taking as our example the human eye, we find that there are very -few persons who from youth to age possess or preserve eyes which can -read small type at a moderate distance, and can clearly define the -outlines of distant objects. Nearly all people, even if in their youth -they possess good sight, lose it as they grow older. They can discern -distant objects well enough, but, when they come to reading, they are -obliged to hold the book at arm’s length before they can distinguish the -letters. - -This defect is caused by the insufficient convexity of the lens, so that -the focus is thrown too far back, and it is corrected by wearing -spectacles sufficiently convex to supply the deficiency in the lens of -the eye. - -An admirable example of temporary long-sightedness is familiar to every -diver, though he may be unconscious of its cause. Suppose that into very -clear water of some twelve feet in depth, a white object, say a common -jam-pot, is thrown, it can be clearly discerned from the shore, -unaltered in shape or size. But, when the diver searches for it, he sees -at first only something white, large, undefined, and wavering, and only -finds it resume its proportions as he approaches it. This phenomenon is -due to the pressure of the water upon the eyeball, which flattens it, -and so throws the focus too far back for a clear image. Nowadays this -defect is remedied by the use of very convex spectacles, so convex, -indeed, that, if worn in the air, they would render the wearer incapable -of seeing anything at more than an inch or so away from him. But, when -worn in the water, they only supply the deficiency of the compressed -eyeball, and so restore the focus to its proper position. - - * * * * * - -THOSE who suffer from short-sightedness can see with great distinctness -objects which are close at hand, but those at a little distance seem to -have no particular outline, and appear as if they were viewed through a -fog, thus causing a constant and almost painful strain on the eyes. The -cause of this defect is the too great convexity of the lens, which -therefore throws its focus short of the required spot. The means of -remedy are exactly opposite to those which are used for long-sighted -persons, a concave lens being placed in front of the eye, so as to throw -the focus farther back, and relieve the organ from the strain. - -Although we have not yet invented a machine that can alter the focus at -will, we may take a hint from Nature. We have already seen how the -pressure of water upon the front of the eye lessens its convexity, and -makes it long-sighted. Consequently, if we could apply pressure round -it, we could make it more convex, and so neutralise the weight of the -water. - -There is a wonderful piece of machinery in Nature which really does -perform this office, the eye, at the will of its owner, becoming either -telescopic or microscopic. This quality is very desirable in birds, -especially those which are predacious and of rapid flight, as they might -either fail to see their prey at a distance, or might dash themselves -against some obstacle when they were close upon it. - -The eye of the Owl affords a beautiful example of machinery which -produces this effect, and the means which are used may be understood by -inspecting the accompanying illustration. - -It will be seen that the eyeball is set in a framework composed of thin -bony plates, just like a glass in a telescope. When these plates are -relaxed, the whole eyeball is flattened, so as to enable the bird to see -an object at a very great distance. But, when they are contracted, they -render the whole eye globular in proportion to their pressure, and -enable the bird to see objects which are very close to it. In fact, the -eye becomes a telescope or microscope as needed. - -Many reptiles possess this arrangement of bones, but the birds have even -a more delicate mode of obtaining the focus of the eye. This is by means -of a curious organ called, from its shape, the “pecten,” or comb, which -is placed in the vitreous humour at the back of the eye, and connected -with the optic nerve. It is a congeries of arteries and veins, so that -it can be rapidly enlarged by forcing blood into it, or diminished by -allowing the blood to withdraw. - -As the liquid in which it rests is practically incompressible, it -follows that when the comb expands, it causes the chamber of the -vitreous fluid to expand, and so forces the lens forward. When, however, -the blood retires from the comb, the lens returns to its original place. -This, as the reader may have noticed, is the same principle as that -which is followed in altering the focus of a telescope in order to suit -the sight of different individuals. Perhaps a still better illustration -may be found in the coarse and fine adjustment of the microscope, the -former of which moves the whole tube, and may be compared to the bony -ring; while the latter causes one part to slide over the other, and is -analogous to the comb. - -The movements of this organ are believed to be as involuntary as the -dilatation and contraction of the iris; but, whatever may be the case, -it is one of the most beautiful examples of natural mechanics, and far -surpasses the most delicate machine that can be made by man. - -In the illustration of the microscope, which is to be found on page 286, -both these movements are given, the double vertical wheel being the -coarse movement, and the fine movement being supplied by the single -vertical wheel just above them. - - * * * * * - -WHILE we are on this subject, we may see how Art unintentionally copies -Nature, even in trivial details. Every one who is in the habit of using -optical instruments, more especially those who are forced to wear -spectacles, are aware of the necessity of keeping the glasses as clean -as possible, and, where the instruments are delicate, always have by -them a piece of clean wash-leather for the express purpose of wiping the -glasses. - -Here, again, Nature has anticipated Art. In our own case, we have in the -human eye a good example of such natural mechanism, the eyelids being -formed quite as much for the purpose of washing the surface of the -eyeball as of excluding light. - -Many animals are provided with a special apparatus for the purpose, -called the “nictitating membrane.” It is, in fact, a sort of inner or -supplementary eyelid, which can be drawn over the eye while the external -lids remain comparatively unmoved. It is very conspicuous in the owls, -and gives to those birds that almost comical look of perpetual blinking -with which we are so familiar. - - -THE STEREOSCOPE AND PSEUDOSCOPE. - -Many persons have wondered how it happens that, as we have two eyes, we -do not see two images instead of one. Practically, this is always the -case, for the eyes, especially when they look on solid bodies, see two -different images, because they contemplate the object from different -points of sight. - -This may be easily ascertained by looking at a given object first with -one eye, and then with the other, when it will be seen that the image -presented to the right eye is slightly different from that of the left -eye, but that the two can be combined into one by a very slight inward -movement of both eyes, and thus the effect of a solid body be produced. -Sometimes, when people are weak, and cannot control the united movement -of the eyes, not only two, but five or six images are at once presented -to the mind, and produce a strange sense of bewilderment and confusion. - -[Illustration: COMBINATION OF HUMAN EYES.] - -[Illustration: STEREOSCOPE.] - -[Illustration: BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE.] - -Painters are obliged to avail themselves of this peculiarity, and to -make allowances for the double vision. If they do not, the effect of the -painting is flat, and it appears as if the artist had only used one eye. - -A good proof of this fact may be seen in Stereoscopic photographs, -especially of scenery. If each be viewed separately, it often appears -quite unintelligible, but, when they are combined by the instrument, -they seem to spring into life as it were, and appear solid enough to be -grasped. - -Now, the Stereoscope is avowedly constructed on the same principle as -the double vision of the eye, so that when it applies itself to two -photographs of the same object which have been taken from different -points of view, it combines them, and gives them as solid an appearance -as if they were realities. - -So wonderfully close is the representation, that the idea of a place -obtained by means of the combination of the photograph and Stereoscope -is quite as vivid and correct as if it had been gained by actual -observation. - -The principle of the Stereoscope is now applied to the best microscopes, -and its value is incalculable, especially when low powers are used, -_i.e._ those of not less than half an inch focus. The real beauty of -many objects could never have been appreciated but for this discovery, -nor their true form defined. - -On the left hand of the illustration is shown the combining power of the -eyes. Supposing the right eye only to be brought to bear upon the little -cylinder, only one side of it will be seen, and it looks nearly flat. -The same is the case with the left eye. But, when both eyes are used -together, both sides of the cylinder are presented to the mind, and thus -we get the effect of solidity. - -The Stereoscope is so formed, by means of lenses, that the two figures -become combined into one, the rays of light being turned out of their -course by the arrangement of the glasses. - -The Stereoscope, however, although a useful assistant to the vision, is -not necessary. It is perfectly possible to combine the two figures -without any stereoscope, and to do so merely by squinting, if we may so -call it, at the figures. The power of combination is gained with a very -little practice, and in a short time the observer will be capable of -producing stereoscopic effects without needing a Stereoscope. This -ability is very useful when inspecting photographs in a shop-window. Of -course the figures are not so much enlarged as they are with the -stereoscope, but they are nevertheless quite as clear and well defined. - - * * * * * - -THERE is an instrument called the Pseudoscope, which, as its name -imports, gives a false idea as to the nature of the object which is -viewed through it, converting hollow objects into solid, and _vice -versâ_. The following description of its effect is given by -Wheatstone:-- - -“When an observer looks with the pseudoscope at the interior of a cup or -basin, he not unfrequently sees it at first in its real form; but by -prolonging his gaze he will perceive the conversion within a few -minutes; and it is curious that, while this seems to take place quite -suddenly with some individuals, as if the basin were flexible, and were -suddenly turned inside out, it occurs more gradually with others, the -concavity slowly giving way to flatness, and the flatness progressively -rising into convexity. - -“Not unfrequently, after the conversion has taken place, the natural -aspect of the object continues to intrude itself, sometimes suddenly, -sometimes gradually, and for a longer or shorter interval, when the -converse will again succeed it--as if the new visual impression could -not at once counteract the previous results of recent experience. At -last, however, the mind seems to accept the conversion without further -hesitation; and after this process has once been completely gone -through, the observer, on recurring to the same object, will not find it -possible to see it in any other than its converted form, unless the -interval should be long enough to have allowed him to forget its aspect. - -“Vagaries, however, sometimes occur in these experiments of which it is -difficult to give any certain explanation, but which would be probably -found referable to the same general principle, if we were acquainted -with all the conditions of its operation.” - - -THE MULTIPLYING-GLASS. - -Still more extraordinary examples of the combining power of vision -are to be found in the eyes of spiders and insects, more especially -when we compare them with the work of man. If we take a common -Multiplying-glass, such as is shown in the figure, and look at a flower -or other object through it, we see the object repeated as many times as -there are different foci of vision in the instrument. - -[Illustration: EYES OF SPIDER.] - -[Illustration: MULTIPLYING-GLASS.] - -Now, taking for example the eyes of a Spider, it would be natural to -suppose that the same result would occur, especially as the foci of the -eyes point in different directions. The left-hand figure in the -illustration represents the eight eyes of one of our common Spiders, -belonging to the genus _Clubiona_, which may be found in almost any -outhouse, sitting in its curious web, and ready in a moment to run for -safety into its silken tunnel. - -It will be seen that the foci of all the eyes are in different -directions, and so placed as to command a large radius. Observers have -remarked that the eyes are placed in Spiders so as to suit their habits. -“Those spiders,” writes Professor Owen, in his “Comparative Anatomy,” -“which hide in tubes, or lurk in obscure retreats, either underground or -in the holes or fissures of walls or rocks, from which they emerge only -to seize a passing prey, have their eyes aggregated in a close group in -the middle of the forehead, as in the Bird-spider, the _Clotho_, &c. - -“The spiders which inhabit short tubes, terminated by a large web, -exposed to the open air, have the eyes separated and more spread upon -the front of the cephalothorax. - -“Those spiders which rest in the centre of a free web, along which they -frequently traverse, have the eyes supported on slight prominences, -which permit a greater divergence of their axis; this structure is well -remarked in the genus _Thomisa_, the species of which live in ambuscade -in flowers. - -“Lastly, the spiders called _Errantes_, or Wanderers, have their eyes -still more scattered, the lateral ones being placed at the margin of the -cephalothorax.” - -Yet, although each eye produces a separate image, it is clear that upon -the mind of the Spider only a single idea can be impressed, for that -otherwise all would be confusion. There must, therefore, be some -mechanism in the structure of the eye, the nature of which we are not as -yet able to understand. - - * * * * * - -A STILL more remarkable instance of a natural Multiplying-glass may be -found in the eyes of many insects. - -The form of multiplying-glass shown in the accompanying illustration is -probably familiar to most of my readers. It consists of a convex piece -of glass, cut into a number of facets, and showing in each facet a -distinct and separate image of the object to which it is directed. Now, -the compound eyes of insects are constructed on much the same -principle, except that the number of facets is infinitely more. Taking, -for example, the eyes of the Tortoise-shell Butterfly, we find that -there are about seventy thousand lenses or facets. Now, it is possible, -with care, to remove the eye from the insect, cleanse it, and arrange it -in ä microscope in such a way that objects can be seen through it. When -this is done, a separate image is seen in each facet, just as is the -case with the Multiplying-glass, only, as the facets are very much more -numerous, the effect is proportionately more striking. - -[Illustration: INSECT EYE.] - -[Illustration: TUMBLER.] - -[Illustration: MULTIPLYING-GLASS.] - -The reader may notice that the facets of the insect eye appear to be -hexagons as perfect as those of the honey-comb. This appearance is -probably due to the fact that each eye is covered with a convex plate of -glassy brightness and transparency, and that, when such objects are -viewed from the front, they appear to have hexagonal instead of rounded -outlines. A familiar example of this fact may be found in the glass -tumblers which are ornamented with rounded projections on their surface. -If a photograph of one of these tumblers be taken, the resemblance to -the hexagonal markings of the insect eye is so close that the tumbler -might easily be taken for the eye. - - - - -OPTICS. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE WATER TELESCOPE.--IRIS OF THE EYE.--MAGIC LANTERN.--THE -SPECTROSCOPE.--THE THAUMATROPE. - - Limits to Sight in the Water.--Effect of a Ripple.--The Eyes under - Water.--The Water Telescope, its Structure and Mode of - Use.--Gyrinus, or Whirlwig-beetle, and its Double Set of Eyes.--The - Iris of the Eye, and its Double Set of Contractile - Fibres.--Cotterill’s Lock and its Structure.--The Magic Lantern and - its Principle.--Chinese Shadows.--Spectre of the Brocken.--An - Adventure in Wiltshire.--Effect of the Halo.--The - Spectroscope.--Its Structure explained.--A Star on fire.--Motes in - the Sunbeams.--Bessemer Steel made by aid of the - Spectroscope.--Absorption Bands.--Detection of Blood.--A Man’s Life - saved by the Spectroscope.--The Pocket Spectroscope.--The Rainbow, - Dewdrop, Soap-bubble, Opal, and Pearl.--The Thaumatrope.--Structure - of the Retina.--Complementary Colours.--The Zoetrope and - Chromatrope.--Wheel Animalcules and their Structure.--An Optical - Delusion. - - -THE WATER TELESCOPE. - -Every one who has watched the movements of the various creatures which -live below the surface of the water is aware how entirely dependent he -is on the unruffled character of that surface. No matter how clear the -water may be, the least ruffling of the surface will effectually shut -out all sight:-- - - “But if a stone the gentle sea divide, - Swift rippling circles rush on every side, - And glimmering fragments of a broken sun, - Banks, trees, and skies in thick disorder run.” - -And there is an end of the observations. If, however, the eyes can -penetrate below the surface, the ruffling is of little consequence, so -long as the water is clear. Consequently, whenever the top of the bank -is sufficiently near the water, it is possible to continue the -observations by lying down, and immersing the head above the eyes. This -plan, however, is not a very comfortable one, although I have often -followed it on a windy day when the surface was too ruffled to permit of -vision in any other way. - -Still, there is an instrument by which it is possible to counteract the -ruffle of the surface, and to see objects with tolerable plainness. This -is called the Water Telescope, and it is of very simple construction. -Like the ordinary telescope, it consists of a tube, but, instead of the -convex and concave lenses of that instrument, it has only a single glass -at one end, and that glass is perfectly plane. - -[Illustration: WHIRLWIG-BEETLE.] - -[Illustration: WATER TELESCOPE.] - -When used, the eye is applied to the open end, and the glazed end -lowered into the water. The sight is then undisturbed by the ripple, and -the effect is the same as if the eyes themselves were lowered beneath -the surface. - -It is much used in looking for shells, sea-urchins, and other creatures -which live in the bed of the sea. - - * * * * * - -IN the insect world we have an example of a natural Water Telescope. I -do not say that the inventor of the Water Telescope took his idea from -the insect, but the reader will see that he might very well have done -so. - -There are sundry little beetles popularly called Whirlwigs or -Whirligigs, and scientifically known by the name of _Gyrinus_. All these -names allude to the insect’s habit of whirling about on the surface of -the water, with a movement which seems ceaseless and untiring. Allusion -has already been made to the Whirlwigs on page 22. - -Their object in their perpetual waltz is not so much amusement as food, -which chiefly consists of the tiny insects which fall into the water. -Now, in order to enable it to see both above and below the water, a -peculiar structure is required. Generally the insects possess one pair -of compound eyes, each group being set on the sides of the head. In the -Gyrinus, however, there are two sets of these eyes, one pair being on -the upper surface of the head, and the other on the lower surface. Thus, -while it can use the upper pair for seeing objects which are out of the -water, the lower pair of eyes, which are submerged, act the part of the -Water Telescope, and enable it to see objects that are below the -surface. Were it not for this precaution, even the ripples which it -makes by its own rapid progress would prevent it from seeing. - - -THE IRIS OF THE EYE. - -[Illustration: IRIS OF HUMAN EVE.] - -[Illustration: COTTERILL’S LOCK.] - -I have often wondered, when contemplating the astonishing mechanism by -which the Iris of the Eye is able to contract or enlarge the pupil -according to the amount of light, whether any similar mechanism would be -used in Art. As anatomists know, the Iris is composed of two layers. One -consists of radiating fibres, which serve to enlarge the pupil, while -the other layer surrounds the latter, and by its elasticity serves to -contract it. As any one may see by looking in a mirror and shifting the -light, the pupil is perpetually changing its diameter, but always -retaining its circular shape. A glance at the illustration will show the -two layers, and aid the reader in understanding the mode in which they -work. - -Some years ago, while looking at the account given by Mr. J. Price of a -lock invented by Mr. Cotterill, I saw at once that the inventor, whether -consciously or not, had followed the mechanism of the eye, as far as -metal could be expected to imitate animal fibre. - -In the very centre of the lock there is a small circular opening, -resembling the pupil of the eye, and serving to admit the key, just as -the pupil admits light. Around this pupil, if we may so call it, are -ranged some twenty thin steel slides which move in channels, up and down -which they slide. Round the circumference of the lock are a -corresponding number of spiral springs, each of which presses on the -base of a slide, and forces it towards the centre. - -The reader will now see that the radiating slides of the lock represent -the radiating fibres of the iris, and that the spiral springs represent -the circular fibres. Both perform the same office, the steel slides -regulating the size of the aperture, and the spiral springs pressing -them all towards the centre. The key of the lock answers the same -purpose as does light in the eye, which by its mysterious pressure -enlarges or contracts the pupil. - -This is not the place to describe this very ingenious lock in detail, -but I may state that it has never been picked. Even Mr. Hobbs, who tried -it for twenty-four hours, gave it up, and, when he saw the interior -mechanism, said that if he had tried for a month he should have made no -progress. This is an unconscious testimony to the wisdom of following -Nature in Art. - - -THE MAGIC LANTERN. - -We are all familiar with the Magic Lantern, whether it may take the form -of the mere child’s toy, be developed into Dissolving Views, or throw -black shadows on a curtain, in which case it is called by the name of -Chinese Shadows. In all these cases the principle is the same. First we -have a light behind the object whose reflection is to be seen. Next we -have the object itself, and lastly the surface upon which it is -reflected. As to the variety of mirrors, lamps, and lenses which are -used to produce different effects, we may put them aside as foreign to -our present purpose. - -[Illustration: MAGIC LANTERN.] - -Generally the object is reflected upon a white curtain or sheet, but -sometimes, when a specially weird-like effect is needed, a cloud of -thick smoke takes the place of the sheet, and upon it the reflection is -shown, as seen in the accompanying illustration. - - * * * * * - -NATURE has her Magic Lanterns as well as Art, and wonderful things they -are sometimes, the well-known Brocken Spectre being an excellent -example. It is not, however, necessary to visit the Brocken in order to -see this apparition, for I have seen it in perfection in England. - -Many years ago, when living in Wiltshire, I went before daybreak to the -top of a very high conical hill. The morning mist was so thick that I -could scarcely see my way up the hill. When I reached the summit, I -stood there for some time, trying to see the landscape, but the mist was -so thick that I could barely tell the points of the horizon by the -brighter look cast by the coming Day in the east. - -I was looking westward, when suddenly the sun rose behind me, and I saw -the Brocken Spectre as I have sketched it in the accompanying -illustration. It was a gigantic shadow of myself, projected on the mist, -just as a Magic Lantern projects the image on a sheet or a smoke-cloud. -Of course my gestures were repeated, and it really looked almost awful -to see this gigantic spectral figure set in the mist. - -Perhaps the most extraordinary part of it was the enormous halo of -rainbow colours round the head. No matter where I moved, the halo -surrounded the head of the image, its colours being comparatively bright -near the centre, and becoming gradually paler towards the circumference. - -Another point about this natural Magic Lantern ought to be mentioned. - -[Illustration: BROCKEN SPECTRE.] - -Wishing to show a friend the extraordinary sight of a Brocken Spectre, I -took him up the hill on a misty day like that which has been briefly -described. According to surmise, two spectres appeared instead of one, -but the halo was not doubled as well as the shadow. I could see my -friend’s shadow, and he could see mine. But, although the halo was as -bright as before, each of us could only see it encircling his own head. -We stood as close to each other as we could, we moved apart as far as -the nearly conical top of the hill would allow, and in both cases each -of us could only see his own halo. - -Perhaps the reader may remember the wonderful spectre-scene drawn by Mr. -Whymper, and viewed from the Matterhorn just after the accident which -had killed several of his companions in the ascent of the hitherto -impregnable peak. In the mist there suddenly appeared three vast dark -crosses enclosed in an oval. Considering the highly-strung nerves of the -survivors, it was no wonder that they were all shaken by such an -appearance, and that the guides were for a time too frightened to -proceed. - - -THE SPECTROSCOPE. - -Next we come to one of the most astonishing and beautiful optical -instruments ever made by the hand of man. It is called the Spectroscope, -because it deals with a certain arrangement of rays which is called a -“spectrum.” Many years ago Newton discovered the cause of the lovely -colours which deck the rainbow, and the fact that, by passing a ray of -white light through a prism, it was decomposed into seven colours, which -invariably came in the following order--Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, -Blue, Indigo, and Violet. He also discovered that, by looking at that -coloured band through another prism arranged in a different manner, the -decomposed rays were again brought together, and white light was the -result. - -Newton had thrown the light on the prism through a round hole, but some -time afterwards Dr. Wollaston employed a narrow slit for the purpose, -and then found that the spectrum was traversed by dark lines which never -changed their places. On these lines depend all the discoveries that -have been made by the aid of the Spectroscope. The chief of them are -designated by the letters of the alphabet. (See page 300.) - -It was soon found out that if burning gases were viewed with the -Spectroscope, lines were still seen, but they were bright instead of -dark, and that they invariably occupied the place of one or more of the -dark lines shown by the spectrum of sunlight. Then it was discovered -that these burning gases absorbed or stopped out the light in the solar -spectrum, and from that moment the science rapidly advanced. - -At the present day the Spectroscope not only determines the metals which -exist in the sun, but also those of the fixed stars. It even analyzes -the constitution of double stars, and shows the reason why one star -should be red and the other green. - -One of the most astonishing discoveries in astronomy was due to the -Spectroscope. - -During the month of May, 1866, one of the stars in the Northern Crown -(_Corona Borealis_) was seen to undergo a rapid change. It was -originally one of the tenth magnitude, but in a short time increased in -size and brilliancy until it nearly equalled Sirius, Capella, or Vega. -It remained bright for some time, and then rapidly faded until it -resumed its former size. - -How this change was effected we never should have known but for the -Spectroscope. No sooner, however, was this instrument pointed at the -star than there appeared in the spectrum the three well-known -lines--red, green, and violet--which denote burning hydrogen. There was -no doubt on the matter, and the Spectroscope showed us that we were -witnessing a conflagration the like of which was never seen or scarcely -imagined. - -[Illustration: RAINBOW.] - -Supposing our sun, which is known to be one of the stars, and about -which there are vast volumes of hydrogen gas, were to blaze out in a -similar manner, the result would be that the whole of the planets would -be consumed in a few seconds, and converted into gases. In an instant -every living thing would be swept off the surface of the earth by this -fearful heat, and, as Mr. Roscoe says, “our solid globe would be -dissipated in vapour almost as soon as drops of water in a furnace.” So, -as Mr. Huggins observes, the old nursery rhyme,-- - - “Twinkle, twinkle, little star, - How I wonder what you are,”-- - -is no longer tenable, for we really do know the composition of the -stars. - -The Spectroscope not only tells us the substance of which the sun and -the most distant stars are made, but gives us the same information about -the “gay motes that people the sunbeam.” It tells us that they are -common salt in very minute particles. They have been dashed into the air -by the winds as spray, and then dispersed over the whole globe. This is -one reason why we have so much salt in our bodies, and why the blood and -the tears are so salt. - - * * * * * - -IT is also applied to the arts. The well-known Bessemer process consists -in pouring melted iron into a peculiarly shaped vessel called a -“converter,” and blowing air through it for the purpose of burning out -the carbon. From the mouth of the converter issues a volume of -magnificent flames, and at a certain moment the skilled workman who -directs the process inverts the vessel and pours out the steel. A very -few seconds too soon or too late would spoil the whole of the metal, in -the former case it being simply brittle cast-iron; and, in the second, -becoming so thick that it could not be poured out. - -Only a few workmen could judge rightly the exact point at which to shut -off the air-blast. They watched the flame, and by some change in it, too -slight to be noticed by any except experienced eyes, knew the moment -when the iron was converted into steel. - -Such men could, of course, demand any wages they liked, and, by -striking, stop the whole works. The Spectroscope, however, performed -this delicate discrimination far better than the best workman. When -directed to the flame, the bright lines indicating carbon are seen in -the spectrum. When the blast has continued for some twenty minutes, the -carbon lines suddenly disappear, showing that the carbon has been burned -out, and giving to the workman the signal to shut off the air-blast. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER discovery was, that liquids gave dark lines, technically termed -absorption bands, of different widths and in different parts of the -spectrum. Even liquids which had no perceptible colour threw bands as -bold as those which were coloured, while coloured liquids threw totally -different bands, irrespectively of their own colour. - -For example, the green colouring matter of leaves, called chlorophyll, -throws a single broad band on the extreme left--_i.e._ across the red -part of the spectrum--so far back, indeed, that it is not easily seen at -first. - -Then, suppose that we make some pale solutions of red substances, such -as carmine, magenta dye, port wine, logwood, permanganate of potash, and -blood, it is possible to have them so exactly resembling each other that -not even the microscope can discriminate between them; yet the -Spectroscope instantly detects the colouring matter of each solution. - -[Illustration: SPECTRUM OF SUNLIGHT, OR SOLAR SPECTRUM.] - -[Illustration: SPECTRUM OF BLOOD.] - -The instrument is, therefore, invaluable in detecting adulterations of -wine. For example, supposing that red wine is suspected of owing its -redness to logwood, and not to the genuine grape, a drop is mixed with -water and viewed through the Spectroscope, which instantly tells whether -the colouring matter is grape or logwood. And as, by photography, the -spectrum can be exactly copied, an indelible record is procured of the -true nature of the object. - -So marvellously delicate is the instrument with regard to blood, that it -detects the thousandth part of a grain of colouring matter in a -blood-stain. - -If upon the spectrum were printed the word BLOOD in the largest and -blackest of capitals, it could not be more legible to an ordinary reader -than are the two blood-bands to the eye of a spectroscopist. There is -nothing like them in nature, and whether it be by association of ideas, -or by absolute fact, these two bars have a strangely menacing look about -them. Not only that, but if the blood should be that of a person -suffocated with carbonic acid gas, the Spectroscope will say so. - -Some years ago a man owed his life to the Spectroscope. A mysterious -murder had been committed, and the police had arrested a man who was -found near the spot. He could give no intelligible account of himself, -and the sleeves of his coat and a part of his waistcoat were deeply -stained with a red substance just like clotted blood. A piece of each -garment was cut off and given to a well-known spectroscopist, who tried -the red matter in the instrument, and at once declared it not to be -blood. What it was he had not time to ascertain, so he sent it to a -brother in science, who, after examination, pronounced it to be red gum. - -By degrees, the man, who had been intoxicated when arrested, stated that -he had been to see a friend who was a journeyman hatter. It was then -found that he had been leaning on the workman’s board, and so had -carried off some of the gummastic with which hats are stiffened. Had it -not been for the infallible Spectroscope, the man might have lost his -life. - -Thus we see that the Spectroscope is the elephant’s trunk of optics, -equally fitted for the greatest and smallest, the farthest and nearest, -of objects. It is equally at home in earth and sky. When attached to the -telescope, it reveals the constituents of the stars, and, when affixed -to the microscope, it shows us the colouring matter of a green leaf. It -produces the best steel, and detects adulteration in wine. And, lastly, -as we have seen, it turns lawyer, and settles the evidence by which the -life of a man is lost or saved. It can determine the purity of the -smallest coinage, and tell us why a star changes in magnitude. - -Yet all these wondrous revelations are made by a few prisms and a -magnifying-glass. I possess a Spectroscope, made and presented to me by -Mr. J. Browning, the celebrated optician. This astonishing instrument is -only three inches long, and half an inch in diameter, so that it can be -carried in the waistcoat pocket. I always keep mine in a finger of a -white kid glove, which is amply sufficient for it. Yet it gives the -spectrum of the sun with its principal lines, will detect the fraudulent -wine merchant, and could have decided whether the accused man should be -acquitted or hanged. - - * * * * * - -MARVELLOUS and mighty as is this engine, it lay concealed in Nature ever -since the sun’s rays shone upon earth and a drop of water existed. The -Rainbow is nothing but a vast spectrum, a transverse slice of which -would be a good representation of the coloured band which is shown in -the instrument. It is prefigured in the ever-shifting rainbows of the -water-fall and fountain, which latter may even be seen in the fountains -of Trafalgar Square, while at the Crystal Palace their beauty has long -been noticed. - -There is not a dewdrop which is not a miniature Spectroscope, as it -glitters with its wondrous iridescence in the rays of the rising sun; -there is not an opal with its shifting hues, nor the splendour of the -soap-bubble, nor the nacre of the common river mussel or the ormer -shell, which does not owe its beauty to the same principles which govern -the Spectroscope. Every green leaf, and blue or pink or yellow petal, -every varying tint of the mackerel sky, every blaze of sunset and -bluegrey of sunrise, owes its beauty to those wondrous laws of light -which had been hidden for so many centuries, until they were unveiled by -the simple prism of the Spectroscope. As in so many instances, the -revelation lay concealed until the coming of the revealer, whose -inspired hand raised the dark veil of centuries. - - -THE THAUMATROPE. - -Middle-aged persons will recollect that since the days of their -childhood a great variety of optical apparatus has been invented ending -in the word “trope.” This is a Greek word, signifying to turn, and is -given to the instruments because they revolve. - -All these toys--and they may some day become more than toys--depend on a -curious property of the human eye. The reader will remember that in the -description of the human eye, as compared with the camera obscura as -applied to photography, it was mentioned that the image was thrown from -the front to the back, and in the one case was received on a naturally -sensitive membrane, and in the other on a film rendered artificially -sensitive by chemical means. This membrane is called the “retina,” -because it not only receives the impression, but retains it for some -little time after the object is removed. It has been calculated that the -duration of the image is about the eighth part of a second. - -Thus the eyelids are perpetually and unconsciously closing and opening -with a rapid movement, popularly called “winking.” This movement is for -the purpose of cleansing the eyeball, and, were it not for the -image-retaining power of the retina, we should pass a considerable part -of our time in absolute darkness. As it is, the impression of external -objects on the retina lasts longer than the time occupied in winking, -and, in consequence, we are not conscious that any interval of darkness -has elapsed. - -Again, when we have been looking steadfastly at an object, and then move -our eyes, the image of that object is seen in the new focus; and it is -worthy of notice that such object is always seen in its “complementary” -colour. For example, if we have been looking at a scarlet spot, and -suddenly move our eyes, we shall see a spot exactly similar in size and -shape, but of green. - -I well remember that when I was a boy I was reading with almost feverish -anxiety the green handbill of a travelling circus, to which I hoped that -I might be allowed to attend. Having finished it, I asked for some -note-paper, for the purpose of putting my request in writing, but, to my -astonishment, mixed, perhaps, with a little irritation, all the paper -supplied to me was of a bright pink. For a time no arguments could -convince me that the paper was really white, until by degrees the pink -hue became paler and paler, and the paper assumed its normal whiteness. - -The fact was, that the eye had become saturated with the green--_i.e._ -the blue and yellow rays--and could see nothing but their complementary -colour, which was pink. - -A good example of this property may be found in a lighted stick, which, -if rapidly whirled round, appears to form a continuous circle of fire. -The reason of this is, that the impression made on the retina by the -fiery point does not cease until the stick has again come round in its -course. - -Then there are those well-known chromatic tops, in which are inserted -pieces of bent wire. When the top is spun these pieces of wire assume -exactly the appearance of transparent jugs, vases, glasses, and similar -articles. A very pretty illustration of this principle is given by a -little machine, which is made to revolve rapidly by means of a -multiplying wheel. - -Upon its surface are fixed little pins, with polished globular steel -heads, and, when the handle is turned, these heads form the most -beautiful and intricate figures with exact accuracy. - -Another toy, called the Thaumatrope, or Wonder-turner, is equally -ingenious and beautiful, and is sufficiently simple to be made by any -one with a slight knowledge of drawing. A disc of white cardboard is -cut, and upon each side of it is portrayed some object. If the disc be -caused to revolve rapidly, these two subjects will be seen at the same -time, the image of each being held on the retina long enough to allow -the other to take its place. - -Some very beautiful combinations may be made by means of this -instrument. For example, a horse may be on one side, and a man on the -other, and, by spinning the disc, the man will be seen mounted on the -horse. Then we may have a boat on one side, and a rower with his oars on -the other. Similarly a mouse can be put into a trap, or a bird into a -cage. - -The reader must remember that these subjects must be drawn as if they -were upside down with regard to each other, so that the man who is to -ride the horse is drawn as if he were standing on his head, and the -mouse which is to enter the trap looks as if it were lying on its back. - -The most simple manner of spinning the disc is by means of two threads, -each being inserted near the edge of the disc, and exactly opposite each -other. - -A very ingenious modification of the Thaumatrope is made by inserting at -one side of the disc two strings, of which one is elastic. It is -evident, then, that by lengthening or shortening the elastic string, the -axis can be changed, and the objects on the opposite sides placed in -positions relatively different from each other. Thus the jockey may be -made to jump on and off his horse, the bird to go in and out of its -cage, the mouse to enter the trap, and so on. This simple invention -allows of infinite combinations, so that a tree may be made to sprout, a -man to move his limbs, and a bird to flap its wings. It was invented, I -believe, by Dr. Paris, author of “Philosophy in Sport made Science in -Earnest.” - -On the right hand of the illustration are seen three figures, each -representing a means of obtaining an ocular delusion through the -principle of which we are now treating. - -The lower figure is called the Zoetrope, or Wheel of Life. As the reader -may see, it consists of a hollow cylinder, revolving on a centre, and -having within it a series of figures. When the wheel revolves, and the -figures are viewed through the slits, each figure seems to be in -lifelike motion, whence the name of Zoetrope. In the present case the -figures are those of boys jumping over posts. - -[Illustration: - -WHEEL ANIMALCULE. - -PHANTASMASCOPE. - -CHROMATROPE. - -ZOETROPE.] - -The mode in which this effect is produced is as follows:--Suppose that a -boy were really to jump over a post, he would go through a series of -motions, and his body be placed in a certain series of positions, before -he cleared the post. Supposing, then, that several points were chosen in -his course, and his body drawn as it would appear at these points, and -the drawings placed in their proper order in the Zoetrope, it is evident -that the figures must appear in movement. Before the retina loses the -image of the boy standing in front of the post, it takes in that of the -boy stooping, with his hands on the top of the post, and so on until he -has reached the ground on the opposite side. - -Another mode of producing the same effect, called the Phantasmascope, is -seen above the zoetrope. In this case the images are placed on the -inside of the disc, which is held opposite a mirror, and the figures -viewed through the slits. - -The last of these figures is the rather complicated one, like the back -of an “engine-turned” watch. This is called the Chromatrope, or Wheel of -Colour, and is always a favourite object in a magic lantern. It consists -of two circular plates of glass, one upon the other, and painted in -variously coloured curved lines, as seen in the illustration. When the -image is thrown upon a screen, and the glass plates turned in opposite -directions, a most singular and beautiful effect is produced. The lines, -unless the eye follows them very closely, disappear, and torrents of -coloured spots seem to pour from the centre to the circumference, or -_vice versâ_, according to the direction in which the glass wheels are -turned. So perfect is the illusion, that it is almost impossible to -believe that the movement is only circular, and not spiral. - - * * * * * - -NOW we will pass from Art to Nature. The figure on the left hand of the -same illustration represents part of one of the Wheel Animalcules, so -called because they look exactly as if the fore-part of their bodies -were furnished with two delicate wheels, running rapidly round, and -evidently moving or stopping at the pleasure of the owner. - -Soon after the powers of the microscope became known, these -Wheel-bearers were discovered, and for a long time they were thought to -have a pair of veritable revolving wheels upon their heads. They were -naturally held in high estimation, as, although almost every kind of -lever can be found in the animal world, a revolving wheel had never been -seen. However, as the defining powers of the microscope improved, the -so-called wheels were found not to be wheels at all, but stationary -organs, and that their apparent revolution was nothing but an optical -delusion. - -The wheels are, in fact, two discs, around the edges of which are set -certain hair-like appendages, called “cilia,” from a Latin word -signifying the eyelashes. Each of the cilia has an independent motion of -its own, and, as they bend in rapid and regular succession, they produce -an effect on the eye similar to that of a revolving body. As for the -animal itself, they produce a double effect, either acting as paddles, -and forcing the animal through the water, or, when it is affixed to some -object, causing a current which drives into its mouth the minute beings -on which it feeds. - -The particular species of Wheel-hearer whose mouth is here shown is -called scientifically _Limnias ceratophylli_. It derives the latter name -from the fact that it is mostly found on the submerged stems and leaves -of the Hornwort (_Ceratophyllum_), which is very common in ponds and -slow streams. The creature is, however, to be found on the water-growing -plants, and Mr. Gosse, in his “Evenings with the Microscope,” gives a -very full and graphic account of itself and its habits. - -He specially mentions the use of the wheels, and, by dissolving a little -carmine in the water, had the pleasure of seeing the coloured granules -swept into the mouth by the current caused by the cilia through the -jaws, and so into the stomach. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -PRIMITIVE MAN AND HIS NEEDS.--EARTHENWARE.--BALL-AND-SOCKET -JOINT.--TOGGLE OR KNEE JOINT. - - Contrast between Savagery and Civilisation.--Manufacture of - Weapons.--Earthenware of Art.--Sun-baked Vessels.--Earthenware of - Nature.--Nest of Pied Grallina.--Analogy with the Babylonish - Brick.--Nest of the Oven-bird.--A partitioned Vessel.--Necked - earthenware Vessels.--Nests of Eumenes, Trypoxylon, and - Pelopœus.--Proof of Reason in Insects.--The Ball-and-socket - Joint.--“Bull’s-eye” of Microscope.--The human - Thigh-bone.--Vertebræ of the Serpents and their Structure.--The - Sea-urchin and its Spines.--Legs and Antennæ of Insects.--The - Toggle or Knee Joint, and its Use in the Arts.--The hand - Printing-press and the Toggle-joint.--The human Leg and Arm.--Power - of the natural Toggle-joint.--Fencing and Boxing.--Heads of - Carriages.--“Bowsing” of Ropes.--Leaf-rolling Caterpillars. - - -In the primitive ages of Man the aids to civilisation were very few and -very rude. Some of them, especially those which relate to hunting and -war, have already been mentioned, and we now have to deal with some of -those which bear upon domestic life. - -Here we are in some little difficulty, for it is not very easy to draw -the line where domestic life begins, or the mode in which it shall be -defined. We may at all events connect domestic life with a residence of -some sort, and may, in consequence, neglect all such primitive savages -as need no domestic implements. - -Such, for example, are the few surviving Bosjesmans of Southern Africa, -not one of whom ever made a tool or an implement, or looked beyond the -present day. The genuine Bosjesman can make a bow and poison his arrows, -and he can light a fire; but there his civilisation ends. He cannot look -beyond the present hour, he has not the faintest notion of making a -provision for the future, nor did his wildest imagination ever compass -the idea of a pot or a pan. - -He kills his prey, and, if hunger be very pressing, he will eat it at -once without waiting for the tedious ceremony of cooking; or at the best -will just throw the meat upon the fire, tear it to pieces with his -teeth, and swallow it when it is nothing but a mass of bleeding flesh, -charred on the outside, and absolutely raw within. The Bosjesman has not -even a tent which he can call his own, any bush or hole in the ground -answering for a house as long as he wants it, and then being exchanged -for another. - -As far as we know, the only trace of civilisation in the Bosjesman is -his manufacture of weapons, and even his bow and arrows are of the -rudest and clumsiest forms. Nor is it likely that he will ever advance -any further; for, as is the wont of all savage tribes, he is -disappearing fast before the presence of superior races, and will -shortly be as extinct as the Tasmanians, the last of whom died only a -few years ago. - - -EARTHENWARE. - -The advent of real civilisation seems to depend largely upon the -construction, not of weapons, but utensils, and the most useful of these -are intended either for the preparation or the preservation of food. -That such vessels should be made of earth is evident enough, and it is -worthy of remark that the rude earthenware pot of the naked savage and -the delicate china of Sèvres should both be products of the earth, and -yet be examples of the opposite ends of civilisation. - -The most primitive earthenware vessels were simply baked in the rays of -the sun, the use of fire for hardening them being of later date. Rude -and simple as they are, some of these vessels possess tolerable -strength, and can answer every purpose for which they are intended. I -possess several pots made by the aborigines of the Essequibo district. -They are very thick and heavy in proportion to their dimensions, and are -still so fragile that I have been obliged to bind them with string -whenever they are moved. - -Simple as they are, however, they are pleasing to the eye, chiefly, I -presume, because they are made for a definite office, and fulfil it, -and have no pretence about them. Then, as they are moulded by hand -alone, without any assistance from machinery of any kind, even a wheel, -the individuality of the maker is stamped upon them, and no two are -exactly alike either in form, colour, or ornament. A couple of these -rude vases are to be seen on the right hand of the accompanying -illustration. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the same illustration are shown two examples of -earthenware vessels made by birds, which are nearly, if not quite, as -good as those made by the hands of civilised man. - -The upper figure represents the nest of the Pied Grallina (_Grallina -Australis_), a bird which, as its specific name implies, is a native of -Australia. - -[Illustration: - -NEST OF PIED GRALLINA. - -NEST OF OVEN-BIRD. - -PRIMITIVE EARTHENWARE.] - -This nest is formed chiefly of clay, but a quantity of dried grass is -always mixed with it, and serves to bind it together. If one of these -nests be broken up, and compared with the bricks of which ancient -Babylon was built, it will be found that they are almost identical in -material, and that both are merely baked in the sun. In form it so -closely resembles an Essequibo jar in my possession, that if it were -removed from the branch, and similarly coloured, it would not be easy to -distinguish the one from the other. - - * * * * * - -BELOW this is the nest of the Oven-bird of South America (_Furnarius -fuliginosus_), a bird allied to our common creeper. The drawing was -taken from a specimen in the British Museum. - -Like the nest of the Grallina, it is placed upon some horizontal bough, -and fixed so firmly that it cannot fall except by being broken to -pieces. Not being afraid of man, the Oven-bird often chooses a beam in -some outhouse for a resting-place, and has been known to build even on -the top of palings. As may be seen by reference to the illustration, the -nest is a very conspicuous one, and concealment is almost impossible. - -As in the Grallina nest, the material is remarkably hard and firm, as -indeed is necessary, to allow it to withstand the effects of the -rain-torrents which fall during the wet seasons of the year. - -There is a curious analogy in this nest with many articles of -earthenware. Not only among ourselves, but among uncivilised races, -earthenware vessels are constructed with partitions, so as to divide one -portion from another. If one of these nests be cut open, it will be -found to have a sort of partition wall across the interior, rising -nearly to the top of the dome, and so dividing it into two parts. The -wall also answers another purpose--_i.e._ that of strengthening the -entire structure. Within the inner chamber is the real nest, which is -lined with a thick layer of feathers, the outer chamber being bare, and, -as it is thought, being occupied by the male. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to pottery of a more elaborate shape. Both in the Grallina -nest and the earthen pot of the Essequibo Indian we have a vessel with a -mouth nearly as wide as its greatest diameter, and with a lip which is -very slightly turned over. There are, however, many varieties of pottery -in which the neck is narrow and long, and the lip is boldly formed. Some -examples of this form are given on the right hand of the accompanying -illustration. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand are shown some nests of a solitary wasp belonging to -the genus Eumenes. It is a British insect, but seems to have been little -noticed, except by professed entomologists. - -It especially haunts heather, and affixes to the stems of the plant its -little globular nests, which are made of mud, and shaped as seen in the -illustration. Perhaps some of my readers may have seen the “Napier -Coffee Machine,” which draws the coffee into a glass globe furnished -with a short neck. The globe is shaped exactly like the nest of our -Eumenes, and, when I first saw one, I could not remember why its shape -was so familiar to me. - -As is the case with the birds’ nests which have been mentioned, the mud -of which the walls are built is of a most tenacious character, and, when -dried in the sun, can resist the heaviest rain. The cells are intended -as rearing-places for the young, only a single egg being placed in each -cell, which is then stocked with small caterpillars by way of food. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: NESTS OF EUMENES.] - -[Illustration: ANCIENT NECKED POTTERY.] - -There is a South American insect also belonging to the solitary wasps, -and remarkable for building a round nest exactly similar in material, -and nearly identical in shape, with that of the Eumenes. Its scientific -title is _Trypoxylon aurifrons_. The nest of this insect has a much -wider mouth than that of the Eumenes, and exactly resembles the upper -left-hand jar in the illustration. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER South American solitary wasp, belonging to the genus -Pelopœus, makes nests of similar material, but nearly cylindrical in -shape instead of globular. The nest is built up of successive rings of -moistened and well-kneaded clay, exactly as human houses are built by -bricklayers. Indeed, the process of making a Pelopœus’ nest has been -happily compared to that of building a circular chimney. - -I may as well mention here that the name Pelopœus is formed from a -Greek word signifying mud, and that the entire word may be translated as -“mud-worker.” - -As a proof that these insects possess reason as well as instinct, Mr. -Gosse mentions that one of them, instead of making her nest for herself, -utilised an empty bottle, and, after storing it with spiders, stopped up -the mouth with clay. Finding, after an absence of a few days, that the -nest had been disturbed, she removed the spiders, inserted a fresh -supply, and then closed the mouth as before. - - -BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT. - -We will now see how some of the most useful mechanical inventions have -had their prototypes in Nature. - -There is, for example, the well-known “Ball-and-socket joint,” without -which many of our instruments, especially those devoted to optical -purposes, would be impracticable. - -[Illustration: HIP-JOINT.] - -[Illustration: SPINES OF SEA-URCHIN. VERTEBRÆ OF SNAKE.] - -[Illustration: BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT OF MICROSCOPE.] - -The figure on the right hand of the illustration represents the -“bull’s-eye” of my own microscope. It will be seen that there is a ball -half sunk in a cup, so that it can be turned in any direction. In point -of fact, the upper part of the ball is nearly concealed by another cup, -but, in order to show the structure, the upper cup has been removed. Who -was the inventor of the ball-and-socket joint I do not know, but I have -little doubt that he must have had in his mind many natural examples of -this joint, three of which are represented in the illustration. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand are seen the upper part of the human thigh-bone and -that part of the hip-bone into which it fits. - -The reader will see that at its upper end the bone takes rather a sharp -turn, and is then modified into a ball. This ball fits into a -corresponding socket, technically named the “acetabulum,” and is thereby -endowed with freedom of motion in almost every direction. Generally we -do not practise our limbs sufficiently to develop that full freedom, but -those who have seen any good professional acrobats must have been struck -with the wonderful mobility of which the human body is capable. - -The socket is not a deep one, but dislocation of the hip is exceedingly -rare, the bone being held in its place by three powers. The first is due -to a short ligament, which, however, does not always exist, but, when it -is present, is useful in retaining the bone in its place. Then there is -the contractile power of the thigh muscles, which are always forcing the -ball into the socket. Lastly, there is the pressure of the atmosphere, a -force which is seldom taken into consideration, but which has great -influence on many parts of the human frame. This part of the subject -will be resumed when we come to treat of Atmospheric Pressure. - -The arms are jointed to the shoulder-blades in a very similar manner, -the upper arm-bone, or “humerus,” being furnished with a rounded end, -and fitting into a cup-like cavity in the shoulder-blade, or “scapula.” -This formation can easily be seen by separating the different bones of a -shoulder of mutton. - - * * * * * - -AT the bottom of the illustration are given two vertebræ of a snake, -separated in order to show their structure. It will be seen that each -joint has a ball in front and a socket behind, thus giving the creature -that wonderful flexibility which is quite proverbial, and without which -it could not seize its prey. - -The following eloquent passage is taken from Professor Owen’s work -entitled “The Skeleton and the Teeth:”-- - -“Serpents have been regarded as animals degraded from a higher type, but -their whole organization, and especially their bony structure, -demonstrate that their parts are as exquisitely adjusted to the form of -their whole, and to their habits and sphere of life, as is the -organization of any animal which we call superior to them. - -“It is true that the serpent has no limbs, yet it can outclimb the -monkey, outswim the fish, outleap the Jerboa, and, suddenly loosening -the coils of its crouching spiral, it can spring into the air and seize -the bird upon the wing: all these creatures have been observed to fall -its prey. - -“The serpent has neither hands nor talons, yet it can outwrestle the -athlete, and crush the tiger in the embrace of its ponderous overlapping -folds. Instead of licking up its food as it glides along, the serpent -uplifts its crushed prey, and presents it, grasped in the death-coil as -in hand, to its slimy, gaping mouth. - -“It is truly wonderful to see the work of hands, feet, and fins -performed by a modification of the vertebral column--by a multiplication -of its segments with mobility of its ribs. But the vertebræ are -especially modified, as we have seen, to compensate, by the strength of -their numerous articulations, for the weakness of their manifold -repetition, and the consequent elongation of the slender column. - -“As serpents move chiefly on the surface of the earth, their danger is -greatest from pressure and blows from above; all the joints are -fashioned accordingly to resist yielding, and sustain pressure in a -vertical direction; there is no natural undulation of the body upwards -and downwards--it is permitted only from side to side. So closely and -compactly do the ten pairs of joints between each of the two hundred or -three hundred vertebræ fit together, that even in the relaxed and dead -state the body cannot be twisted except in a series of side coils.” - - * * * * * - -THE upper right-hand figure represents a portion of the shell of an -Echinus, or Sea-urchin, together with two of the spikes. - -The reader will remember that in the description of the Heart-urchin, -and the mode in which it dug its way into the sand, the peculiar -mobility of the spines was mentioned. How that mobility is produced we -shall now see. - -If a living Sea-urchin can be procured, and placed in a glass vessel -filled with sea-water, it will at once be seen that its surface is -thickly covered with spines. In some species these spines are as thick -as ordinary drawing pencils; but in most of those which are found on our -shores they are very slight, and scarcely longer than darning-needles. -They are in almost perpetual motion, and generally have a sort of -revolving movement, the base being the pivot. - -Now, if we take a dried shell of the Sea-urchin, we shall find that the -spines will come off with a touch, and, indeed, to preserve one with all -the spines complete is a most difficult business. Let us, therefore, -pull one from its attachment, and examine its base. This will be found -to be swollen into a cup-like form, as seen in the illustration; and, if -we look at the spot whence it came, we shall see that there is a little, -rounded, polished prominence, exactly fitting into the cup, just as the -ball of the human thigh-bone fits into the acetabulum. It has also its -ligament to keep it in its place, and its same set of muscles that move -it, and is altogether a most wonderful piece of mechanism. There are in -some species of Echinus about four thousand of these spines. - - * * * * * - -THE legs of an insect afford excellent examples of the ball-and-socket -principle, the socket being on the body, and the ball on the base of the -leg. Some of our largest insects--such, for example, as the common -Stag-beetle--exhibit this principle very well. I have now before me a -Stag-beetle which has been dead for many years, and is quite dry and -hard. Yet I can rotate the legs almost as freely as if the beetle had -been just killed, so easily do the joints work. Even the antennæ, which -are affixed to the head by a similar joint, move about by their own -weight on merely changing the position of the insect. - -These are only a few of the many natural examples of the Ball-and-socket -joint, but they are sufficient for our purpose. - - -THE TOGGLE OR KNEE JOINT. - -Another most useful invention now comes before us, called the -Toggle-joint, or Knee-joint, the latter name being given to it on -account of its manifest resemblance to the action of the human knee. - -This joint is shown in the illustration. It consists of two levers, -jointed together at one end, and having the other ends jointed to the -objects which are to be pressed asunder. It will be seen that if the -centre of the Toggle be pushed or pulled in the direction of the arrow, -so as to straighten the levers, the amount of pressure upon them is -enormous. Such an apparatus as this combines simplicity and power in a -wonderful manner, and is greatly used in machinery, especially in -presses, where the force is required to be great, but not of long -duration. - -An ordinary two-foot rule, when bent, affords a good example of the -Toggle-joint, and will exert a wonderful amount of force. - -[Illustration: - -STRAIGHTENED -TOGGLES. - -FENCERS. - -BENT -TOGGLES. - -PRINTING-PRESS.] - -The illustration represents one of the common printing-presses that are -worked by hand. When the workman draws the handle horizontally, he -causes the two portions of the Toggle to approach a straight line. The -upper half of the Toggle being jointed to the fixed beam above, and the -other half to the movable plate or “platen” below, it is evident that -the latter will be pressed downwards with enormous force. Indeed, so -great is the power of this instrument, that a man of moderate strength -can exert a pressure of many tons. - - * * * * * - -WE now proceed from Art to Nature, and take first the human knee, being -the joint from which this piece of mechanism has derived one of its -names. - -If the reader will look at the figure of the fencers, he will see that -the arm and leg are both Toggle-joints. In the one who is standing on -the defence they are bent, and in the other, who has just made a longe, -the Toggles of the right arm and left leg are straightened. It is by the -straightening of these joints, and not by the action of stabbing, that -the rapidity and force of a thrust are achieved. - -It is just the same in boxing. No one who has the least knowledge of -sparring strikes a round-handed blow, for, putting aside the ease with -which it is parried or avoided, it has scarcely any force in it. When a -boxer hits “straight from the shoulder,” he not only straightens the -Toggle-joint of his left arm, but that of his right knee also, so that -the force of the blow comes quite as much from the leg as the arm. - -It is by the right use of this joint that a small man, provided he be an -expert boxer, will easily conquer an ignorant opponent who far surpasses -him in size and weight. I have seen in a sparring-match a man not only -knocked down, but fairly lifted off his feet, by a blow from a smaller -opponent. The blow took effect under the chin, and, as the boxer hit -exactly the right moment in straightening both limbs, a very great force -was exerted with little apparent effort. I do not know which of the two -combatants was the more astonished, the one to find himself on his back -without exactly knowing how he got there, and the other to see his -antagonist prostrate without exactly knowing how the thing was done. - -The jointed apparatus by which the heads of carriages are raised or -lowered is a good example of the Toggle, and exemplifies the force which -a comparatively slight piece of machinery can exercise. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER form of the Toggle-joint is the process called by sailors -“bowsing” of rope. If a rope be fastened at both ends, and then pulled -in the middle, the ends are drawn forcibly towards each other. This plan -is mostly adopted in getting up sails. When a sail, say the mainsail of -a cutter, has to be hoisted as far as it will go, the last few inches -are always very obstinate. The word is then given to “bowse.” The rope, -or haulyard, is no longer pulled at the end, but a turn is taken round -the cleat, so that it does not give way. The rope is then forcibly -pulled away from the mast, when up goes the gaff a little higher. In -this way, by repeated bowsings, the gaff is coaxed, so to speak, up the -mast, and forced into its place. - -Some of the leaf-rolling caterpillars act in a similar manner, by -alternately bowsing and shortening their lines. As, however, their mode -of working will be described under another heading, we will say no more -of them at present. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -CRUSHING INSTRUMENTS.--THE NUT-CRACKERS, ROLLING-MILL, AND -GRINDSTONE.--PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERE.--SEED DIBBLES AND DRILLS. - - Importance of Leverage in Crushing Power.--Nut-crackers a Lever of - the Second Order.--The Chaff-cutting and Tobacconists’ - Machines.--Jaws of various Animals.--The Wolf-fish or - Sea-wolf.--The Rolling-mill and its Action.--Gunpowder-mills and - Granulating Machine.--The “Jacob’s Ladder.”--The Mangle and its - various Adaptations.--The Grindstone.--Primitive Grindstones of the - Savage Races.--The Kafirs and the Inhabitants of - Palestine.--Ceasing of the Millstone.--“Facing” of - Millstones.--Tusk of the Elephant and its Structure.--Its Facings - always preserved.--Power of Self-renewal.--Pressure of - Atmosphere.--The Napier Coffee Machine.--The Cupping - Instrument.--The Pneumatic Peg.--The Magdeburg Hemispheres.--Plane - Surfaces of Glass or Metal.--Suckers of the Cuttle-fish.--Foot of - the Water-beetle.--The Limpet.--The Star-fish and its Mode of - Progression.--The Sucking-fish and the Fables connected with - it.--Its real Structure.--Modification of the Dorsal Fin.--The - Gobies and Lump-fish.--The Gecko and Tree-frog.--The Lampern and - the Medicinal Leech.--Seed Dibbles and Drills.--Labourers versus - Machinery.--Natural Dibble of the Grasshopper.--The Daddy - Long-legs.--Drills and Dibbles of the Ichneumon-flies.--A wonderful - Specimen from Bogotá.--The Pelecinus and its Mode of laying Eggs. - - -CRUSHING INSTRUMENTS. - -As we are on the subject of leverage, we will take some examples of -levers in Art and Nature, without, however, even attempting to exhaust -the topic. - -On the right hand of the illustration is shown a very familiar example -of a lever, namely, nut-crackers, with a nut between them. This useful -implement is simply an adaptation of levers of the second kind, the -power being represented by the human hand, the weight by the nut, and -the fulcrum being the joint of the instrument. - -The common chaff-cutter, which is worked by hand, is another familiar -example of this kind of lever, and so is the knife used by tobacconists -in cutting cake Cavendish into threads, and by druggists for similar -purposes. In these instruments the point of the knife is jointed to some -fixed object, and becomes the fulcrum; the hand of the cutter supplies -the power, and the weight is the object which is being cut. It will be -seen that, by increasing the length of the handle, very great power can -be obtained. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF WOLF-FISH.] - -[Illustration: NUT-CRACKERS.] - -Exchanging the power for weight, we have in the common tongs, whether -used for the coals or for sugar, a leverage of a similar character, the -weight moving over a greater space than the power. A good example of -this is to be found in the deltoid muscle of the human arm. The muscle, -which furnishes the power, contracts about an inch, and, so doing, moves -the hand over some forty inches of space. It has been well stated that -if a man is able to hold in his hand, and with extended arm, a weight of -twenty-five pounds, the muscle must be exerting a power of forty times -as great, _i.e._ about a thousand pounds. - - * * * * * - -THERE is little doubt that, in such Crushing Instruments as have been -mentioned, the idea has been taken from the jaws of sundry animals. We -know, for example, that with ourselves, if we desire to crack a walnut -or a filbert in our teeth, we always put it as far back as possible, so -as to make the leverage as powerful as possible. No one would ever dream -of cracking a nut with his front teeth, an act which would be very much -like that of trying to break a piece of coal by pinching it with the -tongs. - -The left-hand figure of the illustration represents part of the jaws of -the Wolf-fish, or Sea-wolf, as it is sometimes called, and a very -wonderful crushing machine it is. The Sea-wolf (_Anarrhicas lupus_), -sometimes called the Sea-cat, or Swine-fish, is tolerably common on our -coasts, and, as it sometimes attains a length of seven feet, and is -proportionately stout and muscular, the power of its bite may be -estimated. The fish in question feeds chiefly on crustacea and -hard-shelled molluscs, and is therefore furnished with an apparatus -which can crush their shells. Extremes meet. The Sea-anemones, which are -mere films of animal matter, and can be torn in pieces with the finger -and thumb, can seize, swallow, and digest a crab or an oyster in spite -of the thick and strong shells in which they are enclosed. So can the -Sea-wolf, and fishes of a similar character. But nothing intermediate -can touch them, and it is curious to reflect that such opposite means -should produce a similar effect. - -On reference to the illustration, the reader will see how exact is the -parallel between the Nut-crackers and the Sea-wolf’s jaws, both being -worked on the same principle, and both being furnished with a series of -projecting points, which are used for the purpose of preventing the -escape of the object which is to be crushed. The terrible grasping power -of the crocodile, the dolphin, and other predacious creatures can be -explained on the same principle. - - -THE ROLLING-MILL. - -We now come to another variation of the Crushing Machine, _i.e._ that in -which the motion is constant, and not intermittent, as is the case with -those machines which have just been mentioned. - -Perhaps some of my readers may have visited those great iron-works in -which huge masses of iron are rolled into plates of greater or less -thickness, or are cut up into strips as easily as if they were butter. - -The mechanism is in its principle simple enough. The cylindrical rollers -are placed nearly in contact, and forced towards each other by -mechanical means, such as levers, screws, or springs, or all three -combined. These cylinders revolve in opposite directions, and, if any -object be placed between them, they draw it through them, and present it -on the other side in a flattened condition. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF SKATE.] - -[Illustration: CRUSHING-MILL AND ROLLER.] - -Many years ago, one of my schoolfellows, who had been brought up -entirely under the care of some maiden ladies, was visiting a workshop, -and must needs put his finger between two revolving rollers. Of course -the hand was drawn between them, and simply squeezed flat. The machine -was instantly stopped, and the hand extricated; and the strange thing -was, that the crushed and shapeless hand afterwards recovered its full -power, though not its shape, and was able to touch the keys of the -piano. - -The whole process of the Rolling-mill is singularly interesting, whether -it be used for large or small objects. - -Supposing that the grooved rollers of the illustration were cut across -so as to present a number of points, it is evident that anything which -got between them would be bitten to pieces, each piece being of a -tolerably uniform shape. - -This plan is now adopted in the granulation of gunpowder. After the -future powder has emerged from the hydraulic press in the form called -“press-cake,” it was formerly broken to bits with wooden or copper -mallets, and then placed in a very peculiar kind of sieve. This was -shaped like an ordinary sieve, but the bottom was made of cowhide, -pierced with innumerable holes. A round pebble was placed in the sieve, -and, when the latter was violently shaken backwards and forwards, the -powder was driven through the holes by the pressure of the stone, and -was afterwards separated into its various degrees of fineness. - -I have only twice seen this process, and confess to have been in a very -nervous state on both occasions. The sieve is whirled about with -enormous velocity, and the pebble flies round as if it were a thing -alive. Let but a broken needle or a fragment of stone get into the -sieve, or even let the stone itself break asunder, and there will be an -instantaneous explosion, which will hurl the house, the machinery, and -the workmen into unknown regions. - -Now, however, the mode of granulating powder is radically altered. There -is a series of double cylinders, such as shown in the illustration, and -each of them has the ridges cut into teeth in regular order. Thus the -first set of rollers or cylinders merely bites the press-cake into -convenient pieces, though seldom of the same weight. - -The press-cake, thus bitten to pieces, is passed through a series of -cylindrical sieves, each graduated with the utmost accuracy, and being -turned by means of machinery. Being set on a slope, the powder runs by -its own weight down them, and all those particles which cannot pass -through the meshes are poured out untouched at the lower end. - -The portions which are too large to pass the openings of the first sieve -are then handed onwards by means of a machine called a “Jacob’s Ladder,” -which consists of a series of little vessels or buckets strung on a -tape, and revolving over a couple of wheels. The first set of buckets -takes the coarsely bitten press-cake to the second set of rollers, the -teeth of which are comparatively small. Thence it is passed over to a -third set, and so forth, until it is delivered in any quality of grain -which may be required. - -The modern Mangle, again, affords a good example of this principle. The -old obtrusive, costly, and cumbrous Mangle, which was nothing more than -a heavy box of stones upon rollers, has given place to the modern system -of duplex action in rollers, and one of the old Mangles is not easily to -be seen, unless it be worked as a curiosity. In fact, it is nearly as -obsolete as the spinning-wheel, which yet may be seen in some of our -country villages, where scarcely one per cent, of the population has -ever been in a town, and many of them, the women especially, make it -their boast that they have never been beyond the outskirts of their -village. - -This clumsy machine is now replaced by the very simple invention which -has been in vogue for some years, and which can not only release, but -regulate, the pressure at any moment, by means of springs, levers, and -weights. This machine is, in fact, exactly the same as that which is -represented in the illustration, except that the rollers are quite -smooth. They can be adjusted to almost any amount of pressure by levers -and weights which are attached to the upper roller, and, when the linen -has passed through them, it has undergone the double operation of -wringing and mangling. This disposition of the rollers has long been -anticipated in the jaws of the Skate which crush to pieces the shells of -the whelks, periwinkles, &c., on which the creature feeds. - - -THE GRINDSTONE. - -Being on the subject of jaws and teeth as a mode of breaking to pieces -objects which are placed between them, we will take those implements -which grind to powder, or “triturate,” instead of breaking or -flattening. - -From the very earliest ages, and as soon as man had begun to discover -the “staff of life,” the art of grinding naturally assumed an -ever-increasing importance. - -The first and most primitive mode of grinding corn and converting it -into meal was that which was followed by Sarah, when she welcomed her -husband’s guests, which we know, from internal evidence, was followed by -the uncivilised races who formerly inhabited this island, and by many -semi-savages of the present day. - -Nothing could be simpler than the machinery used, and nothing could -cause a greater waste of muscular power. Two stones were employed, a -large one upon which the grain was placed, and a smaller which was held -in the hands, and used for grinding the corn to powder, just as the -painters of the last century used to grind their colours. The Kafirs of -Southern Africa use this simple mill, and so exactly do they keep -unconsciously to the customs of long-perished natives, that if one of -their mills were buried for a few years and dug up again, it might be -mistaken for one of the ancient “querns.” As the stone held in the hand -was rounded, it naturally wore a rounded hollow in the lower stone, and -this made the process of trituration easier. Perhaps some of my readers -may have noticed that when a chemist makes up a prescription, and is -obliged to reduce one of the ingredients to powder, he always does so by -rubbing, and not by pounding, as is generally believed. He works the -pestle round and round the mortar with a kind of twisting motion, and -thus obtains a powder much too fine to have been produced by any amount -of pounding. - -[Illustration: TOOTH OF ELEPHANT.] - -[Illustration: GRINDSTONE.] - -The labour of this operation is necessarily very severe, and therefore -the Kafir of the present day, as did his predecessors of the long-lost -races, declines to do it himself, but hands it over to the women. In -Palestine, as in other parts of the world, a simple mill has been -invented, which takes away much of the labour, and, above all, releases -the grinder from the obligation of leaning with her fall weight upon the -upper stone. In this mill the stones are similar. The upper is moved -backwards and forwards round a pivot, and the grain is passed between -them by means of a conical aperture in the upper stone, which answers -the purpose of our “hopper.” - -In order to work this mill, two women are required, sitting opposite -each other, with the mill between them, holding the same handle, and -assisting each other in turning the stone backwards and forwards. No one -who has not seen this operation can fully appreciate the force of the -saying that “two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be -taken, and the other left.” - -It is worthy of remark that, even at the present day, the custom of -grinding corn is carried out in Palestine as it was so many centuries -ago, and that it is repeated in Southern Africa among the Kafir tribes. -In both parts of the earth the first sound of early morning is caused by -the millstones of the grinding women, and the amount and duration of the -noise afford a sure test of prosperity. Cessation of the millstones -signifies adversity and a thin population, as has been said by a writer -who lived not very far from three thousand years ago. Speaking of -tribulation, he mentions that “the grinders cease because they be few, -and that the doors shall be shut in the streets when the sound of the -grinding is low.” - -After awhile improvements were gradually introduced into the business of -grinding, not the least of which was covering its surface with ridges, -instead of leaving it entirely smooth, as it had been formerly. Millers -of the present time know the value of these ridges, and the additional -grinding power which this “facing” gives to a stone. One of these stones -is represented in the illustration, so as to show the system on which -the ridges and grooves are constructed. - - * * * * * - -NOW, passing from Art to Nature, we find that the whole system of the -millstone, its movement and its ridged surface, existed in the times -when man had not yet come upon earth. - -The reader is probably aware that among the tooth-bearing animals there -are three types of teeth. First come the incisors, or cutting teeth, -which occupy the front of the jaw, and find their fullest development in -the rodent animals, such as the beaver, the squirrel, the rabbit, and -the rat. Next them come the canine or piercing teeth, which are so -highly developed in all the cat tribe. Lastly, there are the molar or -masticating teeth, so called from a Latin word signifying a millstone, -because their office is to grind food. - -As it is with these last that we have now to treat, we will say nothing -about the others. - -The molar teeth find their greatest development in the Elephant, the -structure of whose molars is exactly like that of our modern millstones. -There is certainly one very great difference. When the surface of a -millstone is rubbed away, the stone must be re-faced, and sooner or -later is worn out altogether, and must be replaced with a new one. This, -however, is not the case with the Elephant’s molar teeth, which not only -keep their facing perfectly sharp, but have the faculty of renewing -themselves as fast as they are worn away. - -How these important objects are attained we shall now see. - -If the reader will refer to the upper left-hand figure of the -illustration, he will see that its surface is for the most part round, -with irregularly oval figures, close and thick at one end, and almost -disappearing at the other. These are the “facings” of the Elephant’s -tooth, and they are formed as follows:-- - -The tooth, which is of enormous size, is not solid, but is composed of a -number of plates laid side by side, like a pack of cards when set on -their edge. Each of these plates is composed of a hard external layer of -enamel, and an internal layer of comparatively soft bony matter. A slice -of badly made toast affords a familiar parallel, the half-charred -outside representing the enamel, and the soft, sodden interior being -analogous to the bony matter. In order to show the arrangement of these -plates, a side view of part of the tooth is given on the same -illustration. Sometimes, when the teeth of fossil elephants are -discovered, these plates all fall asunder, the material which connected -them having been dissolved away in the earth. - -When, however, we look upon the upper surface of a recent tooth, we see -it present the appearance which is shown in the illustration. The -elongated oval marks are the edges of the hard enamel plates, while the -spaces between them are filled with the soft bony matter. It will be -evident, then, that if two teeth such as these be in opposite jaws, and -perform the task of grinding food, their surface will always be well -“faced.” Owing to the different hardness and density of the enamel and -bony substance, the latter will wear away with comparative rapidity, -leaving the former to project slightly, and thus to preserve the facing -of the natural mill. - -This is, indeed, but a modification of the beautiful animal mechanism -which keeps the teeth of a rodent animal always sharp, and always -bevelled off at the proper angle. If we could invent some plan whereby, -in our millstones, we could make the facing of much harder material -than the stone, we should make an advance in the miller’s art that would -render the millstones of the future as far superior to those of the -present as are our present millstones to the hand “quern” of the Kafir -women. - -Yet another improvement has to be made. Would it be possible to -construct a millstone which should not only retain its facing, but -possess the power of renewing itself in proportion as it is worn out? -This property is found in the Elephant’s tooth, and the illustration -will give a tolerably good idea of the simple and beautiful mechanism by -which it is brought into operation. - -The tooth, instead of being one solid mass, consists, as I have already -stated, of a series of plates set side by side. These plates are so -constructed that they are more worn away in front than behind. In -proportion as they are worn, a new tooth is built up behind the old one, -and gradually pushes off the old one. Now, if we could only construct -millstones with such properties, we should possess an absolutely perfect -instrument. - - -PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERE. - -There are many useful inventions which depend on the weight of the -atmosphere and the creation of a more or less perfect vacuum. There is, -for example, the common Pump, which raises water simply by the action of -the atmosphere. A pipe passes into the water, and in that pipe an -air-tight piston is inserted. When the piston is drawn upwards a vacuum -is formed, and the water is at once forced into it by the pressure of -the atmosphere. - -Then there is the graceful and useful Napier Coffee-making Machine, -consisting of a glass globe, and vase of the same material. - -Coffee and boiling water are put into the vase, and some hot water into -the globe. The two are then connected with the tube, and under the globe -is placed a spirit-lamp. Presently the water in the globe boils, -expelling the air and filling the globe with steam. The lamp is then -removed, and the steam in the globe is condensed, leaving a vacuum. The -pressure of the atmosphere then comes to bear upon the coffee in the -vase, which is forced through the tube into the globe, producing -beautifully clear and well-flavoured coffee. - - * * * * * - -SURGERY employs the weight of the atmosphere in the operation called -“Cupping,” now rarely employed, but formerly in such constant use that -scarcely any man who had attained middle age had not undergone it. The -operation was intended for the purpose of removing the blood from some -definite spot. Persons, for example, who appeared to have a tendency to -apoplexy were regularly cupped between the shoulders twice a year, -_i.e._ in the spring and autumn. - -The mode of performing the operation is as follows:--A vase-shaped glass -vessel called a cupping-glass is placed close to the skin. The flame of -a spirit-lamp is then introduced for a moment in the glass so as to -expel the air, and the glass is rapidly placed with its mouth downwards -on the skin. If this be done with sufficient rapidity, the partial -vacuum in the cupping-glass causes it to adhere to the skin, which is -forced into it by atmospheric pressure, as shown in the illustration. -The blood is, of course, drawn towards the surface by the same means. - -The glass is then quickly removed, and a little brass instrument -applied, which, at the touching of a spring, sends out a number of small -lancet-blades so formed as to make very slight cuts. The glass is again -applied, and rapidly becomes filled with blood from the cuts, the air -having forced it in exactly as it forces the coffee in Napier’s machine. - - * * * * * - -IN the upper right-hand corner of the illustration is shown the -Pneumatic Peg, a comparatively recent invention, and useful in cases -where much strength is not required. The base of the peg is fitted with -a sort of cup made of india-rubber. When this base is pressed against a -smooth and flat surface, such as a pane of glass, the air is forced out -of the cup, and a vacuum formed. The pressure of the atmosphere then -causes the cup to adhere to the glass with sufficient force to enable -objects to be suspended from it. - -The boy’s well-known toy, the Sucker, is made on exactly the same -principle. A piece of leather, generally circular, though the shape is -not of much consequence, has a hole bored through its centre, so as to -allow a string to be attached. The leather is then soaked in water until -it is quite soft. If it be firmly pressed on any smooth object, such as -a stone, the air is forced from under it, and it becomes capable of -sustaining a weight in proportion to its dimensions. As the air has a -pressure of about fifteen pounds on every square inch, it is easy to -calculate the weight which it will uphold, a margin being left for -imperfection of vacuum. - -[Illustration: - -SUCKERS OF CUTTLE. -LIMPET. -STAR-FISH. -SUCKING-FISH. -FOOT OF GECKO. -LAMPERN. -CUPPING-GLASS. -PNEUMATIC PEG. -SUCKER. -MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES.] - - * * * * * - -THE lower figure represents the instrument called the Magdeburg -Hemispheres, which are made for the purpose of showing the enormous -power of air-pressure. They are two hollowed hemispheres, having their -edges very accurately ground together. When used, a little lard is -rubbed on the edges in order to insure their exact fit, and they are -then pressed tightly together. The air is removed by means of the -common exhausting syringe, and it is found that the two adhere together -with such force that two strong men cannot pull them asunder. But, if -the tap be turned, and air admitted, they come apart without the least -difficulty. - -Similarly, if two plates of glass or metal be ground to exactly plane -surfaces, and pressed together, they adhere nearly as strongly as if -they were one solid piece. - - * * * * * - -WE will now turn from Art to Nature, and examine some natural producers -of vacuum. - -One of the most celebrated is that series of suckers which may be found -upon the arms of the various Cuttles. At the upper part of the -illustration a figure is given of part of an arm, on which are four -suckers. When the animal wishes to attach itself to any object, it -presses the disc of the sucker against it, and simultaneously withdraws -the centre, exactly as the boy does with his toy sucker. And, as each -arm contains a great number of suckers, it is evident that the holding -power must be very great. Indeed, on one occasion when a comparatively -small specimen had fastened on a man’s arm, he could not remove it, but -was obliged to have it cut away piecemeal by an assistant. - -The common Water-beetle has similar suckers upon its first pair of feet, -and can adhere to smooth surfaces with great tenacity. - - * * * * * - -ON the left of the cuttle-arm is the common Limpet, shown as it appears -when adhering to the rocks. Every visitor to the seaside who has -attempted to remove the Limpets may remember how difficult it is to stir -them when they have once taken their hold. If they can be taken by -surprise, they come away with a touch; but if they become alarmed, they -press the edges of the foot firmly against the rock, withdraw the -centre, and thus create the necessary vacuum. - - * * * * * - -NEXT follows a Star-fish, shown as it appears when in the act of -walking, or rather, gliding along. - -This movement is obtained by the use of a vast number of long suckers, -exactly resembling the pneumatic peg, except that they are flexible, -and can be curved in any direction. It is really beautiful to see the -manner in which a Star-fish will glide along by means of its suckers, -its arms accommodating themselves to the irregularities of the ground, -and its multitudinous suckers protruded and withdrawn with a -never-ceasing movement. - -And, as the Star-fish is apparently blind, not having any organs which -can even be conjectured to serve the purpose of vision, this mode of -directing its course is not easily understood. Yet, blind though it may -be, it guides itself with as much accuracy as if it possessed eyes, and -evidently does so with a definite purpose, using its suckers with as -much decision as a centipede uses its legs. - -These suckers can be seen very well by placing a Star-fish in a shallow -vessel of sea-water, and laying it on its back. The suckers immediately -protrude themselves from their little apertures, and the arms slowly -curve themselves so as to find something to which the suckers can -adhere. Presently one or two of the suckers will take hold of the bottom -of the vessel. Others soon follow, and in a very short time the -Star-fish is on its legs, if we may so call them, and is quietly gliding -on its way. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the Star-fish is seen the celebrated Sucking-fish (_Echeneis -remora_) about which so many strange tales have been told, and which is -possessed of a structure remarkable enough to need no aid from -invention. The dorsal fin of this fish is modified in a most singular -manner. The spines of which it is so largely composed are metamorphosed -into flattened plates very much resembling the laths of a Venetian -blind, and form an instrument of suction identical in principle, though -not in form, with those which have already been described. When the -sucker is pressed against a smooth surface, a vacuum is formed, and the -fish in consequence adheres firmly to the object. - -The fact has been known for centuries, though it has only been lately -discovered, that the sucker was not a separate apparatus, but merely one -of the fins modified in a simple though effective manner. Indeed, any -one who has some slight notion of the structure of a fin can easily see, -by looking at the Sucking-fish from above, that the apparatus is -nothing more than the dorsal fin laid flat. - -I may mention here that the name of Echeneis is taken from two words -signifying “ship-holder.” It was given to the fish on account of a -curious notion which was fully believed until quite modern times, that -the Sucking-fish had the power of attaching itself to ships, and holding -them so firmly that they could not proceed in spite of sails and oars. -The word Echeneis is used by Aristotle in his “History of Animals.” The -specific name _remora_, or “delay,” is Latin, and is given to the fish -for the same reason. - -The little Gobies, which are so plentiful along our coasts, have the -ventral fins formed into a sucker, with which they can cling firmly to -any object, such as a leaf of seaweed or a smooth rock or stone. A -similar modification of the ventral fins is also found in the -beautifully coloured Lump-fish, or Lump-sucker, sometimes called the -Cock-paidle. One of these fishes, when placed in a bucket of water, -adhered so strongly to the bottom, that, when lifted by the tail, it -bore the whole weight of the pail and water. - - * * * * * - -JUST below the Sucking-fish is drawn a foot of the curious little -lizard, the Gecko, so called from its peculiar cry. It is common in the -West Indies, and haunts houses, traversing their walls just as flies run -up panes of glass. It is enabled to perform this movement by means of -the structure of the feet. As the reader may see by reference to the -illustration, the toes are greatly widened and flattened. If the lower -surface be examined, it will be found to be furnished with a number of -plates very much resembling those of the sucking-fish, and performing -the same office. - -So rapid is the operation of these plates, that the animal can even leap -upon a perpendicular flat surface, and stick there. Perhaps the reader -may remember that the beautiful Tree-frogs, which cling so tightly to -leaves, are furnished with suckers on their toes, whereby they can hold -on even to an upright pane of glass. In fact, the smooth surface of the -glass seems to please them, and when they adhere to it they give an -excellent opportunity of examining the structure of the feet with a -magnifying-glass. - -Another example of the pressure of the atmosphere has been slightly -mentioned, when treating of the ball-and-socket joint. This is the joint -by which the thigh-bone is attached to the hip. As the rounded head of -the thigh-bone fits exactly into the cavity of the hip, and is, -moreover, well lubricated with the animal oil called synovia, no air can -obtain admission between the two. Consequently, they are held together -so firmly by the pressure of the atmosphere, that they retain their -places even after the whole of the muscular attachments have been -removed. Not without very great force can the thigh-bone be dislodged -from the shallow socket in which it lies; but, if a hole be bored so as -to admit the air, it comes out at once. - -Similarly, however firmly a limpet may cling to the rock, if the finest -needle were introduced so as to admit air, the creature could not retain -its hold for a moment. - - * * * * * - -THE last figure on the illustration represents the common Lampern -(_Lampetra fluviatilis_). - -The mouth of this little fish is formed on the principle of the sucker, -and very firmly it can adhere, as I can state from much personal -experience. Indeed, it is rather alarming, to those who are unacquainted -with the character of the fish, to have it turn round and fasten upon -the hand. However, it is quite harmless, and those who are accustomed to -them will have half-a-dozen hanging on their hand at a time, and take no -notice of them. - - * * * * * - -ALREADY has it been mentioned that Surgery has pressed into its service -the weight of the atmosphere by means of cupping. She also makes use of -Nature in a similar manner by employing the Leech for local and surface -bleeding. - -The mouth of the Medicinal Leech forms an exact parallel with the -cupping-glass and lancets, only that it is very far superior in its -powers. To make the analogy perfect, the lancets ought to be within the -cupping-glass, and the latter ought to be able to exhaust the air from -itself, and to be attached to a reservoir into which the blood could be -passed. - -I need hardly mention that the action of sucking as practised by the -young of all mammalian beings, from man downwards, is due to the same -principle. By the action of sucking a partial vacuum is formed, and the -pressure of the atmosphere upon the breasts forces the milk into the -mouth of the young. - -We might multiply examples _ad infinitum_, and we will therefore pass to -another subject. - - -SEED-DRILLS. - -[Illustration: - -ICHNEUMON-FLY. - -GRASSHOPPER. - -SEED-DRILL.] - -Among the modern improvements in agriculture we may reckon the invention -of the Seed-drill as one of the most important. By means of this -invention, seed is greatly economized, the supply can be regulated, and -the sower knows exactly where every grain of seed goes. There is no -scattering, as in the wasteful broadcast plan, by which the seeds are -flung almost at random over the field, and may or may not fall into the -furrows. The Seed-drill, on the contrary, either stamps holes or ploughs -narrow furrows, measures the seed into them, and in some machines -replaces the earth. The former kind of machine rather deserves the name -of a dibble, and was invented for the purpose of superseding the use of -the hand-dibble. - -It is really a pitiful thing to see human beings endowed with reason and -aspirations performing such a task as dibbling by hand, one going -backwards with a dibble in each hand, and the other following and -putting seed into the holes. Yet the field labourers have the greatest -objection to the machine dibble, as, indeed, they have to any sort of -labour-saving machine, thinking that it will lessen the demand for -labour, and prevent them from earning a livelihood. - -I well remember how a country clergyman, pitying the hard toil of the -hand-dibblers, took occasion when he visited town to purchase a machine -dibble wherewith one man could set eight rows of beans at once. It was a -very simple affair, comprehensible even by the dull brain of a Wiltshire -labourer. His trouble was all in vain, for no one would use it, and -there was such a disturbance about it in the village, that for the sake -of peace its owner laid it up in a loft and abandoned its use. There -might be some semblance of reason in thinking that it would deprive them -of their field labour, but no cottager would even use it in his own -garden, though it was freely offered to any one who wished to borrow it. - - * * * * * - -THESE machines have their parallels in Nature, two of which are -represented in the illustration. - -The lower left-hand figure represents the female Grasshopper depositing -her eggs. She is furnished with a sharply pointed ovipositor, composed -of two blades. When she is about to lay her eggs, she searches for a -suitable piece of ground, where the earth is tolerably soft, and with -the closed ovipositor bores a hole. She then separates the blades -slightly, and an egg glides between them into the ground, precisely as -is done by the machine dibble with its beans. When I first saw and used -the instrument, some twenty-five years ago, the parallel struck me at -once. - - * * * * * - -THE female of the familiar Daddy Long-legs (_Tipula_) acts in a similar -manner. She is furnished with an ovipositor too short to be used like -that of the grasshopper, and so she attains her object in a rather -different manner. Making use of her long stilt-like legs, she sets -herself nearly upright, with the point of the ovipositor in the ground. -She then twists herself from side to side, just after the principle of -the bradawl, and so proceeds until she has made a hole large enough for -her purpose. The blades of the ovipositor are then separated, and the -egg placed in the hole, as has been described of the grasshopper. - - * * * * * - -THE upper figure represents one of the large Ichneumon-flies depositing -the egg in the grub of some wood-inhabiting larva. How she bores the -hole has already been described when treating of Boring Tools, and the -process need not again be discussed. The principal point at present is, -that after the hole is bored, an egg can pass between the blades of the -ovipositor, though they are but little thicker than human hairs. - -One of the most extraordinary instances of this kind of ovipositor is -found in an Ichneumon-fly brought from Bogotá. The body, from the head -to the end of the tail, is not quite an inch long, while the ovipositor -is six inches and a half in length, and scarcely thicker than that of -the insect whose portrait is given in the illustration. Nothing is as -yet known of its habits, so that the object of this wonderfully long -ovipositor is a mystery. But that it should be used like other -ovipositors is evident enough, and the chief wonder is, what are the -mechanical means whereby an egg can be propelled between blades so long -and slender. - -There is a genus of Ichneumon-flies called Pelecinus. They deposit their -eggs in wood-boring larvæ, and we might imagine that the ovipositor -would be a long one. It is, however, extremely short, and the requisite -length is obtained by the form of the abdomen, the joints of which are -so long and narrow that they almost look as if they had passed through a -wire-drawing machine, the length of the head and throat being -three-eighths of an inch, and that of the abdomen an inch and a half. -This long abdomen belongs only to the female, that of the male being -short and club-shaped. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -CLOTH-DRESSING.--BRUSHES AND COMBS.--BUTTONS, HOOKS AND EYES, AND CLASP. - - The Teazle and its Structure.--Its Use in raising the “Nap” on - Cloth.--Its Value in Commerce.--Artificial Teazles.--The modern - Cloth-dressing Machine.--The Brush an Article of - Luxury.--Definition of the Brush, and its various Uses.--Brushes in - Nature.--The Foot of the Fly and the Tail-brush of the Glow-worm - Larva.--Mode in which they are used.--The Comb.--Varieties of the - Comb as made in different Countries.--Combs in Nature.--Foot of the - Spider and its Uses.--Beak of the Toucan.--Comb of the - Scorpion.--Buttons, Hooks and Eyes.--Use of the Button.--The - Egyptian Garment.--The Buckle and the Shoe-tie.--The - Clasp.--Wing-hooks of various Insects.--The Saddle-back Oyster. - - -CLOTH-DRESSING MACHINE. - -In former days, when so much was done by hand that is now done by -machinery, the thistle called the Teazle (_Dipsacus fullonum_) was of -great value in British commerce, being used by countless thousands in -the manufacture of broadcloth. - -When the woollen threads are woven so as to form the fabric of the -cloth, there is no nap upon them, this having to be produced by a -subsequent process. The plan of former days was, to procure a quantity -of the seed-vessels of the Teazle, and dry them. They were then fastened -to an instrument something like a wooden battledore, and swept over the -surface of the cloth. By degrees the delicate hooklets which terminate -the many scales of the seed-vessel tore up the fibres of the cloth, and -produced the desired nap without impairing the strength of the thread. -When this nap is worn off, the threads are again visible, producing the -effect called “threadbare.” - -As the art of weaving continued to progress, the demand for Teazles -increased in due proportion, and vast quantities were imported from -abroad. Instead of being used by band, they were then fastened to the -circumference of wooden wheels as broad as the width of the cloth, and -made to revolve rapidly, while the cloth was pressed against them. - -[Illustration: TEAZLE.] - -[Illustration: CLOTH-DRESSING.] - -For many years attempts had been made to construct artificial Teazles -which would not wear out so rapidly as did the dry seed-vessels, but -nothing could be constructed that was not too stiff or too strong, and -which did not injure the threads while producing the nap. At last, -however, this difficult problem has been solved, and the Teazle is no -longer an important article of commerce, its place being supplied by -delicately made cards of the finest and most elastic wire. - -In the illustration a head of Teazle is given on the left hand, and on -the right is seen the mode in which the wire cards are placed in the -machine, and the cloth drawn over them so as to produce the required -nap. - - -BRUSHES. - -It is worthy of notice that there are many articles of comparative -luxury which could not be used until man had attained some degree of -civilisation. Among these we may class the Brush and the Comb, no true -savage ever troubling himself about either article. The Brush, indeed, -belongs to a much more advanced stage of civilisation than the Comb, for -whereas we find combs, however rude they may be, used in semi-savage, or -rather, barbarian countries, the Brush is, as far as I know, an adjunct -of a high state of civilisation. - -Brushes may be defined to be instruments formed of fibres set more or -less parallel to each other. The vast variety of brushes used in -different parts of Europe is indicative of the civilisation of the -nations who use them. Take, for example, the brushes used in household -management, such as the hearth-brush, the housemaid’s brush, the -Turk’s-head brush, the crumb-brush, the stair-brush, the carpet-brush, -the dusting brush, and many others. - -Then we have those which are applied to our garments, such as the -ordinary clothes-brush, the velvet-backed hat-brush, and the three kinds -of boot-brushes. - -In architecture, again, we should be very badly off without the -painting-brushes, the whitewasher’s brush, and the paper-hanger’s brush; -not to mention the exceeding variety of brushes used by artists both in -oil and water colours. - -As to brushes applied to our persons, we have an infinite number of -them. There is, of course, the hair-brush, without a pair of which, one -for each hand, no one with a respectable head of hair could be expected -to be happy. - -We may add to this the revolving brush worked by machinery, which is to -be found in the rooms of any respectable hairdresser, and which is a -sort of an apotheosis of the Hair-brush, especially when it is worked, -as in some places, by the electrical engine. - -Then there is the shaving-brush, once an absolutely necessary article in -a gentleman’s dressing-case, and above all requisite if the owner should -happen to be a clergyman. Nowadays, shaving is rapidly decreasing, and -of all the professions, those who are most largely bearded, both in -number of beard-wearers and dimensions of the beard, are to be found -among the clergy. - -Then there are any number of tooth-brushes for the interior of the -mouth, and of flesh-brushes, with or without handles, for the service of -the bath. There are even gardeners’ brushes, for the purpose of clearing -the plants of the aphides, or green-blight, as these insects are -popularly called by gardeners. So it will be seen that--absurd as the -proposition may appear at first sight--we may really accept the use of -the brush as a safe test of the progress of civilisation. - - * * * * * - -WE will now glance at the illustrations of this subject. - -On the right hand is depicted the once honoured Shaving-brush, the -terror of all stiff-bearded men on frosty mornings, and yet clung to -with a strange inconsistency. Many years ago a military member of the -House of Commons was sensible enough to wear his beard, and was, in -consequence, the butt for interminable jokes. At the present time, if -the House were counted, a great majority of the younger, and not a few -of the older, members will be found to wear either the beard or -moustache, or both. - -[Illustration: FOOT OF FLY.] - -[Illustration: BRUSH OF GLOW-WORM LARVA.] - -[Illustration: HAIR-BRUSHES.] - -[Illustration: SHAVING-BRUSH.] - -Perhaps some of my readers may object that many nations in a state of -very partial civilisation are accustomed to shaving. So they are, but -they do not use the shaving-brush. Most of them content themselves with -pulling out the hairs by the roots, while others merely saturate the -hair with hot water, and so need no brush. - -Next to the shaving-brush is drawn a pair of ordinary Hair-brushes, such -as have been mentioned. - - * * * * * - -PASSING to the left, we find an object which bears a curious resemblance -to the shaving-brush. This is an apparatus belonging to the larva or -grub of the Glow-worm. This creature feeds upon snails, and, in -consequence, gets itself covered with the tenacious slime. In order to -enable it to rid itself of this inconvenience, the larva is furnished -near the end of its tail with the curious apparatus which is here shown. -It consists of some seven or eight soft white radii, arranged so as to -produce a brush-like outline, and being capable of extension or -withdrawal at will. - -It had long been known that this “houppe nerveuse,” as it is called, was -employed as an assistant in locomotion; but until comparatively late -years--I believe about 1826--no one seemed to be aware that it was used -as a brush. Its functions as a brush may be compared with the somewhat -similar offices fulfilled by the pincers of the Earwig, as mentioned on -page 259. - -Next to the brush of the glow-worm larva is shown one of the fore-feet -of the ordinary house-fly, much magnified. Passing, as irrelevant to the -present subject, the use of the feet as organs of locomotion, we may -take them as being used for the purpose of cleansing the body of the -insect. - -I suppose that none of my readers has been sufficiently inobservant not -to have noticed the way in which a fly cleanses itself, behaving almost -exactly like a cat under similar circumstances. The fore-feet are -repeatedly passed over the head, which is bowed down to meet them, while -a similar office is performed for the rest of the body by the hind-legs. -The feet are then rubbed against each other, so as to free them from all -accumulations, just as the housemaid cleanses the hair-brush with the -comb before washing it. So mechanical is this process, that a fly has -been known to go through it even after it had been deprived of its head. - -The reader will see, on reference to the illustration, that the two -sharp and curved claws are capable of answering the purpose of combs, -and, indeed, are so employed. - - -COMBS. - -We will now proceed to the COMB, and see how Art has been anticipated by -Nature. - -As long as human beings possess hair upon their heads, whether it be the -short, frizzed, woolly pile of the negro, the thick, coarse crop of the -Fijian, the coarse, straight hair of the Mongolian, or the long and fine -hair of the Georgian races, they must, as soon as they attempt any kind -of civilisation, form some instruments by which the hair can be dressed. -The simplest machine for this purpose is the Comb, and I possess many -varieties of this article, suitable to the different races for whom it -was made. - -Putting aside the ordinary Combs of our European civilisation, such as -are given in the illustration, there are many others which are modified -according to the use which they have to fulfil. - -[Illustration: - -FOOT OF SPIDER. - -BEAK OF TOUCAN. - -COMBS.] - -The simplest is the Comb of the celebrated Amazon regiment of Dahomey. -This is nothing but a slight skewer of ivory, some ten inches in length, -and amply sufficient for arranging the short woolly lumps which do duty -for hair on the head of a true negro. One of these very primitive combs -is in my collection, together with an undress costume of the Amazon in -question, and both being very much suited to each other. The comb being -a simple skewer, the dress is only a few thongs of leather, but they are -both equal to the requirements of their wearers. - -As much time would be lost in combing the hair with a single skewer, -especially when that hair belonged to any but the pure negro races, a -simple but obvious improvement was introduced. A number of skewers were -lashed together side by side, with their ends a little diverging, and -thus was formed the germ of our present Combs. - -As to the varieties of the Comb, they are simply endless; and whether -they are intended, in the form of the Currycomb, to smooth the harsh -coat of a horse, or, as a small-tooth Comb, to search the hair of the -young, they are all based on one principle. - -It is really curious to see how often two men, who cannot possibly have -seen each other, will hit upon the same idea, not only simultaneously, -but often in the very same words. So it is with regard to the Comb. In -no two parts of the world can the natives be more opposed to each other -than is the case with Fiji and Western Africa; yet I possess specimens -of combs from both countries, made on the same principles, and so -exactly in the same manner, that, except for the coarseness of the -African Comb, it would be almost impossible to distinguish between them. -There is but a slight difference in the size and shape of the two combs, -and yet nothing can be more distinct than the characters of the two -nations. - -I have also a Japanese Comb of the most ingenious construction. It is -made of wood, and cut exactly like our double ivory small-tooth comb; -but it is furnished with a curious kind of handle, consisting of a flat -piece of wood with a deep longitudinal slit, into which either side of -the comb fits; and so beautifully is it made, that when it is fitted -upon either side of the comb it looks as if handle and comb had been cut -out of the same piece of wood. - -The Fijian Combs are much after the same fashion as those of Western -Africa, except that, with the artistic nature of their kind, the -Fijians, instead of merely lashing together the numerous spikes of which -the comb is made, employ a variety of patterns, and seem to luxuriate in -the exuberance of artistic spirit which can make hundreds of combs, and -no two of them alike. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration are two examples of Natural Combs -which are well worthy of notice. The upper one is a foot of the common -Garden Spider (_Epeira diadema_), which has been several times mentioned -in this work in connection with different subjects. - -Every one who has watched the life of one of these creatures must have -noticed how often its hairy body becomes clogged with little bits of its -own web, and how dexterously it releases itself from such encumbrances. -The figure in the illustration shows how this can be done, the strangely -formed foot acting at the same time the part of comb and brush. It will -be seen that the curved spikes of the claws act as a comb, while the -bristle-like hairs discharge the duty of a brush. - - * * * * * - -NOT only are these projections used as Combs, but as appendages which -insure the security of footing along the lines of the web. The reader -will easily remember that when a Spider rushes along its web to secure -its prey, it always runs along one of the radiating lines, which have no -viscid drops, and that it never misses its hold. The latter point is -secured by the structure of its claws, which are so made that if one -projection misses the line, another is sure to fasten upon it. Some -years ago, while watching “Blondin” go through his wonderful -performances, I was especially struck with the pattern on which he had -constructed the stilts upon which he traversed the rope. They were made -in the most exact imitation of the Spider’s foot, and though it is not -probable that he borrowed them from that object, the resemblance was so -close that he might readily have done so. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the spider’s foot is given the head of a Toucan, one of those -beautifully coloured and large-billed birds that inhabit tropical -America. These birds are very particular about their plumage, and even -when in captivity dress their feathers with the utmost care. When they -do so, the saw-like notches of the beak act the part of a comb, and the -fibrils of the feathers are by their action dressed parallel to each -other, and give to the whole bird its proper appearance of health. - - * * * * * - -I MAY here mention that there is one comb in Nature, the use of which -has never been clearly ascertained. This is the remarkable organ found -in the Scorpion, and simply known as the “comb.” There are two of them, -one on each side of the under surface. Their colour differs slightly -according to the species, but is generally a light yellow brown. The -number of teeth also differs extremely, for in the Rock Scorpion there -are only thirteen teeth, while in the Red Scorpion there are -twenty-eight. - - -BUTTONS, HOOKS AND EYES, AND CLASP. - -HAVING now treated of brushes and combs as articles belonging to the -toilet, we will proceed to those which belong to the dress rather than -the person. It is a curious fact that, as far as is known, buttons and -hooks belong only to advanced civilisation. The simplest garment is, of -course, a cloth of some material wrapped round the waist, and, as we see -in the wonderful Egyptian paintings which have survived their painters -some three thousand years, the simple fold can retain its grasp round -the loins, even through the exertions of a long day’s work. - -I was always at a loss, when looking at these drawings, to understand -how a single fold could retain so simple a garment in its place, but -when I made my first visit to the Hammam Turkish Bath in Jermyn Street -the mystery was at once solved. The “check,” as it is there called, is -long enough to pass about once and a half round the waist of an ordinary -man. One end of it is placed on the left side, so as to bring the lower -edge on a level with the knee. It is held by the left hand until the -right hand passes it round the waist. It is then turned over in a broad -single fold, and will remain in position for hours, the left leg having -free scope between the two ends, and yet not being needlessly exposed. - -Next to the simple fold comes the tie, which is in use all over the -world. The chief object of a good Tie is that it should retain its hold -as long as needed, be loosened with a touch in necessity, and, as a -matter of consequence, should never “jam.” - -Still, even the best of ties are liable to objection. I once heard an -argument on the subject of ties and buckles with regard to shoes. The -speakers were both Derbyshire men, and their phraseology was somewhat -obscure. However, both stuck to his own principles, one saying that -“when a shee-uew is boo-oo-oockled, it’s boo-oo-ookled;” and the other -asserting, in equally strong terms, that “when it’s tee-ee-eed, it’s -tee-ee-eed.” - -The buckle was here asserting its supremacy in civilisation over the -tie, and was palpably right. Any one, so rose the argument, can tie two -strings together, but the structure of the buckle is too complicated to -be understood, much less invented, by any uncivilised being. - - * * * * * - -NEXT come, in natural order, the Button and the Clasp, each being -identical in principle. In the case of the former the “eye” is placed -over the button, while in the latter the clasp or hook is passed through -the eye. Several examples of the Button and the Clasp are given on the -right hand of the illustration, and are too familiar to need -description. - - * * * * * - -AS to the corresponding articles in Nature, they are very numerous. We -will take, for example, the Saddle-back or Crow Oyster of our own -shores. It is a most remarkable being. It deposits upon the object to -which it adheres a sort of button of shelly matter, and the lower valve, -which is nearly flat, has in it an aperture which is placed over the -knob, just as a button-hole goes over the button. As this arrangement is -confined to the lower valve, and cannot be seen unless the upper valve -be removed, the lower valve only is shown in the illustration, as it -appears when fastened to the side of a large limpet. - -[Illustration: WING-HOOKS OF INSECT. SADDLE-BACK OYSTER.] - -[Illustration: CLASPS AND BUTTON.] - - * * * * * - -OF the Hooks and Eyes in Nature I have only taken two examples, though -there are many others. - -We all know the Bees, Wasps, Hornets, and other similar insects, and -that they possess four wings. I may here mention that no insect which -does not possess four transparent wings is capable of stinging. - -When the insect is at rest the four wings may be easily distinguished, -but when it is in flight they coalesce, so that practically the insect -has two wings instead of four. This object is attained in the following -way:-- - -The lower edge of the first pair of wings is turned over in a rather -stiff fold. The upper edge of the second pair of wings has a row of -small, but strong and elastic hooks. When the insect is about to fly, -the hooks are hitched into the fold, and so the wings are fastened -together. These hooks are shown in the illustration, and the reader will -easily see how effective they must be in their operation. An almost -exactly similar structure is found in the feathers of birds, and it is -by means of these tiny hooks that wings are enabled to present a -continuous, light, and elastic surface in the air. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE STOPPER, OR CORK.--THE FILTER. - - Vessels and their Covers.--Corks.--Mode of bottling Wine.--Conical - Corks and Stoppers.--Self-fitting Candles.--Candle-fixers.--The - Vent-peg.--The Blow-guns and their Missiles.--The Serpula and its - Conical Stopper.--The Filter.--The Bosjesman procuring Water.--How - to make a simple Filter.--The Earth as a Filter.--The Sea-mouse, or - Aphrodite, and its filtering Apparatus.--The Duck’s Beak, and its - beautiful Structure.--The Jaw of the Greenland - Whale.--Fork-grinder’s Respirator.--How Insects - breathe.--Spiracles, and their general Structure.--Spiracle of the - Fly.--Experiment upon a Cockroach, and its Result. - - -THE STOPPER, OR CORK. - -This object, as depicted in the illustration, is a product of civilised -life, though, as soon as a savage could make a vessel, he seems to have -made a Cover for it if it were of large diameter, or a Stopper if the -opening were small. Even the very Bosjesman, who is quite unable to make -a clay vessel, and uses empty ostrich eggs by way of water-bottles, is -yet capable of making plugs with which he can stop up the apertures. -Then the Kafir, with his gourd vessels, whether they be for water or -snuff, makes a plug that fits tightly enough to exclude the air, as well -as to retain the contents. - -The invention of glass bottles necessarily brought with it the -introduction of a new kind of plug, and a material for such a plug was -found in the bark of the cork-tree, a species of oak. This bark -possesses the capability of compression to a very great extent, and, -being highly elastic, it expands as soon as the pressure is removed. - -Thus, in bottling wine, the corks are always made much too large to go -into the mouths of the bottles. They are first dipped in a cup -containing the same wine, and are then compressed violently by a machine -worked by a handle, and which, being practically a powerful pair of -nut-crackers with a rounded gripe, must suit the shape of the cork. It -is then taken out of the machine, and, before it has had time to expand, -is rapidly fitted to the neck of the bottle, and driven home with a -wooden mallet. Expansion then takes place, and the bottle is rendered -air-tight, so that no damage is done to the wine. - -If the whole of the wine were to be drunk when the cork was removed, -this plan would be amply sufficient. But there are many cases where the -bottle is opened, and only part of the wine consumed. To re-cork the -bottle would be too troublesome, and to leave it uncorked would spoil -the wine. So the Conical Stopper was invented, which fits the neck of -any ordinary wine-bottle, according to the depth to which it is -introduced, and, by a slight screwing movement, sufficient compression -is obtained to render the bottle air-tight. One of these Conical -Stoppers is shown in the illustration on page 352. Sometimes they are -made of cork, and sometimes of india-rubber; but the principle is the -same in either case. - -Perhaps some of my readers may have seen the Self-fitting Candles, which -require no paper to make them fit the candlestick. These are enlarged at -the base, which is made in a conical form, and slightly grooved. The -“Candle-fixers” that are so much in use at the present day are made -exactly on the same principle, being hollow cones of paper, which take -the place of the solid cone. - -The Vent-peg of casks is another instance of the cone used as a stopper. - -Another example is to be found in the Blow-guns and Arrows of tropical -America. In some districts the base of the arrow is fitted with a -conical appendage of light cotton, rather larger than the tube, but -capable of compression, so that it exactly fits the tube when pressed -into it. In other districts the cone is hollow, and made of some thin -and elastic bark. - -Some years ago one of our most eminent gun-makers hit upon the same idea -while making improved missiles for the game of “Puff and Dart,” and very -much surprised he was when I showed him the South American arrow, not -only with the same hollow cone at the base, but having also spiral -wings along the shaft, so as to give it a rotatory motion as it passed -through the air. The hollow cones of his darts were made of -india-rubber, but the shape of the two was identical. - - * * * * * - -IF the reader will refer to the left-hand figure of the illustration, he -will see a beautiful example of the Conical Stopper as existing in -Nature. - -This is the “Stopper,” as it is popularly called, and, scientifically, -the “infundibuliform operculum.” I prefer the former term myself, as -being less liable to misapprehension. - -The Serpula lives in a shelly tube of its own construction, and has the -power of protruding itself when it desires to obtain food, and of -withdrawing itself within the tube when alarmed. This movement is -performed so rapidly, that the eye can scarcely follow it, and the -mechanism by which it is done has already been described when treating -of War and Hunting. - -[Illustration: ANTENNA OF SERPULA.] - -[Illustration: CONICAL STOPPER.] - -When it withdraws itself, the Stopper closes the mouth of the tube with -perfect exactness, so as to leave the inhabitant in safety. The reader -will see, on referring to the illustration, how exactly similar is the -Conical Stopper of Art to that of Nature, and how the inventor of that -article, as well as of the self-fitting candle, the candle-fixer, the -blow-gun arrow, and the vent-peg, might have found prototypes of their -inventions in Nature, if they had only known where to look for them. - - -THE FILTER. - -Even in a state of uncivilisation man has been driven to invent a Filter -of some kind. - -The simplest kind of Filter is that which is used by the Bosjesman -women when procuring water for the use of their families. When, as often -happens, the only water to be obtained is to be found in muddy pools -which have been trampled and perturbed by thirsty animals, the women -have recourse to a simple, though rather repulsive, expedient. - -Each woman is furnished with empty ostrich egg-shells by way of -water-vessels, and she also takes a couple of hollow reeds. Over the end -of one of these reeds she ties a bundle of grass, and then plunges it as -deeply as she can into the mud. After a little while she sucks up the -water through the tube, the grass acting as a filter, and she then -discharges it by the second tube into the egg-shells. In this way the -women will obtain water, where none but themselves could have procured -it. As to the repulsive mode of obtaining it, no one can be fastidious -when dying of thirst. Sir S. Baker mentions that when he was on his -travels he managed in a halt to save up enough water for a bath for -himself and his wife. He was about to throw away the soapy water, when -the vessel was snatched from his hands by two of his attendants, and the -contents eagerly drunk. - -The different varieties of the Filter which we use at the present day -are too familiar to need description. Whether they be made principally -of charcoal, which is a powerful disinfectant, or of merely stones, -gravel, and sand, they are all constructed on the same principle, -namely, the straining out solid substances, and allowing only the pure -water to pass through the interstices. - - * * * * * - -AS to the Filters of Nature, they are almost innumerable. In the first -place, the Earth itself is the primary filter of all, taking into itself -all kinds of decomposing substances, separating them for the use of -vegetation, and delivering the pure, bright, and sparkling spring water -which we so highly and rightly value. The whole human body, again, is -practically a collection of the most elaborate and effective filters -that the mind of man can conceive. But we will pass to the more obvious -examples of filters as seen in animal life. - -On the upper left-hand portion of the illustration may be seen a long, -fat, hairy creature, called popularly the Sea-mouse, and known to -zoologists as _Aphrodite aculeata_. Although it inhabits the mud--and -sea-mud is about as noisome a substance as can be imagined--it is -clothed with a garment of such beauty that the rainbow itself can -scarcely rival, and not surpass it. The hairs with which it is so -profusely covered glitter and sparkle with every imaginable hue, among -which red and green seem to be predominant. - -These hairs occupy the sides of the body, but in the upper surface there -is a thick coating of felted hairs, interwoven with each other so -closely that they can with difficulty be separated. These hairs form a -natural filter, strain away the mud from the water, and allow the latter -to pour itself upon the organs of respiration. If, therefore, a specimen -be examined when it is first brought up by the dredge, the felted hair -will always be found to contain a considerable amount of mud, and much -washing is needed before the creature can be introduced into an aquarium -where the water is intended to be transparent. - -[Illustration: APHRODITE. DUCK’S BEAK.] - -[Illustration: FILTER.] - -I may here mention that the name of Aphrodite is a singularly happy one. -It signifies something that arises from the foam of the sea, and was -given to the goddess of beauty, because in the ancient myths she was -said to have sprung from the foam of the sea. Unpoetical as it may -appear, the German word Meerschaum, which is so familiar to us in -connection with pipes, is the exact equivalent of Aphrodite. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the Aphrodite is a figure representing the filtering apparatus -which is found in the beak of the duck. This singularly beautiful -apparatus is well worthy of examination, and the more important details -of its structure can easily be made out by the unassisted eye. - -In the first place, the upper half of the beak, or upper mandible, as -it is scientifically called, is furnished along its edges with a row of -curved horny projections, very like the teeth of a comb, and each of -them coming to a point. There are some fifty or sixty of these teeth on -each side, and they are regularly graduated in size, being longest in -the middle of the beak, and becoming very short at either end. They are -set diagonally, with the tips pointing backwards. The edges of the lower -mandible are turned up in a sort of fold, on the outside of which is a -row of grooves corresponding with the teeth of the upper mandible, and, -like them, being set diagonally. - -These teeth and grooves would of themselves make a very efficient -filter, but they are further aided by the tongue. This is thick, fleshy, -and very mobile; so much so, indeed, that when the mouth is opened the -tongue is automatically thrust forward. The edges of the tongue are, -like those of the mandibles, furnished with a filtering apparatus. -Instead, however, of being horny and stiff like those of the mandibles, -they are membranous and exceedingly delicate. Indeed, in order to see -them properly, it is necessary to place the tongue under water, so that -the membranous filaments shall be floated apart instead of clinging -together by their own weight. - -The whole of this apparatus is abundantly supplied with nerves, and is -evidently a most exquisite instrument of touch. The reader will now -understand the peculiar movements of a duck’s beak while feeding. -Although the bird can and does eat solid food, such as barley, and, by -reason of its superior width of beak, will very much defraud the poultry -in a yard where ducks and hens are kept together, it is chiefly fitted -for extracting nourishment from water, and will find abundant -subsistence where a hen would die of starvation. - -When the beak is plunged into the water, the mandibles are rapidly -opened and shut, the tongue incessantly working backwards and forwards -between them. Consequently, not only are the solid parts of the water -strained between the comb of the upper beak and the grooves of the -lower, but they undergo a further sifting or filtering from the delicate -fibrils which fringe the edge of the tongue. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER familiar example of the Filter is to be found in the jaw of the -Greenland Whale. In this animal, as well as in its congeners, the -“whalebone,” or “baleen,” as it is more properly called, is so formed -that it allows liquids to pass through it, while it retains solids. -Feeding as it does upon small marine matters, it would starve but for -the filtering power of the baleen, which enables the animal to take into -its vast mouth the sea-water with its inhabitants, and to expel the -water through the plates and fibres of the baleen, while retaining the -animals. - -The process of filtering, as well as the structure of the baleen, is so -familiar that it does not need further description. - - * * * * * - -WE will now proceed to another filter, which is used in the air, and not -in water, namely, the Mouth-guard or Respirator of the fork-grinder. - -There is, perhaps, no trade which is more destructive of human life than -that of the fork-grinder was until the peculiar respirator was made -obligatory. The minute particles of steel thrown off by the grindstone -fill the air, and were necessarily inhaled. Now, the human lungs are -capable of enduring very bad treatment, but the introduction of -steel-dust into them is more than they can bear. Consequently the -duration of human life was very short, consumption almost invariably -setting in at an early age, and carrying off the men before they had -achieved middle age. - -Nor did the mischief end there. It was bad enough that life should be -shortened, but far worse that it should be wasted, as was mostly the -case. The men, knowing what their fate must be, were simply reckless, -and plunged into all kinds of debauchery, under the plea of “a short -life and a merry one.” They knew no better, and could scarcely be blamed -for their mode of living. And, as a matter of course, each succeeding -generation was worse, smaller, and feebler than the preceding. - -Then there came the invention of the Magnetic Respirator, by which the -fork-grinder’s trade was rendered as healthy as any other. It was made -of steel-wire gauze, and magnetised, so that the floating particles of -steel were not only stopped in their progress to the lungs, but arrested -by the magnetism, and, so to speak, taken prisoners by it. - -Even a well-made respirator of several layers, like those which are used -by persons suffering from weak lungs, would have been useful, but the -addition of magnetism doubled the efficacy while greatly diminishing the -cost, a single layer of wire being quite adequate to the office, and -was, in fact, quite a stroke of genius. - -The value of this invention is at once shown by the many complaints -which the workmen made when the Respirator was first introduced. They -complained that the apertures of the Respirator became so choked that -they could not breathe. This was perfectly true, but the complaint -showed the real value of the instrument. - -[Illustration: SPIRACLE OF FLY.] - -[Illustration: RESPIRATOR OF FORK-GRINDER.] - -It was necessary for the workmen, every now and then, to clear off the -innumerable particles of steel which adhered to the magnetised wires, -and impeded respiration. But they never seemed to realise the fact that, -if it had not been for these wires, all the particles would have been -drawn into the lungs, and gradually choked them up, brought on -inflammation, and extinguished their life altogether. And, with the -usual repugnance to new ideas which is inherent in undeveloped minds, -the men stoutly resisted the introduction of the Respirator, and did -their best to reject an invention which doubled the length of their -lives, and enabled them to find long happiness in the world instead of -brief pleasure ended by sure and painful death. - - * * * * * - -NOW, we will see how the principle of the Respirator is carried out in -Nature. - -On the left hand of the illustration is drawn one of the most perfect -Respirators, or air-filters, if we may use the term, that can be -imagined. Perhaps some of my readers may know that insects do not -breathe as we do. They have no lungs, but their entire system is -permeated by air-vessels, just as is our system with blood-vessels, and -therefore the air, instead of being restricted to the lungs, is conveyed -to every part of the insect, the air-vessels extending to the very tips -of the wings and antennæ, and to the claws of the feet. - -Neither does the insect receive the air through mouth or nostrils as we -do. Along the sides of the body are certain oval apertures called -“spiracles,” from the Latin word _spiro_, which signifies breathing. -These spiracles can easily be seen by examining an ordinary silkworm. -They are situated in the soft and flexible skin which connects the rings -or segments of which all insects are composed, and pass directly into -two large air-tubes which run on either side of the body. - -It is evident that since an insect is so thoroughly permeated with air, -it must be furnished with means to render that air as pure as possible, -and at all events to preserve the respiratory system from being choked -with dust or other adventitious substances. - -How important the air is to an insect can easily be seen by dipping it -in oil, or even brushing an oiled feather on its sides so as to fill up -the spiracles. A man under the hands of the hangman or garotter could -not die more swiftly, so much does an insect depend on air. In fact, an -insect is almost wholly composed of air-tubes, but for which the great -thick-bodied dor-beetles could never use their organs of flight. - -Of course, although the spiracles can act as filters as far as the air -is concerned, they cannot be analysts, and consequently insects are -peculiarly sensitive to a bad atmosphere. There is, for example, the -well-known “laurel-bottle” of entomologists. A few young laurel-leaves -are crushed and placed in a bottle. As soon as an insect is introduced, -it breathes the prussic acid which is exhaled from the leaves, and at -once dies. - -So it is with the more delicate “death-bottle,” into which a little -cyanide of potassium is introduced, and covered with plaster of Paris. -The plaster prevents the poison from touching the insects and damaging -their beautiful colours. It permits the deadly vapour to roll through -its interstices; consequently, even the large-bodied moths, which are -tenacious of life almost beyond credibility, can barely run round the -bottle, when they roll over, and expire almost without a struggle, the -venomous atmosphere having saturated the entire body. - -All entomologists know that the spiracles act as sieves, preventing any -extraneous objects from gaining admission into the breathing-tubes. But, -unless they have had personal experience, they cannot appreciate the -efficacy of the spiracle when acting as a respirator. Even the -microscope, though it may magnify the object to any extent, does not -show the wonderful filtering power of the spiracle. The figure in the -illustration represents a spiracle of the common “blue-bottle” fly, and -any one who wishes to examine such an object for himself can have but -little difficulty in doing so, especially in the warm season of the -year. - -How effectual is the barrier thus interposed by Nature between the -external world and the interior of the insect may be inferred from the -following narrative:-- - -Many years ago, while absorbed in the comparative anatomy of insect -structure, I believed myself to have hit upon a plan for injecting the -minutest of tubes with mercury. So I took a male cockroach, placed a -vessel of mercury in the receiver of an air-pump, and suspended the -cockroach exactly over it. As the reader will fully have surmised, my -idea was, first to exhaust the air from the inside of the insect, then -to plunge it into the mercury, and then to admit the air, which, at a -pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch, was likely to drive the -mercury into the smallest of tubes. Such a plan was very successful with -ordinary tissues, and might succeed with insects. - -Accordingly, I exhausted the air from the vessel in which the cockroach -was placed, and kept it in a state of exhaustion for a whole day, so as -to prove that every particle of air was withdrawn from the insect. I -then plunged the cockroach deeply beneath the mercury, and admitted the -air, hoping that the severe pressure would drive the mercury into the -respiratory vessels. But not one particle of the mercury could pass -through the wonderful filter with which the cockroach had been provided, -and, except that I had learned the power of the spiracle, I might have -saved both the time and trouble. - -It is worthy of notice that, almost countless as are the species of -insects, no two of them possess exactly the same structure of the -spiracles, the individuality being marked as clearly in these tiny -organs as in the entire insect. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE PRINCIPLE OF THE SPRING.--THE ELASTIC SPRING.--ACCUMULATORS.--THE -SPIRAL SPRING. - - Springs and their various Structure.--The Elastic Spring.--The - Boy’s Catapult and its Powers.--The Pistolograph, its Principle, - and Uses to which it can be put.--Leaf-rolling Caterpillars, and - their Way of Work.--The Carriage Spring.--The Horse’s Hoof and its - complex Structure.--Fungi and their united Power.--The Chinese - Cross-bow.--The ancient Balista.--Skull of the Crocodile.--Bones of - young Children.--The Spiral Spring and its many Uses.--The - Toy-gun.--The Needle-gun.--Valved Brass Instruments.--Watch and - Clock Springs.--The Bed Spring.--Parallels in Nature and - Art.--Buffers of Railway Carriages.--Spring Solitaires.--The Bell - Spring.--Spiral Springs in Vegetable Tissues.--Poison Cells of - various Marine Animals.--Effects of the Spiral Springs. - - -ELASTIC SPRINGS. - -Here we come upon a subject so large, that it is difficult to define its -exact requisite limits. The principle of the elastic spring pervades all -Nature, and the numerous adaptations in Art are closely, though perhaps -not directly, attributable to the wide distribution of the spring in -Nature. - -There is, for example, the simple elasticity which enables a tree, when -bowed by the wind, to spring back so soon as the pressure is removed, -and which, indeed, is the power which enables a bow to propel an arrow. -Then there are spiral springs innumerable, many of them so minute that -they can only be seen by the aid of the microscope, and there are many -springs which exhibit their elasticity by their power of extension and -shortening, just as is done with the elastic fabrics which are so much -in vogue at the present day, and which seem so necessary to ordinary -comfort that we feel disposed to wonder how our forefathers managed -without them. - -We will now proceed to examine some of these springs in detail. - - * * * * * - -THERE is one form of elastic spring which has of late years become more -familiar than agreeable, namely, the toy which is learnedly called a -“catapult,” though it has little in common with the ancient weapon whose -name it bears. - -As may be seen by reference to the illustration, it consists of one or -more india-rubber straps attached to a fork-like handle, and carrying a -small pouch in which is contained the missile. Although it is not -remarkable for accuracy, it can throw a stone or a bullet a considerable -distance, and its power can be very quickly increased by adding to the -number of the straps. Thus a catapult has been made which was capable of -sending a small pistol bullet through a wooden board, so that the -child’s toy might really become a dangerous weapon. - -Indeed, cases are known where the catapult has hurled a stone with fatal -effect upon human beings. In my own neighbourhood there are many -examples of glass being pierced by stones thrown from catapults just as -if they had been subjected to bullets shot from firearms, the holes -being quite small and round. - -The power of accumulating force by increasing the number of springs was -utilised by Mr. Scaife, when he invented his wonderful photographic -machine which he termed the “Pistolograph,” on account of the sound -which was produced when the portrait was taken. - -The idea was simple enough, though the practice of it was not so easy. -He wished to be able to take a photograph with an exposure of the least -possible time, and thus to attain freedom and action, instead of the -dull stiffness which generally characterizes photograph portraits. The -mode which he adopted was by introducing a peculiarly sensitive film, -which would take an impression in a mere moment, and then arranging the -machine so that an exposure of more than a moment was impossible. - -This was done by covering the lens with an exactly fitting door, -revolving on a pivot. The axis on which the door revolved was attached -to a number of india-rubber bands, exactly like those which are used for -confining papers. As the power of the springs increased with their -number, it naturally followed that the rapidity of the revolution was in -exact ratio with the number of the bands, so that the duration of -exposure to light could be measured with tolerable accuracy. - -So wonderfully well did this plan succeed that photographs of eclipses -were taken with perfect accuracy, a matter of great importance when time -has to be considered. Horses were also taken at full gallop, so as to -display their action, and the crowning achievement was the photographing -of a cannon in the act of firing, and the bursting of a charged shell. -So rapid is the action of the instrument, that in several cases where a -cannon or mortar had been photographed, even the track of the ball or -shell is visible. - -[Illustration: LEAF-ROLLING NESTS.] - -[Illustration: CATAPULT.] - -It necessarily followed that when the springs caused the circular cover -to revolve with such rapidity, they made it close with a sharp report, -and so gave rise to the name of the machine. Moreover, as it had to be -used for rapidly moving objects, it was not fixed on a pedestal, but was -held in the hands, while aim was taken at the object, just as with a -pistol. When the observer thought that he had his aim correct, he -touched a trigger, round spun the cover, and the photograph was taken. - - * * * * * - -ON the right hand of the illustration is seen the Catapult, made with -several springs, and on the left is shown an example of the Accumulator -as formed by Nature. - -The reader may probably be acquainted with the Leaf-rolling -Caterpillars, of which there are so many. I had often inspected these -curled leaves, and, on comparing them with the size of the -caterpillars, had noticed that the muscular strength of the insect was -quite inadequate to the work which was done. That much of it was owing -to the “bowsing” system, which has already been described when treating -of the Toggle-joint, was very probable, but that some other force must -be employed was evident. - -On unrolling a leaf, the hidden force was at once explained, and showed -itself to be a system of accumulators exactly like those of the -pistolograph or the catapult. The caterpillar spins successive belts of -silken threads, and affixes them to the leaf, as shown in the -illustration. These threads are nearly as elastic as the india-rubber -bands of the catapult, and accordingly draw the leaf together. Another -set of belts is added above the former, and, as they harden and contract -in the air, they roll the leaf still further. The first row is then -shortened and tightened, and a third and fourth row are added in the -same fashion. So elastic are these belts, that if the leaf be carefully -handled it can be almost wholly unrolled, and will spring back again as -soon as the force is removed. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER form of accumulated force may be seen in the ordinary Carriage -Spring, one of which is shown in the illustration. It is made of a -number of strips of elastic steel lying upon each other, and suffered to -play upon each other by means of slots and rivets. The weight being -placed in the centre, it is evident that this very ingenious spring is -really an elastic girder, yielding to sudden pressure, and recovering -itself when that pressure is removed. - - * * * * * - -INGENIOUS as is this spring, it has many parallels in Nature, one of -which is here given. - -It is popularly thought the hoof of the horse is a solid mass of horn -destined to protect the feet against hard and rough ground. Such -certainly seems to be the opinion of farriers, who, in shoeing horses, -act exactly as if the horn of the hoof were structureless; whereas it is -a marvel of complicated mechanism. On looking at the exterior of a -horse’s hoof, it will be seen to be marked with a vast number of very -fine, but easily visible longitudinal lines, looking as if they were -scratches from a very fine needle. If the hoof be removed from the -foot, and examined upon the interior, it will be seen that each of the -apparent scratches signifies the edge of a very thin plate of horn, not -so thick as the paper on which this book is printed. The hoof, in fact, -is built up of multitudinous plates of horn, set side by side, and each -acting as a separate spring. It is this beautiful structure which allows -the horse to tread without a jar being sent through its whole system by -every step which it takes. - -A similar structure is to be found in all hoofed quadrupeds, and is -especially noticeable in the case of the Elephant. All those who have -watched the walk of an Elephant, no matter what its size may be, must -have been struck with the curious noiselessness of its movements. Its -weight may be measured by tons, and yet the enormous animal steps as -noiselessly as a cat. On examining one of the hoofs, after it is removed -from the foot, the cause of this marvellously silent tread is perfectly -evident. The whole of the hoof is composed of nearly parallel horny -plates, and by their united action they produce the required result. - -[Illustration: HORSE-HOOF.] - -[Illustration: CARRIAGE SPRING.] - -Each plate in itself is very feeble, but, when united as they are at the -ends, they afford mutual support to each other. Similarly the separate -feathers in a couch would be crushed by a comparatively slight weight, -but when a number are confined together they support each other, and -form the soft, yielding couch with which we are so familiar. Horsehair, -when used as the stuffing for a couch or chair, acts in the same way, -and so do the fine filaments of wool when used under the name of -“flock.” - -Another good example of the power of accumulated force, although it has -no direct relation to the spring, is the well-known fact that fungi, -which are separately so fragile, are capable of lifting and retaining in -the air stones so large that two men could hardly carry them. Were the -stones laid down upon the fungi, the latter would be crushed, but, as -they grow beneath the stones, they accumulate their powers, and slowly, -but certainly, raise the weight from the ground. - - * * * * * - -THIS very principle of accumulated force has long been used in weapons -of war, and I possess several examples of such weapons. One of them is a -Chinese repeating Cross-bow, which was taken at the capture of the Peiho -Fort, and was really a formidable wall-instrument, carrying a reserve of -arrows, and delivering them with great rapidity. In point of fact, it -consists of three bows, placed upon each other, and playing upon each -other just as do the portions of a carriage spring. Such strength is -thus obtained, that the bow cannot be drawn by hand, but is worked with -a lever, as shown in the illustration. The whole machinery of the -weapon, including the self-notching and self-supplying system, is very -interesting, but is outside our present object. The very powerful bow of -the ancient Balista was made on the same principle, and was strong -enough to throw large stones and wooden beams. - -[Illustration: JAWS OF CROCODILE.] - -[Illustration: CHINESE CROSS-BOW.] - -I also have bows in my collection which are strengthened on the same -principle, though not exactly in the same manner. There are several -Indian, Chinese, and Japanese bows which are curved almost like the -letter C, and have to be reversed when strung. These bows are of no very -great size, but possess wonderful elasticity. They owe the latter -quality to sundry layers of sinew which have been affixed to the back -when wet, and which add enormously to the power of the bow, while they -very little enlarge its dimensions. - -Another bow, made by the natives of Vancouver’s Island, has the back -strengthened by a number of cords spun from sinew fibres, and possessing -the strength and elasticity to which we are accustomed in the strings of -the harp, guitar, or violin. - - * * * * * - -WE will now turn to a parallel in Nature. This is to be found in the -lower jaw of the Crocodile, as is pointed out by Professor Owen, in his -work on the “Skeleton and the Teeth.” - -All persons who have a smattering of anatomy are aware that even in the -human body the most solid bones of the adult were originally composed of -several pieces, and that they only become fused together in course of -time. The jaw-bones, for example, were once so composed, and in the -Crocodile the junction is never completed, the pieces of bone remaining -separate, but being pressed firmly against each other during life. - -I have now before me the skull of a Gangetic Crocodile, in which, -although the animal was an adult when killed, the bones of the long -lower jaw are so loose that unless they were tied together the jaw would -fall to pieces. - -This analogy between Art and Nature is thus described by Professor Owen -in the work which has just been mentioned:-- - -“The purpose of this subdivision of the lower jaw-bone has been well -explained by Conybeare and Buckland, by the analogy of its structure to -that adopted in binding together several parallel plates of elastic wood -or steel to make a crossbow, and also in setting together thin plates of -steel in the carriage spring.” - -Dr. Buckland also adds: “Those who have witnessed the shock given to the -head of a Crocodile by the act of snapping together its thin, long jaws, -must have seen how liable to fracture the lower jaw would be were it -composed of one bone only.... The splicing and bracing together of thin -flat bones of unequal length and of varying thickness afford -compensation for the weakness and risk of fracture that would otherwise -have attended the elongation of the parts.” - -A good example of the value of this structure of bone may be found in -young children. Before they are old enough to take care of themselves -they are perpetually falling down, and never hurting themselves. I have -seen a little girl of five years old roll from top to bottom of a lofty -staircase. It looked as if the child must be killed, but she was only -giddy with her many revolutions, and a little bruised about the elbows. -The reason of this curious immunity from injury is, that the bones, -especially those of the skull, are not completely united, and so act on -the principle of the compound spring. - - -THE SPIRAL SPRING. - -This subject is so large, and there are so many examples, both in Art -and Nature, that it is not very easy to make selections which will -sufficiently answer the purpose. - -[Illustration: WATER-LILY. LILY. POISON-CELL OF HELIANTHOID. -ANTHEROZOIDS.] - -[Illustration: SPIRAL SPRING. BED SPRING. WATCH SPRING.] - -The upper left-hand figure of the illustration represents the ordinary -Spiral Spring made of wire, and used for its power of resuming its shape -when compressed. In early childhood most boys have had practical -experience of this spring in the toy guns and cannons with which they -are supplied. The spring is compressed by the ramrod, and held in its -place by a catch. If a pellet be placed in the gun, and the catch -released by pulling the trigger, the spring flies back to its former -shape, and drives the pellet. - -An exactly similar spring is used in the well-known “Needle-gun,” the -spring driving a needle through the explosive mixture, and so igniting -the charge. - -Our brass instruments would be very badly off without the spiral spring, -which is placed under the pistons. The elasticity allows the pistons to -be pressed down, and when the fingers are raised the pistons spring up -again. - -Another form of this instrument is seen on the right of the ordinary -spring. This is used in the manufacture of spring mattresses and -couches, and is made thinner in the centre, so as to allow of greater -elasticity. - -Below them is the spring which is used for watches and clocks, one end -being fastened to the rim of the barrel, and the other to the pivot. -When the latter is turned the spring becomes “wound up,” and, when -released, keeps the works going by pressing against them. Of the -“pall-and-ratchet” wheel, by which the movements are retarded, we shall -treat in another place. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration are a few figures of the Spiral -Spring as seen in Nature. - -On the extreme left of the group is a spiral cell taken from the -flower-stem of the Water-lily. As the reader will see, it is composed of -a number of fibres laid parallel to each other, and twisted into a -hollow spiral. In order to exhibit its shape the better, the spiral has -been partially uncoiled. - -On the extreme right is a corresponding spiral cell from the common -Lily, in which the spring power is given by two fibres twisted in -opposite directions. The reader will now understand and admire the -mechanism by which these plants attain their great strength and -elasticity, the stems being made of myriads of these spiral fibres. - -The oval body on the upper part of the illustration is a poison-cell of -a marine polyp, and is given here as an example of an animal spiral -spring, the others all belonging to the vegetable world. - -We shall see more of its structure a little further on, and will not now -examine it in detail. - -The two remaining figures represent the remarkable objects called -Antherozoids, _i.e._ the living creatures of anthers. They exist in vast -numbers in the non-flowering plants, and inhabit those parts which -correspond with the anthers of the flowering plants. When placed in -water they have a curious way of coiling and twisting themselves -spirally, so as to make their way through the water in a tortuous, but -tolerably rapid, course. This movement is effected by the contraction -and expansion of the spirally twisted filament. The upper figure -represents a group of Antherozoids in their cells, and the lower is a -much more magnified figure of a single Antherozoid as it appears when -free, and in the act of moving through the water. - - * * * * * - -ON the accompanying illustration are many examples of Spiral Springs, -both natural and artificial. We will take these in their order. - -The upper left-hand figure represents the “Buffer,” by which the -carriages of railway trains are prevented from jarring against each -other. - -Perhaps some of my readers may be old enough to remember the days of the -old railway carriages that were connected by short chains, and furnished -with buffers that were merely padded. As the train started a separate -jerk was given to every carriage by the tightening of the chains, and, -as it stopped, all the carriages bumped against each other in a most -unpleasant manner. Now, however, the buffers are furnished with powerful -springs, and are pressed strongly against each other by means of -screw-bolts, so that they form one continuous line. - -In fact--and here is another analogy between Art and Nature--a train, -when properly made up, bears a close resemblance to a human spine, the -carriages being analogous to the vertebræ, and the spring buffers to the -elastic cartilages between the vertebræ. - -Nowadays, owing to this arrangement, the whole train moves together, and -can be started and stopped so gently that the passengers are hardly -aware of movement or stoppage. For example, one of my friends was in a -train which came into collision with some obstacle. The carriages in -front were dashed to pieces, and several of the passengers killed. His -carriage, however, which was nearly at the end of the train, and had the -benefit of all the springs, was hardly shaken, and the inmates did not -know for some little time that an accident had occurred. - -[Illustration: - -BUFFER OF RAILWAY ENGINE. MOSS DISCHARGING SPORES. -SUPPORTING SPRING OF RAILWAY CARRIAGE. TENTACLE, WITH SPRINGS. -SPRING SOLITAIRE. SPRING-CELL OF MADREPORE. SPRING-THREAD OF -SEA-ANEMONE. SPRING-CELL OF CORYNACTIS. -BELL SPRING.] - -Below the buffer is a Wheel Spring, made exactly on the same principle, -but set perpendicularly instead of horizontally. - - * * * * * - -THE two figures beneath the wheel spring represent an object very -familiar to us, namely, a Spring Solitaire, one figure showing it as -open, and the other as closed. In this article the clasp is held in its -place by a spring, and is only released by pressure. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the solitaire is a very prosaic application of the Spiral Spring, -namely, that by which a house-bell is kept in vibration after the force -of the pull has ceased, and which renders the bell, as Dickens happily -remarks, so greedy to ring after it has been pulled. - -I made and employed a spring of a similar character in closing the door -of my parrot’s cage. Polly is a wonderfully clever bird, and a capital -talker. First, she had a cage with upright bars, two of which could be -slid upwards by way of a door. She soon found out the trick of the bars, -and used to escape, carefully replacing the bars afterwards. - -When she was transferred to a metal cage, she discovered that the door -slid upwards, and began at her old tricks. So I took a piece of -galvanised iron wire, coiled it into a spiral spring, fastened one end -to the upper part of the door, and the other by a hook to a staple at -the bottom of the cage. Consequently, when Polly lifted the door, and -loosened her grip for a fresh hold, the door closed itself again. So, -after awhile, Polly gave up the door, and now never tries to open it. - - * * * * * - -PASSING to the upper right-hand corner of the illustration, there is -shown a portion of Moss as it appears when magnified, and discharging -its spores. When they are ripe a vast number of little spiral springs -are let loose, and shoot the sporules into the air. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the moss are four figures, which are, in fact, the same object -differently magnified, and seen from different points of view. These -peculiar organs are technically termed “cnidæ,” from a Greek word which -signifies a nettle. The appropriateness of the name we shall presently -see. - -I have already mentioned that the tentacles of various marine animals -are furnished with poison-cells. The object of these cells is to -capture and kill the prey, and the mode of doing so is very remarkable. - -On the right and left of the illustration are two such bodies, in which -is seen a sort of elastic wire coiled spirally, apparently without -regularity, but really possessing a most beautiful order. That on the -left is the poison-cell of a Madrepore, and the other is the same organ -in a Corynactis. No sooner is the tentacle touched than the poison-cells -are mechanically acted upon. They are turned inside out, and the coiled -spring darts forth with wonderful violence. - -Slight as is the dart, so fine that it cannot be seen except with the -aid of a tolerably powerful microscope, it is a terrible weapon. -Although it is projected with sufficient force to bury itself to its -base even through so tough an object as the human skin, it could inflict -but little injury, and would, indeed, scarcely be felt. But it carries -with it a most irritant poison, which is apparently contained in the -little capsule. These cnidæ are very plentiful in the tentacles of the -Stinging Jelly-fish, or Stanger, as it is often called, and are charged -with a terrible poison. - -As is the case with all such poisons, its effects differ according to -the constitution of the being that is poisoned. There are some persons, -for example, who care no more for the sting of a bee than for the prick -of a needle, and there are those whom a single bee-sting will bring -almost to the gates of death. So with the tentacles of the Stinging -Jelly-fish and those of the Portuguese Man-of-war, and there are persons -who are scarcely affected with the sting of the scorpion. - -So it is with nettles. When I was a boy at school it was thought -necessary to wear an oak-leaf, or at least a portion of an oak-leaf, on -the 29th of May, and all who did not possess this talisman might be -flogged with nettles by those who did. As the school was situated in the -north of England, where the oak puts forth its leaves late in the -season, it was no easy matter to obtain a veritable oak-leaf, and we -used to take any leaf that we could procure, and cut it round the edges -into the similitude of a suitable oak-leaf. - -The effect of the nettles upon the boys was most curiously diversified. -Some cared nothing whatever for them; others suffered sharp but brief -pangs; while others, of whom I was one, endured the most lancinating -pain at the time, and for hours afterwards a hot, burning, fevered skin, -and a heavy, dull ache, accompanied by throbbings of the brain so -violent that it appeared as if the head would burst asunder at every -heart-beat. - -The fact of this inequality has been throughout life a valuable lesson -to me, _i.e._ that a punishment which will nearly, if not quite, kill -one man, will be no punishment at all to another. - -Of course I cannot answer for the effects of these very minute cnidæ -upon others, but I can state that they nearly killed _me_, and that if I -had been forced to swim another hundred yards, I should have collapsed, -sunk, and had a coroner’s jury return a verdict of “Found drowned in -consequence of cramp.” - -On me the effects were as follows:--First a slight, and then a severe, -tingling on the parts which had been struck. Then sharp, darting pangs. -Then a sudden shock as if a bullet had passed through the breast from -one side to the other. Consequent collapse, and suspension of the office -of both heart and lungs. I once had to walk nearly two miles after being -stung by one of these dread animals, and how often I fell before -reaching my lodgings I dare not say, but certainly once in every two -hundred yards. - -Even after partial recovery I should not have known my own face. It was -that of an old and wearied man of seventy, grey, wrinkled, and withered; -and many months elapsed before I felt myself sure that the weird-like -bullet would not drive through my breast, and leave me lying on the -ground gasping and speechless. - -These dreaded tentacles can sting as fiercely when separated from the -animal as when they are conjoined to it, as I can also testify from -personal experience. - -I have a natural alacrity in damaging myself, and there is scarcely a -representative bone in the body that I have not fractured or dislocated, -or both. Fortunately the cerebral vertebræ have hitherto escaped. I have -broken the right leg, right arm, two ribs, and right collar-bone; -dislocated the right ankle, and smashed nearly every bone of the right -hand. At present, the damage to the left side is restricted to two ribs; -and I hope that the Genius of Ossifraction may now be content with his -work. - -But I equally seem to have a natural affinity for the tentacles of the -Stangers, which deliver their envenomed darts just as fiercely when they -are separated from the Medusa as when they are connected with it. - -A curious example of this fact befell me in the present year (1875). -Seeing that there had been a steady southern gale, which made Lundy -Island and Hartland and Baggy Points indiscernible, I dreaded my old -foes, and, instead of bathing from the “Pebble Ridge,” took to the great -“Nassau” Baths at Westward Ho. I sadly missed the roll of the waves, and -the placid rapture of lying with outspread arms as the vast Atlantic -billows came rolling in, flinging up the great grey boulders as if they -were corks, and letting them roll down the ridge again with a -thundering, and yet soothing, sound. Three miles or more inland may the -thunder of the Pebble Ridge be heard; and at night, even though a storm -be raging, tearing the leaves off the trees in whirling showers, -flinging great branches into the air like ostrich plumes, and howling so -that one person can hardly hear another speak, the dull, low, continuous -thunder of the Pebble Ridge is heard over all. I have often remained -awake at Bideford, simply on account of the deep roar of the Pebble -Ridge, as the rising tide rolled its vast waves along the coast from -Baggy Point, through Westward Ho and Clovelly, to Hartland. - -When there is a heavy sea, the “undertow” of these waves is so great -that even had no such things as Stangers existed, I should not have -ventured upon the Pebble Ridge. One of my friends, a strong swimmer, was -nearly drowned off that ridge by the undertow; and not long before I -visited Westward Ho a promising young man lost his life within a few -yards of that treacherous shore. - -Much against my will, I went to the new bath, which is always supplied -with a running current of sea-water; and I had hardly swum the length of -the bath before I felt the familiar nettle-like sting in my foot. -Fortunately it was only caused by a small fragment of a Stanger’s -tentacle, which had been severed from the animal and pumped into the -bath, and no harm ensued. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SPIRAL AND RINGED TISSUES.--VARIOUS SPRINGS IN NATURE AND ART. - - Spiral Tissues, and their Structure and Uses.--The movable - Gas-lamp.--Elastic Tubes.--Breathing-tubes of Insects, and their - Spiral Wire.--Ringed Tissues and their varied Structure.--Ringed - Tissues applied to modern Dress.--Chinese and Japanese - Lanterns.--Proboscis of the House-fly.--Trachea of various - Animals.--Mutual Tendency of Rings and Spirals towards each - other.--Fibres of the Yew-tree.--Diving and Divers.--Principle of - the Diving-bell.--How it is supplied with Air.--Structure of the - Air-tubes.--Nests of the Water-spider.--Diving by means of - Tubes.--Larva of the Drone-fly, and its Mode of breathing.--How to - examine them.--Leaping Springs.--The Skip-jack in Nature and - Art.--Skip-jack or Click Beetles.--The Spring-tail, Grasshopper, - Kangaroo, Gerboa, and other Jumping Creatures. - - -SPIRAL AND RINGED TISSUES. - -We have now to consider the Spiral Tissue under another aspect, _i.e._ -that of acting as the internal support of an exterior membrane. Ringed -tissues are necessarily conjoined with the Spiral, as they both -discharge the same office, and in some cases merge almost imperceptibly -into each other in the same specimens. This is most beautifully shown in -the proboscis of the common House-fly, to which reference will presently -be made. - -The subject is so large that only a comparatively small selection of -examples can be made, the greater number belonging to Nature, and not to -Art. - -We will first take the common movable Gas-lamp, with its accompanying -tube. It is at present the tube of which we have to treat, the gas -itself being reserved for a future page. - -It is necessary that, in order to enable the lamp to be moved from one -spot to another, the tube through which the gas passes must be so -constructed that if it be bent, or even coiled, it retains its form, and -does not become flattened. In order to obtain this object, a very long -thin wire is coiled spirally to a suitable length. Over this wire is -sewn the casing of the tube, which is afterwards made waterproof with -elastic varnish. A still simpler mode is by enclosing a spiral wire -within a tube of vulcanised india-rubber. It will be seen, then, that by -the elasticity of the spiral wire the tube must always retain its shape, -no matter how much it may be bent. - -On the right hand of the illustration are shown the movable Gas-lamp and -tube, and a portion of the latter is given with its spiral wire -partially unwound, in order to show its structure. - -[Illustration: TRACHEA OF INSECT, WITH ITS SPIRAL THREAD.] - -[Illustration: TUBE OF GAS-LAMP, WITH ITS SPIRAL WIRE.] - -The large tubes which convey air to divers are made in the same manner, -as they would not only succumb to the pressure of the water without the -wire, but could not be dragged over obstacles or round corners without -collapsing. It often happens that a diver is obliged, when surveying a -sunken ship, to traverse the whole of her interior, descending ladder -after ladder, and entering every cabin in the ship. This could not be -done but for the internal coil of wire within the tube. Reference will -presently be made to the subject of diving. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand is seen an object that looks something like a branch -hollowed very thin. It is a magnified view of part of the Trachea or -breathing-tube through which air is conveyed into the system of an -insect. These breathing-tubes ramify to every portion of the body of an -insect, even penetrating to the extremities of the antennæ, the wings, -and the legs. It is obvious that as these organs are in tolerably -constant movement, and the legs are much bent at every joint by the -action of walking, the air-tubes which run through them must possess the -same qualities as those of the gas-lamp and diver. - -If one of these tracheæ be removed and placed under the microscope, it -will be seen to be constructed in a manner exactly similar to that which -has been described. Within the membrane which forms the tube proper -there is a very fine, but very strong thread, which is coiled exactly -like the wire spring. It is not attached to the membrane, and so strong -is it that, although it is all but invisible to the naked eye, it can be -drawn out as shown in the left-hand figure of the illustration. If laid -on a piece of glass, it immediately tries to recoil itself, and for some -little time will twist and curl about as if it were alive. - -[Illustration: TRACHEA OF DRAGON-FLY LARVA.] - -[Illustration: TUBE OF HOOKAH.] - - * * * * * - -ON the above illustration are two similar examples of the spiral thread -with a flexible tube. The right-hand figure represents one of the many -forms of the water-pipe, whether known as Hookah, Narghile, or -Hubble-bubble. In the simpler forms of this pipe, such as the latter, -the inhaling-tube is quite straight, and the bowl is held in the hands -of the smoker. In the more refined pipe, however, the tube is very long, -flexible, and made elastic by an inner spiral wire. - -Perhaps the reader may remember that the larva of the Dragon-fly is a -most remarkable creature in consequence of its methods of propulsion -and respiration. The water is taken into the interior of the body -through a peculiarly formed aperture, and then ejected with such -violence as to drive the body forward on the same principle as that -which causes a rocket to ascend. - -The figure on the left hand of the illustration is a representation of -the abdomen of this larva rather magnified, and opened so as to show the -interior. On either side run the two principal breathing-tubes, through -the delicate membranes of which the spiral thread can plainly be seen. - -These tubes are connected with a smaller set, and they with a still -smaller, so that at last they are of such tenuity that they can scarcely -be distinguished without the use of a glass. But, however small they may -be, they are always fitted with the spiral thread. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to the cases where the membrane is supported by a series of -rings, and not by a single spiral wire. - -In the right-hand division of the illustration are two specimens of -objects which shall be nameless, but which were drawn per special favour -at a milliner’s shop. Although the day has now happily gone by when the -larger object was in general wear, and seemed to be irrepressively -increasing in dimensions, certain modifications of it, under various -names, have made their appearance in almost every book of fashions and -every large milliner’s shop. - -Here we have the external membrane made of linen, calico, merino, or -similar material, distended by a number of elastic rings set at -tolerably even distances from each other. - -The two small objects represent the handy little paper lanterns so -common in China and Japan. They are composed of an external coat of -tough tissue paper, so thin that it allows the light to pass through it -with tolerable freedom, and of an internal series of elastic rings, -which not only support it and preserve its cylindrical shape, but allow -it to be folded up flat when not wanted. - -I possess a singularly ingenious lantern of this kind, made in Japan, -and displaying the thoroughness of work which characterizes that nation. -It is five inches in diameter, and the lantern itself is affixed at -either end to a circular wooden cap the upper fitting over the lower. -Consequently, when the lantern is shut, it is entirely enclosed between -these two caps, which effectually preserve it from harm. It is -delicately finished, and has no less than thirty rings, made of very -narrow strips of bamboo. The upper cap has a little trap-door through -which the candle can be admitted and trimmed, and in its centre is a -small round hole for the passage of air. - - * * * * * - -IN the left-hand division of the illustration are shown several examples -of ringed and spiral tissues belonging to the vegetable world, in which -the principle is exactly the same as that of the Chinese lantern, &c. -That on the right hand is an example of simple rings within a membrane. -The central figure shows a double spiral, which produces very much the -appearance of a series of rings; and on the extreme left is an -interesting example which shows the transition in the internal supports -from spirals to rings. - -[Illustration: SPIRAL AND RINGED FIBRE (VEGETABLE).] - -[Illustration: NAMELESS OBJECTS.] - -[Illustration: PAPER LANTERNS.] - -I have already mentioned that the proboscis of the House-fly exhibits -this modification. If one of these objects be placed under a moderate -power microscope--the half-inch is quite enough--and examined, it will -be seen that there are some large tracheæ, just like those of the -Dragon-fly larva, on each side of the proboscis, and that, where the end -is widened and flattened into a sort of disc, their place is taken by a -set of very much smaller tracheæ, coming nearly to a point, and each -being supported internally by a series of incomplete rings, shaped very -much like the letter C. A slide containing this object well mounted can -be purchased at any optician’s for a shilling. - - * * * * * - -THE trachea, or windpipe, as we call it, of all vertebrate animals, man -included, is formed on exactly the same principle, as any one may see by -going to a butcher’s shop, and looking at the trachea, or windpipe, by -which the lungs, or “lights,” as they are called, are suspended. Were it -not for this structure, we should not be able to bend our necks or turn -our heads. - -[Illustration: OX.] - -[Illustration: PIG.] - -[Illustration: GOOSE.] - -The accompanying illustration shows the tracheæ of three well-known -creatures. The left-hand figure is the trachea of an Ox, the central -figure that of a Pig, and the right-hand figure that of a Goose. Mr. -Tuffen West, who made the drawings, sent with them the following -remarks:-- - -“The tracheæ of animals furnish some very interesting examples of -variation in the form and arrangement of the rings. Their purpose, -perhaps, one can but guess at in some cases; but doubtless, as being -works of the Master Builder, careful study would be repaid. - -“In the Ox the rings are very strong and close, and in form like a -horse-shoe with the ends approximated. - -“In the Pig the incomplete rings are broad at one part, and narrow on -the opposite side, with a tendency to spiral arrangement. I imagine that -this would make a very rigid tube, and, indeed, it feels so in the hand. - -“Then, in the Goose, the narrowed lower part is that which is figured -just before the trachea reaches the sternum. The (complete) rings are -twice as broad in one half as in the other, and by the alternate -disposition of these differing widths, a tube is formed of great -flexibility fore and aft, but almost absolutely rigid in the lateral -direction. This seems to be so marked an evidence of design as to be -calculated to greatly raise our admiration.” - -[Illustration: RINGED TISSUES OF SUGAR-CANE] - -[Illustration: VEGETABLE SPIRAL TISSUES TENDING TO RINGS.] - - * * * * * - -WE have seen several examples of ringed tissues tending to the spiral -form, and it is but natural that we should expect to find spiral tissues -tending to the ring. - -In the accompanying illustration the two left-hand figures represent the -curiously modified ringed tissue which is to be found in the sugar-cane, -the left-hand figure being much more magnified than the other. - -The other figures represent four examples of vegetable spiral tissues, -in which it will be seen that there is a tendency to form rings, and -that if a number of rings were substituted for the spiral, and the -object viewed in a slanting direction, it would be almost impossible to -distinguish between the ring and the spiral. - -Among the most remarkable of these examples are the two right-hand -figures. That on the extreme right represents a spiral vessel taken from -the so-called root, or “rhizome,” of the Water-lily, and the other is a -similar vessel taken from a branch of the Yew-tree. It has been -suggested that to this spiral structure is due the proverbial elasticity -of the yew-tree, which has from time immemorial rendered it the best -wood for the manufacture of bows. - - -DIVING AND DIVERS. - -It has already been mentioned that the flexible tubes used by modern -divers are constructed on the model of several structures belonging to -the animal and vegetable kingdoms. - -We will now see how they are utilised. - - * * * * * - -IN the earlier stages of the diver’s art the Diving-bell afforded the -only means of gaining access to the bed of the sea, even in -comparatively shallow waters. The mode in which this result was obtained -was simple enough, and though it carried with it the germs of still -greater improvements, was but limited and uncertain in its action. - -The reader is probably aware that if a vessel be filled with air, no -liquid can obtain admittance until a corresponding amount of air be set -free. Suppose, for example, that an empty tumbler be inserted over a -basin of very clean water, and pressed downwards, it will be found that -scarcely any water will enter it, the air having taken up all the -available space, and only allowing as much space as may be accounted for -by its faculty of compression. - -It is evident, therefore, that if an enlarged tumbler could be lowered -to the bed of the sea, a man might be enclosed within it, and for a time -be able to support life by means of the air contained within the “bell,” -as this enlarged tumbler was popularly called. - -It is equally evident that within a short time the air within the bell -must be exhausted, and that, unless a fresh supply could be introduced, -the diver within the bell would be as effectively drowned as if there -were no bell at all. - -The accompanying illustration is a kind of chart, so to speak, of the -mode in which air was formerly supplied to the bell. - -On the right hand is seen a section of the Diving-bell itself, together -with the seat on which the divers can rest. There is also an -escape-valve at the top of the bell, by which the vitiated air can pass -away; but, as it is not essential to the subject in hand, and is rather -complicated in structure, it has been omitted. - -Immediately on the left of the bell is a cask, to which several heavy -weights are attached. This cask contained compressed air, and, after it -was lowered by the side of the bell, the end of the flexible tube was -taken into the bell, the tap turned, and the compressed air rushed into -the bell, taking the place of that which had been exhausted by -respiration, and was allowed to pass through the escape-valve. I may -mention that the divers unexpectedly discovered that, when they were -breathing compressed air, they could dispense with respiration for a -wonderfully long time, the amount of oxygen taken in at a single breath -being enough to renovate the blood more than could be done by several -ordinary inspirations. - -[Illustration: NEST OF WATER-SPIDERS.] - -[Illustration: DIVING-BELL.] - -On the left hand of the illustration is seen a sketch of the nest of the -now familiar Water-spider (_Argyronetra aquatica_), taken from some -specimens in my possession. - -The Water-spider is really a remarkable being. Itself a denizen of air, -breathing our earthly atmosphere just as we do, and as capable of being -drowned as ourselves, it nevertheless passes nearly the whole of its -existence under water, and in that strange locality lays its eggs and -rears its young. How this wonderful feat is performed we shall now see. - -When the female Water-spider wishes to deposit her eggs, she looks out -for a suitable locality, and, being a good diver, tests the various -aquatic herbage until she has found a favourable spot, and then sets to -work on her remarkable nest, which I believe is quite original in -zoology. - -After stretching a few stout threads by way of a scaffolding, she -attaches to the plant a small silken cell, shaped very much like an -acorn, but not so large. Ascending to the surface of the water, she -contrives to clasp a bubble of air between her last pair of legs, and, -laden with this airy treasure, dives below. - -As soon as she has reached the entrance to the cell, which is always -below, she loosens her hold of the air-bubble. It at once rises into the -cell, and expels a proportionate amount of water. Not many of these -journeys are required before the nest is filled with air, and then the -diminutive architect spends the greater part of its time in holding on -to the mouth of the little diving-bell, and supporting life by means of -the air within it. - -This nest, as the reader will see, is an exact representation of the -various diving schemes in which air-bells are the chief portions of the -machinery, although the air is conducted into them after a different -fashion. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to another mode of diving, in which the bell is practically -superseded by the flexible tube, which allows to the diver far more -range than can be obtained by the bell. In this case the diver wears a -peculiar dress, the chief part of which is a helmet so constructed that -air can be introduced to it from above the surface of the water, and, -after respiration, can escape by means of a valve. - -Air is pumped into the tube by assistants above water, and, as the tube -is long and elastic, the diver can move about with considerable freedom. -As is the case with the diving-bell, the diver’s tube is strengthened by -an internal spiral wire, so that it is always open, however it may be -bent or twisted. - -The right-hand figure of the illustration represents the diver examining -part of a sunken vessel. The tube through which he breathes is seen -passing to the surface of the water, and so is the line by which he -gives his signals to his comrades above. In his hand he holds a lamp -which can burn for a limited time, being connected by a smaller but -similarly constructed tube to a vessel of compressed air. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the same illustration are shown the curious Rat-tail -Maggots, as they are popularly called. They are the larvæ of the common -Drone-fly (_Eristalis tenax_), which is so common towards the end of -summer, and looks so curiously like a bee. - -[Illustration: RAT-TAILED MAGGOTS.] - -[Illustration: DIVER WITH AIR-TUBE.] - -These creatures pass their larval life buried in the mud and below the -surface of the water, and yet are obliged to breathe atmospheric air. -This they do by means of the long appendages which have gained for them -the name of Rat-tails. These “tails” are very elastic, and are capable -of elongation and contraction to a wonderful extent. - -When the creature is undisturbed, it lies buried in the mud with its -head downwards, and its tail extended so that it reaches the surface of -the water. Within this tail are two air-tubes, which are connected with -the principal tracheæ, which have already been mentioned. They are -wonderfully elastic, and, when the tail is extended to its utmost limit, -are nearly straight. When, however, the tail is contracted, the tubes -become self-coiled by their own elasticity, and shrink into the base of -the tail. - -As the tail is very transparent, it is easy to see how these movements -are conducted. The larvæ, which may be found in almost any stagnant -water, should be placed in a tall and narrow glass. Some mud should be -placed at the bottom of the glass, which should then be filled with -water to the depth of three inches or so. - -When the mud has quite subsided, and the water become clear, the long -slender tails of the larvæ will be seen so elongated that their tips -reach just above the surface of the water. A magnifying-glass will -easily show the two tubes within the tail. - -Let the glass be but slightly tapped, and all the tail is withdrawn in a -moment, so as to be out of reach of external danger. The -magnifying-glass will then show the two tubes lying contracted in the -base of the tail, and taking astonishingly little space, considering the -amount of elongation which they can sustain. And, on examining the -various bends and curves of the tubes, the value and power of the spiral -spring will at once be seen. True, they are very small, but in Nature -all things go by comparison, and our whole earth itself is as a grain of -sand upon the seashore among the grandeurs of the visible universe. - - -THE LEAPING SPRING. - -The last of the springs which can be mentioned in this work are those -which are used for leaping purposes. - -The figure on the right hand represents the common Spring-jack or -Skip-jack with which children are always so much amused. It consists of -a flattened piece of wood called the “tongue,” which is inserted into a -twisted string, so that it forms a tolerably powerful spring. When -twisted round, and then suddenly released, it strikes against the ground -with such force that the whole machine is thrown into the air. - -Sometimes the Skip-jack is made of a fowl’s merrythought, as shown in -the illustration; sometimes of the breast-bone of a goose; and sometimes -of a piece of wood cut into the semblance of a frog, and painted. In all -cases, however, the machinery is practically the same. I may mention _en -passant_ that these frog Skip-jacks are most acceptable presents to -savage chiefs in many parts of the world, and that the most powerful and -venerable warriors are as delighted with these toys as any European -child of six years old. - - * * * * * - -NOW we will turn to Nature, and see what she has in the way of -Skip-jacks. - -All entomologists will at once have before their minds the vast groups -of Skip-jack Beetles, technically termed _Elateridæ_, and also known as -Click-beetles, from the sharp clicking sound which they produce when in -the execution of their curious gymnastics. To this group belong the -fire-flies of warm countries, and it may be mentioned that the larvæ of -some of our species are too familiar to the agriculturist under the name -“wireworm.” - -[Illustration: SKIP-JACK BEETLE. GRASSHOPPER.] - -[Illustration: SKIP-JACK.] - -All these beetles have very short legs and very long bodies, so that if -they should fall on their backs on a smooth surface, they could not -recover themselves. Now, as they, when discovered, instinctively try to -save themselves by falling to the ground, it is evident that some means -must be used to enable them to regain their position. This is found in a -most curious apparatus. - -Attached to the “prothorax” is a rather long, pointed, and very elastic -projection exactly corresponding with the tongue of the Skip-jack. The -end of this tongue fits into a groove in the “sternum.” - -When the beetle falls on its back, it curves its body as shown in the -illustration, the tongue thus being freed from its groove. It then -smartly springs the tongue back into its place with the sharp clicking -sound already referred to, and does so with such force that it leaps -into the air to some height. - -Generally it falls on its feet, but if it should fail, it repeats the -process. If one of these beetles be laid on a plate or similar smooth -surface, it will skip ten or twelve times without stopping, and after a -short rest will begin again. - - * * * * * - -THERE are some curious little beings, popularly called Spring-tails, -which afford excellent examples of the Leaping Spring. Their exact place -in the system of Nature is rather uncertain, some zoologists considering -them as insects, while strict entomologists reject them. They are very -small, and mostly of a darkish brown colour. - -Plenty of them may be found under stones in damp spots, under bark, and -in similar localities, though they are often found in houses, and have -frequently traversed the paper on which I have been writing this book. -Cellars are favourite localities of theirs, and a little flour sprinkled -on a plate or piece of paper in a cellar is tolerably sure to attract -them. Although they are certainly not more than the fifteenth of an inch -in length, they may be at once recognised by their peculiar attitude, -which very much resembles that of a dog or cat in its usual sitting -posture. - -As long as they are not disturbed they crawl about in a quiet manner, -but if touched, or even alarmed, they suddenly make a tremendous leap, -propelling themselves by means of a forked and elastic tail, doubled -under their bodies, and acting just like the tongue of a Skip-jack. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the Skip-jack Beetle is shown the common Grasshopper, as an -example of muscular leaping springs. - -We all know what wonderful leaps the Grasshopper, Cricket, and all their -kin can make, the leaping movement being evidently intended more as a -means of defence than as an ordinary mode of locomotion. The same may be -observed in the Kangaroos and Gerboas, which are content to use an -ordinary walking pace when undisturbed, but when alarmed can make -tremendous leaps, and outstrip almost any pursuer. - -Even in Man, the Horse, the Dog, &c., which are most essentially leaping -animals, the same principle is employed, the legs being used as muscular -springs acted upon by the will of the owner. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -FOOD AND COMFORT. - - Parents and their Young.--Milk, and the various Ways of obtaining - and using it.--The Kafir Tribes and Clotted Milk.--The Tonga - Islanders.--The Tartars.--Ants and Aphides.--Honey-dew.--Milch Cows - in Insect-land.--Fish-tanks and Aquaria.--Bill of the - Pelican.--Eggs and Chickens.--The Hen-coop.--Nest of - Termite.--Workers and Queen.--Egg-hatching.--The Hen and her - Young.--Artificial Egg-hatching Machine.--The Snake and her - Eggs.--The Gad-fly and Bot-fly.--Preservation of - Provisions.--Hanging Meat.--Eggs of the Lace-wing - Fly.--Spider-eggs.--The Butcher’s Hook and the Claws of the - Sloth.--Bats and Insects. - - -This subject is necessarily a very large one, and I shall, in -consequence, be obliged to compress it, though it might well make a -separate work by itself. For Food represents the very existence of Man, -considered as one of the animal world; and Comfort represents the -progress of civilisation, by which man leaves day by day his savage and -solitary nature behind him, and becomes social, moral, and elevated. - - * * * * * - -PUTTING aside the instinct which forces the parent to feed the young -without external assistance, we come to those cases where the parent has -to seek food which the offspring could not have found for itself, and -often to prepare it for the use of the offspring. - -In the greater part of the world, the milk of various animals is the -staple of food, not only for children, but adults; and the “milk diet,” -as it is called, is strongly urged by many physicians of the present -day. - -The Kafir tribes, for example, a wonderfully powerful race of men, live -almost wholly on sour milk, mixed with maize flour, never eating such -valuable animals as kine except on great occasions. Yet the natives of -the Tonga Islands think that nothing can be more disgusting than for a -human being to drink the milk of a cow. - -How the operation of milking is conducted we need not say, whether it be -performed on the cow as with most nations, or the ass in case of need -with ourselves, or the mare as with the Tartars, or the goat and sheep -in various parts of the world. The milk of the sheep, by the way, is -singularly rich and nourishing. - -Suffice it to say that the animals which are to be milked are kept for -that purpose, and that the touch of the human hand, rightly applied, -induces the animal to part with its milky stores. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature there is an exact parallel. - -It has long been known that some species of Ants are in the habit of -acting in exactly the same manner as ourselves, in not only extracting a -nutritious liquid from other insects, but watching and tending those -which furnish their daily food just as a good dairyman watches and tends -his cows. - -[Illustration: ANT AND APHIS.] - -[Illustration: MILKING COW.] - -The Ants, being insects, would naturally require insect cows, and such -are to be found in the Aphides, of which mention has already been made. -These insects are furnished with a pair of very small tubercles near the -end of the abdomen, and from them flows that sweet liquid which is so -familiar to us under the name of “honey-dew.” For centuries no one knew -the source of the sweet honey-dew which attracted all the bees of the -neighbourhood to the tree on whose leaves it was sprinkled, sometimes in -patches, and sometimes coating them with a thin shining coat, as if -varnished. - -At last it was discovered that the honey-dew is, in fact, the liquid -exudations from these tubercles upon the backs of the aphides, and that -the ants feed regularly upon it. Not only do they lick up the honey-dew -that has fallen from the ants, but they milk them, so to speak, exactly -as a dairymaid milks a cow. With their antennæ the ants pat and stroke -the tubercles of the aphides, and in a few seconds a drop of pellucid -liquid appears at the extremity. This is the honey-dew, and is at once -lapped up by the ant, which proceeds from one aphis to another until it -has obtained its fill of the sweet food. - -How the ants carry off the aphides, cherish and guard them for the sake -of their honey-dew, is a story too long to be told, but it is well known -among entomologists. Our English ants are, however, totally eclipsed by -a Mexican species, which not only collects honey, but stores it in the -bodies of its kindred. - -[Illustration: PELICAN.] - -[Illustration: FISH-TANK.] - -After taking precautions that no food can escape, the ants feed with -their sweet store their companion, who is thus doomed to pass the -remainder of life as a mere honey-cell. The abdomen becomes spherical, -smooth, and so transparent that the honey can be seen within it. It is -quite air-tight, and so preserves the fragrance of the honey until it is -wanted. - -So plentiful are these honey-ants, that they are an article of commerce, -and are sold by measure for the purpose of making a sort of mead. There -are many of them in the British Museum, with the honey still within -their transparent bodies, and they are well worth seeing. - - * * * * * - -THE accompanying illustration represents the artificial and natural way -of preserving food in an uninjured state. The right-hand figure is that -of an ordinary glass aquarium, such as was in general use until the -properties of air and water were better understood, and it still need -not be rejected. It is simply a vessel in which water is contained, so -that aquatic or marine animals may be able to live in it for some time. - -There are infinite varieties of the “Fish-tank,” if we may so call it, -the chief of which is the “well,” which is so extensively used in -bringing fish to market. - -Through the bottom of the boat projects a sort of box pierced with -holes, so that the water has free access and egress. The sides of the -box are so high that there is no fear of the water rising into the boat. -When fish are taken, they are thrown into the well, and there can live -until they are wanted for sale. - -Also, as all know who are acquainted with river-banks or seashores, -fishermen have similar wells detached from the boats, and partly or -entirely sunk in the water. In them they keep their stock, and, when a -customer arrives, they simply draw the box ashore, so that the water -runs out, select what fish they choose, and replace the box in the -water. - - * * * * * - -NOW, the power of conveying fish to some distance without destroying -life has for countless ages been possessed by the Pelican, one of which -birds is shown in the accompanying illustration. - -As every one knows, the chief peculiarity of this bird is the large and -very elastic membrane of the lower jaw. When not in use, it contracts by -its own elasticity, and the bill looks quite slender, as well as long. -But, when distended with water and fish, it presents the appearance -shown in the illustration. - -Any one who wishes to see the exercise of this power can do so by -attending the Zoological Gardens, and visiting the Pelicans at -feeding-time, and an hour or two before it. They hardly seem to be the -same birds. Some years ago I made a series of sketches of the same -Pelican under different circumstances, and it is scarcely possible to -believe that they could be, as they are, truthful representations of the -same bird. - - * * * * * - -THE right-hand figure of the next illustration requires no comment, as -it simply represents the ordinary hen-coop. - -As everybody is aware, the object of the coop is to keep the hen within -its bars, while the little chicks can run in and out as they choose, and -the coop is made so as to prevent the egress of the mother, while the -offspring find no difficulty in escaping. - - * * * * * - -NOW, in the world of insects we find an exactly analogous structure. As -is the case with many hymenopterous insects, there is in the nest of the -Termite, or White Ant, as it is popularly called, a single perfect -female, which is the mother of the nest. A similar arrangement occurs in -the common hive-bee, but there is a notable distinction between the -queen Bee and the queen Termite, the latter belonging to the -neuropterous order. - -[Illustration: QUEEN TERMITE IN HER CELL.] - -[Illustration: HEN IN HER COOP.] - -The former is unconfined, and moves about from cell to cell, depositing -her eggs within them, and taking the greatest pains that they occupy -exactly their proper place within the cell. The latter never moves after -she has begun to deposit eggs, but remains motionless in the same spot, -and allows her subordinates to dispose of the eggs which she lays. - -How this end is achieved will now be seen. - -The reader is probably aware that the queen Termite attains to enormous -dimensions, her head, thorax, and legs retaining their normal size, but -the abdomen becoming several inches in length, and thick in proportion. -The legs are necessarily unable to move so vast a body, and in order -that so important a personage should not receive injury, a large oval -cell is built around her, from which she never moves for the rest of her -life. She has but one duty, namely, to lay eggs, and so is fed that she -may have strength to produce them. She is simply passive, and never even -sees her eggs, much less has care of her young. - -All the care of guarding and nurturing the eggs and young falls upon the -worker Termites. These insects are quite small, about the size of our -common Wood-ant. - -When they build the clay cell around their queen, they bore a number of -holes along the sides, which are just large enough to allow the workers -to pass freely, but which effectually exclude the soldier Termites, or -any foes larger than themselves. - -Through these apertures streams of workers are continually passing--some -entering the cell to fetch the eggs, and others coming out with eggs -carried carefully in their jaws. - -[Illustration: “WURBLES” OF ŒSTRUS.] - -[Illustration: EGG-HATCHING MACHINE.] - -Thus, as the reader will see, we have in Nature an exact analogy of Art, -the Termite queen being confined within her cell exactly as is the hen -within the coop. - - * * * * * - -BEING on the subject of eggs and egg-hatching, we will take another case -in which Art has acknowledgedly followed Nature. - -We all know that eggs are developed into life by means of well-regulated -heat, and that with birds the general rule is, that the needful heat is -supplied by the parent bird, who sits upon them for a certain time, -until the young birds make their appearance in the world. - -Under ordinary circumstances, the aid of the parent bird is quite -sufficient; but when the progress of civilisation requires that the eggs -of poultry should be hatched in numbers too great for the powers of the -parent bird, Man has been fain to imitate Nature, and to invent machines -whereby eggs can be hatched by artificial heat, regulated to the -temperature of the hen’s body. - -Various as are these machines in detail, they are all alike in -principle, and the right-hand figure of the accompanying illustration -will give a fair idea of the method which is employed. - -A box is fitted up with trays, on which the eggs are arranged. At the -bottom of the box there is the heat-producing apparatus, which can be -regulated at pleasure. The trays of eggs can be moved from one part of -the box to another, so as to insure the right amount of heat, and, if -this process be only carefully carried out, the young chicks emerge from -the eggs exactly as they would have done if the hen had sat upon them. - -This machine is sometimes called the Artificial Mother, and it is worthy -of notice that it is no modern invention, the ancient Egyptians having -used it more than three thousand years ago. - - * * * * * - -WITH regard to Nature, it would have been simple enough to give one -illustration of a bird sitting on her eggs, but I have preferred to -select a different subject, as more relevant to the question of -artificial heat. - -There is an insect to which we have had several occasions of reference, -namely, the Wurble-fly of the ox, scientifically known as _Œstrus -bovis_. - -The eggs of this insect are deposited in the skin of the ox, and are -there hatched by the heat of the animal. In proportion as the larva -grows, it raises lumps upon the skin, these being practically the roofs -of the artificial home. There are several other species of the same -genus, all of which have their eggs hatched by the heat of the animals -on which they are placed. There are, for example, the common Bot-fly -(_Œstrus equi_), whose eggs are hatched in the interior of the horse, -and the Sheep-fly (_Œstrus ovis_), whose eggs are hatched in the head -of the sheep. The common Snake leaves her eggs to be hatched in the -artificial heat produced by decaying vegetable matter. - - * * * * * - -WE now come to the preservation of provisions. - -In the first place, we have the well-known “cache” of Northern -America--_i.e._ a spot wherein provisions are hidden, and their locality -only marked by signs intelligible to those for whose use they are -intended. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to mention that many -creatures--such as the dog, the squirrel, and most of the crow -tribe--are in the habit of concealing provisions for future use. - -[Illustration: SPIDER-NESTS.] - -[Illustration: EGGS OF LACE-WING FLY.] - -[Illustration: SPIDER-NEST.] - -[Illustration: PROVISIONS HUNG TO TREE BRANCH.] - -In those parts of the world, however, where the rights of hunters are -acknowledged, any one who kills a deer, or other animal of chase, and is -not able to carry off the entire body, can preserve it for his own use. -He simply cuts it up in hunter fashion, and hangs the various portions -to branches of trees, where they are out of the reach of wild beasts. -Stores like these, such as are shown in the illustration, are always -respected, and no hunter would dream of helping himself to the game -which was killed and dressed by another. - -Beasts of prey, however, cannot be expected to be so punctilious, and in -consequence the hunters hang their meat to branches which cannot be -reached. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature we find many similar examples, one or two of which are given -on the left hand of the illustration. - -In the centre is seen a group of eggs of the Lace-wing Fly -(_Hemerobius_), so called on account of the delicate, lace-like -structure of its beautiful pale green wings. - -When the female lays her eggs she always chooses a slight twig, and -upon it deposits a little drop of a slimy consistence. She then draws -out this drop into a thread, which hardens as it is brought into contact -with the air. At the extreme end of the thread she places an egg, which -is thus kept at some height above the ground, and defies the approach of -inimical insects. The eggs, as well as the stalks, are perfectly white, -and have so singular a resemblance to mosses, that for many years they -were actually classed and figured as such. - -These egg-groups are plentiful enough, if the observer only knows where -to look for them. I have several of them in my collection, and have -found that nearly every one who sees them for the first time takes them -for mosses. I never myself saw the pretty insect lay its eggs, and for -the description am indebted to Mr. A. G. Butler, of the British Museum, -who has kept them and watched their habits. - -The objects on either side of the Lace-wing Fly’s eggs are egg-groups of -certain spiders, suspended by threads from branches. - - * * * * * - -A STILL more remarkable instance of unconscious imitation may be found -in the two objects in the accompanying illustration. It is hardly -necessary to say that the right-hand figure represents a portion of the -arrangement by which a butcher hangs up his meat out of harm’s way until -it is wanted. - -The hooks in question are simply formed into a double curve, like the -letter S, and can be slid along the horizontal bar without any danger of -falling. - -Now, in the common Sloth we have an exact prototype of the butcher’s -hook. The Sloth passes the whole of its life in the remarkable attitude -which is shown in the illustration. It lives among the branches--not on -them, but under them--its claws being long and curved, just like a -butcher’s hook. I have often watched the animal traversing the branches, -and have been greatly struck with the accurately picturesque description -of the late Mr. Waterton, who was the first to discover the real -character of the Sloth. - -It was he who found out that the previous ideas as to the Sloth’s mode -of life were utterly erroneous, and that, instead of being a sort of -bungle, the Sloth was as perfect in its way, and as well fitted for its -mode of life, as the lion or tiger. He discovered that the animal -always hung from the branches, as shown in the illustration. In fact, as -Sydney Smith remarked in his witty review of “Waterton’s Wanderings,” -the Sloth passes his whole life in suspense, “like a young clergyman -distantly related to a bishop.” - -[Illustration: SLOTH.] - -[Illustration: BUTCHERS’ HOOKS.] - - * * * * * - -THERE are many other creatures which afford similar examples, though -perhaps none are so striking as the Sloth. - -For instance, there are the whole tribe of Bats, which, by means of the -curved claws attached to their hind-feet, can hang themselves head -downwards in the open air, and even swing in wind, without the least -fear of falling. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -DOMESTIC COMFORT. - - How to make Home comfortable.--The Bed in its various Forms.--The - Feather Bed of Man.--The Eider-duck and her Plumage.--The Rabbit - and her Down.--The Long-tailed Titmouse and her wonderful - Nest.--The Hammock of civilised Man and Savage.--The Sailor’s - Canvas Hammock.--The String Hammock of tropical America.--Nest of - the Pensile Oriole.--Silken Hammock of the Tiger-moth and other - Insects.--The Mat Bed.--Cocoa-nut Matting.--The Robber-crab and its - Bed.--Strength and Uses of the Cocoa-nut Fibre.--The Surgeon’s - “Cradle” and the Pupa of Tabanus.--The Art of Sewing and the - Tailor-bird.--Principle of the Umbrella and its Original - Use.--Natural Umbrella on the Rosemary.--Servants and Slaves, and - the Distinction between them.--The Use of Slaves in hot - Countries.--Slavery in the Insect World.--The Ants and their - Slaves.--Ornamental Gardening and Pleasure-grounds.--The Hanging - Gardens of Babylon.--The Bower-birds and their Pleasure-grounds. - - -We now come to a different branch of the same subject, namely, the means -by which our dwellings are rendered comfortable. - -After having procured a dwelling which can withstand the elements, we -next look for a bed on which to repose, and which will ease the limbs -and brain, wearied by the toils of the day. - -Allusion has already been made to the ordinary feather bed and its -multitudinous natural springs. We now have to see how the various kinds -of beds are anticipated in Nature, and will begin with the feather bed. - -As to our own beds, nothing need be said about objects so familiar, -although, in order to preserve the parallelism, it is necessary to -introduce an illustration on the right hand of the page. - -On the left hand are shown two examples of natural feather beds, -selected from many others on account of the exact parallels which they -afford. - -We all know the wonderful warmth and lightness of the Eider-down -mattress or quilt, though there are comparatively few who know how the -Eider-down is procured. - -In common with many other creatures, the Eider-duck forms a bed for her -young by plucking the down from her own body. Rabbits do exactly the -same thing, as all boys know who have kept them, the only difference -being that fur is substituted for feathers. So do many insects, -stripping themselves of their own downy covering, and employing it for -the comfort of their offspring. - -[Illustration: LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.] - -[Illustration: EIDER-DUCK.] - -[Illustration: FEATHER BED.] - -The lower figure on the left hand represents the Eider-duck in the act -of plucking the far-famed down from her breast in order to make a soft -and warm couch for her young, and the amount of feathers which she will -devote to this purpose is simply astonishing. Their weight is -insignificant, but their bulk is wonderful. - -Above the Eider-duck is shown the nest of the common Long-tailed -Titmouse. It is the most perfect nest that is constructed by any British -bird. Its shape exactly resembles that of an egg, and it has but one -small aperture, as is shown in the illustration. - -The Titmouse lays a vast number of eggs, and almost fills the nest with -soft downy feathers, on which they can rest. If the finger be introduced -into the nest through the aperture, the tiny eggs can be felt reposing -in their natural feather-bed. In this case, however, the bird does not -denude herself of feathers, but has a way of picking them up wherever -she can find them. - - * * * * * - -NOW we will take another form of bed, namely, the Hammock, which is used -in many parts of the world. - -Putting aside the well-known hammock as used on board our ships, we will -take the same kind of bed as used among the natives of tropical America. - -In that wonderful part of the world, where water and vegetation reign -supreme, an aërial couch of some kind is absolutely needful, and is -supplied by the singularly ingenious hammocks which are constructed by -the natives. They are made of a fine, but marvellously strong fibre, -procured from the aloe plant by the simple process of soaking the long -leaves in water, and dashing them against a stone. The soft green parts -are eaten away, and the tough fibres remain in all their strength. - -From these fibres are woven the strings of which the Hammocks are made. -I possess four of the Hammocks, all made on different lines, but all -based on the same principle. In some the strings are laid parallel to -each other, and connected by transverse strings at regular intervals, -but in the best specimens they are interlaced diagonally into a sort of -loose network without knots, so that it yields in every direction to the -outlines of the body. - -It is one of the most comfortable couches ever invented, especially when -it is of considerable size. I have one specimen which, even in its -curved state, extends completely across a tolerably sized room. I never -use it because it is so comfortable that the temptation to lie in it is -almost too strong to be resisted. - - * * * * * - -AS to Hammocks in Nature, they are almost too many to be computed. - -So we will first take the nest of the Pensile Oriole, which is shown in -the illustration, and which is an admirable example of the Hammock, -being woven from long vegetable fibres intertwisted very much like the -strings of the South American Hammock. And as if to increase the -resemblance, the bird, whenever it can do so, will carry off hanks of -cotton, linen, thread, or pieces of string, and weave them into its -nest. - -I have one of these nests, and, directly I saw it, was struck with its -exact similitude to the Hammock of human manufacture. - -[Illustration: NEST OF PENSILE ORIOLE.] - -[Illustration: HAMMOCK.] - -There are many other birds in various parts of the world especially in -Australia, which make their nests on exactly the same principle, though -in slightly varied forms. - -Also, in the insect world, there are innumerable examples of the natural -Hammock, the most common of which is that made by the caterpillars of -the Tiger-moth, and in which it slings itself while undergoing its -changes from the chrysalis to the perfect state. - -It is made of silken threads, interwoven so slightly that the chrysalis -can be seen through them, and so exactly like the Hammock of the South -American Indian that if a drawing were made and enlarged, one might -easily be taken for the other. - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to the Mat Bed, which is so much used in the warmer parts of -the world, where the earth is dry, and the air so warm that nothing is -required but the slightest possible protection from the soil. - -In inland places, such as Southern Africa, the bed is made of long -grass-stems laid side by side, and sewn together with a sort of twine. -One of these beds in my collection is some three feet wide by seven feet -long, and can be rolled up into a cylinder so compact and light that -even a child could carry it. - -[Illustration: ROBBER-CRAB.] - -[Illustration: COCOA-NUT MAT.] - -Of course, when the Kafirs are on a journey, the women have to carry the -beds, together with the heavy wooden pillows and other necessaries, the -men carrying nothing but their weapons. I have a pair of figures made by -a native artist, representing a Kafir man and woman on a journey, the -woman staggering under her heavy burdens, the bed being included, and -the man stepping lightly along, with nothing but his spears and -knobkerries. - - * * * * * - -ON the sea-coasts, however, where the cocoa-nut palm grows, the fibre of -the husk is the principal material for bedding. These fibres lie so -parallel to each other on the surface of the cocoa-nut, that they are -easily stripped off, fastened together, and formed into mats of any -shape or thickness. One of these mats is shown on the right hand of the -illustration, and the reader will see how simple is its manufacture. - -Owing to the ease with which it is made into a fabric, the cocoa-nut -fibre was in great use as armour before the bullet set all armour at -defiance. It will be remembered that when Captain Cook was murdered, he -committed the mistake of firing a charge of small shot instead of a -bullet, and the fact that the cocoa-nut mat carried by the man at whom -he fired resisted the shot, encouraged the natives to attack and murder -him. - - * * * * * - -EVEN the cocoa-nut mat has its precursor in Nature. - -There is a certain Crab inhabiting the cocoa-nut bearing parts of the -world, which not only makes itself a bed from the fibre, but supplies it -to mankind. - -This wonderful Crab has the power of ascending the cocoa-nut palms, -which is beyond the power of any man except a trained gymnast. It picks -out the ripest fruits, and with its powerful claws tears off the fibre -before breaking the shell and devouring the kernel, as is shown in the -left-hand figure of the illustration. - -After eating the kernel, which is at that time a soft, creamy substance, -quite unlike the hard, indigestible material which we in England know by -the name of cocoa-nut, the Crab carries off the external fibres into its -den, and there makes its bed of them. So great, indeed, is the amount of -cocoa-nut fibre thus collected that the natives are accustomed to save -themselves the trouble of climbing the trees, and merely search for the -holes in which these Crabs have made their nests, knowing the amount of -ready-gathered cocoa-nut fibre that is always to be found in them. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER modification of the bed needs a short notice, especially as I -have practical and sad experience on the subject. - -[Illustration: PUPA OF TABANUS.] - -[Illustration: SURGICAL CRADLE.] - -It is technically named the “cradle,” and is used to keep the bedclothes -from pressing on a damaged limb. - -When a mere lad I contrived, at cricket, to dislocate the right ankle, -and break the bone. An ignorant surgeon refused my request for a cradle, -and absolutely tied the cover of a book to the sole of the foot. Of -course this appliance was worse than useless. It acted as a lever, -allowing the clothes to turn the foot round, and to the present day the -right foot has never recovered its faculties. Had the simple “cradle” -been used--_i.e._ a few sticks bent into an arch-like shape, and tied -together, so as to keep the clothes from even touching the foot--all -would have been right. - -On the right hand of the illustration is shown the surgical cradle, as a -defence to a damaged leg. On the left is shown the curious natural -cradle of the Gad-fly while undergoing its change into the perfect -state. It is quite hard and rounded, being formed from the skin of the -larva, and allows the pupa to lie within it, protected from any ordinary -pressure. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER point now comes before us. - -We cannot well have our bedclothes--indeed, any kind of clothes--without -the use of needles and thread. The simplest form of sewing is that which -is adopted in many parts of the world, namely, of boring holes and -pushing a thread through them, no eye being required in the needle. In -this way the Kafirs of Southern Africa and the Esquimaux of the Polar -regions make their beautiful garments of skins. I have for many years -had in constant use two South African cloaks, or karosses, and one made -by the natives of Vancouver’s Island, and they are now as good as they -were when they were first given to me. Naturally, such a mode of sewing -consumes much time, but, as time is not of the least value to these -native furriers, no harm is done, and the junctions of the different -skins is absolutely perfect. Even where holes have been made in the -skin, the native furrier has supplied their places with circular pieces -so neatly inserted, that on the outside not a trace of the junction is -visible, and even the very set of the hairs is preserved. - -Our very modern needles, with their eyes which carry the thread, are but -a modification of the original plan of boring holes, and pushing the -thread through them. - - * * * * * - -NATURE has a singular parallel in the case of the Tailor-bird, which -sews leaves together by their edges, and makes its nest inside them. It -acts exactly like one of our own shoemakers, using its slender and -sharply pointed beak in lieu of the awl, and employing a slight but -strong vegetable fibre in place of the “waxed end” of the shoemaker, or -the sinew-thread of the Kafir. - -In the illustration an ordinary needle and thread are seen on the -right-hand side, and on the left are two nests of the Tailor-bird, taken -from specimens in the British Museum. - -[Illustration: TAILOR-BIRDS AND NESTS.] - -[Illustration: SEWING CLOTH.] - -The mode of sewing is strangely like that which is employed by the -uncivilised furriers who have been described, and much superior to that -which is seen in many other parts of the world. For example, I have a -West African quiver made of hide sewn together with stitches infinitely -more clumsy than those of the Tailor-bird. - -The reader will also remark that I might have placed this singular nest -in the category of beds, on account of the soft and warm lining on which -the young repose. I have, however, thought that it more properly belongs -to the present division of the subject. - - * * * * * - -SOMETIMES we require a temporary as well as a permanent shelter from the -elements, and procure it by means of the Umbrella. - -In many countries, especially those where the climate is hot, the -Umbrella is almost exclusively used, as, indeed, its name denotes, to -preserve its owner from the direct sunbeams, and is, in fact, the -“parasol” of our European ladies. It also is a mark of dignity, the -amount and quality of its decorations indicating rank, even though the -man who sits under its shade is clothed in a modest cotton cloth wrapped -round his waist. - -For the purpose of shielding the bearer from the sun the Umbrella was -first introduced, and the introducer incurred the obloquy usual in such -cases. Now, however, the Umbrella has by common consent become a -defence against rain and snow, the male sex leaving the parasol to the -gentler half of creation, and submitting themselves to the chance of a -sunstroke. - - * * * * * - -WE all know the ingenious Umbrellas of Africa, China, Japan, Siam, &c.; -but there are few persons who know that a common magnifying-glass will -disclose thousands of beautifully perfect umbrellas on the leaf of the -Rosemary. - -[Illustration: HAIRS OF ROSEMARY.] - -[Illustration: UMBRELLA.] - -Pinch the Rosemary-leaf between the fingers, and a strong and peculiar -perfume is evolved, just as when the peel of the orange is squeezed. The -reason is the same in both cases, namely, the presence of multitudes of -spherical vessels which contain their essential oil, secreted by the -plant. - -In the orange they are sunk below the surface of the skin, and are -protected by it; but in the Rosemary they stand on slight footstalks, as -shown in the illustration. - -Being very delicate, and liable to be broken at the least touch, they -are protected by a series of curiously formed hairs, which extend over -them exactly as would an umbrella, and defend them from the elements. - -The surface of a Rosemary-leaf affords a singularly beautiful sight, -even with a common magnifying-glass, the tiny perfume-globes gleaming -like little pearls in the broken lights that shine through the -umbrella-like hairs. - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to another part of domestic life, namely, Servants. - -There is a diversity of ideas on this subject, as we know by the -various discussions respecting “lady-helps” and “gentlemen-helps,” which -bid fair to initiate a revolution in domestic life. Servants are -sometimes called the greatest plagues in life, but it is difficult to -see what could be done without them. - -Then there is the complaint that servants are not what they used to -be--the faithful retainers of the household, and considering themselves -members of it. Perhaps not, but I have had experience of several -faithful retainers, and invariably found them to be unmitigated tyrants, -assuming power, repudiating responsibility, and being practically the -master or mistress of the household. - -Then we come to the great question of slavery in its various bearings. - -Putting aside the now acknowledged diversity of races, and the -well-known fact that the negro in a state of slavery to a European is -infinitely better off than he would have been in his own country, where -there is no law but that of might, we must entertain the question of -enforced servitude, i.e. where the servants have no choice either in -entering or leaving their situations. - -It is, of course, opposed, and rightly, to our modern English ideas that -a slave, under such a name, should exist on British ground. Yet there -are thousands of Englishmen who are more wholly enslaved than was any -negro in the worst times of slavery. The chains may not be of visible -iron, nor the whips of tangible thongs, but they are, perhaps, all the -more galling and biting. - - * * * * * - -SOME of my readers may be aware that slavery exists in the insect world, -and probably existed long before man came on earth. - -There are many species of Ants which are absolutely incapable of -managing their own nests or rearing their own young, and which, in -consequence, impress into their service the workers of other species of -Ant, and hand over to them the entire labour of the establishment. They -can fight, and they can establish fresh colonies, but they cannot build -nests, nor nurse their young, and so they impress into their service -those Ants whose instinct teaches them to do both. - -Periodically the master Ants, if we may so call them, set off on a -slave-hunting expedition. They find out the nest of the special Ant -whose aid they need, penetrate into it, and bear off the pupæ, or “ants’ -eggs,” as they are popularly called. These are carried to their new -home, and are speedily hatched. They know no other home, and, led by -instinct, set to work as industriously as if they had never been -removed. - -[Illustration: SLAVE-CAPTURING ANTS.] - -[Illustration: AFRICAN SLAVE-GANG.] - -Those who have watched their habits are unanimous in declaring that they -seem perfectly happy and contented. No compulsion is used towards them, -and they work because told to do so by their own instinct. Work they -must, and it does not in the least matter to them for whom the work is -done. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER branch of this subject is shown in the accompanying -illustration, namely, the pleasure garden or playground. - -This is, as we all know, a token of high civilisation, and even in the -ancient times the hanging gardens of Babylon were reckoned as the -greatest wonders of that great city, the then mistress of the world. - -No savage ever dreamed of such a thing as a pleasure garden, nor could -appreciate it if he saw it. Yet there are birds which far surpass the -savage in this respect, and which build recreation grounds for the sole -purpose of amusement. - -These are the well-known Bower-birds of Australia, which I sincerely -hope may not be extirpated by the white man, as has been the case with -so many creatures, including the aborigines of Tasmania themselves. - -The Bower-birds, which are distantly related to our thrush and -blackbird, but are about as large as jackdaws, have a curious habit of -building arched bowers quite independent of their nests. - -The shape of one of these bowers is shown in the accompanying -illustration. - -The bird first weaves a sort of platform of flexible sticks, and then -fastens into them a number of other sticks, so set that they form a sort -of arched gallery. Through this gallery the birds love to run, and they -invariably decorate the ends with anything pretty that they can pick up, -such as feathers, coloured stones, shells, ornaments, and the like. So -well is this proclivity known, that whenever any one who is living in -the Bush loses any small piece of property, such as a pencil-case or -watch-key, or even a tobacco-pipe, he always goes to the Bower-bird’s -pleasure garden, and mostly discovers the lost property. - -[Illustration: PLAYGROUND OF BOWER-BIRD.] - -[Illustration: GARDEN BOWER.] - -At the Zoological Gardens these Bower-birds have long lived, and it is a -most interesting sight to watch them weaving their platforms, raising -the bowers over them, and then keep running in at one end and out at the -other, like children at play, and with their burnished plumage gleaming -in the sunbeams. - -The right-hand figure simply depicts a modern pleasure garden, and needs -no description. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -ARTIFICIAL WARMTH.--RING AND STAPLE.--THE FAN. - - Various Modes of warming Houses.--The Fire of the American Indian - and the Kafir.--The Oil-lamp of the Esquimaux.--The open Fireplace - and Chimney Stoves.--The laminated Stove and its Powers.--Gills of - the Lobster, Crab, and various Fishes.--Mode in which the Gills - act.--Why Fishes lie with their Heads against the Stream.--Drowning - a Fish.--The Ring and Staple, and their various Uses.--Head-bones - of the Fishing-frog or Angler-fish.--The Fan and its - Modifications.--Japanese and Chinese Fans.--The Feather Fan.--The - Palm-leaf.--Indian Fans.--The Hive Bee and its Wings.--Fans of the - Essequibo and South Sea Islanders.--The Fan Fire-guard.--Antennæ of - the Cockchafer.--Burial.--Various Modes of disposing of the - Dead.--Ordinary Habits of dying Animals.--Dead Insects.--The - Funeral-ant and its wonderful Habits. - - -ARTIFICIAL WARMTH. - -Passing from the direct to the indirect comforts of a household, we will -take Artificial Warmth. - -The savage, as a matter of necessity, makes a fire in the middle of his -hut, and lets the smoke have its own way. Sometimes, as is the case with -the North American Indians, the top of the conical hut is open, and the -whole edifice is a single chimney of large dimensions, something like -the “chimney-corner” of past days, which only survives in such places as -the New Forest. - -Then there are the various Kafir tribes of Southern Africa. They have no -aperture in their huts except the tiny doorway, which can only be -entered on hands and knees. But they must have their fire. No argument -can persuade them that they had better make their fire and cook their -food outside the hut. So the wood-smoke fills the hut, coats it with a -lining of soot, and gets out as it can through the sticks and withes of -which the simple edifice is built. - -As a contrast, we have the oil-lamp of Esquimaux-land, where there is no -provision for ventilation, where the snow-houses are tightly closed and -crammed with inhabitants, and where no one seems to need fresh air. - -The next step in civilisation is to construct a tube for the purpose of -carrying off the smoke, such as we know by the name of chimney or flue, -and to place the fire within it. We English people have an ingrained -love for the open fireplace, and though it really is an expensive -arrangement, it is worth the cost. Granting that it carries much of the -heat into the chimney instead of throwing it into the room, it has at -least the advantage of acting as a ventilator, of ejecting air which has -been rendered poisonous by respiration, and drawing a fresh supply from -the outer atmosphere. - -In some parts of the world, especially in Germany and the United States, -the place of the open fire is taken by closed stoves, without any -ventilation whatever, much to the discomfiture of ordinary Englishmen. -Still, there are buildings, such as public halls and places of worship, -in which open fireplaces are wholly impracticable, and where it is, -therefore, necessary to make use of the stove. - -It need hardly be said that in such cases the chief object is to procure -the greatest amount of heat with the least expenditure of fuel, and that -object seems to be best attained by the Laminated Stove shown on the -right hand of the illustration. - -[Illustration: GILLS OF SHARK.] - -[Illustration: GILLS OF TROUT.] - -[Illustration: STOVE.] - -In this stove, the outer surface, instead of being plain, is divided -into a number of perpendicular plates, which are heated by the -contained fire, and expose a very large surface of hot metal to the air. -Thus the heat, instead of being wasted by being drawn through the flue -or chimney, is thrown into the room, and keeps up a perpetual supply of -warm air. - - * * * * * - -THAT the invention of this stove is an ingenious one nobody can deny. -But Nature has been long in advance of Art in the way of exposing as -large a surface as possible with the least expenditure of space. - -Very familiar examples of this structure may be found in the many -creatures which inhabit the waters and breathe by means of gills, which -extract the oxygen of the water. - -Take, for example, a Lobster or a Crab, open it, and look at the white, -pointed, uneatable objects which are popularly called “ladies’ fingers.” -These are the gills, or breathing apparatus, and their structure is -really wonderful. They are composed of innumerable laminæ, or very thin -plates, covered with an exceedingly fine membrane, and placed closely -side by side, but with sufficient distance between them to allow the -water to percolate the whole structure. - -With the aid of an ordinary pocket lens the observer may make out a most -wonderful system of blood-vessels, which permeate every one of the -myriad laminæ, and which extract the life-giving oxygen from the water -as it passes between them. - -Then, to pass to animals of a higher order, take the gills of fishes. -Any fish will do, provided that it be fresh, and, if it can be examined -immediately after death, so much the better. Taking things reciprocally, -the gills of the fish and the laminæ of the stove, are identical in -principle, namely, the exposure of much surface with little loss of -space. - -If possible, the observer should inject the blood-vessels of the gills -with the conventional crimson and blue wax, showing the currents of the -arterial and venous blood. Each lamina forms a most wondrous object, and -may be gazed upon for weeks with increasing admiration. - -Every one who has watched the habits of fishes must have noticed that in -running waters they always have their heads against the stream, and do -not greatly care about shifting their positions. - -In still waters, especially such as those of the ordinary glass -aquaria, the fish are perpetually on the move, whereas in such a river -as the Dove of Derbyshire, and even the Darenth of Kent, large trout may -be seen almost motionless, but invariably with their heads directed up -the stream. - -The reason is evident enough. As long as the fish lies with its head up -the stream the water flows through its gills, and enables it to breathe. -Were the passage of the water stopped, the fish would be drowned. -Consequently, all good anglers, when they hook a fish which is worth -taking, keep its head down the stream, prevent the water from washing -over its gills, and consequently render it so weak by deprivation of -oxygen, that it becomes an easy prey, and is rendered subservient to a -line of a single hair. Let the fish breathe, and a single struggle would -smash a line of treble the strength. But keep it from breathing by -directing its head down the stream, and it rapidly loses all strength, -and can be directed into the landing-net, or brought within the scope of -the gaff, without a chance of escape. - - * * * * * - -I NEED hardly remark that on the right-hand side of the illustration is -shown a Laminated Stove, and that on the left are drawings of the gills -of the Shark tribe and the common Trout. If the reader would really like -to look into the subject for himself, I should suggest the purchase of a -cod’s head and shoulders and a lobster. The breathing apparatus can be -removed from each for examination, and the remainder will serve as a -first course for dinner. - - -RING AND STAPLE. - -Humble, and apparently insignificant, as the principle of the Ring and -Staple may be, we owe no small amount of our domestic comfort to it. It -meets us in all kinds of ways, in the hinges of our boxes, in the -padlocks of our doors, in the innside fastenings for our horses, in the -seaside fastenings for ships’ cables, and in a thousand other ways too -many to enumerate. - - * * * * * - -ON the right-hand side of the next illustration is shown the Ring and -Staple as used for the purpose of mooring ships and boats, it being -absolutely necessary that the machinery, simple as it is, must be -capable of working in any direction, and with some latitude as to the -extent. - -[Illustration: HEAD-BONES OF ANGLER-FISH.] - -[Illustration: STAPLE AND RING.] - -On the left hand are shown two of the wonderful bones which are found in -the head of the Fishing-frog or Angler-fish (_Lophius_), and which serve -as decoys, by means of which the smaller fish are entrapped into the -vast jaws of the Angler-fish. - -It is clearly necessary that these singular appendages should be capable -of movement in every direction, and this object is attained by the -structure which is here shown, and which is almost equal to the -ball-and-socket joint for its freedom of movement. It will even allow of -partial rotation, so as to cause the little strip of skin at its end to -assume the aspect of a living worm, and entice the smaller fish into the -jaws of the dread trap that lies open before them. - -A figure of this fish may be seen on page 92. - - -THE FAN. - -Except in permanently cold countries, a Fan of some kind seems to be an -absolute necessity. Sometimes, as in the greater part of Europe, it is -used only by the softer sex. The harder sex would often be only too glad -to use it if they dared, and the same observation is equally true with -regard to the parasol. - -But, in such lands as Japan and China, the Fan is an absolute necessity -of existence. Men, women, and children alike carry their Fan, and almost -perpetually use it. I remember, when the troupe of Japanese acrobats -were in England, that one of them exhibited the national use of the Fan -in an excessively ludicrous manner. - -One of his comrades ascended to the roof of a lofty building, hung by -his legs to one of the rafters, and held in his hands a bamboo pole -which was twenty feet long. Another Japanese also ascended, climbed over -his comrade, and settled on the bamboo pole, to which he clung only by -the clasp of his bare feet. Suddenly he slipped down the pole, stopped -himself when within a few inches of the end, squatted there with perfect -unconcern, though at least forty feet from the ground, took his fan from -the back of his neck, and fanned himself while gravely surveying the -startled audience. - -[Illustration: PALM-LEAF.] - -[Illustration: JAPANESE HAND-SCREEN.] - -Perhaps some of my readers may remember Chang, the Chinese giant, who, -by the way, in private life was a polished gentleman. He was never -without his fan, always keeping it fluttering gently with an ease only -to be acquired by a lifelong practice, and I really think that if he had -been deprived of it he would have been seriously ill. How he slept -without it is a wonder, for in his own house the fan was incessantly in -motion, and was worked with apparent unconsciousness on his part. - -I have often wished that in our country the ladies would manage their -fans in the same quiet way when they are in a church or a concert-room, -for the perpetual rattle of the joints is enough to distract any -preacher or conductor, and very often does so. - -As to the shape of the Fan, it varies greatly according to the country, -but it may almost invariably be traced to some familiar object. - -There is, for example, the common Japanese Fan or Screen, which is -avowedly made on the model of the Palm-leaf, the ribs of the leaf being -represented by split portions of a bamboo stem. The right-hand figure in -the preceding illustration is taken from one of the common sixpenny -Japanese fans that may be seen in many shop-windows. - -There are exactly sixty ribs in the fan, all produced by splitting the -bamboo into strips, kept in their place by a slight rod of the same -material, and covered with two pieces of thin printed paper. Seeing that -the original cost cannot be more than a penny, it is wonderful how such -articles can be produced, and give a living to the makers. - -The reader will observe that the shape of the Japanese Fan is almost -exactly that of the Palm-leaf, with the exception of the jagged edges, -and a better pattern could not be found. Then there are many Indian Fans -framed on the same model, but which revolve on their handles, and are -swung slowly round and round by the servants before the guests, and thus -become miniature punkahs. - -Here, again, we may find a parallel in Nature. The common hive bee -ventilates its dwelling by using its wings in lieu of fans. When the -hive is really in want of fresh air, the bees set to work, and wave -their wings backwards and forwards for a considerable time, so that they -necessarily expel the foul air from the interior of the hive, and create -a partial vacuum, which can only be filled by fresh air from without. - -Fans of very similar shape are in use among the South Sea Islanders and -the inhabitants of the Essequibo district. They are often used as -bellows when a fire has to be raised, but their primary object is to be -employed as fans. - - * * * * * - -NEXT we come to those fans which are made of flattened sticks, which -move on a pivot. This is, indeed, the ordinary form of the fan at the -present day, the sticks being sometimes wide enough to constitute the -entire fan, but mostly being connected with a sort of lining made with -silk, paper, or feathers. Such fans as these can be moved on their -pivots, so as to occupy a comparatively small space; and the same can -be said of the modern fender-guards, which can be folded up when the -room is unoccupied, and which form an effectual protection against the -danger of ladies’ dresses coming in contact with the fire. - -Examples of such a screen, and two fans, are given on the right hand of -the accompanying illustration. - -[Illustration: ANTENNA OF COCKCHAFER.] - -[Illustration: - -IVORY FAN. FEATHER FAN. - -FIRE-GUARD.] - -On the left hand is shown one of the natural objects from which the -fans, &c., might well have derived their origin. It is one of the -antennæ--or horns, as they are popularly called--of the common -Cockchafer. The end of this antenna is composed of a number of flat -plates, which work on a pivot exactly like the sticks of a fan, and, -like those sticks, can be folded into a wonderfully small compass, or -opened out into a fan-like shape. - - -BURIAL. - -Last scene of all. - -I do not think that it matters very much to one who has “shuffled off -this mortal coil” what becomes of the coil in which he had been -imprisoned. Whether the abandoned body be buried in the earth, or sunk -in the sea, or devoured by wild beasts, or consumed by fire, signifies -nothing to him, though it may signify much to his surviving friends. - -As a rule, the animals, of whatever kind they may be, contrive to -dispose of their mortal remains in some mysterious manner, so that not -a vestige of them is to be found. Take, for example, the domestic cat, -and see how few bodies are found of cats which have died natural deaths. - -For instance, there was my own cat “Pret,” who lost his life from the -bites of rats. He was blind, and so lamed that he could scarcely crawl. -Yet, on the day of his death, he three times escaped from his -comfortable bed in front of the fire, dragged himself through a hedge, -down a steep bank, across a road, up another bank, through a crevice in -a park fence, and curled himself up to die under a blackberry-bush. - -[Illustration: BURYING-ANTS.] - -[Illustration: SAVAGE FUNERAL.] - -Perhaps it was mistaken kindness on my part, and I should have acted -better if I had left him to die in peace. But, though I carried him back -three times, and though he was quite unable to see, he contrived to slip -out of the house, and to find the same spot for his last resting-place -on this earth. - -I have heard that some cats have been known to bury their young, and Dr. -J. Brown tells a most touching story of a dog that committed her dead -puppy to the river. - -But as to Insects, until a few years ago, no one ever dreamed that the -principle of burial could be found among them. What millions of insects -die in every year, and how seldom is a dead insect found! Flies, gnats, -and the smaller insects might escape observation, but the large moths, -butterflies, beetles, dragon-flies, &c., are scarcely ever found dead. - -In my own neighbourhood, for example, the Stag-beetle, nearly the -largest and most conspicuous of British insects, swarms to an almost -unpleasant degree, especially in the summer evenings. - -Yet I have never found a dead Stag-beetle that had not been killed by -violence. What becomes of the bodies of the countless millions of -creatures that annually pass into their other world is a problem which -at present no one seems to be able to solve. - - * * * * * - -STILL, there are instances where even insects are known to bury their -dead, and I scarcely need say that they are to be found among the Ants. - -The story is a very curious one, and is narrated at length in the -_Journal of the Linnæan Society_, vol. v. p. 217. - -It happened that a lady found that her little boy was being stung by -ants, and she at once killed them and threw their dead bodies away. -After some time a number of ants came out of their nest, formed a -procession as regularly organized as that of any undertaker’s funeral, -dug graves for each dead ant, laid the body in it, and covered it up -again with earth. - -They carried their organization to such an extent that they even had -relays of bearers. But the strangest part of the story is that several -worker ants would not assist in the funereal ceremonies. The soldiers at -once set on them, killed them, and tumbled them all promiscuously into a -common grave. - -Such scenes were repeatedly witnessed by the lady, a Mrs. Hutton, who -wrote the account while she was living in New South Wales. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -WATER, AND MEANS OF PROCURING IT. - - The Necessity of Water to Man.--Composition of the Human - Body.--Natural and Artificial Distillation.--The Traveller’s - Tree.--Pitcher-plants and Monkey-pots.--Stomach of the Camel, and - its Analogy to the Honey-comb.--Dewdrops.--Use of the Still at - Sea.--Perspiration and its cooling Properties.--The Turkish - Bath.--Perfume and Ether Spray.--Condenser of the Low-pressure - Steam-engine.--The Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer.--Ice produced in a - red-hot Vessel.--Power of Water.--How Fountains are made.--Modern - System of Hydrants.--Hydraulic Mining.--The Victoria and Niagara - Falls.--Artesian Wells.--The Norton Tube, &c., in Abyssinia.--The - Water-ram and Spout-hole. - - -IT has often been remarked that man can live a comparatively long time -without solid food, providing that he can only obtain water, of which -the chief bulk of the human body is made. Dying by thirst is a horribly -painful death, but, according to Mr. Mills, the ill-fated Australian -traveller, “starvation on nardoo (an innutritious plant) is by no means -unpleasant, but from the weakness one feels, and the utter inability to -move one’s self.” - -Those who have been shipwrecked, and unable to obtain fresh water, have -always found that the tortures of thirst were infinitely harder to -endure than those of hunger; and the reader will probably remember that -those who perished in the Black Hole of Calcutta owed their deaths -chiefly to thirst, their bodies being exhausted of moisture by the heat -of the room, and no fresh supply attainable. - -Civilisation especially shows itself in the way in which water is -brought within the reach of every one, even in the most crowded of -cities. The reader may probably call to mind the wonderful aqueducts of -ancient Rome, the gigantic remains of which still exist. Then, as to -our own country, we are all practically acquainted with some water -company, by which the water, more or less purified, is brought into our -houses, and can be obtained by the mere turning of a tap. - -Yet all this ingenuity is but a following of natural prototypes, as will -presently be seen; and even the familiar Water-tank, as shown at the -right hand of the illustration, has been anticipated by Nature. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration there are three examples of natural -water-tanks, two belonging to the vegetable, and one to the animal -kingdom. - -[Illustration: - -TRAVELLER’S TREE. - -STOMACH OF CAMEL. - -PITCHER-PLANT. - -CISTERN.] - -That on the extreme left, with a number of radiations, represents a -portion of a Madagascar palm, popularly called the Traveller’s Tree. -Having very large leaves, arranged in the manner there shown, the -Traveller’s Tree condenses the nightly dews, and allows them to trickle -down into the hollows of the leaf-stems. - -There the water remains, out of the reach of sunbeams or wind, and if a -traveller happens to be thirsty, all he has to do is to pierce the base -of one of these gigantic leaves, and out rushes a stream of the purest -water, as is shown in the illustration. - - * * * * * - -NEXT to the Traveller’s Tree is shown one of those extraordinary -vegetables called Pitcher-plants, from the strange conformation of the -leaves. They inhabit Borneo, Siam, and other hot countries. In these -remarkable plants some of the leaves are developed into suitable -pitchers, with hinged lids, exactly like our hot-water jugs. They serve, -however, a different office, and contain cold water which the plant has -distilled from the dew. - -As the monkeys are in the habit of resorting to these plants when -thirsty, they are sometimes called Monkey-pots. There is an admirable -account of the Pitcher-plants and their development in the _Transactions -of the Linnæan Society_, vol. xxii. part iv. The scientific name of -those plants is Nepenthes. - - * * * * * - -BELOW the vegetable comes a rather celebrated animal cistern, namely, a -portion of one of the stomachs of a Camel. - -It exactly corresponds with that part of an ox which butchers call -“honey-comb tripe,” and consists of a multitude of cells, which can be -closed or opened at will. When the camel takes in its provision of -water, it can treat this portion of the stomach much as the hive bee -treats the honey-bag, and fill its cells with water. - -By degrees, when it finds the necessity for moisture, it can squeeze the -water out of these receptacles into the digestive portion of the -interior, and so can sustain life for a wonderfully long time under -conditions which would kill any other animal. I may remark, by the way, -that the amount which a camel can drink, and the length of time through -which it can endure its desert life, have been much exaggerated. There -is another point to be considered, namely, the curious resemblance -between these cells and the honey-comb of the hive bee. Every one knows -that honey, no matter how tightly closed, will crystallize and lose its -best qualities if kept in jars, whereas if it be allowed to remain in -the waxen comb, where it is divided into very small portions, it will -remain good for years. - -It is just the same with the cells of the camel’s stomach, they being -able to preserve water in a pure state by distributing it among a number -of small cells, which can be opened or closed at will. - -Then we come to the various means of obtaining water. - -Reference has already been made to the Filter, by which foul water can -be made pure for human consumption, and we will therefore pass to -another mode of obtaining pure water, namely, the Still. - -In former days, if there were a failure of the supply of fresh water on -board ship, the whole of the occupants must necessarily perish. Now, -however, no such danger exists, as every well-furnished ship carries at -least one Still, by means of which the sea-water can be made to abandon -its salt, and to give out nothing but pure water fit for drinking. - -Even in cases where no regular Still has been on board, an extemporised -Still has been made from a kettle, a gun barrel, or piece of lead -piping, or anything of a similar nature. - -[Illustration: DEWDROPS.] - -[Illustration: STILL.] - -The principle of the Still is simple enough, and is shown by the -diagram, rather than drawing, on the right hand of the illustration. -There is a vessel in which liquid is boiled. From the upper part of it -rises a tube through which the steam must pass as it is generated. The -tube in question is generally of considerable length, and is coiled -inside a vessel filled with cold water, rendered colder by ice, if -possible. - -As the steam passes through the cold tube condensation takes place, and -it becomes liquid again, but deprived of its heavier particles, so that -if sea-water be placed in the still, the salt is left in the vessel, and -nothing but pure water passes through the tube. In dissecting-rooms a -small still is almost invariably kept. Many preparations are of such a -nature that the spirit in which they are placed becomes discoloured, and -has to be repeatedly changed. Now, even methylated spirit is an -expensive article, and therefore, instead of being thrown away, the -discoloured spirit is placed in the still, and reproduced in a clean and -transparent state. - -Nature affords innumerable examples of distillation, the chief of which -are the Dewdrops which have already been mentioned. During the daytime -the air is full of moisture drawn by the sunbeams from ocean. We cannot -see it, but it is there, and when the chill of night cools the various -trees, herbage, and other such objects, the aërial moisture is condensed -upon them, which is then known by the name of Dew. - -On the left hand of the illustration are shown the tiny Dewdrops as -hanging on the slight threads of a spider’s web, and collected in larger -drops upon a leaf. - - * * * * * - -THERE are many other familiar examples of the principle of condensation, -the commonest of which is the so-called steam as it pours from the spout -of a kettle. In point of fact, it is not steam at all, but only water -condensed into very small drops. At the orifice of the kettle it is -quite invisible, but when it passes into the air, and is condensed, the -tiny globules become visible. The same fact may be noticed in the -Napier’s Coffee Machine, which has already been mentioned. When the -water is boiling in the glass globe no steam is visible, though the -upper portion of the globe is entirely filled by it. But, no sooner is -the cork removed, and the steam allowed to escape, than it at once -becomes visible as a white cloud, being, indeed, a miniature copy of the -rain-clouds that float above us. - - * * * * * - -THEN there is that mostly invisible passage of liquid through the -multitudinous pores of the body, which is generally known as -perspiration. It is invisible in warm weather, but on a cold day is as -visible as a rain cloud. - -The Turkish Bath affords a good example of this fact. Sometimes the -hottest room attains a temperature of 250° or more, water boiling at -212°. When a bather goes into that room, he appears to have a perfectly -dry skin, the moisture being in the form of invisible steam, and swept -off as soon as it is generated. - -But, if he passes at once into the cold room, he is so enveloped in -vapour that for a few moments he is wrapped in it as in a cloud, and -can scarcely be seen, the vapour having been condensed by the cold air. - -[Illustration: - -HEATED HORSE. - -PERFUME SPRAY. - -FREEZING BY EVAPORATION. - -WET-BULB -THERMOMETER.] - -A very familiar instance of this sudden condensation may be seen in the -streets of London on any winter day. There may be a couple of omnibus -horses, nearly at the end of their day’s work, and quite tired out. -Suddenly they are pulled up by the driver, and as suddenly disappear for -a moment or two, being concealed in a cloud of moisture proceeding from -their bodies. Of course in a hot day there is more of the moisture, but -the warmth of the atmosphere prevents it from condensation, and so it is -not visible. - -One valuable property of the system of evaporation and condensation is -its cooling power. Thus it is that a person who is ill with fever tosses -about with a burning skin until the pores of the body act, and allow the -normal moisture to pass through them. Then the body cools by -evaporation, and the patient begins to amend. - -So it is that the bather can endure in the Turkish bath a heat so great -that a glass of water, if held in the hand, would speedily boil, and a -piece of meat be cooked in about the same period. But, if the air were -not dry enough to carry off the perspiration, the bather would be -scalded to death. - -A most valuable adaptation of the principle is shown in the little -glass machine for dispersing perfumes in the form of spray. In cases of -headache it is almost invaluable, the spray cooling the heated forehead, -like magic, and at the same time filling the room with the grateful -perfume. - -It has even a greater claim to human gratitude, as I can personally -testify. I have the strongest objection to a surgeon’s knife, especially -when I know, from sad experience, that he is going to make very free use -of it. But, on the last occasion, I cared nothing for it, owing to the -happy invention called Ether Spray. - -The effects were remarkable. First, a delicious cooling of a spot raging -with internal fires. Then it was rather colder than I liked. Then it was -much colder than I liked. Then it became almost too cold to bear, -reminding me of my childhood’s feet on the outside of the Birmingham -coach in the depth of winter. - -Suddenly all sensation ceased, and the skin became white as parchment. -Out came the surgeon’s bistoury, and I looked at him with as calm -composure as if he had been whittling a deal plank. There was absolutely -no feeling whatever, the local nerves having been temporarily frozen, so -great is the power of evaporation. If it ever be my lot again to endure -cold steel, I shall have the ether spray. - - * * * * * - -ON the extreme right of the illustration is seen the “Wet-bulb” -Thermometer, which carries out the same principle, the thermometer being -double, and one bulb being covered with a wet envelope, while the other -is dry. - -Below is one of the many inventions for making artificial ice, all of -them depending on the cooling power of evaporation. Perhaps some of my -readers may have seen molten iron poured over the human hand without -doing the least harm, or mercury frozen in a red, or rather a white, hot -vessel. Both these phenomena are due to the cooling power of -evaporation, which is made to act with extreme rapidity, and so absorbs -the heat until even mercury is rendered solid, and can be cast in a -mould like a leaden bullet. - - * * * * * - -IN the accompanying illustration we have an example of the Condensating -principle as applied to the steam-engine, and popularly known as the -“Low-pressure Engine.” In this case force is reconverted, so to speak, -and, if a cubic inch of water has been converted by heat into a cubic -foot of steam, creating a pressure in one direction, it can be -reconverted by cold, and so produce a pressure in another direction. - - * * * * * - -IT is owing to this fact that some parts of the world are always hot and -always wet, Guiana being a striking example. - -[Illustration: RAIN-CLOUD.] - -[Illustration: CONDENSER.] - -The wind blows over the ocean, absorbing moisture as a sponge does -water. As it passes from the sea over the land, it is met by secondary -mountain ranges, too low to arrest its progress altogether, and high -enough to have their summits clothed in eternal snows. As soon, -therefore, as the warm, water-laden winds pass over these mountains, the -moisture is condensed by their frozen tips, and down rushes the rain in -torrents. - -Even in our own temperate land we can often trace the cause of a heavy -rain to the presence of a lofty hill, or even an exceptionally tall -spire. The moist climate of Oxford has been attributed by scientific men -quite as much to its spires and towers as to its low-lying situation. - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to the various modes of extracting the water which is laid -up within the earth, and which only slowly ascends to the surface when -drawn up by the heat of the sun. - -Water is everywhere, but the depths at which it is found are vastly -different. For example, at one house in which I lived it was not -possible to dig for three feet without coming to water. In another, no -water was found within some two hundred feet, and, as I several times -relieved the old gardener of the task of drawing the water for the day’s -consumption, I have reason to remember the depth. - -[Illustration: SPRING.] - -[Illustration: FOUNTAIN.] - -The pail, rope, and winch which were in use at that time--and may be -still, to the sorrow of the gardener--are but a sort of semi-savage way -of procuring water from the depths of the earth. It is a well-known fact -that under certain conditions water always finds its own level, _minus_ -the friction of the channel through which it passes. On this principle -all fountains are made. Those, for example, at the Crystal Palace, which -fling their waters to such a height, are fed from tanks on the summit of -the two great water towers. And, were it not for the friction of the -water in the tubes, and that of the air, the fountains would rise as -high as the tanks from which they are fed. - -Such is the case with springs, especially with those of an intermittent -character, in which latter instance the rushing of the water is exactly -coincident with the filling of the hidden tank which supplies it. - -The modern Hydrant system, which bids fair to supersede the cumbrous -machinery of fire-engines, even when worked by steam, is based on the -same principle. The water-tanks are placed at such a height that, when a -hose is attached, and the tap turned, the water can be thrown over the -roof of the highest building. Such hydrants have been attached to -Canterbury Cathedral since the fire which so nearly consumed that -magnificent and venerable building. - - * * * * * - -A VERY remarkable use has been made of this power of water in mining -operations. Most of my readers know that in gold mines the metal is -chiefly found scattered among quartz, one of the hardest of the -minerals. The usual plan has been to dig out the quartz, pound it to -powder with specially devised machines called “stamps,” to pass the -powder through mercury, which amalgamated with the gold, and gave it up -again on being heated to a certain temperature. - -Now a different mode of mining is brought into operation, the pickaxe, -spade, and stamps, with all their expensive machinery, being abandoned, -and water made to do the duty of all three, some ingenious individual -having noticed the effect which water has on the hardest rock. - -Such, for example, is the case with those wonderful Victoria Falls of -Africa, where the rushing water has cut its sinuous channel through so -many hundreds of yards of rock. Such, also, is the case with the more -celebrated, but not so wonderful, Falls of Niagara, which have been -gradually working their way backwards, having worn away the rocks over -which they fall, and which are shown to be many miles away from the spot -where the river first discharged itself over the cliff. - -[Illustration: HYDRAULIC MINING.] - -[Illustration: WATER-FALL.] - -In fact, it is well known that the Falls are receding at a definite rate -annually, and that the rate has been calculated with scientific -accuracy. The cliffs of our own coasts-say of Margate or -Ramsgate--crumble away with equally calculable speed. - -In the hydraulic mining system large tanks are erected, at least two -hundred feet above the level of the mine. From these tanks proceed -pipes, terminated by hose, just like those of our ordinary fire-engines. -The miners, instead of using pickaxe or crowbar, simply direct the -streams of water against the solid rock. Their effect is tremendous. -They tear it to powder, and carry it down the wooden troughs called -“flumes,” in which the mercury is so arranged that not a single atom of -quartz rock can pass without having its gold extracted. - -The following graphic account of Hydraulic Mining at Nevada is taken -from Mr. J. K. Lord’s “Naturalist in British Columbia:”-- - -“Near Nevada are the famed Hydraulic washings. The gold is disseminated -through terraces of shingle conglomerates, often three hundred feet in -thickness. These terraces are actually washed entirely off the face of -the country by propelling jets of water against them, forced by pressure -through a nozzle. - -“To accomplish this, the water is brought in canals, tunnels, and wooden -aqueducts, often forty miles away from the ‘draft.’ This supply of water -the miners rent. - -“As we near the washing spot, in every direction immense hose, made of -galvanized iron, and canvas tubes six feet round, coil in all directions -over the ground like gigantic serpents, converging towards a gap, where -they disappear. - -“On reaching this gap, I look down into a basin or dry lake, three -hundred feet below me. The hose hangs down this cliff of shingle, and -following its course by a zigzag path, I reach a plateau of rock, from -which the shingle has already been washed. - -“A man stands at the end of each hose, that has for its head a brass -nozzle. With the force of cannon-shot, water issues in a large jet from -this tube, and propelled against the shingle, guided by the men, washes -it away as easily as we could sweep a molehill from off the grass. - -“The stream of water, bearing with it the materials washed from out the -cliff, runs through wooden troughs called ‘flumes,’ floored with -granite. These ‘flumes’ extend six miles. Men are stationed at regular -distances to fork out the heavy stones. - -“Throughout its entire length, transverse strips of wood dam back a tiny -pond of mercury. These are called _ruffles_--gold-traps, in other words, -that seize on the fine dust-gold distributed through the shingle. The -flumes are cleaned about once a month, and the gold extracted from the -mercury. - -“I try with a powerful lens to detect gold amidst the material they are -washing, but not a trace is discoverable, and yet it pays an immense -profit to the gold-washers.” - - * * * * * - -THERE are two more modes of extracting water, which will be but -cursorily mentioned. - -The reader will remember that water finds its own level, and that the -terrific power of hydraulic mining is owing to the fact that the water -expends its force against the solid rock instead of ascending into the -air. - -[Illustration: ARTESIAN WELL.] - -[Illustration: NORTON’S TUBE.] - -It is now found that, even without artificial assistance, water has a -habit of finding its own level, and that, if it be allowed its own -course, it will contrive to find its way nearly to the highest point -whence it derived its origin. On this principle are based the Artesian -Wells, which, when they “strike water,” spurt it up in a torrent, as is -the case with the now celebrated Norton Tubes, which are screwed down -into the earth like hollow gimlets, and which always contrive to extract -the water hidden beneath the surface of the earth. - -The success of our army in Abyssinia was greatly owing to these Norton -Tubes, which, being of small diameter and of peculiar make, could be -screwed into the ground when the troops made a halt, unscrewed when they -left the spot, and used again for the next halt. - -Similarly, the French used the Artesian-well system with wonderful -success in Northern Africa. Water is the chief necessity of life in that -part of the world, and a nation who could cause pure cold water to -spring out of the hot and thirsty sands was naturally looked upon as -something more than human. - -Yet the principle was exactly the same in both cases. Water is always -latent somewhere beneath the surface of the earth, and, if a tube can be -driven deep enough, the water will come up it. - -The accompanying illustration shows the Artesian Well and Norton’s Tube, -and their similitude in principle, the tube penetrating through various -layers of soil, until it reaches the water which it seeks. - - * * * * * - -THEN there is another way by which water can be made to force itself to -a considerable height. Not being much of a mathematician, I do not -recollect the exact proportional height to which a stream of water may -raise itself, but if any one can secure a fall of some eight or ten -feet, he can furnish his house with water by means of the “Ram,” a chart -of which is shown in the illustration. - -[Illustration: SPOUT-HOLE.] - -[Illustration: WATER-RAM.] - -The principle of the Ram is, that the water is allowed to flow down a -tube, when it meets with a valve. This valve is suddenly closed by the -pressure, and the water is forced onwards by the shock. Much water -escapes at each blow of the valve, but that does not signify. - -The force of water thus suddenly stopped is hardly appreciated. Even in -ordinary houses the sudden turning of a water-tap has been known to -burst the pipe and deluge the house with water. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature a similar effect is produced, called popularly the -“Spout-hole.” - -It is a hole or tunnel on the seashore, passing upwards from the level -of the sea to the summit of the cliff. - -When the waves are urged against the tunnel by the wind, the water is -dashed into it. Being partially checked by the friction, which acts -exactly like the water that is checked by the Ram, the wave hurls itself -up the channel, and flies out in showers of spray, high above the level -of the original wave which caused it. - -In the illustration are shown the Water-ram with its globular valve, and -the safety or escape valve of the waste water. On the left is shown one -of the natural Spout-holes, with the water dashing through its tunnel -into a mass of spray. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -AËROSTATICS.--WEIGHT OF AIR.--EXPANSION BY HEAT. - - Ascent and Descent.--The Balloon and the Parachute.--Description of - the Balloon.--The Montgolfier Balloon.--Causes of its - Abandonment.--The Gas Balloon.--Hydrogen Gas and its - Manufacture.--The Gossamer Spider.--Reasons of its Ascent and - Descent.--Many Species of Gossamers.--Description of the - Parachute.--Its Mode of Action.--A Balloon converted into a - Parachute.--Toy Parachutes.--Natural Parachutes.--The Dandelion - Seed and its Structure.--The Flying Squirrel.--The Flying - Monkey.--Flying Mice and Flying Opossums.--The Flying Dragon and - its Pseudo-wings.--The Flying Frog.--Weight of Air.--Pressure per - Square Inch.--The Air Ocean and its Storms.--Principle of - Air-currents.--The Sun, the Earth, and the Air.--Ventilation of - Mines.--Choke-damp and Fire-damp.--The Air-shafts.--Chimneys of - Factories.--The Steam-blast.--The Barometer, and Mode of its - Construction.--Water and Mercury.--Sucking Eggs and - Sugar-cane.--Expansion of Water and Metals by Heat.--The - Thermometer.--Wheel-making. - - -AËROSTATICS. - -We will begin this chapter with the only two modes at present known by -which man can ascend from the earth or descend to it with safety, -namely, the Balloon and the Parachute, the latter being generally -attached to the former, and detachable at pleasure. - -The Balloon is, in fact, as its name imports, a large, hollow, air-tight -ball, filled with some substance lighter than ordinary air. The original -Balloons by Montgolfier were filled with heated air exactly like our toy -fire-balloons. Just as the supply of hot air is kept up in them by a -sponge dipped in lighted spirits of wine, so in Montgolfier’s balloons -the same object was attained by straw which was kept continually burning -in a grate. - -There were, however, two disadvantages about this plan. The first was -the great danger of fire, which on one occasion did ignite a balloon -when at a great height. The second was the perpetual labour required in -keeping the fire alight. Straw burns very rapidly, and so the aëronaut -had no opportunity of making those meteorologic observations in which -consist almost the entire value of the balloon. - -[Illustration: GOSSAMER SPIDER. BALLOON.] - -Then it was thought that hydrogen gas, being about fourteen times -lighter than ordinary air, would answer the purpose, and such has proved -to be the case. Formerly the gas was made at great expense from -sulphuric acid and zinc, but it is now found that the common coal-gas is -quite as efficient, very much cheaper, and fills the balloon much more -rapidly. - - * * * * * - -THE same principle, though not the same form, is found in Nature. - -There are certain tiny spiders called Gossamers, which have a curious -power of floating in the air. They have been seen on the tops of lofty -spires, and they are sometimes so numerous that the air is full of their -floating webs, and the ground is white with those that have descended. - -Their mode of ascent is this. They climb to the top of some elevated -object, if it be only a grass-blade. They then pour out a tuft of long, -slender threads, which shortly begin to tend upwards. As soon as the -Spider feels the pull, it crawls upon the web, and sails away into the -air. The duration and height of the ascent depend much on the wind and -character of the atmosphere. - -The web ascends because it is for the time lighter than the atmosphere. -But, as it gradually becomes laden with the moisture that more or less -fills the air, it becomes heavier than the atmosphere, and gently sinks -to the ground. - -What may be the object of these aërial voyages no one knows. They may be -for the purpose of capturing minute insects, or they may be for mere -amusement. But in either case they are highly instructive, as showing -the principle on which the balloon was framed. - -The little Gossamer Spider is shown on the left hand of the -illustration, clinging to its floating web. I believe that the Gossamer -is not a single species of Spider, but that there are many species which -deserve the name, being able to float in the air when they are small, -but losing that capacity as they increase in size and weight. - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to another branch of the same subject, namely, the safe -descent from a great height by means of the Parachute. - -On the right hand of the illustration is the ordinary Parachute as it -appears when open and closed, in either case having somewhat the -appearance of a large umbrella. It is hung to the balloon in its closed -state, and when detached it falls rapidly for a yard or two with -startling rapidity. The pressure of the air thus forces the ribs open, -and gives sufficient assistance to the atmosphere to insure a gentle -fall. - -On one memorable occasion, when the late Albert Smith was in the car of -a balloon upwards of a mile from the ground, the balloon burst. -Fortunately it burst so completely, that the silk was driven into the -closely meshed netting, and formed an extemporised parachute, which took -the voyagers to the earth with safety, except some rather severe -bruises. - -Children often amuse themselves with miniature parachutes. They take a -square piece of thin paper, tie threads to the four corners, and then -bring the ends together, a cork taking the place of the car. They then -launch it from a high window, and should there be a favourable breeze, -it is wonderful how far it will be carried before it comes to the -ground. - -Once, when a boy of eleven, and consequently thoughtless, I set a -chimney on fire by one of these Parachutes. I wished to see whether it -would go up the chimney, and come out at the top. Unfortunately it was -caught by a flame as it was launched, flew up in full blaze, and, as the -chimney needed sweeping, the result was inevitable. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: - -FLYING SQUIRREL. DANDELION SEED PARACHUTE -FLYING DRAGON. (OPEN AND CLOSED). (OPEN AND CLOSED). -FLYING FROG.] - -In the centre of the illustrations, and at the top, are two examples of -a well-known natural Parachute called the Dandelion seed. The -resemblance to the real Parachute is wonderful, the actual seed -occupying the place of the car, and fulfilling the same office, _i.e._ -keeping the seed upright until it reaches the ground. - -When the tuft is closed, as is the case before the pretty ball of seeds -bursts from the green envelope in which they had been confined during -the process of development, its form bears the same startling -resemblance to the Parachute. - - * * * * * - -PASSING from the vegetable world, there will be seen three examples of -Natural Parachutes. Several others will be mentioned, but we have no -space for description or figure. It will be seen, however, that the one -principle which characterizes them all is the exposure to the air of a -flattened and large surface, in proportion to the size of the object. - -Before beginning the description, however, I must mention that nearly -all animal parachutes can to a certain extent guide their course, while -neither the balloon, the gossamer, the parachute, nor the various winged -seeds have the least power of guidance, but must follow every current of -air in which they may happen to float. - - * * * * * - -THE upper figure represents a Flying Squirrel. - -There are many species of Flying Squirrel, but they all agree in one -point. The skin of their sides is modified into a very thin fold, which -extends as far as the feet. - -It is very elastic, so that when it is not in use it falls into folds or -wrinkles, and is hardly perceptible. But should the Squirrel wish to -pass from one tree to another, without coming to the ground, it spreads -its legs as widely as possible, so as to stretch the membrane into a -wide, flat surface. It then boldly springs into the air, and sweeps upon -its mark with a sort of skimming movement. Except that it does not -revolve, it passes through the air much after the fashion of an -oyster-shell when thrown horizontally. - -Many mammalia are constructed after a similar fashion, such as the -Colugo, or Flying Monkey, the Flying Mice, and the Flying Phalangists, -or “Opossums,” as they are popularly called. - - * * * * * - -IN the centre is the Flying Dragon, or small lizard, which very probably -gave rise to the fabled Dragons in which our ancestors so devoutly -believed. Indeed, on looking back at the old illustrated works on -Natural History, there can be but little doubt on the subject. - -In this creature, the ribs, instead of the legs, carry the flat and -elastic membranes. When simply crawling on the branches, after the -manner of tree-lizards, the ribs lie flat against the sides, and the -membranes collapse, so that the shape of the body is little different -from that of any crawling lizard. - -But the ribs are movable at will, and, when the creature wishes to pass -from one tree to another, it extends the ribs, stretches the membranes, -and launches itself into the air, exactly as has been narrated of the -Flying Squirrel. - - * * * * * - -THE lowest figure represents a most extraordinary animal, called the -Flying Frog. Only one specimen is believed to be known, and that was -discovered in Borneo by Mr. Wallace. - -Here we have an analogy with the bats of the present day and the -pterodactyles of the past, namely, the elongation of the toes, and the -stretching of a web between them. In the two latter animals, however, -only the toes of the two fore-legs are elongated, whereas, with the -Flying Frog, the elongation is found in both pairs of limbs. The ends of -the toes are furnished with adhesive pads, like those of the tree-frogs, -to which it is probably related. - -By means of the four membranes, the creature is able to sweep through -the air for some distance, and, indeed, this power was the reason why it -was caught. It was seen to skim from one tree to another, and was -immediately secured. Had it remained sticking on the tree, it would -probably have escaped observation. - - -WEIGHT OF AIR. - -We have already noticed that hydrogen gas is fourteen times lighter than -air, and infer necessarily that the weight of the atmosphere must be -very considerable if so heavy an object as a balloon, with its car, -instruments, sand-bags, and passengers, can rise and float in it. - -We are not conscious of its weight, because it permeates us, and the -pressure is neutralised. But, in fact, we live at the bottom of a vast -ocean which we call the atmosphere; and as, on an average, there is a -pressure of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, we have to -sustain an almost incredible weight. Let, for example, any one measure -the surface of his own hand, reduce it to square inches, add together -fifteen pounds for every square inch, and he will then appreciate the -weight of the atmospheric ocean in which we live. On an average, every -human being endures a pressure of some ninety thousand pounds. - -This ocean is in perpetual movement, sometimes violently, which we call -storm; sometimes gently, which we call breeze; and sometimes very -gently, which we call calm. There are air-spouts as well as -water-spouts; and, in fact, the water-spout is nothing but a continuance -of the air-spout, as is shown by the moving sand-columns of the desert. -Whatever may be the character of the winds, as we call this movement, -the air is never for a moment still; and, indeed, were it to be still -for any time, the whole human race would perish. - -How winds are caused we shall see by the aid of the diagram on the -left-hand side of the illustration. - -[Illustration: AIR-CURRENTS. VENTILATION OF MINES.] - -The original cause is the sun. His rays fall upon the earth, heating it, -and so by radiation heating the air. Now, as has been remarked, heated -air will cause a heavy balloon to float through ordinary air, and to -carry up a considerable amount of dead weight besides; consequently the -heated air must ascend, while cool and heavier air rushes in to take its -place, and thus the currents are produced. Were the earth set straight -upright, the currents would invariably run in one direction; but, as it -is tilted on one side, the needful variety is obtained, and we find the -winds blowing from all parts of the compass. - -The principle, therefore, of all winds is, that heat expands, and -therefore becomes lighter than air at an ordinary temperature. - - * * * * * - -WERE it not that man has taken advantage of this principle, there could -not be a deep mine in England. In any deep excavation, even though it be -a well, foul air, mostly composed of carbonic acid gas, always collects, -and, being much heavier than atmospheric air, lies at the bottom of the -pit as surely as hydrogen would rise out of it. To breathe this air is -as certain and as sudden death as to take prussic acid, and no mine can -be worked as long as “choke-damp” is in it. - -In coal mines there is an additional source of danger, namely, the coal -gas, which is nearly identical with our coal gas of the streets, and -takes fire when brought into contact with flame. To rid the mines of -these gases, a simple, ingenious, and effectual remedy is used. A -ventilating shaft is made, which reaches from the bottom to the mouth of -the pit. At the bottom, diagonal shafts are made, entering the main -shaft, as shown on the right hand of the illustration. One of these is -connected with a furnace, and the other, or others, open into the mine. - -The heat of the furnace rarefies the air in the shaft, causing it to -rush upwards with great violence, and so, by creating a partial vacuum, -to force the air in the shaft to follow it. The loss of air thus caused -is supplied by fresh air from above, which, by the law already -described, is obliged to take the place of that which was driven out. -Thus a complete circulation of air is kept up, and a well-managed mine -has a fresher atmosphere than many houses in which the windows are -mostly kept shut, and the only ventilation is accomplished by -occasionally open doors. - -The “draught” of our domestic chimneys is owing to this principle, and -the reason why factory chimneys are built of such enormous height is, -that the column of heated air may be increased, and consequently that -the draught may be stronger, and the heat of the furnace made fiercer. - -The “Steam-blast,” by which the escape steam of engines is sent into the -chimney, is another example of this principle, the steam taking the -place of the hot air. - -Further examples of the weight of the atmosphere are given in the -illustration. That on the right represents the common Wheel Barometer, -which marks the weight of the air by a hand moving in front of a dial. -If the hand moves towards the right, the weight of the air is -increasing; if to the left, it is decreasing. - -There are certain words, such as Wet, Change, Fair, Dry, &c., on the -face of the dial, but they are only conventional, the real test of the -weather being the direction in which the hand moves. For example, if -with a west wind the hand moves from Dry towards Fair, rain may be -expected; whereas, if it should move from Wet to Change with an east -wind, we may reasonably think that fine weather is coming. - -The whole cause of this revolution of the hand may be found in the -weight of the atmosphere. - -It is found that a column of water thirty feet high, or a column of -mercury thirty inches high, is exactly equal in weight to a column of -air of the same diameter, but some forty odd miles high, so that the two -columns precisely balance each other. - -[Illustration: SUCKING SUGAR-CANE. SUCKING AN EGG. BAROMETERS.] - -Suppose, then, the water or mercury to be placed in tubes closed at the -top and open at the bottom, the water or mercury will exactly balance -the air, and will not escape from the tubes. It necessarily follows that -if the air be heavier than usual, it will force the liquid higher into -the tubes, and, if it be lighter than usual, will allow them to fall -lower. This is the principle of the Barometer. - -The mechanism of the hand and dial is shown in the diagram which -occupies the centre of the illustration. For convenience, sake the -mercury column is mostly employed, but several Water Barometers, some -thirty feet in length, have been constructed. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand is seen a boy engaged in sucking an egg. The plan -employed is simple enough. A tolerably large hole is made at one end, -and a very small one at the other. The yolk having been broken up by a -long needle, or similar implement, the larger hole is placed to the -lips, and, suction being used, the contents pass into the mouth. - -Were it not for the hole at the end opposite the mouth, it would be -impossible to extract the contents, but the air rushes through the -aperture, and so forces out the contents of the egg. - -Above is a representation of the way in which Sugar-cane is sucked. The -reader probably knows that the Sugar-cane, like the wheat-stem, has -knots at certain intervals, which divide the cane into a number of -separate parts. - -There is quite an art in sucking the Sugar-cane. If a joint be cut off, -and the lips applied to the end, not a drop of the sweet juice would be -extracted. But if a notch be cut close to the joint, as shown in the -illustration, the air can gain access, and then the juice flows easily -enough. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: BOILING WATER.] - -[Illustration: THERMOMETER.] - -It has already been mentioned that air expands when heated. The same -rule holds good when applied to other objects, such as the various -liquids, metals, &c. A very familiar example of this fact is the -“boiling over” of water, when the vessel has been filled too much to -allow for the expansion of the heated liquid. - -Advantage has been taken of this principle in the formation of the -Thermometer, a word which signifies “heat-measurer.” Liquid of some kind -is placed in an hermetically sealed tube, generally terminating with a -bulb, and in proportion to the heat the liquid expands, and is forced up -the tube. - -Any liquid will answer to a certain extent, but, as water freezes at -32°, it would be useless for measuring degrees of cold below the -freezing point. Coloured spirits of wine are used; but the very best -liquid is mercury, which is a metal in a state of fusion. - -This expansion by heat is so powerful in iron, that it is utilised in -several ways. - -Take, for example, wheel-making. The iron tire is made rather smaller -than the wheel, and is then placed in a fire until it is red-hot. It -then expands so much that it can be easily slipped over the wheel as it -lies on the ground. Cold water is then dashed on it, and the tire -contracts with tremendous force, binding the parts of the wheel firmly -together. - -In all buildings where iron is much used, such as iron bridges, iron -beams, &c., it is necessary to make allowance at both ends, so as to -permit the iron to expand on a hot day and contract on a cool one. -Buildings formed of stone and iron were once thought to be safe in case -of fire. They are now known to be just the contrary, the stone flying -with the heat, and the iron expanding. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - - The Cassava Press and its Structure.--Mode of using it.--The - Siamese Link.--An ingenious Robbery.--Muscles and their Mode of - Action.--Human Arms and Steelyard.--Change of Direction.--The Human - Hand and Wrist.--Story of a Carpenter.--The Pulley.--Reduction by - Friction.--Past and present Engines.--Oiling Machines.--Treatment - of the Sewing Machine.--Use of Paraffine.--Disuse of Machine - hurtful.--Human Joints.--Synovia and its Value.--Disuse of Joints - hurtful.--The Lazy-tongs and its Usefulness to - Invalids.--Suggestions for Improvement.--Larva of the Dragonfly and - its Mask.--Curious Mode of seizing Prey.--Proboscis of the - Housefly, and Mode of using it.--The Apple-parer.--Squirrel and - Nut.--Structure of Teeth.--Rock-splitting.--Powers of Ice.--How the - Pebble-ridge is formed.--Splitting Stones by Moisture.--The Diamond - Drill.--Ovipositor of the Gad-fly.--Curious Similitude of - Structure. - - -MEANS AND APPLIANCES. - -In this chapter we will take some miscellaneous appliances of force both -in Art and Nature. - -In the accompanying illustration is shown the Cassava Press of Southern -America, a most effective and simple instrument for extracting the -juices of the root. These juices are poisonous when raw, but, when -properly boiled and cooked, they make an excellent sauce. - -The press in question is an elastic tube made of flat strips of cane -woven together exactly like the “Siamese Link,” which will be presently -described. The cassava root, after having been scraped until it -resembles horseradish, is forced into the press until it can hold no -more. The result is, that the tube is shortened and thickened, being -widest in the middle. - -It is then hung by its upper loop to the horizontal beam of a hut. A -long pole is passed through the lower loop, the short end is placed -under a projecting peg on the upright post of the house, and a heavy -weight attached to the longer end. A powerful leverage is thus obtained, -the tube is forcibly shortened, and the juice exudes through the -apertures of the woven cane. - -[Illustration: CASSAVA PRESS.] - -When it begins to run slowly, a woman seats herself at the end of the -pole, so as to increase its weight. I must mention here that in the -illustration the press is too near the middle of the pole. This is -because the exigences of our page do not admit of the requisite length. -But if the reader will kindly assume the end to which the stone is -attached to be three or four times longer, he will have an idea of the -great power which is exerted upon the cassava. - -On the left hand of the illustration is the same cassava press as seen -when empty, and both figures, as well as that of the pot for receiving -the juice, are taken from specimens in my collection. - - * * * * * - -ON the right hand of the following illustration is the Siamese Link, -which caused such a sensation when it first came out. - -A finger is inserted at each end, and, when the owner attempts to -withdraw them, the Link contracts, and the harder the pull, the tighter -is the hold. If the fourth instead of the first finger be employed, the -hold of the Link is exceedingly strong. - -The only mode of release is by pushing the fingers together, when the -Link will relax. It should then be held by the remaining fingers of one -hand, so that it shall not contract again, and the finger of the other -hand comes out at once. - -An ingenious robbery was once committed by means of the Siamese Link. A -man of good address struck up an acquaintance with a jeweller. One day -he produced a Siamese Link, and challenged him to get his fingers out -when once they were in. So the jeweller was told to put his hands behind -his back, and push his little fingers as far in as he could. - -[Illustration: MUSCLES Of LEG.] - -[Illustration: SIAMESE LINK.] - -This he did, when the treacherous friend made a clean sweep of all the -rings, brooches, ear-rings, and such jewellery as was within his reach, -while the unfortunate jeweller was vainly tugging at the Link. This only -occupied a few seconds for a practised hand, and the thief quietly -opened the door, shut it, and was lost in the passing crowd before the -jeweller could recover from his surprise. - - * * * * * - -ON the left of the same illustration is a view of the muscles of the -human leg, which, as the reader will see, are curiously like the -distended cassava press. Although the mode of applying the force -differs, the principle is the same. - -In the latter case an external force is applied to the press, but in the -latter an internal, or rather a central, force is applied to the bones. -It is evident that if a similar process were carried on with the cassava -press, and the central portion forcibly distended, the supports at -either end would be drawn powerfully towards each other. Substitute the -muscle for the press, and the bones for the poles, and this is muscular -action. - - * * * * * - -HERE we have a diagram which speaks for itself, as far as muscular -action is concerned, but there is another point to which we shall -presently pass. - -[Illustration: HUMAN ARM.] - -[Illustration: STEELYARD.] - -The muscle of the arm is seen running along the bone, passing over the -elbow, where it is held down by a tendinous band, and, by its -contraction, enabling the arm to be bent so as to uphold a considerable -weight. The mechanical analogy between this arrangement and the common -Steelyard is too evident to need any explanation except inspection of -the diagram. - - * * * * * - -THERE is, however, another point which is worthy of consideration. The -muscle does not proceed at once from the shoulder to the wrist, but -passes under the tendinous band above mentioned, and so produces a -change of direction when the arm is bent. - -There is a more complicated arrangement of a similar character in the -human hand, a diagram of which is given in the left-hand figure of the -accompanying illustration. - -The fingers are, of course, moved by a set of tendons, and the muscles, -from which these tendons spring, are attached to the fore-arm (I -purposely omit the scientific titles, though they would be much easier -to write). Any of my readers can prove this for themselves. - -Let him first grasp the upper arm firmly, and bend the limbs, and he -will at once find that the swelling of the muscle shows the source of -power. - -Then let him do the same, but grasp the fore-arm, and he will find that -the muscles are quiescent, showing that the former set of muscles belong -to the entire arm, and not to the fingers, while the muscles of the -lower arm have nothing to do with the bending of that limb. - -Now let him grasp the fore-arm, and open and close the fingers, and he -will feel a whole set of muscles rise, and swell and harden under his -grasp. Next let him bend his hand inwards, and he will find that the -fingers work perfectly well, though the direction of force is changed. - -This is owing to a band of tendons passing across the wrist, under which -the finger-tendons play. The course of the tendons is marked in the -illustration by leaving them white. - -The wondrous structure of the human hand and its multitudinous tendons -can only be appreciated by actual dissection, but an idea of their -variety and use may be obtained by watching the hands of a skilful -pianoforte-player. This struck me forcibly the first time that I ever -heard Thalberg play. - -While on the subject of tendons, I may mention a curious case. A -journeyman carpenter missed a blow with his axe, and struck his left -hand at the junction of the thumb and wrist. The important tendon was -severed, and the inner muscles, having no counteracting force, dragged -the thumb into the hollow of the hand. - -To all appearance, the man could no longer earn a living as a carpenter. -But he would not be discouraged, and while he was in hospital he -borrowed a book, and studied the anatomy of the human hand. By means of -this knowledge he constructed a sort of semi-glove, in which he -introduced pieces of watch-spring, that supplied the place of the lost -tendon. - -Not content with this, he studied Euclid for the purposes of his trade, -so as to get the most possible out of a piece of wood of given -dimensions, and be able to go straight to his mark by a problem, instead -of doing it slowly and clumsily with a two-foot rule and a pair of -compasses. When I saw him last he was a master carpenter in a large and -increasing business. - -Man has unconsciously imitated Nature in the invention of the Pulley, -whereby the direction of force may be altered almost at will. In this -case the cord takes the part of the working tendon, and the Pulley of -the fixed tendinous crossbar. There is much matter of interest in the -tendons, but, as our space is fast waning, I must resist the temptation -of describing them. - - * * * * * - -IN all machinery one of the chief objects of the machinist is to reduce -friction as much as possible. He makes all the joints as smooth as tools -can polish, and always introduces oil or some lubricating substance into -the joints. Otherwise the engine rattles with a noise proportionate to -its power, and wastes its force on the friction. - -[Illustration: TENDONS OF HAND.] - -[Illustration: PULLEY.] - -In my childish days a steam-engine of any kind used to rattle so loudly -that conversation was almost impossible. Now they are made with such -perfection, that the vast engines in use at the pumping stations of the -metropolitan drainage are almost absolutely silent. - -There is the enormous hall, filled with gigantic beams and rods, and -cranks, and wheels. A single man turns a little handle, and the whole -machinery starts into life. Beams rock, cranks and wheels revolve, rods -slide up and down, and all in a silence which is nearly appalling in its -manifestation of unassuming strength. Indeed, many a hand sewing -machine makes far more noise than one of those giant engines, and all -because in the latter friction is avoided as far as possible, every -screw is well braced up, and every joint is kept well lubricated. - -Here I may observe that few sewing machines get fair play. They rattle, -they squeak, they become stiffer daily, they snap the thread, and then -decline work altogether. And in almost every case this is done by -neglect on the part of the owner, who does not lubricate every point of -the machine which works upon another. - -[Illustration: LUBRICATION OF JOINT.] - -[Illustration: OILING MACHINE.] - -Ladies especially are very careless in this respect, and will mostly -omit three or four of the oiling points. They might just as well omit -them all, as a single unoiled point will disarrange the harmonious -motion of the whole machine. I have often been called in as surgeon in -such cases, and have almost invariably been able to point to several -spots which needed oil, and did not get it. Sometimes, out of false -economy, an inferior oil is used, which speedily clogs and hardens, and -stops all movement. In such a case the best remedy is to apply paraffine -liberally, and use it for a quarter of an hour or so. It will soon -dissolve the clogged oil, which may be worked out by turning the handle -or crank of the machine. - -Of course the best remedy is to take the machine to pieces, polish the -joints, lubricate them, and put it together again. But this is a -perilous process, and an amateur, if he tries it, will generally find -himself with half-a-dozen pieces for which he can find no place. -Paraffine will answer every purpose, and I have released many a -stiffened machine by its use. - -Then some people leave their machines untouched for days, or even weeks, -and then wonder that they work stiffly. Every day the machine should he -worked, if only for a few seconds, and then it will seldom stiffen. It -is just the same with steamers. When they are in harbour, though the -fires be out, and they are not meant to move for weeks, the engines are -always turned round at least once daily. - - * * * * * - -BOTH these rules hold good in the animal kingdom. - -To every joint there are attached certain glands that supply a kind of -oily substance technically named “synovia,” which acts exactly the same -part as the oil or grease of machinery. If these glands do not do their -duty, and the supply of synovia be defective, the joints become stiff, -painful, and crackle when they are moved. - -Then, exactly as the joints of a machine become stiff from non-usage, so -do those of a human being. We will take, for example, the Indian Fakirs -who vow that they will not move some limb from a definite posture. At -first the exertion is trying and painful, but by degrees the disused -joints lose their faculty of motion, and, even if their owner wished to -move a limb, he could not do it. - -The right-hand figure of the illustration represents the lubrication of -an ordinary sewing machine, and the left-hand figure is a section of the -human knee-joint, showing the gland which supplies the synovia. - - * * * * * - -PERHAPS some of my readers may think that such a subject as the -“Lazy-tongs” is too trivial for a work which deals, however lightly, -with science. But there may be some who know the inestimable benefit of -Lazy-tongs under certain conditions. - -There are many cases where a severe injury has occurred, or where -rheumatism has fixed its tiger-claws in the joints, so that movement is -all but impossible. There may be no one in the room to help the invalid, -and even to stretch the arm over the table is as impossible as to jump -over the house. - -Then it is that the real value of the Lazy-tongs becomes manifested, and -that it shows itself in the light of a supplementary limb. With a mere -movement of the fingers it can be stretched across any table which is -likely to be placed before an invalid, and seize the required object by -the tongs at the further end. - -The only drawback to its use is, that the instrument cannot be shortened -without opening the tongs. But, if some plan could be devised whereby -the tongs could retain their hold under those conditions, the instrument -would be a perfect one. - - * * * * * - -EXACTLY such a Lazy-tongs we have in Nature, in the well-known “mask of -the larva and pupa of the Dragon-fly.” It is called a mask because, when -closed, it covers the face. - -[Illustration: HEAD AND PROBOSCIS OF HOUSE-FLY.] - -[Illustration: MASK OF DRAGON-FLY LARVA.] - -[Illustration: LAZY-TONGS.] - -It chiefly consists of two flat, horny plates, hinged in each other like -a carpenter’s two-foot rule, and being capable of extension to a -considerable length. The end is widened, and furnished with two jaws, -which take the part of the tongs in the instrument above described. - -This curious apparatus is used for the purpose of securing prey. - -I have kept many of these creatures, and watched their mode of feeding. -As has already been mentioned, they have two modes of progression, -_i.e._ walking by means of legs like those of ordinary insects; and -driving themselves along by ejecting water from the tail, on the -principle of the rocket. As far as I have seen, the latter mode is -always used in taking prey. The Dragon-fly larva always lives at the -bottom of the water, though it can force itself to the surface if -needful. And, like the dreaded ground-shark, it seizes its prey from -beneath. - -Its favourite food is the larva of the whirlwig-beetle, a fat white -grub, with a number of white, soft, feathery gills fringing its sides. -In order to produce a current of air over these gills, the larva -wriggles itself up to a height of several inches, and then sinks slowly -down, with the white gills floating on either side. - -Should a Dragon-fly larva be near, it sees the grub ascending, glides -quietly under it without using its legs so as to cause alarm, waits for -it to sink, darts out the mask, seizes it in the jaws, drags it to its -mouth, and the grub is seen no more. So voracious are these larvæ, that, -if only two are kept in the same vessel, one is sure to devour the -other. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER good example of the Lazy-tongs is the Proboscis of the common -House-fly. We have all seen these insects alight near sugar, or any -other tempting food, unfold the proboscis, pour a drop of liquid in the -sugar, dissolve it, suck it up, and then shut up the proboscis as if by -hinges. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER labour-saving machine is the Apple-parer, a comparatively modern -invention. The principle is, that a knife is pressed lightly by a spring -against a revolving apple, and set at such an angle that nothing but the -outside peel can be removed. Where large numbers of apples have to be -pared, as in making preserves or in hotels, this is a most useful -invention. - -[Illustration: SQUIRREL AND NUT.] - -[Illustration: APPLE PARER.] - -When I first saw it at work, the operation seemed familiar to me, but I -could not at first remember the parallel. At last it flashed across me -that a Squirrel eating a nut was the natural parallel of the Paring -Machine. - -After splitting the shell and extracting the kernel, the Squirrel takes -the latter between its fore-paws, presses it against its upper incisor -teeth, and makes it revolve rapidly. In a second or two the kernel is -perfectly peeled, and is then eaten. - -In this case the incisor teeth of the Squirrel take the part of the -knife, the muscles of the leg that of the spring, and the sharp edges of -the upper teeth that of the knife. The structure of the Rodent teeth has -already been explained in page 233. - - * * * * * - -THE wonderful effects of water in breaking up the hardest rock have -already been described. We will now proceed to another branch of the -same subject. - -[Illustration: FROST-CLEFT ROCK.] - -[Illustration: STONE-SPLITTING.] - -Perhaps some of my readers may have wandered along our rocky coasts, and -have seen how large masses of rock are continually detaching themselves, -though they are so hard that a cold chisel is needed to make any -impression upon them. - -Then they fall into the sea, and are rolled backwards and forwards until -they become smoothed and rounded, and are called pebbles, while the -portion that is rubbed off them is called sand. The phenomenon is well -shown in the wonderful Pebble Ridge of North Devon. - -The real agent is ice. - -We all know that, when water freezes, it expands considerably. This -accounts for two phenomena. - -First, as it expands, it becomes lighter than water, and consequently -floats on the surface. - -Next, there are few of us who have not seen water-bottles cracked by -the freezing of the water. The most common, and perhaps the most -unpleasant, example of this propensity is the bursting of water-pipes in -the winter, followed by a flooding of the house when the thaw comes. - -This is caused by the expansion of the frozen water, which will burst -not only a thin leaden tube, but a stout iron vessel. Care should -therefore be taken, at the beginning of winter, to cover up all exposed -portions of leaden pipes, and there will then be no danger. There was -one pipe in my house that was always bursting, but after I covered it -with two or three layers of carpet placed loosely over each other, so as -to entangle the air and form a non-conductor, the pipe has never frozen, -and the water supply has been uninterrupted by the severest frosts. - -I am told that a still better plan exists, especially in places where -the pipes cannot be thoroughly protected by external wrappings. Let six -inches or so of the leaden pipe be removed, and its place supplied by a -vulcanised india-rubber tube. - -The ice _must_ expand somewhere, and chooses the spot where least -resistance is offered to it. Consequently, it expands in the -india-rubber tube, but does not break it, and, when the thaw comes, -there is no overflow of water. - - * * * * * - -MAN utilises this power of ice in stone-splitting. Instead of taking the -trouble to cut the stone by manual labour, the workmen bore a series of -holes, fill them with water, insert tightly a wooden plug to prevent the -ice, when formed, from oozing out of the holes, and leave the rest for -the frost to do. - -A like effect is produced in the warm weather by substituting similar -plugs, but quite dry, having been baked for hours in an oven, for the -purpose of driving out every particle of moisture. These plugs are -hammered into the holes as deeply as they will go, and there left. Even -if there be no rain, the nightly dews make their way into the pores of -the dry wood, and cause it to swell with such irresistible force that -the stone is split with scarcely any manual labour on the part of the -workmen. - - * * * * * - -YET another plan for cutting hard stones. Some of my readers may be -aware that a singularly ingenious instrument has been invented for -cutting boles in granite and other hard rocks. It is called the Diamond -Drill, because its tip is armed with uncut diamonds. - -It is necessary that the diamond should not be cut, as the natural edges -are needed. A glazier’s diamond, for example, is always set as it came -out of the mine. The stories that are told about cutting out panes of -glass with a diamond ring are all absurd. A diamond, when it has once -passed through the hands of the jeweller, cannot cut glass. It can -scratch glass, but not one whit better than a flake of ordinary flint. - -[Illustration: BORER OF ŒSTRUS.] - -[Illustration: DIAMOND-HEADED BORER.] - -It is found that the Diamond Drill works with wondrous rapidity, cutting -away the stone with ease, and suffering scarcely any damage itself. The -tube to the end of which the diamonds are fixed is generally made in -telescopic fashion, so as to allow it to penetrate deeply into the rock, -without the necessity of shifting the machine by which it is turned. I -need hardly say that its rate of speed is very great indeed. - - * * * * * - -OUR old friend, the Gad-fly, again affords an example of a parallel. - -The ovipositor is tubular, telescopic, and furnished at the top with -five little hard, sharp, scaly knobs, which act the same part as the -diamonds of the mining tool. Even the scoop-like shape of the tip, and -the telescopic shaft, are almost identical in both instances. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -TELESCOPIC TUBES.--DIRECT ACTION.--DISTRIBUTION OF -WEIGHT.--TREE-CLIMBING.--THE WHEEL. - - Telescopic Tubes, their Structure and Uses.--The Japanese - Fishing-rod.--The Tripod Wheel-bearer and its Telescopic - Structure.--The Rat-tailed Maggot.--Locomotion.--Direct - Action.--The Rocket, the Water Tourniquet, and Electric - Tourniquet.--Cuttle-fish.--The Flying Squids.--The Paper - Nautilus.--Proceedings of newly-hatched Calamaries.--Larva of the - Dragonfly.--Distribution of Weight.--The Snow-shoe, its Structure - and Mode of using it.--The Skidor of Norway.--A formidable Rifle - Corps.--The Mud-patten.--Foot of Duck tribe.--Foot of - Jacana.--Locomotion of Water-gnat.--Tree-climbing.--Mode of - ascending Palm-trees.--The Value of a Hoop.--The “Girt Pupa” and - Butterfly.--Principle of the Wheel.--The primitive Wooden - Wheel.--Spoked Wheels.--Driving Wheel of the Bicycle.--Naturally - spoked Wheel of the Chirodota. - - -MEANS AND APPLIANCES (_continued_). - -We will now treat rather more in detail the two subjects which were -lightly touched upon at the end of the last chapter. - -The reader will remember that the diamond-headed borer is made in -telescope form, so as to be adjustable at pleasure. It was also remarked -that the ovipositor of the Gad-fly was made in a similar fashion, so as -to be withdrawn within the body of the insect when not needed, and -protrusible to a considerable extent when the Gad-fly wishes to deposit -her eggs. - -As to our modern telescopes and opera-glasses, they are so familiar that -there is little use in describing them, except to say that their -framework consists of a number of tubes of gradually lessening diameter, -the one sliding within the other, so that the instrument can be -lengthened or shortened at will, so as to suit the focus of the -observing eye. - -A very ingenious adaptation of the telescopic principle is seen in the -Japanese fishing-rod, which is now tolerably well known. Our own -telescopic rods require to be withdrawn at the butt-end, and then fitted -together in front. But the Japanese rods are so made that, after taking -off the ferrule of the seeming walking-stick, a mere fling of the hand -will send joint after joint flying out, and fixing themselves in regular -succession. So admirably are these rods made, that even blowing into the -butt-end will have the same effect. - - * * * * * - -ONE of the most perfect, if not the most perfect, example of the -telescopic tube is to be found in the Tripod Wheel-bearer (_Actinurus_), -one of the numerous aquatic Rotifers. - -[Illustration: ACTINURUS TAIL, OPEN AND CLOSED (MAGNIFIED).] - -[Illustration: TELESCOPE.] - -It is not usually so small as the generality of its class, being nearly -one-twentieth of an inch in length, and visible to the unassisted eye, -provided that the owner of the eye in question knows how to use it. - -When placed under a microscope of moderate power, the Actinurus is seen -to be built almost wholly upon the telescopic pattern. Only the centre -of the body remains stationary, the two ends being framed on the -principle of the telescopic tube, and capable of being enclosed within -the central portion, just as is the case with the Japanese fishing-rod. - -In the illustration the Actinurus is shown in two attitudes. In the -upper figure it is represented as having the fore-part of the body -entirely, and the tail part nearly, withdrawn within the central -portion. The lower figure shows the same specimen with all its -telescopic tubes drawn out to full length. - -The creature is perpetually elongating and contracting its body by means -of these tubes, so that a measurement of its length is not easy to -obtain. - -A full and interesting description of this curious Rotifer may be found -in Gosse’s “Evenings at the Microscope,” p. 300. The long tails of the -Rat-tailed Maggot, already described under the head of Diving, are good -examples of the drawtube as found in Nature. - - -LOCOMOTION.--DIRECT ACTION. - -The second point which has to be elucidated is that or progress by means -of Direct Action. - -[Illustration: - -NAUTILUS. - -LARVA OF DRAGON-FLY. - -ROCKET. - -WATER TOURNIQUET. - -ELECTRIC TOURNIQUET.] - -We have already seen how vessels can be propelled by sail, oar, paddle, -or screw. We have now to consider a mode of progress which requires none -of these things, but which works by means of Direct Action. - -Such, for example, is the progress of a Rocket through the air. - -The heated gases rush out with tremendous violence, and, by their -pressure, urge the heavy rocket into the air with the rush, roar, and -bang so familiar to all who have witnessed a good display of fireworks. - -A rocket in the act of ascent is shown in the uppermost figure of the -accompanying illustration. - -Below it is shown the Water Turbine, the principle of which is evident -from the sketch. - -From each of the apertures a stream of water is forcibly directed, and, -by its resistance, spins the vessel round and round. There are several -shops in London in which this instrument may be seen at work. - -Although in such positions it is necessarily a mere toy, it carries with -it, in common with many other toys, the germs of valuable inventions. -Indeed, there have been attempts to utilise the principle of Direct -Action in the propulsion of vessels, but as yet the mechanical -difficulties have proved practically insuperable, and, although a vessel -has been thus propelled, the expense has been heavier than that of the -paddle or screw, and the speed not nearly so great. - -On the right hand of the illustration is another example of Direct -Action, called the Electric Tourniquet. - -In the two previously mentioned instruments the motive power is visible, -but in this it is invisible except in the dark. - -The principle is exactly the same as in the pocket or water tourniquet; -but, instead of heated air or a stream of water, electricity is used. -The instrument is attached to an electric machine, and fully charged. -The electric fluid rushes out of the points, forces itself against the -air, and so, by its recoil, drives the machine round and round upon its -pivot. - - * * * * * - -WE will now take two examples of Direct Action as found in Nature. - -Perhaps many of my readers have seen the Octopus, and admired the manner -in which it glides through the water, trailing its long arms behind it. -Whence the force comes is not easily seen, and the creature appears to -move almost by volition. In reality, however, it employs Direct Action. -It takes water into the body, and then it ejects it through a tube -called the “siphon” with such force that the animal is propelled -backwards through the water. - -Some of the creatures belonging to the Cuttles, and popularly called -Squids, can use such extraordinary powers that they can project -themselves far out of the water. In consequence of this power, they are -sometimes called Flying Squids, and, as they have been known to shoot -themselves completely over the hull of a large ship, they well deserve -the name. - -The common Squid of our coasts, which furnishes the so-called -Cuttle-bone, affords us a good example of Direct Action. I once hatched -a number of young Squids from the grape-like eggs, and it was most -curious to see how the little creatures shot about as soon as they -escaped from the egg. - -They also utilised the siphon in another way. Poising themselves just -above the sand with which the bottom of the vessel was covered, they -directed a stream of water upon it, and thus formed little cavities into -which they settled like birds into their nests. - -The figure represents the Paper Nautilus as it appears while passing -through the water. Just at the base of the tentacles is seen the short -siphon, from which it is pouring the stream of water which drives it -along. - -Below the Nautilus is seen the larva of the common Dragonfly. We have, -when treating of the Lazy-tongs, already described the mode in which the -insect takes its prey, and our object could not be served by repetition. -Suffice it to say that the insect is shown in the act of ejecting water, -and so shooting itself along in preparation for seizing prey. - - -DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. - -Being on the subject of locomotion, we will examine a few of the -contrivances by which a man is enabled to pass in safety over soft -substances into which he would otherwise sink. - -The first and best-known of these is the Snow-shoe of Northern America. -It is a framework of wood, shaped as shown in the upper figure on the -right-hand side, and strengthened by two cross-bars. The interior of the -“shoe” is filled in with hide thongs arranged much like those of a -racket, and stretched as tightly. The front of the snow-shoe is slightly -turned up, so as to avoid the danger of the point sticking in the snow, -an event which, however, generally happens to a novice. - -These instruments are of considerable size, a specimen in my collection -measuring exactly five feet in length, by fifteen inches in width. - -Supported on the snow-shoe, the hunter is enabled to glide unhurt over -the deep snow in which he must have sunk without some such aid. He can -thus hunt the bison, the wapiti, or any of the larger animals, being -able to pass rapidly over the surface, while they are laboriously -ploughing their way through the snow-drifts. - -[Illustration: - -FEET OF DUCKS. SNOW-SHOE. -FOOT OF JACANA. MUD-PATTEN. -WATER-GNAT. SKIDOR.] - -It occasionally happens that the snow falls before the shoes are ready. -In this case the hunter is obliged to extemporise snow-shoes by cutting -them out of thin boards. - -Several years ago, when snow fell heavily and remained unmelted for many -days, some Canadians, who were visiting England, made quite a sensation -by donning their snow-shoes, and travelling over the snow-clad country. -It was very pretty to see the easy way in which they could shoot down a -hill, and to watch the peculiar gait which is needed by the snow-shoe. - - * * * * * - -AT the bottom of the illustration is shown a portion of a curious skate -used in Norway, and called Skidor. - -These remarkable implements achieve by means of length the task which -the snow-shoe accomplishes by width. They are made of wood, and, though -but a few inches in width, are ten feet or more in length. One is always -a few feet shorter than the other, for the convenience of turning. Much -practice is needed for the management of the Skidors, but, when they are -fairly mastered, they enable their owner to travel at a wonderful pace. - -The Norwegian hunter is quite as dependent on his Skidor as the North -American on his Snow-shoe, and uses it for exactly the same purpose. A -corps of these hunters has been organized for war, and very formidable -they were, hanging on the skirts of the enemy, and giving him no rest, -day or night. They never came within fifty yards of each other, so that -even cannon were useless; and, as soon as they thought that they were -endangered, they dispersed in all directions, only to reunite and swoop -down again on the enemy at the first opportunity. - - * * * * * - -THE central figure represents the Mud-patten, which, as its name -implies, plays the same part towards mud that the snow-shoe and skidor -do to the snow. Like them, also, it is not easy to manage; and a novice -is tolerably certain to drive the front of the patten into the mud, and -so get an awkward and not aromatic fall. - -This patten, which is merely a square piece of board attached to the -foot, is in use on many of our coasts where the ebbing tide runs out to -a great distance, leaving a vast expanse of soft mud. Like the skidor -and the snow-shoe, it is mostly used by sportsmen, especially in the -winter, when wild-duck shooting sets in. - -Aided by the pattens, a sportsman can travel for miles over mud that -would otherwise swallow him up, shoot his birds, and secure them when -fallen. While engaged in winter shooting on the Medway, we have often -lost birds because they fell beyond a deep mud-bank, and we had no means -of crossing it. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration are some natural parallels of -these artificial aids. The two upper figures represent two forms of -webbed feet, and the analogy between them and the snow-shoe and -mud-patten is too obvious to need explanation. - -In the centre is the foot of the Jacana, an Asiatic bird. Its foot may -well be taken as the analogue of the skidor, length taking the place of -breadth, and enabling the weight to be distributed over a large surface. - -This bird finds its food in rivers and lakes, and, by reason of its -enormously long toes, can walk with safety over slight floating -vegetation, which would give way at once under the tread of any bird -except a Jacana. Very good representations of this bird are to be seen -in Japanese works of art, especially those which are mounted as screens. -Even the peculiar gait of the bird is given with marvellous truth. - -The last figure represents the common Water-gnat (_Gerris_), which may -be seen in almost any piece of fresh water, however small. Ponds that -are open to the south, and sheltered from the north wind, are its -favourite localities. - -It is a carnivorous being, feeding almost wholly on insects that fall -into the water. In order to capture them, it runs rapidly over the -surface of the water, the long slender legs distributing its weight over -a large surface, and so keeping it from sinking. Only the last two pairs -of legs are employed for this purpose, the first pair being held in -front of the body, and used for the purpose of capturing prey. - - -TREE-CLIMBING. - -Another curious aid to locomotion is shown in the accompanying -illustration. - -In many parts of the world, where the cocoa-nut palm grows, the natives -have invented a simple, but ingenious, plan for ascending the tall, -curved stem. Such a thing as an upright palm-tree is unknown, and -consequently the ascent of the branchless stem is not an easy task -without artificial assistance. - -When I treated of Warfare and the different modes of scaling walls, the -climbing-spur was casually mentioned. The implement of the palm-climber, -however, is simpler and more effective, as it leaves both hands at -liberty when desired. - -The man cuts a long piece of one of the tough and almost unbreakable -creepers which festoon the trees of tropical climes. He passes it round -the trunk which he wishes to climb, and fastens the ends firmly -together, so as to form a large loose hoop. He then passes the hoop over -his head, until it presses against his back, as seen in the -illustration, and serves to support him as he leans against it. - -[Illustration: GIRT PUPA AND BUTTERFLY.] - -[Illustration: CLIMBING PALM-TREE.] - -Taking the hoop by the two sides, he lifts it up the trunk as far as he -can, places the soles of his feet against the tree, and so walks up it, -hitching the hoop upwards at every step. When he has reached the top of -the tree, he supports himself entirely by the hoop, while his hands are -at liberty to be used in getting the cocoa-nuts. - - * * * * * - -IN the insect world there are many examples of support being given by a -belt passing round the body. - -Among the Butterflies, for example, there are many which, in their pupal -stage of existence, are attached to upright stems. They are fixed to the -stem by a few threads at the tail, answering to the feet of the -tree-climber, while the body is kept in position by a stout silken -thread passed loosely round it. - -The illustration represents the pupa of the common Swallow-tailed -Butterfly, while in the centre is the same insect in the perfect state -as it appears when resting. It really seems as if the ancient habit of -the pupa had been remembered by the perfect insect, the long ends of the -hinder wings taking the place of the pupal tail, and the legs that of -the belt. - - -THE WHEEL. - -Yet another aid to locomotion is found in the WHEEL, a contrivance for -diminishing friction. - -[Illustration: WHEEL-SPICULE OF CHIBODOTA.] - -[Illustration: CART-WHEEL.] - -When man first learnt that heavier weights could be dragged than -carried, he simply placed them on flat boards to which ropes were -attached. The next step was necessarily the invention of the sledge, the -burden resting on two parallel runners, the ends of which were slightly -curved so as to prevent them from hitching against any small -obstruction. In some countries--such, for example, as in -Esquimaux-land--the sledge is the only vehicle practicable, and even -Europeans, when they visit that country, are fain to adopt the sledge if -they would live. - -But, in more temperate zones, the Wheel is paramount. In its earlier -stages the wheel was a very simple business. It was simply a section of, -a tree-trunk, dubbed roughly round, and with a hole in the centre, -through which the axle passed. Such wheels are still in existence in -many parts of Europe; and, owing to the want of regularity of outline in -the circumference, and the utter absence of grease, the wheels keep up a -continuous shriek, almost deafening to those who are unused to it, but -perfectly unheeded by those who own or drive the vehicle. - -The next improvement was to make the circumference of the wheel as -perfectly circular as the art of man could devise, and, instead of -having the wheel solid, to fill up its interior with spokes, thus -gaining lightness and strength at the same time. - -Of all locomotive wheels, I suppose that the modern Bicycle affords the -best example. The driving wheel is larger than the hind wheel of an -ordinary coach, and yet the spokes are not nearly so thick as the -porcupine quill with which this account is written. - -If we look at the ancient sculptures and paintings of Egypt and Assyria, -as preserved in the British Museum, we shall see that either kind of -wheel was used according to the work which it had to do. The solid, -uneven, squeaking, wooden wheel was devoted to agriculture, while the -light, spoked wheel was sacred either to warfare or hunting. - -Let us hope that in the two latter cases some modicum of grease might -have been used, as the outcries of tortured and unlubricated machinery -are enough to drive away all wild beasts which come within the range of -its complaints, while the nervous system of hunter or warrior must have -been seriously damaged by it. - - * * * * * - -EVEN in such a structure as the spoked Wheel, Nature has anticipated -Man. - -My readers may remember that, when treating of nautical matters, I -mentioned the singular anchor-shaped spicules that are found upon one of -the sea-slugs, called Synapta. - -There is another group of these creatures inhabiting the Mediterranean, -in which the skin-spicules take a different form. Like those of the -Synapta, they are too small and translucent to be seen without the aid -of the microscope and carefully adjusted light. But, just as the -spicules of the Synapta resemble the ancient anchor, so do those of the -Chirodota resemble the ancient wheel, the similitude being in both cases -absolutely startling. - -Not only that, but, as all readers must be aware, if they have studied -practical mechanics, there are many machines which are toothed on the -inner, and not the outer, side of the circumference. Here, in the -Chirodota, the inner toothing is manifest. - -What purpose it serves we know not. The Chirodota’s wheels (of which -there are thousands) never revolve, neither do the anchors of the -Synapta hold the ground. Yet the very fact that such exceedingly minute -objects should be so carefully constructed tells us at once that they -must have some important purpose to serve, though at present that -purpose is a mystery which no one has attempted to solve. - -I have little doubt that when the hour and the man arrive, as arrive -they surely will, we shall find in these tiny and almost unrecognised -spicules the keys to treasures of wisdom which at present have been -opened to no human being. - -The whole history of the progress of the human race shows that facts -have been allowed to accumulate, fought about, and turned in all -directions, before the generaliser comes who pierces to the heart of -everything, reduces apparent discrepancies to harmony, and usually is -rewarded by finding some one else assume the credit of his discoveries, -and receive all the honours and emoluments. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - - Paper and its many Uses.--The Egyptian Papyrus.--India - Paper.--China and its Manufactories.--Materials of which Paper is - made.--Annual Consumption of Material.--The “Water Mark.”--Nature’s - Papers.--Wasps and Hornets.--The common Wasp, and the various - Materials of its Nest.--Utilisation of - Material.--Papier-mâché.--Printing.--Nature-printing.--Method and - Results of the Process.--Use of the Electrotype.--“Facing” the - Copper Plates with hard Metal.--The Coal Mine and its - Nature-printing.--Stippling, its Use and Abuse.--The Line and the - Dot.--Modification of the Dot.--Flower-petals.--The - Pelargonium.--Plaster Castings.--Stereotyping and - Electrotyping.--Modern Method of taking Plaster Casts.--The - Principle of Corrugation.--Flower-pot Covers.--Iron Buildings.--The - Polistes and its Corrugated Dwellings. - - -ART. - -We will now touch lightly on the subject of Art. - -In the present day one of the most indispensable accessories to art is -Paper. - -It is a curious fact that we have no records as to the time when paper -was first invented. The Egyptian papyrus we do not consider, as it was -not paper in our sense of the word, although we have retained the name. - -Paper is a vegetable fibre carefully disintegrated, made into a pulp -with water, and then dried in thin sheets. As is the case with many -arts, China seems to have taken the lead in paper manufacture, and we -are even now indebted to that country for the “India Paper” on which the -finest proofs of engravings are taken. This paper is made from the inner -bark of the bamboo. “Rice Paper,” so called, is not paper at all, but -only a kind of pith cut spirally, and flattened by pressure. - -There is scarcely any vegetable fibre of which paper cannot be made, and -various plants have been suggested for this purpose, such as the -stinging-nettle, cabbage-stalks, hop-bines, the waste of sugar-cane, -sawdust, &c. Straw has already been successfully used, and so has -Esparto grass. - -Some years ago, when there was a scarcity of material for paper-making, -the well-known Grass-wrack of our shores (_Zostera marina_) was brought -into partial use. I believe, however, that the experiment was not a -successful one. The Chinese make their paper of bamboo, macerating and -pounding it until it is reduced to a pulp, and then shaken into fibres -in a mould. - -[Illustration: - -NEST OF HORNET. PAPER-MAKING. -NEST OF TREE-WASP. PAPER.] - -With us, white paper, such as is used by the writer, printer, or artist, -is made almost exclusively of cotton or linen rags. Upwards of a hundred -and twenty thousand tons weight of rags are annually consumed in this -country for the manufacture of paper. After being bleached, they are -torn and ground into a pulp, which is then handed over to the actual -maker. - -The illustration represents paper-making by hand, a process which is now -rarely used, except for special kinds of paper. Omitting technical -details, the mode of paper-making by hand is as follows:--The pulp being -prepared, the workman takes a “mould,” _i.e._ a frame with a bottom of -closely woven wire. Having put into the mould a sufficient quantity of -pulp, he shakes the mould so as to spread the pulp evenly over the -surface. The water runs away between the wires, the sheet of pulp is -transferred to a piece of felt, and when it is dry it becomes paper. If -a sheet of ordinary note-paper be held up to the light, the marks of the -wires are plainly perceptible. The so-called “water-mark” is due to -wires twisted into the requisite shape. - -The Chinese workman makes his paper exactly on the same principle, but -the bottom of his mould is made of bulrushes instead of wires. - -As for machine-made paper, the process seems absolutely magical. Endless -bands of felt and wire are substituted for the hand frames, and, the -pulp being poured in at one end, the finished paper is poured out at the -other, and self-wound on rollers. Without any exaggeration, paper is now -made by the mile, the only limit to its length being the size of the -rolls. - - * * * * * - -WHEN I mention Paper-making in the world of Nature, many of my readers -will at once know that I am about to refer to the Wasp tribe. - -These insects were paper-makers long before even the Chinese had -invented the art, and, so exactly similar is the mode of action, that -man might well have copied from the insect. - -The Wasp gnaws a bundle of vegetable fibres, mostly of wood, sound or -decaying, according to the species. It masticates them until it has -reduced them to a pulp, and then, by means of its jaws, spreads the pulp -into sheets of various shapes and sizes. - -With some of the pulp it forms hexagonal cells like those of the bee, -and with some it makes the roof-like covering which defends the cells. -Not only that, but it can make a sort of papier-mâché, which it uses for -the flooring, if we may so call it, of the different strata of cells, -and for the pillars which bind them together. - -Like our own paper manufacturers, it is economic of material, will -re-masticate any superabundant paper, and is only too glad if it can get -hold of any paper made by man. I have seen a wasps’ nest which was made -entirely from the empty blue and white cartridges that were thrown away -by soldiers. - -Then there is as much difference in the papers made by wasps as in those -made by man. In this country all wasps’ nests are made of very fragile -material, but in South America there are some wasps which make the -external covering of their nests as hard and white as the stiff -cardboard employed by artists. - - * * * * * - -HAVING now got our paper, we will glance at one or two modes of using it -for Art. Papier-mâché has already been mentioned, and it is worthy of -notice that there are now in existence many decorated ceilings which are -made of this material, on account of its great strength and its -non-liability to fire. - -[Illustration: FERNS IN COAL.] - -[Illustration: NATURE-PRINTING.] - -The first invention which we shall notice is that which is known by the -name of Nature-printing, and which has been so successful in -transferring to paper an exact representation of vegetable foliage. - -One simple tolerably efficacious mode of Nature-printing has long been -known. A piece of paper being rubbed with lamp-black and oil, the leaf -was laid upon it and gently rubbed, so as to transfer the lamp-black to -the nervures. It was then laid on a sheet of white paper, and again -rubbed, when an impression of the leaf was left upon the paper. - -The present system of Nature-printing is far in advance of this rather -rude method, and amounts to an exact reproduction of the plant, not only -in form and detail, but in colour. - -In order to illustrate this beautiful process, I cannot do better than -transfer to these pages the following account of Nature-printing as -given in Ure’s “Dictionary of Arts,” &c. It is an abstract of a lecture -delivered by Mr. H. Bradbury at the Royal Institution. - -“Nature-printing is the name given to a technical process for obtaining -printed reproductions of plants and other objects upon paper, in a -manner so truthful, that only a close inspection reveals the fact of -their being copies; and so distinctly sensible even to touch are the -impressions, that it is difficult to persuade those unacquainted with -the manipulation that they are an emanation of the printing-press. - -“The distinguishing feature of the process consists, first, in -impressing natural objects--such as plants, mosses, seaweeds, and -feathers--into plates of metal, causing, as it were, the objects to -engrave themselves by pressure; secondly, in being able to take such -casts or copies of the impressed plates as can be printed from at the -ordinary copper-plate press. - -“This secures, in the case of a plant, on the one hand, a perfect -representation of its characteristic outline, of some of the other -external marks by which it is known, and even in some measure of its -structure, as in the venation of ferns and the ribs of the leaves of -flowering plants; and, on the other, affords the means of multiplying -copies in a quick and easy manner, at a trifling expense compared with -the result, and to an unlimited extent. - -“The great defect of all pictorial representations of botanical figures -has consisted in the inability of art to represent faithfully those -minute peculiarities by which natural objects are often best -distinguished. Nature-printing has therefore come to the aid of this -branch of science in particular, whilst its future development promises -facilities for copying other objects of nature, the reproduction of -which is not within the province of the human hand to execute; and even -if it were possible, it would involve an amount of labour scarcely -commensurate with the results. - -“Possessing the advantages of rapid and economic production, the means -of unlimited multiplication, and, above all, unsurpassable resemblance -to the original, nature-printing is calculated to assist much in -facilitating not only the first-sight recognition of many objects in -natural history, but in supplying the detailed evidences of -identification, which must prove of essential value to botanical science -in particular.” - -Many plans have been tried with only partial success, but that which is -now in operation produces the most wonderful results. The plants are -laid upon sheets of lead, and then passed through rollers, so as to -leave an impression in the soft metal. The electrotype then comes into -play, exact copies of the impression being taken by it. As the face of -the electrotyped plate is covered with a slight deposit of some hard -metal, usually nickel, a great number of copies can be taken without -damaging the plate. - - * * * * * - -A WONDERFULLY exact parallel to Nature-printing is seen in almost every -coal bed. In the coal are found impressions of various leaves, mostly -ferns, and so exact are they, that the different species have been -determined and named with as much accuracy as if, instead of mere -impressions, they had been the fern-leaves themselves. - -Indeed, if it were needed, it would be perfectly easy to take -electrotype plates from these impressions, and to treat them in exactly -the same manner as those obtained in the way which has already been -described. - - -STIPPLING. - -We now come to another branch of Art, namely, the production of shadow -in an engraving by means of Stippling, i.e. the insertion of dots -instead of lines. At one time the Stipple was in great favour. Then it -was almost wholly abandoned in favour of the line, and now it is much -used in conjunction with the line, especially for the delicate shading -of flesh tints, such as faces, female arms, &c. - -In the illustration a little stippling of a cheek is shown, the dots -being purposely exaggerated. - -A singularly beautiful modification of the Stipple is now in use. When -the engraver wishes for exceptional softness of shading, he does not -content himself with mere dots, but, with the aid of his -magnifying-glass, converts each dot into a tiny star with three or more -rays. Thus the dots seem to melt into each other, and the requisite -softness is obtained. - -A very good example of this star-stipple is seen in the well-known print -called “Coming of Age.” If the face and neck of the girl in the -foreground be examined with a magnifying-glass, the apparent dots will -be seen to be stars, so beautifully arranged that the projecting rays of -one fuse themselves, so to speak, with, those of the surrounding stars, -as is shown in the illustration. - - * * * * * - -WHETHER the engraver who hit upon this singularly effective plan took it -from Nature, I cannot say, but he well might have done so, had he -examined the petal of a flower through a good microscope. We all know -the peculiar rich softness of a petal, and how our very best floral -artists feel the impossibility of transferring it to paper. - -[Illustration: STIPPLING.] - -[Illustration: PETAL OF GERANIUM.] - -The real reason for this special beauty lies in the star-stippling of -the petal. The whole surface of the petal is covered with multitudinous -projections, which are, in fact, undeveloped hairs. These projections -are wrinkled down the sides, and so, when viewed from above, they -present the curious star-like appearance shown on the right hand of the -illustration. - -The drawing is taken from a petal of Pelargonium prepared by myself. - -There is yet one point in the petal which the star-stipple has not -touched, and probably cannot touch. I mean the slight projection of the -stipple-hairs, which give an effect of light and shade as well as mere -flat softness. - - -PLASTER CASTS. - -We have already mentioned the electrotype, and may now come to a branch -of art which is much associated with it, namely, the Stereotype. - -As many of my readers may know, types are very valuable articles, and -must not be wasted. If, therefore, a book should be thought likely to -have a steady sale, much of its value would be lost if the types were -kept standing, inasmuch as they could not be used for any other work. - -In such cases the Stereotype is employed. Omitting minute details, the -process is as follows:-- - -[Illustration: SHELL-CAST IN CHALK.] - -[Illustration: CAST IN PLASTER OF PARIS.] - -The type, ready set up, is carefully oiled. Plaster of Paris mixed with -water is then poured into a shallow trough, and the type pressed into -it. In a short time the plaster hardens, and the type is withdrawn. The -plaster mould is then baked, to drive off all moisture, and type metal -is poured into it. Thus a solid mass is procured, instead of a number of -separate pieces, so that there is no danger of disturbance, and the -whole block can be multiplied _ad libitum_ if needed. This process sets -free the types, which can be broken up and used again. - -The ordinary method of taking plaster casts is nearly the same as that -which has been described. The object to be cast is oiled, and plaster of -Paris carefully applied to it. When it is “set,” the plaster “mould” is -removed and dried. The process is then reversed, the interior of the -mould being oiled, and plaster poured into it, so as to produce an exact -reproduction of the original. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature we have almost exactly the same process, although it is -necessarily conducted in a much slower manner. - -All who have tried their hand at practical geology must be aware of the -multitudinous casts of perished beings which are found in various -strata. Sometimes the casts are those of vegetables, the original -material having been decomposed, and stony matter taken its place. -Sometimes there are casts of fishes or echini, while shells, and even -insects, are found to have been cast almost as perfectly as could be -done with plaster of Paris at the present day. - -As might be anticipated, the chalk deposits are peculiarly rich in these -casts, the fine particles of the chalk taking the place of the plaster -of Paris. - -In the illustrations are shown examples of casting in Art and Nature. On -the right hand is a cast of fruit and leaves, which may afterwards be -reproduced in plaster, wax, papier-mâché, or electrotype. On the left is -shown one of the shells so common in the chalk, the upper figure -representing the shell itself, and the lower the mould that has been -formed around it. - - -CORRUGATED IRON. - -We have already seen that the Wasps are paper-makers. We may now see how -some of the Wasps have anticipated a valuable invention of man, namely, -the principle of corrugation, whereby a thin plate gains strength. - -[Illustration: NESTS OF POLISTES.] - -[Illustration: CORRUGATED IRON.] - -Even a sheet of paper gains great strength by corrugation, as is seen in -those paper covers which are so much in use for the decoration, or -rather the concealment, of flower-pots. But the best example that can be -given of this principle is the Corrugated Iron, which has come so much -into use for temporary buildings, such as schools, places of worship, -reading-rooms, &c. It is very light and very strong, and can be used -either for roof or walls with equal success. - - * * * * * - -BY means of certain wasps belonging to the genus Polistes, Nature -produces corrugated dwellings, which are made of very thin materials, -but which are marvellously strong in proportion to their weight. - -The insects belonging to this genus are all exotic, but are spread over -a very large surface of the earth. - -So strong are the nests made by some of these species, that they need no -external covering, the corrugated paper supplying at the same time -strength and warmth, the latter element being furnished by the air which -is entangled between the corrugations. - -There are many species of Polistes, mostly belonging to Australasia and -tropical America, the latter displaying the greatest variety of form and -structure in the nest. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - - Electricity, Magnetism, and Galvanism mutually convertible.--The - Force co-extensive with Nature.--Uses of Thunder-storms.--Languor - from Want of Electricity.--Frictional and Voltaic - Electricity.--Origin of the Name.--Structure of the Voltaic - Pile.--A simple Example of the Pile.--Nerves of a Frog’s Leg.--The - Electric Shock, and how to produce it.--The Electric Jar and - Battery.--Animal Electricity.--The Torpedo and Electric - Eel.--Structure of the Electric Apparatus.--The Electric Spark - obtained from both Fishes.--Channels of Electricity in the - Body.--The Will and the Muscles.--Electricity the conducting - Agent.--The Human Body permeated by Nerves.--Telegraph Wires and - the Nervous System.--Lightning and the Electric Spark.--The - Electric Light and its Power.--The Fire-fly, the Glow-worm, and the - luminous Inhabitants of the Sea.--Magnetism and Diamagnetism.--The - Electric Telegraph and the Compass.--The Principle identical in - both Instruments. - - -ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. - -It has long been known that Electricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism are -but different manifestations of the same force, and that one can be -converted into the other at will. It is also known that this wonderful -and most important principle lies latent in everything, and only needs -the proper machinery to evoke it. - -The few following illustrations are intended to show its prevalence in -Nature, and that human art does not create, but only makes manifest a -power that exists, but lies latent until called forth. - -Without going into details, which would occupy the whole of such a -volume as this, I may mention that Electricity saturates all the -material creation, and that even man himself is not only a reservoir of -electricity, but that he feels positively ill if the normal amount be -not supplied. - -Take, for example, the hours that precede a thunder-storm. We feel -languid and depressed. We cannot bring our thoughts together. We are -almost incapable even of bodily labour. The reason is, that the portion -of the earth on which we live has parted with some of its electricity, -and has drawn it out of our bodies. - -Then comes the welcome thunder-storm; clouds overcharged with -electricity come to restore the balance. The lightning flashes from the -clouds to the earth as soon as they are near enough; the rain falls, -carrying with it stores of silent electricity; and in an hour or two all -seems changed. - -The air, which hitherto seemed to afford no nourishment to the lungs, is -bracing and invigorating. The nervous system recovers its tension, and -the brain can act without a painful effect. All Nature seems to put on a -different aspect, and brightness and vigour take the place of dulness -and languor. - -[Illustration: GALVANISING A FROG’S LEG.] - -[Illustration: VOLTAIC PILE.] - -By a strange coincidence, there is just such a lack of electricity as I -am writing, and the barometer has rapidly sunk to such a degree that a -storm seems inevitable. - -One of the chief difficulties in dealing with such a subject as this is -to know where to begin. We will, however, do our best to take a general -view of it, without going into details. - -Many centuries ago it was well known that amber, if rubbed with a dry -cloth, would first attract, and then repel, various small and light -substances. Indeed, the Greek word for amber, namely, _Elektron_, has -given its name to the modern science of Electricity. Many other -substances, such as glass, sealing-wax, &c., possess the same property. - -This frictional electricity is but transient, the electric fluid, if we -may be allowed to use the term, being driven out by main force from the -material in which it was latent, just as fire is procured by the -friction of two dry sticks. There is, however, a form of Electricity -called Galvanism, from its discoverer, Galvani, who, somewhere about -1790, discovered that the limbs of a dead frog might be excited to -action by electricity applied to the nerves. - -Afterwards, Volta of Pavia, from whom the Voltaic Pile is named, took up -Galvani’s discoveries, and produced electricity without friction, by the -contact of differently conducting substances. - -The right-hand figure represents the Voltaic Pile. It is composed of a -series of plates arranged in the following manner--Zinc, Silver, and -Cloth, the whole being moistened with diluted acid. Copper will answer -the purpose nearly as well as silver, and is not so costly. A very -simple mode of demonstrating the presence of electricity is by taking a -piece of zinc and a silver coin, and placing one below and the other -above the tongue. If the two be then brought together, a very peculiar -taste is perceived, and a sudden flash of light seems to pass across the -eyes. - -The illustration represents on the right hand the Voltaic Pile as at -present made, and on the left are the two hind-legs of a frog, with the -upper part of the nerves made bare for the purpose of experimenting. The -dotted lines show the extent of the movements of the leg when the -galvanic current is passed through the nerves. - - * * * * * - -NOW we come to a plan whereby electricity can be accumulated, or locked -up, so to speak, and be discharged at once with a definite shock instead -of being poured away by degrees. This can be done in many ways, the most -common being that which is known by the name of the Electric Jar. It is -a glass vessel coated within and without with tin-foil, and having a -metal rod passing through the cork in such a way that while the lower -end is in contact with the inner coating of tin-foil, the other end is -guarded by a ball. - -Electricity is now poured into the interior of the jar, and, when -contact is made between the inner and outer coatings, a sudden discharge -takes place. If a number of persons hold each other’s hands, and those -who form the two extremities touch the outer coating and the ball which -communicates with the inner coating, a sharp discharge is at once made, -passing through all the bodies, and inflicting a smart shock, especially -at the elbows. - -Similar effects can be produced with the Voltaic Battery, but, as that -instrument has already been figured, the Electric Jar has been selected. -Of course any number of such jars can be connected together, and the -shock will be proportionately increased in intensity. - - * * * * * - -IN Nature we have several-parallels. Putting aside the obvious one of a -lightning-flash, which has already been mentioned, we pass to two -remarkable examples of the capability of animal structure to produce -electricity, to store it up, so to speak, and discharge it at will. Both -these creatures are fishes, one belonging to the Skates or Rays, and the -other to the Eels. - -[Illustration: - -TORPEDO. - -ELECTRIC EEL. - -ELECTRIC BATTERY.] - -The upper figure on the left-hand side of the illustration represents -the Torpedo, sometimes called the Cramp-fish, Numb-fish, or Electric -Ray. Fortunately for us, it is but seldom found on our coasts, but it is -tolerably common in the warmer parts of the world. - -The electric organ in this fish is double, and so large that its shape -can easily be recognised even through the skin. It is made up of a vast -number of discs arranged upon each other in columns like the metallic -portions of the Voltaic Pile, and separated from each other by delicate -membranes, which take the place of the cloth. When I mention that more -than eleven hundred columns have been found in a single Torpedo, and -that each column contains several hundred discs, it may be imagined that -the shock which such a creature can give must be a very powerful one. - -The object of this power seems to be analogous to that of the venomous -serpent, _i.e._ to enable the creature to secure its prey by either -killing it or rendering it temporarily insensible by an electric shock. -As if to show that the delivery of the shock is achieved by an exertion -of will, observers have noticed that just before the shock is delivered, -the eyes are depressed in the head like those of a toad when swallowing -a large insect. - - * * * * * - -A STILL more powerfully electric animal is the Electric Eel of Southern -America. It sometimes attains a length of six feet, and its electric -organs are four times as proportionately large as those of the torpedo. - -There is no doubt as to the object of the electric power of this eel, as -I have often seen it kill fish, and then eat them. - -When about to deliver its shock, it curves its body towards the intended -victim, stiffens itself, and with a sort of shudder the electric fluid -is emitted. The fish at which it is aimed never seems to escape, but, -simultaneously with the shudder on the part of the Electric Eel, turns -on its back and lies motionless until it is picked up by its destroyer. - -Neither the Torpedo nor the Electric Eel has unlimited stores of -electricity. If irritated into delivering repeated shocks, each -discharge is less powerful than its predecessor, until at last the -creature is almost wholly powerless, and must rest and recruit itself -before it can lay up fresh stores of the electric fluid. - -I may add that the electric spark has been obtained from both these -fishes. It was only a small spark, but in such experiments a small spark -is as satisfactory as a large one. - - * * * * * - -WHAT are the channels by which the electric fluid is transmitted through -our bodies? - -They are the nerves, which convey from and to the brain a subtle fluid, -if it may be so called, just as the arteries and veins convey blood to -and from the heart. If any of these nerves be electrified, even after -the death of the animal, or after the separation of a limb from the -body, muscular movements are induced, and the limb moves as if instinct -with life. - -Without these nerves we should be unable to feel the severest shock, but -they permeate the body so completely, that not a part of the skin can be -pricked without a nerve being wounded. - -It is by means of these conductors that the will is made to act upon the -limbs. The mind, for example, desires the legs to walk, and they do so, -the order being transmitted to them through the nerves. - -As a rule, we are unconscious of this process. But, when paralysis takes -place, and the nerves refuse to perform their functions, the will is -absolutely useless, and, however desirous a man may be of walking, he -cannot move a step if the nerves of his legs are paralyzed. In cases -where the paralysis comes on slowly and in detail, the patient mostly -becomes conscious of the part played by the nerves, and feels that his -will can to a certain degree rouse the expiring powers of the nerve -fluid. - -This in its turn is but the conductor for another and infinitely more -subtle fluid, of which our space will not allow us to treat, but which -forms the connecting link between body and spirit. Perhaps some of my -readers may have seen those curious preparations of the human form, when -the arteries have been injected with red wax, and the veins with blue -wax, and then the fleshy portions dissolved away by chemical means. - -The result is a perfect human form, and even to the very tips of the -fingers and toes the blood-vessels follow the contour of the body. Did -we have means of injecting the nervous system, we should arrive at -similar results, except that the nerves would be found infinitely more -intricate than the veins and arteries. Thus a human being is a series of -human forms, interwoven with each other, and mutually dependent on each -other. - - * * * * * - -IT is curious to see how the great discoveries of modern days have but -copied Nature. - -Take, for example, the network of telegraphic wires which is day by day -spreading itself over the surface of the earth, and the parallel will -at once be visible. Just as the brain transmits its message to the limbs -by means of the nerves, so does the same brain transmit its message -through thousands of miles, by utilising the wires which are but the -rough and coarse imitations of the wonderful nervous system of the human -frame. - - * * * * * - -THE illustration shows the parallelism as well as can be done by a mere -chart. - -[Illustration: NERVES.] - -[Illustration: TELEGRAPHIC WIRES.] - -On the left-hand side is shown the manner in which a nerve-group is -distributed to different parts of the body. On the right the railway -telegraph wires are seen, and, as the reader will probably remember, -branch wires are carried into the signal boxes, just as branch nerves -are carried to the most distant parts of the body. - - * * * * * - -I HAVE already mentioned the Electric Spark, and that it is, in fact, a -miniature lightning-flash, the little crackling report being a miniature -thunder-clap. It can be produced by frictional electricity, or by the -voltaic pile in its many variations, or by animal substances alone, as -in the case of the torpedo and electric eel. - -We now come to a modification of the spark, whereby a continuous current -of electricity is sent through two charcoal points, and inflames them -with such intensity that the eye cannot look upon its dazzling -whiteness. There is none of the yellowness about it which is so great a -drawback to our artificial lights, whether they be gas, candle, or lamp, -and which makes ladies’ dresses that are really beautiful by day look -dull and almost ugly by night. - -It is wonderful to see how the Electric Light kills all other lights. -The brightest gas becomes dull, and its shadow is thrown on the wall -which it formerly illuminated, and the most delicate tints of silks and -satins suddenly display themselves in the blinding whiteness of the -Electric Light. - -At present it is too costly to be brought into common use, but its -intensity is so great that serious ideas have been formed of dispensing -with street lamps altogether, and illuminating towns with a few electric -lamps placed at a considerable height, and having their beams reflected -downwards. - -[Illustration: - -LIGHTNING. - -FIRE-FLY. - -GLOW-WORM. - -ELECTRIC LIGHT.] - -London is thought to be a specially fit subject for this mode of -lighting, as the electric beams can pierce the fogs which the gas-lamp -only augments, and give the traveller some hope of finding his way -through the most familiar streets. - - * * * * * - -IN the illustration the right-hand figure represents the Electric Light -as at present in use. The upper portion of the left-hand side represents -the forked lightning, whose dazzling whiteness is so familiar to us, -even in the noon of a summer’s day. - -Below are shown the Fire-fly of warm climates, and the Glow-worm, which, -in our comparatively cool country, cheers the summer evenings with its -pale lamp. As to the source of this mysterious light, which burns -without producing heat sufficient to be recognised by our most delicate -instruments, we know but little. - -There are instruments so infinitely more sensitive than the best -thermometer, that they will record instantaneously an increase of heat -if a human being passes in front of them, though at several yards’ -distance. Yet no effect is produced on them by any of the Fire-flies or -the Glow-worm. The spectroscope itself gives little or no information, -the spectrum of the light being without bands or bars, and being what is -technically called a “continuous” spectrum. - -Last year I tried numbers of Glow-worms with the spectroscope, and -always with the same result. I never saw the Fire-flies alive, but, no -matter what may be the colour of the light, the spectrum, whether of the -Glow-worm or any of the Fire-flies, seems to be always continuous, and -so to give but little information as to its source. - -There appears, however, to be little doubt that animal electricity is -the real cause of this curious phenomenon, and that the force which is -expended in the torpedo and electric eel, in giving shocks accompanied -by slight electric sparks, may develop itself in these insects by -producing a continuous light. And just as the electric fishes can emit -or withhold the shock as they please, so can the Fire-flies and -Glow-worms give out or retain the light by which they are so well known. - -Then we come to the multitudinous luminous inhabitants of the sea, -which, as many of my readers have probably seen, convert the waves into -rolling masses of living fire. - - -MAGNETISM. - -Now we come to another condition of electrical force, called MAGNETISM. - -One form of it is strongly developed in the Loadstone, an ore of iron. -This ore has the property of turning east and west when suspended -freely, it attracts any object made of iron, and can communicate its -powers to iron by merely stroking it. There is in the Museum at Oxford a -splendid specimen of the Loadstone, which has imparted its virtues to -thousands of iron magnets, and has lost none of its virtues by so doing. - -All bodies are now known to be magnetic in some way or other. Several, -such as iron, nickel, and one or two other metals, turn north and south -when suspended on a pivot, but the great bulk of other bodies turn east -and west, and are called Diamagnetics. - -As we all know, the property of turning north and south has been -utilised in the Compass, without which modern science would be -paralyzed, and travel rendered impossible. - -[Illustration: LOADSTONE.] - -[Illustration: COMPASS.] - -It is worthy of notice that although the magnetic needle of the compass -turns to the north, it does not do so because it is attracted by the -north pole, but because it is repelled from the east and west. - -We have long known that if a current of electricity be sent round a -magnetic needle, the latter at once turns at right angles to it. On this -principle depends the Electric Telegraph. When communication is made by -using the handles, a current of electricity is sent round the needles, -and causes them to turn at right angles until stopped by a little ivory -pin, which prevents them from overshooting themselves. - -There is a perpetual stream of electricity passing over the earth from -east to west, and in consequence all magnetic bodies are forced to turn -at right angles, just as is the case with the magnetic needle. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -TILLAGE.--DRAINAGE.--SPIRAL PRINCIPLE.--CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. - - Systems of cultivating Ground.--The Fallow System.--Manuring the - Ground.--Custom of China.--Nature’s Abhorrence of Waste.--What - becomes of Dead Animals.--Burying-beetles.--The Scarabæus-beetles - and their Work.--Drainage _versus_ Sewage.--Clay Soils and - Drains.--The Mole, the Earth-worm, Rats, Mice, and Rabbits.--The - Flexible Drain and the Lobster’s Tail.--The Turbine Pump and the - Ascidian.--The Spiral Principle.--The Smoke-jack, Kite, and Wings - of Birds.--Centrifugal Force.--Revolution of Planets.--The - “Governor” of the Steam-engine.--The Sling, Amentum, and Mop.--The - Gyroscope, the Bicycle, and the Hoop. - - -Several times, in the course of this work, we have touched upon man’s -dealings with the earth, such as mining and tunnelling. We will now take -another side of the same question, and, in connection with Tillage, -consider Drainage, whereby superabundant moisture is removed from the -earth, and Manuring, whereby the exhausted soil is renovated. - -We will take this subject first. - -It has long been known that it is impossible to get more out of the -ground than exists in it, and that when the soil has been so worked as -to become unproductive, there are only two remedies. The one is to allow -the ground to remain uncultivated for a time. It must be ploughed in -deeply, as if it were to be sown with a crop, and must be left to -recruit itself from the air. This is the now abandoned “fallow” system, -which used to be in full operation when I was a child. - -As, however, population increased, and with it the perpetually -increasing demand for food, land was found to be too precious to be -allowed to lie fallow and idle. Then came the system of rotation of -crops, potato following wheat, clover following potato, &c. But, above -all, agriculturists learned that in the long-run there is nothing so -cheap as manure, i.e. the return to the soil by animals of the elements -which these animals took out of it. - -On the right hand of the illustration (page 495) is shown the simplest -mode of enriching the soil, namely, by spreading the manure on the -surface of the earth, and then digging it in. Any mode of thus enriching -the earth is a proof of civilisation. No savage ever dreamed of such a -thing, and I doubt whether barbarians recognised the principle at any -time. - -Nowadays we have recognised the necessity of returning to the soil in -one form the elements which we have taken from it in another. As usual -in such arts of civilisation, the Chinese have long preceded us. They -waste nothing, carrying, perhaps, its principles to an extent which -scarcely suits our European ideas. - -They even utilise the little clippings of hair, to which every Chinaman -is almost daily subject, if he wishes to keep up his self-respect in -public. The barbers carefully preserve these clippings, and sell them to -gardeners. They are too precious to be used in general agriculture, but -the flower artist, when he plants the seed, puts in the same hole a -little pinch of human hair, knowing it to be a strong stimulant to -growth. - - * * * * * - -WITHOUT multiplying examples of artificial manuring, most of which are -too familiar to need description, we will proceed to the methods by -which Nature has for countless centuries achieved the same work that Man -has lately learned to undertake. - -Nature abhors waste, and in the long-run will prove it, however wasteful -may be the ways of her servants. Take, for example, the case of an -ordinary tree, such as an elm, an oak, or a birch. In the autumn the -leaves fall. In the next summer scarcely a dead leaf can be found. They -have been decomposed by rain, dews, and gases, and have thus returned to -the earth more than the nutriment which they took out of it. - -Here man is apt to interfere. Knowing the invaluable productive powers -of decayed leaves, he removes them as they fall, and stores them in -heaps so as to form the costly, but almost indispensable, “leaf mould.” -In so doing, however, he deprives the trees of their natural nutriment, -and by degrees they dwindle and die. - -Nature, in this case, shows her superiority over Art. - -Then we have the remarkable fact that millions of animated beings die -annually, and no vestige of their remains is found. Hyænas and vultures -might account for a few bodies, the remnants of which have been found in -ancient caverns. But there is no hyæna which could crush the leg bones -of an adult elephant; and yet I suppose that neither in Africa nor Asia -has any one discovered the body of an elephant or rhinoceros that had -died a natural death. - -In the first place, there is the curious point, which I have already -mentioned, and which is shared by nearly every race of human savages, -that when an animal feels that it has received its death-stroke, it -accepts the conditions, withdraws itself from those who yet have life in -them, and yields up its life as calmly as if it were but sleeping. - -But what becomes of the body? As to such enormous beings as elephants, -the various species of rhinoceros, and whales, which are as large as -several elephants, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus put together, I cannot -say from practical knowledge. - -Still, as size is only comparative, the rule that holds good with a -small animal may hold equally good with a large one. It is my lot to -walk very often upon the banks of the Thames. It is a charming walk at -high water, but at low water there is too much odoriferous mud, and -there are too many dead dogs and cats to make it an agreeable resort, -except for enthusiastic entomologists, who seem to swarm in this -neighbourhood. - -Scarcely has such a carcass been stranded than it is beset by -Burying-beetles of various kinds. Hundreds upon hundreds can be shaken -out of the corpse of a dog or cat, and, before the next tide has come -up, there is scarcely any flesh left on the bones, it having been dug -into the earth by the Burying-beetles. - - * * * * * - -THEN there is that wonderful family of Scarabæus-beetles, which do us -invaluable service as scavengers and agriculturists. They follow the -path of the caravans, and effectively cleanse the course which has been -traversed. Even man is obliged to utilise as fuel the droppings of the -horses, cows, and camels; but the Scarabæus goes further, collecting all -that man does not need, and burying it in the earth. - -The instinct of the female Scarabæus urges it to gather together the -rejecta, to form them into balls, placing an egg in the middle of each -ball, and to bury them in the ground. Thus a double object is attained, -the offensive substances being removed from the surface of the ground, -where they do harm, and being transferred below the surface, where they -do good. - -Even the curious instinct of the dog, which leads it to bury bones, &c., -which it cannot consume, and which it often forgets, if well fed, leaves -them to be consumed by the all-absorbing earth. - -[Illustration: SCARABÆUS-BEETLES.] - -[Illustration: MEN MANURING GROUND.] - -It is evident that, in the end, the earth _must_ receive back again that -which has been taken from it. If, for example, we follow the present -most wasteful plan of drainage, and fling into rivers everything which -ought to be utilised on land, it only gets into the sea in the end, and -in the course of years is decomposed, and returns to the earth in the -form of gases. Meanwhile, however, we have robbed the locality, deprived -it of the nourishment which it required, and forced ourselves to supply -it elsewhere at a costly rate. - -So runs the cycle of creation. Sooner or later, Nature will have her -way, and the more we help her, the better it will be for us. - - * * * * * - -OF course I do not mean to condemn Drainage, which is an absolute -necessity in agriculture, and a matter of life and death in households. -But, when rightly conducted, it only signifies that water is removed -from a spot which is overstocked with moisture to one where it is -needed. Wet clay lands, for example, which were unproductive in point of -crops, and injurious in point of human health, have been converted by -judicious drainage into fertile and healthy grounds. - -This, as it will be seen, is a very different business from removing -from the soil the elements which rightly belong to it, and which sooner -or later, in some form or another, it will claim and recapture. - -Still, it is evident that in the progress of civilisation there must be -accumulations of all kinds of refuse, which savages utterly disregard. -Then we come to the question of the Drain combined with the Sewer, and -are enabled to see how the hand of man, if properly directed, only -follows the course of Nature. - -[Illustration: TUNNEL OF MOLE.] - -[Illustration: SEWER.] - -So we undermine our towns with a complex system of drains which are -understood by only a very few people. For example, just as a tree is -only half visible, the roots being about equivalent to the branches, -London is only half visible, the subterranean architecture being little, -if at all, inferior to that of the surface. - -Here, again, we are met by Nature. Very few of us can appreciate the -extensive subterranean works which underlie us, even where the hand of -man has never been placed. Putting aside a multitude of tiny creatures, -there are, in our own country, the earth-worms which pierce the ground -in all directions, at the same time draining and manuring it. They -penetrate it with their little burrows, thus admitting the air, which -the earth needs as much as we do, and allowing moisture to take its -right place. Then there are the moles, that are perpetually travelling -after the earth-worms, and making drainage galleries of wonderful -extent. Then there are the numerous other burrowers, such as rabbits, -mice, and rats, which are common everywhere, besides the less plentiful -foxes, badgers, and various burrowing birds, all of which assist more or -less in the drainage of the earth. - -Even bees and wasps of different kinds assist in this work, the hardest -soil yielding to their small, though powerful, jaws and feet, and so -being made, if only temporarily, able to carry off the superabundant -moisture. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: TAIL OF LOBSTER.] - -[Illustration: FLEXIBLE WATER MAIN.] - -One of the most ingenious modes of Drainage was that which was invented -by Watts, and was avowedly based on Nature. He had engaged himself to -carry a drain tube through, or rather over, an extremely irregular bed -of a river, where the pipes must accommodate themselves to existing -conditions. The modern system of pipes not having been brought into -existence, Watts had to adapt himself to circumstances, and did so by -making his pipe on the model of a Lobster’s tail, as shown in the -illustration. - -We have already seen how the same object has been utilised in warfare as -a pattern for armour, but it does seem rather strange that it should be -employed in the tranquil arts of peace. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER method of removing superfluous water is by the TURBINE PUMP, by -which the water, instead of being cast up in successive jets, was flung -out in a continuous torrent. Some of my readers may remember the -sensation which was created at the first Exhibition of 1852 by the then -extraordinary powers of the Turbine Pump. - -Yet this is, after all, nothing but an imperfect copy of the now -celebrated being to which human beings have been supposed to owe their -origin, namely, the Ascidian, popularly known by the name of the -Sea-squirt, and with very good reasons. - -As a rule, it keeps up a rotation of tentacles, such as is shown in the -illustration, acting exactly on the principle of the Turbine Pump, and -drawing in and discharging water with a power that is perfectly -astonishing in so small a being. Beside this, it has the power of -flinging out at once the whole of its watery contents, and any one who -has incautiously handled a mass of Ascidians, and been drenched by them, -can answer with more truth than satisfaction as to the water-absorbing -power of the Turbine. - -[Illustration: ASCIDIAN.] - -[Illustration: TURBINE PUMP.] - -Then the Ascidian can do what the Turbine cannot do. In the Turbine the -water which is taken in must necessarily be ejected in equal -proportions. With the Ascidian the same thing takes place, but with the -additional power of ejecting all the contained water, and then beginning -afresh. - -There is now no doubt that the Circular or the Turbine Pump is the most -powerful in such cases as emptying mines of the water which, in spite of -all precautions, will make its way in, and destroy the labours of the -miners. But I merely wish to carry out the object of this work by -remarking that the invaluable Turbine Pump is only a very inferior copy -of a natural pump, which existed, as far as we know, centuries before -Man could find his place upon this earth. - - -THE SPIRAL. - -In an early portion of this work the Spiral or Screw was touched upon, -mostly in connection with the propulsion of vessels. We will now extend -it a little further, and see how it is modified so as to perform other -offices than those which have been described. - -Allusion has already been made to the Spiral or Wedge principle, but -some of the illustrations were accidentally omitted. I therefore -introduce them here, this being a chapter of miscellanea. - -The Windmill has previously been described, as has also the ship’s -Screw, another form of which is here given. - -[Illustration: BIRDS’ WINGS AND TAILS.] - -[Illustration: SMOKE-JACK. SHIP’S SCREW. WINDMILL. KITE.] - -In the centre is shown the mechanism popularly known as the Smoke-jack, -though it really works by means of hot air, and only becomes gradually -choked by the soot which the smoke by degrees deposits upon it. It is, -in fact, nothing but a windmill working horizontally instead of -vertically, the vanes being moved by the rapidly ascending heated air. -So powerful is the spiral pressure of this air, that in my old college -days at least a dozen rows of heavily laden spits were perpetually -turned by a single Smoke-jack. It is many years since I visited my old -college, and I cannot say whether the Smoke-jack still exists, but, as -it did its work well so long ago, I presume that it does so now. - -Then there is the well-known spiral ventilator set in the windows of -workshops. Perhaps its revolution may not assist the air-current, but it -does, at all events, show how much exhausted air has to be expelled from -the room, and consequently how much fresh air needs to be brought into -it. - - * * * * * - -PERHAPS the reader may be surprised to see that the Wings and Tail of a -bird and a boy’s Kite are placed among the examples of the Spiral -principle. Yet such is the fact. If the reader will move up and down the -wings of any bird which will not bite him, he will find that there is in -them a peculiar screwing motion, difficult of description, but very -observable. - -It is mostly for want of this movement that all our attempts at fitting -wings to human beings have been such utter failures. We can make the -wings work up and down well enough, but we cannot as yet impart to them -the all-important spiral movement. - - * * * * * - -THAT very well-known toy, the Kite, is another example of the same -principle which drives the screw steamer. Its “tail,” which need be -nothing but a piece of string with a proportionate weight at the end, -keeps the Kite in a slanting position, providing that the “belly-band” -be properly arranged. The consequence is that the pressure of the wind -acts on it as on a wedge, and so drives it upwards until the combined -weight of itself and the string counterbalance the upward pressure. - -Indeed, the only object of the string is to keep the Kite at a proper -inclination; and, if that object could be attained by the force of -gravity alone, the Kite would ascend to a height nearly double that to -which it can at present attain. - - -CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. - -Closely connected with the spiral principle is Centrifugal Force, that -marvellous power which gives to our whole solar system its ceaseless -movements, and may extend, as far as we know, to other and vaster -systems yet unknown. - -Tie a ball to a string, and swing it round, and it will be an exact, -though rough, representation of the double power by which the movements -of the heavenly bodies are governed, our earth being included among -them. - -The string represents the force of attraction, which binds all our -planets to the sun, and their satellites to the planets, while the force -that is employed in swinging the ball represents the mysterious power -that issues from the sun, and gives motion to the planets. The metaphor -is a very homely one, but it is nevertheless correct. - - * * * * * - -IN the accompanying illustration are several examples of Centrifugal -Force as found both in Nature and Art. On the left hand we have diagrams -of some of the heavenly bodies, showing the revolution of their -offspring, so to call them, while on the right are seen examples of -Centrifugal Force as applied to human use. For convenience’ sake, the -illustrations have been separated into two portions. - -[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF HEAVENLY BODIES.] - -[Illustration: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF “GOVERNORS” OF ENGINE. SLING. -AMENTUM AND MOP.] - -In the first of these illustrations we have the “Governor” of the -steam-engine, that wonderfully ingenious and simple piece of mechanism -which controls the force of the steam, and, without the superintendence -of man, acts almost as a living being might. - -It is composed of two heavy metal balls, hinged, as shown in the -illustration, to a movable collar which slides up and down the central -rod. When the engine is at work the Governor revolves, and the harder it -works, the more rapid is the revolution. Consequently, as it revolves, -the balls diverge and draw the sliding collar up the rod. - -Here lies the whole beauty of the invention. The sliding collar is -connected with the safety-valve. Thus, if the engine should be working -beyond its proper powers, the Governor draws up the collar, and releases -sufficient steam to take the undue pressure off the boiler. Thus the -engine may be left, so to speak, to manage itself. - - * * * * * - -NEXT are shown two examples of Centrifugal Force as applied in ancient -warfare, namely, the Sling, which is now retained merely as a boy’s toy, -and the Amentum, which was practically a sling attached to a spear. Both -weapons have been superseded by the modern firearms, but the Sling is -really a more formidable offensive weapon, in skilful hands, than is -generally suspected. - -A good slinger is as sure of his aim as a good rifleman, and can send -his missile to a wonderful distance. Were I to be armed with the best -pistol hitherto invented, I should be sorry to fight an accomplished -slinger, unless under cover. - -The really tremendous power of the Sling is obtained by Centrifugal -Force, the weapon, with its missile, being whirled in the air, and then -one string being loosed with a peculiar knack something like the “loose” -of a good archer. In consequence, the centrifugal force is converted -into direct force, and the missile flies directly forwards. - -The Amentum is simply a cord tied to a javelin, so that the thrower has -the advantage of a lever, which, after all, is only the conversion of -centrifugal force. - -The very familiar Mop, flinging off its moisture to a considerable -distance, needs no description; but I have introduced it to show the -action of centrifugal force in small as well as in great things. - - * * * * * - -THE next illustration shows how this very same power acts upon the -greatest as well as the least of objects, and enables them to maintain -positions which otherwise they must of necessity fail to do. Take, for -example, our own Earth, and its peculiar position of being tilted on one -side, so as to give us the alternative seasons as it flies on its annual -course. - -This is simply due to its own rapid revolution, which, on the same -principle that keeps the arrow and the rifle-ball straight on their -course, prevents it from altering its position. - -The very same principle acts on the boys’ Tops, and is shown in a really -remarkable manner by the professional Japanese top-spinners, who will -place several tops upon each other, as shown in the illustration, and -make them sway backwards and forwards in the most extraordinary manner, -sometimes being all upright, and sometimes leaning almost at right -angles to each other. - -A favourite mode of illustrating this power of Centrifugal Force is by -the Gyroscope, a figure of which is given on the right hand of the -illustration. The interior wheel is made to revolve rapidly, and the -effect of the revolution is to enable the instrument to maintain a -horizontal position, even when suspended on one side, as shown in the -engraving. - -[Illustration: REVOLUTION OF EARTH.] - -[Illustration: JAPANESE TOPS.] - -[Illustration: GYROSCOPE.] - -The power of this revolution is quite wonderful, even in a small -Gyroscope which can be purchased for a few shillings. It almost seems to -be alive, and to insist on retaining its position, in spite of all -efforts to the contrary. - -This principle is used in the swinging cabin of the Bessemer ship, and -is also employed by quoit-players in keeping their missile steady as it -flies towards the mark. Even the now fashionable Bicycle is managed on -the same principle. - -As is well known to all bicycle riders, it is comparatively easy to -maintain the balance when the pace is rapid and the wheels revolving -quickly. The difficulty is, to do so when the pace is slow, and the -rider is deprived of the centrifugal force which keeps him on his -balance almost in spite of himself. It is just the same with a child’s -hoop, which runs straight and upright when it is driven rapidly, or -when, for example, it runs downhill. But, as soon as the centrifugal -force is expended, it begins to waver, loses its direction, and soon -falls to the ground. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -OSCILLATION.--UNITED STRENGTH.--THE DOME. - - Connection of Oscillation with Centrifugal Force.--Equality of Time - in Oscillation.--The Spider.--The Stone and String.--Pendulum of - the Clock, and its Effect on the Machinery.--Acceleration and - Retardation.--Compensating Pendulums.--The Metronome, and its Use - in Music.--A simple Metronome.--Value of the Instrument in - War.--The Escapement, and its Connection with the Pendulum.--Mode - of Action.--Larva of Burying-beetle.--Earthworms and - Serpents.--Union is Strength.--The Hippopotamus Rope and its - Structure.--The Spider-web.--Distinction between the - Threads.--Principle of the Dome.--The Arch, and its Connection with - the Dome.--Esquimaux Huts.--Receiver of the Air-pump, and its Power - of Resistance.--The Human Skull and the Egg.--Accidental - Resemblance.--The Salad-dressing Bottle.--The Medusa, Strobila, and - Hydra. - - -A portion of our last chapter dealt of Centrifugal Force. We will now -proceed to another well-known power, which seems to be a variation, or -perhaps a division, of the same power. I mean the principle of -OSCILLATION, which has done so much for the present state of the world. -I mention the connection of the two principles because it is evident -that, if Oscillation were continued in one direction, it would be -converted into centrifugal force. In fact, it can only be considered as -centrifugal force interrupted. - -The chief point in this subject is the equal time occupied by the -oscillating body, no matter what may be the “arc” distance through which -it sways, provided that the length of the line remains the same. The -discovery of this principle by Galileo in a church at Florence is too -well known to need repetition. - -This principle may be observed by any one, and at almost any time. The -Spider at the end of its line illustrates it, and so does a stone tied -to a string, both of which objects are shown in the illustration. - - * * * * * - -IN various departments of Art, Oscillation is absolutely invaluable. We -will take, for instance, the best known of these examples, namely, the -Pendulum, by which the movements of clocks are regulated. Without some -mode of regulation, the works would run down rapidly, and the clock -rendered incapable of measuring time. But, in the Pendulum, we possess a -means of making a clock go at any desirable rate, and be faster and -slower at pleasure; a long Pendulum working slowly, and a short one -rapidly. - -[Illustration: SPIDER.] - -[Illustration: OSCILLATING WEIGHT.] - -[Illustration: METRONOME.] - -[Illustration: PENDULUM.] - -How the Pendulum affects the working of a clock may be seen by reference -to the right-hand figure of the illustration. The movements of the clock -are connected with the Pendulum by means of an ingenious piece of -mechanism called an “escapement,” because it only allows the wheel shown -in the illustration to move one cog at each swing of the Pendulum. - -Now, as in the latitude of London a pendulum which is a trifle more than -thirty-nine inches in length swings once in a second, it is evident -that, by lengthening or shortening the Pendulum, we have the rate of the -clock entirely under command. - -For example, if a Pendulum be required to swing once in two seconds, it -must be four times as long as that which swings once in one second, -while to swing once in three seconds it must be nine times as long, the -length being measured by the square of the time of vibration. - -We are thus able to “regulate” clocks by lengthening the Pendulum if -they be too fast, and shortening them if they be too slow. The reader -will probably have remarked that the conditions of the atmosphere--such -as heat, cold, moisture, or dryness--must have an effect on the length -of the Pendulum, and thus alter the rating of the clock. So they do, and -in consequence the Compensating Pendulums have been invented, some of -them being made of metallic rods of different powers of expansion, -mostly brass and steel, while others carry a quantity of mercury in a -glass tube near the bottom of the Pendulum. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER familiar example of the Pendulum is the Metronome, which is -simply a Pendulum with a weight at the top as well as counterpoise below -the bottom, the weight moving up or down so as to decrease or hasten the -pace. Generally a bell is added to it, which is struck at the beginning -of each bar. - -The exactness of its beats is perfect, as is known to all musicians, and -is calculated to take the conceit out of players who are apt to -disregard their time. I knew one lady, a really good pianiste, before -whom I placed my Metronome. Before she had played many bars she broke -down, exclaiming that the horrid bell always said “ting” in the wrong -place. However, she soon acknowledged the value of the instrument, and -was glad to use it. - -A very good Metronome may be made by fastening a bullet to the end of a -piece of tape, and swinging it backwards and forwards, regulating the -tape according to the time required. Such a Metronome is very portable, -and extremely useful where the conveyance of the clockwork instrument -would be troublesome. Moreover, its beats can be seen by a great number -of persons. I have often used it myself. - -Such a Metronome is used in the army, in order to regulate the pace of -the soldier’s step, it being of the last importance that the pace should -always be the same. Otherwise it would be impossible to calculate the -time which ought to be consumed in marching a certain distance, and the -military calculations on which depends the success or failure of a -campaign would be wholly upset, half an hour too soon or too late -meaning failure. - - -THE ESCAPEMENT. - -As we are on the subject of the pendulum and Escapement, we will say a -few words about the latter piece of mechanism. It is here given on a -larger scale than in the previous illustration, so that its action may -be more easily understood. Whether in watch or clock, the Escapement is -exactly the same in principle. - -[Illustration: LARVA OF BURYING-BEETLE.] - -[Illustration: ESCAPEMENT OF WATCH.] - -First there is the escapement wheel, the circumference of which is -furnished with a number of very deep cogs, varying as to the work which -they have to do. Then there comes the escapement itself, which swings on -its pivot, and is regulated in its oscillations by the pendulum. As it -swings backwards and forwards, it is evident that only one tooth of the -wheel can “escape,” and only that in one direction. - -We can reverse a steam-engine, but the man has yet to be found who can -reverse a clock, _i.e._ enable it to continue going in the opposite -direction. The only mode would be to enable one set of cogs to flatten -themselves, so as to pass the escapement, and a second set to start up -in exactly the opposite direction. Or perhaps there might be two -parallel escapement wheels, capable of being connected or disconnected -with the clock at pleasure. As, however, a reverse movement is quite -needless, no such invention seems to have been made. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand is seen an example of the same principle as shown in -Nature. It represents a larva or grub of the Burying-beetle. It has no -legs available for locomotion, and yet it can get along with tolerable -speed. - -Many years ago, when living in Wiltshire, I was much struck with this -fact. There had been an epidemic among sheep, which killed them off so -fast that the farmers would at last not even bury them, but took off the -skins, and left the bodies to moulder as they best might. - -It was very unpleasant for the farmers, but just the contrary for the -Burying-beetles, which simply swarmed in the deserted carcasses. If one -of them were tapped with a stick, hundreds of these larvæ came scuttling -out, displaying an activity which was really remarkable in creatures -practically legless. - -In reality this movement is achieved by an apparatus very similar in its -action to that of the escapement. The rings, or “segments,” of which the -body is composed, are furnished with rows of sharp points, arranged very -like the cogs of the escapement wheel. By alternately elongating and -contracting the body, these points catch against surrounding substances, -and force the creature onwards, only allowing of movement in one -direction. - -Perhaps the reader will remember that in an earlier part of this work it -has been mentioned that the various worms propel themselves by the same -means. So do the Serpents, the edges of the scales serving the same -purpose as the hairs of the worms and the hooks of the grub. - - -UNION IS STRENGTH. - -ON the left hand of the accompanying illustration we have an example of -the wonderful power obtained by uniting together a number of -comparatively weak objects. It represents a portion of the rope attached -to the harpoon with which the natives of some parts of Africa attack and -kill the hippopotamus. - -Considering that a full-grown hippopotamus weighs several tons, and, in -spite of its enormous size, is as active as a tiger, we can infer the -strength of the rope which must be needed to hold such an animal when -excited with rage and pain. - -A few years ago the female hippopotamus at the Zoological Gardens, when -deprived of her cub, actually tried to leap over the lofty iron barrier, -and so far succeeded as to throw her weight on the uppermost bar. -Fortunately it was made of well-wrought iron, and was only bent by her -weight. Had it been made of cast-iron, like most railings, she would -have snapped it like glass. - -Now, the fibres of which the rope is composed are individually feeble, -but, when they lend their strength to each other, their strength is -amazing. It is well shown by a lasso in my possession, made of the -fibres of the aloe-leaf. It is scarcely as thick as a man’s little -finger, and yet it is strong enough to resist the efforts of the most -powerful wild bull. I have some of the separate fibres, and it is -interesting to notice how fibres so slight when separate should be so -strong when united. Part of the rope has been unlaid, so as to show the -manner in which it has been put together. - -[Illustration: HIPPOPOTAMUS ROPE.] - -[Illustration: SPINNERET OF SPIDER.] - -Towards the harpoon itself, a number of small cords laid loosely side by -side are used, so as to prevent the hippopotamus from severing the rope -with his chisel-like teeth, which he would assuredly do if it were -single. The multitudinous cords become entangled among the teeth, and -baffle his efforts; but still their unity is their strength; and, though -the animal may sever one or two of them, the others retain their hold -until he dies under a shower of spears. - - * * * * * - -ON the right-hand side of the illustration is the Spinneret of the -ordinary garden Spider, showing the many orifices from which the silken -threads emerge. It is a remarkable point, and one which, I believe, is -seldom noticed, that the Spider can at pleasure combine all these fibres -into a single cord, or issue and keep them separate, just as is the case -with the hippopotamus rope. - -The latter operation may be seen whenever a large fly gets into the web. -The Spider darts at it, bites it, and then, ejecting a loose mass of -fibres, rolls it up in a moment, as in a shroud, carries it off and -hangs it in a convenient place, and mends the broken meshes of the web. -But both kinds of the cords of the net are made differently from the -winding-up fibres, the former being fixed together, and the latter kept -separate. - - -PRINCIPLE OF THE DOME. - -We are all familiar with Domes, especially when the Dome of St. Paul’s -is the most conspicuous object in our metropolis. Few persons, however, -except professional architects and builders, seem to ask themselves the -principle on which the Dome is constructed. - -The strength of the arch is well known, and the Dome is practically a -number of arches, affording material support to each other, and so -enormously increasing the strength of the edifice. - -A good idea of the Dome principle may be formed by taking two croquet -hoops, placing them at right angles to each other, tying them together -at the intersection, and pushing the ends in the ground. Even by this -very simple arrangement considerable strength can be obtained; but, if -the hoops be sufficiently multiplied to form a close Dome, it will be -evident that the strength will be correspondingly increased. - -So strong, indeed, is the Dome, that it could be made without mortar or -cement, although, of course, its strength is increased by their use. A -very good example of a Dome thus constructed is found in the “igloo,” or -snow-hut of the Esquimaux, which has already been described. - -As to the example which I have selected, it would have been easy enough -to have chosen one of the great Domes of the world, such as St. Peter’s -at Rome, St. Maria del Fiore at Florence, St. Paul’s of London, or St. -Geneviève or the Invalides of Paris. - -I have, however, selected the present example on account of the thinness -of its walls, the fragility of its material, and the enormous pressure -which it has to undergo. This is the “Receiver” of the Air-pump. It is -made of glass not thicker than an ordinary tumbler, and yet, even when -exhausted of air, it will resist the pressure of the atmosphere for -days together. - -When it is remembered that the Receiver is deprived of its internal air, -and therefore has to resist a pressure equal to fifteen pounds on every -square inch of its surface, it may be imagined how strong the Dome is. -Were the top or either side to be flat, it would be crushed as soon as a -vacuum was formed sufficient to deprive it of the support of the air -within. - - * * * * * - -A GLANCE at the illustration will show how the Receiver is modelled on -the same plan as the Human Skull, the outlines being curiously similar. -It is this formation which imparts such strength to so thin a set of -bones as those which compose the human skull as enables them to protect -a sensitive organ like the brain, on which both reason and life itself -depend. - -[Illustration: HUMAN SKULL.] - -[Illustration: RECEIVER OF AIR-PUMP.] - -Eggs also form good examples of the wonderful strength obtained by this -principle, their thin shells protecting the yolk and the white, as well -as the chick through its progress to maturity. - - * * * * * - -THE last subject in this chapter is a curious example of an evidently -accidental resemblance in form. - -The figure on the right of the accompanying illustration will at once be -recognised as one of those Salad-dressing Bottles which try to conceal -by their shape the small volume of their contents. - -That on the left represents one of the many forms through which the -Medusa passes before it attains its perfect form. It was long thought -to be a separate creature, and was known under the scientific name of -Strobila. Modern researches have, however, made the discovery that it is -one of the transitional stages between the creature known as the -Trumpet-hydra (_Hydra tuba_) and the Medusa, popularly known as -Jelly-fish. - -The former almost exactly resembles the Hydra of our fresh waters. It is -a tiny transparent gelatinous bag--so transparent as to be scarcely -perceptible, and with some thirty or forty long and delicate tentacles -hanging from its open end. These tentacles are used in catching the -minute creatures on which it feeds. It is fixed, and, to use Mr. Rymer -Jones’s simile, looks like a beautiful silk-like pencil waving amidst -the water. Its length is not quite half an inch. - -[Illustration: TRUMPET-HYDRA.] - -[Illustration: SALAD-DRESSING BOTTLE.] - -That it should be identical with the remarkable form shown in the -illustration seems impossible, but such is the case. Its body becomes -contracted as if tied with strings, and every segment thus formed -develops a set of tentacles, breaks away, and swims off in the form of a -Medusa. The upper segment is exhibited as undergoing this process. - -The figure is magnified so as to show the structure better, its right -length being about one-third of an inch. A full and graphic history of -this creature and its manifold changes may be found in Mr. Rymer Jones’s -“Aquarian Naturalist.” - -It is not likely that the inventor of the Salad-dressing Bottle ever saw -a Hydra, but the resemblance is strangely exact. - - - - -ACOUSTICS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -PERCUSSION.--THE STRING AND REED.--THE -TRUMPET.--EAR-TRUMPET.--STETHOSCOPE. - - The Science of Sound.--Rhythmical Vibrations.--The Drum.--Primitive - Drums.--The Solid and Hollow Log.--The Bass Drum and - Kettle-drum.--African Drums.--Gnostic Gems and the Ashanti - Drum.--Tympanum, or Drum of the Human Ear, and its Mechanism.--An - artificial Tympanum.--The String.--The Bow and the Harp.--The - Harpsichord and the Zither.--The Bow and the Violin.--The - Cricket.--The Vibrator, or Reed.--The Jew’s Harp and - Harmonium.--The Cicada and its Song.--Harmonics upon Strings.--The - Æolian Harp.--Harmonics upon the Trumpet.--The Trombone.--Trachea - of the Swan.--The Ear-trumpet.--The Sea-shell.--The - Stethoscope.--Savage Food.--The Aye-aye.--The Siren and its - Uses.--Echo and Whispering Gallery. - - -In a work of this nature it would be absolutely impossible, not to say -out of place, to give an account of so elaborate a subject as Acoustics, -_i.e._ the science of Sound. Suffice it to say, that all sounds are -produced by the vibration of air, and that the fewer vibrations, the -lower is the sound, and _vice versâ_. - -When such vibrations are produced regularly, they form Musical sounds, -but, if irregularly, the sounds can be only distinguished under the term -of Noise. The earliest germ of music lies in certain savage races, who, -as long as they can maintain a rhythmical beat on any resonant -substance, do not particularly care what it is. A hollow tree is a -splendid instrument in their opinion, but, if this cannot be had, a dry -log of wood will answer the same purpose. - -Some tribes, more ingenious than others, cut a deep groove upon the -upper surface of a log, hollow it through this groove, and then hammer -away at it to their hearts’ content. The next move was to cut off a -section of the trunk of a tree, hollow it, set it on end, and then beat -it on the sides. - -Lastly, some one hit upon the idea that if the open upper part of the -hollowed log were covered with a tightly stretched membrane, and that if -the membrane, instead of the log, were beaten, the resonance would be -increased. In consequence, the real Drum was invented, and seems to have -existed from time immemorial in parts of the world so distant that they -could not have had any communication with each other. - -Take, for example, the well-known “Bass Drum” of our bands, which is -shown on the right hand of the figure. We make it a very ornamental -article, with frame of metal, and heraldic decorations of all kinds. - -[Illustration: - -BONES AND DRUM OF EAR. - -_a_ TUBE OF EAR. -_b_ DRUM. -_c_ HAMMER. -_d_ ANVIL. -_e_ STIRRUP.] - -[Illustration: DRUMS.] - -Lying against it is one of a pair of Kettle-drums, such as are always -seen in mounted bands. They look very easy to play, but, if the reader -will try a pair, he will soon find his mistake. - -But there are savage tribes of Western Africa who make Drums of such -wonderful power that their sullen roar is heard for miles around, as -their slow, triple beat summons the tribe to arms like the fiery cross -of the Highland clans. As to shape, lightness, and beauty, our Drums are -infinitely superior to theirs, but, so far as I can gather from personal -and written narratives of African travellers, none of our Drums surpass -theirs in richness, depth of tone, and power of carrying sound. - -Sometimes these Drums, instead of being mere cylinders, are carved into -the most strange and fantastical patterns. I possess one of these -curious Drums, brought from Ashanti, and carved out of a solid piece of -wood. - -The strange point in it is, that it represents a double head carrying, -after all negro fashions, a sort of vessel upon it. One part of the head -represents a human head (not that of a negro), while the other merges -gradually into an eagle’s head and beak. It is, in fact, a Gnostic gem, -and would pass muster as such if it had been engraved on chalcedony, -cornelian, or other semi-precious stones which are employed in the -seal-engraver’s art. - -Upon this composite head is placed the Drum itself, which is also cut -out of the solid block, and which, after the fashion of West African -Drums, has a hole on one side. - -This remarkable instrument was given to me by an old merchant captain, -who brought it himself from West Africa, and who, when I made his -acquaintance, had actually painted it all kinds of colours, planted it -in his garden, and was using the Drum as a flower-pot. Of course, as -soon as it came into my possession, I put it in “pickle,”--i.e. a strong -solution of alkali,--brushed off the paint, and placed it in my museum, -where it is now. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration on page 514 is given a sort of map -or chart of the human Ear, with its internal Drum, or Tympanum, as it is -scientifically termed. - -It is by the vibration of this Drum that hearing is made possible, the -vibrations of the air being transmitted to the Drum by means of a -beautiful bony apparatus, termed the Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup. -Sometimes the action of the Drum is partially checked, and then the -sufferer is said to be “hard of hearing.” Sometimes it is broken, or its -action totally clogged, and then he is said to be “stone deaf.” There -have been cases where an artificial tympanum has been inserted, and -answered its purpose fairly well. - - -THE STRING AND REED. - -It has previously been mentioned that all sounds are owing to vibrations -of the air. But there are many ways of producing these vibrations, and -each mode gives a different quality of tone. We have already seen, by -means of the drum, how sound is produced by percussion. We shall now see -how sounds can be produced by the vibrations of a String. - -If the string of a bow be pulled and smartly loosed, the result is a -distinctly musical sound, higher or lower according to the length and -tension of the string. Perhaps some of my readers may recall the passage -in Homer’s “Odyssey,” where Ulysses strings the fatal bow:-- - - “Heedless he heard them; but disdained reply, - The bow perusing with exactest eye. - Then, as some heavenly minstrel, taught to sing - High notes responsive to the trembling string, - To some new strain when he adapts the lyre, - Or the dumb lute refits with vocal wire, - Relaxes, strains, and draws them to and fro; - So the great master drew the mighty bow, - And drew with ease. One hand aloft displayed - The bending horns, and one the string essayed. - From his essaying hand the string let fly, - Twanged short and sharp, like the shrill swallow’s cry.” - -The Harp is, in fact, nothing but a magnified bow, with a number of -strings of graduated length and tension. Some very beautiful experiments -have been made on this subject by the Rev. Sir F. A. G. Ouseley, -Professor of Music at Oxford, who stretched a string of sixty-four feet -in length, and found that although, when vibrating, it must produce a -note, there was no human ear that could distinguish it. Yet, if combined -with other musical instruments, it would probably do its work well. The -theory of the vibrations will be briefly described on another page. - -These vibrations may be produced in various manners. The string may be -pulled with the fingers, as in the harp, the guitar, the zither, or even -the violin, &c., in pizzicato passages. - -The old harpsichord, now an instrument vanished into the shadows of the -past, pulled the strings with little strips of quill, acting like the -thumb-ring of the zither-player. The “plectrum” of the ancients acted in -the same manner, and the Japanese have at the present day a sort of -guitar played with a plectrum. I have heard it, but cannot particularly -admire the effect, the notes appearing to be without feeling, and as if -they were played on a barrel-organ. - -Sometimes, as in our modern pianos, the strings are struck by hammers -instead of being pulled by fingers, plectrum, or goose-quill. - -The most ingenious mode of causing musical vibration is the Bow, which -is too familiar to need a detailed description. Suffice it to say that -it really is a modified bow, the place of the string being supplied by a -flat band of horsehair, which is drawn over the string, and so causes it -to vibrate. In order to enable the bow to grip the string, it is rubbed -with resin almost as often as a billiard-player chalks his cue. - -Some skill is required even in producing a sound by the bow. It looks as -if any one could do it, but a novice, if he extorts any sound at all, -never rises above a squeak. When I took my first violin lessons, nearly -thirty years ago, I was so horrified at the discordant sounds elicited -from the instrument, that I retired to the topmost garret of the house -in order not to hurt any one’s feelings except my own. - -[Illustration: CRICKET.] - -[Illustration: CICADA.] - -[Illustration: VIOLIN.] - -[Illustration: JEW’S HARP.] - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration is seen a well-known example of the -imitation of Nature by Art. This is the common Cricket, whose loud -shrill call is more familiar than agreeable. - -Some years ago, while engaged on my “Insects at Home,” I gave much time -to the examination of the structures by which such a sound can be -produced. On the under side of the wing-covers, or “elytra,” as they are -scientifically termed, are notched ridges, which, when examined with a -moderate power of the microscope, have something of this appearance -~~~~~~~. The friction of these notches produces the musical sound, -which, as the reader will see, is exactly analogous to the friction of -the bow upon the string. - - * * * * * - -NEXT we come to the Vibrator, sometimes called the Reed. It is -introduced into various musical instruments, such, for example, as the -harmonium, the clarionet, the oboe, the bassoon, and various organ -pipes. - -The simplest form of the Vibrator is shown in the Jew’s Harp, as it is -popularly called, though it is not a harp, and has nothing to do with -Jews. - -[Illustration: VIBRATING STRINGS.] - -[Illustration: ÆOLIAN HARP.] - -The word is really a mistaken pronunciation of “jaw’s harp,” because the -instrument is held against the teeth, while its tongue is vibrated by -strokes of the finger. These vibrations affect the air within the mouth, -and, by expanding or contracting the mouth, the sound is lowered or -raised according to the laws of Acoustics. Of course, the range of notes -is very small, being limited to those of the common chord, and even they -being attainable only by a practised performer. Very good effects, -however, have been produced by means of a series of Jew’s Harps, set to -different tones by loading the end of the tongue with sealing-wax or -similar substances. - - * * * * * - -AN apparatus constructed on the same principle is to be found in the -vocal organs of the male Cicada. If one of these insects be examined on -the lower surface, two curious and nearly circular flaps will be seen, -just at the junction of the thorax with the abdomen. It is by the action -of these two little vibrators that the insect is able to produce a sound -so loud, that in calm weather it may be heard at the distance of a mile. - - * * * * * - -THE accompanying illustration is, in fact, a sort of chart as to the -vibration of sound. - -On the right is shown the ÆOLIAN HARP, with its upper lid raised, so as -to show the structure of the strings. These are all tuned to the same -note, the present D being generally accepted as being most free from -false tuning, and less liable for the errors of “temperament.” Several -of the strings are an octave lower than the others, but the tonic is -always the same. - -The instrument is placed in a current of air, generally in a window, -with the sash let down upon it, and the air-currents set the strings -vibrating in a most wonderful manner. - -There is no need for human fingers to touch them, but they automatically -divide themselves into the component parts of the common chord, and -produce octaves, fifths, and thirds _ad infinitum_. - -On the left hand of the same illustration is exhibited a string of the -same length and tension, vibrating in two different ways. The upper -figure shows it divided into three portions, each of which gives the -fifth above the tonic, and all of which, when sounding simultaneously, -give a fulness and richness to the tone which could only be attained -otherwise by three distinct instruments. All players of stringed -instruments know how invaluable are these harmonics, without which many -passages of well-known music could not be played, and which are produced -by “damping,” and not pressing the strings. - -So, if the string be lightly touched, or damped at the crossing portion -at either end, the result will be that the string divides itself into -three portions, and all three resound simultaneously. - -The lower string is vibrating in thirds, having divided itself into four -portions. If it were damped in the middle, it would divide itself into -two portions, and sound octaves. - -The subject is a most interesting one, but our space is nearly -exhausted, and we must pass to another branch of it. - - * * * * * - -IN all brass instruments furnished with a mouthpiece, and not with a -reed, the notes are obtained by vibrations of the enclosed air, caused -by the movement of the lips. They are all set to some definite tonic, -sometimes C natural, but mostly to a flat tone, such as B flat or E -flat. - -Taking the ordinary military trumpet or bugle as an example, we have -(when we have learned how to play it), first, the tonic. By alteration -of the lips we get the octave above the tonic. Then comes the fifth; -then the third, which is, in fact, another octave; and then a few other -notes, the truth of which depends on the ear of the player. - -Now, all these notes are obtained by means of the lips, which set the -column of air vibrating, and divide it into harmonics. The apparently -complicated bugle-calls of the army are nearly all formed from four -notes only, _i.e._ (taking C as the tonic) C G C E G. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: TRACHEA OF SWAN.] - -[Illustration: TROMBONE.] - -The Trombone, which is shown on the right hand of the illustration, has -the advantage of being lengthened at will, and thus giving the performer -a fresh tonic, and consequently another series of harmonics. Valved and -keyed instruments have a similar advantage, the one acting by -lengthening, and the other by shortening, the column of air. The former -is infinitely the better plan, as it sets more harmonics vibrating, and -consequently gives a greater richness of tone. - -A familiar example of this is to be found in the Ophicleide and -Euphonium. The former is eight feet in total length, and alters its -tonic by eleven keys, which shorten the column of air. The latter is of -the same length, but, by the employment of valves, can be made sixteen -feet in length. Consequently the euphonium has practically killed the -ophicleide, just as the ophicleide killed the serpent. The -cornet-à-pistons, the brass contra-basso, the flugel horn, the tenor -sax-horn, &c., are all constructed on the same principle. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand of the illustration is shown the wonderful apparatus by -means of which the Swan produces its far-resounding cry. The windpipe, -or “trachea,” as it is technically named, passes down the neck, -protected by the bones, until it reaches the chest. There it leaves -them, enters the cavity of the chest, and contorts itself in such a -manner as to obtain greater length, just as is the case with the -trombone and valved instruments. - - -ACOUSTICS AS AIDS TO SURGERY. - -We have already seen how the air-vibrations poured in at the small end -of the trumpet can make resonant notes. We have now to see how the -reverse process can be employed, and sounds poured into the larger end -be conveyed to the ear. - -[Illustration: EAR-TRUMPET.] - -[Illustration: CONCHA OF HUMAN EAR.] - -The Ear-trumpet is a familiar example of such an instrument, and, as it -is shown in the illustration, there is no need of further description. -It is rather remarkable, by the way, that the length of tube does not -seem to interfere with the conveyance of sound, as may be seen by the -speaking-tubes which are now so common in private houses, hotels, and -offices. - -I know of one church in which there is a special seat for deaf persons. -The reading-desk and pulpit are both fitted with the large ends of -Ear-trumpets. From them pass tubes under the flooring, and so into the -seat, where they can be applied to the ear of the deaf worshippers. - - * * * * * - -ON the right hand is the “Concha,” as it is called, of the human ear, -which is evidently constructed for the purpose of collecting and -concentrating sounds. Instinctively, if we wish to near any sound more -distinctly, we place the open hand behind the ear, so as to enlarge its -receptive capacity, and send a greater volume of sound into the ear. - -The well-known experiment of holding a shell to the ear so as to hear -the murmur of the sea is due to the same cause, the shell collecting, -though in a mixed manner, all the surrounding sounds, and making a -murmur which really resembles the distant wash of the waves upon the -shore. - -[Illustration: SAVAGE TAPPING TREE.] - -[Illustration: SURGEON USING STETHOSCOPE.] - -Then, if we examine the various animals which need acute hearing, either -to seize prey or escape from enemies, we shall find that they have large -and mobile ears, which can be directed so as to catch the expected -sound. The hare, rabbit, and deer are examples of the latter, while the -former are well represented by the domestic cat, whose ears are always -pricked forward when she hears the scratchings of a mouse. - - * * * * * - -ANOTHER most useful appliance is the STETHOSCOPE, which enables the -skilful surgeon to investigate the interior of the body almost as -clearly as if it were transparent. It is perfectly simple, being nothing -but a trumpet-shaped piece of wood, formed as shown in the illustration. -Sometimes it is hollow, and sometimes solid, but the result is the -same, sound being transmitted through wood in a most remarkable manner. - -For example, if one end of the longest scaffolding pole be slightly -scratched with a pin, the sound will be distinctly heard by any one who -places his ear against the other end, though the person who uses the pin -can scarcely hear the sound himself. The surgeon, therefore, places the -broad end of the Stethoscope upon the patient, and the other upon his -ear, taps more or less lightly with his fingers, and by the sounds -transmitted through the Stethoscope ascertains the condition of the -internal organs. - - * * * * * - -ON the left hand is an illustration of the mode in which the Australian -savage, without the least idea of the theory of Acoustics, utilises the -sound-conducting power of wood. If he wishes to know whether or not a -hollow tree is tenanted by an animal of which he is in pursuit, he -places his ear against the tree, taps it smartly with his tomahawk, and -listens for the movement of the animal inside. - -So delicate is this test, that it is employed even when the native is -hunting for the large beetle-grubs on which they feed, and which are -accounted a luxury even by Europeans, when they have once overcome the -prejudice attaching itself to eating, without cookery, fat white grubs -as thick and long as a man’s finger. - -The Aye-aye is said to eat in exactly the same manner, tapping with its -long finger the trunks and branches of trees and, if it hears a maggot -inside, gnawing it out. - - -MEASUREMENT OF SOUND. - -Of late years we have had an instrument which enables us to measure the -vibrations of sound as accurately as the barometer measures the weight -of the atmosphere, the thermometer the temperature, and the photometer -the power of light. This is the Siren, which is shown on the right hand -of the accompanying illustration. - -To explain this instrument fully would require ten times the space which -we have at command, and necessitate a great number of drawings. I will, -therefore, endeavour to explain its principle in as brief terms as -possible. - -The reader will observe that at the lower part of the instrument there -is a disc pierced with a number of holes, and that above these are two -dials. Below the perforated disc, and therefore unseen, is a circular -plate, also pierced with holes. When a pipe is attached to the lower -part of the instrument, and air propelled through it, the disc begins to -revolve, every revolution being recorded by the dials, after the fashion -of the ordinary gas-meter. - -[Illustration: GNAT.] - -[Illustration: HUMBLE-BEE.] - -[Illustration: SIREN.] - -As the pressure is increased, the air, passing through the holes, -assumes a rhythmical beat, which soon becomes metamorphosed into musical -notes. It is evident, therefore, that, by means of this instrument, the -number of vibrations which produce a definite tone can be measured with -absolute accuracy by any one who has an ear capable of appreciating a -musical note. - -It is by means of the Siren that the much-disputed tonic of C will be -settled, the Continental and the English C being greatly at variance, -and even the English C having been advanced almost a tone since the time -of Handel. Much is it to be wished that Italy, the home of song, and -England, the patron of song, could unite in their tonic, instead of -having systems so widely different that an Italian singer is at a loss -with the English pitch, as is an English singer with the Italian pitch. - -The Siren is even brought into the service of entomologists, enabling -them to measure by the sound the rapidity with which a flying insect -moves its wings. By means of this instrument we know the origin of the -sharp, piercing “ping” of the Gnat, and the heavy, dull boom of the -Humble-bee, both of which insects are given in the illustration. - -Before taking leave of this subject, I may mention that the instrument -is called the Siren because it sings as well under water as in the air, -provided that water instead of air be driven through it. - - -ECHO. - -Our last page will be given to the phenomenon called by the name of -ECHO, which consists in the power of solid substances, whether natural -or artificial, of reflecting the waves of sound thrown against them, -just as a mirror reflects the waves of light. - -[Illustration: WHISPERING GALLERY.] - -Very often the Echo is naturally formed, as shown in the illustration, -by rocks which cast back the sound--waves thrown against them. This is -the case in several parts of Dovedale in Derbyshire, where a pistol shot -is reverberated backwards and forwards in a most wonderful manner, and a -trumpet blast repeats itself over and over again. - -At Walton Hall, the residence of the late C. Waterton, Esq., there is a -wonderful Echo, nearly half a mile from the house. Mr. Waterton had -discovered the Echo, which proceeded from the walls of the house, and, -having found its focus, placed on it a large stone, called the -Echo-stone. Any one sitting on this stone, and singing, speaking, or -whistling towards the house, heard every sound repeated, as if in -mockery. - -The celebrated Whispering Gallery in St. Paul’s Cathedral is nothing but -an ordinary Echo, though so intensified by the process of radiation, -that the sound is transmitted from one side of the dome to the other, -just as light or heat is reflected from concave mirrors. - - - - -INDEX. - - -A. - -Aard-vark, 182, 227 - -Abattis, 109 - -Acaleph, 15 - -Acorn Barnacles, 90 - -Acoustics, 513 - -Acrida viridissima, 231 - -Actinurus, 461 - -Adze, 234 - -Æolian Harp, 518 - -Aërostatics, 436 - -Air-gun, 77 - -Aloe, 252 - -Amentum, 502 - -Amphidotus cordatus, 224 - -Anchor, 39 - -Angler-fish, 91, 416 - -Antherozoids, 368 - -Ant-bear, 100 - -Ant-lion, 52 - -Anthidium manicatum, 237 - -Ants, 391, 409 - -Ants’ Nest, 214 - -Aphides, 391 - -Aphrodite aculeata, 353 - -Apple-parer, 456 - -Aquarium, 393 - -Archer-fish, 78 - -Architecture, 159 - -Argus Star-fish, 89 - -Armadillo, 189 - -Armour, 120 - -Art, 472 - -Artesian Well, 433 - -Arundinaria Schomburgkii, 28 - -Ascalaphus, 111 - -Ascidian, 497 - -Aspidomorpha excelsum, 198 - -Auger, 254 - - -B. - -Baited Traps, 97 - -Ball-and-socket Joint, 313 - -Balloon, 436 - -Bamboo, 28 - -Band Saw, 244 - -Barea, 147 - -Barometer, 444 - -Basket-urchin, 89 - -Bats, 399 - -Battering-ram, 153 - -Beak of Duck, 354 - -Beaver, 233 - -Beds, 400 - -Bee, 220 - -Beroë, 15 - -Bessemer Process, 299 - -Bicycle, 503 - -Binocular Microscope, 287 - -Birdlime, 98 - -Blow-gun, 75 - -Boat, 5 - -Boat-hook, 44 - -Boatman, 12 - -Boiling Water, 445 - -Bombardier-beetle, 156 - -Bombyx mori, 179 - -Bosjesman, 308 - -Bot-fly, 396 - -Bower, 410 - -Bower-birds, 410 - -Bowsing of Rope, 318 - -Brachinus crepitans, 156 - -Bradawl, 249 - -Brocken Spectre, 295 - -Brown-tailed Moth, 180 - -Brushes, 340 - -Buffer of Train, 369 - -Bullet-making Machine, 157 - -Bunday, 69 - -Burdock, 117 - -Burial, 419 - -Burying-ants, 420 - -Burying-beetle, 507 - -Buttons, 346 - -Buttresses, 196 - - -C. - -Cache, 397 - -Callipers, 274 - -Caltrops, 110 - -Camel, 424 - -Camera obscura, 277 - -Candle, 351 - -Carriage Spring, 363 - -Cassava Press, 447 - -Catapult, 361 - -Catchpoll, 104 - -Cathedral, 166 - -Centrifugal Force, 500 - -Cephalotus, 98 - -Chaff-cutter, 320 - -Chameleon-fly, 11 - -Chinese Paper Lantern, 378 - -Chinese Repeating Cross-bow, 365 - -Chinese Stink-pot, 155 - -Chirodota, 470 - -Chisel, 232 - -Chœtodon, 78 - -Chromatrope, 305 - -Cicada, 243, 518 - -Circular Saw, 247 - -Cistern, 422 - -Clam Shell, 260 - -Clasp, 347 - -Climbing-spur, 134 - -Cloth-dressing Machine, 339 - -Club, 52 - -Cnidæ, 371 - -Coffee-making Machine, 329 - -Coluber natrix, 106 - -Combs, 343 - -Compass, 491 - -Concealment, 144 - -Condenser, 428 - -Contouring-glass, 272 - -Coracle, 22 - -Cordon Saw, 244 - -Cork, 350 - -Corrugation, 480 - -Cossus ligniperda, 237 - -Crab, 261 - -Crab-pot, 103 - -Creeper, 203 - -Cricket, 388, 517 - -Crow-oyster, 348 - -Crushing Instruments, 320 - -Cuckoo-spit, 146 - -Culex pipiens, 9 - -Cupping, 330 - -Cuttle-bone of Sepia, 166 - -Cydippe, 15 - - -D. - -Daddy Long-legs, 337 - -Dagger, 58 - -Dam, 210 - -Dandelion Seed, 439 - -Decticus griseus, 231 - -Deer-trap, 104 - -Dew, 426 - -Diamond Drill, 459 - -Digging-stick, 223 - -Dionea muscipula, 97 - -Dipsacus fullonum, 339 - -Disguise, 147 - -Divers, 382 - -Diving-bell, 383 - -Diving Dress, 384 - -Dog-fish Skin, 265 - -Dome, 510 - -Doors and Hinges, 172 - -Drag, 43 - -Dragon-fly, 455 - -Dragon-fly Trachea, 376 - -Drainage, 492 - -Driver-ant, 201 - -Drosera, 100 - -Drum, 514 - -Dutch Rush, 264 - - -E. - -Ear, 515 - -Ear-trumpet, 521 - -Earth-worm, 44 - -Earwig, 261 - -Eaves, 184 - -Echeneis remora, 333 - -Echinococcus, 40 - -Echinus, 315 - -Echo, 525 - -Echo-stone, 526 - -Eel-pot, 103 - -Egg-hatching Machine, 395 - -Eider-duck, 401 - -Elastic Springs, 360 - -Elateridæ, 387 - -Electric Eel, 486 - -Electric Light, 488 - -Electric Ray, 485 - -Electric Tourniquet, 463 - -Electricity, 482 - -Elk, 131 - -Elk-yard, 131 - -Emperor-moth, 104 - -Epeira diadema, 87, 345 - -Equisetum, 264 - -Ermine-moth, 180 - -Escapement, 507 - -Ether Spray, 428 - -Eumenes, 311 - -Eye, 277 - -Eye of Spider, 288 - - -F. - -Fairy Martin, 169 - -Fall-trap, 140 - -Fan, 416 - -Feather Mail, 125 - -Fencers, 317 - -File, 263 - -Filter, 352, 425 - -Fire, 412 - -Fire-fly, 489 - -Fire-guard, 419 - -Fish-hook Spiculæ, 117 - -Fish-scales, 189 - -Fish-tank, 393 - -Fishing-frog, 91, 416 - -Flying Dragon, 440 - -Flying Frog, 441 - -Flying Squirrel, 440 - -Foot of Aard-vark, 227 - -Foot of Mole, 226 - -Foot of Mole-cricket, 226 - -Fork-grinders, 356 - -Fort, 129 - -Fountains, 430 - -Frog, 484 - -Furnarius fuliginosus, 310 - -Fur of Beaver, 186 - - -G. - -Gad-fly, 254, 406 - -Galleria alvearia, 151 - -Galleria-moth, 151 - -Garden Spider, 87, 345 - -Gecko, 334 - -Geometra Caterpillar, 149 - -Geranium, 478 - -Gerris, 467 - -Gills of Fish, 414 - -Gimlet, 252 - -Gin, 95 - -Girder, 193 - -Glow-worm, 342, 439 - -Gnat, 9 - -Goat-moth, 237 - -Goby, 334 - -Gold-tailed Moth, 180 - -Goose-grass, 116 - -Gossamer Spider, 437 - -Grallina Australia, 310 - -Grasping Tools, 258 - -Grass-blade, 250 - -Grass-snake, 106 - -Grass-wrack, 473 - -Grasshopper, 337, 388 - -Great Green Grasshopper, 231 - -Grindstone, 325 - -Gyrinus natator, 22 - -Gyroscope, 503 - - -H. - -Hammer and Anvil, 515 - -Hammock, 402 - -Hand, 450 - -Harpoon, 71 - -Heart or Hairy Urchin, 224 - -Hedgehog, 110 - -Hemerobius, 397 - -Hen-coop, 393 - -Hippopotamus, 508 - -Hippopotamus Tooth, 234 - -Hirundo Ariel, 169 - -Hoof of Elephant, 364 - -Hoof of Horse, 363 - -Hookah, 377 - -Hooks, 115, 398 - -Hooks and Eyes, 346 - -Hoop-shaver Bee, 237 - -House-fly, 343, 456 - -Human Spine, 369 - -Hydra, 512 - -Hydrant, 430 - -Hymedesmia, 117 - -Hyponomeuta padella, 180 - - -I. - -Ice, 457 - -Ice-house, 179 - -Ichneumon-fly, 174, 249, 338 - -Injecting Syringe, 65 - -Iris of Eye, 293 - -Ita Palm-tree, 162 - - -J. - -Janthina communis, 48 - -Japanese Fishing-rod, 460 - -Japanese Singlethorn, 124 - -Jaws of Crocodile, 366 - -Jaws of Pike, 105 - -Jaws of Shark, 106 - -Jaws of Whale, 355 - - -K. - -Kedge, 41 - -Kite, 500 - -Knee-joint, 316 - -Kris, 239 - - -L. - -Lace-wing Fly, 397 - -Lagopus vulgaris, 150 - -Lamp, 412 - -Lampern, 335 - -Lampetra fluviatilis, 335 - -Lancet, 83, 239 - -Lappet-moth, 149 - -Laurel-bottle, 358 - -Lazy-tongs, 454 - -Leaf cutter Bees, 231 - -Leaf-insect, 149 - -Leaf-rollers, 362 - -Leech, 335 - -Lighthouses, 207 - -Limnæa stagnalis, 6 - -Limpet, 245, 332 - -Loadstone, 490 - -Lobster, 261, 497 - -Locust, 231 - -Long-tailed Titmouse, 401 - -Lophius, 416 - -Low-pressure Engine, 429 - -Lump-sucker, 334 - - -M. - -Maelström, 1 - -Magdeburg Hemispheres, 331 - -Magic Lantern, 294 - -Magnetic Respirator, 356 - -Main Gauche, 73 - -Mangle, 324 - -Mangrove-tree, 143 - -Manuring, 492 - -Mare’s Tail, 264 - -Mason Wasp, 170 - -Mat, 404 - -Meadow Orchis, 100 - -Measure, 267 - -Medusa, 372, 512 - -Megachile, 231 - -Metronome, 506 - -Microgaster alvearius, 174 - -Microgaster glomeratus, 174 - -Milk, 390 - -Mines, 443 - -Mining, 430 - -Misericorde, 120 - -Mole, 496 - -Mole-cricket, 227 - -Mont Cenis Tunnel, 267 - -Mop, 502 - -Mortar, 217 - -Moselekatze, 162 - -Moss, 371 - -Mountains, 216 - -Mouse-trap, 97 - -Movable Gas-lamp, 376 - -Mud-patten, 466 - -Mud Walls, 181 - -Multiplying-glass, 288 - -Muscles of Leg, 449 - -Mussel-shell, 35, 259 - -Myrapetra scutellaris, 181 - -Myrmeleo, 52 - -Myrmica Kirbyi, 184 - - -N. - -Nature-printing, 475 - -Nautilus, 2, 464 - -Needle-gun, 367 - -Nemertes Borlasii, 93 - -Nerves, 486 - -Net, 85 - -Northern Crown, 297 - -Norton Tubes, 433 - -Notonecta glauca, 13 - -Nshiego Mbouvé, 160 - -Nut-crackers, 321 - -Nuthatch, 256 - - -O. - -Octopus, 463 - -Odynerus murarius, 170 - -Œstrus bovis, 254 - -Ophion, 174 - -Optics, 276 - -Orchis morio, 100 - -Oscillation, 504 - -Ostracion, 122 - -Orang-outan, 161 - -Oven-bird, 310 - -Owl’s Eye, 284 - - -P. - -Paddle-wood Tree, 198 - -Paint, 219 - -Palm-leaf, 418 - -Paper, 472 - -Parachute, 438 - -Parasol, 407 - -Pea-shooter, 74 - -Pelecinus, 338 - -Pelicans, 393 - -Pelopœus, 312 - -Pendulum, 505 - -Pensile Oriole, 402 - -Perfume Spray, 428 - -Periwinkle, 245 - -Phantasmascope, 305 - -Philetærus socius, 135 - -Pholas dactylus, 200 - -Phryganea, 192 - -Physa fontinalis, 8 - -Physalis pelagicus, 46 - -Pichiciago, 123 - -Piddock, 200 - -Pied Grallina, 310 - -Pill Millipede, 123 - -Pincers, 258 - -Pinna pectinata, 35 - -Pinna-shell, 35 - -Pistolograph, 361 - -Pitfall, 50 - -Plane, 235, 250 - -Pneumatic Peg, 330 - -Poison, 62 - -Polar Bear, 137 - -Polistes, 481 - -Polynoe, 71 - -Porches, 183 - -Porcupine, 110 - -Porcupine Ant-eater, 110 - -Porthesia auriflua, 180 - -Porthesia chrysorrhœa, 180 - -Portuguese Man-of-war, 46, 372 - -Pouch-shell, 8 - -Pressure of Atmosphere, 329 - -Printing-press, 317 - -Proboscis of Fly, 379 - -Processionary Moth, 180 - -Projectiles, 74 - -Propolis, 220 - -Pseudoscope, 287 - -Ptarmigan, 150 - -Pucunha, 76 - -Puff and Dart, 75, 351 - -Pulley, 452 - -Pyramids, 216 - - -Q. - -Quilt Armour, 126 - - -R. - -Radius, 194 - -Rain-cloud, 429 - -Ranjows, 109 - -Rat-tail Maggots, 385 - -Rattan, 204 - -Razor, 236 - -Receiver of Air-pump, 511 - -Reduvius personatus, 146 - -Reed, 518 - -Reverted Spikes, 102 - -Ribbon Saw, 244 - -Ring and Staple, 415 - -Ringed Tissues, 378 - -Robber-crab, 405 - -Rocket, 462 - -Rod and Line, 90 - -Rolling-mill, 322 - -Rosemary, 408 - - -S. - -Sabella, 218 - -Saddle-back, 348 - -Sailing Raft, 5 - -Salad-dressing Bottle, 511 - -Sand-paper, 265 - -Saturnia pavonia minor, 104 - -Saw, 239 - -Saw-fly, 241 - -Sawyer-beetle, 248 - -Scale Armour, 123 - -Scales of Butterfly’s Wings, 187 - -Scaling-fork, 133 - -Scarabæus, 494 - -Scissors, 228 - -Screw, 498 - -Sea-anemone, 8 - -Sea-basket, 89 - -Sea-mouse, 353 - -Sea-urchin, 315 - -Seed-drills, 336 - -Sepia officinalis, 167 - -Serpula, 44, 135, 219, 352 - -Sewage, 496 - -Sewing, 406 - -Shark-tooth Sword, 56 - -Shears, 228 - -Sheep-fly, 396 - -Shell of Tortoise, 188 - -Ship-worm, 200 - -Short-tailed Manis, 124, 188 - -Sialis armata, 275 - -Siamese Link, 448 - -Silkworm, 158 - -Silkworm Cocoon, 179 - -Siren, 523 - -Sirex gigas, 252 - -Skidor, 466 - -Skip-jack Beetle, 387 - -Skull, 210, 511 - -Slates, 188 - -Sling, 502 - -Sloth, 398 - -Slug, 245 - -Smoke-jack, 499 - -Snow-house of Esquimaux, 163 - -Snow-house of Seal, 163 - -Snow-shoe, 464 - -Spade, 223 - -Spear, 58 - -Spectroscope, 297 - -Spider, 509 - -Spider-crab, 147 - -Spiked Defences, 107 - -Spiracles of Fly, 357 - -Spiral, 498 - -Spiral Spring, 371 - -Spiral Tissues, 375 - -Spirit-level, 271 - -Spokeshave, 236 - -Spout-hole, 434 - -Sprat-sucker, 71 - -Spring, 430 - -Spring-bow, 142 - -Spring-gun, 142 - -Spring-jack, 386 - -Spring Solitaire, 371 - -Spring-tails, 388 - -Spring-trap, 95 - -Squirrel, 456 - -Stag-beetle, 248 - -Star-fish, 332 - -Steam-blast, 443 - -Steelyard, 450 - -Stereoscope, 286 - -Stereotype, 479 - -Stethoscope, 522 - -Stickleback, 218 - -Still, 425 - -Stinging Jelly-fish, 372 - -Stinging-nettle, 67 - -Stipple, 477 - -Stoat, 150 - -Stone-fly, 192 - -Stopper, 350 - -Stove, 413 - -Stratiomys, 11 - -Stratiomys chamæleon, 11 - -String, 515 - -Subterranean Dwelling, 213 - -Suckers of Cuttle-fish, 332 - -Suckers of Water-beetle, 332 - -Sucking Eggs, 445 - -Sucking-fish, 333 - -Sucking Sugar-cane, 445 - -Sumpitan, 75 - -Sundew, 100 - -Surgical Cradle, 405 - -Suspension-bridge, 202 - -Swallow-tailed Butterfly, 468 - -Sword, 56 - -Sword-grass, 57 - -Synapta, 40, 470 - -Synovia, 454 - - -T. - -Tachina, 172 - -Tail of Scorpion, 66 - -Tailor-bird, 406 - -Tearing Weapons, 112 - -Teazle, 339 - -Teeth, 327 - -Telegraph, 487 - -Terebella, 218 - -Teredo, 200 - -Termite, 153, 182, 394 - -Thaumatrope, 302 - -Thigh-bone, 314 - -Thornback-crab, 147 - -Throwing-stick, 79 - -Ties, 194 - -Tiger-beetle, 134 - -Tiger-claw, 112 - -Tiger-moth, 403 - -Tiles, 187 - -Tillage, 492 - -Tipula, 337 - -Toggle, 316 - -Tools, 222 - -Tools of Measurement, 267 - -Top, 503 - -Torpedo, 485 - -Tortoise, 229 - -Toucan, 346 - -Trachea of Animals, 380 - -Trachea of Insects, 376 - -Trap-door Spider, 175 - -Traveller’s Tree, 423 - -Tree-caddis, 111 - -Trench, 150 - -Trichiosoma lucorum, 242 - -Tripod Wheel-bearer, 461 - -Triquetra, 219 - -Troglodytes calvus, 160 - -Trombone, 520 - -Trunk-fish, 122 - -Trypoxylon aurifrons, 312 - -Tunnel, 168, 199 - -Turbine Pump, 497 - -Turkish Bath, 426 - -Turtle, 229 - - -U. - -Ulna, 194 - -Umbrella, 407 - -Useful Arts, 308 - - -V. - -Vallisneria Plant, 38 - -Varnish, 219 - -Velella, 2 - -Venus Fly-trap, 97 - -Vertebræ of Snake, 314 - -Victoria Regia, 196 - -Violet Snail, 48 - -Voltaic Pile, 484 - - -W. - -Walls, 177 - -Walrus, 41, 136 - -Waraus, 162 - -Wart-biter, 231 - -Wasp, 474 - -Wasp-comb, 167 - -Water-boatman, 13 - -Water-fall, 431 - -Water-gnat, 467 - -Water-lily, 382 - -Water Main, 497 - -Water-ram, 434 - -Water-snail, 6 - -Water-spider, 383 - -Water-tank, 423 - -Water Telescope, 291 - -Water Turbine, 463 - -Wax, 220 - -Wax-moth, 151 - -Weaver-bird, 169, 185 - -Webbed Feet, 467 - -Wet-bulb Thermometer, 428 - -Wheat Straw, 27 - -Wheel, 469 - -Wheel Animalculæ, 306 - -Whelk, 245 - -Whirlwig-beetle, 22, 292 - -Whispering Gallery, 626 - -Wind, 442 - -Window, 190 - -Woodpecker, 256 - -Woolly Bear, 110 - -Wurble-fly, 396 - - -Z. - -Zarabatana, 76 - -Zoetrope, 305 - -Zostera marina, 473 - - - * * * * * - THE END. - - PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO. LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON. - - * * * * * - -Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: - -Bombadier-beetle=> Bombardier-beetle {pg 144} - -very ong after=> very long after {pg 262} - -the Multipying-glass=> the Multiplying-glass {pg 290} - -fills the air=> fill the air {pg 356} - -cook their flood=> cook their food {pg 412} - -If the hand move towards=> If the hand move towards {pg 444} - -protecting the yelk=> protecting the yolk {pg 511} - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nature's Teachings, by J. G. 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Wood. -</title> -<style type="text/css"> - p {margin-top:.2em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.2em;text-indent:4%;} - -.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -.letra {font-size:250%;float:left;margin-top:-.7%;} - @media print, handheld - { .letra - {font-size:150%;} - } - -.lettre {margin-left:4%;font-size:100%;} - -.nind {text-indent:0%;} - -.nonvis {display:inline;} - @media print, handheld - {.nonvis - {display: none;} - } - -.kapzion {display:none;visibility: hidden;} - -.rt {text-align:right;} - -small {font-size: 70%;} - -big {font-size: 130%;} - - h1 {margin-top:5%;text-align:center;clear:both;} - - h2 {margin-top:4%;margin-bottom:2%;text-align:center;clear:both; - font-size:110%;} - - h3 {margin:2% auto 1% auto;text-align:center;clear:both; -font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;} - - hr {width:90%;margin:2em auto 2em auto;clear:both;color:black;} - - hr.full {width: 60%;margin:2% auto 2% auto;border-top:1px solid black; -padding:.1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;border-left:none;border-right:none;} - - table {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;} - -th {padding-top:1em;padding-bottom:.5em;} - body{margin-left:4%;margin-right:6%;background:#ffffff;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;} - -a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - - link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - -a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;} - -a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;} - -.smcap {font-variant:small-caps;font-size:100%;} - - img {border:none;} - -.blockquot {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;} -.blockquot p {font-size:85%;text-indent:-2%;margin-left:4%;} - -.figcenter {margin-top:3%;margin-bottom:3%;clear:both; -margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - @media print, handheld - {.figcenter - {page-break-before: avoid;page-break-after: avoid;} - } - -.footnote {width:95%;margin:auto 3% 1% auto;font-size:0.9em;position:relative;} - -.label {position:relative;left:-.5em;top:0;text-align:left;font-size:.8em;} - -.fnanchor {vertical-align:30%;font-size:.8em;} - -div.poetry {text-align:center;} -div.poem {font-size:90%;margin:auto auto;text-indent:0%; -display: inline-block; text-align: left;} -.poem .stanza {margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom:1em;} -.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: .45em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i3 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i8 {display: block; margin-left: 6em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i12 {display: block; margin-left: 10em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -.pagenum {font-style:normal;position:absolute; -left:95%;font-size:55%;text-align:right;color:gray; -background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;} -@media print, handheld -{.pagenum - {display: none;} - } -</style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nature's Teachings, by J. G. Wood - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Nature's Teachings - Human Invention Anticipated by Nature - -Author: J. G. Wood - -Release Date: October 17, 2016 [EBook #53300] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATURE'S TEACHINGS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/cover_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="320" height="500" alt="Image unavailable: cover" /></a> -</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; -padding:1%;"> -<tr><td> - -<p class="c"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents.</a><br /> -<a href="#INDEX">Index</a>:<small> -<a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></small></p> -<p class="c">Some typographical errors have been corrected; -<a href="#transcrib">a list follows the text</a>.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] -clicking directly on the image -will bring up a larger version.)</span></p> - -<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="c">NATURE’S TEACHINGS</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 294px;"> -<a href="images/i_frontis_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_frontis_sml.jpg" width="294" height="500" alt="Image unavailable" /></a> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v"></a>{v}</span></p> - -<h1> -NATURE’S TEACHINGS<br /> -<small><small><i>HUMAN INVENTION<br /> -ANTICIPATED BY NATURE</i></small></small></h1> - -<p class="c"><small>BY THE LATE</small><br /> -<br /> -REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S., <span class="smcap">Etc.</span><br /> -<br /> -<small>AUTHOR OF “HOMES WITHOUT HANDS,”</small><br /> -“MAN AND BEAST, HERE AND HEREAFTER,” ETC.<br /> -<br /><br /> -<i>NEW AND REVISED EDITION</i><br /> -<br /><br /> -LONDON<br /> -J. S. VIRTUE & CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span>, 26, IVY LANE<br /> -PATERNOSTER ROW<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi"></a>{vi}</span><br /> -<small>LONDON:<br /> -PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED.<br /> -CITY ROAD.</small></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii"></a>{vii}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span> GLANCE at almost any page of this work will denote its object. It is -to show the close connection between Nature and human inventions, and -that there is scarcely an invention of man that has not its prototype in -Nature. And it is worthy of notice that the greatest results have been -obtained from means apparently the most insignificant.</p> - -<p>There are two inventions, for example, which have changed the face of -the earth, and which yet sprang from sources that were despised by men, -and thought only fit for the passing sport of childhood. I allude, of -course, to Steam and Electricity, both of which had been child’s toys -for centuries before the one gave us the fixed engine, the locomotive, -and the steamboat, and the other supplied us with the compass and the -electric telegraph.</p> - -<p>In the course of this work I have placed side by side a great number of -parallels of Nature and Art, making the descriptions as terse and simple -as possible, and illustrating them with more than seven hundred and -fifty figures. The corollary which I hope will be drawn from the work is -evident enough. It is, that as existing human inventions have been -anticipated by Nature, so it will surely be found that in Nature lie the -prototypes of inventions not yet revealed to man. The great discoverers -of the future will, therefore, be those<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii"></a>{viii}</span> who will look to Nature for -Art, Science, or Mechanics, instead of taking pride in some new -invention, and then finding that it has existed in Nature for countless -centuries.</p> - -<p>I ought to mention that the illustrations are not intended to be -finished drawings, but merely charts or maps, calling attention to the -salient points.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix"></a>{ix}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="margin:auto auto;max-width:85%;font-size:90%;"> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_I">NAUTICAL</a>.</th></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><small>CHAP.</small></td><td> </td> -<td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Raft</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_1">1</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Oar, the Paddle, and the Screw</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_12">12</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Subsidiary Appliances.—Part I.</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Subsidiary Appliances.—Part II.</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_34">34</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Subsidiary Appliances.—Part III.—The Boat-hook And -Punt-pole.—The Life-buoy and Pontoon-raft</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_I">WAR AND HUNTING</a>.</th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Pitfall, the Club, the Sword, the Spear and Dagger</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_50">50</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Poison, Animal and Vegetable.—Principle of the Barb</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_62">62</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Projectile Weapons and the Sheath</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Net</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_85">85</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Reverted Spikes</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Hook.—Defensive Armour.—The Fort</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Scaling Instruments.—Defence of Fort.—Imitation.—The -Fall-Trap</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Concealment.—Disguise.—The Trench.—Power Of -Gravity.—Miscellanea</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_I">ARCHITECTURE</a>.</th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Hut, Tropic and Polar.—Pillars and Flooring.—Tunnel -Entrance of the Igloo.—Doors and Hinges.—Self-closing -Trap-doors</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Walls, Double and Single.—Porches, Eaves, and Windows.—Thatch, -Slates, and Tiles</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Window.—Girders, Ties, and Buttresses.—The Tunnel.—The -Suspension-Bridge</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_190">190</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Lighthouses.—The Dovetail.—The Dam.—Subterranean -Dwellings.—The Pyramids.—Mortar, Paint, and Varnish</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_207">207</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#TOOLS_CHAPTER_I">TOOLS</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#TOOLS_CHAPTER_I">I</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x"></a>{x}</span></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Digging-stick.—Spade.—Shears and Scissors.—Chisel -and Adze.—The Plane and Spokeshave</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#TOOLS_CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Saw and its Varieties</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#TOOLS_CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Boring Tools.—Striking Tools.—Grasping Tools</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#TOOLS_CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Polishing Tools.—Measuring Tools</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#OPTICS_CHAPTER_I">OPTICS</a>.</th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#OPTICS_CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Missions of History.—The Camera Obscura.—Long -and Short Sight.—Stereoscope and Pseudoscope.—Multiplying-glasses</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_276">276</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#OPTICS_CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Water-Telescope.—Iris of the Eye.—Magic Lantern.—The -Spectroscope.—The Thaumatrope</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_291">291</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_I">USEFUL ARTS</a>.</th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Primitive Man and His Needs.—Earthenware.—Ball-and-Socket -Joint.—Toggle or Knee Joint</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Crushing Instruments.—The Nut-Crackers, Rolling-Mill, -and Grindstone.—Pressure of Atmosphere.—Seed Dibbles -and Drills</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Cloth-Dressing.—Brushes and Combs.—Buttons, Hooks and -Eyes, and Clasp</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_339">339</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Stopper, or Cork.—The Filter</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_350">350</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">The Principle of the Spring.—The Elastic Spring.—Accumulators.—The -Spiral Spring</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Spiral and Ringed Tissues.—Various Springs in Nature -and Art</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_375">375</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Food and Comfort</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_390">390</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Domestic Comfort</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_400">400</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Artificial Warmth.—Ring and Staple.—The Fan</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_412">412</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Water, and Means of Procuring It</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_422">422</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Aërostatics.—Weight of Air.—Expansion by Heat</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_436">436</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Ditto Continued</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_447">447</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Telescopic Tubes.—Direct Action.—Distribution of -Weight.—Tree-Climbing.—The -Wheel</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_460">460</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Paper and Moulding</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_472">472</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Electricity and Galvanism</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_482">482</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Tillage.—Drainage.—Spiral Principle.—Centrifugal Force</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_492">492</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Oscillation.—United Strength.—The Dome</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_504">504</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a href="#ACOUSTICS_CHAPTER_I">ACOUSTICS</a>.</th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#ACOUSTICS_CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Percussion.—The String and Reed.—The -Trumpet.—Ear-Trumpet.—Stethoscope</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_513">513</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_1" id="page_1"></a>{1}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_I" id="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_I"></a>NAUTICAL.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Poetry and Science.—The Paper Nautilus and the Sail.—Montgomery’s -“Pelican Island.”—The Nautilus replaced by the Velella.—The -Sailing Raft of Nature and Art.—Description of a Velella Fleet off -Tenby.—The Natural Raft and its Sail.—The Boats of Nature and -Art.—Man’s first Idea of a Boat.—The Kruman’s Canoe and the -<i>Great Eastern</i>.—Gradual Development of the Boat.—The Outrigger -Canoe a Mixture of Raft and Boat.—Natural Boats.—The -Water-snails.—The Sea-anemones.—The Egg-boat of the Gnat.—The -Skin-boat of the same Insect.—Shape and Properties of the -Life-boat anticipated in Nature.—Natural Boat of the Stratiomys.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Raft.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T has been frequently said that the modern developments of science are -gradually destroying many of the poetical elements of our daily lives, -and in consequence are reducing us to a dead level of prosaic -commonplace, in which existence is scarcely worth having. The first part -of this rather sweeping assertion is perfectly true, but, as we shall -presently see, the second portion is absolutely untrue.</p> - -<p>Science has certainly destroyed, and is destroying, many of the poetic -fancies which made a part of daily life. It must have been a -considerable shock to the mind of an ancient philosopher when he found -himself deprived of the semi-spiritual, semi-human beings with which the -earth and water were thought to be peopled. And even in our own time and -country there is in many places a still lingering belief in the -existence of good and bad fairies inhabiting lake, wood, and glen, the -successors of the Naiads and Dryads, the Fauns and Satyrs, of the former -time. Many persons will doubtless be surprised, even in these days, to -hear that the dreaded Maelström is quite as fabulous as the Symplegades -or Scylla and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2"></a>{2}</span> Charybdis, and that the well-known tale of Edgar Poe is -absolutely without foundation.</p> - -<p>Perhaps one of the prettiest legends in natural history is that of the -Paper Nautilus, with which so much poetry is associated. We have all -been accustomed from childhood to Pope’s well-known lines beginning—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Learn of the little Nautilus to sail,”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">and some of us may be acquainted with those graceful verses of James -Montgomery, in his “Pelican Island:”—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Light as a flake of foam upon the wind,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Keel upward, from the deep emerged a shell,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Shaped like the moon ere half her horn is filled.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Fraught with young life it righted as it rose,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And moved at will along the yielding water.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">The native pilot of this little bark<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Put out a tier of oars on either side,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Spread to the wafting breeze a two-fold sail,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And mounted up and glided down the billow<br /></span> -<span class="i1">In happy freedom, pleased to feel the air,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And wander in the luxury of light.<br /></span> -<span style="margin-left: 4em;letter-spacing:.5em;">* * * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i1">It closed, sank, dwindled to a point, then nothing,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">While the last bubble crowned the dimpling eddy<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Through which mine eye still giddily pursued it.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>So deeply ingrained is the poetical notion of the sailing powers -attributed to the nautilus, that many people are quite incredulous when -they are told that there is just as much likelihood of seeing a mermaid -curl her hair as of witnessing a nautilus under sail. How the creature -in question does propel itself will be described in the course of the -present chapter; and the reader will see that although one parallel -between Nature and Art in the nautilus does not exist, there are several -others which until later days have not even been suspected.</p> - -<p>It is, therefore, partially true that science does destroy romance. But, -though she destroys, she creates, and she gives infinitely more than she -takes away, as is shown in the many late discoveries which have -transformed the whole system of civilised life. Sometimes, as in the -present instance, she discovers one analogy while destroying another, -and though she shatters the legend of the sailing nautilus, she produces -a marine animal which really does sail, and does not appear to be able -to do anything else. This is the <span class="smcap">Velella</span>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_3" id="page_3"></a>{3}</span> figure of which, taken from -a specimen in my collection, is given in the illustration, and drawn of -the natural size.</p> - -<p>It is one of that vast army of marine creatures known familiarly by the -name of “jelly-fishes,” just as lobsters, crabs, shrimps, oysters, -whelks, periwinkles, and the like, are lumped together under the title -of “shell-fish.” As a rule, these creatures are soft, gelatinous, and, -in fact, are very little more than sea-water entangled in the finest -imaginable mesh-work of animal matter; so fine, indeed, that scarcely -any definite organs can be discovered. The Velella, however, is -remarkable for having a sort of skeleton, if it may be so called, -consisting of two very thin and horny plates, disposed, as shown in the -illustration, so as to form an exact imitation (or perhaps I should say -a precursor) of a raft propelled by a sail. Indeed, the Latin name -Velella signifies a little sail.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_003_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_003_sml.jpg" width="432" height="182" alt="Image unavailable: VELELLA (NATURAL SIZE). SAILING RAFT." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">VELELLA (NATURAL SIZE). SAILING RAFT.</span> -</div> - -<p>How well deserved is the name may be seen by the following graphic -account of a Velella fleet sent to me by a lady who takes great interest -in practical zoology:—</p> - -<p>“The specimens which I send came from Tenby, a very rough sea having -driven a large living fleet of them on that coast.</p> - -<p>“When in life, they are semi-transparent, and radiant in many -rainbow-tinted colours. They came floating towards me in all their -fragile beauty on the rough sea waves. I succeeded in capturing some of -them, and preserved the only portion available for my collection.</p> - -<p>“They are extremely tender, and by no means with which I am acquainted -can be preserved more than these skeleton-like cartilaginous plates. -They soon dissolve in either spirits of wine or water, and lose every -vestige of their shape and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_4" id="page_4"></a>{4}</span> substance. The upright, thin, pellucid plate -has the appearance of a fairy-like miniature sail, and apparently acted -as such when the creature was floating with its long and many-tinted -tentacles pendent from its lower surface.</p> - -<p>“Although widely distributed, they are seldom seen on our own coast, -although sometimes driven there from the warmer regions by stress of -wind and waves.</p> - -<p>“These little creatures had never before been seen at Tenby, but when I -asked a native bathing-woman whether she knew their name, she -immediately replied, ‘Sea-butterflies.’ Although the name was evidently -of her own invention, it was most appropriate and poetical. I have -always found the Welsh people abound more than any other nation in -pretty and characteristic synonyms.”<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> By sailors the Velella is popularly known by the name of -“Sally-man;” <i>i.e.</i> Sallee-man.</p></div> - -<p>In answer to a letter in which I asked the writer for some further -information concerning the Velella, sending also an outline sketch of -the animal, which I asked the writer to fill in with the proper colours, -I received the following reply:—</p> - -<p>“I will do my best to answer your questions, and to give you what -information I can concerning the creatures.</p> - -<p>“When seen at Tenby, they were all floating on the surface of the sea, -the tentacles only being submerged. My specimens floated for a very -short time after capture, death following so quickly that I was obliged -to set to work at once with camel’s-hair brush and penknife to take away -the gelatinous part. Indeed, decomposition took place so rapidly, that -Velellas and myself were simultaneously threatened with extermination.</p> - -<p>“Both raft and sail were equally enveloped in a soft, gelatinous -covering, certainly not more than the sixteenth of an inch in thickness, -except under the centre of the raft, where it became slightly thicker. -The covering of the sail was exceedingly thin, and like a transparent -and almost invisible soft skin. The sail is very firmly attached to the -raft, as they did not separate when decomposition began.</p> - -<p>“The tentacles were entirely composed of the same soft, jelly-like -substance as that of the envelope, and every part was iridescent in a -sort of vapoury transparent cloud of many-tinted colours, blue and pale -crimson predominating. I have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5"></a>{5}</span> filled up to the best of my memory the -little sketch, and only wish you could have seen the Velellas as I did, -in their full life and beauty.”</p> - -<p>Two of the specimens here mentioned are in my collection, and beautiful -little things they are. The two plates are not thicker than ordinary -silver paper, but are wonderfully strong, tough, and elastic. The oval -horizontal plate, or raft, if it may be so called, is strengthened by -being corrugated in concentric lines, and having a multitude of very -fine ribs radiating from the centre to the circumference. It is slightly -thickened on the edges, evidently for the attachment of the tentacles.</p> - -<p>The perpendicular plate, or sail, does not occupy the larger diameter of -the raft, but stretches across it diagonally from edge to edge, rising -highest in the centre and diminishing towards the edges, so that it -presents an outline singularly like that of a lateen sail. It is rather -curious that the magnifying glass gives but little, if any, assistance -to the observer, the naked eye answering every purpose. Even the -microscope is useless, detecting no peculiarity of structure. I tried it -with the polariscope, scarcely expecting, but rather hoping, to find -that it was sensitive to polarised light. But no such result took place, -the Velella being quite unaffected by it.</p> - -<p>The corresponding illustration is a sketch of a raft to which a sail is -attached. Such rafts as this are in use in many parts of the world, the -sail saving manual labour, and the large steering oar answering the -double purpose of keel and rudder. In the Velella, the tentacles, though -they may not act in the latter capacity, certainly do act in that of the -former, and serve to prevent the little creature from being capsized in -a gale of wind.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Boat.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">There</span> is no doubt that the first idea of locomotion in the water, -independently of swimming, was the raft; nor is it difficult to trace -the gradual development of the raft into a Boat. The development of the -Kruman’s canoe into the <i>Great Eastern</i>, or a modern ironclad vessel, is -simply a matter of time.</p> - -<p>It is tolerably evident that the first raft was nothing more than a -tree-trunk. Finding that the single trunk was apt to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6"></a>{6}</span> turn over with the -weight of the occupant, the next move was evidently to lash two trunks -side by side.</p> - -<p>Next would come the great advance of putting the trunks at some distance -apart, and connecting them with cross-bars. This plan would obviate even -the chance of the upsetting of the raft, and it still survives in that -curious mixture of the raft and canoe, the outrigger boat of the -Polynesians, which no gale of wind can upset. It may be torn to pieces -by the storm, but nothing can capsize it as long as it holds together.</p> - -<p>Laying a number of smaller logs or branches upon the bars which connect -the larger logs is an evident mode of forming a continuous platform, and -thus the raft is completed. It would not be long before the superior -buoyancy of a hollow over a solid log would be discovered, and so, when -the savage could not find a log ready hollowed to his hand, he would -hollow one for himself, mostly using fire in lieu of tools. The progress -from a hollowed log, or “dug-out,” as it is popularly called, to the -bark canoe, and then the built boat, naturally followed, the boats -increasing in size until they were developed into ships.</p> - -<p>Such, then, is a slight sketch of the gradual construction of the Boat, -based, though perhaps ignorantly, on the theory of displacement. Now, -let us ask ourselves whether, in creation, there are any natural boats -which existed before man came upon the earth, and from which he might -have taken the idea if he had been able to reason on the subject. The -Paper Nautilus is, of course, the first example that comes before the -mind; but although, as we have seen, the delicate shell of the nautilus -is not used as a boat, and its sailing and rowing powers are alike -fabulous, there is, as is the case with most fables, a substratum of -truth, and there are aquatic molluscs which form themselves into boats, -although they do not propel themselves with sails or oars.</p> - -<p>Many species of molluscs possess this art, but we will select one as an -example of them all, because it is very plentiful in our own country, -and may be found in almost any number. It is the common <span class="smcap">Water-snail</span> -(<i>Limnæa stagnalis</i>), which abounds in our streams where the current is -not very strong. Even in tolerably swift streams the Limnæa may be found -plentifully in any bay or sudden curve where a reverse current is -generated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7"></a>{7}</span> and therefore the force of the stream is partially -neutralised. These molluscs absolutely swarm in the Cherwell, and in the -multitudinous ditches which drain the flat country about Oxford into -that river as well as the Isis.</p> - -<p>Belonging to the Gasteropods, the Water-snail can crawl over the stones -or aquatic vegetation, just as the common garden snail or slug does on -land. But it has another mode of progression, which it very often -employs in warm weather. It ascends to the surface of the water, -reverses its position so that the shell is downward, spreads out the -foot as widely as possible, and then contracts it in the centre, so as -to form it into a shallow boat.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;"> -<a href="images/i_007_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_007_sml.jpg" width="494" height="482" alt="Image unavailable: GNAT-EGG BOAT AND THREE EGGS. - -“DUG-OUT” BOAT OF VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD. - -SEA-ANEMONE ACTING AS BOAT. - -WATER-SNAIL ACTING AS BOAT. - -BIRCH-BARK CANOE. -PUPA SKIN OF GNAT ACTING AS BOAT." /></a></div> - -<p>The carrying capacity of this boat is necessarily small, but as the -shell and nearly the whole of the animal are submerged, and therefore -mostly sustained by the water, a very small amount of flotative power is -sufficient for the purpose. Sometimes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8"></a>{8}</span> on a fine day, whole fleets of -these natural boats may be seen floating down the stream, thus obtaining -a change of locality without any personal exertion.</p> - -<p>In perfectly still water, where no current can waft the Limnæa on its -easy voyage, it still is able to convey itself from one place to -another. By means of extending and contracting the foot, it actually -contrives to crawl along the surface of the water almost as readily as -if it were upon the under side of some solid body, and, although its -progress is slow, it is very steady. Another very common British -water-snail, the Pouch-shell (<i>Physa fontinalis</i>), has almost exactly -the same habits. Reference will be made to the Pouch-shell on another -page.</p> - -<p>The capacity for converting the body into a boat is not confined to the -molluscs, but is shared by many other animals. Take, for example, the -well-known marine animals, called popularly <span class="smcap">Sea-anemones</span>. As they appear -when planted on the rocks, they look as incapable of motion as the -flowers whose names they bear. Yet, by means of the flattened base, -which they use just as a snail uses its feet, they can manage to glide -along the rocks in any direction, though very slowly.</p> - -<p>The base is capable of extension and contraction, and by elongating one -side of it, fixing the elongated portion, and then raising the remainder -of the base towards it, the animal makes practically a series of very -slow steps. This mode of progression may often be seen in operation on -the glass front of an aquarium.</p> - -<p>The same property of expansion and contraction enables the Sea-anemones -to convert their bodies into boats, and float on the surface of the -water. When one of these animals wishes to swim, it ascends the object -to which it is clinging—say the glass of the aquarium—until it has -reached the air. It then very slowly, and bit by bit, detaches the upper -part of the base from the glass, allowing itself to hang with its -tentacles downward. These, by the way, are almost wholly withdrawn when -the animal is engaged in this business. By degrees the whole of the base -is detached from the glass except a very tiny portion of the edge. The -base is next contracted in the middle into the form of a shallow cup, -and, when this is done, the last hold of the glass is released, and the -animal floats away, supported by its hollowed base.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9"></a>{9}</span></p> - -<p>Entomologists are familiar with the following facts, and were this work -addressed to them alone, a simple mention of the insect would be -sufficient. But as this work is intended for the general public, it will -be necessary to give a description, though a brief one, of the wonderful -manner in which an insect, which we are apt to think is only too common, -plays the part of a boat at its entrance to life and just before its -departure from this world, not to mention its intermediate state, to -which reference will be made under another heading.</p> - -<p>The insect in question is the common <span class="smcap">Gnat</span> (<i>Culex pipiens</i>), which makes -such ravages upon those who are afflicted, like myself, with delicate -skins, and can have a limb rendered useless for days by a single -gnat-bite.</p> - -<p>In this insect, the beginning and the end of life are so closely -interwoven, that it is not easy to determine which has the prior claim -to description, but we will begin with the egg.</p> - -<p>With very few exceptions, such as the Earwig, which watches over its -eggs and young like a hen over her nest and chickens, the insects merely -deposit their eggs upon or close to the food of the future young, and -leave them to their fate. The eggs of the Gnat, however, require -different treatment. The young larvæ, when hatched, immediately pass -into the water in which they have to live, and yet the eggs are so -constituted that they need the warmth of the sun in order to hatch them. -The machinery by which both these objects are attained is singularly -beautiful.</p> - -<p>The shape of the egg very much resembles that of a common ninepin, and -the structure is such that it must be kept upright, so that the top -shall be exposed to the air and sun, and the bottom be immersed in the -water. It would be almost impossible that these conditions should be -attained if the eggs were either dropped separately into the water or -fixed to aquatic plants, as is the case with many creatures whose eggs -are hatched solely in or on the water.</p> - -<p>As is the case with many insects, each egg when laid is enveloped with a -slight coating of a glutinous character, so that they adhere together. -And, in the case of the Gnat, this material is insoluble in water, and -hardens almost immediately after the egg is deposited. Taking advantage -of these peculiarities, the female Gnat places herself on the edge of a -floating<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10"></a>{10}</span> leaf or similar object, so that her long and slender hind-legs -rest on the water. In some mysterious way, the eggs, as they are -successively produced, are passed along the hind-legs, and are arranged -side by side in such a manner that they are formed into the figure of a -boat, being fixed to each other by the glutinous substance which has -already been mentioned.</p> - -<p>It is a very remarkable fact, which assists in strengthening the theory -on which this book is written, that the lines of the best modern -life-boats are almost identical with those of the Gnat-boat, and that -both possess the power of righting themselves if capsized. In all trials -of a new life-boat, one of the most important is that which tests her -capability of self-righting; and any one who has witnessed such -experiments, and has tried to upset a Gnat-boat, cannot but be struck -with the singular similitude between the boat made by the hand of man -and that constructed by the legs of an insect, without even the aid of -eyes.</p> - -<p>Push the Gnat-boat under water, and it shoots to the surface like a -cork, righting itself as it rises. Pour water on it, and exactly the -same result occurs, so that nothing can prevent it from floating. Then, -when the warm air has done its work in hatching the enclosed young, a -little trap-door opens at the bottom of the egg, lets the young larvæ -into the water, and away they swim.</p> - -<p>Now we come to another phase of existence in which the Gnat forms a -boat. Every one knows the little active Gnat larvæ, with their large -heads and slender bodies, much like tadpoles in miniature. When they -have reached their full growth, and assume the pupal form, their shape -is much changed. The fore part of the body is still more enlarged, as it -has to contain the wings and legs, which have so great a proportion to -the body of the perfect Gnat. And, instead of floating with its head -downwards, and breathing through its tail as it did when a larva, it now -floats with the head uppermost, and breathes through two little tubes.</p> - -<p>Even in its former state the creature had something almost grotesque in -its aspect, the head, when magnified, looking almost as like a human -face as does that of a skate. But in its pupal state it looks as if it -had put on a large comical mask much too large for it, very much like -those paper masks which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11"></a>{11}</span> are enclosed in crackers, and have to be worn -by those who draw them.</p> - -<p>In process of time the pupa changes to a perfect Gnat within this shelly -case, able to move, but unable to eat. The body shrinks in size, and the -wings and legs are formed, both being pressed closely to the body. When -the Gnat is fully developed, the pupal skin splits along the back, and -opens out into a curiously boat-like shape, the front, which contains -the heavier part of the insect, being much the largest, and consequently -being able to bear the greatest weight.</p> - -<p>By degrees, the Gnat draws itself out of the split pupal skin, resting -its legs on it as fast as they are released. It then shakes out its -wings to dry, and finally takes to the air.</p> - -<p>It is a really wonderful fact that the insect which, for three stages in -life—namely, an egg, larva, and pupa—lived in the water, should in the -fourth not only be incapable of aquatic life, but should employ its old -skin to protect it from that very element in which it was living only a -minute or two before.</p> - -<p>Should the reader wish to examine for himself either the egg or skin -boat of the Gnat, he can easily procure them by searching any quiet -pond, or even an uncovered water-butt. They are, of course, very small, -averaging about the tenth of an inch in length, and are nearly always to -be found close to the side either of pond or tub, being drawn there by -the power of attraction.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that there are other dipterous insects belonging to -the genus Stratiomys, which undergo their metamorphosis in a very -similar fashion. In these insects, the larva breathes through the tail, -and when it attains its pupal condition, the actual insect is very much -smaller than the pupal skin, only occupying the anterior and enlarged -part. Indeed, the difference of size is so great, that several -entomologists believed the future Stratiomys to be but a parasite on the -original larva. The beautiful Chameleon-fly (<i>Stratiomys chamæleon</i>) is -a familiar example of these insects.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12"></a>{12}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_II" id="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_II"></a>NAUTICAL.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> -<small>THE OAR, THE PADDLE, AND THE SCREW.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Propulsion by the Oar.—Parallels in the Insect World.—The -“Water-boatman.”—Its Boat-like Shape.—The Oar-like Legs.—Exact -mechanical Analogy between the Legs of the Insect and the Oars of -the human Rower.—“Feathering” Oars in Nature and Art.—The -Water-boatman and the Water-beetles.—The Feet of the Swan, Goose, -and other aquatic Birds.—The Cydippe, or Beroë.—The -Self-feathering Paddle-wheel.—Indirect Force.—The Wedge, Screw, -and Inclined Plane.—“Sculling” a Boat.—The “Tanka” Girls of -China.—Mechanical Principle of the Screw, and its Adaptation to -Vessels.—Gradual Development of the Nautical Screw.—Mechanical -Principle of the Tail of the Fish, the Otter, and the sinuous Body -of the Eel and Lampern.—The Coracle and the Whirlwig-beetle.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE Boat naturally reminds us of the Boatman. In the two gnat-boats -which have been described there is no propelling power used or needed, -the little vessel floating about at random, and its only object being to -keep afloat. But there are many cases where the propelling power is -absolutely essential, and where its absence would mean death, as much as -it would to a ship which was becalmed in mid ocean without any means of -progress or escape. There are, for example, hundreds of creatures, -belonging to every order of animals, which are absolutely dependent for -their very existence on their power of propulsion, and I believe that -there is not a single mode of aquatic progression employed by man which -has not been previously carried out in the animal world. There are so -many examples of this fact that I am obliged to select a very few -typical instances in proof of the assertion.</p> - -<p>Taking the Oar as the natural type of progression in the water, we have -in the insect world numerous examples of the very same principle on -which our modern boats are propelled.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13"></a>{13}</span> And it is worthy of notice, that -the greater the improvement in rowing, the nearer do we approach the -original insect model.</p> - -<p>The first which we shall notice is the insect which, from its singular -resemblance to a boat propelled by a pair of oars, has received the -popular name of <span class="smcap">Water-boatman</span>. Its scientific name is <i>Notonecta -glauca</i>, the meaning of which we shall presently see. It belongs to the -order of Heteroptera, and is one of a numerous group, all bearing some -resemblance to each other in form, and being almost identical in habits. -Though they can fly well, and walk tolerably, they pass the greater part -of their existence in the water, in which element they find their food.</p> - -<p>Predacious to a high degree, and armed with powerful weapons of offence, -it is one of the pirates of the fresh water, and may be found in almost -every pond and stream, plying its deadly vocation.</p> - -<p>Its large and powerful wings seem only to be employed in carrying it -from one piece of water to another, while its first and second pairs of -legs are hardly ever used at all for progression. The last pair of legs -are of very great length, and furnished at their tips with a curiously -constructed fringe of stiff hairs. The body is shaped in a manner that -greatly resembles a boat turned upside down, the edge of the elytra -forming a sort of ridge very much like the keel of the boat.</p> - -<p>When the creature is engaged in swimming, it turns itself on its back, -so as to bring the keel downwards, and to be able to cut the water with -the sharp edge. From this habit it has derived the name of Notonecta, -which signifies an animal which swims on its back. The first and second -pairs of legs are clasped to the body, and the last pair are stretched -out as shown in the illustration, not only looking like oars, but being -actually used as oars.</p> - -<p>Now, I wish especially to call the reader’s attention to the curiously -exact parallel between the water-boatman and the human oarsman. As the -reader may probably know, the oar is a lever of the second order, <i>i.e.</i> -the power comes first, then the weight, and then the fulcrum. The arm of -the rower furnishes the power, the boat is the weight to be moved, and -the water is the fulcrum against which the lever acts.</p> - -<p>I have more than once heard objections to this definition, the objectors -saying that the water was a yielding substance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14"></a>{14}</span> and therefore could not -be the fulcrum. This objection, however, was easily refuted by taking a -boat up a narrow creek, and rowing with the oar-blades resting on the -shore, and not in the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> -<a href="images/i_014_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_014_sml.jpg" width="440" height="174" alt="Image unavailable: OAR-LEG OF WATER-BOATMAN. - -OAR OF BOAT. - -WATER-BOATMAN ROWING ITSELF. - -OARSMAN ROWING." /></a></div> - -<p>Now, the swimming legs of the water-boatman are exact analogues of the -oars of a human rower. The internal muscles at the juncture of the leg -with the body supply the place of the rower’s arms, the leg itself takes -the office of the oar, and the body of the insect is the weight to be -moved, and the water supplies the fulcrum. Even the broad blade at the -end of the oar is anticipated by the fringe of bristles at the end of -the leg, and its sharpened edge by the shape of the insect’s limb.</p> - -<p>Besides these resemblances, there is another which is worthy of notice. -All rowers know that one of their first lessons is to “feather” their -oars, <i>i.e.</i> to turn the blade edgewise as soon as it leaves the water. -Nothing looks more awkward than for a boatman to row without feathering. -(We all must remember the eulogy on the “Jolly Young Waterman,” who -“feathered his oars with skill and dexterity.”) In the first place, he -must lift his oar very high out of the water, and, in the second, he -will be impeded by any wind that happens to come against the blades.</p> - -<p>The Water-boatman, however, does not lift its legs out of the water -after every stroke, as a human boatman does, and therefore it has no -need to feather in the same way. But there is even greater need for a -feathering of some kind in the insect’s leg, on account of the greater -resistance offered by water than by air, and this feathering is effected -by the arrangement of the blade-bristles, which spread themselves -against the water as the stroke is made, and collapse afterwards, so as -to give as little resistance as possible when the stroke is completed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15"></a>{15}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Art we have invented many similar contrivances, but I believe that -there is not one in which we have not been anticipated by Nature. -Putting aside the insect which has just been described, we have the -whole tribe of water-beetles, in which the same principle is carried out -in an almost identical manner. In the accompanying illustration, the -oar, the rower, and the boat are placed above one another, and next to -them are seen one of the oar-legs of the water-boatman and the insect as -it appears when swimming on its back.</p> - -<p>Then, there is the foot of the duck, goose, swan, and various other -aquatic birds, in which the foot presents a broad blade as it strikes -against the water, and a narrow edge as it recovers from the stroke. -Some years ago, a steam yacht was built and propelled by feet made on -the model of those of the swan. She was a very pretty vessel, but art -could not equal nature, and at present the swan-foot propeller, however -perfect in theory, has not succeeded in action. Perhaps, if some -nautical engineer were to take it in hand, he would procure the desired -result.</p> - -<p>Almost exactly similar is the mode of propulsion employed by the -lobster, the prawns and shrimps, their tails expanding widely into a -fan-like shape as they strike against the water, and then collapsing -when the stroke is withdrawn, so as to allow them to pass through the -water with the least possible resistance.</p> - -<p>The same principle is to be seen in the lively little Acaleph, for which -there is unfortunately no popular name, and which we must therefore call -by its scientific title of <span class="smcap">Cydippe</span>, or Beroë, these names being almost -indifferently used. When full grown, it is about as large as an acorn, -and very much of the same shape. It is as transparent as if made of -glass, and, when in the water, is only visible to practised eyes.</p> - -<p><i>En passant</i>, I may remark that the familiar term of “water,” when -applied to diamonds, is owing to their appearance when placed in -distilled water. Those which can be at once seen are called stones of -the second water. Those which cannot be seen, because their refractive -powers are equal to those of the water, are called “diamonds of the -first water,” and are very much more valuable than the others.</p> - -<p>As the Cydippe is, in fact, little more than sea-water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16"></a>{16}</span> entangled in -the slightest imaginable and most transparent tissue of animal fibre, it -is evident that the water and the Cydippe must be of almost equal -refracting power, and that therefore the acaleph must be as invisible as -diamonds of the “first water.” Indeed, I have often had specimens in a -glass jar which were absolutely invisible to persons to whom I wished to -show them.</p> - -<p>But an experienced eye detects the creature at once. Along its body, at -equal distances, are eight narrow bands, over which the colours of the -rainbow are, though very faint, perpetually rippling. This appearance is -caused by the machinery which impels the body, and which seems never to -cease. Each of these bands is composed of a vast number of tiny flaps, -which move up and down in regular succession, so as to cause the light -to play on their surfaces. And, as they move as if set on hinges, they -of course offer no resistance to the water after their stroke is made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> -<a href="images/i_016_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_016_sml.jpg" width="440" height="304" alt="Image unavailable: CYDIPPE AND PADDLES. -PRAWN SWIMMING. -FEET of DUCK. -SELF-FEATHERING PADDLE-WHEEL." /></a></div> - -<p>Now let us compare these works of nature with those of art. We have -already seen the parallels of the oar, and we now come to those of the -paddle-wheel. When paddle-steamers were first invented, the blades were -fixed and projected from the wheel, as if they had been continuations of -its spokes. It was found, however, that a great waste of power, together -with much inconvenience, was caused by this arrangement. Not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17"></a>{17}</span> only was a -considerable weight of water raised by each blade after it passed the -middle of its stroke, but the steam power was given nearly as much to -lifting and shaking the vessel as to propulsion.</p> - -<p>A new kind of paddle-wheel was then invented, in which the blades were -ingeniously jointed to the wheel, so that they presented their flat -surfaces to the water while propelling, and their edges when the stroke -was over. This, which is known by the name of the “Self-feathering -Paddle-wheel,” was thought to be a very clever invention, and so it was; -but not even the inventors were likely to have known that if they had -only looked into the book of Nature, they might have found plenty of -self-feathering paddle-wheels, beside the few which my limited space -enables me to give.</p> - -<p>If the reader will look at the illustration, he will see that on one -side is represented the self-feathering paddle-wheel of Art, with its -ingenious arrangement of rods and hinges. On the other side there comes, -first, the common Prawn, shown with its tail expanded in the middle of -its stroke.</p> - -<p>Just below it is a Cydippe of its ordinary size, showing the -paddle-bands, one of which is drawn at the side much magnified, so as to -show the arrangement of the little paddles. As to the tentacles which -trail from the body, we shall treat of them when we come to our next -division of the subject of the work.</p> - -<p>Lastly, there is a representation of the self-feathering feet of the -Duck, the left foot expanded in striking the water, and the right closed -so as to offer no resistance when drawn forward for another stroke. The -swan’s foot shows this action even more beautifully than does that of -the duck.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to another mode of propulsion, namely, that which is not due -to direct pressure of a more or less flat body against the water, but to -the indirect principle of the screw, wedge, or inclined plane.</p> - -<p>Space being valuable, I will only take two instances, namely, the -well-known mode of propelling a boat by a single oar working in a groove -or rowlock in the middle of the stern, and the ordinary screw of modern -steamers.</p> - -<p>Most of my readers must have seen a sailor in the act of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18"></a>{18}</span> “sculling” a -boat. A tolerably deep notch is sunk in the centre of the stern, and the -oar is laid in it, as shown in the central illustration, on the -right-hand side. The sailor then takes the handle of the oar, and works -it regularly backwards and forwards, without taking the blade out of the -water. The boat at once begins to move forward, and, when the oar is -urged by a strong and experienced man, can be propelled with wonderful -speed. The well-known “Tanka” boat-girls of China never think of using -two oars, a single oar in the stern being all-sufficient for the rapid -and intricate evolutions required in their business.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 457px;"> -<a href="images/i_018_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_018_sml.jpg" width="457" height="325" alt="Image unavailable: TAIL OF FISH. - -SCREW OF STEAMER. - -TAIL OF OTTER. - -“SCULLING” A BOAT. - -TAIL OF SEAL. - -ACTION OF RUDDER." /></a></div> - -<p>The mechanical process which is here employed is nothing more than that -of the inclined plane, or rather, the wedge, the oar-blade forming the -wedge, and the force being directed against the stern of the boat, and -so driving it through the water.</p> - -<p>The Rudder affords another example of a similar force, although it is -used more for directing than propelling a vessel. Still, just as the -scull is used not only for propelling, but for steering the boat, the -rudder, when moved steadily backwards and forwards, can be used for -propulsion as well as steerage. In the absence of oars, this property is -most useful, as I can practically testify.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19"></a>{19}</span></p> - -<p>So different in appearance are the screw and the inclined plane, that -very few people would realise the fact that the screw is nothing but an -inclined plane wound round a cylinder, or rather, is a circular inclined -plane. The ordinary corkscrew is a good example of this principle, the -cylinder being but an imaginary one.</p> - -<p>Now, if the screw be turned round, it is evident that force is applied -just on the principle of the wedge, and this principle is well shown in -the various screw-presses, of which the common linen-press is a familiar -example, as was the original printing-press, which still survives as a -toy for children.</p> - -<p>We all know the enormous force exerted by screws when working in wood, -and how, when the screw-driver is turned in the reverse direction, the -instrument is forced backwards, though the operator is leaning against -it with all his weight. In fact, a comparatively small screw, if working -in hard wood or metal, so that the threads could not break, could lift a -heavy man.</p> - -<p>Substitute water for wood or metal, and the result would be the same in -principle, though the resistance would be less. As the loss of power by -friction would prevent a large vessel from being propelled by a stern -oar moved like a scull, the idea was invented of applying the same kind -of power by a large screw, which should project into the water from the -stern of the vessel. This modification, moreover, would have the -advantage of forcing the vessel forward when the screw was turned from -left to right, and drawing it back when turned in the opposite -direction, whereas the sculling oar would only drive it forward.</p> - -<p>The principle was right enough, but there was at first a great -difficulty in carrying it out. Firstly, several turns of a large screw -were used, and were found to need power inadequate to the effect. Then -the screw was reduced to four separate blades, and now only two are -used, as shown in the illustration, these saving friction, being equally -powerful for propulsion, and running less risk of fouling by rigging -blown overboard or other floating substances.</p> - -<p>So much for Art. Now for the same principle as shown in Nature, of which -I can take but a very few instances.</p> - -<p>The first and most obvious example is that of the Fish-tail, which any -one may observe by watching ordinary gold fish in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20"></a>{20}</span> a bowl. Their -progression is entirely accomplished by the movement of the tail from -side to side, exactly like that of the sculling oar, and moreover, like -the oar, the tail acts as rudder as well as propeller.</p> - -<p>The force with which this instrument can be used may be estimated by any -one who is an angler, and knows the lightning-like rush of a hooked -trout, or who has seen the wonderful spring with which a salmon shoots -clear out of the water, and leaps up a fall several feet in height. This -is not done, as many writers state, by bending the body into a bow-like -form, and then suddenly straightening it, but by the projectile force -which is gained by moving the tail backwards and forwards as a sculler -moves his oar.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers have seen the wonderful speed, ease, and -grace with which an Otter propels itself through the water. As the otter -feeds on fish, and can capture even the salmon itself, its powers of -locomotion must be very great indeed. And these are obtained entirely by -means of the tail, which is long, thick, and muscular, and can be swept -from side to side with enormous force, considering the size of the -animal. The legs have little or nothing to do with the act of swimming. -The fore-legs are pressed closely against the body, and the hind-legs -against each other. The latter act occasionally as assistants in -steering, but that is all.</p> - -<p>Then there are the various Seals, whose hind-legs, flattened and pressed -together, act exactly like the tail of the fish, that of the otter, the -oar of the sculler, or the screw of the steamer. Also, the eel, when -swimming, uses exactly the same means, its lithe body forming a -succession of inclined planes; so does the snake, and so does the pretty -little lampern, which is so common in several of our rivers, and so -totally absent from others.</p> - -<p>I can only now give a short description of the woodcut which illustrates -these points.</p> - -<p>On the right hand Art is shown by the screw-blades of the modern -steamer. In the middle is the ordinary mode of sculling a boat by an oar -in the stern, and below it is the rudder, which, like the sculling oar, -may be used either for propulsion or direction.</p> - -<p>On the left hand we have three examples of the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21"></a>{21}</span> mechanical powers -as shown in Nature. The uppermost figure represents a fish as in the act -of swimming, the dotted lines showing the movement of its tail, and the -principle of the wedge. In the middle is an otter, just preparing to -enter the water, and below is a seal, both of them showing the identity -of mechanism between themselves and the art of man. I need not say that -the mechanism of art is only a feeble copy of that of nature, but -nothing more could be expected.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> we are on this subject I may as well mention two more applications -of the screw principle. The first is the windmill, the sails of which -are constructed on exactly the same principle as the blades of the -nautical screw. Only, as they are pressed by the wind, and the mill -cannot move, they are forced to revolve by the pressure of the wind, -just as the screw of a steamer revolves when the vessel is being towed, -and the screw left at liberty.</p> - -<p>Moreover, just as the modern screws have only two blades, so, many -modern windmills have only two sails, the expense and friction being -lessened, and the power not injured.</p> - -<p>Again: some years ago there was a very fashionable toy called the aërial -top. It was practically nothing but a windmill in miniature, rapidly -turned by a string, after the manner of a humming-top. The edges of the -sails being turned downwards, the instrument naturally screwed itself -into the air to a height equivalent to the velocity of the motion.</p> - -<p>A similar idea has been mooted with regard to the guidance of balloons, -or even to aërial voyaging without the assistance of gas, but at present -the weight of the needful machinery has proved to be in excess of the -required lifting power.</p> - -<p>In fine, the application of the inclined plane, wedge, or screw as a -motive power, is so wide a subject that I must, with much reluctance, -close it with these few and obvious examples.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is worth while, by the way, to remark how curiously similar are such -parallels. I have already mentioned the very evident resemblance between -the water-boatman, the water-beetles, and the human rower, the body of -the insect being shaped very much like the form of the modern boat. I -must now draw the attention of the reader to the similitude between<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22"></a>{22}</span> the -very primitive boat known by the name of Coracle, and the common -Whirlwig-beetle (<i>Gyrinus natator</i>), which may be found in nearly every -puddle. The shape of the insect is almost identical with that of the -boat, and the paddle of the coracle is an almost exact imitation of the -swimming legs of the whirlwig. And, as if to make the resemblance -closer, many coraclers, instead of using a single paddle with two broad -ends, employ two short paddles, shaped very much like battledores.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> -<a href="images/i_022_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_022_sml.jpg" width="402" height="137" alt="Image unavailable: -WHIRLWIG BEETLE AND PADDLES. -CORACLE AND PADDLE." /></a></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23"></a>{23}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_III" id="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_III"></a>NAUTICAL.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> -<small>SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.—<span class="smcap">Part I.</span></small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>General Sketch of the Subject.—The Mast of Wood and Iron.—Analogy -between the Iron Mast and the Porcupine Quill.—The Iron Yard and -its Shape prefigured by the same Quill.—Beams of the -Steam-engine.—Principle of the Hollow Tube in place of the Solid -Bar.—Quills and Bones of Birds.—Wheat Straws and -Bamboos.—Structure of the Boat.—The Coracle, the Esquimaux Boat, -and the Bark Canoe.—Framework of the Ship and Skeleton of the -Fish.—Compartments of Iron Ship and Skull of Elephant.—The Rush, -the Cane, and the Sugar-cane.—“Stellate” Tissue and its Varieties.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">H</span>AVING now treated of the raft, the boat, the ship, and their various -modes of propulsion and guidance, we come to the subsidiary appliances -to navigation, if they may be so called in lack of a better name.</p> - -<p>First in importance is necessarily the mast; and the yards, which -support the sails, are naturally the next in order. Then there come the -various improvements in the building of vessels; namely, the -substitution of planks fastened on a skeleton of beams for a mere -hollowed log, and the subsequent invention of iron vessels with their -numerous compartments, giving enormous strength and size, with very -great comparative lightness.</p> - -<p>Then we come to the various developments of the ropes or cables, by -which a vessel is kept in its place when within reach of ground, whether -on shore or at the water-bed. Next come the different forms of anchors -which fasten a vessel to the bed of the ocean, of grapnels by which she -can be made fast to the shore, or of “drags,” which at a pinch can -perform either office, and can besides be utilised in searching for and -hauling up objects that are lying at the bottom of the sea.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24"></a>{24}</span></p> - -<p>Next we come to the boat-hook, which is so useful either as a temporary -anchor, or as a pole by which a boat can be propelled by pushing it -against the shore or the bed of the water; and then to the “punt-pole,” -which is only used for the latter purpose.</p> - -<p>Lastly, we come to the life-belt and life-raft, which are now occupying, -and rightly, so much of the public attention. These subjects will be -treated in their order in the present chapter, and I hope to be able to -show the reader that in all these points nature has anticipated art.</p> - -<p>I presume that most, if not all, of my readers are aware of the rapidly -extending use of iron in ship-building, not only in the standing -rigging, but in the material of the vessel. First there came iron -“knees,” <i>i.e.</i> the angular pieces of wood which strengthen the -junctions of the timbers. Formerly these were made of oak-branches, and, -as it was not easy to find a bough which was naturally bent at such an -angle as was required for a “knee,” such branches were exceedingly -valuable. Iron, however, was then employed, and with the best results. -It was lighter than the wooden knee, was stronger, could be bent at any -angle, and took up much less space.</p> - -<p>By degrees iron was used more and more, until vessels were wholly made -of that material. Then the masts, and even the yards, were made of iron, -and, strange as it may appear, were found to be lighter as well as -stronger than those made of wood. Of course, the masts and yards were -hollow, and it was found by the engineers that in order to combine -lightness with great strength, the best plan was to run longitudinal -ridges along the inside of the tube.</p> - -<p>A section of one of these masts is given at Fig. B, and taken from the -drawings of one of our largest engineering firms. The reader will see -that the mast is composed of rather slight material, and that it is -strengthened by four deep though thin ribs, which run throughout its -length.</p> - -<p>When I first saw this mast I was at once struck with the remarkable -resemblance between it and the quill of the Porcupine. These quills, as -all anglers know, are very light, and of extraordinary strength when -compared with their weight. Indeed, they are so light that they are -invaluable as penholders to those who are obliged to make much use of -their pen. I<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25"></a>{25}</span> have used nothing else for a very long time, and the -drawing of the Porcupine quill which is here given at Fig. A was made -from a small piece cut from the top of the penholder which I have used -for some fifteen years, and with which all my largest and most important -works were written, including the large “Natural History,” “Homes -without Hands,” “Man and Beast,” &c., &c. A portion of the same quill is -also shown of its real size.</p> - -<p>If the reader will cut a Porcupine quill at right angles, make a thin -section of it, and place it under the microscope, or even under an -ordinary pocket lens, he will see that the exterior is composed of a -very thin layer of horny matter, and the interior filled with a vast -number of tiny cells, which are formed much on the same plan as the pith -of elder and other plants. The analogies of the pith will be treated in -another page.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"> -<a href="images/i_025_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_025_sml.jpg" width="463" height="301" alt="Image unavailable: PORTION OF PORCUPINE QUILL. -COMPLETE QUILL. -BAMBOO. -SECTION OF PORCUPINE QUILL MAGNIFIED. -SECTION OF ENGINE BEAM. -IRON YARD AND YARD-ARM. -ENGINE BEAM. -SECTION OF IRON MAST." /></a></div> - -<p>But were the quill merely a hollow tube filled with pith, it would be -too weak to resist the strain to which it is often liable. Consequently -it is strengthened by a number of internal ribs, composed of the same -horny material as the outer coat, and arranged in exactly the same way -as those of the mast.</p> - -<p>There are yet other points in the structure of the Porcupine quill which -might be imitated with advantage in the mast. In the first place, the -internal ribs are much more numerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26"></a>{26}</span> than those of the mast, but they -are very much thinner, and taper away from the base, where the greatest -strain exists, to the end, where they come to the finest imaginable -edge. This modification of structure enables the outer shell of the -quill to be exceedingly thin and light, and, moreover, gives to the -whole quill an elasticity which is quite wonderful, considering its -weight and strength.</p> - -<p>Then, in the iron mast the exterior is quite smooth, whereas in the -Porcupine quill it is regularly indented, exactly on the principle of -the corrugated iron, which combines great strength with great lightness. -And I cannot but think that our iron masts might be made both lighter -and stronger if the shell were thinner, the internal ribs made like -those of the Porcupine quill, and the shell corrugated instead of being -quite smooth. The internal cells of the quill are, of course, not needed -in the mast, as they are intended for nutrition, and not for strength.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Being</span> on this subject, we may take the shape of the Porcupine quill, and -compare it with that of the ship’s yard. It will be seen that the two -are so exactly similar in form that the outline of one would answer -perfectly well for the other. The only perceptible difference is, that -in the ship’s yard both ends are alike, whereas in the Porcupine quill -the end which is inserted in the skin is rounded and slightly bent, -while the other end is sharply pointed.</p> - -<p>The principal point to be noticed in the form of both quill and yard is, -that they become thicker in the centre, that being the spot on which the -greatest strain comes, and which, in consequence, needs to be stronger -than any other part. While holding and balancing the pole which Blondin -uses to preserve his balance when walking on the high rope, I was struck -with the fact that the pole, which is heavily weighted at each end, had -to be strengthened in the middle, exactly on the principle of the -Porcupine quill and the ship’s yard. It could not, of course, be -thickened, as the hands could not grasp it, but it had to be furnished -with additional strengthening. And the necessity of such strengthening -is evident from the fact that on one occasion the pole did break in the -middle, so that any one of less nerve and presence of mind must have -been killed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27"></a>{27}</span></p> - -<p>Bearing in mind, then, that in a rod or pole the centre is the part -which most requires to be strengthened, we can see, in cases too -numerous to mention, how art has followed, though perhaps unconsciously, -in the footsteps of nature. Take, for example, the beam of a -steam-engine, such as is given in the sketch, and for which the great -engine at Chatham acted as model. The reader will observe that in this -case the beam is gradually thickened towards the centre, the ends, where -the strain is slightest, being comparatively small.</p> - -<p>Another point also must be noticed. Equal strength could have been -obtained had the beam been solid, but at the expense of weight, and -consequent waste of power. Lightness is therefore combined with strength -by making the beam consist of a comparatively slight centre, but having -four bold ridges, as shown in the section given in the accompanying -illustration. This plan, as the reader will see, is exactly the same as -that which is adopted in the iron mast and porcupine quill, except that -the ridges are external instead of internal. The same mode of -construction is employed in ordinary cranes, the principal beam of which -is almost identical in form with that of the engine, both being thickest -in the centre, and both strengthened with external ridges.</p> - -<p>There are also other analogies between the hollow mast and natural -objects. Keeping still to the animal world, we find the quill feathers -of the flying birds to supply examples of the combination of great -strength with great lightness and very little expenditure of material. -Their wing bones, too, are hollow, communicating with the lungs, and are -consequently light as well as strong.</p> - -<p>Passing to the vegetable world, we find a familiar example of this -structure in the common Wheat Straw. The ripe ear is so heavy, when -compared with the amount of material which can be spared to carry it, -that if the stalk were solid it would give way under the mere weight of -the ear. Moreover, the full-grown corn has to endure much additional -weight when wetted with rain, and to resist much additional force when -bowed by the wind, so that a slight and solid stalk would be quite -inadequate to the task of supporting the ear.</p> - -<p>The material of the stalk is therefore utilised in a different manner, -being formed into a hollow cylinder, the exterior of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28"></a>{28}</span> which is coated -with a very thin shell of flint, or “silex” as it is scientifically -termed. The result of this structure is that the stem possesses -strength, lightness, and elasticity, so as to be equal to the burden -which is laid upon it.</p> - -<p>Then there is the common Bamboo, which is little more than a magnified -straw, being constructed in much the same manner, and possessing almost -the same constituents of vegetable matter and silex.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most extraordinary of the tubal system is to be found in the -remarkable plant of Guiana called by the natives Ourah, and -scientifically known by the name of <i>Arundinaria Schomburgkii</i>. Like the -bamboo, it grows in clusters, and has a feathery top, which waves about -in the breeze. But, instead of decreasing gradually in size from the -base upwards, the Ourah, although it runs to some fifty feet in height, -is nowhere more than half an inch in diameter. The first joint is about -sixteen feet in length, and uniform in diameter throughout.</p> - -<p>It is scarcely thicker than ordinary pasteboard, and yet so strong and -elastic is it, that it can sustain with ease the weight and strain of -its feathery top as it blows about in the breeze. The natives of certain -parts of Guiana use this reed as a blow-gun, and I have a specimen, -presented to me by the late Mr. Waterton, which is eleven feet in -length.</p> - -<p>So the reader will see that when engineers found that hollow iron beams -were not only lighter, but stronger than solid beams, they were simply -copying the hollow beams formed by Nature thousands of years ago.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> great improvement in ship-building now comes before us.</p> - -<p>We have already seen that the earliest boats were merely hollowed logs, -just as Robinson Crusoe is represented to have made. But these had many -disadvantages. They were always too heavy. They were liable to split, on -account of flaws in the wood, and if a large vessel were needed, it was -difficult to find a tree sufficiently large, or to get it down to the -water when finished.</p> - -<p>So the next idea was to build a skeleton, so to speak, of light wooden -beams, and to surround it with an outer clothing, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29"></a>{29}</span> skin, if it may be -so termed. As far as I know, the two original types of this structure -are the Coracle of the ancient Briton, and the birch-bark Canoe of the -North American Indian, and it is not a little remarkable that both exist -to the present day, with scarcely any modification.</p> - -<p>The Coracle has been already represented on page <a href="#page_22">22</a>. It is, perhaps, or -was in its original form, the simplest boat in existence, next to the -“dug-out.” In the times of the very ancient Britons, who were content -with blue paint by way of dress, and lived by hunting and fishing, the -Coracle was a basin-shaped basket of wicker-work, rather longer than -wide, and covered with the skin of a wild ox. This was sufficiently -light to be carried by one man, and sufficiently buoyant to bear him -down rapids, if he were a skilful paddler, and, of course, formed a -considerable step in civilisation.</p> - -<p>The modern Coracle is identical in form, and almost in material. The -frame is still oval and basin-shaped, and made of wicker, but the outer -covering is not the same. An ox-hide is an expensive article in these -days, and, especially when wetted, is very heavy. So the modern Coracle -builder covers the wicker skin with a piece of tarpaulin, which is much -cheaper than the ox-hide, much lighter, is equally water-tight, and has -the great advantage of not absorbing moisture, so that it is as light -after use as before.</p> - -<p>The Esquimaux make a boat on very similar principles. It is simply -hideous in form, resembling a huge washing tub in shape, but, as it is -only intended for the inferior beings called women, this does not -signify.</p> - -<p>Best, most perfect, and most graceful of all such boats is the -Birch-bark Canoe of the North American Indians, whose shape has -evidently been borrowed from that of a fish. I have seen many of these -canoes, and have now before me several models which are exactly like the -originals, except in point of size. Instead of being mere elongated -bowls, like the coracle, they are long and slender, swelling out -considerably in the middle, and coming to an almost knife-like edge at -each end. Both stem and stern are alike, so that the canoe can be -paddled in either direction, and, as one of the paddlers always acts as -steersman, no rudder is needed.</p> - -<p>The mode of construction is perfectly simple. The labour is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30"></a>{30}</span> divided -between the sexes: the women cut large sheets of bark from the -birch-trees, scrape and smooth them, and then sew them together, so as -to form the outer skin, or “cloak” as it is called, of the canoe. -Meanwhile the men are making the skeleton of strips of white cedar-wood, -and binding them into shape with thongs made of the inner bark of the -same tree, just like the “bass” of our gardeners. The “cloak” is then -gradually worked over the skeleton, sewn into its place, and the canoe -is finished. A figure of this canoe, as completed, is given in the same -illustration as that which represents various forms of boat, page 7.</p> - -<p>The last improvement is that which was caused by the necessity for large -vessels, when planks or iron plates were fastened over the skeleton. -But, in all these cases, the vessel is built on the principle of the -thorax of a vertebrate animal, that of the whale or a fish being an -admirable example. It only needs to take the skeleton of a whale, turn -it on its back, and the ribs will be seen to form an almost exact -reproduction of those of any ship being built in the nearest dockyard.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;"> -<a href="images/i_030_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_030_sml.jpg" width="382" height="202" alt="Image unavailable: RIBS OF FISH. RIBS OF SHIP." /></a></div> - -<p>I have now before me the spine and ribs of a herring. The fish was -over-boiled, and the flesh fell off the bones as it was being lifted out -of the dish, leaving most of the ribs in their places. When held with -the spine downwards, and viewed from one end, the resemblance to the -framework of a ship is absolutely startling, the ribs representing the -beams, and the spine taking the place of the keel. I have also before me -a sketch representing a section of a Fijian canoe, and it is remarkable -that even the very curve of the ribs of the herring is reproduced in -those of the canoe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31"></a>{31}</span></p> - -<p>Whether the Fijians derived this peculiar and beautiful curve from the -ribs of a fish I cannot say, but think it very likely.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A still</span> greater improvement in ship-building now comes before us, and -this also has been anticipated both in the animal and vegetable -kingdoms. There are so many examples of this anticipation that I can -only give one or two.</p> - -<p>The improvement to which I refer is that which is now almost universally -employed in the construction of iron ships, namely, the making the outer -shell double instead of single, and dividing it into a number of -separate compartments. Putting aside the advantage that if the vessel -were stove, only one compartment would fill, we have the fact that the -ship is at the same time enormously strengthened and very light in -proportion to her bulk.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 473px;"> -<a href="images/i_031_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_031_sml.jpg" width="473" height="407" alt="Image unavailable: -SECTION OF ELEPHANT SKULL. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF IRON SHIP. -STELLATE TISSUES. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF IRON SHIP." /></a></div> - -<p>Perhaps the best, and certainly the most obvious, example of this -principle in the animal world is to be found in the skull of the -Elephant. The enormous tusks, with their powerful leverage, the massive -teeth, and the large and weighty proboscis,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32"></a>{32}</span> require a corresponding -supply of muscles, and consequently a large surface of bone for the -attachments of these muscles. Now, were the skull solid in proportion to -its requisite size, its weight would be too much for the neck to endure, -however short and sturdy it might be. The mode of attaining expanse of -surface, together with lightness of structure, is singularly beautiful.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may not be aware that the bone of the skull -consists of an outer and inner plate, with a variable arrangement of -cells between them. In many animals, such, for example, as man, where -the jaws are comparatively feeble, and the teeth small and light, the -size of the skull is practically that of the brain, to which it affords -a covering. The same structure may be observed in the skull of the -common sparrow, where, as in man, the two bony plates are set almost in -contact.</p> - -<p>But in the elephant these external and internal plates are set widely -apart, and the space between them is filled with bony cells, much -resembling those of a honeycomb. They are, in fact, just the same cells -as those which exist in the skull of man and sparrow, but they are very -much enlarged, and in consequence give a large surface, accompanied with -united strength and lightness.</p> - -<p>There are many other examples in the animal kingdom, but our limited -space will not allow them to be even mentioned.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> to the vegetable examples of this principle, they are so -multitudinous that only a very slight description can be given of them.</p> - -<p>I suppose that most boys have seen a “cane” (whether they have felt it -or not is not to the purpose), and some boys have made sham cigars from -pieces of cane. In either case they must have noticed that the cane is -not solid, but is pierced with a vast number of holes, passing -longitudinally through it, and is, in fact, a collection of little tubes -connected and bound together by a common envelope.</p> - -<p>The Sugar-cane, if cut across, is seen also to consist of multitudinous -cells, which, however, are not hollow, but filled with the sweet liquid -from which sugar is obtained by boiling. Then there are many of our -common English plants, like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33"></a>{33}</span> ordinary rush or reed, which are very -slight in diameter in comparison with their length, and in which the -cells are still further strengthened and lightened by the projection of -their sides into a number of points which meet each other, and leave -interstices between them. This modification of the cellular system is -called “Stellate” (or star-like) Tissue, and two examples of it are -given in the illustration, one being taken from the common rush, and the -other from the seed-coat of the privet. A very good specimen of stellate -tissue may be obtained by cutting a thin section of the white inner peel -of the orange.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34"></a>{34}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_IV" id="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_IV"></a>NAUTICAL.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> -<small>SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.—<span class="smcap">Part II.</span></small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Cable and its Variations.—Material of Cables.—Hempen and Iron -Cables, and Elasticity of the latter.—Natural Cables.—The -“Byssus” of the Pinna and the common Mussel.—The Water-snail and -its Cable.—A similar Cable produced by the common White Slug.—The -Principle of Elasticity.—Elastic Cable of the Garden -Spider.—Tendrilous Cables of the Pea and the Bryony.—The -Vallisneria, and its Development through the Elastic -Cable.—Proposed Submarine Telegraph Cable.—The Anchor, Grapnel, -and their Varieties.—Natural Anchors.—Spicule of Synapta.—The -Grapnel, natural and artificial.—Ice-anchor and Walrus Tusks.—The -Mushroom Kedge.—The Flesh-hook.—Eagle-claw.—The Grapple-plant of -South Africa.—The Drag.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>MONG the most important accessories to a ship are the Cable, by which -she can be anchored to the bed of the sea, and the ropes called “warps,” -by which she can be fastened to the land.</p> - -<p>Perhaps my readers may not know the old riddle—“How many ropes are -there on board a man-of-war?” The non-nautical individual cannot answer, -but the initiated replies that there are only three, namely, the -man-rope, the tiller-rope, and the rope’s-end, all the others being -“tacks,” “sheets,” “haulyards,” “stays,” “braces,” &c.</p> - -<p>Formerly cables were always made of hemp, enormously thick, and most -carefully twisted by hand. Now, even in small vessels, the hempen cable -has been superseded by the iron chain, and this for several reasons.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it is much smaller in bulk, and therefore does not -occupy so much room. In the next place, it is even lighter than the -hempen cable of corresponding strength; and, in the third, its specific -gravity—<i>i.e.</i> its weight when compared<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35"></a>{35}</span> with an equal bulk of -water—is so great, that when submerged, it falls into a sort of -arch-like form, and so attains an elasticity which takes off much of the -strain on the anchor, and protects it from dragging.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now look to Nature for Cables.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;"> -<a href="images/i_035_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_035_sml.jpg" width="438" height="275" alt="Image unavailable: EGG OF DOG-FISH. PINNA. ANCHORED BOAT. - WATER-SNAIL ANCHORED - TO WATER-LILY LEAF." /></a></div> - -<p>The natural cable which will first suggest itself is evidently that of -the Pinna Shell (<i>Pinna pectinata</i>), which fixes its shell to some rock -or stone with a number of silk-like threads, spun by itself, and -protruding from the base, just as a vessel on a lee shore throws out a -number of cables. The threads which compose the “byssus,” as it is -called, are only a few inches in length, and apparently slight. They -are, however, really strong, and by acting in unison enable the shell, -though sometimes two feet in length, to be held firmly to the rock. I -may here mention that they have been occasionally woven into gloves, and -other articles of apparel, to which their natural soft grey-brown hue -gives a very pleasing appearance.</p> - -<p>A still more familiar instance of a natural marine cable is given by the -common Mussel, which can be found in thousands on almost every solid -substance which affords it a hold. Even copper-bottomed ships are often -covered with Mussels, all clinging by their natural cables, and it is -thought that the cases which sometimes occur of being poisoned by eating -Mussels, or “musselled,” as the malady is called by the seafaring -population, are due to the fact that the Mussels have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36"></a>{36}</span> anchored -themselves to copper, and have in consequence imbibed the verdigris.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> from salt to fresh water, we come to a natural cable which is -very common, and yet, on account of its practical invisibility, is -almost unknown, except by naturalists. I refer to the curious cable -which is constructed by the common Water-snail (<i>Limnæa stagnalis</i>), -which has already been mentioned in its capacity of a boat.</p> - -<p>This creature has a way of attaching itself to some fixed object, such -as a water-lily leaf, by means of a gelatinous thread, which it can -elongate at pleasure, and by means of which it can retain its position -in a stream, or in still water can sink itself to the bottom, and ascend -to the same spot. This cable seems to be made of the same glairy -secretion as that which surrounds the egg-masses which are found so -plentifully on leaves and stones in our fresh waters, and, like that -substance, is all but invisible in the water, so that an inexperienced -eye would not be able to see it, even if it were pointed out.</p> - -<p>Slight, gelatinous, and almost invisible in the water as is this thread, -its strength is very much greater than might be supposed. Not only can a -mollusc be safely moored in the water by such a cable, but it can be -actually suspended in the air, as may be seen from a letter in -Hardwicke’s <i>Science Gossip</i> for 1875, p. 190:—</p> - -<p>“Last summer (September 29) I met with the following unusual fact. In a -green-house, from a vine-leaf which was within a few inches of the glass -... a slug was hanging by a thread, which was more than four feet in -length, not unlike a spider-web, but evidently much stronger.</p> - -<p>“The slug was descending by means of this thread, and, as the glutinous -matter from the under part of the body was drawn out by the weight of -the creature, it was consolidated into a compact thread by the slug -twisting itself in the direction of the hands of a clock, the power of -twisting being given by the head, and the part of the body nearest the -head being turned in the direction of the twist. There was no tendency -to turn in the contrary direction. Evidently the thread became hard as -soon as it was drawn away from the body.</p> - -<p>“By wetting the sides of slips of glass, I secured two specimens<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37"></a>{37}</span> of the -thread. In one of these, part was stretched, and part quite loose, the -latter appearing flat when seen through a microscope. The thread, which -was highly elastic, was increased about three inches in a minute. The -slug was white, and about an inch and a half in length.”</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to the elastic system of the Chain Cable, and find it -anticipated in Nature in various ways.</p> - -<p>One curious example was that of a Spider, which found its wheel-like net -in danger from a tempestuous wind. The Spider descended to the ground, a -depth of about seven feet, and, instead of attaching its thread to a -stone or plant, fastened it to a piece of loose stick, hauled it up a -few feet clear of the ground, and then went back to its web. The piece -of stick thus left suspended acted in a most admirable manner, giving -strength and support, and at the same time yielding partly to the wind.</p> - -<p>By accident the thread became broken, and the stick, which was about as -thick as an ordinary pencil, and not quite three inches in length, fell -to the ground. The Spider immediately descended, attached another -thread, and hauled it up as before. In a day or two, when the -tempestuous weather had ceased, the Spider voluntarily cut the thread, -and allowed the then useless stick to drop.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A curious</span> example of the elastic cable is seen in the egg-case of the -Dog-fish, which is given on page <a href="#page_35">35</a>. The egg-case is formed like that of -the common skate, and has a projection from each of its angles. But the -projections, instead of being mere flattened horns, are lengthened into -long elastic strings, tapering towards the ends, and twisted spirally, -like the tendrils of a grape-vine.</p> - -<p>These tendril-like appendages twist themselves round seaweeds and other -objects, and, on account of their spiral form, can hardly ever be torn -from their attachments. Sometimes after a storm the egg is thrown on the -shore, still clinging to the seaweed, but to find an egg detached is -very rarely done.</p> - -<p>I have already mentioned the tendrils of the vine, and their great -strength. The reader may remember the corresponding cases of the Pea and -the Bryony, the latter being a most remarkable example of the strength -gained by the spiral form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38"></a>{38}</span> It clambers about hedges, is exposed to the -fiercest winds, has large and broad leaves, and yet such a thing as a -Bryony being blown off a hedge is scarcely, if ever, seen. I never saw -an example myself, though I have had long experience in hedges.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> excellent example of this principle is found in the Vallisneria -plant, which of late years has become tolerably familiar to us through -the means of fresh-water aquaria, though it is not indigenous to this -country.</p> - -<p>In this plant the elastic power of the spiral cable is beautifully -developed. It is an aquatic plant, mostly found in running waters, and -has a most singular mode of development. It is diœcious—<i>i.e.</i> the -male, or stamen-bearing, and the female, or pistil-bearing flowers, grow -upon separate plants.</p> - -<p>It has to deposit its seeds in the bed of the stream, and yet it is -necessary that both sets of flowers should be exposed to the air and sun -before they become able to perform their several duties. Add to this the -fact that the male flower is quite as small in proportion to the female -as is the case with the lac and scale insects, and the problem of their -reaching each other becomes apparently intricate, though it is solved in -a beautifully simple manner.</p> - -<p>Fertilisation cannot be conducted by means of insects, as is the case -with so many diœcious terrestrial plants, and it is absolutely -necessary that actual contact should take place between them. This -difficult process is effected as follows:—</p> - -<p>The female flowers are attached to a very long spiral and closely coiled -footstalk, and, when they are sufficiently developed, the footstalk -elongates itself until the flower rests on the surface of the water, -where it is safely anchored by its spiral cable, the coils yielding to -the wavelets, and keeping the flower in its place.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the tiny male flowers are being developed at the bottom of the -river, and are attached to very short footstalks. When they are quite -ripe they disengage themselves from their footstalks, and rise to the -surface of the river. Being carried along by the stream, they are sure -to come in contact with the anchored female flowers. This having been -done, and the seeds beginning to be developed, the spiral footstalk -again coils itself tightly, and brings the seeds close to the bed of the -stream, where they can take root.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39"></a>{39}</span></p> - -<p>There are other numerous examples, of which any reader, even slightly -skilled in botany, need not be reminded, most of them being, in one form -or another, modifications of the leaf or the petal, which, after all, -are much the same thing. The vine and passion-flower are, however, -partial exceptions.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that soon after the failure of the first Atlantic -telegraph cable, an invention was patented of a very much lighter cable, -enclosed in a tube of india-rubber, and being coiled spirally at certain -distances, so that the coils might give the elasticity which constitutes -strength. The cable was never made, its manufacture proving to be too -costly; but the idea of lightness and elasticity, having been evidently -taken from the spiral tendrils of the bryony, was certainly a good one, -and I should have wished to see it tried on a smaller scale than the -Atlantic requires.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> a natural consequence, after the cable comes the Anchor, which in -almost every form has been anticipated by Nature, whether it be called -by the name of anchor, kedge, drag, or grapnel.</p> - -<p>On the accompanying illustrations are shown a number of corresponding -forms of the Anchor, together with a few others, which, although they -may not necessarily be used in the water, are nevertheless constructed -on the same principle—<i>i.e.</i> for the purpose of grappling.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;"> -<a href="images/i_039_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_039_sml.jpg" width="345" height="212" alt="Image unavailable: SPICULES OF SYNAPTA. -ANCIENT ANCHOR." /></a></div> - -<p>One of the most startling parallels may be seen on the right hand of the -illustration, the figure having been drawn from an old Roman coin. On -the other side of the same illustration<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40"></a>{40}</span> may be seen an anchor so -exactly similar in form, that the outline of the one would almost answer -for that of the other. This object is a much-magnified representation of -a spicule which is found on the skin of the Synapta, one of the -so-called Sea-slugs, which are so extensively sold under the name of -Bêche de Mer. It forms one of the curious group called the Holothuridæ.</p> - -<p>Each of these anchors is affixed to a sort of open-worked shield, as -shown above, and on the left hand; and it is a curious fact that in the -various species of Synapta the anchor is rather different in form, and -the shield very different in pattern. They are lovely objects, and I -recommend any of my readers who possess a microscope to procure one. -They need a power of at least 150 diameters to show their full beauties.</p> - -<p>An ordinary Grapnel is here shown, and in the corresponding position on -the opposite side is an almost exactly similar object, except that it is -double, having the grapnel at both ends of the stem. This is a spicule -of a species of sponge, and is one of the vast numbers of which the -sponge principally consists.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<a href="images/i_040_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_040_sml.jpg" width="400" height="155" alt="Image unavailable: LERNENTOMA. -ECHINOCOCCUS. -SPONGE-SPICULE. -GRAPNEL." /></a></div> - -<p>Next to the sponge-spicule is a still more perfect example of a natural -Grapnel. This is the head of an internal parasite called Echinococcus, -which holds itself in its position by means of the circle of hooks with -which the head is surrounded. These hooks are easily detached, and have -a curious resemblance to the claw of the lion or tiger.</p> - -<p>On the left-hand side is a representation of a parasitic crustacean -animal called Lernentoma, which adheres to various fishes, and is mostly -found upon the sprat, clinging to the gills by means of its -grapnel-shaped head.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is an ice-anchor, -copied from one of those which were taken out in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41"></a>{41}</span> Arctic expedition -of 1875. Opposite is the skull of the Walrus, the tusks of which are -said to be used for exactly the same purpose. Below are ice-hooks, also -used for the same expedition.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;"> -<a href="images/i_041a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_041a_sml.jpg" width="439" height="229" alt="Image unavailable: TUSKS OF WALRUS. -ICE-ANCHOR AND ICE-HOOKS." /></a></div> - -<p>The next illustration exhibits a butcher’s hook and a common porter’s -hook, by which he lifts sacks on his back; and opposite them are some -sponge-spicules, the similarity of which in form is so remarkable that -the former might have been copied from the latter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_041b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_041b_sml.jpg" width="416" height="90" alt="Image unavailable: SPONGE-SPICULES. -BUTCHER’S HOOK. -PORTER’S HOOK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPONGE-SPICULES. -BUTCHER’S HOOK. -PORTER’S HOOK.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_041c_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_041c_sml.jpg" width="334" height="113" alt="Image unavailable: MUSHROOM. -MUSHROOM KEDGE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">MUSHROOM. -MUSHROOM KEDGE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Our next sketch shows a remarkable example of similitude in form. There -are certain small anchors called Kedges, which are very useful for -mooring a boat where no great power of resistance has to be overcome, -and a large anchor would be cumbersome. One of these is called, from its -shape, the “Mushroom Kedge,” and is very useful, as, however it may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42"></a>{42}</span> -dropped, some part of the edge is sure to take the ground. This Kedge is -shown on the right hand of the illustration, and the Mushroom, from -which its shape was borrowed, is seen on the left.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to some more examples of the principle of the Grapnel, some -of which are applied to nautical, and others to terrestrial objects.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_042_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_042_sml.jpg" width="353" height="117" alt="Image unavailable: EAGLE-CLAW. -FLESH-HOOK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">EAGLE-CLAW. -FLESH-HOOK.</span> -</div> - -<p>The right-hand upper figure represents the “Flesh-hook,” used for taking -boiled meat out of the caldron, so familiar to us by the reference to it -in Exodus xxvii. 3, and the still better-known allusion to its office in -1 Samuel ii. 13, 14. In the former passage, even the material, brass, -which was really what we now call bronze, is mentioned, and it is a -curious fact that all the specimens in the British Museum, from one of -which the drawing was taken, are made of bronze. I need hardly state -that the hollow handle is meant to receive a wooden staff.</p> - -<p>On comparing this figure with that of the Eagle’s foot on the opposite -side, the reader cannot but be struck with the exact resemblance between -the two. Indeed, there is very little doubt that the flesh-hook was -intentionally copied from the foot of some bird of prey. Perhaps the -Osprey would have furnished even a better example than the Eagle, the -claws being sharper and more boldly curved, so as to hold their slippery -prey the better.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the next illustration is a figure of the seed-vessel -of the Grapple-plant of Southern Africa, drawn from a specimen in my -collection. The seed-vessel is several inches in length, and the -traveller who is caught by a single hook had better wait for assistance -than try to release himself. The stems of the plant are so slender, and -the armed seed-vessels so<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43"></a>{43}</span> numerous, that in attempting to rescue one -portion of the dress, another portion becomes entangled, and the -traveller gets hopelessly captured. Besides the hooks of the -seed-vessels, the branches themselves are armed with long thorns, set in -pairs. The scientific name of this plant is <i>Uncinaria procumbens</i>, the -former word signifying “a hook,” and the latter “trailing.” It is also -known by the popular name of Hook-plant.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_043_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_043_sml.jpg" width="413" height="136" alt="Image unavailable: GRAPPLE-PLANT. -DRAG." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GRAPPLE-PLANT. -DRAG.</span> -</div> - -<p>In the late Kafir wars the natives made great use of this and other -plants with similar properties, their own naked, dark, and oiled bodies -slipping through them easily and unseen, while the scarlet coats of the -soldiers were quickly entangled, and made them an easy mark for the -Kafir’s spear. In this way many more of our soldiers were killed by the -spears than by the bullets of their enemies.</p> - -<p>Opposite to the Grapple-plant is shown the common Drag, which is -utilised for so many purposes. Generally it is employed for recovering -objects that have sunk to the bottom of the water, and its use by the -officers of the Humane Society is perfectly well known, the Drag being -sometimes affixed to the end of a long pole, like the flesh-hook already -described, and sometimes tied to a rope.</p> - -<p>It can also be used as an anchor, after the manner of a kedge, and has -been often employed in naval engagements for the purpose of drawing two -ships together, and preventing the escape of the vessel which is being -worsted. My relative, the late Admiral Sir J. Harvey, K.B., used drags -in this manner, and secured two French ships, one on either side, -namely, <i>L’Achille</i> and <i>Le Vengeur</i>. The first was sunk, and the second -captured.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44"></a>{44}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_V" id="NAUTICAL_CHAPTER_V"></a>NAUTICAL.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> -<small>SUBSIDIARY APPLIANCES.</small><br /><br /> -<small><span class="smcap">Part III.</span>—<span class="smcap">The Boat-hook and Punt-pole.</span>—<span class="smcap">The Life-buoy and Pontoon-raft</span>.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Boat-hook and its varied Uses.—The Earth-worm and the -Serpula.—Microscopic Boat-hooks.—The Life-belt.—Life-boats and -their Structure.—Uses of Cork.—Wine Corks made serviceable.—The -Life-collar.—Portuguese Man-of-war.—Captain Boyton’s -Life-dress.—The Life-raft.—Victualling a Yacht and Boat.—The -Janthina and its Air-vessels.—Cask-pontoon—Pottery-raft and its -Uses.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>S all rowing men know, an indispensable appliance to the boat is the -Boat-hook, which can be used either as a pole, wherewith to push the -boat along, or as a grapnel, by which it can be drawn towards the shore -or a ship. As the latter portion has been discussed at the close of the -preceding chapter, we may proceed to the former.</p> - -<p>Every one knows how a boat may be propelled by a pole pressed against -the bank or the bottom of the water, and that there are certain boats, -called punts, which are propelled in no other way.</p> - -<p>Now, the punt-poles and boat-hooks, of which some examples are given in -the accompanying illustration, have long been anticipated in Nature, -there being many creatures which have no other mode of progression; -such, for example, as the common Earth-worm, which pushes itself along -by certain bristles which project from the rings of which the body is -composed, and which have the power of extension and contraction to a -wonderful extent. As, however, I shall advert to these in another part -of the work, I will content myself at present with a single example, -namely, the beautiful marine worm known as the Serpula.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45"></a>{45}</span></p> - -<p>This worm lives in a shelly tube, which is lined with a delicate -membrane, up and down which it passes with ease, ascending slowly, but -generally descending with such wonderful rapidity that the eye cannot -follow its movements. The latter movement will be explained in a -subsequent part of the book, and we will at present only treat of the -former.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_045_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_045_sml.jpg" width="422" height="156" alt="Image unavailable: PUSHING SPIKES OF SERPULA. -BOAT-HOOKS AND PUNT-POLES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PUSHING SPIKES OF SERPULA. -BOAT-HOOKS AND PUNT-POLES.</span> -</div> - -<p>If the creature be removed from the tube, and carefully examined, a -number of projections will be seen, in each of which is a perforation. -If the animal be pressed, a slight glass-like bristle passes through the -perforation, and can easily be removed. If properly treated, and placed -under a high power of the microscope, the tiny bristle resolves itself -into the remarkable object which is shown on the left hand of the -illustration.</p> - -<p>It consists of a number of spear-like rods, each having a straight -shaft, and a curved and pointed tip, deeply barbed on the inner portion -of the curve. These curious bundles of spicules can be protruded or -retracted at pleasure, and, as they are all directed backwards, it is -evident that when they are pushed against the sides of the tube, either -the points or the barbs must catch against the membrane which lines the -tube, and so propel the animal upwards. When it wishes to descend, it -uses another set of implements, and withdraws the first within their -sheaths.</p> - -<p>This is exactly analogous to the mode of progression employed by -punters, who, after they have placed the pole against the bed of the -stream, and run along the punt so as to push it as fast as possible, -immediately withdraw the pole, and take it to the head of the punt, -ready for another push. This, as the reader will see, is exactly the -plan pursued by the Serpula in lengthening itself when it wishes to -advance, and so to press<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46"></a>{46}</span> its spicules against the sides of its tube, -and in shortening itself and withdrawing the spicules ready for another -push.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> needful accessory of vessels now comes before us, namely, the -capability of forming rafts or life-belts, which will float under any -circumstances. Here, again, every human invention of which I know has -been anticipated by Nature. Take, for example, the familiar instance of -the cork life-belt and the cork edgings of the life-boat. Both are -constructed on the same principle, <i>i.e.</i> the maintenance of cells which -are filled by air instead of water, and are impervious to the latter.</p> - -<p>The material most used for this purpose is cork, and life-belts -constructed of it have long been in well-deserved use, the cork-bark -having the property of holding much air and excluding water. Many of our -life-boats are furnished with a broad and thick streak of cork, so that -even if the boat be filled with water and upset, she will right herself -and swim. I regret to say that many of the so-called “life-belts” which -are offered for sale ought rather to be called “death-belts,” they -having been found to be filled with hay and straw, with only a few -shavings of cork just under the covering of the belt.</p> - -<p>Indeed, so buoyant is this substance that a very efficient belt can be -made by stringing together three or four rows of ordinary wine corks, -and tying them round the neck like a collar. Under these circumstances -it is simply impossible to sink, and though any one may collapse from -exhaustion, drowning is almost out of the question. The now well-known -cork mattress, which is used in many ships, is another example of the -same principle.</p> - -<p>Lately there has been invented a “life-collar,” which possesses similar -advantages, but occupies less space when not wanted. It is nothing more -than a tube of caoutchouc, which can be inflated at pleasure, and tied -round the neck. The ordinary life-belt goes round the waist, and needs -much more material without obtaining a better result, which is simply -the keeping of the mouth and nostrils out of the water.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most buoyant of living beings is the Portuguese Man-of-war -(<i>Physalis pelagicus</i>), which floats on the surface of the ocean like a -bubble. It can at pleasure distend itself with air and float, or -discharge the air and sink.</p> - -<p>Now, there is a very remarkable swimming dress, which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47"></a>{47}</span> though not -entirely invented, was at least perfected by Captain Boyton, and which, -as it enabled the wearer to cross from France to England under rather -unfavourable circumstances, is clearly a most valuable invention.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_047_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_047_sml.jpg" width="433" height="164" alt="Image unavailable: PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR. -CAPTAIN BOYTON’S LIFE-DRESS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR. -CAPTAIN BOYTON’S LIFE-DRESS.</span> -</div> - -<p>Whether the inventor knew it or not I cannot say, but the Boyton -life-dress is simply a modification of the Physalis, being capable of -dilatation with air at will.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">So</span> much for the individual life-belt, and we will now pass to those -which are intended to sustain more than one individual. It has almost -invariably been found that when a ship has been wrecked on a rock, or -stove in by the sea, that, although there may be plenty of boats, there -is great difficulty in getting them into the water rightly.</p> - -<p>Now, if parts of the ship itself could be made of materials which could -not be sunk except by enormous pressure, and which might be released by -a touch if the vessel were sinking, it is evident that many lives would -be saved which have now been lost.</p> - -<p>And if such movable parts of the vessel were supplied with water and -provisions in air-tight cases, there is no doubt that the number of -“missing” ships would be very greatly diminished. I remember an instance -where a yacht was “hung up” on a mud-bank, whence there was no escape, -for twenty-four hours, and there was one sandwich on board to be divided -among the owner, two men, and a boy. Of course the boy had the sandwich, -and the men sustained themselves as well as they could with tea, of -which there was, fortunately, a canister on board. As it was, they were -some thirty-six hours without food.</p> - -<p>After such an experience the owner had special lockers made in the yacht -and her boat, containing biscuit, potted meats, water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48"></a>{48}</span> wine, spirits, -tobacco, tea, an “etna” for heating the water, and matches. Of course -these were on a smaller scale in the boat; but several thick rugs were -also stowed away, in case of being separated from the yacht at night. It -so happened that they were never needed; but the sense of security which -they imparted was worth ten times the expense and trouble, which -included a careful inspection of all the stores before each voyage.</p> - -<p>In Nature there is just such a raft as is needed, capable of carrying a -heavy freight, and which cannot be upset. And it is rather remarkable -that it has been unconsciously imitated in various parts of the world.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_048_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_048_sml.jpg" width="425" height="143" alt="Image unavailable: JANTHINA AND AIR-RAFT. -CASK-PONTOON. POTTERY-RAFT OF THE NILE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JANTHINA AND AIR-RAFT. -CASK-PONTOON. POTTERY-RAFT OF THE NILE.</span> -</div> - -<p>This is the singular apparatus attached to the Violet Snail (<i>Janthina -communis</i>), which is common enough in the Atlantic, and derives its name -of Violet-shell from its beautiful colour. The chief interest, however, -centres in the apparatus which is popularly called the “raft,” and which -sustains the shell and eggs. It is made of a great number of -air-vessels, affixed closely to each other, and by the curious property -of bearing its cargo slung beneath it instead of being laid upon it.</p> - -<p>Beneath the raft are the eggs, or rather, the capsules which contain the -eggs, and at one end is the beautiful violet shell itself. The floating -power of the raft is really astonishing, and even in severe tempests, -when it is broken away from the animal, the raft continues to float on -the surface of the waves, bearing its cargo with it.</p> - -<p>On the opposite side of the illustration are two examples of rafts -constructed so exactly on the same principle as that of the Violet -Snail, that they both might have been borrowed from it.</p> - -<p>The upper is the kind of raft which has often been constructed by -sailors when trying to escape from a sinking ship, or by soldiers when -wishing to convey troops across a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49"></a>{49}</span> river, and having no regular -“pontoons” at hand. It is made simply by lashing a number of empty casks -to a flooring of beams and planks.</p> - -<p>The amount of weight which such a structure will support is really -astonishing, as long as the casks remain whole, and to upset it is -almost impossible. Even cannon can be taken across wide expanses of -water in perfect safety, and there is hardly anything more awkward of -conveyance than a cannon, with its own enormous and concentrated weight, -and all the needful paraphernalia of limber, ammunition (which may not -be wetted, and of immense weight), horses, and men.</p> - -<p>Yet even this heterogeneous mass of living and lifeless weight can be -carried on the cask-raft, which is an exact imitation of the living raft -of the Violet Snail.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beneath</span> the cask-pontoon is to be seen a sketch of a very curious vessel -which is in use on the Nile, and I rather think on the Ganges also, -though I am not quite sure. It is formed in the following manner:—</p> - -<p>In both countries there are whole families who from generation to -generation have lived in little villages up the river, and gained their -living by making pottery, mostly of a simple though artistic form, the -vessel having a rather long and slender neck, and a more or less -globular body.</p> - -<p>When a man has made a sufficient number of these vessels, he lashes them -together with their mouths uppermost, and then fixes upon them a simple -platform of reeds. The papyrus was once largely used for this purpose, -but it seems to be gradually abandoned.</p> - -<p>He thus forms a pontoon exactly similar in principle with the -cask-pontoon which has just been described. Then, taking his place on -his buoyant raft, he floats down the river until he comes to some -populous town, takes his raft to pieces, sells the pots and reeds, and -makes his way home again by land.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50"></a>{50}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_I" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_I"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> -<small>THE PITFALL, THE CLUB, THE SWORD, THE SPEAR AND DAGGER.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Analogy between War and Hunting.—The Pitfall as used for both -Purposes.—African Pitfalls for large Game, and their Armature for -preventing the Escape of Prey.—Its Use in this Country on a -miniature scale.—Mr. Waterton’s Mouse-trap.—Pitfall of the -Ant-lion, and its Armature for preventing the Escape of Prey.—The -Club and its Origin.—Gradual Development of the Weapon.—The -“Pine-apple” Club of Fiji.—The Game of Pallone and the -“Bracciale.”—The Irish Shillelagh.—Clubs and Maces of Wood, -Metal, or mixed.—The Morgenstern.—Ominous Jesting.—Natural -Clubs.—The Durian, the Diodon, and the Horse-chestnut.—The Sword, -or flattened and sharpened Club.—Natural and artificial Armature -of the Edge.—The Sword-grass, Leech, and Saw-fish.—Spears and -Swords armed with Bones and Stones.—The Spear and Dagger, and -their Analogies.—Structure of the Spear.—The Bamboo as a Weapon -of War or Hunting.—Singular Combat, and its Results.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE two subjects which are here mentioned are practically one, the -warfare being in the one case carried on against mankind, and in the -other against the lower animals, the means employed being often the same -in both cases.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Pitfall.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">One</span> of the simplest examples of this double use is afforded by the -Pitfall, which is employed in almost every part of the world, and, -although mostly used for hunting, still keeps its place in warfare.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown a section of -the Pitfall which is so commonly used in Africa for the capture of large -game. It is, as may be seen, a conical hole, the bottom of which is -armed with a pointed stake. Should a large animal fall into the pit, the -shape of the sides<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51"></a>{51}</span> forces it upon the stake, by which it is transfixed. -Even elephants of the largest size often fall victims to this simple -trap. It is only large enough to receive the fore-legs and chest, but -that is quite sufficient to cause the death of the animal, the stake -penetrating to the heart.</p> - -<p>Many a hunter has fallen into these traps, and found great difficulty in -escaping, while some have not escaped at all. Indeed, in many parts of -Southern Africa, when part of one tribe is about to visit another, the -pitfalls are always unmasked, lest the intended guests should fall into -them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_051_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_051_sml.jpg" width="480" height="196" alt="Image unavailable: PITFALL OF ANT-LION FOR CATCHING INSECTS. -AFRICAN PITFALL FOR CATCHING LARGE GAME." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PITFALL OF ANT-LION FOR CATCHING INSECTS. -AFRICAN PITFALL FOR CATCHING LARGE GAME.</span> -</div> - -<p>Even without the spike, the elephant would scarcely be able to save -itself, owing to its enormous weight, unless helped out by its comrades -before the hunters came up. Indeed, many pitfalls are intentionally made -for this purpose, and are of a different shape, <i>i.e.</i> about eight feet -in length and four in breadth.</p> - -<p>In those which are made for the capture of the giraffe, the pit is very -deep, and the place of the stake is occupied by a transverse wall, which -prevents the feet of the captive from touching the ground, and keeps it -suspended until the hunters can come and kill it at leisure.</p> - -<p>Even in Belgium and our own country the pitfall is in use. When the -field-mice were devastating the districts about Liege some years ago, -their ravages were effectually checked by pitfalls, in which they were -caught by bushels, the pitfalls being simple holes some two feet deep, -and made wider below than above.</p> - -<p>The late Mr. Waterton contrived to rid his garden of field-mice by -pitfalls constructed on the same principle, though more permanent. -Finding that the little animals made great<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52"></a>{52}</span> havoc among his peas just as -they were starting out of the ground, he buried between the rows a -number of earthen pickle-jars, sinking them to the level of the ground. -He then rubbed the inside of the neck with bacon, and left them. The -mice stooped down to lick off the bacon, fell into the jars, and, the -neck being narrow and the sides slippery, they could not get out again.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration is the section of a pitfall made by -the well-known Ant-lion (<i>Myrmeleo</i>), of which there are several -species. The history of this wonderful insect is so familiar to us that -it need not be repeated at length. Suffice it to say that it digs -conical pitfalls in loose sandy soil, and that it places itself at the -bottom of the pit, securing the insect victims with its jaws just as the -larger animals are secured by the stake of the human hunter.</p> - -<p>It makes no false cover, as does the human hunter, but it always chooses -soil so loose that if an insect approach the edge, the sand gives way, -and it goes sliding down into the pit, whence its chance of escape is -very small, even were there no deadly jaws at the bottom ready to -receive it.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Club.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> simplest of all offensive weapons is necessarily the <span class="smcap">Club</span>. At first, -this was but a simple stick, such as any savage might form from a branch -of a tree by knocking off the small boughs with a stone or another -stick. Such clubs are still used in Australia, and I have several in my -collection.</p> - -<p>Then the inventive genius of man improved their destructive power by -various means. The most obvious plan was to add to the force of its blow -by simply making one end much thicker and heavier than the other. This -is done in the “Knob-kerry” of Southern Africa, and it is worthy of -remark that in Fiji a weapon exists so exactly like the short knob-kerry -of Africa, that an inexperienced eye would scarcely be able to -distinguish between them.</p> - -<p>The next plan was to arm the enlarged head with projecting pieces or -spikes, sometimes cut out of the solid wood, and sometimes artificially -inserted. The “Shillelagh” of Ireland is a simple example of this kind -of club. One of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53"></a>{53}</span> best and most elaborate examples of this sort of -weapon is the “Pine-apple” Club of Fiji, a figure of which may be seen -in the illustration, drawn from a specimen in my collection.</p> - -<p>It is made in the most ingenious manner from a tree which is trained for -the purpose. There are certain trees belonging to the palm tribe which -possess “aërial” roots, <i>i.e.</i> subsidiary roots, which surround the -trunk at some distance from the ground, and assist in supporting it. -Some trees have no central root, and are entirely upborne by the aërial -roots, while others have both.</p> - -<p>One of these latter is selected, and when it is very young is bent over -and fastened to the ground almost at right angles, as shown in the -illustration. When it has grown to a sufficient age it is cut to the -requisite length, the central root is sharpened to a point, and the -aërial roots are also cut down in such a way that they radiate very much -like the projections on a pine-apple. This is really an ingenious -weapon, for if the long and sharpened end should miss its aim, the -projections would be tolerably sure to inflict painful if not -immediately dangerous injuries.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_053_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_053_sml.jpg" width="423" height="243" alt="Image unavailable: DURIAN. -POLLEN OF HOLLYHOCK. HORSE-CHESTNUT. -WOODEN AND METAL CLUBS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">DURIAN. -POLLEN OF HOLLYHOCK. HORSE-CHESTNUT. -WOODEN AND METAL CLUBS.</span> -</div> - -<p>As the pine-apple is so well known, I have given in the opposite side of -the illustration a figure of the Durian, a large Bornean fruit, which is -covered with projections almost identical in appearance with those of -the pine-apple club, and almost equally hard and heavy.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may have heard of the grand Italian game of -Pallone, the “game of giants,” as it has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54"></a>{54}</span> called. The ball, which -is a large and rather heavy one, weighing more than twice as much as a -cricket-ball, is struck with a wooden gauntlet reaching nearly half-way -up the fore-arm. The original gauntlet was cut entirely out of the solid -wood, and exactly resembled the exterior of the Durian. The modern -gauntlet, however, has the spikes fixed separately into a wooden frame, -so that they can be replaced if broken in the course of the game. The -principle, however, is identical in all three cases. The technical name -of this gauntlet is Bracciale.</p> - -<p>The next improvement was to add still further to the destructive powers -of the club by arming it with stones, so as to make it harder and -heavier. Sometimes a stone is perforated, and the end of the club forced -into it. Sometimes the stone is lashed to the club, and sometimes a hole -is bored in the club, and the stone driven into it. This kind of club, -made of a sort of rosewood, may be found among some of the tribes -inhabiting the district of the Essequibo.</p> - -<p>The next improvement was to make the weapon entirely of metal, and such -clubs are plentiful in every good collection of arms. There was, for -example, the common mace, which was used for the purpose of stunning an -adversary clothed in armour which the sword could not penetrate. As -this, however, was nothing more than an ordinary wooden club executed in -iron, we need not produce examples.</p> - -<p>Other and more complicated forms were soon made, and were wonderfully -valuable until the rapidly improving firearms kept combatants at a -distance, and rendered a hand-to-hand fight almost impossible.</p> - -<p>Three examples of such clubs are given in the illustration, and are -taken from Demmin’s valuable work called “Weapons of War.”</p> - -<p>The upper left-hand specimen is called Morgenstern, <i>i.e.</i> Morning Star. -It is a large, heavy wooden ball studded with steel spikes, and affixed -to a handle usually some six or seven feet, but sometimes exceeding -eleven feet, in length. It was chiefly used by infantry when attacking -cavalry, the long shaft enabling the foot-soldier to be tolerably sure -of dealing the cavalier or his horse a severe blow, while himself out of -reach of the latter’s sword.</p> - -<p>Behind it is another Morgenstern in which there is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55"></a>{55}</span> improvement, the -armed ball being furnished at the end with a spike, so that it could be -used either as a mace or a spear.</p> - -<p>The commonest form of the Morning Star is shown below, and is thus -described by Demmin:—</p> - -<p>“This mace had generally a long handle, and its head bristled with -wooden or iron points. It was common among the ancients, for many -museums possess several fragments of these weapons belonging to the age -of bronze.</p> - -<p>“The Morning Star was very well known and much used in Germany and -Switzerland. It received its name from the ominous jest of wishing the -enemy ‘good morning’ with the Morning Star when they had been surprised -in camp or city.</p> - -<p>“This weapon became very popular on account of the facility and -quickness with which it could be manufactured. The peasants made it -easily with the trunk of a small shrub and a handful of large nails. It -was also in great request during the wars of the peasantry which have -devastated Germany at different times, and the Swiss arsenals possess -great numbers of them.”</p> - -<p>One of these primitive weapons may be seen in the lower figure of the -illustration.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the spiked ball was attached to a chain, and fastened to the -end of a handle varying greatly in length, measuring from two to ten -feet. One of these weapons may be seen in the Guildhall of London, being -held by one of the celebrated giants.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> the reader will now turn to the illustration on page <a href="#page_53">53</a>, he will see -that on the right of the Durian there are two spherical objects covered -with spikes. The upper is the pollen of the Hollyhock, and the lower the -common Horse-chestnut. The reader will see that these are precisely -similar in form to the spiked balls of the Morgenstern, whether they be -used at the end of a staff or slung to a chain. There are many similar -examples in the vegetable kingdom which will doubtless suggest -themselves to the reader, but these are amply sufficient for this -purpose.</p> - -<p>Then, in the animal world, the curious Diodons, sometimes called -Urchin-fishes, or Prickly Globe-fishes, are good examples. These fishes -are covered with sharp spines, and, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56"></a>{56}</span> they have the power of swelling -their bodies into a globular form, the spikes project on all sides just -like those of the pollen or chestnut. There is a specimen in my -collection, which, if the tail and fins were removed, and a cast taken -in metal, would make a very good Morgenstern ball.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Sword.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> next improvement on the club was evidently to flatten it, and -sharpen one or both edges, so as to make it a cutting as well as a -stunning implement—in fact, the club was changed into a <span class="smcap">Sword</span>.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_056_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_056_sml.jpg" width="396" height="241" alt="Image unavailable: SWORD-GRASS MAGNIFIED. -SHARK-TOOTH SWORD OF MANGAIA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SWORD-GRASS MAGNIFIED. -SHARK-TOOTH SWORD OF MANGAIA.</span> -</div> - -<p>A good example of this weapon in its simplest form is the wooden sword -of Australia, now an exceedingly rare weapon. It looks like a very large -boomerang, but is nearly straight, and is made from the hard, tough wood -of the gum-tree. Travellers say that the natives can cut off a man’s -head with this very simple weapon.</p> - -<p>I just missed obtaining one of these swords from a man-of-war, but, -unfortunately, a few hours before my arrival the zealous first -lieutenant had ordered a large collection of savage weapons to be thrown -overboard, among which were several Australian swords.</p> - -<p>Finding that the edges were not sufficiently sharp, and were liable to -break, the maker next turned his attention to arming them with some -substance harder than wood. Various materials were used for this -purpose, some of which will be mentioned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57"></a>{57}</span></p> - -<p>One of these is given in the illustration, and is taken from a specimen -in my collection. It is made of wood, rather more than two feet in -length, and would in itself be an insignificant weapon but for its -armature.</p> - -<p>This consists of a number of sharks’ teeth, which are fixed along either -side, and are a most formidable apparatus, each tooth cutting like a -lancet-blade, and not only being very sharp, but having their edges -finely notched like the teeth of a saw. I have a series of these weapons -in my collection, some being curved, some straight, and one very -remarkable weapon having four blades, one straight and long blade in the -centre, and three curved and short blades springing from the handle -towards the point.</p> - -<p>Opposite the shark-tooth sword is an object which might almost be taken -for a similar weapon, but is, in fact, nothing but a common grass-blade, -such as may be found in any of our lanes. I suppose that most of my -readers must at some time have cut their fingers with grass, and the -reason why is shown in the illustration, which represents a -much-magnified blade of grass. The edges of the leaf are armed with -sharp teeth of flint, set exactly like those of the sword, with their -points directed towards the tip of the blade. The whole of the under -surface of the blade is thickly set with similar but smaller teeth, -arranged in the same manner. I have just brought a blade of grass from a -lane near my house, and when it was placed under the half-inch power of -the microscope, the resemblance to the sword was absolutely startling to -some spectators who came to look at it.</p> - -<p>As if to make the resemblance closer, many savage weapons are edged with -flat stones, flint chips, or pieces of obsidian, so that the flint teeth -of the grass are exactly copied by the flint edgings of the sword. The -old Mexican swords were nearly all edged with obsidian, as is seen in -the lower right-hand figure of the next illustration. I possess a number -of obsidian flakes which were intended for that purpose, but do not -appear to have been used.</p> - -<p>The second figure from the top represents the head of a spear similarly -armed, and I possess a small Australian implement in which the flakes of -obsidian are set only on one side, so that the instrument can be used as -a rude saw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58"></a>{58}</span></p> - -<p>Between these two weapons is a spear-head armed with shark-teeth. I have -a very remarkable weapon of this kind, made in Mangaia. It is eleven -feet in length, and, besides being armed with a double row of sharks’ -teeth nearly to the handle, it has three curved blades similarly armed, -set at distances of about two feet, and projecting at right angles. -Thus, if the foe were missed with the point of the spear, he would -probably be wounded by one of the blades.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_058_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_058_sml.jpg" width="398" height="197" alt="Image unavailable: SWORD-GRASS. LEECH JAW. SAW-FISH. -SPEARS AND SWORD ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN AND SHARKS’ TEETH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SWORD-GRASS. LEECH JAW. SAW-FISH. -SPEARS AND SWORD ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN AND SHARKS’ TEETH.</span> -</div> - -<p>The upper figure represents a weapon where the natural bone of the -sting-ray has been used as the point.</p> - -<p>On the opposite side are seen three natural objects similarly armed. The -uppermost is another species of sword-grass, like that which has already -been described.</p> - -<p>Next comes a magnified view of one of the three cutting instruments of -the leech, showing the serrated teeth set along its edge, by means of -which it produces the sharply-cut wounds through which it sucks the -blood.</p> - -<p>The last figure represents the head of the common Saw-fish, in which a -vast number of flat and sharply-edged teeth are set upon the blade-like -head. The fish has been observed to use this weapon just as the Mangaian -uses his sword-spear. It dashes among a shoal of fish, sweeps its head -violently backwards and forwards, and then, after they have dispersed, -picks up at its leisure the dead and disabled.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spear and the Dagger.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">It</span> is tolerably evident that the invention of the spear and dagger must -have been nearly, if not quite, contemporaneous with that of the club. I -place these weapons together because<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59"></a>{59}</span> there is great difficulty in -assigning to either of them the precedence, the spear being but a more -or less elongated dagger, and the dagger a shortened spear.</p> - -<p>As a good example of this fact, I have in my collection a number of -spears and daggers belonging to the Fan tribe of Western Africa. In -every case the weapons correspond so closely with each other, that if -the daggers were attached to shafts they would exactly resemble the -spears, and if the spears were cut off within a few inches of the head, -they would be taken for daggers.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that as this part of the subject merely involves the -employment of a pointed or thrusting weapon, instead of the club or -sword, both of which are used for striking, the question of poison, -barbs, and sheaths will be treated on another page.</p> - -<p>The primary origin of the Spear is probably the thorn, as a savage who -had been wounded by a thorn would easily pass to the conclusion that a -thorn of larger size would enable him to kill an enemy in war, or an -animal in hunting. Anything of sufficient dimensions, which either -possessed a natural point or could be sharpened into a point, would be -available for the purpose of the hunter or warrior.</p> - -<p>Accordingly we find that such objects as the beak of the heron or stork, -the sharp hind-claw of the kangaroo, the bone of the sting-ray, the beak -of the sword-fish, and many similar objects, are employed for the heads -of spears, or used simply as daggers.</p> - -<p>As to artificial spears, nothing is easier than to scrape a stick to a -point, and then, if needful, to harden it in the fire. This is, indeed, -one of the commonest forms of primitive spears, and I have in my -collection many examples of such weapons. Another simple form of this -weapon is that which is made by cutting a stick or similar object -diagonally.</p> - -<p>Hollow rods—such, for example, as the bamboo—are the best for this -purpose. I have now before me a cast of a most interesting weapon -discovered by Colonel Lane Fox. It is the head of a spear, and is formed -from part of the leg-bone of a sheep. At one end there is a simple round -hole, which acted as a socket for the reception of the shaft, and the -other end is cut away diagonally, so as to leave a tolerably sharp -point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60"></a>{60}</span></p> - -<p>As to the bamboo, it has a great advantage in the thinness of its walls, -and the coating of flinty substance with which it is surrounded, and -which gives its edges a knife-like sharpness. Indeed, so very sharp is -the silex, that splinters of bamboo are still used as knives, and with -them a skilful operator can cut up a large hog as expeditiously as one -of our pork-butchers could do with the best knife that Sheffield -produces.</p> - -<p>I possess several of these weapons, and formidable arms of offence they -are. If the reader can imagine to himself a toothpick, a foot or more in -length, made from bamboo instead of quill, and having its edges nearly -as sharp as a razor, he can realise the force of even so simple a -weapon. In the case of the bamboo, too, celerity of manufacture has its -value, for any one can make a couple of spears in less than as many -minutes. All he has to do is to cut down a joint of bamboo transversely, -and then with a diagonal blow of his knife at the other end to form the -point.</p> - -<p>The force of such a weapon may be inferred from a remarkable combat that -took place some sixty years ago, when the roads were not so safe as they -are at present.</p> - -<p>A gentleman, who happened to be a consummate master of the sword, was -going along the highway at night, and was attacked by two footpads, he -having no weapon but a bamboo cane.</p> - -<p>One of them he temporarily disabled by a severe kick, and then turned to -the other, whom he found to be pretty well as good a swordsman as -himself, and to possess a good stick instead of a slight cane. The -footpad soon discovered the discrepancy of weapons, and with a sharp -blow smashed the cane to pieces, leaving only about eighteen inches in -his antagonist’s hand.</p> - -<p>Almost instinctively Baron —— sprang under the man’s guard, and dashed -the broken cane in his face. The footpad staggered with a groan, put his -hands to his face, and ran away, followed by his companion, who did not -desire another encounter with such an antagonist. When the victor -reached his destination, he found that the footpad’s face must have been -torn to pieces, for the clefts of the split bamboo were full of scraps -of skin, flesh, and whisker hair.</p> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that the combination of the club and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61"></a>{61}</span> the dagger -is common to savage and civilised life, as may be seen by reference to -the illustration in page 53, where the wooden club of savage warfare and -the metal club and maces of civilisation are alike armed with a piercing -as well as a bruising apparatus. Mostly the dagger is on the head of the -mace or battle-axe, but, in some cases, the end of the handle acts as -the dagger, and the head as the axe or mace.</p> - -<p>A very good example of this formation is found in the wooden battle-axe, -or “Patoo,” of New Zealand, a weapon which has been long superseded by -modern fire-arms. A specimen in my possession is rather more than five -feet in length. The head is just like that of an ordinary axe, while the -handle tapers gradually to the end, where it terminates in a sharp -spike. In actual combat the point was used much more than the axe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62"></a>{62}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_II" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_II"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> -<small>POISON, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE.—PRINCIPLE OF THE BARB.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Poison as applied to Weapons.—Its limited Use.—Animal and -Vegetable Poisons.—Animal Poisons.—The Malayan Dagger, or Kris, -and two Modes of poisoning it.—The Bosjesmans and their -Arrows.—Snake Poison and its Preparation.—The Pseudo-barb.—The -Poison-grub, or N’gwa.—Simple Mode of Preparation, and its -terrible Effects.—Vegetable Poisons.—The Upas of Malacca.—The -Wourali Poison of Tropical America.—Mode of preparing the various -Arrows.—The Fan Tribe of West Africa, and their poisoned -Arrows.—Subcutaneous Injection.—Examples in Nature.—The -Poison-fang of the Serpent.—Sting of the Bee.—Tail of the -Scorpion.—Fang of the Spider.—Sting of the Nettle.—Exotic -Nettles and their Effects.—The Barb and its Developments.—The -“Bunday” of Java.—Reversed Barbs of Western Africa.—Tongans and -their Spears.—The Harpoon and Lernentoma, or Sprat-sucker.—The -Main Gauche, or Brise-épée.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>NOTHER advance, if it may so be called, lay in increasing the deadly -effect of the weapons by arming them with poison.</p> - -<p>Without the poison, it was necessary to inflict wounds which in -themselves were mortal; but with it a comparatively slight wound would -suffice for death, providing only that the poison mixes with the blood. -It is worthy of notice that cutting weapons, such as swords and axes, -seldom, if ever, have been envenomed, the poison being reserved for -piercing weapons, such as the dagger, the spear, and the arrow.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Animal Poisons.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> the most diabolical invention of this kind was the Venetian -stiletto, made of glass. It came to a very sharp point, and was hollow, -the tube containing a liquid poison. When the dagger was used, it was -driven into the body of the victim, and then snapped off in the wound, -so that the poison was able to have its full effect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63"></a>{63}</span></p> - -<p>Such poisons are of different kinds, and invariably animal or vegetable -in their origin. Taking the animal poisons first, we come to the curious -mode of poisoning the Malayan dagger, or “Kris.” The blade of the weapon -is not smooth, but is forged from very fibrous steel, and then laid in -strong acid until it is covered with multitudinous grooves, some of them -being often so deep that the acid has eaten its way completely through -the blade.</p> - -<p>Among some tribes the kris is poisoned by being thrust into a putrefying -human body, and allowed to remain there until the grooves are filled -with the decaying matter. It is also said that if the kris be similarly -plunged into the thick stem that grows just at the base of the -pine-apple, the result is nearly the same.</p> - -<p>As a rule, however, the Arrow is generally the weapon which is poisoned, -and a few examples will be mentioned of each kind of poisoning.</p> - -<p>The two most formidable animal poisons are those which are made by the -Bosjesmans of Southern Africa. Their bows are but toys, and their arrows -only slender reeds. But they arm these apparently insignificant weapons -with poison so potent, that even the brave and bellicose Kafir warrior -does not like to fight a Bosjesman, though he be protected by his -enormous shield.</p> - -<p>There are two kinds of animal poison used by the Bosjesmans. The first -is made from the secretion of the poison-glands of the cobra, -puff-adder, and cerastes. Knowing the sluggish nature of snakes in -general, the Bosjesman kills them in a very simple manner. He steals -cautiously towards the serpent, boldly sets his foot upon its neck, and -cuts off its head. The body makes a dainty feast for him, and the head -is soon opened, and the poison-glands removed.</p> - -<p>By itself, the poison would not adhere to the point of the weapon, and -so it is mixed with the gummy juice of certain euphorbias, until it -attains a pitch-like consistency. It is then laid thickly upon the bone -point of the arrow, and a little strip of quill is stuck into it like a -barb. The object of the quill is, that if a man, or even an animal, be -wounded, and the arrow torn away, the quill remains in the wound, -retaining sufficient poison to insure death. I have a quiverful of such -arrows in my collection.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64"></a>{64}</span></p> - -<p>That arrows so armed should be very terrible weapons is easily to be -imagined, but there is another kind of poison which is even more to be -dreaded. This is procured from the innocent-looking, but most venomous, -Poison-grub. It is called N’gwa by the Bosjesmans, and is the larval -state of a small beetle. When the arrow is to be poisoned, the grub is -broken in half, and the juices squeezed upon the arrow in small spots.</p> - -<p>Both Livingstone and Baines give full and graphic accounts of the -horrible effect produced by this dread poison, which, as soon as it -mixes with the blood, drives the victim into raging madness. A lion -wounded by one of these arrows has been known nearly to tear himself to -pieces in his agonies. M. Baines was good enough to present me with the -N’gwa grub in its different stages, together with an arrow which has -been poisoned with its juices.</p> - -<p>The Bosjesmans are themselves so afraid of the weapon, that they always -carry the arrows with the points reversed, the poisoned end being thrust -into the hollow reed which forms the shaft of the arrow. Not until the -arrow is to be discharged does its owner place the tip with its point -uncovered.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Vegetable Poisons.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to the Vegetable Poisons, the two best known of which are -the Upas poison of Borneo, and the Wourali of South America. It is -rather remarkable that in both these cases the arrows are very small, -and are blown through a hollow tube, after the manner of the well-known -“Puff-and-dart” toy of the present day.</p> - -<p>The Upas poison is simply the juice of the tree, and it does not retain -its strength for more than a few hours after it has been placed on the -arrow-points. A supply of the same liquid is therefore kept in an -air-tight vessel made of bamboo, the opening being closed by a large -lump of wax kneaded over it at the mouth. One of these little flasks, -taken from a specimen in my collection, is seen on the extreme right of -the illustration.</p> - -<p>The Wourali poison owes all its power to its vegetable element, though -certain animal substances are generally mixed with it. The principal -ingredient is the juice of one of the strychnine vines, which is -extracted by boiling, and then carefully inspissated until it is about -the consistency of treacle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65"></a>{65}</span> This poison differs from the Upas in the -fact that it retains its potency after very many years, if only kept -dry. I have a number of arrows poisoned with the Wourali. They were -given to me by the late Mr. Waterton, who procured them in 1812, and -even in the present year (1875) they are as deadly as when they were -first made.</p> - -<p>A bundle of these tiny arrows, surmounted by the little wheel which is -used to guard the hand from being pricked, is seen next to the Bornean -poison-flask.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_065_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_065_sml.jpg" width="434" height="332" alt="Image unavailable: SERPENT-FANG. -BEE-STING. -SCORPION-STING. -NETTLE-STING. -SPIDER-FANG. -INJECTING SYRINGE. -POISONED ARROWS AND POISON-FLASK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SERPENT-FANG. -BEE-STING. -SCORPION-STING. -NETTLE-STING. -SPIDER-FANG. -INJECTING SYRINGE. -POISONED ARROWS AND POISON-FLASK.</span> -</div> - -<p>Beside these little arrows, which are only about ten inches in length, -very much larger arrows are used both for war and hunting, and are -propelled by the bow, and not with the breath. Many of these arrows are -nearly six feet in length. In all, the head is movable fitting quite -loosely into a socket, so that when an animal is struck and springs -forward, the shaft is shaken off, to be picked up by the hunter, and -fitted with another point, while the poisoned head remains in the wound.</p> - -<p>Another kind of poison, also of a vegetable origin, is used by the Fan -tribe. The arrows are mere little slips of bamboo, and are propelled by -a slight crossbow. But the poison is so potent, that even these tiny -weapons produce a fatal effect.</p> - -<p>Nearly in the centre of the illustration is seen a rather curiously -formed syringe, with an extremely long and slender<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66"></a>{66}</span> tip. This is a -recently invented instrument, used for the purpose of subcutaneous -injection—<i>i.e.</i> of injecting any liquid under the skin. It is mostly -employed for injecting opium and other drugs of similar qualities, for -the purpose of obtaining relief from local pain. The slender spike-like -point is hollow, and ends in a sharp tip, formed like the head of a -lance. Just below the head there is a little hole, communicating with -the interior of the tube.</p> - -<p>The mode of operating is simple enough. The syringe is filled with the -drug, and the point introduced under the skin at any given spot. -Pressure on the piston then forces out the liquid, and causes it to mix -with the blood.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Natural Animal Poisons.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Now</span>, both in the animal and vegetable worlds may be found several -examples of an apparatus which acts in exactly the same manner.</p> - -<p>The first is the poison-fang of the Serpent, a specimen of which is -given on the left hand of the illustration. This fang answers in every -respect to the syringe above mentioned. The long and slender fang is -hollow, and answers to the pipe of the syringe. It communicates at the -base with a reservoir of liquid poison, which answers to the body of the -syringe, and there is a little hole, or rather slit, just above the -point, which allows the poison to escape.</p> - -<p>When the serpent makes its stroke, the base of the fang is driven -against the reservoir, so that the liquid is urged through the hollow -tube, and forced into the wound. Even in large serpents these fangs are -very small. I have now before me some fangs of the cobra, puff-adder, -rattlesnake, and viper, and it is astonishing how small and slender are -these most deadly weapons. The figure in the illustration is much -magnified, in order to show the aperture at the base, where -communication is made with the interior of the fang. As the exit hole is -on the upper curve of the fang, it is not visible in the figure.</p> - -<p>Next to the serpent’s fang is a representation of the Bee-sting, the -poisonous reservoir being seen at the base, and having attached to it -the tiny thread-like gland by which the poison is secreted.</p> - -<p>In the centre is seen the tail of a Scorpion, with its hooked<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67"></a>{67}</span> sting. -The last joint is formed just like the serpent’s fang, being hollow, -having a sharp point with a slit near the end, and a poison reservoir in -the rounded base. When the scorpion attacks an enemy, it strikes -violently with the tail, and the force of the blow drives out the poison -just as is done with the serpent’s fang.</p> - -<p>At the bottom of the illustration is shown the poison-fang of a Spider, -which, as the reader may see, is formed just on the principle of the -scorpion-sting.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Natural Vegetable Poisons.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">So</span> much for animal poisons. We will now pass to the vegetable world.</p> - -<p>Of the vegetable sting-bearers none are more familiar to us than the -Nettle, three species of which inhabit this country. The two commonest -are the Great Nettle (<i>Urtica diœcea</i>) and the Small Nettle (<i>Urtica -urens</i>), and both of them are armed with venomous stings, which cause -the plants to be so much dreaded.</p> - -<p>The structure of these stings is very simple, and can be made out with -an ordinary microscope, or even a good pocket lens. Each of these stings -is, in fact, a rather elaborately constructed hair, hollow throughout -its length, coming to a point at the tip, and having the base swollen -into a receptacle containing the poisonous juice. When any object—such, -for example, as the human hand—touches a nettle, the points of the -stings slightly penetrate the skin, and the hair is pressed downwards -against the base, so that the poison is forced through the hole.</p> - -<p>One of these hairs is shown in the left-hand bottom corner of the -illustration.</p> - -<p>Even the tiny stings of our English nettles are sufficiently venomous to -cause considerable pain, and, in some cases, even to affect the whole -nervous system. But some of the exotic nettles are infinitely more -formidable, and are, indeed, so dangerous that, when they are grown in a -botanical garden, a fence is placed round them, so as to prevent -visitors even from touching a single leaf.</p> - -<p>The two most dreaded species are called <i>Urtica heterophylla</i> and -<i>Urtica crenulata</i>. The former is thought to be the more dangerous of -the two, and a good idea of its venomous qualities<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68"></a>{68}</span> may be gathered from -an account of an adventure with <i>Urtica crenulata</i>. The narrator is M. -L. de la Tour.</p> - -<p>“One of the leaves slightly touched the first three fingers of my left -hand; at the time I only perceived a slight pricking, to which I paid no -attention. This was at seven in the morning. The pain continued to -increase, and in an hour it became intolerable; it seemed as if some one -were rubbing my fingers with a hot iron. Nevertheless, there was no -remarkable appearance, neither swelling, nor pustules, nor inflammation.</p> - -<p>“The pain spread rapidly along the arm as far as the armpit. I was then -seized with frequent sneezing, and with a copious running at the nose, -as if I had caught a violent cold in the head. About noon I experienced -a painful attack of cramp at the back of the jaws, which made me fear an -attack of tetanus. I then went to bed, hoping that repose would -alleviate my suffering, but it did not abate. On the contrary, it -continued nearly the whole of the following night; but I lost the -contraction of the jaws about seven in the evening.</p> - -<p>“The next morning the pain began to leave me, and I fell asleep. I -continued to suffer for two days, and the pain returned in full force -when I put my hand into water. I did not finally lose it for nine days.”</p> - -<p>There is another of these formidable nettles, called in the East by a -name which signifies “Devil’s Leaf,” and which is sufficiently venomous -to cause death. There is but little doubt, however, that in the present -instance, if a larger portion of the body—say the whole arm—instead of -three fingers, had been stung, death would have ensued from the injury.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Barb.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to another improvement, or rather addition, in the various -piercing weapons. Sometimes, as in the case of the dagger or the -hand-spear, it was necessary that when a blow had been struck the weapon -should be easily withdrawn from the wound, so as not to disarm the -assailant, and to enable him to repeat the stroke if needful. But in the -case of a missile weapon, such as a javelin or an arrow, it was often -useful, both in war and hunting, to form the head in such a way that -when it had once entered it could scarcely be withdrawn. For this -purpose the Barb was invented, taking<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69"></a>{69}</span> different forms, according to the -object of the weapon and the nationality of the maker.</p> - -<p>As in this work I prefer to show the gradual development of human -inventions, I shall take my examples of barbs entirely from the weapons -of uncivilised nations, six examples of which are given in the -accompanying illustration, and five of them being drawn from specimens -in my collection.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_069_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_069_sml.jpg" width="436" height="158" alt="Image unavailable: BARBED WEAPONS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BARBED WEAPONS.</span> -</div> - -<p>The upper left-hand figure is rather a curious one, the position of the -barbs being nearly reversed, so that they serve to tear the flesh rather -than adhere to it. The opposite figure represents an arrow with a doubly -barbed point. It is chiefly used for shooting fish as they lie dozing on -or near the surface of the water, but it is an effective weapon for -ordinary hunting purposes, and, as the shaft is fully five feet in -length, is quite formidable enough for war.</p> - -<p>The left-hand bottom figure represents a very remarkable instrument, for -it can hardly be called a weapon, and is, in fact, the head of a -policeman’s staff. It is peculiar to Java, and is called by the name of -“Bunday.” As may be seen by reference to the illustration, the head of -the Bunday is formed of two diverging slips of wood. To each of these is -lashed a row of long and sharp thorns, all pointing inwards, and the -whole is attached to a tolerably long shaft.</p> - -<p>When a prisoner is brought before the chief, a policeman stands behind -him, armed with the Bunday, and, if the man should try to escape, he is -immediately arrested by thrusting the weapon at him, so as to catch him -by the waist, neck, or arm, or a leg. Escape is impossible, especially -as in Java the prisoner wears nothing but his waist-cloth.</p> - -<p>A weapon formed on exactly the same principle was used in the fifteenth -and sixteenth centuries, and was employed for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70"></a>{70}</span> dragging knights off -their horses. It was of steel instead of wood, and the place of the -thorns was taken by two movable barbs, working on hinges, and kept open -by springs. When a thrust was made at the knight’s neck the barbs gave -way, so as to allow the prongs to envelop the throat, and they then -sprang back again, preventing the horseman from disengaging himself. -This weapon is technically named a “catchpoll.”</p> - -<p>An illustration of one of these weapons will be given on another page.</p> - -<p>The right-hand central figure is an arrow from Western Africa. In a -previous illustration (page 65) a head of one of these arrows is given -on rather a larger scale, so as to show the very peculiar barbs. These -are of such a nature that when they have well sunk into the body they -cannot be withdrawn, but must be pushed through, and drawn out on the -opposite side. This is drawn from one of my own specimens.</p> - -<p>In some cases, with an almost diabolical ingenuity, the native -arrow-maker has set on a couple of similar barbs, directed towards the -point, so that the weapon can neither be pushed through nor drawn back. -One of these arrows is shown in the illustration, but, for want of -space, the artist has placed the opposing barbs too near each other.</p> - -<p>In some parts of Southern Africa a similar weapon was used for securing -a prisoner, the barbed point being thrust down his throat and left -there. If it were pushed through the neck it killed him on the spot, and -if it remained in the wound the man could not eat nor drink, and the -best thing for him was to die as soon as he could.</p> - -<p>With similar ingenuity, the Tongans and Samoans made their war-spears -with eight or nine barbs, and, before going into action, used to cut the -wood almost through between each barb, so that when the body was -pierced, the head, with several of the barbs, was sure to break off and -leave a large portion in the wound. In Mariner’s well-known book there -is an admirable account of the mode employed by a native surgeon for -extracting one of these spear-heads. So common was this weapon that -every Tongan gentleman carried a many-barbed spear about five feet long, -and used it either as a walking-stick or a weapon. It is needless to say -that this spear is almost an exact copy of the tail-bone of the -Stingray.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71"></a>{71}</span> A dagger made of this bone was used in the Pelew Islands in -1780, but seemed to be rather scarce.</p> - -<p>The left-hand central figure is a Fijian fish-spear of four points, and -the last figure on the right hand represents a large four-pronged spear -of Borneo. Both these weapons are in my collection.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> example of a weapon where a large and powerful barb is needful -is the Harpoon. As the harpoon is used in capturing the whale, the -largest and most powerful of living mammalia, it is evident that a barb -which will hold such a prey must be rather peculiarly made. The head and -part of the shaft of the harpoon are shown in the right-hand figure of -the accompanying illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_071_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_071_sml.jpg" width="421" height="56" alt="Image unavailable: LERNENTOMA. -HARPOON." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LERNENTOMA. -HARPOON.</span> -</div> - -<p>The left-hand figure represents a curious parasitic crustacean, -popularly called the Sprat-sucker, because it is usually found on -sprats. It affixes itself mostly to the eye, the deeply barbed head -being introduced between the eye and the socket. In some seasons this -remarkable parasite is quite plentiful, while in others scarcely a -specimen can be found. Its total length is slightly under an inch, and -its scientific name is <i>Lernentoma Spratti</i>.</p> - -<p>The following graphic account of some prototypic weapons belonging to a -marine worm is given by Mr. Rymer Jones, and is well worthy of perusal, -not only for the vividness of the description, but for its exact -accuracy:—</p> - -<p>“Here is a Polynoe, a curious genus, very common under stones at low -water on our rocky shores.</p> - -<p>“It is remarkable on several accounts. All down the back we discover a -set of oval or kidney-shaped plates, which are called the back-plates -(<i>dorsal elytra</i>); these are flat, and are planted upon the back by -little footstalks, set on near the margin of the under surface: they are -arranged in two rows, overlapping each other at the edge. These -kidney-shaped shields, which can be detached with slight violence, are -studded over with little transparent oval bodies, set on short -footstalks, which are,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72"></a>{72}</span> perhaps, delicate organs of touch. The -intermediate antennæ, the tentacles, and the cirrhi or filaments of the -feet, are similarly fringed with these little appendages, which resemble -the glands of certain plants, and have a most singular appearance.</p> - -<p>“If we remove the shields, we discover, on each side of the body, a row -of wart-like feet, from each of which project two bundles of spines of -exquisite structure. The bundles, expanding on all sides, resemble so -many sheaves of wheat, or you may more appropriately fancy you behold -the armoury of some belligerent sea-fairy, with stacks of arms enough to -accoutre a numerous host.</p> - -<p>“But, if you look closely at the weapons themselves, they rather -resemble those which we are accustomed to wonder at in missionary -museums,—the arms of some ingenious but barbarous people from the South -Sea Islands,—than such as are used in civilised warfare. Here are long -lances, made like scythe-blades, set on a staff, with a hook on the tip, -as if to capture the fleeing foe, and bring him within reach of the -blade. Among them are others of similar shape, but with the edge cut -into delicate slanting notches, which run along the sides of the blade -like those on the edge of our reaping-hooks.</p> - -<p>“These are chiefly the weapons of the lower bundle; those of the upper -are still more imposing. The outermost are short curved clubs, armed -with a row of shark’s teeth to make them more fatal; these surround a -cluster of spears, the long heads of which are furnished with a double -row of the same appendages, and lengthened scimitars, the curved edges -of which are cut into teeth like a saw.</p> - -<p>“Though a stranger might think I had drawn copiously on my fancy for -this description, I am sure, with your eye upon what is on the stage of -the microscope at this moment, you will acknowledge that the -resemblances are not at all forced or unnatural. To add to the effect, -imagine that all these weapons are forged out of the clearest glass -instead of steel; that the larger bundles may contain about fifty, and -the smaller half as many each; that there are four bundles upon every -segment, and that the body is composed of twenty-five such segments, and -you will have a tolerable idea of the garniture and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73"></a>{73}</span> armature of this -little worm, which grubs about in the mud at low-water mark.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_073_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_073_sml.jpg" width="407" height="65" alt="Image unavailable: PART OF WASP-STING. -MAIN GAUCHE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PART OF WASP-STING. -MAIN GAUCHE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Somewhere between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a sort of -anomalous weapon was in use, namely, a dagger, with a number of very -deep and bold barbs. It was not, however, employed for offence, but for -defence, and was used in the “rapier and dagger” mode of fighting, when -the dagger, which was held in the left hand, was employed to parry the -thrusts of the rapier, which was held in the right. From the mode of -holding it, the weapon was called “Main Gauche.”</p> - -<p>Sometimes the blade was quite plain, and, indeed, an ordinary dagger -answered the purpose. But in most cases the Main Gauche was made for -this special purpose, and was furnished either with strong diverging -projections, or with a series of deep notches, so that the sword of the -enemy might be caught in them and broken. In consequence of this use -these notched or guarded weapons were also called by the name of -<i>Brise-épée</i>, or Sword-breaker.</p> - -<p>The resemblance between this weapon and the blade of a wasp’s sting can -be seen at a glance. There is another form of the <i>Brise-épée</i> which is -so strangely like the cutting apparatus of one of the saw-flies, that an -outline sketch of the one would answer very well for the other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74"></a>{74}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_III" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_III"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> -<small>PROJECTILE WEAPONS AND THE SHEATH.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Propulsive Power.—The Pea-shooter and its Powers.—An Attack -repulsed.—Clay Bullets.—Puff and Dart.—The Sumpitan of Borneo, -and its Arrows.—The Zarabatana or Pucunha of South America, and -its Arrows.—The Air-gun.—Modern Firearms.—The Chœtodon, or -Archer-fish.—The Pneumatic Railway.—The Throwing-stick and its -Powers.—Australians, Esquimaux, and New Caledonians.—Principle of -the Sheath.—Waganda Spears.—Sheathed Piercing Apparatus of the -Gnat, Flea, and Bombylius.—Indian Tulwar and Cat’s Claw.—The -Surgeon’s Lancet, and Piercing Apparatus of the Gad-fly and -Mosquito.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E will now take some of the analogies between Projectile Weapons of Art -and Nature, selecting those in which the propulsive power is air or -gases within a tube. Whether the weapon be a blow-gun, an air-gun, or a -firearm of any description, the principle is the same. We will take them -in succession, choosing first those of the simplest and most primitive -character.</p> - -<p>Taking ourselves as examples, and looking upon the toys of children as -precursors of more important inventions, we find that the simplest and -most primitive of projectiles is the Pea-shooter, so familiar to all -boys.</p> - -<p>Insignificant as is the little tin tube, and small as are the missiles -which are propelled through it, the blow which can be struck by a pea -properly shot is no trifle. At college I have seen a night attack upon -an undergraduate’s rooms successfully repelled by a pea-shooter made for -the nonce of a glass tube, the owner of the rooms having a taste for -chemicals, and possessing a fair stock of the usual apparatus. Though -the assaulted rooms were on the top set, and the assailants began their -storming approaches below, the peas were too much<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75"></a>{75}</span> for the stones, -taking stinging effect on the hands and faces, and preventing any good -aim being taken at the windows. Only two panes of glass were broken -through a siege that lasted for several hours.</p> - -<p>There is another toy which is a development of the pea-shooter, and -carries a small clay bullet instead of a pea. When the tube is quite -straight and the balls fit well, the force of this missile is very -great, as it can be used for killing small birds. Indeed, such an -instrument is largely employed by the native hunters in procuring -humming-birds for the European market. These weapons are generally lined -with metal in this country, but a simple bamboo tube is sufficient for -the native hunters.</p> - -<p>A still further improvement occurs where the place of the bullet is -taken by a small dart or arrow, which is usually made to fit the bore by -having a tuft of wool, or some similar substance, at the butt. The arrow -is aimed at a target, and the toy is popularly known as “Puff and Dart.”</p> - -<p>With us this apparatus is only a toy, but in several parts of the world -it becomes a deadly weapon, namely, in Borneo and over a large part of -tropical America. In both cases the arrows are poisoned, as has already -been mentioned when treating of poisoned weapons.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first and best known of these weapons is the dreaded Sumpitan, or -Blow-gun, of Borneo, the arrows of which are poisoned with the deadly -juice of the upas-tree. Here I may as well mention that the scientific -name of the upas-tree is <i>Antiaris toxicaria</i>. It belongs to a large -group of plants, all of which have an abundance of milk-like and -sometimes poisonous juice. We are most of us familiar with the old story -of the upas-tree and its deadly power, and how the tree stood in a -valley, in which nothing else could live, and that condemned criminals -might compound for their inevitable fate by venturing into the valley of -death and bringing back a flask of the dread poison. Even birds were -supposed to be unable to fly over the valley, but to fall into it, being -poisoned by the exhalations of the tree.</p> - -<p>Now, there is a saying that there is no smoke without fire, and though -this account is evidently incredible, it is not altogether without -foundation. In Java, as in many other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76"></a>{76}</span> parts of the world, there are -low-lying places where carbonic acid gas exudes from the earth, and no -living creature can exist in them. Even in this country scarcely a year -passes without several deaths occurring from inhalation of the same -fatal gas, which has collected in some disused excavation. That there -is, therefore, a deadly valley in Java may be true enough, and it is -also true that the juice of the upas-tree is poisonous when it mixes -with the blood. But the two have no connection with each other, and, so -far from the upas-tree poisoning the valley by its exhalations, it could -not exist in such an atmosphere.</p> - -<p>Now for the Sumpitan and the arrows. The former is a tube, some seven -feet in length, with a bore of about half an inch in diameter, and often -elaborately inlaid with metal. I have one in which the whole of the -mouthpiece is brass, and the other end of the weapon has been fitted -with a large spear-head, exactly on the principle of the bayonet.</p> - -<p>The arrows are very slight, and, in order to make them fit the tube, are -furnished at their bases with a conical piece of soft wood. In -themselves they would be almost useless as weapons, but when the poison -with which their points are armed is fresh, these tiny arrows, of which -sixty or seventy are but an ordinary handful, carry death in their -points. Though they have no great range, they are projected with much -force, and with such rapidity that they cannot be avoided, their slender -shafts being almost invisible as they pass through the air.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> second weapon is the still more dangerous blow-gun of tropical -America, called Zarabatana, or Pucunha, according to the locality. Some -of these tubes measure more than eleven feet in length, and through them -the arrow can be propelled with wonderful force. I have often sent an -arrow to a distance of a hundred yards, and with a good aim.</p> - -<p>A native, however, can send it much farther, knack, and not mere -capacity of lung, supplying the propelling power, just as it is with the -pea-shooter. When the arrow is properly blown through the zarabatana a -sharp “pop” ought to be heard, like the sound produced by a finger -forced into a thimble and quickly withdrawn, or a cork drawn from a -bottle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77"></a>{77}</span></p> - -<p>As to seeing the diminutive arrow in its flight, it is out of the -question, and no agility can be of the least use in avoiding it. One of -my friends, a peculiarly sharp-sighted officer of artillery, has often -tested this point, and although there was but one arrow to watch, and it -was blown in the open air, he could not see it until it either struck or -passed him (of course the poisoned end was cut off). What, then, would -be the result of a number of these deadly missiles hurled out of a dense -bush may easily be imagined.</p> - -<p>An account of the poison with which these arrows are armed will be found -on p. <a href="#page_64">64</a>.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> reader will please to remember that in all these cases the missile -is propelled by air which is compressed by the aid of the lungs, and -forced into the tube behind the bullet or arrow. Now, the <span class="smcap">Air-gun</span>, which -really can be made a formidable weapon, is constructed on exactly the -same principle as the pea-shooter and the blow-guns, except that the air -is compressed by the human arm instead of the human lungs. There are -various modifications of this weapon, but in all of them air is driven -into a strong chamber by means of a forcing syringe, and is released by -the pull of the trigger, so as to drive out the missile which has been -placed in the barrel.</p> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that the term “noiselessly destructive” weapon, -as applied to the air-gun, is entirely false. I have already mentioned -that with the blow-gun of tropical America a definite explosion -accompanies the flight of each arrow. The same result occurs with the -air-gun, the loudness of the report being in exact proportion to the -force of the air, each successive report becoming slighter and the -propulsive power weaker until a new supply of air is forced into the -chamber.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">However</span> dissimilar in appearance may be the cannon, rifle, pistol, or -any other firearm, to the pea-shooter and its kin, the principle is -exactly the same in all. It has been already mentioned that in the -blow-guns the air is compressed by the exertion of human lungs, and in -the air-gun the compression is achieved by human hands.</p> - -<p>But with the firearm a vast volume of expansible gas is kept locked up -in the form of gunpowder, gun-cotton, fulminating<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78"></a>{78}</span> silver, or other -explosive compound, and is let loose, when wanted, by the aid of fire.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_078_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_078_sml.jpg" width="408" height="140" alt="Image unavailable: CHŒTODON, OR ARCHER-FISH. -BLOW-GUNS—CANNON." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CHŒTODON, OR ARCHER-FISH. -BLOW-GUNS—CANNON.</span> -</div> - -<p>In the illustration are represented on the right hand the blow-guns of -America and Borneo, and below them is the cannon as at present made. On -the left hand of the same illustration is seen a representation of a -natural gun which has existed for thousands of years before gunpowder -was invented, and very long before the savage of Borneo or America -discovered the blow-gun.</p> - -<p>It is the <span class="smcap">Archer-fish</span> (<i>Chœtodon</i>), which possesses the curious power -of feeding itself by shooting drops of water at flies, and very seldom -failing to secure its prey.</p> - -<p>There are several species of this very curious fish spread over the -warmer parts of the world, and their remarkable mode of obtaining prey -is very well known in all. There is, indeed, scarcely any phenomenon in -Nature more remarkable than the fact of a fish being able to shoot a fly -with a drop of water projected through its tubular beak, if we may use -that expression for so curiously modified a mouth.</p> - -<p>Indeed, so certain is the fish of its aim, that in Japan it is kept as a -pet in glass vases, just as we keep gold fish in England, and is fed by -holding flies or other insects to it on the end of a rod a few inches -above the surface of the water. The fish is sure to see the insect, and -equally sure to bring it down with a drop of water propelled through its -beak.</p> - -<p>It is worthy of remark that the same principle was once, though -unsuccessfully, employed in the propulsion of carriages, under the name -of the Pneumatic Railway. Some of my readers may remember the railway -itself, or at all events the disused tubes which lay for so many years -along the Croydon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79"></a>{79}</span> Railway. Speed was obtained, as I can testify from -personal experience, but the expense of air-pumps and air-tight tubing -was too great to be covered by the income, especially as the rats ate -the oiled leather which covered the valves.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">I find</span> some little difficulty in arranging the subject which comes next -in order. It might very properly be ranked among the Levers, which will -be treated of in another chapter; or it might be placed among the -examples of centrifugal force, together with the sling, the “governor” -of the steam-engine, &c., all of which will be more fully described in -their places. However, as we are on the subject of Projectiles, we may -as well take it in the present place.</p> - -<p>It is the <span class="smcap">Throwing-stick</span>, by which the power of the human arm is -enormously increased, when a spear is to be hurled. Perhaps the most -expert spear-throwers in the world are to be found among the Kafir -tribes of Southern Africa, and yet the most experienced among them could -not make sure of hitting a man at any distance above thirty or forty -yards. But the throwing-stick gives nearly double the range, and I have -seen the comparatively slight and feeble Australian hurl a spear to a -distance of a hundred yards, and with an aim as perfect as that of a -Kafir at one-fourth of the distance.</p> - -<p>The mode in which this feat is performed is shown in the accompanying -diagram. Instead of holding the spear itself, the native furnishes -himself with a “Throwing-stick.” This weapon varies greatly in shape and -size, but a very good idea of its form, and the manner of using it, may -be obtained from the accompanying illustration, which was drawn from the -actual specimen as held by an Australian native.</p> - -<p>The throwing-stick is armed at the tip with a short spike, which fits -into a little hole in the but of the spear. The stick and spear being -then held as shown in the illustration, it is evident that a powerful -leverage is obtained, varying according to the length of the stick. I -possess several of these instruments, no two of which are alike.</p> - -<p>It is rather remarkable that among the Esquimaux a throwing-stick is -also used, exactly similar in principle, but differing slightly in -structure, the but of the spear fitting into a hole at the end of the -throwing-stick. Wood being scarce among<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80"></a>{80}</span> the Esquimaux, these -instruments are mostly made of bone. I possess one, however, which is -made of wood, beautifully polished, and adorned with a large blue stone, -something like a turquoise, set almost in its middle. One of the most -curious points in the formation of the Esquimaux weapon is, that the but -is grooved and channelled so as to admit the fingers and thumb of the -right hand. The average length of this instrument is twenty inches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_080_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_080_sml.jpg" width="411" height="135" alt="Image unavailable: JAW OF SNAKE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAW OF SNAKE.</span> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_081_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_081_sml.jpg" width="449" height="240" alt="Image unavailable: THROWING-STICK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">THROWING-STICK.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> New Caledonia the natives use a contrivance for increasing the power -of the spear, which is based on exactly identical principles, though the -mode of carrying them out is different. A thong or cord of some eighteen -inches in length is kept in the right hand, one end being looped over -the forefinger, and the other, which is terminated by a button, being -twisted round the shaft of the spear. When the weapon is thrown, the -additional leverage gives it great power; and it is a noteworthy fact -that the sling-spear of New Caledonia has enabled us to understand the -otherwise unintelligible “amentum” of the ancient classic writers.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> from Art to Nature, we have in the jaw of the serpent an exact -type of the peculiar leverage by which the spear is thrown. If the -reader will refer to the illustration, he will see that the lower jaw of -the snake, instead of being set directly on the upper jaw, is attached -to an elongated bone, which gives the additional leverage which is -needful in the act of swallowing prey, after the manner of serpents.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> War and in Peace we have been long accustomed to shield the edges and -points of our sharp weapons with sheaths, and even the very savages have -been driven to this device.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81"></a>{81}</span> I have in my collection a number of -sheathed weapons from nearly all parts of the world, and it is a -remarkable fact that the Fan tribe, who are themselves absolutely naked, -sheathe their daggers and axes as carefully as we sheathe our swords and -bayonets. In some points, indeed, they go beyond us; for the most -ignorant Fan savage would never think of blunting the edge of his weapon -by sheathing it in a metal scabbard. Their sheaths are beautifully made -of two flat pieces of wood, just sufficiently hollowed to allow the -blade to lie between them, and bound together with various substances. -For example, the sheaths of one or two daggers in my possession are made -of wood covered with snake-skin, while others are simply wood bound with -a sort of rattan. Even the curious missile-axe which the Fan warrior -uses with such power is covered with a sheath when not in actual use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_081_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_081_sml.jpg" width="449" height="240" alt="Image unavailable: PIERCING APPARATUS AND SHEATHS. SHEATHED SPEARS OF WAGANDA. -GNAT. FLEA. BOMBYLIUS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PIERCING APPARATUS AND SHEATHS. SHEATHED SPEARS OF WAGANDA. -GNAT. FLEA. BOMBYLIUS. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The figure on the right hand of the illustration represents the heads of -two spears of Waganda warriors. When they present themselves before -their king, the warriors must not appear without their weapons, and it -would be contrary to all etiquette to show a bare blade except in -action. The sheath can be slipped off in a moment, but there it is, and -any man who dared to appear before his sovereign without his weapon, or -with an unsheathed spear, would lose his life on the spot, so exact is -the code of etiquette among these savages.</p> - -<p>The sheathed spears of Nature are shown in the same illustration. On the -left is a side view of the piercing apparatus of the common Gnat.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82"></a>{82}</span></p> - -<p>In the middle is the compound piercing apparatus of the common Flea, -with which we are sometimes too well acquainted, the upper figure -showing the lancets and sheaths together, and the lower exhibiting them -when separated.</p> - -<p>On the right is shown the group of mouth-lancets belonging to one of the -Humble-bee flies (<i>Bombylius</i>). These flies do not suck blood like the -Mosquito, the Flea, and the Gad-fly, but they use the long proboscis for -sucking the sweet juices out of flowers, and in consequence it is nearly -of the same form as if it were meant for sucking blood. Indeed, there -are some insects which do not seem to care very much whether the juice -which they suck is animal or vegetable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_082_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_082_sml.jpg" width="400" height="278" alt="Image unavailable: 8 CLAW.—SHEATH OPENING ALONG THE CURVED BACK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">8 CLAW.—SHEATH OPENING ALONG THE CURVED BACK. -INDIAN TULWAR.—SHEATH OPENING ALONG THE CURVED BACK.</span> -</div> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is seen an Indian sword, or -“Tulwar,” drawn from one of my own specimens. I have selected this -example on account of the structure of the sheath. It is evident, from -the form of the blade, that the sword cannot be sheathed point foremost, -and that therefore some other plan must be used. In this weapon the -sheath is left open on one side, the two portions being held together by -the straps which are shown in the figure. Of course there is loss of -time in sheathing and drawing such a sword, but the peculiar shape of -the blade entails a necessity for a special scabbard.</p> - -<p>On the other side is shown one of the fore-claws of a cat, which, as we -all know, can be drawn back into its simple<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83"></a>{83}</span> sheath between the toes, -when it is not in use. This sheath is exactly the same in principle as -that of the Indian tulwar, and any one can examine it by looking at the -foot of a good-tempered cat. I have done so even with a chetah, which is -not a subject that would generally be chosen for such a purpose.</p> - -<p>On the next illustration is shown an ordinary Lancet, in which the blade -is guarded between a double sheath, the two halves and the blade itself -working upon a common pivot. As for the ordinary sword and dagger -sheaths, it is not worth while to figure them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Turning</span> to the opposite side of the illustration, we shall see a few of -the innumerable examples in which the principle of the sheath was -carried out in Nature long before man came on the earth.</p> - -<p>The reader should compare this figure with the side view of the Gnat’s -lancets given on p. <a href="#page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_083_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_083_sml.jpg" width="404" height="327" alt="Image unavailable: LANCETS OF TABANUS -CLOSED. -LANCETS OF MOSQUITO -PARTLY OPEN. -SURGEON’S LANCET -PARTLY OPEN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LANCETS OF TABANUS -CLOSED. -LANCETS OF MOSQUITO -PARTLY OPEN. -SURGEON’S LANCET -PARTLY OPEN.</span> -</div> - -<p>They represent the cutting and piercing instruments of several insects, -all of which are very complicated, and are sheathed after the manner of -the lancet. Indeed, they are popularly known as “mouth-lancets,” and -with reason, as the reader may see by reference to the illustration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84"></a>{84}</span></p> - -<p>On the extreme left are shown the head and closed lancets of a foreign -Gad-fly, the lancets being all in their sheaths, and showing the -character of the weapon which enables a small fly to be master, or -rather mistress, of the forest. I say mistress, because in all these -cases it is the female alone that possesses these instruments of -torture.</p> - -<p>Next it is a magnified representation of the lancets of the common -Mosquito, as seen from above, both lancets being removed from their -sheaths and separated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85"></a>{85}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_IV" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_IV"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Net, as used in Hunting and War.—The Seine-net, as used for -Fishing.—Also as a means of Hunting.—Net for -Elephant-catching.—Steel Net for Military Purposes.—Web of the -Garden Spider.—The Casting-net, as used in Fishing.—Also as -employed in the Combats of the ancient Circus.—Various Kinds of -Casting-nets.—The Argus Star-fish and the Barnacle.—The Rod and -Line.—Angling of various Kinds.—The Polynesian as an Angler.—The -Angler-fish.—“Playing” a Fish.—The Nemertes and its Mode of -Feeding.—Mr. Kingsley’s Account of it.—Power of Elongation and -Contraction.—The Cydippe.—Spring-traps.—The Gin, Rat-trap, and -Man-trap.—Jaws of Dolphin, Porpoise, and Alligator.—Legs of -Phasma.—Baited Traps.—Carnivorous Plants and their Mode of -Feeding.—Birdlime.—“Pegging” for Chaffinches.—Curious Mode of -Tiger-killing.—Ant-eater and its Mode of Feeding.—The -Drosera.—Web of Spider and its Structure.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Net.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>LTHOUGH the Net is but seldom employed for the purposes of general -warfare, it was once largely used in individual combats, of which we -will presently treat. In hunting, however, especially in fishing, the -Net has been in constant use, and is equally valued by savages and the -most civilised nations.</p> - -<p>To begin with the fisheries. Even among ourselves there are so many -varieties of fishing-nets that even to enumerate them would be a work of -time. However, they are all based on one of two principles, <i>i.e.</i> the -nets which are set and the nets which are thrown.</p> - -<p>We will begin with the first.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right hand of the illustration, and at the bottom, may be seen a -common Seine-net being “shot” in the sea. This form of net is very long -in proportion to its width, some of these nets being several miles long. -The upper edge<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86"></a>{86}</span> of the net is furnished with a series of cork bungs, -which maintain it on the surface, while the lower edge has a -corresponding set of weights, which keep the net extended like a wall of -meshes. Any fish which come against this wall are, of course, arrested, -and are generally caught by the gill-covers in their vain attempts to -force themselves through the meshes.</p> - -<p>We may see representations of fishing with the seine-net in the -sculptures and paintings of Egypt and Assyria; and in the Berlin Museum -there is a part of an Egyptian seine-net with the leads still upon the -lower edge, and the upper edge bearing a number of large pieces of wood, -which acted as buoys, and served the same purpose as our corks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_086_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_086_sml.jpg" width="472" height="226" alt="Image unavailable: SPIDER-WEB. HUNTING-NET. THE SEINE-NET." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPIDER-WEB. HUNTING-NET. THE SEINE-NET.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> hunting, this plan has been adopted for many centuries, the upper -edge of the net being supported on poles, and the lower fastened to the -ground in such a manner as to leave the net hanging in loose folds. -While this part of the business is being completed by the servants, the -hunters are forming a large semicircle, in which they enclose a number -of wild beasts, which they drive into the nets or “toils” by gradually -contracting the semicircle. The ancient sculptures give us accounts of -nets used in exactly this manner. There are represented the nets rolled -up ready for use, and being carried on the shoulders of several -attendants, who are bearing them to the field. Then there are the nets -set up on their poles, and having enclosed within them a number of wild -animals, such as boars and deer.</p> - -<p>In various parts of India, hunting with the net is one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87"></a>{87}</span> chief -amusements of their principal men, and the variety of game driven into -the toils is really surprising, and affords a magnificent sight to those -who view it for the first time. Even the tiger himself cannot leap over -the nets because they are so high, nor force his way through them, -because their folds hang so lightly that they offer no resistance to his -efforts.</p> - -<p>A very simple net on similar principles is used for catching elephants. -It is formed of the long creeping plants that fling themselves in -tangled masses from tree to tree. These creepers are carefully twisted -into a net-like form, without being removed from the trees, and when a -sufficient space has been enclosed the elephants are driven into it. Not -even their gigantic strength and tons of weight are capable of breaking -through a barrier which, apparently slight, is as strong as if it were -built of the tree-trunks on which the creepers are hung.</p> - -<p>This net is seldom used for military purposes, though I have seen one, -which I believe still exists, and would do good service. In one of our -largest fortresses there is a subterranean corridor, through which it is -desirous that the enemy should not penetrate. One mode of defence -consists of a large net made of steel hanging loosely across it. The -meshes are about ten inches square, so that the defenders can fire from -their loopholes through the meshes, while the assailants, even if they -knew of its position, would find that nothing smaller than a field-gun -would have any effect on this formidable net.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> natural analogy of the fixed net is evidently the web of the common -Garden Spider, or Cross Spider (<i>Epeira diadema</i>), whose beautiful nets -we all must have admired, especially when we are wise enough to get up -sufficiently early in the morning to see the webs with the dewdrops -glittering on them.</p> - -<p>Last year there was a wonderful sight. Within a mile of my house there -is a long iron fence, which in one night had been covered with the webs -of the garden spider. The following morning, though bright, was chilly, -so that the dewdrops were untouched. I happened to pass by the fence -soon after sunrise, and was greatly struck with the astonishing effects -which could be produced with such simple materials as water and web. The -dewdrops were set at regular intervals upon the web, so as to produce a -definite and beautiful pattern,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_88" id="page_88"></a>{88}</span> the whole line of fence looking as if -it had been woven in fine lace.</p> - -<p>Then, as the fence runs north and south, and the path is on the westward -of it, every passenger saw the rays of the rising sun dart through these -tiny globules, and convert every one of them into a jewel of -ever-changing colours. It seemed a pity that such beauty could but last -for an hour or so, or that these exquisite webs should only be used for -catching flies.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> comes the Casting-net in its various forms. This net is mostly -circular, and is loaded round the edge with small leaden plummets. It is -evident that, if such a net could be laid quite flat upon the water, it -would assume a dome-like shape, in consequence of the circumference -being heavier than the centre, and would sink to the bottom, enclosing -anything which came within its scope.</p> - -<p>The difficulty is to place the net in such a manner, and this is -accomplished by throwing it in a very peculiar way. The net is gathered -in folds upon the shoulder, which it partially envelops. By a sudden -jerk the thrower causes it to fly open with a sort of spinning movement, -and when well cast it will fall on the water perfectly flat.</p> - -<p>After allowing it to sink to the bottom, the fisherman draws it very -gently by a cord attached to its middle. As he raises it the weights of -the leaded circumference are drawn nearer and nearer together by their -own weight, and finally form it into a bag, within which are all the -living creatures which it has enclosed.</p> - -<p>Though the Casting-net has never been used in warfare, it was one of the -favourite implements in gladiatorial combats among the Romans. Two men -were opposed to each other; one, called the Retiarius or Netsman, being -quite naked, except sometimes a slight covering round the waist, and -armed with nothing but a Casting-net and a slight trident, which could -not inflict a deadly wound. The other, called the Secutor or Follower, -from his mode of fighting, was armed with a visored helmet, a broad -metal belt, and armour for the legs and arms. He also carried a shield -large enough to protect the upper part of the body, and a sword. It will -be seen, therefore, how great was the power of the Casting-net, when it -enabled<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_89" id="page_89"></a>{89}</span> its naked bearer to face such odds of offensive and defensive -armour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_089_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_089_sml.jpg" width="477" height="231" alt="Image unavailable: ARGUS STAR FISH. “FAN” OF BARNACLE. RETIARIUS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ARGUS STAR FISH. “FAN” OF BARNACLE. RETIARIUS.</span> -</div> - -<p>When the two met in combat, the Retiarius tried to fling his net over -his adversary, and if he succeeded, the fate of the latter was sealed. -Entangled in the loose meshes, he could scarcely move his limbs, while -the sharp prongs of the long-shafted trident came darting in at every -exposed point, and exhausting the man with pain and loss of blood. The -trident was in itself so feeble a weapon, that if the Secutor were -vanquished and condemned to death by the spectators, his antagonist -could not kill him, but had to call another Secutor to act as -executioner with his sword.</p> - -<p>Should he fail in his cast, the Retiarius drew back his net by the -central cord, and took to flight, followed by the Secutor, who tried to -wound him before he could re-fold his net upon his shoulder, ready for -another cast. It is worthy of notice that in these singular combats the -netsman seems generally to have been the victor. A Retiarius with his -net is shown in the illustration.</p> - -<p>I may mention that our ordinary bird-catchers’ nets, and even the -entomologist’s insect-net, are only modifications of the Casting-net.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> for Nature’s Casting-nets, two examples of which are figured, though -there are many more. These two have been selected because they are -familiar to all naturalists.</p> - -<p>The first is the Argus Star-fish, Basket-urchin, or Sea-basket.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_90" id="page_90"></a>{90}</span> The -innumerable rays and their subdivisions, amounting to some eighty -thousand in number, act as the meshes of the net. All the rays are -flexible and under control. When the creature wishes to catch any animal -for prey, it throws its tentacles over it, just like the meshes of a -net. It then draws the tips of the rays together, just as is done by the -circumference of the casting-net, and so encloses its prey effectually.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> next specimen is the net-like apparatus of the common Acorn -Barnacles, with which our marine rocks are nearly covered. These curious -beings belong to the Crustacea, and the apparatus which is figured on -page <a href="#page_89">89</a>, and popularly called the “fan,” is, in fact, a combination of -the legs and their appendages of bristles, &c. When the creature is -living and covered with water, the fan is thrust out of the top of the -shell, expanded as far as possible, swept through the water, closed, and -then drawn back again. With these natural casting-nets the Barnacles -feed themselves, for, being fixed to the rock, they could not in any -other way supply themselves with food. There are many similar examples -in Nature, but these will suffice.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Rod and Line.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">That</span> both terrestrial and aquatic nets should have their parallels in -Nature is clear enough to all who have ever seen a spider’s web, or -watched the “fan” of the barnacle. But that the rod and baited line, as -well as the net, should have existed in Nature long before man came on -earth, is not so well known. Yet, as we shall presently see, not only is -the bait represented in Nature, but even our inventions for “playing” a -powerful fish are actually surpassed.</p> - -<p>We will begin with the Bait.</p> - -<p>In nearly all traps a bait of some kind is required, in order to attract -the prey, and when we come from land to attract the dwellers in water to -our hooks, it is needful that bait of some kind should be used, were it -only to deceive the eye, though not the nostrils or palate, of the fish.</p> - -<p>A notable example of the deception is given in the common artificial -baits of the present day, which are made to imitate almost any British -insect which a fish might be disposed to eat.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_91" id="page_91"></a>{91}</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps the best instance of this deception is that which is practised -by sundry Polynesian tribes. They have seen that the Coryphene or -Dorado, and other similar fish, are in the habit of preying upon the -flying-fish, and springing at them when they are tolerably high in the -air. So these ingenious semi-savages dress up a hook made of bone, -ormer-shell, and other materials, making the body of it into a rudely -designed form of a fish. A hole is bored transversely through it at the -shoulders, and a bunch of stiff fibres is inserted to represent the -wings. Another bunch does duty for the tail.</p> - -<p>The imitation bait being thus complete, it is hung to a long and slender -bamboo rod, which projects well beyond the stern of a canoe, and is so -arranged that the hook is about two feet or so from the surface. The -Coryphene, seeing this object skimming along, takes it for a -flying-fish, leaps at it, and is caught by the hook. There are in -several collections specimens of these ingenious hooks, and I possess -one which is made on similar principles, but intended for use in the -water, and not in the air. It is, in fact, a “spoon-bait.”</p> - -<p>One point of ingenuity must be mentioned, as it really belongs to the -principle of the bait. These same savages, having noticed that large -sea-birds are in the habit of hovering over the flying-fish, and would -probably be seen by the Coryphenes, rig up a very long bamboo rod, tie -to its end a large bundle of leaves and fibres, and then fix it in the -stern of the boat, the sham bird being hung some twenty feet above the -sham fish. There is a refinement of deception here, for which we should -scarcely give such savages their due credit.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Art, then, we bait our hooks either with real or false food, and so -attract the fish.</p> - -<p>In Nature we have a most accomplished master of the art of baiting, who -has the wonderful power of never needing a renewal of his bait. A glance -at the left-hand figure of the next illustration will show that I allude -to the Angler-fish, sometimes called the Fishing-frog (<i>Lophius -piscatorius</i>). This remarkable creature has a most enormous mouth, and -comparatively small body. On the top of its head are some curious bones, -set just like a ring and staple, so as to move freely in every -direction. A figure of this piece of mechanism will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_92" id="page_92"></a>{92}</span> given in a -future page. At the end of these bones are little fleshy appendages, -which must be very tempting to most fish, which are always looking out -for something to eat. As they are being waved about, they look as if -they were alive. The fish darts at the supposed morsel, and is at once -engulfed in the huge jaws of the Angler-fish, which, but for this -remarkable apparatus, would be scarcely able to support existence, as it -is but a sluggish swimmer, and yet needs a large supply of food. The -illustration, representing on the right hand a fish attracted to a bait, -and on the left, the Angler-fish, with its bait-like appendage to the -head, speaks for itself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_092_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_092_sml.jpg" width="418" height="132" alt="Image unavailable: ANGLER-FISH. ANGLING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ANGLER-FISH. ANGLING.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> to the art of Angling with a rod and line, we now arrive at -another development.</p> - -<p>Supposing a fish to have taken the bait, and to have been firmly hooked, -how is it to be landed? The simplest plan is, of course, to have a very -thick and strong line which will not break with the weight of any -ordinary fish.</p> - -<p>This is very well in sea-fishing, where a line made of whip-cord will -answer the purpose in most cases. But, in river fishing, we have the -fact that the fish are so shy that a linen thread would scare them, and -so strong and active, that even whip-cord would not prevent them from -breaking the line, or tearing the hook out of their mouths. So the -modern angler sets himself to the task of combating both these -conditions. In the first place, he makes the last yard or two of his -line of “silkworm-gut”—a curious substance made from the silk-vessels -of silkworms, and nearly invisible in the water. In the next place, he -has a very elastic rod; and, in the third, he has forty or more yards of -line, though perhaps only twenty feet are in actual use until the fish -is hooked. The remainder of the line is wound upon a winch fixed to the -handle of the rod.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_93" id="page_93"></a>{93}</span> Thus, when a powerful fish is hooked and tries to -escape, the line is gradually let loose, so as to yield to its efforts. -When it becomes tired by the gradual strain, the line is again wound in, -and in this way a fish which would at the first effort smash rod and -line of a novice will, in the hands of an experienced fisherman, be -landed as surely as if it were no bigger than a gudgeon.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span> has in this case also anticipated Art, and surpassed all her -powers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_093_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_093_sml.jpg" width="436" height="290" alt="Image unavailable: NEMERTES. “PLAYING” A FISH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEMERTES. “PLAYING” A FISH.</span> -</div> - -<p>There is a wonderful worm, common on our southern coasts, and bearing, -as far as I know, no popular name. It is known to the scientific world -as <i>Nemertes Borlasii</i>. It possesses the power of extension and -contraction more than any known creature, and uses those powers for the -purpose of capturing prey. The fishermen say that this worm can extend -itself to a length of ninety feet, and as Mr. Davis found one to measure -twenty-two feet, after being immersed in spirits of wine, it is likely -that their account may be true, especially as the spirit greatly -contracted the animal in point of length.</p> - -<p>A most vivid description of this worm is given by C. Kingsley, in his -“Glaucus,” and was written before he knew its name.</p> - -<p>“Whether we were intruding or not, in turning this stone, we must pay a -fine for having done so; for there lies an animal as foul and monstrous -to the eye as ‘hydra, gorgon, or chimæra<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_94" id="page_94"></a>{94}</span> dire,’ and yet so wondrously -fitted to its work that we must needs endure for our own instruction to -handle and to look at it. Its name I know not (though it lurks here -under every stone), and should be glad to know. It seems some very ‘low’ -Ascarid or Planarian worm.</p> - -<p>“You see it? That black, shiny, knotted lump among the gravel, small -enough to be taken up in a dessert spoon. Look now, as it is raised and -its coils drawn out. Three feet, six, nine at least; with a capability -of seemingly endless expansion; a slimy tape of living caoutchouc, some -eighth of an inch in diameter, a dark chocolate black, with paler -longitudinal lines.</p> - -<p>“Is it alive? It hangs helpless and motionless, a mere velvet string, -across the hand. Ask the neighbouring Annelids and the fry of the -rock-fishes, or put it into a vase at home, and see. It lies motionless, -trailing itself among the gravel; you cannot tell where it begins or -ends; it may be a dead strip of seaweed, <i>Himanthalia lorea</i>, perhaps, -or <i>Chorda filum</i>, or even a tarred string.</p> - -<p>“So thinks the little fish who plays over and over it, till he touches -at last what is too surely a head. In an instant a bell-shaped sucker -mouth has fastened to his side. In another instant, from one lip, a -concave double proboscis, just like a tapir’s (another instance of the -repetition of forms), has clasped him like a finger; and now begins the -struggle: but in vain. He is being ‘played’ with such a fishing-line as -the skill of a Wilson or a Stoddart never could invent; a living line, -with elasticity beyond that of the most delicate fly-rod, which follows -every lunge, shortening and lengthening, slipping and twining round -every piece of gravel and stem of seaweed, with a tiring drag such as no -Highland wrist or step could ever bring to bear on salmon or on trout.</p> - -<p>“The victim is tired now; and slowly, and yet dexterously, his blind -assailant is feeling and shifting along his side, till he reaches one -end of him; and then the black lips expand, and slowly and surely the -curved finger begins packing him end foremost down into the gullet, -where he sinks, inch by inch, till the swelling which marks his place is -lost among the coils, and he is probably macerated to a pulp long before -he has reached the opposite extremity of his cave of doom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_95" id="page_95"></a>{95}</span></p> - -<p>“Once safe down, the black murderer slowly contracts again into a -knotted heap, and lies, like a boa with a stag inside him, motionless -and blest.”</p> - -<p>The accuracy as well as the pictorial effect of this description cannot -be surpassed. The “velvety” feel of the creature is most wonderful, as -it slips and slides over and among the fingers, and makes the task of -gathering it together appear quite hopeless.</p> - -<p>This astonishing worm is drawn on the left hand of the illustration on -page <a href="#page_93">93</a>, so as to show the way in which the body is contracted or -relaxed at will. On the other side of the illustration is an angler, -armed with all the paraphernalia of his craft, and doing imperfectly -that which the Nemertes does with absolute perfection.</p> - -<p>A similar property belongs to the long, trailing tentacles of the -Cydippe, which is described and figured on page <a href="#page_16">16</a>. When they come in -contact with suitable prey, all struggle is useless, the tentacles -contracting or elongating to suit the circumstances, and at last lodging -the prey within the body of the Cydippe.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spring-trap.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> are all familiar with the common Spring-trap, or Gin, as it is -sometimes called.</p> - -<p>It varies much in form and size, sometimes being square and sometimes -round; sometimes small enough to be used as a rat-trap, and sometimes -large enough to catch and hold human beings, in which case it was known -by the name of man-trap. This latter form is now as illegal as the -spring-gun, and though the advertisement “Man-traps and Spring-guns are -set in these grounds” is still to be seen, neither one nor the other can -be there.</p> - -<p>They are all constructed on the same principle, namely, a couple of -toothed jaws which are driven together by a spring, when the spring is -not controlled by a catch. They are evidently borrowed from actual jaws, -the same words being used to signify the movable portions and notches of -the trap as are employed to designate the corresponding parts in the -real jaw.</p> - -<p>In both figures of the accompanying illustration we shall <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_96" id="page_96"></a>{96}</span>see how exact -is the parallel. On the right hand is a common rat-trap, or gin, such as -is sold for eightpence, with the jaws wide open, so as to show the -teeth. On the left is a sketch of the upper and lower jaws of the -Dolphin, in which an exactly analogous structure is to be seen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_096a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_096a_sml.jpg" width="437" height="113" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF DOLPHIN (OPEN). RAT-TRAP (OPEN)." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF DOLPHIN (OPEN). RAT-TRAP (OPEN).</span> -</div> - -<p>The figure on the right hand of the lower illustration shows a man-trap -as it appears when closed, the teeth interlocking so as exactly to fit -between each other. The same principle is exhibited in the jaws of the -Porpoise, which are seen on the left of the illustration. The jaws of an -Alligator or Crocodile would have answered the purpose quite as well, -inasmuch as their teeth interlock in a similar fashion, but I thought -that it would be better to give as examples the jaws of allied animals. -The reason for this interlocking is evident. All these creatures feed -principally on fish, and this mode of constructing the jaws enables them -to secure their prey when once seized.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_096b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_096b_sml.jpg" width="463" height="122" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF PORPOISE (CLOSED). MAN-TRAP (CLOSED)." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF PORPOISE (CLOSED). MAN-TRAP (CLOSED).</span> -</div> - -<p>Another example of such teeth is to be found in the fore-legs of various -species of Phasma and Mantis, as may be seen by reference to the -illustration. The latter insects are wonderfully fierce and pugnacious, -fighting with each other on the least provocation, and feeding mostly on -other insects, which they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_97" id="page_97"></a>{97}</span> secure in their deeply-toothed fore-legs. -They use these legs with wonderful force and rapidity, and it is said -that a pair of these insects fighting remind the observer of a duel with -sabres.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_096c_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_096c_sml.jpg" width="450" height="126" alt="Image unavailable: FORK-LEGS OF PHASMA. -MOUSE-TRAP" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FORK-LEGS OF PHASMA. -MOUSE-TRAP</span> -</div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Baited Trap.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Our</span> space being valuable, we are not able to give many examples of -Baited Traps, whether in Art or Nature.</p> - -<p>The most familiar example of this trap is the common Mouse-trap, the -most ordinary form of which is shown at the right hand of the -illustration on page <a href="#page_96">96</a>. In all the varieties of these traps, whether -for mice or rats, the prey is induced to enter by means of some tempting -food, and then is secured or killed by the action of the trap. Sometimes -these traps are made of considerable size for catching large game, and -in Africa are employed in the capture of the leopard, in India for -taking both tigers and leopards, and in North America for killing bears.</p> - -<p>We have already noticed one instance of a bait in the Angler-fish, -described in page 92, but in this case the bait serves only for -attraction, and the trap, or mouth, is not acted upon by the prey.</p> - -<p>There are, however, many examples in the botanical world, where the -plant is directly acted upon by the creature which is to be entrapped, -such being known by the now familiar term “Carnivorous Plants.” Of these -there is a great variety, but under this head I only figure two of them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_097_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_097_sml.jpg" width="392" height="188" alt="Image unavailable: CEPHALOTUS. DIONEA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CEPHALOTUS. DIONEA.</span> -</div> - -<p>The plant on the right hand is the Venus Fly-trap (<i>Dionea muscipula</i>), -which is common in the Carolinas. The leaves of this plant are -singularly irritable, and when a fly or other insect<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_98" id="page_98"></a>{98}</span> alights on the -open leaf, it seems to touch a sort of spring, and the two sides of the -leaf suddenly collapse and hold the insect in their grasp. The strange -point about it is, that not only is the insect caught, but is held until -it is quite digested, the process being almost exactly the same as if it -had been placed in the stomach of some insect-eating animal.</p> - -<p>So carnivorous, indeed, is the Dionea, that plants have been fed with -chopped meat laid on the leaves, and have thriven wonderfully. -Experiments have been tried with other substances, but the Dionea would -have nothing to do with them. The natural irritability of the leaves -caused them to contract, but they soon opened and rejected the spurious -food.</p> - -<p>On the left is the Cephalotus. This plant, instead of catching the -insect by the folding of the leaf, secures it by means of a sort of -trap-door at the upper end. The insect is attracted by the moisture in -the cup, and, as soon as it enters, the trap-door shuts upon it, and -confines it until it is digested, when the door opens in readiness to -admit more prey.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Birdlime.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">By</span> a natural transition we pass to those traps which secure their prey -by means of adhesive substances.</p> - -<p>With us, the material called “birdlime” is usually employed. This is -obtained from the bark of the holly, and is of the most singular -tenacity. An inexperienced person who touches birdlime is sure to repent -it. The horrid stuff clings to the fingers, and the more attempts are -made to clear them, the more points of attachment are formed. The novice -ought to have dipped his hands in water before he touched the birdlime, -and then he might have manipulated it with impunity.</p> - -<p>The most familiar mode of using the birdlime is by “pegging” for -chaffinches.</p> - -<p>In the spring, when the male birds are all in anxious rivalry to find -mates, or, having found them, to defend them, the “peggers” go into the -fields armed with a pot of birdlime and a stuffed chaffinch set on a peg -of wood. At one end of this peg is a sharp iron spike. They also have a -“call-bird,” <i>i.e.</i> a chaffinch which has been trained to sing at a -given signal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_99" id="page_99"></a>{99}</span></p> - -<p>When the “peggers” hear a chaffinch which is worth taking, they feel as -sure of him as if he were in their cage. They take the peg, and stick it -into the nearest tree-trunk. Round the decoy they place half-a-dozen -twigs which have been smeared with birdlime, and arrange them so that no -bird flying at the decoy can avoid touching one of them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_099_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_099_sml.jpg" width="482" height="302" alt="Image unavailable: ANT-BEAR. DROSERA. SPIDER’S WEB. PEGGING CHAFFINCHES. TIGER AND LIMED LEAVES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ANT-BEAR. DROSERA. SPIDER’S WEB. PEGGING CHAFFINCHES. TIGER AND LIMED LEAVES. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The next point is, to order the call-bird to sing. His song is taken as -a personal insult by the chaffinch, which is always madly jealous at -this time of year. Seeing the stuffed bird, he takes it for a rival, -dashes at it, and touches one of the twigs. It is all over with him, for -the more he struggles and flutters, the tighter is he bound by the -tenacious cords of the birdlime, and is easily picked up by the -“pegger.”</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Even</span> the fierce and powerful tiger is taken with this simple, but -terrible means of destruction. It is always known by what path a tiger -will pass, and upon this path the native hunter lays a number of leaves -smeared with birdlime. The tiger treads on one of them, and, cat-like, -shakes his paw to rid himself of it. Finding that it will not come off, -he rubs his paw on his head, transferring the leaf and lime to his face.</p> - -<p>By this time he is in the middle of the leaves, and works himself into a -paroxysm of rage and terror, finishing by blinding himself with the -leaves that he has rubbed upon his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> head. The hunters allow him to -exhaust his strength by his struggles, and then kill him, or, if -possible, capture him alive.</p> - -<p>Both these scenes are represented on the right hand of the illustration.</p> - -<p>On the left hand are several examples of natural birdlime, if we may use -the term. The upper represents the Ant-bear, or Great Ant-eater. This -animal feeds in a very curious manner. It goes to an ant-hill, and tears -it open with its powerful claws. The ants, of course, rush about in wild -confusion. Now, the Ant-eater is provided with a long, cylindrical -tongue, which looks very like a huge earth-worm, and which is covered -with a tenacious slimy secretion. As the ants run to and fro, they -adhere to the tongue, and are swept into the mouth of their destroyer.</p> - -<p>Below the Ant-eater is the common Drosera, or Sundew, one of our British -carnivorous plants. It captures insects, just as has been narrated of -the Dionea. But, instead of the leaf closing upon the insect, it arrests -its prey by means of little globules of viscous fluid, which exude from -the tips of the hairs with which the surface of the leaf is covered. As -soon as the insect touches the hairs, they close over it, bind it down, -and keep it there until it is digested. Several species of Drosera are -known in England, and are found in wet and marshy places.</p> - -<p>Another plant, the Green-winged Meadow Orchis (<i>Orchis morio</i>), has been -known to act the part of the Drosera. A fly had contrived to push its -head against the viscous fluid of the stigmatic surface, and, not being -able to extricate itself, was found sticking there.</p> - -<p>Next comes a portion of the web of the common Garden Spider (<i>Epeira -diadema</i>). We have already treated of this web as a net, and we will now -see how it comes within the present category.</p> - -<p>In the web of the spider there are at least two distinct kinds of -threads. Those which radiate from the centre to the circumference are -strong and smooth, while those which unite them are much slighter, and -are covered with tiny globules set at regular intervals. When the web is -newly spun, these globules are found to be nearly as tenacious as -birdlime, and it is by these means that an insect which falls into the -web is arrested,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span> and cannot extricate itself until the spider can seize -it. After awhile the globules become dry, refuse to perform their -office, and then the spider has to construct another web. So numerous -are these globules that, according to Mr. Blackwall’s calculations, an -ordinary net contains between eighty and ninety thousand. Below the -figure of the web itself are shown the two kinds of thread, the upper -bearing the globules, and the lower representing one of the plain -radiating threads.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_V" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_V"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Reverted Spikes and their Modifications.—The Wire -Mouse-trap.—George III. and the Trap.—Fate of a Royal -Finger.—The Crab and Lobster Pot.—The Eel-pot.—Cocoon of the -Emperor-moth and its Structure.—“Catchpoll” of the Middle -Ages.—Deer-trap of India.—Jaws of Pike and Serpent.—The -Grass-snake.—Jaws of Shark and their Power.—Spiked Defences.—The -Park Fence, the Garden Wall, and the Chevaux-de-frise.—The -“Square” of Infantry Manœuvres.—The Abattis, and its Structure -and Power.—Ranjows and Caltrops.—Ancient Ranjows in -Ireland.—Hedgehog.—Porcupine Echidna.—House-builder Caterpillar -and its Home.—Repagula of Ascalaphus.—Tearing Weapons.—The -“Wag-nuk” of India.—Armed Gauntlet of the Middle -Ages.—Shark-tooth Gauntlet of Samoa, and the Uses to which it was -put.—A terrible Warrior.—The Tiger’s Claw.—Sport and Earnest.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Reverted Spikes.</span></h3> - -<p>I am not quite satisfied with this title, but it is the best that I can -find. By it I mean that mode of mechanism which, by means of an array of -sharp spikes, permits an animal to enter a passage easily, and yet -prevents it from emerging.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_102_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_102_sml.jpg" width="464" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: COCOON OF EMPEROR-MOTH. CRAB-POT. EEL-POT. MOUSE-TRAP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">COCOON OF EMPEROR-MOTH. CRAB-POT. EEL-POT. MOUSE-TRAP.</span> -</div> - -<p>Whether or not this principle be now employed in warfare I cannot say, -but it is at all events used extensively in a small way of hunting, the -best known of which is the wire Mouse-trap, one of which is shown at -Fig. C on the illustration. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span> glance at the figure will explain the -trap, even to those who have never seen it. It is composed entirely of -wire, and has several round holes just above its lower edge. Each of -these holes is the entrance to a conical tunnel made of wires with -sharpened ends.</p> - -<p>The mouse, being attracted by a bait placed within the trap, tries to -get at it. The doomed animal soon finds its way to one of the entrances, -and with little difficulty pushes itself through the tunnel. Entering, -however, is one thing, and returning is another. The wire yielded easily -enough in one direction, but for the mouse to force itself against the -converging points is an impossible task.</p> - -<p>Readers of the last century literature may perhaps remember, in the -pages of “Peter Pindar,” a very clever and sarcastic account of the -astonishment created in the mind of George III. by a mouse-trap seen -accidentally in the house of a widow living at Salt Hill.</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Eager did Solomon, so curious, clap<br /></span> -<span class="i1">His rare round optics on the widow’s trap,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">That did the duty of a cat.<br /></span> -<span class="i3">And, always fond of useful information,<br /></span> -<span class="i3">Thus wisely spoke he with vociferation,—<br /></span> -<span class="i1">‘What’s that? what? what? Hæ, hæ? what’s that?’<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">To whom replied the mistress of the house,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">‘A trap, an’t please you, sir, to catch a mouse.’<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">‘Mouse—catch a mouse!’ said Solomon with glee;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">‘Let’s see, let’s see—’tis comical—let’s see—<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Mouse! mouse!’—then pleased his eyes began to roll—<br /></span> -<span class="i1">‘Where, where doth he go in?’ he marvelling cried.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">‘There,’ pointing to the hole, the dame replied.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">‘What! here?’ cried Solomon, ‘this hole? this hole?’<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Then in he pushed his finger ’midst the wire,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">That with such pains that finger did inspire,<br /></span> -<span class="i3">He wished it out again with all his soul.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>For my part I think that the King was quite right. If he did not know -the philosophy of a mouse-trap he ought to have asked, and to have been -rewarded, as in that case, by catching with a trap of his own baiting, -six mice on six successive days.</p> - -<p>At Fig. B on the same illustration is shown the simple apparatus by -which crabs and lobsters are caught. The reader will see that the -principle is exactly the same in both cases, the only difference being -in material, the mouse-trap being made of wire, and the crab-pot of -wicker.</p> - -<p>At Fig. D is shown the common Eel-pot, or Eel-basket. In order to suit -the peculiar shape of an eel, this basket is much<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span> longer in proportion -to its diameter than either of the preceding traps, but it is formed on -the same plan. An eel can easily pass into the basket through the -conical tunnel, but it is next to impossible that it should find its way -out again.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">So</span> much for Art, and now for Nature.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration, at Fig. A, is the cocoon of the -common Emperor-moth (<i>Saturnia pavonia minor</i>), the cocoon having been -stripped of its outer envelope, so as to allow its structure to be -better seen.</p> - -<p>The reader will at once perceive that the entrance of the cocoon is -guarded by an arrangement exactly like that of the above-mentioned -traps, except that the cone is reversed, so as to allow of exit and to -debar entrance. Guarded by this conical arrangement of stout bristly -appendages, the pupa can remain in quiet during the time of its -transformation, for nothing can force its way through such a defence, -and yet the moth, when fully developed, can push its way out with -perfect ease.</p> - -<p>So admirably is this cocoon formed, that even after the moth has -escaped, it is impossible to tell by mere sight whether or not it is -within, the elastic wires closing on it after its passage.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> modification of the same principle now comes before us. In the -above-mentioned examples the arrangement of the reverted spikes is more -or less conical, and they lead into a chamber. In the present instances, -however, the mere reversion of the points is all that is needed.</p> - -<p>The upper figure on the right hand represents the “Catchpoll” of the -Middle Ages, an allusion to which has already been made. The reverted -spikes turn on hinges, and are kept apart by springs. This beautifully -formed head was attached to a long shaft, and was used for the purpose -of dragging horsemen from the saddle. It was thrust at the neck of the -rider, generally from behind. If a successful thrust were made, the -spring-points gave way, sprang back again, and thus clasped the neck -with a hold that was fatal to the rider.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> it is the Deer-trap which is used in many parts of India, and to -which allusion has already been made. The reader will see at once that -if a deer should get its foot through the converging<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> spikes, its doom -is sealed, especially as there is a heavy log of wood attached to the -trap by a rope.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration are two examples of the same -principle taken from Nature, one belonging to fresh and the other to -salt water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_105_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_105_sml.jpg" width="438" height="237" alt="Image unavailable: PIKE-JAWS. SHARK-JAWS. CATCHPOLL. DEER-TRAP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PIKE-JAWS. SHARK-JAWS. CATCHPOLL. DEER-TRAP.</span> -</div> - -<p>The upper figure represents the jaws of a Pike, with their terrible -array of reverted teeth. The Pike, as every one knows, feeds upon other -fish, and eats them in a curious manner. It darts at them furiously, and -generally catches them in the middle of the body. After holding them for -a time, for the purpose, as I imagine, of disabling them, it loosens its -hold, makes another snap, seizes the fish by the head, and swallows it.</p> - -<p>The Pike is so voracious that it will attack and eat fish not very much -smaller than itself, for its digestion is so rapid that the head and -shoulders of a swallowed fish have been found to be half digested, while -the tail was sticking out of the Pike’s mouth. Unless, therefore, the -teeth of the Pike were so formed as to resist any retrograde movement on -the part of the prey, the fish would starve; for, lank and lean as it -is, the Pike is one of the most voracious creatures in existence, never -seeming able to get enough to eat, and yet, as is often found in such -cases, capable of sustaining a lengthened fast.</p> - -<p>How well adapted is this arrangement of teeth for preventing the escape -of prey, any one can tell who, in his early days of angling, caught a -Pike, and, after killing it, tried to extract the hook without -previously propping the jaws open. If once<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> the hand be inserted between -the jaws, to get it out again is almost impossible without assistance, -and often has the spectacle been exhibited of a youthful angler -returning disconsolately home, with his right hand in the mouth of a -Pike, and supporting the weight of the fish with his left.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> teeth of a serpent are set in a similar manner, as can be seen by -reference to the illustration on page <a href="#page_80">80</a>. An admirable example of the -power of this arrangement may be seen in the jaws of our common Grass or -Ringed Snake (<i>Coluber natrix</i>). The teeth are quite small, very short, -and not thicker than fine needle-points. Yet, when once the snake has -seized one of the hind-feet of a frog, all efforts to escape on the part -of the latter are useless. The lower jaw is pushed forward, and then -retracted, and at each movement the leg is drawn further into the -snake’s mouth, until it reaches the junction.</p> - -<p>The snake then waits quietly until the frog tries to free itself by -pushing with its other foot against the snake’s mouth. That foot is then -seized, the leg gradually following its companion, and in this way the -whole frog is drawn into the interior of the snake. I have seen many -frogs thus eaten, but never knew one to escape after it had been once -seized by the snake. As these reptiles are perfectly harmless, it is -easy to try the experiment by putting the finger into a snake’s mouth, -when it will be found that the assistance of the other hand will be -needful in order to extricate it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the head of the pike is a view of a Shark’s jaws, as seen from the -front.</p> - -<p>Here, again, we have a similar arrangement of teeth, row after row of -which lie with their points directed towards the throat of the fish. As, -however, the pike and the snake swallow their prey whole, their teeth -need be nothing but points. But, as the Shark is obliged to mangle its -prey, and seldom swallows it whole, its teeth are formed on a different -principle, each tooth being flat, wide, sharply pointed, and having a -double edge, each of which cuts like a razor. So knife-like are they, -indeed, that when a whale is killed, the sharks which surround it bite -off huge mouthfuls of blubber, and, as they swarm by hundreds, cause no -small loss to the whalers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span></p> - -<p>Many a man has lost a leg by a shark, the fish having bitten it -completely through, bone and all, and there have been cases where a -shark has actually severed a man’s body, going off with one half, and -leaving the other clinging to the rope by which he was trying to haul -himself on board.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Spiked Defences.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">This</span> mode of defence is, perhaps, one of the most primitive in -existence, and takes a wonderful variety of forms. The spiked railings -of our parks and gardens, the broken glass on walls, and even the spiked -collars for dogs, are all modifications of this principle.</p> - -<p>On the illustrations are several examples of spikes used for military -purposes. The first is known by the name of “Chevaux-de-frise,” and is -extensively used in forming an extemporised fence where no great -strength is needed. The structure is perfectly simple, consisting of a -number of iron bars with sharpened ends, and an iron tube some inches in -diameter, which is pierced with a double set of holes. When not in use, -the bars and tube can be packed in a small compass, but when they are -wanted, the bars are thrust through the holes as shown in the -illustration, and the fence is completed in a few minutes. The -horizontal bars are linked together by chains, so as to prevent them -from being shifted, and a defence such as this is generally used for -surrounding parks of artillery and the like.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">All</span> who have the least acquaintance with military matters must be -familiar with the “Square,” and its uses in the days of old. I say in -the days of old, because in the present day the rapid development of -guns and rifles has entirely destroyed the old arrangement. So lately, -for example, as the day of Waterloo, troops might manœuvre in safety -when they were more than two hundred yards from the enemy. Now, a -regiment that attempted to manœuvre in open ground would be cut to -pieces by the rifles of the enemy at a thousand yards’ distance.</p> - -<p>In those days, however, the square was a tower of safety when rightly -formed. It was formed in several rows. The outer line knelt, with the -butts of their muskets on the ground, and the bayonet pointing upwards -at an angle of forty-five.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span> The others directed their muskets towards -the enemy in such a manner that nothing was presented to him but the -points of bayonets and the muzzles of loaded muskets. In all probability -the battle of Waterloo would have been lost but for the use of the -“square,” against which the French cuirassiers dashed themselves -repeatedly, but in vain.</p> - -<p>However admirable may be the organization of the square, whether it be -hollow, or whether it be solid, like the “rallying square,” the -principle is the same as that of the chevaux-de-frise.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the next illustration is shown the “Abattis,” one of the most -important elements of extemporised fortifications, and as simple as it -is important.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_108_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_108_sml.jpg" width="392" height="225" alt="Image unavailable: TREE-CADDIS. -CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TREE-CADDIS. -CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE.</span> -</div> - -<p>In any wooded country an abattis can be made in a very short time by -practised hands. All that is required is to cut down the requisite -number of trees, strip off the leaves and twigs, and then cut off the -smaller branches with sloping blows of the axe, so as to leave a -tolerably sharp point on each. The trees are then laid side by side, -with the ends of the branches towards the enemy, and, the trunks being -chained together, a wonderfully effective defence is constructed.</p> - -<p>Not only is it almost impossible for the bravest and strongest man to -force his way through the branches, even if the abattis were undefended, -but the tree-trunks afford shelter for swarms of riflemen, who can pick -off their assailants by aiming between the branches, themselves being -almost unseen, and entirely covered.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_109_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_109_sml.jpg" width="470" height="162" alt="Image unavailable: CALTROPS. -RANJOWS. -ABATTIS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CALTROPS. -RANJOWS. -ABATTIS.</span> -</div> - -<p>In Southern Africa, during the late wars, the abattis was found to -afford the best defence against the Kafirs, and that when the waggons -and abattis were united so as to form a fortress, not even the naked -Kafir, with all his daring courage, could force his way through them. -Even artillery has but little power against the abattis, which allows -the shot to pass between the branches, and is very little the worse for -it. Accordingly, it is in great use for defending roads, especially -those which are bounded by high banks, and makes a formidable obstacle -in front of gates.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two figures on the left of the same illustration represent two modes -of carrying out the same principle, the one showing it as used in -European warfare, and the other as a weapon of defence which has been -employed from time immemorial, and is now in full use in many parts of -the world.</p> - -<p>Both these weapons are intended either to obstruct the approach of an -enemy, or to cover the flight of a retreating force. The most simple and -most ancient is the Ranjow, which is shown on the right hand of the -illustration. The ranjow is nothing but a wooden stick varying in length -from eighteen inches to nearly three feet, and sharply pointed at each -end. In Borneo, China, &c., the ranjows are almost invariably made of -bamboo, as that plant can be cut to a sharp point by a single stroke of -a knife. (See page 59.)</p> - -<p>When they are to be used, each soldier carries about a dozen or so of -them, and sticks one end of them into the ground, taking care to make -the upper end lean towards the enemy. Simple as are these weapons, they -are extremely formidable, for it is necessary to pull up every ranjow -before the troops can advance. Sometimes it has happened that a body of -soldiers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span> driven over their own ranjows, and then the slaughter is -terrible.</p> - -<p>Some years ago a number of sketches were taken on the spot from scenes -in the Chinese war. Among them was one that was absolutely terrible in -its grotesqueness. It represented a piece of ground thickly planted with -ranjows, over which the Chinese who had fixed them had been driven. They -were simply hung with human bodies in all imaginable and unimaginable -attitudes, some transfixed on a single ranjow, and others hanging on -three or four, the body and limbs being alike pierced by them.</p> - -<p>That ranjows were once used in Great Britain is evident from a discovery -made by Col. Lane Fox. He had been excavating the soil around an old -Irish fort, and deep beneath the bog he found a vast quantity of ranjows -still set as the ancient warriors had left them. They were evidently -used to defend a passage leading to the fort, and all of them were -carefully set with their points outwards. Col. L. Fox was good enough to -present me with several of these ancient weapons, which are now in my -collection.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left is seen a piece of ground strewed with Caltrops, or -Crow’s-feet, as they are sometimes called. These very unpleasant -implements are made of iron, and have four sharp points, all radiating -from one centre, so that no matter how they may be thrown, one point -must be uppermost. They are used chiefly for the purpose of impeding -cavalry, but I should think, judging from the specimens which I have -seen, that infantry would find them very awkward impediments.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> for natural ranjows, they are so numerous that only a very few -examples can be given.</p> - -<p>The most perfect and most familiar example is, perhaps, the common -Hedgehog, which, when rolled up, displays an array of sharp points so -judiciously disposed, that it fears but very few foes. The same may be -said of the Australian Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-eater, and the -Porcupine itself. Whether the radiating bristles of the larva of the -Tiger-moth, commonly called the Woolly Bear, come under the same -category, I cannot say, but think it very likely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p> - -<p>Among vegetables the analogues are multitudinous. See, for example, the -spikes of the Spanish and Horse Chestnuts, and especially the hair-like -but formidable bristles which defend the common Prickly Pear. Indeed, -all that tribe of plants is furnished so abundantly with natural -ranjows, that a hedge of prickly pear forms the best defence which a -house and garden can have.</p> - -<p>Another example of natural ranjows is seen in the Tree-caddis, one of -which is shown in the illustration on page <a href="#page_108">108</a>, as it appears when -suspended from a twig. It is the work of one of the House-builder Moths -of the West Indies, and forms a sort of house in which the caterpillar -can rest securely. It is built of bits of twigs and thorns, the latter -being disposed so that their points are outwards, much after the fashion -of a hedgehog’s spines.</p> - -<p>I possess many specimens of Tree-caddis, evidently belonging to several -species, and in all of them the principle is the same, <i>i.e.</i> a number -of spikes set with their ends outwards in order to defend a central -position.</p> - -<p>Sometimes these spikes are left exposed, as shown in the illustration, -and sometimes they are covered with a slight but strong web. The -principle, however, is the same in all.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> I shall have to use two very long words, and much against my will. I -very much fear that, if most of my readers were to hear any one speak of -the “repagula of Ascalaphus,” they would not be much the wiser. And yet -there are no other words that can be used.</p> - -<p>In the first place, Ascalaphus is a name belonging to a genus of -Ant-lions, remarkable for having straight, knobbed antennæ, very much -like those of a butterfly. This insect deposits its eggs in a double row -on twigs, and then defends them with a series of natural ranjows, set in -circular rows, and supposed to be without analogies in the animal -creation. They are transparent, reddish, and “are expelled by the female -with as much care as though they were real eggs, and are so placed that -nothing can approach the brood; nor can the young ramble abroad until -they have acquired strength to resist the ants and other insect -enemies.”</p> - -<p>The word “repagulum,” by the way, signifies a bar or barrier.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span> A -turnpike gate when closed would be a repagulum, and so would a -chevaux-de-frise.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Tearing Weapons.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already had examples of weapons, like the Club, which bruise; of -weapons, like the Spear and Dagger, which pierce; and of weapons, like -the Sword, which cut. We now come to a totally distinct set of weapons, -those which wound by tearing, and not by any of the preceding modes.</p> - -<p>In civilised warfare we have long abandoned such weapons, as belonging -to a barbarous age, but they are even yet employed in some parts of the -world.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_112_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_112_sml.jpg" width="412" height="328" alt="Image unavailable: WAG-NUK OF INDIA. - -HIND-CLAWS OF TIGER. - -CLAWED GAUNTLET. - -SHARK-TOOTH GAUNTLET." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WAG-NUK OF INDIA. - -HIND-CLAWS OF TIGER. - -CLAWED GAUNTLET. - -SHARK-TOOTH GAUNTLET. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The accompanying illustration shows three examples of such weapons. One -is the celebrated Tiger-claw of India, known by the native name of -Wag-nuk. It is about two inches and a half in length, and is made to fit -on the hand. The first and fourth fingers are passed through the rings, -and the curved claws are then within the hand, and hidden by the -fingers. The mode of employing this treacherous weapon was by engaging a -foe in conversation, pretending to be very friendly, and then ripping up -his stomach with an upward blow of the right hand.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span></p> - -<p>It is comparatively a modern weapon, having been invented about two -hundred years ago. A Hindoo, named Sewaja, was the inventor, and by -means of the Wag-nuk he committed many murders unsuspected, the wounds -being exactly like those which are made by the claw of the tiger. -Sometimes there were four claws instead of three, as is the case with a -specimen one in the Meyrick collection.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may be aware that the Transatlantic “knuckle-duster” -is fitted on the hand in the same manner, only its object is to strike a -heavy blow, and not to tear. History repeats itself, and the large and -clumsy “cestus” of the ancient athlete is reproduced in the small but -scarcely less formidable “knuckle-duster” of the modern rowdy.</p> - -<p>The figures are remarkable, one representing the remaining epoch of -chivalry, and the other that of barbarism. The upper figure shows a -curious Gauntlet of the Middle Ages, in which the hand is not only -defended by steel plates, but is also rendered an offensive weapon by -the addition of four sharp spikes set just at the junction of the -fingers with the hand. As long as the fingers are extended the spikes -lie parallel with them, and are as harmless as a cat’s claws in their -sheaths. But when the fingers are closed, as shown in the illustration, -the spikes come into use, and can be made into a formidable weapon of -offence, just as are the cat’s claws when protruded.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the gauntlet of civilised warfare is one of savage war, which has -for many years been discontinued, partly on account of the introduction -of firearms, and partly owing to the superficial coating of civilisation -which is so easily adopted by the singular varieties of the human race -which populate the isles where this remarkable weapon was once worn. The -figure is taken from a specimen in the United Service Museum.</p> - -<p>It is a Gauntlet, having at one end a band through which the whole hand -is passed, and at the other three loops for the fingers, just like those -of the Wag-nuk, which has already been described. The body of the weapon -is made of cocoa-nut fibre, and upon it are strung six rows of sharks’ -teeth, the tips all pointing backwards. It is a Samoan weapon, some of -the most renowned warriors never using club nor spear, but trusting -entirely to their terrible gauntlets. With these they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span> struck right and -left, dashing beneath the clubs and spears of their enemies, and always -trying to rip up their stomachs, just as is done with the Wag-nuk. In -order to guard against this weapon, the Samoan warrior wears a belt of -cocoa-nut fibre some eight inches wide, and thick enough to defy the -best gauntlet that could be made.</p> - -<p>One celebrated Samoan warrior, a man of gigantic stature and strength, -was addicted to the amusement of seizing his enemies with the -shark-tooth gauntlets, breaking their backs across his knee, throwing -them down, and going off after another victim.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration is seen the hind-foot of the Tiger. -I have chosen the hind-foot for two reasons: firstly, because the -fore-foot has already been figured; and secondly, because the hind-foot -is used for tearing open the abdomen of the prey. Any one who has played -with a kitten has noticed how the animal throws itself on its back, -clasps the wrist with its fore-paws, and kicks vigorously with its -hind-legs. It does not mean to hurt its playfellow, but the hand does -not easily escape without sundry scratches.</p> - -<p>Child’s play though it may be in the kitten, it is no play at all with -the tiger, or even the leopard, for either of these animals, when hard -pressed, will throw itself on its back, clasp the foe in its fore-paws, -and with the talons of the hind-feet tear him to pieces.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VI" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VI"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /> -<small>THE HOOK.—DEFENSIVE ARMOUR.—THE FORT.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Anglers and their Hooks.—Single and double Hooks.—Hook of British -Columbia.—Seed of Galium, or Goose-grass, and its Armature of -Hooks.—Seed of the Burdock, and its Annoyance to Sheep.—Hooked -Sponge-spicules.—“Snatching” Fish.—The Fish-rake of British -Columbia.—The “Gaff” and its Uses.—The Jaguar as a -Fisher—Defensive Armour and its Varieties.—Plate and Chain -Mail.—The Shield.—Australian and West African Shields.—Fibre -Armour.—Seal’s-tooth Cuirass.—Joints of -Armour.—“Tassets.”—Scale Armour in Art and Nature.—The Manis and -the Fish.—Feather Armour.—“Madoc in Aztlan.”—Quilted Armour of -Silk or Cotton.—Terrible Results from the latter.—Mr. Justice -Maulstatute.—Natural Quilt Armour.—The Rhinoceros and the -Whale.—The Testudo of the ancient Romans, and its Uses.—The -common Tortoise.—The Fort.—Curious Transitions in Fort building; -first Earth, then Stone, then Earth again.—Advantage of Earthen -Mounds.—Natural Snow-fort made by the Elk, and its Defensive -Powers against the Wolf.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Hook.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">H</span>AVING now seen that the rod and line of anglers have their prototypes -in Nature, we will proceed to the hook, by which the fish are secured.</p> - -<p>The two figures on the right hand of the accompanying illustration -represent hooks which are familiar to every angler. The lower is the -ordinary fish-hook, which can be used in so many ways. Generally it is -employed singly, being fastened to the end of a line, and armed with a -bait, either real or artificial. Sometimes, however, these hooks are -whipped together, back to back, three or even four being so employed, -and thus forming a combination of the hook and grapnel, and rendering -the escape of a fish almost impossible.</p> - -<p>Above it is a double hook, such as is used in “trolling” for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span> pike, and -with the use of which many of my readers are probably acquainted.</p> - -<p>The third is a singularly ingenious hook made by the natives of British -Columbia. It is almost entirely made of wood, with the exception of the -barb, which is of bone. This, as the reader will see, is fixed, not to -the point of the hook, as with us, but to its base, the point being -directed towards the central portion of the curve.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_116_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_116_sml.jpg" width="419" height="205" alt="Image unavailable: HYMEDESMIA. FRUIT OF GALIUM. VANCOUVER HOOK. DOUBLE AND -SINGLE HOOKS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HYMEDESMIA. FRUIT OF GALIUM. VANCOUVER HOOK. DOUBLE AND -SINGLE HOOKS. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>At first sight this seems to be a singular arrangement, but it is a very -effective one, as any one may see by placing the point between the -fingers and pushing it through them. It will be found impossible to -force it back again, the sharp point of the bone-barb coming against -them and retaining them.</p> - -<p>It has also another advantage. Very large fish, for which this hook is -intended, are apt in their struggles to reverse the hook, and so to -weaken its hold. In this hook, however, such a proceeding is impossible; -for, even should the hook be reversed, it still retains its hold, the -barb becoming the point, and the point keeping the lip of the fish -against the tip of the barb. The figure is drawn from a specimen in my -collection.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> the reader will look at the illustration, he will see a globular -object covered with little hooks. This is a magnified representation of -the seed-vessel of the common Goose-grass (<i>Galium</i>), which is so -luxuriant in our hedges, and often intrudes itself into our gardens. Its -long, trailing stems, with their tightly-clinging leaves, are familiar -to all, and there are few who have not, while children, pelted each -other with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span> little round green seed-vessels during the time that the -fruit is in season. That they clung so tightly as not to be removed -without difficulty, we all knew, but we did not all know the cause. The -magnifying-glass, however, reveals the secret at once. The whole of the -surface is covered with little sharp prickles, curved like hooks, and -turned in all directions, so that, however it may be thrown, some of -them are sure to catch.</p> - -<p>So readily do these hooks hold to anything which they touch, that if a -lady only sweeps her dress against a plant of Goose-grass, she is sure -to carry off a considerable number of the seed-vessels, and to waste -much time afterwards in picking them off.</p> - -<p>The seed-vessel of the common Burdock, known popularly by the name of -Bur, is armed in a similar manner, but, as it is much larger, it is -easily avoided. Sheep suffer greatly from burs, which twist themselves -among the wool so firmly that it is hardly possible to remove them -without cutting away bur and wool together. As to a Skye terrier, when -once he gets among burs, his life is a misery to him (I was going to -say, a burden to him, but it would have looked like a pun).</p> - -<p>Below, and on the left of the Galium-seed, are some spicules of the -Hymedesmia, a sponge which is found on the coast of Madeira. The -following account of it occurs in the <i>Intellectual Observer</i>, vol. ii. -p. 312:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“<span class="smcap">Fish-hook Spiculæ.</span>—We have received from Mr. Baker, of Holborn, a -slide containing spicules of the <i>Hymedesmia Johnsonii</i>, which are -stated to be rare objects in this country. They have the form of a -double fish-hook, and on the inner surface of each hook is an -extremely sharp knife-edge projection, corresponding with a similar -and equally sharp projection from the inside of the shank.”</p> - -<p>“These minute knife-blades are so arranged that in addition to -their cutting properties, they would act as barbs, obstructing the -withdrawal of the hook. The two hooks attached to one shank are not -in the same place, but nearly at right angles with one another, so -that when one is horizontal the other is vertical, or nearly so. A -magnification of four or five hundred linear does not in any way -detract from the sharp appearance of the knife-edges, and they may -take their place with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span> anchors of the Synapta as curious -illustrations of the occurrence in living organisms of forms which -man was apt to fancy were exclusively the products of his own -contrivance and skill.</p> - -<p>“We presume that these hooks of the Hymedesmia answer the usual -purpose of spiculæ in strengthening the soft tissue, but they must -likewise render the sponge an awkward article for the Madeira -sea-slugs to eat.”</p></div> - -<p>For an account and figures of the Synapta anchor-spicules see page 39.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to another modification of the hook. I presume that many of -my readers have heard of the practice called “snatching” fish, though I -hope that they have never been unsportsmanlike enough to follow it.</p> - -<p>This plan, which is only worthy of poachers, consists in taking several -flights of treble or quadruple hooks, dropping them gently by the side -of the fish, and then, with a sudden jerk, driving them into any part of -its body which they may happen to strike. Most anglers have snatched -fish accidentally, but to do so intentionally is ranked among the worst -of an angler’s crimes, and is equivalent to cheating at cards, or -playing with false dice.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the world, however, there are certain small fish which -are never taken in any other way, and, indeed, are raked out of the -water just as a gardener rakes dead leaves off the path or beds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_118_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_118_sml.jpg" width="416" height="218" alt="Image unavailable: JAGUAR AND CLAW. FISH-RAKE. GAFF." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAGUAR AND CLAW. FISH-RAKE. GAFF.</span> -</div> - -<p>In British Columbia there are certain lakes tenanted largely with small -fish which form a considerable portion of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span> natives’ diet. They swim -in vast shoals close to the surface of the water, and are captured by -veritable rakes, one of which is shown in the illustration. The points -of the rake are slightly curved, and very sharp, and so numerous are the -fish that when the native has struck his rake among the shoal, and drawn -it into the boat, he generally finds a fish on every tooth, while it -often happens that two or three are transfixed by the same tooth. A -sharp knock against the side of the boat shakes off the prey, and the -fisherman again strikes his rake into the shoal. By this simple mode of -fishing a couple of men will, in a few hours, load a canoe with small -but valuable fish.</p> - -<p>Below the rake is the “Gaff,” an instrument, not to say a weapon, which -is indispensable when salmon or other large fish are to be caught. For -ordinary-sized fish a landing-net is sufficient, but no landing-net -could either receive or retain a salmon of any size.</p> - -<p>Recourse is then had to the Gaff, which is simply a huge hook at the end -of a handle. The fish being “played” until it can be drawn within reach, -the gaff is slipped under it, struck into the side of the salmon, and by -its aid the fish is easily lifted out of the water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration are two figures showing how the -principle of the fish-rake and gaff has been anticipated in Nature.</p> - -<p>It is a well-known fact that the Jaguar feeds largely on fish, which it -catches for itself. It goes down to the river-side as close to the water -as possible, and waits patiently for its prey. As soon as a fish comes -within reach, the Jaguar stretches out its paw to the fullest extent, -and, with a stroke of the curved claws, hooks the fish on shore, just as -the Vancouver Islander does with his fish-rake, or the English angler -with his gaff.</p> - -<p>Many persons have practically experienced the gaff-like powers of the -feline claw by the loss of their gold-fish. It is seldom safe to leave a -globe of gold-fish within reach of a cat. Nearly all cats are madly fond -of fish, and, in spite of their instinctive hatred of water, will hook -out the fish with their claws, and eat them. Indeed, there are several -instances on record where a cat has regularly caught fish, and brought -them<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span> home to its owner. Mr. F. Buckland gives an account of a -fisherman’s cat, which used to go out with her master, jump into the -sea, secure a fish, and then be lifted on board with her prey.</p> - -<p>Above the Jaguar is drawn a single claw, so as to show the form of the -instrument by which the fish is captured.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Armour.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> will now take the subject of Defensive Armour, by which warriors are -enabled to protect themselves against the offensive weapons of the -enemy.</p> - -<p>As many readers will probably know, armour reached its greatest -development in the Middle Ages, when the knight was so completely cased -in steel that no weapon then in use could penetrate his panoply.</p> - -<p>The head, body, and limbs were covered with steel plates curiously -articulated at the joints, so as to give freedom of motion, while -guarding the wearer from any ordinary weapon. A warrior might be beaten -from his horse by a mace, or struck down by a lance, or the horse itself -might be killed under him.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_120_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_120_sml.jpg" width="389" height="266" alt="Image unavailable: LOBSTER. -ARMADILLO. -PICHICIAGO. CHITON. - -PLATE AND SCALE ARMOUR -OF MIDDLE AGES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LOBSTER. -ARMADILLO. -PICHICIAGO. CHITON. - -PLATE AND SCALE ARMOUR -OF MIDDLE AGES. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>In either of these cases the fallen knight was not much the worse, until -a weapon called the “Misericorde,” or dagger of mercy, was invented. -This was a poniard with a very slender and very sharp blade, so -constructed that it could be driven<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span> between the joints of the armour, -and thus inflict a mortal wound. The Misericorde, however, was baffled -by the use of chain or scale armour under the plate-mail, and then the -only way of getting at the fallen knight was by breaking up the armour -with hammers which were made for this express purpose.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may wonder that any one should lie quietly and allow -himself to be so badly treated. The very strength of the armour, -however, which rendered its wearer unassailable by ordinary weapons, -involved so much weight, that when a knight had fallen, it was -impossible for him to rise, much less to mount a horse, without help. -Moreover, the first blow of a weighty hammer on the helmet would, -although it could not kill the wearer, cause such a jar to his brain as -partially, if not wholly, to stun him.</p> - -<p>The rapidly increasing power of firearms soon caused armour to be laid -aside, and now the only remains of it are to be found in the helmets and -cuirasses worn by our dragoons.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are few parts of the world where armour of some sort is not used. -Putting aside civilised or semi-civilised nations, we find that in most -cases, wherever there is war, there is armour of some kind. Sometimes it -is movable, and in that case is called a shield.</p> - -<p>The most singular shields that I know are those made by the Australians, -which are so shaped that no one who did not know their use would take -them for shields. They are about three feet long, four inches wide at -the back, six inches or so thick in the middle, tapering towards the -ends, and coming to an edge in front. They are held by the centre with -one hand, so that they can be rapidly twisted from side to side, and so -serve to parry the spear or stop the boomerang. The weight of the shield -enables it to withstand the shock of the boomerang, which whirls through -the air with terrific force.</p> - -<p>Several warlike savage tribes have, however, no armour of any kind, such -as the New Zealanders, the Samoans, and the Fijians.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the armour is affixed to the body, and of such protection many -examples are to be found in various museums, among which the Christy -collection is pre-eminent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span></p> - -<p>Among the Polynesians cocoa-nut fibre was at one time employed as the -material for armour. It was twisted into small cords, and with these a -sort of armour was constructed, quite strong enough to resist any weapon -that an enemy of their own kind could bring against them. Sometimes this -armour was merely a belt wide enough to protect the abdomen, but -sometimes the whole body was defended, from the neck to the hips.</p> - -<p>In the United Service Museum there is a very remarkable cuirass, which -is made of successive rows of seals’ teeth, each row overlapping the -other like the tiles of a house. It is very heavy, weighing quite as -much as a steel cuirass, and was probably quite as effective against the -primitive weapons which could be brought to bear upon it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> for Natural Armour.</p> - -<p>There are so many examples of armour, as furnished by Nature, that I can -only mention a few.</p> - -<p>Any one who looks at a lobster, crayfish, prawn, or shrimp, must at once -see that in it lies the prototype of plate armour. That portion of the -lobster which is popularly called the head, and is scientifically known -as the “carapace,” is not jointed, and corresponds with the cuirass of -ancient or modern armour. Then comes the part called the “tail,” the -joints of which are exactly like those employed in the shoulders, -elbows, knees, and ankles of ancient armour. The lobster tail will again -be mentioned in connection with another branch of human art.</p> - -<p>As for the heavy, ungraceful armour which was used in tilting, we have -an admirable example in the Trunk-fish of the tropical seas -(<i>Ostracion</i>), the whole of which is enclosed in a bony case, the fins -and tail protruding through openings in it. In fact, the scales, instead -of being separate, are fused together so as to form a continuous -covering. The Box-tortoise of South America is another good example, the -creature being furnished with bony flaps with which it covers the -apertures through which the head, legs, and tail are protruded, and so -is as impervious as the knight of old.</p> - -<p>In the later ages of armour, the thighs, instead of being enclosed in -steel coverings with cuisses, were defended by a number of steel plates -called “tassets.” Now these tassets are exactly like the defensive -armour of the Armadillo’s back, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span> though it is not likely that the -inventor of tassets should have seen an Armadillo, the fact still -remains, that Art has been anticipated by Nature.</p> - -<p>Exactly the same principle is seen in that wonderful little animal, the -Pichiciago of South America, which is shown in the lower left-hand -figure of the illustration. This creature is not only furnished with -bony rings on the body like those of the Armadillo, but has likewise a -flap which comes over the hindquarters, and effectually defends it -against the attacks of any foe that might pursue it into its burrow.</p> - -<p>In the lower right-hand corner of the illustration is seen a figure of a -Chiton, several species of which are common on most of our coasts. This -is one of the molluscs, which adheres to the rock just as limpets do. -But, whereas the shell of the limpet is all in one piece and inflexible, -that of the Chiton is composed of several pieces, which are arranged -exactly like the tassets of armour, and enable the Chiton to accommodate -itself to the inequalities of the rocks to which it is adhering.</p> - -<p>The common Pill Millipede, which rolls itself up in a ball when alarmed, -is a familiar instance of similar defensive armour, and much the same -may be said of the Julus Millipede.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_123_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_123_sml.jpg" width="407" height="146" alt="Image unavailable: SCALES OF MANIS. SCALE-MAIL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SCALES OF MANIS. SCALE-MAIL.</span> -</div> - -<p>We now come to Scale Armour, which is one of the earliest modes of -protecting the body, and the idea of which was clearly taken from animal -life. In Scale Armour, flat plates of metal, horn, or bone are sewn to a -linen or leathern vest in such a way that the scales overlap each other, -and so tend to throw off the blow of a weapon. One great advantage of -this armour is its lightness and flexibility, the former quality -allowing of more prolonged exertion than could be possible with the -heavy plate armour, and the latter rendering that exertion less -fatiguing to the limbs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span></p> - -<p>A glance at the preceding illustration will show how the scale armour of -the human warrior has been anticipated by Nature.</p> - -<p>On the right hand is an example of ordinary scale armour, while on the -opposite side is a portion of a scaly surface. This figure represents -some of the scales of a Manis. These scales are wonderfully hard, and -scarcely to be penetrated. I have in my collection the skin of a -Short-tailed Manis, which had been kept for some time in an Indian -compound, but which made itself such a nuisance by its perpetual -burrowing, that its owner was forced to condemn it to death.</p> - -<p>So he took a Colt’s revolver, and fired at it from a distance of a yard -or two. The only result was to knock over the Manis, which rolled itself -up, and appeared to be none the worse. A second and a third shot were -fired with similar results, and the last bullet recoiled upon the firer. -At last, the animal was killed by introducing the point of a dagger -under the scales, and driving it in with a mallet. The Manis itself is -given in the illustration on page <a href="#page_189">189</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_124_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_124_sml.jpg" width="348" height="180" alt="Image unavailable: SKIN OF SINGLETHORN. SCALE-MAIL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SKIN OF SINGLETHORN. SCALE-MAIL.</span> -</div> - -<p>Again, the scales of most fishes afford excellent examples of scale -armour. I have selected one, the Japanese Singlethorn, on account of the -strength of the scales, each of which is deeply ridged and furrowed. The -reader will probably have noticed that the skin of the animal, into -which are inserted the bases of the scales, is analogous to the linen or -leathern foundation upon which the artificial scales are sewn.</p> - -<p>Even feathers give a better protection than might be imagined from their -individually fragile structure. This is well shown in the case of -aquatic birds, whose feathers are very closely pressed together, each -overlapping the next, and set in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span> regular order. Not only is the plumage -rendered water-tight, but it is able to resist a severe blow. This is -well known by sportsmen, who do not fire at ducks or geese while they -are approaching, knowing that their shot would only glide harmlessly -from the feather-mail of the bird.</p> - -<p>They wait until the birds have passed, and then find no difficulty in -killing them, the shot penetrating under the feathers just as did the -dagger under the scales of the manis. Even the diminutive puffin, or -sea-parrot, as it is sometimes called, cares little for shot while it is -sitting on the rocks with closed wings and feathers pressed together. -When, however, it takes to flight, it can be killed without difficulty.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may be aware that the ancient Mexican -warriors wore armour made of feathers, which I presume must have been -arranged much after the fashion of those of a duck’s breast.</p> - -<p>This remarkable Feather-mail is mentioned by Southey in his poem, “Madoc -in Aztlan.” In canto xviii, is recounted the single combat between Madoc -and Coanocotsin, the King of Aztlan. The contrasting armour and weapons -of each are graphically described, and especial mention is made of the -cuirass:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12">“Over the breast,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And o’er the golden breastplate of the King,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">A feathery cuirass, beautiful to eye,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Light as the robe of peace, yet strong to save;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">For the sharp faulchion’s baffled edge would glide<br /></span> -<span class="i0">From its smooth softness.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">Then, in the course of the combat, when the King has been grappled in -Madoc’s arms and forced to drop his buckler and club, the narrative -proceeds:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i8">“Which when the Prince beheld,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">He thrust him off, and drawing back, resumed<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The sword that from his wrist suspended hung,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And twice he smote the King. Twice from the quilt<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Of plumes the iron glides.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>If such armour could in truth resist the weapons which have been -discovered, it must have been a wonderfully strong garment, for the -Mexican swords, though made of wood, are edged with flakes of obsidian, -which cuts like a razor. I have a number of these flakes, which have -evidently been intended for the edges of a sword, but have not been -used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is another kind of armour which is still used in some parts of the -world, and at one time was employed in this country. This is the Quilt -Armour, which is made by enclosing a thick layer of some fibre, such as -silk or cotton, between two pieces of fabric, and then sewing them -across and across, so as to keep the lining or stuffing in its place.</p> - -<p>The eider-down quilts are familiar examples of such fabrics, and so are -the quilted petticoats, which are so comfortable in winter. Horsehair -and flock mattresses are made in a similar manner.</p> - -<p>Insufficient as it may appear to be, the quilt armour, when well made, -is really proof against most weapons, even against firearms, as we shall -presently see. Being very much lighter than steel, it was easier for the -wearer, its chief drawback being that its extreme thickness gave it a -very clumsy and awkward look. Those who wore it, however, cared more for -their safety than their appearance, as was exemplified by James I., who -lived in perpetual fear of assassination, but who had a nervous dislike -to arms, whether offensive or defensive. He therefore wore a cuirass -quilted with silk, which answered every purpose of defence, while it did -not offend his nerves.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may remember that in “Peveril of the Peak” Sir Walter -Scott gives a ludicrous picture of the timid justice, his fears of the -Popish plot, his suit of quilted armour, and his “Protestant Flail” with -which he hits himself on the head instead of striking his supposed -enemy:—</p> - -<p>“Some ingenious artist, belonging, we may presume, to the worshipful -Mercers’ Company, had contrived a species of armour of which neither the -horse armoury in the Tower, nor Gwynnap’s Gothic Hall, no, nor Dr. -Meyrick’s invaluable collection of ancient arms, has preserved any -specimen.</p> - -<p>“It was called Silk-armour, being composed of a doublet and breeches of -quilted silk, so closely stitched, and of such thickness, as to be proof -against either bullet or steel, while a thick bonnet of the same -materials, with ear-flaps attached to it, and on the whole much -resembling a nightcap, completed the equipment, and ascertained the -security of the wearer from the head to the knee. Master Maulstatute, -among other worthy citizens, had adopted this singular panoply, which -had the advantage of being soft, and warm and flexible, as well as -safe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span> And he was sat in his judicial elbow-chair—a short, rotund -figure, hung round, as it were, with cushions, for such was the -appearance of the quilted garments—and with a nose protruded from under -the silken casque, the size of which, together with the unwieldiness of -the whole figure, gave his worship no indifferent resemblance to the -sign of the Hog in Armour, which was considerably improved by the -defensive garment being of a dusky orange colour, not altogether unlike -the hue of those half-wild swine which are to be found in the forests of -Hampshire.”</p> - -<p>Roger Nutt gives as a reason for the security of quilted armour, that it -made the wearer look so ridiculous that no one could hit him for -laughing. The reader will probably remember that the sign of the Hog in -Armour was really a representation of the rhinoceros.</p> - -<p>That such a cuirass is really impervious to ordinary weapons is shown by -the following anecdote:—During one of the late Indian wars a trooper -discharged his pistol close to the back of a fleeing horseman. The shot -produced no apparent effect, and the man rode off. Presently, however, a -thin cloud of smoke was seen to rise from his shoulders. The smoke -thickened, then burst into flame, and after riding at desperate speed in -hopes of overtaking his comrades, the unfortunate man fell from his -horse, and was miserably burned to death.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_127_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_127_sml.jpg" width="412" height="137" alt="Image unavailable: INDIAN RHINOCEROS. QUILTED ARMOUR." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">INDIAN RHINOCEROS. QUILTED ARMOUR.</span> -</div> - -<p>The fact was that cotton being cheaper than silk, he had wadded his -cuirass with cotton fibre. Had he chosen silk, he would have got off in -safety. Among the Chinese this cotton mail is largely used. In -consequence, many Chinese soldiers were found who had been burned to -death in exactly the same way as the Indian warrior.</p> - -<p>Towards the south-western parts of Africa there is a nation called the -Begharmis. Their soldiers are mounted, and are all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span> furnished with suits -of quilted mail, which fall below the knee as the rider is seated on his -horse. Not only is the rider thus defended, but the horse also, which is -covered with quilted armour like that of its rider, the appearance of -both being exceedingly grotesque.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are several examples of such armour in the animal world, the -principal of which is the Indian Rhinoceros. Any one who has seen this -animal, or even a good portrait of it, will at once recognise the -parallel between the heavy folds of its thick skin and the padded flaps -of the quilted mail. The blubber with which the whale is so thickly -coated affords another example of the parallel between Nature and Art.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the days of ancient Rome there was a curious military manœuvre, by -which the defensive armour of individual soldiers might be made -collectively useful. This manœuvre was called Forming a Tortoise -(<i>testudinem facere</i>), and is thus described in Smith’s “Dictionary of -Greek and Roman Antiquities:”—</p> - -<p>“The name of Testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close -body of soldiers, who placed their shields over their heads to screen -themselves against the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so closely -together as to present one unbroken surface without any interstices -between them, and were so firm that men could walk upon them, and even -horses and chariots be driven over them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_128_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_128_sml.jpg" width="443" height="139" alt="Image unavailable: TORTOISE. ROMAN TESTUDO." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TORTOISE. ROMAN TESTUDO.</span> -</div> - -<p>“A Testudo was formed either in battle, to ward off the arrows and other -missiles of the enemy, or, which was more frequently the case, to form a -protection to the soldiers when they advanced to the walls or gates of a -town for the purpose of attacking them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span></p> - -<p>“Sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make the -Testudo slope. The soldiers in the first line stood upright, those in -the centre stooped a little, and each line successively was a little -lower than the preceding, down to the last, where the soldiers rested on -one knee. Such a disposition of the shields was called <i>Fastigata -Testudo</i>, on account of their sloping like the roof of a building.</p> - -<p>“The advantages of this plan were obvious. The stones and missiles -thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from a roof; besides -which, other soldiers frequently advanced upon them to attack the enemy -upon the walls. The Romans were accustomed to form this kind of Testudo -as an exercise in the games of the Circus.”</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is shown a portion of a Testudo of -three ranks, taken from the Antonine column. On the left is an ordinary -Tortoise. Sometimes the Testudo was a covered machine on wheels, and -guarded above with a supplementary roof of wet hides arranged in scale -fashion, so as to prevent it from being set on fire by the besieged, and -to throw off the heavy missiles which were dropped upon it. Under cover -of this Testudo, the soldiers could either undermine the walls, or bring -a battering-ram to bear upon them, while the men who worked it were -safely under cover. As to the battering-ram itself, we shall presently -treat of it.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Fort.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">As</span> we have treated of one of the modes by which Forts were assaulted, we -will now come to the Fort itself.</p> - -<p>The transitions in Fort-making are too curious to be omitted from the -present book. As soon as war became organized, a Fort of some kind was -necessary. The simplest mode of making a Fort was evidently to dig a -deep trench, and throw up the earth on the inside, so as to form a wall. -Let such a trench be square or circular, and there is a simple but -powerful Fort, by means of which a comparatively small garrison could -defend themselves against a superior force.</p> - -<p>The Romans were great masters of this art, fighting as much with the -spade as the sword. So strong and thorough was the old Roman work that -many of their camps still remain, and will<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span> remain for centuries if man -does not deface them. Such, for example, are Cæsar’s camp, near -Aldershot, and the fine camp at Lyddington, in Wiltshire, almost every -detail of which is preserved. Roman camps are all constructed on the -same model, the general’s place, or Prætorium, being in the centre, -whence he issued his orders, and the commanders under him occupying the -corners. Thus, no matter how he might be shifted from one corps to -another, every Roman soldier knew his way about the camp without needing -to see it, and could tell at any moment where to find any officer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_130_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_130_sml.jpg" width="424" height="133" alt="Image unavailable: ELK FORT. -MOUND FORT." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ELK FORT. -MOUND FORT.</span> -</div> - -<p>Other nations made their Forts circular, an example of which I lately -saw a few miles from Bideford, while others consisted of nearly parallel -lines, enclosures, and demi-lunes, like those wonderful dykes near -Clovelly, which occupy more than thirty acres of land. One of the -circular Forts is shown on the right hand of the illustration.</p> - -<p>As time went on, stone took the place of earth, and the principal object -of the builder was to give considerable thickness below, so as to resist -the battering-ram, and great height both to walls and towers, so as to -be comparatively out of the reach of the arrows and other missiles of -the besiegers.</p> - -<p>For awhile, such castles were impregnable, and the owners thereof were -the irresponsible despots of the neighbourhood, recognising no law but -their own will, robbing, torturing, and murdering at pleasure, and -setting the king at open defiance. When, however, the tremendous powers -of artillery became developed, the age of stone castles passed away. -Height was found to be equivalent to weakness, as the strongest tower in -existence could be knocked to pieces in an hour or two, and do infinite -harm within the fortress by its falling fragments.</p> - -<p>Fortification then returned to its original principles. Earth took the -place of stone or brick; and at the present day,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span> instead of erecting -lofty walls and stately towers, the military engineer sinks his -buildings as far as he can into the ground, and protects them with banks -of simple earth, which is found to be the best defence against heavy -shot. There is no masonry in existence that will endure the artillery -fire of the present day, and even the solid rock can be knocked to -pieces by it. But an earth-mound is a different business, and will -absorb as many shot and shell as can be poured into it, without being -much the worse for it. See, for example, the Proof-mound at Woolwich, -which receives the shot of guns as they are being proved. Now, this -mound has undergone perpetual battering for many years, and is as strong -as ever. The same thing may be said of the celebrated Mamelon before -Sebastopol.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">So</span> much for the Fort made by the hand of man. We now come to that which -is formed by the feet of animals.</p> - -<p>The Elk, or Moose, an inhabitant of Northern Europe, finds itself in -great danger during the winter, the wolves being its chief enemies. At -certain times of the year there comes a partial thaw during the day, -followed by a frost at night. The result is, that a slight cake of ice -forms on the surface of the snow, too slight to bear the weight of so -heavy an animal, and strong enough to cut the legs of the elk as it -ploughs its way along. Now, the wolves are sufficiently light to pass -over the frozen surface without breaking it, and accordingly, they can -easily run down and secure the elk.</p> - -<p>In order, therefore, to counteract the wolves, a number of elks select a -convenient spot where they can find food, and unite in trampling the -snow down so as to sink themselves nearly to their own height below its -surface. The wolves never dare attack an Elk-yard, as this enclosure is -termed. In the first place, they are always haunted with suspicions of -traps, and do not like the look of the yard; and in the next place, if -some of the wolves did venture within the fort, the elks would soon -demolish them with hoofs and horns. One of these Elk-yards is seen on -the left hand of the illustration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VII" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VII"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER VII.<br /><br /> -<small>SCALING INSTRUMENTS.—DEFENCE OF FORT.—IMITATION.—THE FALL-TRAP.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Scaling-forks.—The Climbing-spur and its Use.—Larva of the -Tiger-beetle.—Hooks of Serpula.—Mr. Gosse’s Description.—Falling -Stones.—A Stone rolling down a Precipice.—The Polar Bear and the -Walrus.—Imitation.—The Polar Bear and the Seal.—The Esquimaux -Hunter “Seal-talking.”—Enticing Mother by means of Young.—The -Fall-trap and its Variations.—The Schoolboy’s -“Booby-trap.”—Curious Mode of killing Elephants.—The -Elephant-spear.—The Hippopotamus-trap of Southern Africa.—The -Mangrove and its Seeds.—The Spring-gun and Spring-bow.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">B</span>EFORE dismissing the subject of the Fortress, we will glance at the -Attack and Defence, as seen in Nature and Art.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Scaling Instruments.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already seen how the Battering-ram could be worked against the -walls of a fort, or how the assailants could scale them by means of the -Testudo. There must, however, be occasions when it would be impossible -to bring together a sufficiently large body of men to form the Testudo, -or even to place ladders, and in such instances it would be necessary -that each soldier should be furnished with an instrument by which he -could haul himself up the wall.</p> - -<p>There are many examples still extant of such weapons, which were called -“Scaling-forks,” and their general appearance may be known by the two -right-hand figures of the cut. The handles of these weapons were very -long, and by them the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span> soldier hauled himself to the top of the wall. In -some of these instruments the shafts were armed with projecting pegs, -set at regular intervals, so that they acted as the steps of a ladder, -and rendered the ascent comparatively easy.</p> - -<p>Many of the long-handled partisans, such as the well-known Jedwood axe, -were furnished with a hook upon the back of the blade, so that the -weapon served the purpose of a scaling-fork as well as a battle-axe.</p> - -<p>The Scaling-fork (German <i>Sturmgabel</i>), which is shown on the right hand -of the illustration, was in use somewhere about <small>A.D.</small> 1500. That which is -shown next to it is about a hundred years later.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_133_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_133_sml.jpg" width="428" height="280" alt="Image unavailable: WALRUS TUSKS. LARVA OF TIGER-BEETLE. CLIMBING-SPUR. SCALING-FORKS. -HOOKS OF SERPULA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WALRUS TUSKS. LARVA OF TIGER-BEETLE. CLIMBING-SPUR. SCALING-FORKS. -HOOKS OF SERPULA. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>Demmin, from whose work these figures are taken, mentions that at the -siege of Mons, in 1691, the grenadiers of the elder Dauphin’s regiment -stormed the walls under the command of Vauban, and, by means of the -Scaling-fork, carried the breastwork, which they assaulted. As a mark of -honour to these gallant men, Louis XIV. ordered that the sergeants of -the regiment should carry scaling-forks instead of halberds, which had -been the peculiar weapon of the sergeant until comparatively late days, -just as the spontoon, or half-pike, was the weapon of the infantry -officer from <small>A.D.</small> 1700 to <small>A.D.</small> 1800, or thereabouts.</p> - -<p>The English student will remember that in the writings of Sterne, -Fielding, and Smollett the half-pike is frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> mentioned as the -weapon of a subaltern officer. Demmin states that the last spontoons -used in France were carried by the French Guards in 1789.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> the Climbing-spur may be familiar to some of my readers, and -bring back a reminiscence of boyhood. There is nothing more tantalising -to a boy than to see a hawk, or magpie nest at the top of a tree which -is too large to be climbed in the ordinary way, and which has no -branches within many feet of the ground. However, boyish ingenuity has -brought almost any tree within the power of a bird’s-nester by the -invention of the Climbing-irons.</p> - -<p>These are made so as to pass under the foot like a stirrup, and can be -secured to the leg by leathern straps, the hooks being, of course, on -the inside of the leg. The cut represents the Climbing-iron of the right -leg. By means of these instruments, a very large tree can be mounted, -the irons being struck firmly into the bark, and the legs moved -alternately, and not in the usual manner of climbing. Sometimes the hook -of the Climbing-iron is terminated by a single instead of a double -point, but the principle is the same in all.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now look for similar examples in Nature.</p> - -<p>On the right of the left-hand group is shown the larva or grub of the -common Tiger-beetle, which is itself a curious creature.</p> - -<p>It lives in perpendicular burrows, feeding upon those insects which come -within its reach. Its usual position is at the upper part of the burrow, -with its jaws widely extended, so as to snap up any insect that may -venture too near.</p> - -<p>When it has secured its prey, it seeks the bottom of its burrow, makes -its meal in quiet, and reascends. How it does so we shall soon see. -Towards the end of the body, one of the segments is much enlarged, and -has a bold prominence upon the back. On the summit of this prominence -there are two horn-like hooks, shaped as seen in the illustration. These -hooks are used exactly like the boy’s climbing-spurs, the alternate -elongation and contraction of the body answering the same purpose as the -movements of the boy’s legs. When the larva has seized its prey and -wishes to retreat, all that it has to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span> do is to withdraw the hooks, -straighten the body, and down it falls by its own weight.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the nautical branch of this subject I have already treated of the -curious pushing-poles by means of which the Serpula protrudes itself -from its tube. As all must have noticed who have seen these creatures -alive, the Serpula protrudes itself very slowly, but flies back into its -tube with such velocity that the eye can scarcely follow its movements. -Its difference of motion shows that there must be a difference in the -means by which these movements are produced.</p> - -<p>Referring to the illustration on page <a href="#page_45">45</a>, the reader will see that the -instruments with which the Serpula propels itself are used just after -the fashion of punt-poles, and cannot act with any great swiftness. -When, however, the creature wishes to withdraw itself, it employs a -curious apparatus, consisting of many rows of little hooks. The points -of these hooks readily catch against the lining of the tube, and by -their aid the worm jerks itself back with wonderful celerity.</p> - -<p>Three rows of these hooks are shown next to the Tiger-beetle larva.</p> - -<p>The structure of these remarkable organs is elaborately described by Mr. -Gosse in his “Evenings with the Microscope:”—</p> - -<p>“If you look again at this Serpula recently extracted, you will find -with a lens a pale yellow line running along the upper surface of each -foot, transversely to the length of the body. This is the border of an -exceedingly delicate membrane, and, on placing it under a high power -(say six hundred diameters), you will be astonished at the elaborate -provision here made for prehension.”</p> - -<p>“This yellow line, which cannot be appreciated by the unassisted eye, is -a muscular ribbon, over which stand edgewise a multitude of what I will -call combs, or rather subtriangular plates. These have a wide base, and -the apex of the triangle is curved over into an abrupt hook, and then -this cut into a number (from four to six) of sharp and long teeth.”</p> - -<p>“The plates stand side by side, parallel to each other, along the whole -length of the ribbon, and there are muscular fibres seen affixed to the -basal side of each plate, which doubtless give it independent motion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span></p> - -<p>“I have counted one hundred and thirty-six plates on one ribbon. There -are two ribbons on each thoracic segment, and there are seven such -segments. Hence, we may compute the total number of prehensile comb-like -plates on this portion of the body to be about one thousand nine -hundred, each of which is wielded by muscles at the will of the animal; -while, as each plate carries on an average five teeth, there are nearly -<i>ten thousand teeth</i> hooked into the lining membrane of the cell, when -the animal chooses to descend.”</p> - -<p>“Even this, however, is far short of the total number, because long -ribbons of hooks of a similar structure, but of smaller dimensions, run -across the abdominal segments, which are more numerous than the -thoracic. No wonder, with so many muscles wielding so many -grappling-hooks, that the descent is so rapidly effected.”</p> - -<p>Lastly, we come to the Walrus, whose strangely elongated upper canine -teeth can be used for just the same purposes as the scaling-fork or -climbing-spur. As, however, reference has already been made to these -tusks, in connection with another department of this work, there is no -necessity for occupying space with a second description.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Defence of Fort.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">So</span> much for attack; now for defence.</p> - -<p>The simplest mode of defending a fort, or even a mountain pass, is by -throwing or rolling rocks and heavy stones against the enemy.</p> - -<p>Simple as it may appear, it is a very effective one, as can be well -understood by those who have rolled a huge stone down a long and steep -slope. The stone goes gently enough at first, but rapidly gains speed, -until at last it makes great bounds from the earth, tearing and crashing -through everything as if it had been shot from a cannon.</p> - -<p>I have seen a stone which was too heavy to be lifted, and had to be -prised over the edge with levers, spring completely through the topmost -branches of a high tree, scattering the boughs in all directions, and -then, alighting on another stone, split into many fragments, just like -the pieces of a burst shell. That one stone would have swept off a whole -party of soldiers had they encountered it while trying to ascend the -slope.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span></p> - -<p>This invention has also been anticipated in Nature.</p> - -<p>Putting aside the obvious reflection that the most primitive warriors -must have noticed the effects of stones falling over a precipice, we -have, in Captain Hall’s “Life with the Esquimaux,” a curious account of -the Polar Bear and its mode of killing the Walrus. Gigantic as is this -animal, and terrible as are its tusks, the Polar Bear will sometimes -attack it in a very singular manner. The Bear springs on a sleeping -Walrus, and clings to its shoulders with one paw, and with repeated -blows from the other, fractures its skull.</p> - -<p>Still, the combat is sure to be a severe one, and so the Polar Bear -will, if he can, secure his prey by some other method.</p> - -<p>“The natives tell many most interesting anecdotes of the Bear, showing -that they are accustomed to watch his movements closely. He has a very -ingenious method of killing the Walrus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_137_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_137_sml.jpg" width="448" height="309" alt="Image unavailable: BEAR KILLING WALRUS. -WARRIORS DEPENDING A PASS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BEAR KILLING WALRUS. -WARRIORS DEPENDING A PASS.</span> -</div> - -<p>“In August, every fine day, the Walrus makes its way to the shore, draws -its huge body upon the rocks, and basks in the sun. If this happen near -the base of a cliff, the ever-watchful Bear takes advantage of the -circumstance to attack his formidable game in this way. The Bear mounts -the cliff, and throws down upon the animal’s head a large rock, -calculating the distance and the curve with astonishing accuracy, and -thus crushing the thick, bullet-proof skull.</p> - -<p>“If the Walrus is not instantly killed, or simply stunned,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span> the Bear -rushes down to it, seizes the rock, and hammers away at the head until -the skull is broken. A fat feast follows. Unless the Bear is very -hungry, it eats only the blubber of the walrus, seal, and whale.”</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Imitation.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">As</span> is the case with the Norwegians, the Esquimaux have the greatest -respect for the intellectual as well as the bodily powers of the Bear, -and avowedly imitate it in its modes of hunting. One of these methods -will now be mentioned.</p> - -<p>It must first be premised that the Seal is a most wary animal, and when -it lies down on the shore to sleep, it takes its repose by snatches, -lifting up its head at very short intervals, looking all round in search -of foes, and then composing itself to rest again. To approach so -cautious an animal is evidently a difficult task, but the Bear is equal -to it. The following is Captain Hall’s account:—</p> - -<p>“From the Polar Bear the Innuits (<i>i.e.</i> Esquimaux) learn much.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_138_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_138_sml.jpg" width="410" height="192" alt="Image unavailable: POLAR BEAR HUNTING SEAL. -ESQUIMAUX HUNTING SEAL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">POLAR BEAR HUNTING SEAL. -ESQUIMAUX HUNTING SEAL.</span> -</div> - -<p>“The manner of approaching the Seal, which is on the ice by its hole, -basking in the sunshine, is from him. The Bear lies down and crawls by -hitches towards the Seal, ‘talking’ to it, as the Innuits say, until he -is within striking distance, when he pounces upon it with a single jump. -The natives say that if they could ‘talk’ as well as the Bear, they -could catch many more Seals.</p> - -<p>“The procedure of the Bear is as follows.</p> - -<p>“He proceeds very cautiously towards the black speck, far off on the -ice, which he knows to be a Seal. When still a long<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span> way from it, he -throws himself down and hitches himself along towards his game. The -Seal, meanwhile, is taking its naps of about ten seconds each, -invariably raising its head and surveying the entire horizon before -composing itself again to brief slumber.</p> - -<p>“As soon as it raises its head, the Bear ‘talks,’ keeping perfectly -still. The Seal, if it sees anything, sees but the head, which it takes -for that of another Seal. It sleeps again. Again the Bear hitches -himself along, and once more the Seal looks around, only to be ‘talked’ -to and again deceived. Thus the pursuit goes on until the Seal is -caught, or till it makes its escape, which it seldom does.”</p> - -<p>It is remarkable that while this “talk” is going on, the Seal appears to -be charmed, raises and shakes its flippers about, rolls over on its side -and back, as if delighted, and then lies down to sleep.</p> - -<p>Now, the Esquimaux hunters imitate, as nearly as they can, the -proceedings of the Bear, but are not so successful. Captain Hall -mentions several instances where the native hunter failed even to come -within gunshot without alarming the Seal, which instantly plunged into -its hole and was lost.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> same author mentions another instance where the Esquimaux hunter has -copied the Bear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_139_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_139_sml.jpg" width="439" height="222" alt="Image unavailable: POLAR BEAR CATCHING SEAL, ETC." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">POLAR BEAR CATCHING SEAL, ETC.</span> -</div> - -<p>When an Esquimaux hunter catches a young Seal, he takes care not to kill -it at once, as he wishes to use it as a decoy. He ties a long line round -one of the hind flippers, and then drops the little Seal into the hole -through the ice by which it enters and leaves the water. The struggles -of the young are nearly sure<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span> to attract the mother, and when she has -discovered its condition the young Seal is cautiously drawn up on the -ice. The mother follows, too intent on rescuing her young to think about -herself, and, as soon as she is within reach, she is struck with the -harpoon.</p> - -<p>The Polar Bear, however, preceded the Esquimaux in this mode of hunting. -The young Seal lives in a hemispherical dwelling scooped out of the -snow, and communicating with the water by means of a hole through the -ice. This dwelling will be described and figured when we come to the -subject of Architecture.</p> - -<p>Finding out, by scent or some other means, the habitation of the young -Seal, the Polar Bear leaps upon the snow, bringing his feet together, -and with his enormous weight breaking through the roof of the dwelling. -He instantly captures the young Seal before it can make its escape. -Then, driving the talons of one paw into its hind flipper, he lets it -into the hole, and allows it to flounder about in the water. When the -mother is attracted to her young, he draws his prey slowly up on the -ice. The anxious mother follows, and is at once secured by the talons of -the other foot, as is represented in the illustration.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Fall-trap.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">This</span> is a stratagem which is often employed in War and Hunting, though -its use is mostly confined to the latter. Schoolboys often avail -themselves of this principle when they wish to play a practical joke, -and to amuse themselves by setting a “Booby-trap.” This trap is easily -manufactured, and consists of a partially opened door, with a basin or -jug of water balanced upon it. The natural result is, that any one who -opens the door without proper precautions receives the jug and its -contents upon his head, and is thoroughly drenched.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is seen a curious spear, the butt -of which, instead of being lighter than the head, is very much heavier. -The weight, however, is exactly where it is wanted, and indeed, in -actual use, is trebled by a mass of tenacious clay, kneaded upon it. -This figure is taken from a very perfect specimen in my own collection.</p> - -<p>It is an African weapon, not used for war, but for hunting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> and, as far -as I know, exclusively employed against the elephants. These animals -have a way of forming roads or tracks for themselves through the woods, -very much like those almost invisible paths which are made by the -half-wild sheep of the great Wiltshire Downs, except that they traverse -thick forests instead of broad downs.</p> - -<p>The native hunters know all the elephant paths, and if a herd of -elephants be seen approaching, the path which they will take is -tolerably certain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_141_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_141_sml.jpg" width="425" height="259" alt="Image unavailable: MANGROVE SEEDS. -HIPPOPOTAMUS TRAP AND ELEPHANT SPEAR." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">MANGROVE SEEDS. -HIPPOPOTAMUS TRAP AND ELEPHANT SPEAR.</span> -</div> - -<p>Armed with this knowledge, the native hunters climb the trees, and seat -themselves on the branches which overhang the path, each hunter being -supplied with one of these spears. As the elephants pass beneath him, -the experienced hunter selects a bull elephant with good tusks, and, -taking a careful aim, drops the spear on its back.</p> - -<p>On receiving the stroke, the elephant rushes off in mixed terror and -rage. As the animal uses the legs of each side alternately, it sways its -huge body from side to side at every step. With each movement, the spear -also sways about, its weighted end giving it such a leverage, that the -sharp edges of the head cut the poor animal to pieces.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> kind of Fall-trap, which is common in many parts of Southern -Africa, is not dependent upon the skill of the hunter, but, like the -“booby-trap” above mentioned, is set in motion by the victim.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span></p> - -<p>A figure of this trap is given in the illustration.</p> - -<p>If the native hunter can find a spot where the Hippopotamus path passes -under an overhanging branch, he makes a simple but most effective trap. -He takes a heavy log of wood, and into one end of it he drives a -spear-point. The log is then hung with its point downwards to the -branch, the rope which is connected with its trigger or catch being -stretched across the path at a few inches from the surface of the -ground, and carried at right angles across the path.</p> - -<p>The Hippopotamus takes no notice of the cord, which is usually made of -one of the creepers or “bush-ropes” that are so common in hot countries. -No sooner, however, does its foot strike the cord, than the trigger is -released, and down falls the heavy log, driving its iron point deeply -into the back of the victim. Even if the weapon were simple iron, such a -wound must be mortal, but, as it is almost invariably poisoned, the -wounded animal can scarcely travel forty or fifty yards before it lies -down and dies.</p> - -<p>One of these traps is shown in the illustration. In the foreground is -shown the Fall-trap, pointed with iron, and weighted with large stones -at the lower end, so as to bring it down with more force, and to prevent -it from falling transversely.</p> - -<p>The Spring-gun, once so formidable a protector of our coverts, was -managed in a similar manner, except that the missile was discharged -horizontally, and not vertically. The gun, loaded with shot, was fixed -some eighteen inches from the ground, and a long and slight wire -fastened to the trigger. The opposite end of the wire was made fast to a -tree or other fixed object, and, as the gun was directed on the line of -the wire, it is evident that any one who stumbled against it would -discharge the gun, and receive the contents in his legs.</p> - -<p>In France the gun was generally loaded with little pieces of bay salt, -and I very much pity the unfortunate poacher who came across one of -these guns. The pain would prevent him from escaping, and I think that -the hardest-hearted of game preservers could not bring himself to -prosecute a man who had already suffered so much.</p> - -<p>Of a similar character are the Spring-bows which were once common in -this country, and are still used in various parts of Asia. A bow and -arrow are substituted for firearms, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span> bow, after being drawn by -the united efforts of several men, is held in its position by a stick, -one end of which presses against the centre of the bow, and the other -against the string.</p> - -<p>A large arrow is then placed on the bow, and a cord is tied to the -middle of the stick, led forwards in a line with the direction of the -arrow, and fastened, as in the case of the spring-gun. As soon as the -line is struck, the stick is jerked from its place, and the arrow is -discharged, piercing the body of the trespasser. Tigers, bears, and -leopards are the usual victims of this trap.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is remarkable that in the same country there is a production of -Nature which may in all probability have given to the native hunter the -idea of the Fall-trap. This is the Mangrove-tree, which is remarkable -for the wonderful extent of ground which it will cover, and the nearly -impenetrable thickets which it forms. In the present part of the work we -have nothing to do with the aërial roots, several of which are shown in -the illustration, and only restrict ourselves to the Seeds, and the -curious manner in which they are planted by Nature.</p> - -<p>In the illustration, on the left hand, the growth of the Mangrove is -seen. The drawing is taken from a sketch by the late Mr. Baines, and -generously placed at my disposal, as were all his drawings and journals.</p> - -<p>The Mangrove is a wet-loving tree, never flourishing unless rooted in -mud; and whether the moisture of the mud be attributable to fresh or -salt water seems to make little difference to the Mangrove, which, of -the two, appears to prefer the latter. Now, the seeds of the Mangrove -look very much like elongated skittles, except that one end comes to a -sharp point. As they hang on the tree, the point is downwards. When they -are ripe, they fall from the branch, and by their own weight are driven -deeply into the mud, where they develop roots and leaves, and become the -progenitors of the future Mangrove race.</p> - -<p>I cannot but think that the native hunter, having seen the tremendous -force with which the Mangrove seed buries itself in the mud, has applied -the same principle to a weapon which shall bury itself in the body of an -elephant.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VIII" id="WAR_AND_HUNTING_CHAPTER_VIII"></a>WAR AND HUNTING.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br /> -<small>CONCEALMENT.—DISGUISE.—THE TRENCH.—POWER OF GRAVITY.—MISCELLANEA.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Concealment needed in Modern Warfare.—Concealment by -Covering.—Masking Guns.—Birnam Wood.—The Reduvius.—The -Cuckoo-spit and the Spider-crab.—Concealment by -Disguise.—Stratagem of the Barea.—Complete Deception.—Larva of -Geometra.—The Leaf-insect.—The Luppet-moth.—The Ptarmigan and -the Ermine.—Principle of the Trench.—The Hunter’s “Skärm.”—The -Wax-moth or Galleria-moth, and its Tunnel.—Fate of a -Collection.—The Termites and the Travelling Ants of South -America.—The Power of Gravity.—The Battering-ram and its -Force.—Miscellanea.—War by Suffocation.—The Stink-pot.—The -Chili-plant.—The Sulphur-room.—The Bombardier-beetle.—The -Bullet-making Machine and the Silkworm.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Concealment.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E will first take Concealment by means of Covering.</p> - -<p>If History repeats herself, so does Warfare. I have already shown the -repetition of History in the Fortress—I shall now show it in the Field.</p> - -<p>In former days, when arms of precision were not invented, concealment -was not needed. No soldier ever was visited with a dream so wild as that -of taking definite aim at the enemy, and reserving the fire until the -aim was certain. I have in my collection several of the French and -English muskets used about the time of Waterloo, and, though a fair -rifle-shot, would not engage to hit a haystack with either of them at a -distance of a hundred yards. With the Snider or Martini-Henry in the -hands of a skilful adversary, he would be a bold man who would offer -himself for a target at a thousand yards. Indeed, if the first shot -happened to miss, the marksman<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span> would be tolerably sure to notice the -failure, and to correct his aim with fatal certainty.</p> - -<p>In those days, therefore, concealment was rather ridiculed than praised, -the power of the new arm not being as yet appreciated. I well recollect, -in the earliest days of the Volunteer movement, hearing a Volunteer -captain declare, amid the cheers of his company, that “he had never -sneaked behind a tree in all his life, and was not going to begin now.”</p> - -<p>In the present day, the power of the missile has been developed with -such astounding rapidity, that to be exposed to the fire of rifles or -cannon is almost certain death. Indeed, the only safety of the defence -lay in the fact that the smoke soon rendered very accurate shooting -impossible at long ranges, and that at short ranges, if a man got a -bullet through his body, it mattered little to him whether the missile -were a spherical musket-ball or a conical rifle-bullet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_145_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_145_sml.jpg" width="443" height="367" alt="Image unavailable: REDUVIUS (MAGNIFIED). -CUCKOO-SPIT. -SPIDER-CRAB. -MASKING GUNS. -BIRNAM WOOD." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">REDUVIUS (MAGNIFIED). -CUCKOO-SPIT. -SPIDER-CRAB. -MASKING GUNS. -BIRNAM WOOD.</span> -</div> - -<p>Just, then, as forts have latterly sunk into the earth for the purpose -of strength, so have our modern soldiers found that the true principle -of modern warfare is never to lose sight of the enemy, and never to -allow the enemy to see yourself or the disposal of your troops.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span></p> - -<p>Everything must be revealed to the commander-in-chief, everything must -be concealed from the enemy.</p> - -<p>In the late Franco-German war the principle of concealment was largely -used, and when cannon were brought into the field by the Germans for the -purpose of attacking fortresses, they were always hidden under branches -of trees, so that the enemy should not distinguish them from the -ordinary features of the country, and that the sparkle of the sunbeams -upon them might not be seen.</p> - -<p>It would be almost superfluous to remind the reader of Malcolm’s -stratagem when besieging Dunsinane Castle:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Let every soldier hew him down a bough,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And bear’t before him; thereby shall we shadow<br /></span> -<span class="i1">The numbers of our host, and make discovery<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Err in report of us.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Precisely similar modes of concealment are to be found in the animal -world.</p> - -<p>There is a certain insect belonging to the Heteroptera, and -scientifically named <i>Reduvius personatus</i>. I am not aware whether it -has any popular name. It is insectivorous, and ought to be welcomed in -houses, as it is particularly fond of the too common bed-bug. So -carnivorous are these insects that one of the Reduviidæ killed and -sucked a companion of her own sex, her own mate, and, after only a few -days’ fast, her own young, and then sucked her own eggs.</p> - -<p>During its larval and pupal stages of existence, the Reduvius covers its -body and limbs with dust and any other refuse which it can find. In this -manner it disguises its form so completely that it scarcely looks like -an insect. Occasionally it seems to be dissatisfied with its coat of -dust, throws it off, and sets to work at a new one.</p> - -<p>One of these creatures, as it appears when covered with its dusty -coating, is seen in the upper left-hand corner of the illustration. It -is slightly magnified.</p> - -<p>Below the Reduvius is the common Cuckoo-spit (<i>Aphrophora spumaria</i>), -whose frothy masses are so plentiful in our hedgerows and gardens.</p> - -<p>If one of these masses be carefully opened, there will be found in it a -little green creature with small, round, dot-like eyes. This is either -the larval or pupal state of the Frog-hopper,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span> as the insect is called -in its perfect state, from its habit of taking long and sudden leaps -when alarmed.</p> - -<p>I well remember my delight when, as a child, I set to work at examining -these froth-masses, and succeeded in tracing the insect through all its -changes. The froth is derived from the sap of the tree, which is sucked -through the proboscis, passed through the digestive organs, and then -ejected in a succession of little bubbles. After awhile a little drop of -clear liquid is seen to collect at the bottom of the froth, to increase, -and then to fall, when another immediately begins to be formed. One -species of Cuckoo-spit, which inhabits Madagascar, acts almost like a -siphon on the tree, and pours out large quantities of clear water during -the hottest part of the day.</p> - -<p>Within this froth-mass the insect lies concealed, and, though utterly -helpless, is safe from most of the enemies that would attack it if it -were left exposed.</p> - -<p>Beneath the Cuckoo-spit is the common Spider-crab, sometimes called the -Thornback-crab, from the numerous spines with which its body is covered. -Its scientific name is <i>Maia squinado</i>.</p> - -<p>When the Spider-crab attains to a tolerable size, its rough surface -forms attachment for various marine beings, chiefly those belonging to -the zoophytes. In some cases these zoophytes grow to such a size that -the Crab is completely covered by them, and its original shape -effectually concealed. When one of these creatures is seen in a living -state it presents the curious spectacle of a large bunch of zoophytes -and corallines moving about from place to place without any perceptible -limbs, the whole of the surface of the Crab being covered with -extraneous growths.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Disguise.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Next</span> comes concealment by means of Disguise.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown a singular -mode of concealment adopted by the Barea, a warlike and predatorial -tribe of Abyssinia. When Mr. Mansfield Parkyns was resident in Abyssinia -he fell in with the Barea, through whose country he had to pass.</p> - -<p>“Scarcely had we passed the brook of Mai-Chena when one of our men, a -hunter, declared that he saw the slaves. Being at that time -inexperienced in such matters, I could see nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span> suspicious. He then -pointed out to me a dead tree standing on an eminence at a distance of -several hundred yards, and charred black by last year’s fire.” Here I -must explain that in Abyssinia, as in several other parts of the world, -the ground is annually, cleared of its superabundant vegetation by -setting fire to it, and allowing the flames to burn themselves out.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_148_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_148_sml.jpg" width="439" height="314" alt="Image unavailable: LEAF-INSECT. -PTARMIGAN. -CATERPILLAR OF GEOMETRA. -LAPPET-MOTH. -BAREA STRATAGEM." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LEAF-INSECT. -PTARMIGAN. -CATERPILLAR OF GEOMETRA. -LAPPET-MOTH. -BAREA STRATAGEM.</span> -</div> - -<p>“However, all I saw was a charred stump of a tree and a few blackened -logs or stones lying at its feet. The hunter declared that neither the -tree nor the stones were there the last time we passed, and that they -were simply naked Barea, who had placed themselves in that position to -observe us, having no doubt seen us for some time, and prepared -themselves.</p> - -<p>“I could scarcely believe it possible they could be so motionless, and -determined to explore a little. The rest of the party advised me to -continue quietly in the road, as it was possible that, from our -presenting a rather formidable appearance, we should pass unmolested; -but so confident was I of his mistake, that, telling the rest to go on -slowly, as if nothing had been observed, I dropped into the long grass -and stalked up towards them.”</p> - -<p>“A shot from my rifle at a long distance (I did not venture too close) -acted on the trees and stones as powerfully as the fiddle of Orpheus, -but with the contrary effect; for the tree<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span> disappeared, and the stones -and logs, instead of running after me, ran in the opposite direction.”</p> - -<p>“I never was more astonished in my life, for so complete was the -deception that even up to the time I fired I could have declared the -objects before me were vegetable or mineral—anything, indeed, but -animal. The fact was that the cunning rascals who represented stones -were lying flat, with their little round shields placed before them as -screens.”</p> - -<p>This stratagem is shown on the right hand of the illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left are a few of the innumerable instances in Nature where -Concealment is obtained by imitation.</p> - -<p>The three examples which are here given are familiar to all -entomologists.</p> - -<p>The upper figure represents two of the Geometra or Looper Caterpillars, -as they appear when at rest, and affixed to a twig. This appears to be a -singular attitude of rest, but it is one in which they delight, and in -which they remain for hours together, the claspers at the end of the -body tightly grasping the branch, and the whole body held out so -straight and motionless that it is hardly possible to believe that a -veritable twig is not before the eye. The colour is that of the twig, -and the different segments of the body look exactly like the little -irregularities and projections of a young twig.</p> - -<p>I have more than once seen a novice in entomology unable to distinguish -these larvæ, even when the branch was pointed out, and there were -several upon it.</p> - -<p>Just below the Loopers, and on the left hand of the illustration, is -shown the well-known Leaf-insect (<i>Phyllium</i>). These strange beings have -the elytra and the flattened appendages of the legs so exactly like -leaves that the most experienced eye can scarcely distinguish them from -the leaves among which they are placed. Even when they have been on a -small plant, such as a myrtle in a flower-pot, I have had the greatest -difficulty in finding them, and have seen people examine the plant, and -then go away declaring that no insects were on it.</p> - -<p>On the right hand, and just below the looper caterpillar, is the common -Lappet-moth of this country, shown in its position of rest.</p> - -<p>When it assumes this attitude, it looks exactly like a withered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span> leaf, -the resemblance extending not only to the form, but the colour. All -entomologists are familiar with many similar examples in insect life. -The common Tortoise-shell Butterfly, for example, has a way of settling -on patches of red soil, with which it harmonizes so well that it can -hardly be seen. The various moths, also, are in the habit of resting on -tree-bark, palings, and other objects, to which they instinctively know -that they assimilate in hue. Many a beginner in entomology will pass a -wooden fence or a wall, and not see an insect on either, while an adept -will follow him and take twenty or thirty good specimens.</p> - -<p>The last figure in the illustration represents a Ptarmigan (<i>Lagopus -vulgaris</i>) in its winter dress. These birds have two differently -coloured dresses, one for summer and the other for winter, and both -adapted for concealment by imitation. In the former dress it is mottled -with various shades of blackish brown, yellow, and white. As the bird is -in the habit of settling among the grey lichen-covered stones on the -sides of rocky hills, these colours harmonize so exactly with them that -a Ptarmigan may almost be trodden upon before it is perceived.</p> - -<p>In the winter, when the snow covers the whole country with one uniform -sheet of white, except where the wind blows the snow aside, and exposes -the underlying stones, the Ptarmigan assumes a different plumage, being -almost entirely white, except a black streak over the eye, and the outer -feathers of the tail, which are also black. Thus the bird becomes almost -indistinguishable from a snow-covered stone, especially as it has a -habit of squatting motionless and silent when it takes alarm.</p> - -<p>The reader may, perhaps, remember that the common Stoat also has a -summer and winter dress. The ordinary colour is rich reddish brown -above, and white beneath, with a black tip to the tail. In the severe -winters of Northern Europe the Stoat exchanges his ruddy coat for one of -pure white, and is then known by the name of Ermine. It is remarkable -that in the winter dress both of the Ptarmigan and Stoat the tail is -black, while the rest of the coat is white.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Trench.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to a third mode of concealment in war, namely, that which is -obtained by means of Trenches or Pits.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span></p> - -<p>Even in hunting the pit or partial trench is largely used. In Southern -Africa the hunter often employs such a trench, called technically a -“Skärm.” It is very simple in idea, and easily made, being based on the -principle that lions, elephants, &c., look for their assailants on the -level of the earth, and seldom, if ever, look above or below it. -Accordingly the hunter, having marked some pool or lake whereunto the -wild animals resort at night to quench their thirst, chooses a -convenient spot, and there digs a trench some seven feet in length and -four deep, and covers it in with stout tree-branches and logs of various -size. The whole is roofed in with sods, and the only entrance is at one -end.</p> - -<p>Here the hunter sits and waits, and, as his ear is on a level with the -surface of the ground, he can hear at a considerable distance sounds -which would have escaped him had he been erect.</p> - -<p>Waiting for a favourable opportunity, as the various beasts come to -drink, the hunter chooses one, takes careful aim, and fires one of his -heaviest guns. It is but seldom that the rest of the animals charge in -the direction of the Skärm, but even if they do, the hunter is quite -safe under the shelter of his strong roof, which is able to resist even -the heavy tread of an elephant.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_151_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_151_sml.jpg" width="436" height="144" alt="Image unavailable: Galleria-Moth (Larva). -Military Trench." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">Galleria-Moth (Larva). -Military Trench.</span> -</div> - -<p>In modern warfare, and especially during sieges, the trench is largely -used, and is constructed on the most scientific principles, so as to -shelter the assailants, while enabling them to proceed nearer and nearer -to the fortress. A portion of one of these trenches is shown in the -right hand of the illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the opposite side of the same illustration is shown the same -principle as carried out in Nature.</p> - -<p>There is a certain little insect, called the Wax-moth, or Galleria-moth -(<i>Galleria alvearia</i>), which, although quite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span> harmless in its perfect -form, is in its larval state extremely injurious to beehives.</p> - -<p>The mother moth contrives, aided by her tiny form and sombre colouring, -to slip past the sentries at the mouth of the hive, and to lay her eggs -among the combs. This done, she dies, but the evil of her visit lives -after her.</p> - -<p>Each of the eggs is hatched into a little caterpillar, having a soft -grey body, but a hard, horny head of a black-brown colour. As soon as -they are hatched they begin to feed, eating not only the waxen combs, -but the honey and the bee-bread which were intended for the support of -the legitimate inhabitants.</p> - -<p>The reader may ask why the bees do not destroy this marauder on their -premises. They would be only too glad to do so, but they cannot touch -it. As it eats its way along, it constructs a strong silken tube, within -which it lives, and which it gradually lengthens. This tube or gallery -is exceedingly tough, and perfectly capable of resisting the bee’s -sting. Moreover, the caterpillar traverses its tube with such rapidity -that the bee has no chance of knowing whereabouts the caterpillar may be -when it makes its attack. When it feeds it only protrudes its armed -head, the horny covering of which is an effectual protection against the -sting.</p> - -<p>When these creatures fairly get hold of a hive, the damage which they do -is terrible, the whole of the combs being enveloped in the -ever-increasing labyrinth of tubes. Even the bees themselves fall -victims to the Galleria-moth, for the silken tunnels are driven through -and through the combs, enveloping the broad cells as in the meshes of a -net. Consequently, when the young bees are developed, they cannot escape -from their cells, and perish miserably.</p> - -<p>Nor do these tiresome insects confine themselves to hives; but they have -an extraordinary facility for discovering bee-combs after they are -removed from the hive. Some years ago I was making a collection of -various insect habitations, and had brought together a carefully -selected set of combs, showing the internal structure of the hive, and -the different cells which are inhabited by the worker, the drone, and -the queen bee.</p> - -<p>One day, when about to arrange the collection in a glass case, I found -that the whole of the combs had been destroyed by the Wax-moth. Scarcely -a square inch of comb remained,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> and the contents of the box were little -more than a congeries of Wax-moth galleries. Even the Wasp and Hornet -nests which had been placed in the same box had been attacked, and, -although they had not been so utterly destroyed as the waxen cells, they -had been sufficiently injured to render them unfit for exhibition.</p> - -<p>Many other insects work on the same principle. Certain Termites, for -example, construct tunnels of clay, in order to conceal them on their -travels, and have the art, even in the hottest and driest weather, of -mixing their clay with some liquid which renders it, when dry, nearly as -hard as stone. Indeed, there have been instances where the Termites have -attacked the wooden beams of houses, and literally transformed them into -beams of stone.</p> - -<p>Then there are many Ants, notably several species of South America, -which cover their approach by tunnels, and never venture into the open -air.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Gravity as a Propulsive Agent.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> two figures on the accompanying illustration will almost speak for -themselves.</p> - -<p>We have already seen how the same force of gravitation which causes the -avalanche to thunder down the precipice may be utilised as a means of -projecting missiles in time of war. When, however, the stones or beams -were once sent on their destructive mission, they were out of the -control of those who launched them. We now come to a modification of the -force of Gravity, by which the missile, if we may so term it, is kept -under control, its power increased or diminished at will, and its point -of attack shifted according to the requirements of the moment.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_153_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_153_sml.jpg" width="398" height="103" alt="Image unavailable: Ram. -Head of Battering-Ram." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">Ram. -Head of Battering-Ram.</span> -</div> - -<p>Before the invention of artillery, the Battering-ram was by far the most -formidable engine that could be brought against a fortified place. The -principle of the Battering-ram was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span> simple enough. A long and heavy -beam, generally the trunk of a tree, was suspended by ropes at the -centre of gravity, so that it could be swung backwards and forwards. -Although a simple beam was an effective weapon, its value was much -enhanced by loading the thickest end with a heavy mass of metal, usually -iron, and, when there was time for adornment, roughly modelled into the -form of a ram’s head.</p> - -<p>Generally the Battering-ram was mounted on an elevated platform, and the -soldiers who worked it protected by a roof, which was called by the name -of Testudo, or Tortoise. The force of this weapon was tremendous, and no -wall, however strong, could resist it. Sometimes the beam was -considerably more than a hundred feet in length, being composed of -several pieces bolted and banded together with iron.</p> - -<p>It may easily be imagined that such a weapon as this must have been a -most terrible one, and, indeed, the whole success of the siege -practically depended upon it. The assailants did their best to bring the -Battering-ram into position under the walls, and the besieged did their -best either to keep it away, or to neutralise its effects by catching it -with nooses, dropping large stones upon it so as to break or dismount -it, or, if they could not succeed in either of these attempts, they -deadened the force of its blows as well as they could by interposing -large sacks of wool between the wall and the head of the ram.</p> - -<p>Considering the style of architecture which was then used in -fortification, namely, a combination of height with thickness, the force -of the Battering-ram would be even greater than that of artillery. The -regular and rhythmical swing of the ram would soon communicate a -vibratory motion to the wall, which would of itself tend to disintegrate -the whole structure, while the blows of the iron head beneath broke away -the stones, and rendered the downfall of the fort a mere matter of time.</p> - -<p>The reader need hardly be reminded that the Battering-ram was so called -because its mode of attack was practically the same as that of the -animal from which it took its title.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Miscellanea.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">By</span> slow degrees, mankind, as they advance in civilisation, have robbed -warfare of many horrors. Non-combatants, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span> example, are now left -unharmed. Poisoned weapons have, by common consent, been abolished, and -so have those instruments of warfare which, though they do not simply -poison the blood by means of bodily wounds, do so by means of noxious -vapours poured into the lungs.</p> - -<p>It is sometimes rather unfortunate when civilisation and semi-barbarism -meet in battle; the former respecting the customs of honourable warfare, -and the latter ignoring them. For example, in olden times, one of the -most potent weapons in naval combat was the “stink-pot”—<i>i.e.</i> a vessel -filled with sulphur and other ingredients, and emitting a smoke which -was death when inhaled. Among the American Indians the well-known -Chili-plant was much used for this purpose, the very first breath that -was taken of the thin and almost invisible smoke causing the throat to -contract as if clutched by a strong hand. If then any enemies had taken -refuge in a cave, or were suspected of having done so, a fire was -lighted at the entrance, a quantity of chilis thrown on it, and the rest -left to time. No being could endure that smoke and live, and they must -either stay in the cave and die, or come out and deliver themselves up -to their foes. The former was the better part to take, as suffocation, -however slow, is only an affair of a few minutes, while death by torture -is prolonged through hours.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_155_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_155_sml.jpg" width="412" height="127" alt="Image unavailable: Bombardier-Beetle. -Chinese Stink-Pots." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">Bombardier-Beetle. -Chinese Stink-Pots.</span> -</div> - -<p>In the late Chinese war the stink-pot was extensively used, and our -sailors took it in very bad part that the enemy should be allowed to -employ such weapons, and they should be debarred from using them.</p> - -<p>Whether this principle is still retained in the defence of fortresses I -do not know. I recollect, however, some twenty years ago, going over a -fortress in which suffocation was employed as a means of defence. A long -gallery was so placed that the assailants were tolerably sure to force -their way into it, thinking that it led to the interior of the fort.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span></p> - -<p>It was, however, nothing but a trap, for it had no exit. As soon as a -number of the assailants had poured into this trap, their exit was -suddenly cut off by machinery provided for the purpose, and at the same -time a quantity of sulphur and lighted charcoal was shot into the -gallery from above, and the aperture instantly closed. It would be -absolutely impossible that any one who had been enclosed in that -terrible chamber should escape with life, for the first breath of that -deadly vapour would render the strongest man insensible.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span>, as usual, has anticipated Art even in this particular.</p> - -<p>In several parts of England, and especially along the shores of the -Thames towards Gravesend, a little beetle is to be found under the flat -stones of the river bank. Its scientific name is <i>Brachinus crepitans</i>. -When this insect is alarmed, it has the power of ejecting a peculiar -liquid, which, when it comes in contact with the atmosphere, bursts into -a sort of pale blue-green flame, followed by a kind of smoke. Sometimes, -when a tolerably large stone is lifted, the little explosions will go -popping about in a most curious manner. Indeed, they carry reminiscences -of school days, when it was a joy to distribute single grains of coarse -gunpowder on the bars of the grate, and watch them melt, take fire, -explode, and send forth little clouds of smoke. The insect is popularly -called the Bombardier-beetle. Whether or not this capability be given as -a means of defence I cannot say, but it assuredly answers that purpose.</p> - -<p>There are several of the voracious Carabidæ, or Ground-beetles, which -would be very glad to make a meal of the Brachinus. When, however, the -Bombardier-beetle finds itself on the point of being overtaken, it -elevates the abdomen with a peculiar gesture, and ejects the liquid. The -effect on the pursuer is remarkable. It seems overwhelmed and stupefied -by the sudden attack, moves about for awhile as if blinded, and, by the -time that it has recovered its sense, the Bombardier-beetle is out of -sight.</p> - -<p>In some of the hotter parts of the world there are several species of -Bombardier-beetles which attain considerable size, and their discharge -is powerful enough to discolour the skin of the human hand.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">I have</span> felt some little difficulty in classifying the curious invention -which will now be described, but, as it is used for the purpose of -making bullets, I have placed it in the category of War.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_157_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_157_sml.jpg" width="427" height="222" alt="Image unavailable: SILK APPARATUS OF SILKWORM. -BULLET-MAKING APPARATUS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SILK APPARATUS OF SILKWORM. -BULLET-MAKING APPARATUS.</span> -</div> - -<p>In the days of “Brown Bess,” as the old musket used to be called, -precision of aim was not required, for no commander dreamt of opening -fire until the enemy were at comparatively close quarters. In those days -the bullets were spherical, and cast in moulds. After a time, when the -Enfield rifle displaced the musket, and did double the execution at -three times its range, bullets were still cast, though their shape was -altered, and they took a sugar-loaf form instead of being spherical.</p> - -<p>The rifle-testing machine at Woolwich, however, soon showed that at long -ranges a cast bullet was nearly useless, one part being always lighter -than another, and air-bubbles often taking the place of lead. After -being cast, therefore, the bullets were placed in a “swedge,” or -“swage,” <i>i.e.</i> a machine by which the lead was forcibly compressed -until it was of a tolerably uniform density. Even this process, however, -did not insure absolute exactness, and then a machine was invented by -means of which the process of casting was superseded, and the bullets -were pinched or squeezed, so to speak, out of cold lead.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is a plan of the ingenious -apparatus by which the lead is supplied to the machine which actually -forms the bullets. The sketch is not meant as a drawing of the actual -machine, but is merely intended to show the principle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span></p> - -<p>The chief parts in this machine are a hollow cylinder, a piston, and a -delivery tube. The cylinder is shown at <span class="smcap">A</span>, and when used, is filled with -melted lead. The piston, <span class="smcap">B</span>, is then forced upwards by hydraulic -pressure, driving the lead through the delivery tube. As it issues into -the air it hardens, and thus forms a solid rod of lead, <span class="smcap">C</span>. This rod is -then passed into the next machine, where it is cut into regular lengths, -and these pieces are then placed in moulds, and forced into form by -enormous pressure. Were it not for this ingenious machinery, the -wonderful scores which are now made at long distances would be -impossible.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> let us compare Art with Nature, as seen on the left hand of the -illustration, which is a chart or plan of the spinning apparatus of the -Silkworm.</p> - -<p>When I first saw the bullet-making machine at work, I at once perceived -that it was nothing more than a repetition in metal of the beautiful -mechanism which I had so often admired in this insect. In order to show -the close analogies of the two objects, I have marked them with similar -letters.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A</span> represents the upper part of the reservoir or vessel which contains -the silk in a liquid state, <span class="smcap">B B</span> are the muscles which contract the -reservoir and force the liquid matter out. It will be seen that both -these vessels terminate in a delivery tube, identical in office with -that of the bullet-making machine. As soon as the liquid silk passes -into the air it is hardened, and is formed into a silken rod, <span class="smcap">C</span>, just as -is the lead in the machine. The only difference between the two, if it -can be called a difference, is, that in the silkworm the rod is double, -whereas in the machine it is single. The principle, however, is -identical in both cases. The webs of spiders, and the threads by which -so many caterpillars suspend themselves, and with which they make their -nests, are all formed on the same design, namely, a reservoir containing -a liquid which is squeezed through a tube, and hardens when it comes in -contact with the air.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_I" id="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_I"></a>ARCHITECTURE.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE HUT, TROPIC AND POLAR.—PILLARS AND FLOORING.—TUNNEL ENTRANCE -OF THE IGLOO.—DOORS AND HINGES.—SELF-CLOSING TRAP-DOORS.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Primitive Architecture evidently borrowed from the Lower -Animals.—Roof Hut of the Nshiego Mbouvé of Western -Africa.—Platform Hut of the Orang-outan of Borneo.—Lake Dwellers -and their Huts.—Tree-huts of Southern Africa, and their -Uses.—Ascendancy of the Wild Beast over Man.—Snow-hut of the Seal -copied by Esquimaux, and its Value shown.—Pillars and -Flooring.—Crypt and Cathedral.—The Cuttle “Bone” and its -many-pillared Structure.—The Wasp-nest, its Pillars and -Floors.—Tunnel Entrances to Igloo.—Sudden Formation of -Snow.—Nest of the Fairy Martin.—The Sand-wasp and its Mode of -Building.—Doors and Hinges.—Eggs of the Gnat and -Rotifer.—Cocoons of Ichneumon-flies.—Habitations of -Microgaster.—Trap-doors in Nature and Art.—Habitation of the -Trap-door Spider.—A Nest upon a Pillar.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Hut.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HERE can be little doubt that mankind has borrowed from the lower -animals the first idea of a dwelling, and it is equally true, as we -shall presently see, that not only primitive ideas of Architecture are -to be found in Nature, but that many, if not all, modern refinements -have been anticipated.</p> - -<p>To begin at the beginning. The first idea of a habitation is evidently a -mere shelter or roof that will keep off rain from the inhabitant. When -Mr. Bowdich was travelling in Western Africa, he was told that the -Njina—another name for the Gorilla—made huts for itself from branches, -the natives also saying that it defended these huts with extemporised -spears. A more truthful account is given of the Mpongwe and Shekiani, -namely, that the animal builds a hut, but lives on the roof, and not -under it.</p> - -<p>Although this information has since proved to be false, there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span> was a -foundation of truth in it, for there really is an ape in that part of -Africa which makes huts, or rather roofs, for itself. This animal is the -Nshiego Mbouvé (<i>Troglodytes calvus</i>).</p> - -<p>This remarkable ape has a curious way of constructing a habitation. -Choosing a horizontal branch at some distance from the ground for its -resting-place, the animal erects above it a roof composed of fresh -branches, each laid over the other in such a way that rain would shoot -off them as it does from a thatched roof. M. du Chaillu gives the -following account of this habitation:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_160_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_160_sml.jpg" width="418" height="236" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF NSHIEGO MBOUVÉ. -AFRICAN TREE-HUT." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF NSHIEGO MBOUVÉ. -AFRICAN TREE-HUT.</span> -</div> - -<p>“As we were not in haste, I bade my men cut down the trees which -contained the nests of these apes. I found them made precisely as I have -before described, and as I have always found them, of long branches and -leaves laid one over the other very carefully and thickly, so as to -render the structure capable of shedding water.</p> - -<p>“The branches were fastened to the tree in the middle of the structure -by means of wild vines and creepers, which are so abundant in these -parts. The projecting limb on which the ape perched was about four feet -long.</p> - -<p>“There remains no doubt that these nests are made by the animal to -protect it from the nightly rains. When the leaves begin to dry to that -degree that the structure no longer sheds water, the owner builds a new -shelter, and this happens generally once in ten or fifteen days. At this -rate the Nshiego mbouvé is an animal of no little industry.”</p> - -<p>The roof which this ape builds is from six to eight feet in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span> diameter, -and is tolerably circular, so that it looks something like a large -umbrella. When the animal is at rest it sits on the branch with one arm -thrown round the stem of the tree, in order to support itself during -sleep. In consequence of this attitude the hair is rubbed away on one -side, thus earning for the ape the specific title of <i>calvus</i>, or bald.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is rather remarkable that the Orang-outan of Borneo is likewise a -house-builder, though not in the same manner as the African ape which -has just been mentioned. This animal has a way of weaving together the -branches of trees, so as to make a platform on which it can repose, its -enormously powerful arms being of great service in this task. The animal -seems to make its platform in quite a mechanical manner, and it has been -noticed that when an Orang-outan has been mortally wounded, it has -expended its last energies in twisting the branches together so as to -form a couch on which it can lie down and die.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Putting</span> aside those cases where huts have been erected in trees by way -of amusement, we may find instances where human beings have been forced -to make their habitations in trees.</p> - -<p>In some places, such as certain parts of South America, the natives are -forced to make their houses in trees, partly on account of the climate, -and partly for the purpose of avoiding the mosquitoes.</p> - -<p>The delta of the Orinoco River is nearly half as large as England, and -for a considerable part of the year is deep in water. Yet this tract is -inhabited by the Warau tribe, who find in it their only mode of escape -from the tiny but terrible mosquito. We in England know but little of -the miseries inflicted by these insects, which are so plentiful in some -parts of America that they are gathered in bags, pressed into thick -cakes about as large as ordinary dinner-plates, and an inch in -thickness, and then cooked and eaten.</p> - -<p>Now it is found that although the mosquito infests the banks of rivers, -it cannot venture far from land. The Waraus, therefore, make for -themselves habitations which are far enough from land to baffle the -mosquitoes, and near enough to be easily reached in canoes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span></p> - -<p>Fortunately for them, there is a tree called the Ita Palm, belonging to -the genus Mauritia, which loves moisture, and grows abundantly in this -delta. The Waraus, therefore, make their habitations in these trees, -connecting several of them together with cross-beams, and laying planks -upon them so as to form the flooring of their simple huts. Here they -maintain themselves chiefly by fishing, but are sometimes obliged to -visit the mainland, in spite of the mosquitoes. When, however, they -return, they halt at some distance from the shore, and with green boughs -carefully beat out every mosquito from the canoe before they dare to -approach their dwellings.</p> - -<p>The once-celebrated Lake Dwellers of Switzerland evidently lived after a -similar fashion.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> this case insects drive human beings into trees, but there are -instances where nobler animals have produced the same effect.</p> - -<p>Some years ago there lived in Southern Africa a powerful chief called -Moselekatze, who spent his whole life in warfare, converting all the -male inhabitants into soldiers, dividing them into regiments, ruling -them with the extreme of discipline, and by their aid devastating the -neighbouring countries. He swept off all the cattle, which constitutes -the wealth of the Kafir tribes, and either killed the male inhabitants -or pressed them into his service.</p> - -<p>The land was in consequence deprived of its natural defenders, and the -wild beasts, especially the lions, increased rapidly, so that the -position of the survivors was a really terrible one. They had no cattle -to furnish the milk which is the chief food of the Kafir tribes; their -weapons had been taken by Moselekatze; and they were forced to live -almost entirely on locusts and wild plants. By degrees the lions became -so numerous and daring, that the slight Kafir huts were an insufficient -protection during the night, and the disarmed and half-starved -inhabitants were perforce obliged to make their habitations in trees.</p> - -<p>Dr. Moffat, the well-known missionary, saw one tree in which there were -no less than twenty huts. They were conical, and made of sticks and -grass, the base resting upon a platform or scaffold laid upon the fork -of a horizontal branch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span> The only mode of approach to these huts was by -notches cut in the trunk of the tree.</p> - -<p>How needful were these precautions was shown by the fact that the -missionary himself spent a night in one of these aërial huts, and had -the pleasure of hearing a number of lions snarl and growl all night over -a rhinoceros hump which he had placed in an oven made of a deserted -ant-hill. The oven, however, was too hot for the lions, and they had to -retreat at daylight.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> from the tropics to the polar regions, we now take an instance -where man has acknowledgedly copied an animal in the construction of his -dwelling.</p> - -<p>In Esquimaux-land, where no trees can grow, where for months together -the sun never rises above the horizon, where the temperature is many -degrees below zero, and where the land and ice are alike covered with a -mantle of snow so thick that every landmark is abolished, it would seem -that no human beings could support life for one week. There is neither -timber for house-building nor wood for fuel, so that shelter, warmth, -and cookery seem to be equally impossible, and as these are among the -prime necessities of human life, it is not easy to see how mankind could -exist.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_163_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_163_sml.jpg" width="433" height="196" alt="Image unavailable: SNOW-HOUSE OF SEAL IN ESQUIMAUX-LAND. -SNOW-HOUSE OF ESQUIMAUX." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SNOW-HOUSE OF SEAL IN ESQUIMAUX-LAND. -SNOW-HOUSE OF ESQUIMAUX.</span> -</div> - -<p>Yet these very regions are inhabited by sundry animals, and it is by -copying them that Man can keep his place. We have already seen how the -Esquimaux hunter copies the Polar Bear, and we have now to see how he -copies the Seal in the material and form of his dwelling-house, and not -only contrives to live, but to enjoy life all the more for the singular -conditions in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span> which he is placed. Captain Hall mentions, in his “Life -with the Esquimaux,” that one of the natives, named Kudlago, who was -returning to his native country after visiting the United States, died -while on board the ship. Towards the end of his life he was yearning for -ice, and his last intelligible words were, “Do you see ice? Do you see -ice?”</p> - -<p>On the vast plains of ice that are formed in the winter-time the snow -lies thickly, and yet upon such an inhospitable spot the mother seal has -to make a home for her tender young. This she does in the following -manner:—</p> - -<p>She has already preserved a “breathing hole” in the ice, through which -she can inhale air. How she finds so small a hole under the surface of -the ice, where there are no landmarks to guide her, is a marvel to every -swimmer. She has to chase fish and follow them in all their winding -courses, and yet, when she is in want of air, is able to go straight to -her breathing hole, and there take in a fresh supply of oxygen.</p> - -<p>When she is about to become a mother, she enlarges this breathing hole -so as to make it into a perpendicular tunnel. She then, with the sharp -nails of her fore-paws, or flippers, scoops away the snow in a dome-like -form, as shown in the illustration, taking the snow down with her -through the ice, and allowing it to be carried away by the water. By -degrees she makes a tolerably large excavation of a hemispherical shape, -and when her young is born she deposits it on the ice-ledge around the -tunnel. From ordinary foes the young Seal is safe, and nothing can -discover the position of the house unless guided by the sense of smell.</p> - -<p>How the Polar Bear and the Esquimaux hunter discover the dwelling and -capture the inmates we have already described in the chapter treating of -War and Hunting. Our present business is with the dwelling itself. -Comparatively few of these snow-houses, or <i>igloos</i>, as they are called, -are discovered, and they remain intact until the summer sun melts the -roof and exposes the habitation. By this time, however, the young Seal -has grown sufficiently to shift for itself, and no longer needs the -shelter of a dwelling.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> winter hut, or igloo, of the Esquimaux is made of exactly the same -shape and of similar materials to the dwelling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span> of the Seal, the chief -difference being that it is built instead of excavated.</p> - -<p>In order to save time, the igloo is generally erected by two men, one of -whom supplies the material, and the other acts as bricklayer and -architect in one. Each begins by tracing a suitably sized circle in the -snow, which he clears away to some depth, so as to preserve a firm -surface, either as a floor or as the material for the wall. In this work -both men are equally valuable, for the skill required to cut the slabs -of snow into such a shape that they can be formed into a hemispherical -dome is quite as much as that which is needed for putting them together. -I will call them the cutter and the builder. Sometimes a young hand is -employed by way of labourer, and passes the snow slabs to the builder as -fast as they are cut.</p> - -<p>The builder receives the slabs, and arranges them in regular order, -always taking care to “break the joints,” just as do our bricklayers of -the present day. Always remaining within the circle, he gradually builds -himself in, and when he has quite finished the house, he cuts a hole -through the side, emerges, and, by the help of his partner, puts on the -finishing touches. He usually also adds a sort of tunnel to the door, -through which any one must creep on his hands and knees if he wishes to -enter the igloo. This part of Esquimaux architecture will presently be -noticed more in full.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may wish to know what provision there is for -ventilation. The answer is simple enough. There is none, the Esquimaux -not requiring ventilation any more than they require washing. The two, -indeed, generally go together; and it may be observed, even in our own -country, that those who object to fresh air, and are always complaining -of draughts, have a very practical aversion to the use of fresh water, -and but little confidence in what Thackeray calls the “flimsy artifices -of the bath.”</p> - -<p>The Esquimaux never washes, and knows not the use of linen. -Consequently, it is no matter of surprise that a sailor of Captain -Hall’s crew could not make up his mind to enter an igloo. “Whew!” -exclaimed the man, “by thunder, I’m not going in <i>there</i>! It’s crowded, -and smells horribly. How it looms up!”</p> - -<p>Considering that there were inside that igloo a dozen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> Esquimaux, all -feasting on a raw, newly killed, and yet warm seal, the sailor had -reason enough to decline a visit. Captain Hall, however, determined, in -his character of explorer, to brave the strange odours, and moreover to -join the inmates in their feast, knowing that as he would have to live -among the Esquimaux for some two years, he would be forced to live as -they did, and might as well begin at once. Consequently on this resolve, -he drank the still steaming blood, and quaffed it from a cup which an -Esquimaux woman had just licked clean.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Floors and Pillars.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">One</span> decided step in Architecture is the invention of the Pillar, and its -capabilities of aiding to sustain another floor above it. We see this -principle carried out in our great cathedrals, where the use of the -Pillar is almost infinite. Take, for example, Canterbury Cathedral. A -heedless visitor might easily pass through the nave, enter the choir, -visit the various side-chapels, and “Becket’s Crown,” without thinking -that under his feet is a vast chamber, and that the floor on which he -stands is, in fact, the roof of a great crypt.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_166_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_166_sml.jpg" width="381" height="179" alt="Image unavailable: WASP-COMBS. -SLAVE SHIP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WASP-COMBS. -SLAVE SHIP.</span> -</div> - -<p>The weight of the Cathedral, with its lofty towers, is so tremendous, -that the building could not be erected simply upon the ground, but rests -upon a complicated substratum of pillars and arches, whereby the weight -is spread over a large surface. In fact, the Cathedral is really two -buildings, the one erected upon the other.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature there are many instances of pillars supporting different -floors. One of the most beautiful examples is to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span> seen in the common -Cuttle-bone, as it is called, this being the internal skeleton, if it -may be so termed, of the common Sepia (<i>Sepia officinalis</i>), which is so -often found on our coasts, especially after a gale. This year (1875) I -found eight of these Cuttle-bones on the Margate sands, and all within a -space of some twelve feet square.</p> - -<p>This so-called bone is really composed of the purest chalk, for which -reason it is in great request as a dentifrice, being easily scraped to -almost impalpable powder when wanted, and not liable to be spilled, as -is the case with any ordinary tooth-powder.</p> - -<p>It is exceedingly light—so light, indeed, that it floats like a cork, -even in fresh water. Now, as chalk is very much heavier than water, we -may naturally ask ourselves how this lightness is obtained. If the upper -surface be examined, it will be seen to be traversed by a vast number of -wavy lines, something like the markings of “watered” silk. These show -the lines of demarcation between the multitudinous rows of pillars of -which the whole structure is formed.</p> - -<p>If the “bone” be sharply snapped in the middle, and the particles of -white dust blown away, a wonderful structure presents itself, which can -be partially discerned by the naked eye, though a microscope is required -to bring out its full beauties.</p> - -<p>Even with an ordinary pocket lens we can make out some of its wonders. -The object looks like a vast collection of basaltic columns, except that -the pillars are white instead of black, and they are arranged in rows -with the most perfect accuracy, just as if the place of each had been -laid down with rule and compass. They are scarcely thicker than ordinary -hairs, but they are beautifully perfect, and rise in tier after tier as -if they were parts of a many-storied building. As a definite space -exists between the pillars, the reader will understand why the whole -structure should be so much lighter than water. In order, however, to -see these wonderful pillars in perfection, a very thin section should be -taken, and viewed with polarised light.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> excellent example of Pillars and Flooring is to be found in the -nests of various Wasps, including that of the Hornet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span></p> - -<p>In these nests the combs are arranged horizontally, and not vertically, -like those of the bees, and in consequence they have to be supported in -some way. This object is achieved by means of multitudinous pillars made -of the same papier-mâché of which the combs are formed, and attached to -the successive rows of combs. There is, however, one curious point of -difference between the Wasp-comb and human architecture, namely, that -the pillars do not support floors, or rest upon them, but sustain the -weight of those which hang from them. The mouths of the cells are all -downwards, and the combs are therefore suspended from the pillars, -instead of being supported by them.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Tunnel Entrance to the Dwelling.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already found occasion to treat of the snow-house, or igloo, of -the Esquimaux, and have now to speak of a subsidiary, though necessary, -part of Esquimaux architecture.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may have been unfortunate enough to travel by rail in -the depth of winter, and to be associated with fellow-passengers who -will insist on closing every window, even though the carriage be -crowded. Suppose that on such a day, the weather being perfectly fine, -the train stops at a station, and the guard outside opens the door to -see if another passenger can be accommodated with a place.</p> - -<p>No sooner is the door opened than a shower of snow at once fills the -carriage. This is simply the moisture suspended in the air and generated -by human lungs. The rush of cold air at once freezes this moisture and -converts it into snow, thus showing those who will condescend to learn, -that they have been breathing and re-breathing the air that has passed -through a variety of human lungs, and is charged with their different -moistures. I have seen the same phenomenon at a dinner party, where, -after the withdrawal of the ladies, one of the windows was opened.</p> - -<p>Now, in Esquimaux-land, it is absolutely necessary to conserve every -atom of heat, for the cold is so intense that if a cask of water be near -a coal fire, only the part next the fire will be thawed, the rest being -ice. Cold, therefore, is a foe which has to be fought and kept away from -the household. Then there are other foes—such as Polar Bears, for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span>instance—which would be only too glad to get into an igloo and make a -meal of its inhabitants. The Esquimaux architect, therefore, avails -himself of an ingenious device by which he can set both foes at -defiance.</p> - -<p>In summer-time he contents himself with a hut made of skins, and merely -hangs a skin over the entrance by way of a door. But in the winter, when -he is driven to his snow-house for shelter, he acts in a very different -manner. Instead of merely cutting an aperture for a door in the side of -the igloo, he constructs a long, low, arched tunnel, so small that no -one can enter the igloo except by traversing this tunnel on his hands -and knees. Sometimes a number of huts are connected with each other, one -or two tunnels leading into the air, and the rest serving merely as -passages from one hut to the other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_169_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_169_sml.jpg" width="436" height="272" alt="Image unavailable: NESTS OF FAIRY MARTIN. TOWERS OF SAND-WASP. -HUTS OF ESQUIMAUX." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NESTS OF FAIRY MARTIN. TOWERS OF SAND-WASP. -HUTS OF ESQUIMAUX.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature are several examples of tunnels constructed on the same -principle.</p> - -<p>There are, for instance, the curious nests of the Fairy Martin of -Southern Australia (<i>Hirundo Ariel</i>), which bear a singular resemblance -to oil-flasks, the body of the nest being rather globular, and the only -entrance being through a tolerably long, tunnel-like neck.</p> - -<p>Then there are the various Weaver-birds of Africa, with their -long-necked nests. Some of these strange edifices look<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span> almost like -horse-pistols suspended by the butt, so round is the nest, and so long -and narrow is the tunnel-like entrance.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> to the insect world, we find the same principle carried out by -the now familiar Mason-wasp (<i>Odynerus murarius</i>), some of whose nests -are represented in the illustration.</p> - -<p>This insect makes a burrow, and at the bottom of it deposits an egg, -together with a number of little caterpillars on which the grub, when -hatched, will feed. The mother Wasp is not allowed to pursue this task -without taking precautions against the admission of enemies to her -burrow, especially the ichneumon-flies. As may be inferred from its -popular name, the Sand-wasp always selects a sandy spot for its burrow, -and generally chooses a piece of tolerably hard sandstone, which it is -able to bite into little pellets, aided by a kind of liquid which it -secretes.</p> - -<p>The following account of the manner in which the Mason-wasp forms and -defends its home is taken from the invaluable “Insect Architecture,” by -Rennie.</p> - -<p>The author begins by describing the form and depth of the burrow, and -the soil in which it is made. He then proceeds to show the wonderful -manner in which the mother Wasp purveys food for the use of her future -young whom she will never see. Guided by instinct, she places in the -burrow exactly the number of caterpillars which the young Mason-wasp -will have to consume before it attains its perfect condition. It is -believed that she partially paralyzes them with her sting before placing -them in the burrow. At all events, when they are once packed away, they -never move, so that the tiny Wasp grub can feed upon them quite at its -leisure.</p> - -<p>Here is Rennie’s account of the Sand-wasp and her burrow-making:—</p> - -<p>“When this wasp has detached a few grains of the moistened sand, it -kneads them together into a pellet about the size of one of the seeds of -a gooseberry.</p> - -<p>“With the first pellet which it detaches, it lays the foundation of a -round tower, as an outwork, immediately over the mouth of its nest. -Every pellet which it afterwards carries off from the interior is added -to the wall of this outer round tower, which advances in height as the -hole in the sand increases in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span> depth. Every two or three minutes, -however, during these operations, it takes a short excursion, for the -purpose probably of replenishing its store of fluid wherewith to moisten -the sand. Yet so little time is lost, that Réaumur has seen a mason-wasp -dig in an hour a hole the length of its body, and at the same time build -as much of its round tower.</p> - -<p>“For the greater part of its height this round tower is perpendicular, -but towards the summit it bends into a curve, corresponding to the bend -of the insect’s body, which, in all cases of insect architecture, is the -model followed. The pellets which form the walls of the tower are not -very nicely joined, and numerous vacuities are left between them, giving -it the appearance of filigree-work.</p> - -<p>“That it should be thus slightly built is not surprising, for it is -intended as a temporary structure for protecting the insect while it is -excavating its hole, and as a pile of materials, well arranged and ready -at hand, for the completion of the interior building,—in the same way -that workmen make a regular pile of bricks near the spot where they are -going to build. This seems, in fact, to be the main design of the tower, -which is taken down as expeditiously as it has been reared.</p> - -<p>“Réaumur thinks, that by piling in the sand which has previously been -dug out, the wasp intends to guard its progeny for a time from being -exposed to the too violent heat of the sun; and he has sometimes even -seen that there were not sufficient materials in the tower, in which -case the wasp had recourse to the rubbish she had thrown out after the -tower was completed. By raising a tower of the materials which she -excavates, the wasp produces the same shelter from external heat as a -human being would who chose to inhabit a deep cellar of a high house.</p> - -<p>“She further protects her progeny from the ichneumon-fly, as the -engineer constructs an outwork to render more difficult the approach of -an enemy to the citadel. Réaumur has seen this indefatigable enemy of -the wasp peep into the mouth of the tower, and then retreat, apparently -frightened at the depth of the cell which she was anxious to invade.”</p> - -<p>It is no wonder that the Sand-wasp should be so anxious to insure the -safety of her nest, for her foes are multitudinous. Putting aside the -ordinary Ichneumon-flies, we have the predatory<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> Tachinæ, which are -always hovering over such nests, and trying to deposit eggs therein. For -many years I have been in the habit of receiving letters from novices in -entomology, wanting to know whether I am aware that the common Housefly -is in the habit of acting as a parasite. Of course, the writer has -mistaken the Tachina for a house-fly, but I cannot regret the fact that -some one has really begun to observe Nature, and not only to read books.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Doors and Hinges.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Having</span> seen that both in Nature and Art the entrances to dwellings are -guarded by tunnel-like approaches, we come naturally to another mode of -guarding the entrance, namely, by a door moving on hinges. As to the -multitudinous examples of doors and hinges in modern civilisation, we -need hardly discuss them, except to show the exact analogies which occur -in Art and Nature.</p> - -<p>Doors moving on hinges are very plentiful in Nature, even where we -should least expect them. Take, for example, an egg, especially the egg -of an insect, and we shall see that it is just about the last object in -which we should expect to find a hinged door. Yet, if the reader will -refer to the illustration on page <a href="#page_7">7</a>, he will see that the tiny eggs of -the common Gnat, numerous as they may be, are each furnished with a door -which opens as soon as the inmate is hatched, and allows the little -larva to escape into the water.</p> - -<p>Another still more remarkable instance of a hinged door in an egg is to -be found in one of the Rotifers, or Wheel-Animalcules, so called because -they possess an apparatus of movable cilia, which, when set in motion, -looks exactly like a wheel running round and round. As the full-grown -creature is barely one thirty-sixth of an inch in total length, the -structure of its eggs must be infinitesimally beyond the range of human -vision.</p> - -<p>Yet, just as the telescope sets at partial defiance the vast spaces that -intervene between our earth and her sister planets, so the microscope -performs a similar task in the infinitesimally minute. And, under the -all-revealing lens of the microscope, the little egg of the Brachionus, -though absolutely invisible to the unaided eye, yields up its secrets.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span></p> - -<p>Fortunately, the shell is so transparent that the interior of the egg -can be seen through it as if it were a mere film of glass. The -astonishing division and re-division of the yolk take place before our -eyes, being divided first into two, then into four, then into eight, -then into sixteen, then into thirty-two, and so on, until the whole mass -of the yolk is cloven into divisions too numerous to count.</p> - -<p>By degrees, the form of the young Brachionus is developed within the -egg, even to the very teeth, which work away as persistently as if large -stores of food were being passed through them.</p> - -<p>When the young is ready to take its place in the world, a new -development occurs, which has been well related by Mr. Gosse:—</p> - -<p>“All these phenomena have appeared in the egg we are now watching; and -at this moment you see the crystalline little prisoner, writhing and -turning impatiently within its prison, striving to burst forth into -liberty.</p> - -<p>“Now, a crack, like a line of light, shoots round one end of the egg, -and in an instant, the anterior third of the egg is forced off, and the -wheels of the infant Brachionus are seen rotating as perfectly as if the -little creature had had a year’s practice.</p> - -<p>“Away it glides, the very image of its mother, and swims to some -distance before it casts anchor, beginning an independent life. At the -moment of escape of the young, the pushed-off lid of the egg resumes its -place, and the egg appears nearly whole again, but empty and perfectly -hyaline (<i>i.e.</i> all but transparent), with no evidence of its fracture, -except a slight interruption of its outline, and a very faint line -running across it.”</p> - -<p>To pass from the egg to a more advanced stage in life. All practical -entomologists have been greatly annoyed, in their earlier years of -collecting, to lose larva after larva, from the attacks of -Ichneumon-flies. It <i>is</i> certainly rather beyond the limits of ordinary -patience to discover, watch over, and secure successfully a rare -caterpillar, and then to find that it has been “stung” by an -Ichneumon-fly.</p> - -<p>The veteran entomologist, however, troubles himself very little about -such minor misfortunes, and, as a rule, more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span> compensates for them -by preserving the intrusive Ichneumon-fly, and giving in his diary full -details of the insect on which it was parasitic, of the plant on which -the caterpillar lived, the date of its appearance, and its numbers.</p> - -<p>Now, there are many of these parasitic insects, notably those belonging -to the genus Microgaster, which invariably make doors in their cocoons. -I have now before me groups of cocoons made of the two commonest British -species, namely, <i>Microgaster glomeratus</i> and <i>Microgaster alvearius</i>, -and in both of them each tiny cocoon is furnished with a hemispherical, -hinged door. I have also some exquisitely beautiful groups of -Microgaster cocoons found in the West Indies. They are the purest white, -shine with a satiny lustre, and are arranged round a hollow centre, much -as if they had been gummed to the outside of a very large thimble. There -are many hundreds of them, and every one has its little door still open -as it was when the fully developed insect first made its escape.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> curious example of a natural door may be seen by those who will -look for it.</p> - -<p>On plants infested with aphides, or “green blight,” as the gardeners -quaintly term them, may often be seen dead aphides much larger than the -rest, globular, brown, and shining. These aphides have been “stung,” as -it is called, by a little Ichneumon-fly belonging to the genus Ophion, -and having, like all its congeners, a flat and sickle-shaped abdomen. -The egg which has been laid in the aphis soon hatches, and the young -Ophion absorbs into itself all the juices of the aphis. It remains -within the body of its involuntary host until it is fully developed, -when it cuts a tiny, but beautifully perfect circular door in the skin, -and emerges, leaving the door open and still attached by its little -hinge.</p> - -<p>Considering the small size of the aphis, and that the diameter of the -door is only one-eighth of the length of the insect, the perfection of -its form is really remarkable.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the achievements of modern Architecture is the Self-closing Door, -especially where it must of necessity close by its own weight, and when -the fitting is so exact, that even the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span> most experienced eye can -scarcely detect it. Such a door is to be found guarding the nest of the -Trap-door Spiders, several species of which are found scattered over all -the warm parts of the earth. A side view of one of these extraordinary -nests is given in the accompanying illustration, and on the other side -is the common trap-door of our cellars.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_175_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_175_sml.jpg" width="409" height="150" alt="Image unavailable: DOOR OF TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. -TRAP-DOOR OF COAL-CELLAR." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">DOOR OF TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. -TRAP-DOOR OF COAL-CELLAR.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Spiders which make these extraordinary dwellings generally begin by -excavating a nearly perpendicular tunnel in the ground. They line it -with a silken web, and construct a door which exactly fits the orifice, -and which is bevelled so that it shall not sink too far, and thus betray -itself. I have seen and handled one, where the burrow had been sunk -among lichens and mosses, and the trap-door of the nest had been most -ingeniously covered with the same growths. Although the surface of the -slab of earth in which the nest was made is only a few inches square, it -is almost impossible to detect the entrance, so admirably do the mosses -on the door correspond with those outside it.</p> - -<p>Almost invariably the nest is sunk in the ground, but I have a specimen -sent to me from India, in which the Spider must absolutely have carried -the clay to a fluted pillar, burrowed in it, and then made its beautiful -habitation. The nest and its inhabitant were sent to me by an officer in -the 108th Regiment, accompanied by the following letter:—</p> - -<p>“The packet contains a large Spider and the upper portion of its -peculiar nest, the history of which is as follows.</p> - -<p>“On the thirtieth of last month (September, 1870), while searching for -caterpillars on a bush growing close to one of the pillars of my -verandah, which is a very low one, reaching to within a foot of the -ground, I saw in part of the chunam masonry at the foot of the pillar -what I at first sight took to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> a couple of seeds sticking to a stone. -On trying to pull one off, I found that it came up with ease, bringing -with it what I thought was the stone.</p> - -<p>“But I had scarcely got it up when it was smartly pulled back. This -excited my curiosity, and I raised it again with a little force. I now -saw, to my wonder and admiration, that what I had fancied was a stone -was a small circular door with a pretty broad hinge, made all of silk; -and then distinctly observed a large black spider dart down the hole to -which the above door gave an entrance. But, not knowing the depth, I -broke it.</p> - -<p>“This piece I send to you, together with its original owner, who, at the -beginning of my digging operations, ran up suddenly, shut the door in my -face, and hung on to it like grim death when I tried to reopen it. He -soon came away with the upper piece, still keeping the door resolutely -closed.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_II" id="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_II"></a>ARCHITECTURE.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>WALLS, DOUBLE AND SINGLE.—PORCHES, EAVES, AND WINDOWS.—THATCH, -SLATES, AND TILES.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Wall and its Materials.—Bricks as they are and might -be.—Trade Unionism.—Double Walls and their Uses.—Double -Clothing.—The Refrigerator.—Cooking Vessels.—Fire-proof -Safes.—Cocoon of the Silkworm, and its treble Walls.—Nest of the -Little Ermine, Processionary, Gold-tailed, and Brown-tailed -Moths.—Mud Walls.—Nests of the Termite.—Porches, Eaves, and -Windows.—Nests of the Myrapetra and an Indian Ant.—The Sociable -Weaver-bird and its Nest.—Thatching.—Arms of the -Orang-outan.—Japanese and Chinese Rain-cloaks.—Eggs of the -Gold-tailed Moth.—Action of Fur.—Slates and Tiles.—Scales of -Butterfly’s Wing.—Shell of Tortoise.—Scales of Manis, Fish, and -Armadillo.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E now come to the Walls of the house, in which there is more variety -than might be imagined.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, our modern houses of the “villa” type. They are -nothing but the merest shells, made of the flimsiest imaginable -materials. Some years ago, while walking through a suburb where some -very showy houses were being built, I amused myself by going over them -and testing them. There was scarcely a room in which I could not thrust -an ordinary walking-stick through the wall. When they were “finished” -and “pointed,” the houses looked beautiful, but their heat in summer, -cold in winter, and moisture in wet weather, can easily be imagined, -especially as the sand with which the mortar was mixed had been procured -from the banks of a tidal river.</p> - -<p>There is not the least necessity for such buildings. It is absurd to run -up such edifices as that, and then charge £120 per annum for rent. The -whole system is as rotten as the houses, and there is nothing but -prejudice and trade-unionism to prevent our houses being cool in summer, -warm in winter, and dry in all weathers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span></p> - -<p>It is well known that air is practically a non-conductor of heat, and -that therefore a layer of air between two very slight walls is just as -warm as if the wall had been made of solid stone. Now, there are several -inventions whereby the present brick could be made half its present -weight, twice its present strength, hard and smooth as earthenware, so -that it could not absorb water like our common brick, and pierced with -holes through which air could pass.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_178_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_178_sml.jpg" width="427" height="204" alt="Image unavailable: FUR. -NEST OF LITTLE ERMINE-MOTH. -ICE-HOUSE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FUR. -NEST OF LITTLE ERMINE-MOTH. -ICE-HOUSE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Unfortunately, however, there is a stringent rule among brickmakers and -bricklayers that they are to play into each other’s hands, and that no -bricklayer is to touch a brick which has not been made in some definite -district. Should he do so, he is a marked man, and will stand but little -chance of getting even a day’s work.</p> - -<p>The power of the double wall may be seen in many ways. For example, in -the old days of coaching, when one had to pass hour after hour on the -roof of the coach, it was known by practical experience that double body -linen, and two pairs of stockings, worn one over the other, formed the -best preparation for the journey. The reason was, that air became -entangled between the layers of fabric, and acted as a non-conductor of -heat.</p> - -<p>Another mode of utilising the principle of the double wall is seen in -the refrigerators which add so much to the comfort of the household in a -hot summer. The one principle of these refrigerators is, to keep a layer -of air between the ice and the surrounding atmosphere. The same -principle may be used in a reverse way, and heat be preserved instead of -repelled. Those<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span> cooking-pots are now well known, where half-cooked meat -can be inserted in the morning, and at luncheon-time be turned out quite -hot and perfectly cooked. The fact is, that the vessels in question are -covered with a very thick layer of felt. The felt, however, is only a -device for entangling air, and a double wall would answer the purpose as -well, if not better.</p> - -<p>The now well-known fire-resisting safes are made on this principle, and -after they have been for hours in a raging fire, and the outer case has -become red-hot, the interior is quite safe, the papers uninjured, and -even a watch continuing to go.</p> - -<p>Then there is the ordinary Ice-house, a sketch of which is given in the -illustration. A pit is first dug in the ground, and thickly lined with -dry branches, straw, &c. The roof is constructed in the same manner, -only the non-conducting power is increased by a thick coating of earth -over the sticks and straw. The door, which is approached by a shelving -cutting, is similarly protected, the covering only being removed when -the door is opened.</p> - -<p>I once made a very effective refrigerator out of two hampers, putting a -small hamper inside a large one, and packing the space between them with -straw.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature we find many examples of this principle, which enables the -inhabitants to bid defiance to frost.</p> - -<p>A familiar example may be found in the cocoon of the common Silk-worm -(<i>Bombyx mori</i>), and indeed in that of almost any silk-producing insect. -When the caterpillar is about to make its cocoon, it begins by a number -of rather strong threads attached to different points, and making a sort -of scaffolding, so to speak, for the cocoon itself. Upon these is spun a -slight outer cocoon of very loose and vague texture—the “floss silk” of -commerce, and within that is the cocoon proper, in which the insect lies -enclosed. It will be seen, therefore, that there are really three -cocoons, one within the other, namely, the scaffold cocoon, the floss -cocoon, and the silk cocoon itself, so that the inmate is protected from -variations of temperature.</p> - -<p>The cocoon of the emperor-moth, which has already been described, is -made on the same principle.</p> - -<p>There are several caterpillars which are social in their early stages, -and which construct a common habitation. The Little<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span> Ermine-moth. -(Hyponomeuta padella) affords a familiar example of this structure. The -caterpillars are great roamers in search of food by day, and travel from -branch to branch on their strong silken threads. At night, however, they -return to a large white silken habitation which they have spun, and -which they divide into many compartments, as may easily be seen by -cutting the nest open with very sharp scissors. Within this habitation -the caterpillars spin their separate cocoons, so that the system of -double walls is thoroughly carried out.</p> - -<p>There is another insect, very common on the Continent, but, happily for -us, not introduced into England. It is called the Processionary Moth, -from its curious habit of marching in exact lines, the head of the -second caterpillar touching the tail of the first, and so on. These -insects have likewise a common home, and spin their own separate cocoons -within it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_180_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_180_sml.jpg" width="397" height="221" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF PROCESSIONARY MOTH. -COCOON OF SILK-WORM. -FIREPROOF SAFE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF PROCESSIONARY MOTH. -COCOON OF SILK-WORM. -FIREPROOF SAFE.</span> -</div> - -<p>There are two other sociable British Moths which make nests on a similar -principle. These are the Gold-tailed Moth (<i>Porthesia chrysorrhœa</i>) -and the Brown-tailed Moth (<i>Porthesia auriflua</i>). They are both -beautifully white insects, but may easily be distinguished from each -other, the Gold-tailed Moth having some brown-black spots on the upper -wings, and a tuft of golden-yellow hairs at the end of the body; while -the Brown-tailed Moth is without spots, and the tail-tuft is brown.</p> - -<p>In habits they are very similar, and the description of the nest made by -one will answer for that made by the other. I believe that broods of -these two species have been known to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> construct a common nest. The nest -is extremely variable in form, because it depends much on the number of -twigs which it includes. Interiorly, it is divided into a considerable -number of chambers, each containing one or several individuals.</p> - -<p>As the caterpillars are hatched late in summer, they have to undergo the -frosts of winter before they can attain their perfect state. -Accordingly, before the winter-time comes on, they strengthen both the -external walls and internal partitions of their nest, and then wait -until the spring brings forth the leafage of the new year.</p> - -<p>The nest is a beautiful structure, and I strongly recommend the reader -to look for one in a hedgerow, take it home, and cut it up carefully. I -would, however, advise him, if, like myself, he be subjected to a very -sensitive skin, to be cautious in his handling of the nest. The hairs -with which the pretty black, red, and white caterpillars are studded are -irritant in the extreme.</p> - -<p>I have several times suffered from them, and would much rather be -severely stung by nettles than undergo the fierce irritation, mixed with -dull heavy pain, which always accompanies the presence of these hairs. -With me, as I suppose would be the case with persons of similar -organization, these hairs cause large, hard tubercles to rise, just as -if potatoes had been placed under the skin. The hairs of the -Processionary Caterpillar have a similar effect, and in France the -authorities have several times been obliged to close the public gardens -for months, so severe was the pain which the caterpillars inflicted on -persons who passed through the spots infested by them.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Mud Walls.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">There</span> is a mode of wall-building which is much in vogue in some parts of -England, and has much to commend itself. This is the Mud or Concrete -Wall.</p> - -<p>At first sight, the very name of a mud house gives an idea of poverty -and misery, and is apt to be connected with hovels and pigsties. Mud -walls, however, if properly built, are far warmer and drier than those -of brick, and are even preferred to those of stone, when the latter can -be easily and cheaply obtained. In Devonshire, for example, where even -the cattle-sheds, or “linhays” (pronounced <i>linny</i>), and the pigsties -are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span> made of the rich red stone of the county, it is a common thing to -see village houses built of mud. Sometimes the houses are built of stone -to the height of some ten or twelve feet, and the upper parts made of -mud.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_182_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_182_sml.jpg" width="433" height="254" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF TERMITE. -MUD WALL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF TERMITE. -MUD WALL.</span> -</div> - -<p>If the builders are in any way fastidious, they make their walls of a -uniform surface by placing two rows of planks on their edges at a -distance from each other proportionate to the thickness of the wall, -pouring the mud between them, and, when it has sufficiently hardened, -shifting the planks. This, however, is not necessary, and detracts much -from the picturesque look of a genuine mud wall, especially when it is -of that rich red which characterizes the Devonshire soil. These mud -walls are locally known by the name of Cob.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have not to go very far in Nature to find good examples of the -strength which can be attained by mud walls.</p> - -<p>In all parts of the world where Termites, popularly but wrongly called -White Ants, are to be found, the strength and endurance of the mud wall -can easily be tested. Of gigantic dimensions when compared with the size -of the architect, they not only endure the rain-torrents which wash over -them, but can sustain the weight of the wild cattle, which are in the -habit of using them as watch-towers, and this although they are hollow, -and filled with chambers and galleries.</p> - -<p>In Southern Africa these nests are much utilised. There is an animal -called by the Dutch settlers the Aard-vark, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> feeds almost wholly -on Termites. At night it issues from its burrow, and, being armed with -large and powerful claws, tears a great hole in the side, and devours -the inmates.</p> - -<p>These deserted nests are sometimes used as ovens, as we have already -seen, a fire having been kindled within them for some time, the meat, -well enveloped in leaves, being thrust into them, and the opening closed -with clay. Sometimes they are used as graves, the corpse being placed in -them, and the hollow filled up with earth, while the wall of the Termite -nest, when pounded and mixed with water, is found to be the most -tenacious clay that can be used for building or flooring huts.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Porches, Eaves, and Windows.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to some of the appendages of a house, namely, the Porch by -which the rain is kept from a doorway, the Eaves by which it is kept -from the walls, and the Windows which will admit light and air, but will -prevent the entrance of intruders.</p> - -<p>We first take the Porch, two examples of which are shown in the -accompanying illustration, one being the work of human hands, and the -other that of an insect.</p> - -<p>The figure on the right hand represents an old-fashioned Porch, such as -is often to be seen attached to old village churches, and which, being -furnished with seats, serves also as a resting-place for those who are -weary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_183_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_183_sml.jpg" width="412" height="241" alt="Image unavailable: NESTS OF MYRAPETRA, WITH PORCHES. -PORCH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NESTS OF MYRAPETRA, WITH PORCHES. -PORCH.</span> -</div> - -<p>The figure on the left hand of the illustration is a wonderful example -of the Porch, as constructed by insects. It is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span> nest of a -honey-making Brazilian wasp named <i>Myrapetra scutellaris</i>. The -peculiarity of this nest consists in its exterior being covered with a -vast number of projections made of the same material as the walls of the -nest, but more solid and much harder. The colour of the nest is blackish -brown.</p> - -<p>The object of all these projections has not been ascertained, but there -is no difficulty as regards some of them. Without a very careful -examination, it is exceedingly difficult to see any opening by which the -inhabitants of the nest can go in and out. It will be found, however, -that there are many entrances, which are set in a row round the nest, -each opening being situated under a projection, which thus performs the -office of a porch as well as that of concealment.</p> - -<p>Another hymenopterous insect carries out the principle of the Porch in -its nest. This is the <i>Myrmica Kirbyi</i>, a tiny reddish Ant which -inhabits India. It makes its nest of cow-dung, which it works up into a -texture very like that of an ordinary wasp-nest. A series of large -flakes of this substance overhang the entrances, so that the inhabitants -can enter freely, while rain is kept out. For the purpose of greater -security, one very large flake covers the roof in umbrella fashion. The -whole nest is globular, and about eight inches in diameter.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> we come to the projecting Eaves, like those of our houses, and -serving to preserve the body of the edifice itself from wet. On the -right hand of the illustration there is an example of the eaves as they -are still to be seen in some of our country places, where the less -picturesque slates have not yet superseded the old thatch. In some -places these eaves extend considerably beyond the walls, and I know of -several instances, especially in North Devon, where a supplementary set -of eaves extends, like a penthouse, throughout the length of the -building, and just above the windows of the ground-floor.</p> - -<p>The reader will remark that the projections upon the Myrapetra’s nest -may very well fulfil the office of eaves as that of porches, and not -only shelter the entrances, but serve to shoot the wet off the walls of -the nest.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration are several instances of eaves as -existing in Nature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span></p> - -<p>In the centre is the compound nest of the Sociable Weaver-bird of -Southern Africa (<i>Philetœrus socius</i>).</p> - -<p>This is a dwelling constructed very much after the fashion adopted by -many hymenopterous insects, namely, that each pair of birds make their -own individual nest, but unite with their companions in constructing a -common roof or covering. More than three hundred nests have been found -in a single habitation, and sometimes the birds miscalculate, or rather, -do not calculate the resisting power of the branches, and, when the -rainy season comes, the additional weight of water brings down the whole -edifice with a great crash.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_185_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_185_sml.jpg" width="458" height="286" alt="Image unavailable: DWELLING OF SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRD, WITH THATCH. -THATCHED EGGS OF GOLD-TAILED MOTH. -THATCHED HOUSE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">DWELLING OF SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRD, WITH THATCH. -THATCHED EGGS OF GOLD-TAILED MOTH. -THATCHED HOUSE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The thatch which covers this congeries of nests is made of the -Booschmannees-grass, whose long leaves and tough wiry stems are -admirably adapted for throwing off water, even though they be not bound -together like our more regularly constructed thatch.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may be aware that in the Orang-outan, the Chimpansee, -and other large apes, the hairs of the arms are very long, and point in -different directions, so that if the creature should be caught in a -rain-storm, and, after the manner of its kind, fold its arms on its -breast, with the hands resting on the shoulders, the rain is shot clear -of its body, the hairs performing the duty of eaves.</p> - -<p>Both Japan and China have a rain-cloak, constructed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span> exactly the same -principle as the thatch of the Sociable Weaver-bird. They are nothing -more than successive rows of long grass-blades fastened to a network of -the proper shape. No amount of rain or snow can wet them through, and -they have the advantage of being pervious to the exhalations of the -body, though impervious to external moisture.</p> - -<p>In this respect they are greatly superior to our waterproof coats, for, -if the wearer has to undergo much bodily exertion, or is obliged to wear -it for any length of time, he finds his clothing nearly if not quite as -wet as if he had allowed the pure rain to fall on him from the clouds. I -possess specimens of each kind of cloak.</p> - -<p>When I procured them they were quite blackened with London smoke, and, -on account of their resistance to water, washing them was a very long -and troublesome business.</p> - -<p>Above the nest are two patches of the Booschmannees-grass, as they -appear when laid by the bird.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the nest is a group of the eggs of the Gold-tailed Moth, whose -nest has already been described. Perhaps the reader wonders where the -eggs are. Owing to the mode in which they are arranged, only a few can -be seen, and are represented by the little white spots in the lower part -of the figure. When the Gold-tailed Moth is ready for the great business -of laying her eggs, she seeks a suitable place, and then piles them up -in the form of a shallow cone. Her task, however, is not yet finished. -Having arranged her eggs, she scrapes off the long downy hairs of the -tail-tuft, and arranges them carefully on the eggs so as to cover them -with a conical thatch, very much resembling that of an ordinary -corn-rick.</p> - -<p>The Brown-tailed Moth acts in a similar fashion.</p> - -<p>Furs of various kinds act in the same manner, being impervious to wet -during the life of the animal. Such, for example, is the fur of the -Beaver, that of the Capybara, and that of the Seal, which are animals -living in our time. These, however, are exceeded in their thatch-like -powers by the three successive coatings of hair that were worn by the -ancient Mammoth, the outermost being very long and very coarse, and -hanging down in heavy tufts so as to shoot the water from them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Being</span> on the subject of roofs, we will take a few more examples of the -roof as anticipated in Nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_187_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_187_sml.jpg" width="412" height="144" alt="Image unavailable: WINGS OF BUTTERFLY. -TILES OF HOUSES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WINGS OF BUTTERFLY. -TILES OF HOUSES.</span> -</div> - -<p>That parallel fibres, whether animal or vegetable, can throw off rain -when properly arranged, has already been shown. Much more is it evident -that flat or partly flat plates will have the same effect, if they be -arranged so that the joints are “broken,” as masons and bricklayers say, -<i>i.e.</i> so that the broad part of the upper row of plates overlaps the -junction of two of the plates in the row immediately below it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right hand of the accompanying illustration are given two -sketches of a modern roof, one slated and the other tiled. The figures -on the left show that this formation has been anticipated by Nature, in -the wonderful system of scales which cover the wings of butterflies and -moths, and to which all their brilliancy of colour is owing. In spite of -their minute size, most being too small to be distinguished by the -unaided eye, they are arranged as regularly as the best workman could -lay the slates or tiles on a roof, and on exactly the same principle.</p> - -<p>The shapes of these scales vary in almost every species, but they are -always arranged on the same plan, namely, being placed in successive -rows, each overlapping the other.</p> - -<p>In consequence, it is almost impossible to wet a butterfly’s wing with -water. The insect may be plunged beneath the surface, and the long hairs -of the body will be soaked and cling together in a very miserable -fashion. But the water rolls off the wings like rain off a slated roof, -and even if a few drops remain on the surface, they can be shaken off, -and the wing will be perfectly dry.</p> - -<p>Mostly these scales are flat, but sometimes they are curved.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> I have -among my microscopic objects a piece of wing from a South American -butterfly, the scales of which are oblong and bent, just like the curved -tiles shown in the second right-hand figure of the illustration. These -beautiful scales are deep azure or warm brown, according to the -direction of the light.</p> - -<p>Perhaps my readers may call to mind that some architects dislike the -flat, square form in which slates are usually put on roofs, and try to -make them less formal.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_188_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_188_sml.jpg" width="377" height="137" alt="Image unavailable: SHELL OF TORTOISE. -HEXAGONALLY TILED ROOF." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SHELL OF TORTOISE. -HEXAGONALLY TILED ROOF.</span> -</div> - -<p>Sometimes they take their square slates, and fit them with one of the -angles uppermost, so that each slate looks something like the ace of -diamonds in a pack of cards. Sometimes they are still more ambitious, -and certainly succeed in producing a better effect, by cutting the -slates in hexagons instead of squares, and fixing them as shown in the -right-hand figure of the illustration. Putting aside the familiar -hexagons of the honeycomb, and the apparent hexagons of an insect’s -compound eye, we have in the common Tortoise an example of hexagonal -plates that exactly resembles the slate roofing.</p> - -<p>In the next illustration we have a variety of the same principle -exhibited in differently shaped tiles and scales. The figures on the -right hand show the pointed, the square, and the oblong tiles. These -also would answer very well as representations of different forms of -scale armour, the one being intended to throw off rain, and the other to -repel weapons.</p> - -<p>On the other side of the illustration are examples taken from the animal -kingdom. First comes the Bajjerkeit, or Short-tailed Manis, which has -already been mentioned, and whose imbricated scales will resist the -blows of any spear or sword. As to my own specimen, when it is struck, -it resounds as if it were a solid plate of metal, and I should think -that during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span> lifetime of the animal a reasonably strong axe would -not easily make its way through that coat of mail.</p> - -<p>Below the Manis are a pair of fish, whose scales, though not so strong -as those of the mammal, yet are arranged in the same manner, and answer -the same purpose. The last figure represents three scale-bands of the -Armadillo, an animal which has already been mentioned. I may as well -state here that in several anthropological museums there are various -portions of defensive armour made from the scale-clad skin of the -Crocodile, Manis, and similar animals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_189_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_189_sml.jpg" width="423" height="260" alt="Image unavailable: MANIS. -FISHES. -BANDS OF ARMADILLO. -TILES AND SLATES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">MANIS. -FISHES. -BANDS OF ARMADILLO. -TILES AND SLATES.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_III" id="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_III"></a>ARCHITECTURE.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>THE WINDOW.—GIRDERS, TIES, AND BUTTRESSES.—THE TUNNEL.—THE -SUSPENSION-BRIDGE.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Window, and its Modifications according to Climate.—Bars and -Tracery.—The Wheel-window and the Caddis.—Curious Structure of -the Caddis-tube.—Object of its Window.—The Girder as applied to -Architecture.—The Radius and Ulna.—The Tie as applied to -Architecture, and its Value.—Combination of the Tie and -Girder.—Structure of the Crystal Palace.—Leaf of the Victoria -Regia.—A Gardener turned Architect.—The Buttress in Art and -Nature.—The Tunnel used as a Passage of Communication.—Natural -Tunnel of the Ship-worm.—The Thames Tunnel.—The Piddock, or -Pholas.—The Driver-ant.—The Suspension-bridge.—The Palm-wine -Maker and his Bridge.—Suspension-bridges of Borneo and South -America.—The Creepers and the Monkey Tribes.—The Spider and -Little Ermine Caterpillar.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Window.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">H</span>AVING traced, though but superficially, the chief parts of a building, -such as the walls, the door which is opened through the walls, and the -roof which shelters them, we naturally come to the Windows by which -light is admitted to them, and enemies excluded.</p> - -<p>There are, perhaps, few points in Architecture in which such changes -have been made as in the Window, which, instead of being a difficulty in -the way of the architect, is now valued as a means of increasing the -beauty of the building. Taking for example even such advanced specimens -of Architecture as those furnished by Egypt, Greece, and Rome, we find -that the Window is either absent altogether, its place being supplied by -a hole in the roof, or that, when it is present, it was made quite -subordinate to the pillars and similar ornaments of the building.</p> - -<p>This fact is, perhaps, greatly owing to the influence of climate. In the -parts of the world which have been mentioned in connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span> with this -subject, light and heat appear to be rather enemies than friends, and -the object of the architect was to enable the inhabitants of his houses -to avoid rather than to welcome both. Consequently, the Windows were -comparatively insignificant. They were not needed for the purposes of -light or air, those being generally furnished by the aperture in the -roof, and consequently were kept out of sight as much as possible.</p> - -<p>But when architects had to build for a sterner, a colder, and a darker -clime, where the sun never assumed that almost devouring heat and light -which in hot countries drive the inhabitants to invent endless devices -for obtaining coolness and shade, a different style of Architecture -sprang up. In this the Window became nearly the most prominent part of -the building: the elements were excluded by glass instead of stone, and -the principal modifications of light were obtained by staining the glass -in various rich colours. Perhaps the Window has attained its culminating -point in the Crystal Palace, which is all window except its foundations.</p> - -<p>Partly in order to enable the glass to be inserted, and partly to -increase the beauty of the building, and to avoid the mean appearance of -Windows filled in with plain iron bars crossing each other at right -angles, the interior of the Windows was adorned with stone “tracery,” -varying much according to the epoch of the building.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_191_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_191_sml.jpg" width="325" height="125" alt="Image unavailable: CADDIS GRATING. -WHEEL-WINDOW." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CADDIS GRATING. -WHEEL-WINDOW.</span> -</div> - -<p>One of the most beautiful forms of the Window is that which is called -the Wheel. The window itself is circular, and the tracery is disposed so -as to bear an exact resemblance to an ornamental wheel, the lines of the -tracery running from the circumference to the centre, just like the -spokes of a wheel. One of these Wheel-windows is shown on the right hand -of the illustration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span></p> - -<p>On the other side is an object, which at a hasty glance might be taken -for another Window of the same character. It is, however, the work of an -insect, and not of man, and is magnified in order to show its structure -better.</p> - -<p>Any of my readers who may happen to be entomologists or anglers, or -both, are familiar with the Caddis-worm of our fresh waters. Most of us -know that the Caddis is the grub or larva of the Stone-fly -(<i>Phryganea</i>), an insect haunting the waterside, and so moth-like in its -general aspect that many persons think that it is really a brown moth. -The changes or metamorphoses of these insects are well worthy of notice.</p> - -<p>In one respect the Caddis resembles the larva of the Wax-moth, mentioned -on page <a href="#page_151">151</a>, inasmuch as it has a soft, defenceless body, while the -first three segments are comparatively hard. Like the Wax-moth also, the -Caddis lives in a tube constructed by itself. Instead, however, of -having a long and fixed tube, up and down which it can pass at pleasure, -the Caddis makes a tube only a little longer than its body, and light -enough to be carried about, just as the hermit-crab carries its -supplementary shell. There are many species of Caddis-fly.</p> - -<p>The Caddis inhabits fresh waters, and cares nothing whether they be -ponds or running streams. In order to defend its white, plump, and -helpless body from the fishes and other enemies, it constructs a tube -around its body, strengthening it by a wonderful variety of material -according to the locality.</p> - -<p>Mostly the tubes are covered with little pieces of stick or grass, or -leaves, while some species use nothing but sand-grains, constructing -with them a tube very much resembling in shape an elephant’s tusk, and -reminding the conchologist of the dentalium shell. But they seem to use -almost anything that comes to hand. Taking only examples found by myself -in a single pond, these cases are formed of sand, stones, sticks, -grass-stems, leaves, shells of small water-snails, mostly the flat -planorbis, the opercula of the water-snail, empty mussel-shells, a -chrysalis of some moth which had evidently been blown into the water -from an overhanging tree, and acorn-cups. The larva, however, does not -seem to be able to fasten together any objects with smooth surfaces, and -though it has been known, when in captivity, to make its cases out of -gold-dust or broken glass, it could not use either material when in the -form of beads.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span></p> - -<p>When it is full-fed, and about to enter the pupal state, it proceeds to -prepare its habitation. As a larva, when it desired to feed, it -protruded its head and the front of its body from the mouth of the tube, -and then crawled about in search of nourishment, dragging the tube with -it, and holding it firmly by means of the claspers with which the end of -the body is furnished. But when it becomes a pupa it is no longer able -to defend itself, and is instinctively compelled to secure its safety in -some peculiar manner.</p> - -<p>It cannot fasten up the entrance entirely, because it would not be able -to breathe unless water could pass over its body. Accordingly, it -constructs a grated window precisely like those of the old castles, so -that water can pass freely, while no enemy can gain admittance. Unlike, -however, the grated windows of the castle, which had no pretence to -beauty, the Caddis always constructs its barriers in some definite -pattern. Each species appears to have its own peculiar pattern, but all -agree in making their window, if we may so call it, exactly like a -wheel-window before the glass is inserted.</p> - -<p>When the pupa is about to make its final change into the perfect form, -it cuts away the tracery with a pair of sharp jaws, with which it is -furnished for this sole purpose, emerges from the water, throws off the -pupa-skin, and issues forth as a Stone-fly.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Girders, Ties, and Buttresses.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Next</span> in order come the means by which walls are supported internally by -Girders and Ties, and externally by Buttresses.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> late years the Girder, in its many varieties, has come into general -use, especially in the construction of railway bridges and similar -edifices.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_193_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_193_sml.jpg" width="427" height="74" alt="Image unavailable: RADIUS AND ULNA OF HUMAN ARM. -GIRDER (FROM A HOUSE IN BERMONDSEY)." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">RADIUS AND ULNA OF HUMAN ARM. -GIRDER (FROM A HOUSE IN BERMONDSEY).</span> -</div> - -<p>On the right of the accompanying illustration is shown the Girder in its -simplest form. The figure was taken from a Girder which is used in -supporting the walls of a large<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span> building in Bermondsey. Sometimes a -transverse stay connects the centres of the two curved beams; but it is -seldom needed.</p> - -<p>The reader will see that if the interval between the curved beams were -to be filled up, we should obtain a form very like that of the engine -beam described in page 25; while, if we could imagine two such girders -intersecting each other at right angles throughout their length, a -section of the two would exactly resemble the section of the engine beam -as given in the uppermost figure in page 25.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the human body there are four admirable examples of the natural -Girder, namely, in the bones of the arms and legs.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration are shown the two bones of the -fore-arm, technically named the “radius” and “ulna.” It will be seen -that these bones are arranged on the principle of the girder. In men who -are especially powerful of grasp, it has been noticed that the curve of -the radius and ulna has been exceptionally bold, while we have it -developed to the greatest extent in the fore-arm of the Gorilla, an -animal whose arms are simply gigantic.</p> - -<p>The two bones of the legs, from the knee to the ankle, are arranged in a -similar manner, and are called the “tibia” and “fibula.” The last named -signifies a brooch, and is given to the bone because it is very slender, -nearly straight, and when in its place bears no small resemblance to the -pin of the fibula, or ancient Roman brooch.</p> - -<p>Nature, however, has exceeded Art in her girder. Those of man’s -manufacture can only exert their strength in one direction, and would be -of little use if force were to be applied to them in any other -direction. Those of the human body, however, have the capability of -partial revolution on each other at their points of junction, thus -enabling the Girder to apportion its strength according to the direction -of the resistance which it has to overcome.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to the Ties, <i>i.e.</i> those internal beams, whether of metal, -wood, stone, or brick, which prevent walls from falling outwards. There -is no danger of the walls falling inward, but there is very great danger -of their falling outward, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span> when the weight or “thrust” of the -roof tends to force them apart.</p> - -<p>In some buildings, such as an old country church which I attended for -many years, the architect had openly acknowledged the tendency of the -walls to fall outward, and had counteracted it by a series of great -beams extending completely across the nave and aisle. As he had not even -troubled himself to hide their office, so he did not trouble himself to -conceal the fact that they were tree-trunks, but left them roughly -squared with the axe, lest, if he had squared them throughout their -length, he should have diminished their strength.</p> - -<p>The effect of the partially squared beam is, of course, far more -picturesque than that of a completely squared one. The architect, -however, need not have been so careful about strength, for if the beams -had been only half their diameter they would have been just as -effective. The strain on them is by pulling, and not by pushing. Now, as -any one can see by trying the experiment with a splinter of wood—say a -lucifer-match—an enormous power is required to break it by tearing the -ends asunder, while it can be easily broken by pushing them towards each -other.</p> - -<p>But for this power of resistance, we should never have had our Crystal -Palace. That apparently intricate, but really simple (and the more -beautiful for its simplicity), intersection of beams and lines -diminishing in the distance to the thickness of spiders’ webs, is -nothing more than a combination of the Girder and Tie, the two together -combining lightness and strength in a marvellous manner.</p> - -<p>The story of the Crystal Palace is now so well known that it need not be -repeated in detail. A vast building was required for the Exhibition of -1851, and not an architect was able to supply a plan which did not -exhibit some defect which would make the building almost useless.</p> - -<p>Suddenly a Mr. Paxton, who was a gardener, and not an architect, -produced (on a sheet of blotting-paper) a rough plan of a building on a -totally new principle, and not only fulfilling all the requisite -conditions, but being capable of extension in any direction and to any -amount. There have been very few bolder conceptions than that of making -iron and glass take the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span> place of brick, stone, and timber, and the -result fully justified the expectations even of the inventor.</p> - -<p>How a gardener suddenly developed into an architect remains to be seen; -and, indeed, in this case the architecture was the result of the -gardening, or rather, of practical botany applied to art. Some years -before the invention of the Crystal Palace, that magnificent plant, the -Victoria Regia, had been introduced into England. Its enormous leaves, -with their wonderful power of flotation, caused a great stir at the -time, and some of my readers may remember a sketch which was engraved in -the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, and which represented a little girl -standing on one of these leaves as it floated on the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_196_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_196_sml.jpg" width="408" height="139" alt="Image unavailable: LEAF OF VICTORIA REGIA (REVERSED). -CRYSTAL PALACE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LEAF OF VICTORIA REGIA (REVERSED). -CRYSTAL PALACE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Mr. Paxton saw how this power was obtained, and the result was that he -copied in iron the lines of the vegetable cellular structure which gave -such strength to the Victoria Regia leaf, and became more eminent as an -architect than he had been as a gardener. The capabilities of the -Crystal Palace had lain latent for centuries, but the generalising eye -of genius was needed to detect it. A thousand men might have seen the -Victoria Regia leaf, and not thought very much of it; but the right man -came at the right time, the most wonderful building in the world sprang -up like the creation of a fairy dream, and the obscure gardener became -Sir Joseph Paxton.</p> - -<p>I have no doubt that thousands of similar revelations are at present -hidden in Nature, awaiting the eye of their revealer.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to the principle of the Buttress, <i>i.e.</i> giving support to -the exterior, instead of the interior, and strengthening the walls by -pushing them together, instead of pulling them together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span></p> - -<p>Putting aside the “flying” buttress, which is simply one buttress -mounted on another to support the clerestory walls, the structure of the -ordinary buttress is simple enough.</p> - -<p>The most primitive form of the buttress is often found in country farms, -where the farmer sees the walls of his barns and outhouses leaning -suspiciously on one side, and, instead of going to the root of things, -props them up by a stout pole or beam.</p> - -<p>This, however, can be nothing but a temporary arrangement, especially as -beams have a tendency to rot, and their ends to sink into the earth by -the gradual pressure of the wall. The genuine buttress was therefore -evolved, the basal part being very thick and heavy, and the upper part -comparatively thin and slight. Simple as a buttress looks, much skill is -needed in making it, and if it be not rightly built, it does infinitely -more harm than good.</p> - -<p>A case in point occurs within a short distance of my house. The walls of -an ancient edifice having shown symptoms of yielding, and some ominous -cracks made their appearance, a couple of very sturdy buttresses had -been erected, in order to stop further damage. Unfortunately, the -builder was ignorant of the principles of architecture, and though he -made the buttresses very strong and massive, he omitted to make a solid -foundation on which their bases should rest. Consequently he only hung -the buttresses, so to speak, on the wall, and helped to tear it asunder -by the additional weight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_197_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_197_sml.jpg" width="434" height="234" alt="Image unavailable: PADDLE-WOOD TREE. -BUTTRESSES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PADDLE-WOOD TREE. -BUTTRESSES.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span>, as well as Art, supplies her buttresses. In our own country we -find the natural buttress more or less developed in our trees, as it is -wanted.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, any plantation, and examine the trees. It will be -found that those in the centre, which are sheltered on all sides from -the force of the wind, shoot up straight towards the light, have -comparatively slight and slender stems, and occasionally display such -energy in forcing themselves upwards, that when two branches find that -there is not room for both, they form a sort of alliance, fuse -themselves together, and force their united way towards the sky.</p> - -<p>Take, however, the trees in the outside rows of the plantation, and see -how they throw out their straight roots and branches towards the -outside, and how, on the inside, their trunks are as smooth and their -roots as little visible as those of the trees that grow in the centre of -the plantation.</p> - -<p>Almost any tree will develop itself in this fashion, showing that -instinct can rule the vegetable as well as the animal world.</p> - -<p>There is, however, a South American tree which far surpasses any of our -trees in its power of throwing out spurs or buttresses, principally, I -presume, because it may have to endure the fiercest storms from any -quarter and at any time. So bold are these projections that several men -would be hidden if standing between two of them, and so numerous are -they that if a section of the tree were taken at the base of the ground, -it would resemble a conventional star or asterisk, *, rather than an -ordinary tree-trunk, O.</p> - -<p>The scientific name of this curious tree is <i>Aspidomorpha excelsum</i>.</p> - -<p>The natural buttresses are so thin and so wide that they look like large -planks set on end, with one edge against the tree. Indeed, they are used -as planks, nothing more being required than to cut them from the tree.</p> - -<p>This is very easy, as, while the wood is green, it is so soft that a -blow from a “machete,” or native cutlass, is sufficient to separate it. -With the same instrument the native makes these flat planks into paddles -for his canoe, the soft wood yielding readily even to the imperfect edge -of the rude tool. When the wood dries, it becomes very hard, light, and -singularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span> elastic, all these properties qualifying it for its object. -I have several of these paddles in my collection. They are much prized -by the natives, and are always stained in various patterns with red and -black dyes.</p> - -<p>In consequence of the use which is made of this tree, it goes by the -popular name of “paddle-wood.”</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Tunnel used as a Passage.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">As</span> to this division of the subject, I have not been quite sure where it -should be placed, but think the present position a tolerably appropriate -one.</p> - -<p>We have already, in the igloo of the Esquimaux and the winter dwelling -of the seal, found examples of the Tunnel when used as an appendage to -the houses and a means of security. We now come to the Tunnel as -affording the means of locomotion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_199_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_199_sml.jpg" width="434" height="306" alt="Image unavailable: TUNNEL OF ANOMMA. -PHOLAS. -SHIP-WORM. -RAILWAY TUNNEL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TUNNEL OF ANOMMA. -PHOLAS. -SHIP-WORM. -RAILWAY TUNNEL.</span> -</div> - -<p>Take, for example, our own railway system. Had it not been for the power -of tunnelling, the railway would have lost nearly its whole value, for -it would have been restricted to local districts, and could not have -penetrated, as it now does, to all parts of the country, without -reference to hill, dale, or level ground. Our present system of -engineering has wonderfully developed the capability of tunnelling. In -former times it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> thought a most wonderful feat to drive a tunnel -under the Thames, while in these days the tunnel through Mont Cenis has -been completed, and we are hoping to make a submarine tunnel from -England to France.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature we can find many examples of Tunnels used for similar -purposes. The silken tunnel of the Wax-moth larva has already been -mentioned, and we now come to Tunnels where earth in some form, and not -silk, is the material of which they are constructed.</p> - -<p>The lowermost figure on the left-hand side of the illustration -represents that well-known and most destructive burrower, the Ship-worm -(<i>Teredo</i>), which, by the way, in spite of its popular name, is not a -worm, but a mollusc. This creature has a peculiar interest for -engineering, inasmuch as its mode of working gave Brunel the first idea -of subaquatic tunnelling in loose, sandy soil, just as the Victoria -Regia leaf gave to Paxton the idea which afterwards developed into the -Crystal Palace.</p> - -<p>The plan adopted by the Ship-worm is at the same time simple and -effective. It feeds upon wood, and gradually eats its way through almost -any timber that may be submerged. It does not, however, merely bore its -way through the timber, but lines its burrow with a coating of hard, -shelly material. Taking this hint, Brunel proceeded in the same fashion -to drive his tunnel through the very ungrateful soils which form the bed -of the Thames.</p> - -<p>He built a “shield,” as he called it, of iron, exactly fitting the -tunnel, and divided into a number of compartments, each of which could -be pushed forwards independently of the others. In each compartment was -a single workman, and, as he excavated the earth in front of him, he -pushed forward his portion of the shield, while the interior was cased -with brickwork, just as a Teredo tunnel is cased with shell.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Above</span> the Teredo is represented another marine tunnel-maker, as it -appears in its burrow.</p> - -<p>This is the mollusc popularly known as the Piddock, and scientifically -as <i>Pholas dactylus</i>. It may be found abundantly in all our chalk -cliffs, boring its tunnels deeply into the stone, and aiding the sea in -its slow, but never-ending task of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span> breaking down the cliffs on one -side, while it gradually rears them up on another. As the material into -which the Piddock burrows is so hard, there is no need for lining the -tunnel, as is done by the Teredo. In this point, too, our engineers -follow its example. When their tunnels pass through comparatively soft -ground, they line it with masonry, proportioning the thickness of the -lining to the looseness of the soil. But, when they come to solid rock, -they are content with its strength, and do not trouble themselves about -the lining.</p> - -<p>The mode of action adopted by the Pholas has long been a disputed point, -and even now appears to be not quite settled. I think, however, that -William Robertson has proved by his experiments that the shell and the -siphon are both brought into requisition. The shell perpetually rotates -in one direction, and then back again, just like the action of a -bradawl, and, by the file-like projections on its surface, rasps away -the chalk, converting it into a fine powder. This powder, being of -course mixed with water, passes into the interior of the animal, and is -ejected through the siphon.</p> - -<p>There are many species of Pholas which burrow into various substances, -even in floating cakes of wax and resin. The same species, too, will -burrow into different substances, and it is worthy of notice that those -specimens which burrow into soft ground attain a much larger size, and -their shells are in better preservation, than those which force their -way through hard rock.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> uppermost figure represents a very remarkable tunnel, having the -peculiarity of being built instead of sunk. It is the work of an African -Ant belonging to the genus Anomma, and popularly known as the -Driver-ant, because it drives away every living creature which comes -across its course of march.</p> - -<p>There are many Ants which seem to rejoice in the full blaze of the -tropical sun, running about with ease on rocks which would scorch and -raise blisters on the hand if laid on it, and finding no difficulty in -obtaining the moisture needful for the mud walls of their habitations. -But the Driver-ants cannot endure the sun, and, unless compelled by -necessity, will not march except at night, or at all events during -cloudy days. Should, however, they be absolutely forced to march in the -sunshine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span> they construct as they go on a slight gallery, which looks -very much like the lining of a tunnel stripped of the surrounding earth. -If their path should lead them to thick herbage, sticks, &c., which form -a protection from the sun, the Driver-ants do not trouble themselves to -make a tunnel, but take advantage of the shade, and only resume the -tunnel when they reach the open ground.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, when they are on a marauding expedition, they construct a -tunnel in a very curious manner, their own bodies supplying the -materials. The reader must know that there are several classes of these -insects, varying in size from that of a huge earwig to that of the -little red ant of our gardens. The largest class seem to care little -about the sunshine, the protection being mostly needed by the workers. -The following is Dr. Savage’s account of their proceedings:—</p> - -<p>“In cloudy days, when on their predatory excursions, or migrating, an -arch for the protection of the workers is constructed of the bodies of -their largest class. Their widely extended jaws, long, slender limbs, -and projecting antennæ, intertwining, form a sort of network that seems -to answer well their object.”</p> - -<p>“Whenever an alarm is given, the arch is instantly broken, and the Ants, -joining others of the same class on the outside of the line, who seem to -be acting as commanders, guides, and scouts, run about in a furious -manner in pursuit of the enemy. If the alarm should prove to be without -foundation, the victory won, or danger passed, the arch is quickly -renewed, and the main column marches forward as before, in all the order -of an intellectual military discipline.”</p> - -<p>How they should be able to direct their course, and to chase an enemy, -is not easy to understand; for, as far as is known, they are absolutely -blind, not even an indication of an eye being seen.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Suspension-bridge.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> mention of these Ants brings us to another point in architecture. We -have already seen that they can not only build arched tunnels, but also -can form their own bodies into arches, and we shall presently see how -they can form themselves into Suspension-bridges. We will, however, -first take<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span> the Suspension-bridge, and its vegetable origin, before -passing to the animal.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_203_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_203_sml.jpg" width="442" height="265" alt="Image unavailable: CREEPERS. -SUSPENSION-BRIDGE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CREEPERS. -SUSPENSION-BRIDGE.</span> -</div> - -<p>I have little if any doubt that the modern Suspension-bridge, with all -its complicated mathematical proportions, was originally suggested by -the creepers of tropical climates. There are few points in a tropical -forest, no matter in what part of the world, more striking than the -wonderful development of the creeping plants. The trees are very much -like those of our own forests, and are in no way remarkable, but the -creeping plants form the chief feature of the woods.</p> - -<p>They extend themselves to unknown lengths, crawling up to the very -summit of a lofty tree, hanging down to the very ground, if not caught -by a midway branch, running along the earth, making their way up another -tree, and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. They interlace with each other, forming -almost impenetrable thickets, as has already been mentioned while -treating of Nets, and there is scarcely a tree that is not connected -with its neighbour by means of these wonderful creeping plants.</p> - -<p>Of course the monkey tribes make great use of them in passing from one -tree to another, thus being able to avoid the ground, which is never to -a monkey’s liking. Man, therefore, copies the example of the monkey, and -makes use, either of the creepers themselves, or of ropes stretched from -tree to tree in imitation of them.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the world, where palm wine, or “toddy,” is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span> -manufactured, the native has recourse to an ingenious device which saves -a vast amount of exertion. As the calabash which receives the juice of -the palm-tree is always fixed at a considerable height, and as each tree -only yields a limited supply, the toddy-maker would be obliged to ascend -and descend a great number of trees before he could collect his supply -of palm-juice.</p> - -<p>In order to save himself trouble, he has the ingenuity to connect the -trees with each other by two ropes, the one about six feet above the -other. He then has only to ascend once, and descend once, for he ascends -one tree, and by means of the ropes passes from tree to tree without -needing to descend.</p> - -<p>The mode of traversing these ropes is simple enough, the lower rope -serving as a bridge, along which the man walks, and the upper rope being -held by the hands. Those who see these palm-wine makers for the first -time are always greatly struck. At some little distance the ropes are -quite invisible, and the man appears to be walking through the air -without any support whatever.</p> - -<p>In Borneo the Rattan is continually put in requisition as a bridge. It -runs to almost any length, a hundred feet more or less being of little -consequence; it is lithe and pliant, and so strong that it can hardly be -broken. The “canes” formerly so much in vogue among schoolmasters, and -now so generally repudiated, are all cut from the Rattan. Chiefly by -means of this natural rope, the Dyak of Borneo flings his rude -suspension-bridges across chasms or rivers, and really displays a -wonderful amount of ingenuity in doing so.</p> - -<p>The one fault of these bridges is their tendency to decay, or perhaps to -be eaten by the multitudinous wood-eating insects which swarm in that -country. However, the materials cost nothing at all, and time scarcely -more, so that when a bridge breaks down, any man can fit up another at -the expense of a few hours’ work. As, moreover, the Dyaks have a curious -way of building their houses on one side of a ravine, they find that a -bridge of this kind saves them the trouble of descending and ascending -the ravine whenever they wish to visit their house.</p> - -<p>In many parts of America the Suspension-bridge is almost a necessity. -The country is broken up by vast clefts, technically<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span> called “cañons.” -These cañons are ravines in the rocky ground, with sides almost -perpendicular. For the greater part of the year they are dry, but -sometimes, and without the least warning, they become the beds of -roaring torrents, rising to some thirty or forty feet in height, and -carrying away everything before them.</p> - -<p>Over these ravines are thrown suspension-bridges made almost entirely of -creepers, and loosely floored with rough planks. Although they are very -strong, they appear to be very fragile, and even under the tread of a -human being swing and sway about in a manner that always shakes the -nerves of one who is unaccustomed to them. Yet, even the mules of the -country can cross them, the animals picking their way with the wonderful -sure-footedness of their kind, and not in the least affected by the -swaying of the bridge.</p> - -<p>Passing from the vegetable to the animal world, we revert to the -Driver-ants, which have already been mentioned. It has been seen that -their soldier-ants can, with their own bodies, form a tunnel, under the -shade of which the workers can pass, and we have now to see how they -can, with the same materials, form a suspension-bridge.</p> - -<p>It often happens that on their march they come to water, and, as they -always advance with total disregard of difficulties, they must needs -invent some very ingenious way of overcoming the difficulty. One of them -climbs a branch which overhangs the water, clasps the undermost twig -very tightly, and allows itself to hang from it. Another at once -follows, and suspends itself from its comrade in like manner, the -powerful and sicklelike jaws doing their duty as well as the legs. A -chain of Ants is thus speedily formed. When the lowermost Ant touches -the water, it merely spreads all its legs, and awaits the development of -events. Another runs over it, holds to the first Ant by its hind-legs, -and stands in the water, spreading its limbs as much as possible over -the surface. Ant after Ant descends, until quite a long chain of the -insects is formed, and is swept downwards with the stream. By slow -degrees the chain is lengthened, until the Ants at its head are able to -seize the bank on-the opposite side of the water. When they have -succeeded in doing so, the bridge is complete, and over that living -bridge will pour a whole army of Driver-ants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span></p> - -<p>Even in those cases where this mode of travelling would be too perilous -on account of the rapid torrent, the Ants contrive to suspend themselves -in long strings until they effect a communication with the trees of the -opposite bank.</p> - -<p>It is, perhaps, needless to give more than a passing reference to the -Suspension-bridges made by Spiders, by means of which they can traverse -considerable distances. The similar bridge of the Little Ermine -Caterpillar has already been mentioned, when treating of the subject of -Double Walls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_IV" id="ARCHITECTURE_CHAPTER_IV"></a>ARCHITECTURE.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>LIGHTHOUSES.—THE DOVETAIL.—THE DAM.—SUBTERRANEAN DWELLINGS.—THE -PYRAMID.—MORTAR, PAINT, AND VARNISH.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Eddystone Lighthouse: its Position, and the Difficulties of -building it.—Destruction of successive Lighthouses.—Smeaton’s -Idea of Form borrowed from the Tree-trunk.—Mode of -building.—Rooting it into the Rock.—Principle of the -Dovetail.—Bones of the Human Skull, and their Articulation.—The -Dam, and its Uses to Man.—The Lock and the Water-mill.—Dam of the -Beaver: its Objects and Mode of Construction.—Popular Errors with -regard to the Dam.—Subterranean Dwellings.—The Indian Palace, and -its Use in Summer.—Subterranean Dwellings in Kamschatka, and their -Use in Winter.—The Wood or Horse Ant, and its double -Dwelling.—The upper and lower Nests used according to the Amount -of Warmth required.—Section of the Nest, and a Glimpse into its -Interior.—The Pyramid.—Derivation of its Name.—Natural Objects -from which the Form was derived.—Subaquatic Mortar or Cement, and -its Use to Man.—Subaquatic Cement used by the Caddis, the -Stickleback, the Terebella, the Sabella, the Serpula, and -others.—Paint and Varnish, and their Utility to Man.—Propolis as -used by the Hive Bee, and the Source whence it is obtained.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E now come to some points in Architecture which cannot well be grouped -together, and must therefore be treated as Miscellanea.</p> - -<p>Our first example is one which was avowedly based upon an imitation of -Nature, namely, the celebrated Eddystone Lighthouse, and we shall see -that in two points—first its form, and next the mode in which the -stones were fixed together—Nature had been closely followed by the -architect.</p> - -<p>Unlike ordinary lighthouses, this edifice had to be constructed so as to -endure the full force of waves as well as wind. A few miles from the -southern coasts of Devon and Cornwall there is a rock which in former -times greatly endangered the ships which passed along the Channel. -Several attempts were made to build a lighthouse on this dangerous spot. -Winstanley’s lighthouse, which was finished in 1700, was wholly swept<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span> -away three years later, together with the architect himself, and some -workmen who were engaged in repairs. So terrific is the force of the -elements on this spot, that the lighthouse was entirely destroyed, and -the only vestiges of it that were ever discovered were some iron bars -and a piece of chain.</p> - -<p>Another lighthouse was built a few years afterwards, but was burned -down, it being of wood instead of stone. At last the work was put into -the hands of Smeaton, who saw that he must build on a totally new plan. -He took for his model the trunk of a tree, and determined to build his -lighthouse of the same form as the tree-trunk, and to fasten it into the -rock just as a tree is fastened by its roots. Accordingly, he struck out -a new principle in the construction of such edifices, and his model has -been followed ever since. The reader will see, by a glance at the -illustration, how close is the resemblance in external form. I may -mention that the tree in question was sketched from one in a paddock -opposite my house.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_208_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_208_sml.jpg" width="386" height="307" alt="Image unavailable: TREE-TRUNK. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TREE-TRUNK. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Having settled the form of the lighthouse, and made it like a -tree-trunk, the next business was to fix it firmly in the rock, and, in -fact, to give it roots of stone. For this purpose, he made the base of -the edifice as wide as the rock would allow, so as to correspond with -the wide base of a tree-trunk, and traced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span> a circle of about ninety feet -in circumference. Instead, however, of merely laying the stones as is -usually done, or even letting them into holes cut in the rock, he hit -upon a singularly ingenious device, whereby the building was practically -a single stone.</p> - -<p>Instead of cutting the stones square or oblong, as is usually done, he -had them made so as to “dovetail” into each other, much after the -fashion of a child’s puzzle toy, or the junctions at the edge of a box. -Thus, each stone fitted into those around it, while the lowest tier was -dovetailed in similar fashion into the rock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_209_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_209_sml.jpg" width="424" height="201" alt="Image unavailable: SUTURES OF SKULL -SECTION OF EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE -DOVETAILED BOX" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SUTURES OF SKULL -SECTION OF EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE -DOVETAILED BOX</span> -</div> - -<p>The stone employed was that which is called Moorstone, a very hard -variety of granite. Each course of stones was carefully fitted together -on shore, and their accuracy tested, and they were then taken to the -Eddystone rock, and fixed in their places. Beside using these -precautions, Smeaton fixed the stones in their place with the strongest -cement, and furthermore fastened the stones together and united the -several courses by strong oak treenails and iron clamps. As none of the -stones weighed less than a ton, and some of them were double that -weight, the strength of such an edifice may be imagined.</p> - -<p>The accompanying illustration shows the arrangement of these dovetailed -stones in one of the courses. It will be seen that the central stone -must be laid first, and then the others arranged round it. The whole -edifice is rather more than eighty-five feet in height, so that the -elements have every chance of demolishing it, as they did that of -Winstanley. More than a hundred years have now passed since it was -built,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span> and, although the fury of the tempest has been such that the -waves have washed completely over its summit, it stands as firmly as it -did when it was finished in 1760.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Whether</span> the original inventor of the “dovetail” took his idea from -Nature I cannot say, but he certainly might have done so. On the left of -the illustration is part of a human skull.</p> - -<p>The skull is not, as many persons seem to think, made of a single bone, -but it is composed of many bones, united by “sutures,” which are, in -fact, natural dovetails. Although in early life these sutures are -comparatively loose, they hold the various parts together so firmly, -that if the head be violently struck, the bones may break, but the -sutures do not give way.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may ask how it is possible to take a skull to -pieces without cutting it or fracturing the sutures. It is done in a way -equally simple and ingenious. The skull is filled through the opening -with dried peas, and then sunk under water. The peas expand with the -moisture, and, as they exert an equable force in all directions, they -slowly and quietly pull the sutures asunder, without injuring the bones.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Dam.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">In</span> many human operations, where a certain depth of water is required in -a running stream, the reasoning powers of man have enabled him to attain -his object by building a dam, or obstacle across the stream, which -forces the water to rise to its level before it can find a passage. -Such, for example, are the Locks which render rivers navigable, and -allow even the heavily laden barges to traverse miles of water which -would otherwise have been closed to them.</p> - -<p>Those mills, again, which are worked by water need that a sufficient -amount of water should be ready in order that it may by its weight force -the wheel round. Such a Dam is shown on the right hand of the -illustration, the height to which it raises the water being shown by the -level of the stream below the Dam, and that of the water as it tumbles -over in a miniature cascade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span></p> - -<p>Putting aside the natural dams made by accumulations of the various -debris that are washed down by a swollen stream, and which sometimes -raise the water to a very great height, we have an example of a natural -dam in the curious structure made by the Beaver, for the same purpose as -that of the lock in the mill-stream, namely, to insure a depth of water -sufficient for the needs of the beings that make them.</p> - -<p>Every one has heard of the Beaver’s dam, but there is so much -misconception on the subject, that a few words will not be out of place.</p> - -<p>Ingenious as is the animal in the construction of its dam, it is not -nearly so accomplished an architect as was once supposed. We were told -in the earlier books of Natural History that the Beaver felled trees, -cut off their branches into convenient lengths, and sharpened one end, -like an ordinary stake. Then they were said to drive the sharp end of -the stakes into the bed of the river, to set them side by side, to -interweave smaller branches among them, and lastly, to fill up the -interstices with mud, leaves, and similar materials. In fact, they were -supposed to build a “wattle-and-daub” wall, like that which is in use at -the present day in Southern Africa.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_211_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_211_sml.jpg" width="440" height="181" alt="Image unavailable: DAM MADE BY BEAVER. DAM MADE BY MAN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">DAM MADE BY BEAVER. DAM MADE BY MAN.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Beaver does nothing of the kind. It needs a dam, and it makes one -which is far stronger than the wattle-and-daub could be. It begins by -felling a tree, and letting it lie across the stream, in some place -where the banks are high and tolerably steep. A bend of the river is -usually chosen for the new dam. Should not the tree be long enough for -the Beaver’s purpose, two trees are felled, one on either side, so that -their branches meet in the middle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span></p> - -<p>These branches, and not any supposed stakes, are really the upright -supports of the dam. The trees being thus laid, the Beaver cuts down -branches from four to six feet in length, and lays them horizontally -among the boughs of the fallen trees. Having thus made the foundations, -so to speak, of its dam, the Beaver then proceeds to fill in the spaces -with roots, grass-tufts, leaves, mud, and, indeed, almost anything on -which it can lay its paws.</p> - -<p>After this, the Beaver has to take but little trouble, for the stream -itself becomes a silent, slow, but constant labourer, lodging floating -debris against the dam, and making a sloping bank which much adds to its -strength. By degrees, seeds that lodge on the dam spring into life, and -their roots act like chains, binding the materials more closely -together. Willow twigs too, if they lodge on the dam and be left -undisturbed, are sure to “strike,” as the gardeners say, and further to -bind the structure together.</p> - -<p>It is evident, from this short description, that the lower part of the -dam is more solid than the upper. In fact, the floods are tolerably sure -to wash away some eight or ten inches of the upper part every year, and -the Beavers have to make it afresh. The height of these dams is not -nearly so great as is generally supposed. Mr. Green, a practical -trapper, states that the highest which he ever saw was only four feet -six inches in height, and that the average is under three feet.</p> - -<p>The house of the Beaver is made on the same principle as the dams. Every -one knows that when sticks have been in the water for any length of -time, they become saturated and sink. These sticks are chosen by the -Beaver as the material for its house, and are laid horizontally in the -water, the heaviest being reserved for the roof, so as to make it strong -enough to ward off the attacks of predacious animals. As with the dam, -mud, leaves, &c., are used to consolidate the edifice, but no mud can be -seen from the outside, the animal always finishing off with a number of -heavy logs laid on the roof.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Subterranean Dwellings.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">I do</span> not intend in this place to take up the whole subject of -Subterranean Dwellings, but only to point out cases where the use of the -Subterranean Dwelling depends on the climate of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span> the locality and the -time of year, it being sometimes used and sometimes neglected, sometimes -inhabited for the sake of warmth, and sometimes for that of coolness.</p> - -<p>In various parts of India there are some most remarkable Subterranean -Dwellings. They are more than mere dwellings, and are, in fact, -magnificent palaces, sunk so deeply in the earth that very little more -than their roofs appear aboveground. When, however, a visitor descends -the stairs that lead to the interior of the palace, he finds it -spacious, and with tiers of chambers one below the other, very much like -the wasp-nest which has already been described. Nussur-ed-deen, the -second King of Oude, had several of these palaces, but very seldom -visited them, he having endeavoured to Europeanise himself as much as -possible, and to cast off his native customs. He used occasionally to -visit them, but it was only out of etiquette, and he never really lived -in them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_213_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_213_sml.jpg" width="434" height="200" alt="Image unavailable: SUBTERRANEAN ANTS’ NEST. SUBTERRANEAN HOUSE OF -KAMSCHATKA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SUBTERRANEAN ANTS’ NEST. SUBTERRANEAN HOUSE OF -KAMSCHATKA.</span> -</div> - -<p>However much he might have rejected the ancient customs, it is evident -that in this case, at least, he was punishing himself in rejecting these -summer dwellings, which are always cool, and where, if one set of -apartments is too warm, nothing is easier than to descend to the next.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> dwelling is made for the sake of coolness in summer. Another -subterranean dwelling is made for warmth in winter, the non-conducting -properties of the earth being in both cases brought into play. This is -the winter dwelling of the inhabitants of Kamschatka.</p> - -<p>During the summer-time the Kamschatdales live in comparatively<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span> slight -huts mounted on poles, and having the floor some ten feet from the -ground.</p> - -<p>During the winter, however, they live in habitations of a very different -character.</p> - -<p>In order to make these houses, they begin by digging a large hole in the -ground, about nine or ten feet in depth. This they line with poles and -sticks, making, in fact, a wall as of a house. A stout conical roof is -then raised over the hole, and upon the roof earth is thickly strewn and -beaten down, just as has been mentioned when treating of the ice-house. -The only access to this strange house is by a circular aperture in the -centre of the conical roof, serving at once the purpose of a door, a -chimney, and a window. A notched pole answers as a ladder, a low wooden -dais placed against the wall serves as a bed or a chair, for there is no -other, and a few stones placed together act as a fireplace.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> looking at both these subterranean dwellings, I could not but be -reminded of a very common insect which has a double dwelling, one moiety -being aboveground, and the other moiety below it. This is the common -Wood-ant (<i>Formica rufa</i>), whose large, leafy hills are so plentiful in -some of our woods. On account of its size, this species is sometimes -called the Horse-ant.</p> - -<p>At first sight the nest looks something like a small haycock, made -entirely of chopped grass. When examined more nearly, it will be found -to consist mostly of grass-stems, little bits of stick, and leaves. -Those of the fir are in great request, for when they are dry they are -very light, and their form enables the Ant to interweave them with each -other, so as to form the necessary tunnels and galleries which line the -interior of the nest. The materials seem most unpromising, but they are -used with wonderful skill, such as no human fingers could equal.</p> - -<p>After a little while a number of entrances into the nest are visible. -They are almost invariably sheltered by projecting leaves, which act as -porches, so that when the nest is viewed from above, they are almost -entirely hidden. Each of these openings runs into one of the main -galleries of the nest, and from thence issues a perfect labyrinth of -passages.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span></p> - -<p>This, however, is only half the nest, for the galleries and tunnels -extend far beneath the surface of the earth, and have sundry enlarged -portions or chambers wherein the immature pupæ may lie during their -period of helplessness.</p> - -<p>Owing to the very loose structure of the upper nest, and the tendency of -the earth to fall into the galleries of the lower nest, it is very -difficult to obtain a trustworthy view of the interior. Perhaps I may -here be allowed to extract a passage from my “Insects at Home,” the -description of the nest and its interior having been written almost on -the spot:—</p> - -<p>“I have, however, succeeded in obtaining an excellent view into the -interior of a Wood-ants’ nest, though it was but a short one. -Accompanied by my friend Mr. H. J. B. Hancock,<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> I was visiting some -remarkably fine Wood-ants’ nests near Bagshot. We took with us a large -piece of plate glass, placed it edgewise on the top of an Ant-hill, and, -standing one at each side, cut the nest completely in two, leaving the -glass almost wholly buried in it.</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Now Sir Henry J. Burford Hancock, Chief Justice of -Gibraltar.</p></div> - -<p>“After the expiration of a few weeks, during which time the ants could -repair damages, we returned to the spot, and, with a spade, removed one -side of the nest as far as the glass, which then served as a window -through which we could look into the nest. It was really a wonderful -sight.</p> - -<p>“The Ant-hill was honeycombed into passages and cells, in all of which -the inhabitants were hurriedly running about, being alarmed at the -unwonted admission of light into their dwellings. In some of the -chambers the pupæ were treasured, and these chambers were continually -entered by Ants, which picked up the helpless pupæ, and carried them to -other parts of the nest where the unwelcome light had not shown itself.</p> - -<p>“Unfortunately this view lasted only a short time. Owing to the partial -decomposition of the vegetable substances of which the Ants’ nest is -made, the interior is always hot and always moist. Now, the day on which -we visited the nest happened to be a cold one, and, in consequence, the -moisture of the nest was rapidly condensed on the inner surface of the -glass, and in a few minutes completely hid the nest from view, leaving -me only time to make a rapid sketch. Unfortunately some one discovered -the plate of glass and stole it.</p> - -<p>“Next time that I examine a Wood-ants’ nest, I shall take<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span> care to -insert the glass exactly east and west, and shall open its southern side -towards noon on a hot sunshiny day, so that the rays of the sun may warm -the glass and prevent evaporation.”</p> - -<p>Many other creatures make subterranean dwellings, but the Wood-ant is -remarkable for possessing a double dwelling, the two portions -communicating with each other, and capable of being used according to -the degree of heat required.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Pyramid.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already seen how the Eddystone lighthouse was the precursor of -many similar buildings all, like their predecessor, having their form -copied, with more or less strictness, from the outlines of a tree-stem.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_216_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_216_sml.jpg" width="419" height="143" alt="Image unavailable: NATURAL MOUNTAIN. -ARTIFICIAL MOUNTAIN, OR PYRAMID." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NATURAL MOUNTAIN. -ARTIFICIAL MOUNTAIN, OR PYRAMID.</span> -</div> - -<p>Another form of building which was intended for endurance, and, indeed, -is the most enduring of all shapes, is the Pyramid.</p> - -<p>We are all familiar with the simple, yet grand outlines of the Pyramids -of Egypt, whose vast antiquity takes us back to the times of Isaac and -Joseph, and which seem capable of resisting the effects of Time, the -universal destroyer, for thousands of years yet to come.</p> - -<p>We may ask ourselves what was the natural object from which the Pyramid -was copied. The name itself, which is formed from a Greek word -signifying fire, shows that a flame was thought to have furnished the -idea of this form of building. I cannot, however, but think that the -flame had little, if anything, to do with it, and that the real model -may be found in the hills which have been formed by Nature.</p> - -<p>Examples of the Pyramids and the Hills are given in the accompanying -illustration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Subaquatic Mortar.—Paint and Varnish.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Having</span> now disposed of the chief points in Architecture, we take some of -the subsidiary details.</p> - -<p>Of late years, when the traffic between different continents has so -largely extended itself, and when shipping has increased both in the -numbers and dimensions of the vessels, it is absolutely necessary that -we should have harbours and docks enlarged and multiplied sufficiently -to meet the calls upon them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_217_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_217_sml.jpg" width="446" height="297" alt="Image unavailable: CADDIS. TEREBELLA. SERPULA. SUBMARINE MORTAR." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CADDIS. TEREBELLA. SERPULA. SUBMARINE MORTAR.</span> -</div> - -<p>Now, it is comparatively easy to construct a building on shore, for all -the mortars and cements which are used for the purpose of fastening the -stones together are applied when wet, and incorporate themselves with -the stones as they dry. But to make a mortar which could be applied -while the stones were under water, and would “set” while beneath the -surface, was a task not easily to be overcome. Yet it has been done so -effectively that at the present day we can build beneath the surface of -the water as securely, though not as rapidly, as if the stones had been -laid on dry ground.</p> - -<p>Several such mortars are now known, and, as is so often the case with -human inventions, have been anticipated in Nature.</p> - -<p>We have already seen how the Caddis-worm of the fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span> waters can cement -together, while under water, the various materials of which its tubular -house is formed. The different Sticklebacks perform similar feats, no -matter whether they inhabit fresh or salt water.</p> - -<p>All those who take an interest in the productions of the seashore will -have noticed upon our coasts the flexible tube of the Terebella, with -its curiously fringed ends. This tube, as any one may see at a glance, -is composed of grains of sand and similar materials, fastened strongly -together by a kind of cement exuded from the worm, and possessing the -property of hardening under water. As on some of our coasts fragments of -shell are used for the tube, the worm goes by the popular name of -Shell-binder.</p> - -<p>If one of these worms be taken out of its tube, placed in a vessel with -sea-water and a quantity of sand, broken shells, and little pebbles, the -mode of building will soon be seen. At the extremity of the head are a -number of extremely mobile tentacles, and these are stretched about in -all directions, seizing upon the particles of sand and shell, seeming to -balance them as if to decide whether they are suitable for the tube, and -then fixing them one by one with the cement which has already been -mentioned.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, the Terebella works only in the evening, but, if it -be hastily deprived of its tube, it cannot help itself, and is perforce -obliged to work while it can. It is worthy of remark that the Terebella, -although, as a rule, it lives in a tube all its life, is capable of -swimming with the usual serpentine motion of marine worms, and, when -taken out of its tube, rushes about violently, and soon exhausts itself -by its efforts.</p> - -<p>Along most of our rocky seashores may be seen vast quantities of a sort -of hardened sand, penetrated with small tubes. On a closer examination -this sand-mass is resolved into a congeries of tubes, matted and twisted -together, and each being the habitation of a marine worm called the -Sabella. This name is derived from a Latin word signifying sand, and is -given to the worm in allusion to the material of which it makes its -habitation.</p> - -<p>Like the Terebella, the Sabella uses its tentacles for the purpose of -building the tubes, which are much stiffer than those of the Terebella. -They are strong enough, indeed, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span> give the feet a firm hold while -traversing the rocks, and this, is a matter of no small moment when the -tide is coming in, and the shore has to be regained without loss of -time.</p> - -<p>Then we have other marine worms, known as Triquetra and Serpula, which -make tubes in a somewhat similar manner, but of very fine materials and -very strong cement, so that the tube is nearly as hard as stone.</p> - -<p>Space would fail me if I were to enumerate these creatures at greater -length, but enough has been said to show that man’s invention of -subaquatic cement has been anticipated in Nature by the inhabitants both -of salt and fresh water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to the subject of Paint and Varnish. Putting aside their use -as a means to increase the beauty of the object to which they are -applied, we will view them in the light of preservatives, and -acknowledge the truth of the old Dutch proverb, that “Paint costs -nothing.” Certainly, when the wood to which it is applied is thoroughly -dry from within, it not only costs nothing, but repays itself over and -over again as a preservative of the wood, and a defence against moisture -from without.</p> - -<p>The instances in which Paint is applied to wood are too numerous to be -mentioned. Perhaps some of my readers may remember the case of the naval -captain who, on taking command of his ship, was supplied, according to -custom, with exactly half the amount of paint required for her. The -invariable etiquette had been that the captain supplied the remaining -half at his own cost. But the officer in question was not at all -disposed to be “put upon,” and was a thorn in the sides of the “Naval -Lords.”</p> - -<p>Finding, by actual measurement, that the paint supplied to him was only -half the amount which was really needed for the ship, he sent his -respectful compliments to the Admiralty, asking whether they wished the -port or the starboard side of the ship to be painted, for that there was -only enough paint for one half of the ship, and he awaited instructions -as to which side of the vessel it was to be applied. He was impervious -to “minutes,” “directions,” &c., and, as far as I remember, this very -impracticable man got his way, and was supplied with the requisite -amount of paint.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Long</span> before man ever invented paint or varnish the Hive Bee had made use -of it.</p> - -<p>Every one who has kept bees knows how they always fasten the edge of the -hive to the board, and stop up any crevices that may be left open. The -material which they use for this purpose is not wax, but a substance -called “propolis.” This term is composed of two Greek words, signifying -a suburb, or the outskirts of a town, and is given to this stationary -substance in consequence of the use which is made of it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_220_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_220_sml.jpg" width="348" height="202" alt="Image unavailable: BEE VARNISHING CELLS. -PAINTER VARNISHING WOOD." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BEE VARNISHING CELLS. -PAINTER VARNISHING WOOD.</span> -</div> - -<p>Not only do the bees use it for fastening the hives, but also for -strengthening their combs. Wax is a very precious material, and the -beautiful hexagonal structure of the bee-comb is intended for the -purpose of combining the greatest amount of storing space with the least -expenditure of material. The plates of wax of which the cells are -composed are so thin that their edges would break down even under the -feet of the bees as they passed over it, and accordingly the bees -strengthen the edges of the cells with propolis, as any one may see by -examining a piece of bee-comb. The propolis is of a darker colour than -the wax, and has a peculiar varnish-like appearance.</p> - -<p>The propolis, as distinguished from wax, is mentioned by Virgil in his -Georgics:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Collectumque hæc ipsa ad munera gluten<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Et visco et Phrygiæ servant pice lentius Idæ.”—<i>Georg.</i> iv. 40.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>It is evident that the propolis cannot be obtained from the same source -as the wax. The latter is secreted by the bees<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span> under little plates or -flaps upon the abdomen, while the propolis is purely a vegetable -exudation. It is obtained from many trees, the principal being the horse -chestnut. All who have handled the buds of this tree are aware that they -are covered with a viscous and very adhesive matter, which serves as a -varnish or protection to the bud before the leaves are strong enough to -break out. This is the material which the bees gather for their -propolis, and at certain times of the year the chestnuts may be seen -swarming with bees, all busily engaged in scraping off the varnish.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="TOOLS_CHAPTER_I" id="TOOLS_CHAPTER_I"></a>TOOLS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> -<small>THE DIGGING-STICK.—SPADE.—SHEARS AND SCISSORS.—CHISEL AND ADZE.—THE PLANE AND SPOKESHAVE.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Use of Tools a Distinction between Man and Beast.—All Men, -however savage, use Tools, but none of the lower Animals can do so -until taught by Man.—Tools needed to break up the Ground.—The -Digging-stick of savage Life: its Use and its Efficacy in practised -Hands.—Digging-sticks in Nature.—The Heart-urchin, and its Mode -of digging in the Sand.—The Spade: its Shapes and Uses.—Natural -Spades.—Fore-foot of the Mole and Mole-cricket.—The Aard-vark, -the Ant-eater, and the Mattock.—Shears and Scissors a Sign of -Civilisation, never being employed by Savages.—Mechanical -Principle of Scissors, the Inclined Plane, the Lever, and the -Cutting Edge.—Chinese Shears and the Pruning Scissors.—Use of the -Inclined Plane.—The Diagonal Knife of the Guillotine.—The Shears -in Iron-works.—The “Drawing Cut” of Swordsmen.—Jaws of the Turtle -and Tortoise.—The Snapping Turtle and the Chicken Tortoise.—The -Locust, the Cockchafer Grub, the Great Green Grasshopper, and the -Wart-biter.—The Leaf-cutter Bees and their Nests.—The Chisel and -Adze.—Structure of Rodent Tooth and Chisel.—Use of the hard Plate -of Enamel or Steel.—Combination of hard and soft Materials.—Teeth -of Hippopotamus and Hyrax.—Principle of the Adze.—Self-sharpening -and Self-renewing Tools.—The Plane and Spokeshave.—Principle on -which they are made.—The Spokeshave and its Uses.—The “Guard” -Razor.—The Hoop-shaver Bee and its Nest.—Its natural Plane, and -the Use which is made of it.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>MONG the many points of distinction between man and the lower animals, -we may consider the use of tools as one of the principal lines of -demarcation. Man stands absolutely alone in this respect. There is no -race of savages, however degraded they may be, that does not employ -tools of some kind, and there is no beast, however intelligent, that -ever used a tool except when instructed by man.</p> - -<p>As to the stories that are told of the larger apes using sticks and -stones by way of weapons, they are absolutely without foundation, no -animal employing any tool or weapon save those given to them by Nature. -It is true that a monkey may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span> sometimes be seen to take a stone for the -purpose of cracking nuts which are too strong for its teeth, and to -perform that task with great deftness; but such animals have always been -taught by man, and had they remained in their own country, not one of -them would have used a stone, were the nuts ever so hard.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spade.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> will begin our notice of tools by taking that which must have been -the first tool invented by man. One of the principal duties assigned to -man is the culture of the earth, and this he cannot do without tools, -increasing their number and improving their structure in proportion to -his own development in agriculture.</p> - -<p>Before seed can be sown, it is necessary that the earth should be broken -up, and, owing to the structure of the human frame, this task cannot be -fulfilled by man without a tool which will enable him to rival many of -the lower animals, <i>i.e.</i> make use of those digging appliances which -have been furnished by Nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_223_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_223_sml.jpg" width="435" height="137" alt="Image unavailable: HEART-URCHIN. DIGGING-STICK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HEART-URCHIN. DIGGING-STICK.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is evident that the first earth-breaking tool must have been a -pointed stick, and we find that in Southern Africa, in parts of Asia, -and in Australia the Digging-stick is still in use for the purpose of -breaking up the ground. The Australians are wonderful adepts in the use -of the Digging-stick, which is one of the simplest of instruments, being -merely a stick some two feet in length, pointed at one end, and the -point hardened in the fire.</p> - -<p>The mode of using it is by holding it perpendicularly, pecking it into -the ground, and throwing out the loosened soil with the hands. In this -way they can excavate with such<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span> rapidity, that a strong navvy, armed -with the best spade, would not be able to keep pace with a black man -armed only with his “katta,” or digging-stick.</p> - -<p>In Africa the Digging-stick is used in exactly the same manner, and is -generally made more weighty and effective by having a perforated stone -fastened on the handle.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Here</span>, again, man has been anticipated by Nature, and the savage of -Australia or Africa digs in exactly the same manner as the common -Heart-urchin of our shores, sometimes called the Hairy Urchin, in -consequence of the number and fineness of the spines, which look just -like hairs to the naked eye. The scientific name of this creature is -<i>Amphidotus cordatus</i>.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gosse, in his “Evenings at the Microscope,” gives so admirable an -account of the mode of digging employed by the Hairy Urchin that I -cannot do better than employ his own words. After describing the variety -of structure of the different spines with which the shell is so thickly -set, he proceeds as follows:—</p> - -<p>“But what is the need of so much care being bestowed upon the separate -motion of these thousands of hair-like spines, that each should have a -special structure, with special muscles for its individual movement? The -hairs of our head we cannot move individually: why should the -Heart-urchin move his?”</p> - -<p>“Truly, these hairs are the feet with which he moves. The animal -inhabits the sand at the bottom of the sea in our shallow bays, and -burrows in it. By going carefully, with the lens at your eye, over the -shell, you perceive that the spines, though all formed on a common -model, differ considerably in the detail of their form. I have shown you -what may be considered the average shape, but in some, especially the -finer ones that clothe the sides, the club is slender and pointed; in -others, as in those behind the mouth, which are the largest and coarsest -of all, the club is dilated into a long, flat spoon; while in the long, -much-bowed spines, which densely crowd upon the back, the form is almost -uniformly taper throughout, and pointed.”</p> - -<p>“The animal sinks into the sand mouth downwards. The hard spoons behind -the mouth come first into requisition, scooping away the sand, each -acting individually, and throwing it outwards. Observe how beautifully -they are arranged for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span> this purpose, diverging from the median line, -with the curve backwards and outwards.</p> - -<p>“Similar is the arrangement of the slender side spines; their curve is -still more backwards, the tips arching uniformly outwards. They take, -indeed, exactly the curve which the fore-paws of a mole possess,—only -in a retrograde direction, since the Urchin sinks backwards,—which has -been shown to be so effective for the excavation of the soil, and the -throwing of it outwards.</p> - -<p>“Finally, the long spines on the back are suited to reach the sand on -each side, when the creature has descended to its depth, and by their -motion work it in again, covering and concealing the industrious and -effective miner.”</p> - -<p>The reader will notice that this mode of digging is exactly like that -which is followed by the users of the Digging-stick, the earth being -first broken up, and the loosened portions thrown aside. The whole of -the description of the spines is exceedingly interesting, but, as it -does not bear directly on the present subject, I cannot admit it into -these pages.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> comes another development in digging tools.</p> - -<p>We have already seen how effective an instrument a mere piece of stick -can be in the hands of a skilful workman, and the manner in which it can -tear up a given depth of soil. But, for agricultural purposes, something -more is needed, and the ground must not only be broken up, but a certain -regularity must be observed, in order to allow space to be accurately -measured, and the crop apportioned to the area.</p> - -<p>Out of the Digging-stick, then, the Spade was developed, its chief -advantage being that it dispensed with the use of the bare hands, and -not only tore up the ground, but threw out the loosened soil.</p> - -<p>The reader will remember that in the preceding description of the -Heart-urchin it was mentioned that many of the spines are shaped at -their ends something like spoons, and that their comparatively wide -blades are used in scraping the sand and shovelling it aside. In fact, -these flattened spines are natural spades, used on the same principle as -the modern spade of civilisation.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration are shown two forms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span> spade, the -one being the ordinary garden tool, and the other a rather curious -implement which is in great use among the metal mines of Cornwall. The -use of the ordinary spade is too familiar to need explanation, and we -come to the Miner’s spade. This implement is used rather as a shovel -than as a spade, the peculiar bend near the blade preventing the foot -from being used as a means of forcing the instrument into the ground. In -fact, it is not meant for the same office as that which pertains to the -ordinary spade, neither can it be handled in the same way.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_226_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_226_sml.jpg" width="413" height="241" alt="Image unavailable: FOOT OF AARD-VARK. FOOT OF MOLE-CRICKET. SPADES. - -FOOT OF MOLE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FOOT OF AARD-VARK. FOOT OF MOLE-CRICKET. SPADES. - -FOOT OF MOLE. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>In Devonshire there is a kind of spade in general use very much -resembling the mining spade, but having a very long handle without any -crutch at the end. The natural consequence of this shape is, that the -spade cannot be used in the ordinary way, neither can it penetrate the -earth to any depth. It can “peel” the ground, so to speak, and can cut -away successive layers of soil. But as for digging “two spits deep,” or -even one spit, the spade would be absolutely incapable of such a task, -no matter how strong might be the hands that wield it. As for the foot, -it may be put out of the question.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now turn to a few examples of spades in the world of Nature.</p> - -<p>The lowest figure represents the fore-paw of the Mole,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span> with its -powerful armature of strong and sharp claws, and its broad blade of a -palm. The reader will easily see that in this animal the digging powers -are wonderfully developed. The peculiar form of the fore-foot closely -resembles that of the miner’s spade, while the curvature of the palm -serves, almost without exertion, to throw out the earth which has been -scooped away by the sharp claws.</p> - -<p>To watch a Mole burrow is really a curious sight, the only drawback -being that the animal sinks itself so rapidly beneath the earth that a -long inspection is impossible. I have kept several moles for the purpose -of watching their habits, and have always been interested in their mode -of burrowing. I can only define it by using the word “scrabbling.” The -animal scurries and hurries about, seeking for a tolerably soft piece of -ground. When it has found one, it travels no further, but scratches away -with its fore-paws with wonderful power and rapidity, seeming to sink, -as it were, into the earth, rather than to excavate a tunnel.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is an insect well known to entomologists, called the Mole-cricket, -because its structure and many of its habits are strangely similar to -those of the animal from which it derives its name. At the upper part of -the illustration is seen a portion of the fore-foot of the Mole-cricket, -and a better implement of excavation can hardly be imagined.</p> - -<p>The reader will probably have noticed that in both these creatures the -spade, if we may so call it, is not a mere flat plate, but is cleft into -several points. It thus answers the purpose of a fork as well as a -spade, the several points serving to break up the soil, and the flat -palm to throw the earth aside.</p> - -<p>This principle is carried out even more fully in the fore-paw of the -African Ant-bear, or Aard-vark (<i>Orycteropus Capensis</i>), a figure of -which is given in the illustration. This animal is a great excavator, -living in burrows of such dimensions that the wild boar is in the habit -of making its home in them after they are deserted.</p> - -<p>Something more, however, than a digging apparatus is needed for the -Ant-bear. This animal feeds almost wholly on the Termites, which it -obtains by tearing down the walls of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span> their dwellings. Now, as these -wonderful buildings are nearly as hard as brick, and, indeed, are -composed of the same materials, it is necessary that the claws of the -Ant-bear should be modified so as to be able to break through the walls. -Accordingly, they are much more curved than those of the Mole and the -Mole-cricket, and so serve for tearing as well as digging, being struck -into the wall, and thus pulling it down, just as a labourer breaks down -a bank with his mattock.</p> - -<p>Indeed, had we wished to extend these analogies still further, we might -easily have given the claws of the Aard-vark as a prototype of our -English mattock. The same weapons as possessed by the Ant-bear of -tropical America are used in exactly the same manner, but are even -stronger, and extend to such a length that when the animal walks, it -cannot stretch its claws out in front, but is obliged to double them -under its feet.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Shears and Scissors.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">These</span> instruments are sure signs of civilisation, no savage nations -having the least idea of them. Even the Kafir and Esquimaux tribes, -which are such admirable workers in skin, never use scissors in shaping -their garments, but invariably employ knives for that purpose. The -Chinese, however, seem to have known scissors from time immemorial, and -to have shaped them almost exactly like our own instruments. I possess -one pair of tailor’s shears from China in which there is only one ring, -namely, that for the thumb. The place of the other ring is taken by an -elongated, slightly curved and moderately pointed rod of steel, which is -used for tracing the pattern on the material preparatory to cutting it.</p> - -<p>Simple as the scissors may seem, they combine several very important -principles, namely, the inclined plane, the lever, and the cutting edge. -Were they to be merely two edges moving directly upon each other, their -effect would be comparatively slight; but, owing to the manner in which -the blades are fixed at one end, they are drawn as it were over the -object between them, and so divide it with comparative ease. In some -instruments, such as the pruning scissors, there is only one cutting -blade, the other being used merely as a support for the branch which is -being cut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span></p> - -<p>A well-known example of a single cutting blade is found in the -guillotine. In the earliest times of this invention an ordinary axe-head -was suspended above the neck of the criminal. It was found, however, -that its operation was very uncertain, simply because the blow was a -direct one, and not oblique. The blade was then set obliquely, as in the -present machine, and its effect was absolutely certain.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may be swordsmen, and therefore know the -power of the “drawing cut,” by which a great effect may be produced with -very little apparent exertion. Even in the simple operation of cutting -bread we always use the knife diagonally, though perhaps we may be -ignorant of the principle of the inclined plane.</p> - -<p>Next comes the principle of the lever, as exemplified by the handles of -the scissors. By lengthening these handles, the power of the blades is -enormously increased, as may be seen in the various shears in any great -iron-works, which cut through thick iron as if it were butter. Our own -garden shears for trimming borders show very well the power of the long -arms and short blade.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the animal world we find many examples of natural shears, one of the -best of which is afforded by the jaws of the Tortoise or Turtle. Owing -to the manner in which they feed, whether they be vegetarians or -carnivorous, their jaws are made for cutting, and not for lacerating or -mastication. They have no teeth, but each jaw is furnished with a horny -edge, as sharp as a knife-blade, and very strongly made. With these jaws -the animal can shred to pieces the objects which it attacks, just as if -it had been furnished with a pair of veritable shears. Any one who has -possessed an ordinary Tortoise must have noticed the havoc which it will -occasionally make in a garden. I had one of these reptiles for some -years, and was obliged to keep it under restraint, in consequence of the -power of its jaws.</p> - -<p>Being a Tortoise of discrimination, it took a great fancy to the -strawberry beds, and invariably picked out the ripest and best-flavoured -fruit. Reversing the usual proverb of making two bites at a cherry, the -Tortoise always took two bites at a strawberry, and sometimes three or -four, according to its size.</p> - -<p>At last, I was obliged to restrain it by boring a hole in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span> edge of -its shell, passing one end of a string through it, and fastening the -other to a peg driven into the ground. At first, I tied the string to a -brick, but the Tortoise was so strong that it dragged the brick about -the garden, leaving reminiscences of its progress in the channels which -it had cut through all kinds of vegetation with its scissor-like jaws.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_230_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_230_sml.jpg" width="403" height="166" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF TURTLE. -SHEARS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF TURTLE. -SHEARS.</span> -</div> - -<p>The reader, in comparing the illustration of the Turtle-jaws with that -of the Shears, will see at once how exact is the analogy between the -two. The sharp-edged jaws correspond with the blades of the shears, the -joint at the skull corresponds with the pivot of the shears, and the -muscles which move the jaws, but which could not be shown in the present -illustration, are the prototypes of the handles.</p> - -<p>In some of these creatures, especially those which are carnivorous, the -power of the jaw is tremendous. One of them, a Snapping Turtle, has been -known to bite off several fingers of a man’s hand as easily as if they -had been carrots. Some years ago I kept some Chicken Tortoises alive, -and was much struck with the enormous proportionate power of their jaws.</p> - -<p>They were quite little creatures, only a few inches in length, but their -appetites were astonishing, and their mode of satisfying their hunger -remarkable. They were always ravenous after meat, and had a curious way -of seizing their food in their mouths, placing one paw on either side of -their jaws, and then pushing the meat forcibly away, so as to cut out a -slice as large as their jaws.</p> - -<p>They were very good-tempered little things, but, small though they were, -I should have been very sorry to have one of them take a bite at my -finger by mistake.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span></p> - -<p>Knowing their general characteristics, I took care not to have any -living creature in the same vessel. But I have heard, from those who -have had practical experience, that Chicken Tortoises ought to be -banished from any place wherein fish are kept, especially if they be -gold fish, the Tortoise having a way of coming quietly beneath them, -biting out a mouthful of their bodies, and then disappearing with its -booty.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beside</span> the Tortoise, there are many creatures which possess natural -shears, such as the Locust, whose ravages are only too notorious. Then, -taking our own country, we have plenty of examples of insect shears. -Such is to be found in the jaws of the Cockchafer larva, or “White Grub” -as it is popularly called. It lives underground, and feeds chiefly on -the roots of herbage, shredding them to pieces with its shear-like jaws. -And, as it spends on the average three years in the one task of -perpetual eating, the damage which it does can be easily imagined.</p> - -<p>There is a very pretty English insect which admirably exemplifies the -power of the natural scissors. This is the Great Green Grasshopper -(<i>Acrida viridissima</i>), which is equally voracious in all its stages of -existence. It is always ready to use these jaws, and I do not recommend -the reader to allow his finger to get between them, or their points will -probably meet.</p> - -<p>One of these insects, indeed (<i>Decticus griseus</i>), has derived the name -of Wart-biter from its supposed use in curing warts. All that was -needful was to catch a Wart-biter, and hold one of the warts to its -jaws. It was sure to seize the wart, and bite it smartly, and there was -a firm belief that any one thus bitten would be freed from the unsightly -excrescence. The bite of the shear-like jaws caused much pain at the -time, and this very pain had in all probability something to do with the -cure.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">An</span> admirable example of the insect jaws used as scissors is to be found -in the well-known Leaf-cutter Bees, insects belonging to the genus -Megachile.</p> - -<p>They make their nests in burrows, sometimes in wood, and sometimes in -the ground, and form them in a very singular manner. After fixing upon a -suitable burrow, the Bee goes off<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span> to a tree, generally a rose, and, -using her jaws just as a tailor uses his shears, cuts off a nearly -semicircular piece of leaf, flies away with it to her home, and, by dint -of bending, pushing, and pulling it, she forces it to the bottom of the -cell. Successive pieces of leaf follow, until she has made a -thimble-shaped cell, and she then places at its end an egg and a supply -of honey and pollen.</p> - -<p>Cell after cell succeeds, each being introduced into its predecessor -just as thimbles are packed. Judging from a specimen in my collection, -there are about eight layers of leaves to form the walls of the cell, -and the average length of each piece of leaf rather exceeds half an -inch. The entire length of the cell-group is two inches and a half. The -leaf-slices are always cut from the edge, and, in my specimen of the -nest, the serrated outer edges of the leaves are all in one direction.</p> - -<p>Should any of my readers find one of these nests, it will be as well for -them to dip a needle point into diamond cement, and introduce it under -the outermost coating of leaves. Otherwise, when the leaves are dry, and -the insects break their way into the open air, the cells will probably -fall to pieces.</p> - -<p>These Bees are much more abundant than is usually thought. In -summer-time it is hardly possible to find a rose-bush on which are not a -number of leaves from which pieces of variable size and shape, but -always with a curved outline, have been cut as with scissors. While -cutting them, the Bee seems to trace out her pattern, as it were, by -using her feet like one leg of a pair of compasses, and her head as the -other leg. As soon as she has nearly finished the operation, she poises -herself on the wing, to prevent her weight from tearing away the leaf -irregularly, and then, while still on the wing, makes the last few -bites, and severs the leaf entirely.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Chisel and the Adze.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Already</span> we have seen how exact is the analogy between the scissors and -the turtle-jaw. As we are upon the subject of cutting instruments, we -will continue it, trying to discover some further analogies.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustrations we see three cutting tools made -by human hands—<i>i.e.</i> the Chisel, the Stone Adze of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span> Polynesia, and the -Steel Adze of this country. We begin with the Chisel.</p> - -<p>All those who have even a slight knowledge of anatomy know how curiously -exact is the resemblance of the Chisel of civilised life to the front -tooth of any Rodent animal. The head of the Beaver is here given as an -example, but the tooth of a mouse, rat, or rabbit, which can easily be -obtained, is quite as good an example. These teeth are made after a very -beautiful fashion. Their outer surface is covered with a plate of very -hard enamel, while the rest of the tooth is of bony matter, and -comparatively soft. Consequently, when the tooth is used, the enamel -plate forms a sharp edge, while the rest of it is worn away, thus -keeping the chisel-like end in its proper form.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_233_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_233_sml.jpg" width="416" height="125" alt="Image unavailable: TOOTH AND JAWS OF BEAVER. -CHISEL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TOOTH AND JAWS OF BEAVER. -CHISEL.</span> -</div> - -<p>The power of these teeth may be appreciated by any one who has been -bitten even by so small a rodent as a mouse, the sharp edges meeting in -the flesh, and causing a very painful wound. When the teeth are large, -as in the Beaver, and the jaws powerful, their force is something -wonderful, tree-trunks of considerable size being cut down quite easily.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may not be aware that the Chisel is -constructed on exactly the same principle as the tooth of the Rodent -animal. It is not entirely made of steel, as is generally thought. In -the first place, a valuable material would be needlessly wasted, and, in -the next place, the tool would not keep its edge except with infinite -labour in grinding.</p> - -<p>The principal part of the Chisel-blade is therefore made of soft iron, a -very thin plate of steel running along the back. This plate answers the -same purpose as the enamel in the tooth, while the soft iron takes the -place of the soft bone. Axe-blades, which are, in fact, formed like two -chisels placed back to back, are made on a similar principle, except -that the steel<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span> plate occupies the centre of the blade, and the soft -iron is on either side. Thus the thin plate of steel is easily brought -to an edge, while the soft iron can be ground away without any -difficulty.</p> - -<p>I do not mean to state that the inventor of this combination of thin -steel and soft iron had taken his idea from the Rodent tooth, but only -to show that the invention, beautiful, simple, and ingenious as it is, -has its prototype in Nature. I may here mention that the Plane-iron, -which is, in fact, a modified Chisel, is made in exactly the same -fashion.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> we come to the Adze.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_234_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_234_sml.jpg" width="413" height="180" alt="Image unavailable: ADZE-TEETH OF HIPPOPOTAMUS. -STONE ADZE OF POLYNESIA. STEEL ADZE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ADZE-TEETH OF HIPPOPOTAMUS. -STONE ADZE OF POLYNESIA. STEEL ADZE.</span> -</div> - -<p>In some respects there is much resemblance between the blade of the Adze -and the teeth of the Rodent, especially in their curve, which is almost -identical in both. This form is seen in the structure of other teeth -than those of Rodents. There is, for example, the tooth of the -Hippopotamus, which is not only curved, like that of the Rodent, but -bevelled off in a similar way at the tip. With these formidable teeth, -one of which is now before me, the Hippopotamus makes terrible havoc -among the herbage, mowing it down, so to speak, and stowing it away -wholesale in its enormous stomach. A Hippopotamus indeed, when angered, -has been known to sever a man’s body completely in two with a single -bite, so trenchant are the teeth, and so powerful the jaws.</p> - -<p>Then there is a little animal called the Hyrax, or Rock-rabbit, which is -the coney of Scripture. This creature is really one of the -pachydermatous group, although its small size, hairy coat, its activity -among the rocks, and its apparently rodent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> teeth, have induced many -persons to place it among that group. These teeth, however, like those -of the Hippopotamus, are bevelled off at their tips, and, as they -perform a similar office, they take a similar curve.</p> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that in the Stone Adze the bevelled edge much -more resembles the rodent tooth than does the Steel Adze, the reason -being evidently that stone is more fragile than steel, and requires -greater thickness. Still, the principle is the same in both, only the -metal is more attenuated than the stone.</p> - -<p>The Rodent or Hippopotamus tooth has still a great advantage over any -chisel or adze made by man, whether of stone or metal. As our tools are -blunted, we are forced to spend much time in sharpening them, and by -degrees grind the tool away until it becomes useless. Now, the teeth are -so arranged that their perpetual use, instead of blunting, only sharpens -them, and in proportion as they are worn away in front they are supplied -with fresh matter from behind, and perpetually pushed forwards, so that -they are self-renewing as well as self-sharpening.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Plane and Spokeshave.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">I have</span> already made mention of the Plane in connection with the Chisel, -and shown that, like that tool, it is formed on the same principle as -the Rodent tooth.</p> - -<p>The use of this important instrument in carpentering cannot be -overrated, as is shown by the numberless varieties which are used by -carpenters, and the different uses to which they are put, sometimes -merely smoothing a level surface, and sometimes forming a “moulding” -where ornament is required.</p> - -<p>In principle, a Plane is a cutting edge or chisel, pushed along the -object to be worked, and, the edge being guarded, taking off a very thin -shaving from the surface.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown the Plane in -action, with the thin shavings falling from it in curled masses. Perhaps -some of my readers may have visited some of the great iron-works, and -been struck with the use of the Plane as applied to metal instead of -wood, long iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span> shavings being taken off as easily as if they were -deal, and curling in just the same manner.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is an instrument very familiar to carpenters, called the -Spokeshave, on account of its use in trimming the spokes of wheels. -Different as it may be in appearance, it is identical in principle with -the plane, having an edge guarded by a piece of wood, so that the blade -cannot cut too deeply into the object on which it is employed. The chief -distinction, indeed, is, that the workman, instead of pushing the blade -from him, draws it to him.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_236_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_236_sml.jpg" width="362" height="265" alt="Image unavailable: HOOP-SHAVER BEE. -PLANE. SPOKESHAVE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HOOP-SHAVER BEE. -PLANE. SPOKESHAVE.</span> -</div> - -<p>When shaving was more in fashion than it is in these more sensible days, -there were many inventions to lessen the trouble, not to say the perils, -of shaving. To use the razor in a hurry was anything but an agreeable -occupation, especially if the weather were frosty, and the fingers so -chilled that they hardly knew whether or not they had the razor between -them.</p> - -<p>In order to render this very unpleasant task less disagreeable, some -ingenious individual invented the Guard Razor. The principal part of the -invention consisted in a plate of metal sufficiently thin not to add -materially to the weight of the razor, and sufficiently strong to resist -a moderate amount of pressure. This was fixed along the blade of the -razor in such a way that it just allowed the edge to show itself, and, -in fact,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span> converted the razor into a plane or spokeshave. The exact -amount of edge which might be shown was regulated by screws, and the -guard itself could be removed at pleasure, so as to allow of the razor -being sharpened.</p> - -<p>Now let us see if we can find any examples of the Plane or Spokeshave in -Nature.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">I trace</span> at least one example of the Plane in the insect world. More than -a hundred years ago, that very observant naturalist, Gilbert White, -noticed a bee performing a curious task. She was running up the stem of -the garden campion, holding her jaws extended, and stripping off the -down with all the dexterity of a hoop-shaver. She collected a bundle -nearly as large as herself, and then flew away with it. What she did -with her burden he knew not, but the history of the insect has been told -fully, though briefly, by Mr. F. Smith, in his “Catalogue of British -Hymenoptera:”—</p> - -<p>“Although the species belonging to this genus are numerous, and are -found both in the Old and New World, there is only one found in this -country, <i>Anthidium manicatum</i>; this is truly a summer bee, not making -its appearance before the latter part of June or beginning of July.</p> - -<p>“This insect, so far as my own observation has enabled me to ascertain, -does not construct its own burrow, but makes use of any hole which is -adapted to its purpose. I once detected a bee entering the hole above -the wheel of the sash-line in a summer-house; but its nests are most -commonly formed in the holes bored in old willow stumps by <i>Cossus -ligniperda</i> (the Goat-moth): formerly they were easily obtained in -Battersea Fields, where the willows abounded.</p> - -<p>“It is probable that when the parent insect has selected one of these -ready-formed tunnels, she enlarges the end used as the depository of the -nest, and this is easily effected, as the stumps in question, at the -depth of a couple of inches, consist of soft decayed wood.</p> - -<p>“The chamber being formed, the bee collects a quantity of down from -woolly-stemmed plants, with which she forms an outer coating. She then -constructs a number of cells for the reception of the pollen, or food of -the larva; they consist of a woolly material, mixed with some glutinous -matter which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> resists the moisture of the food they contain, and in -which the larva, being full fed, spins a brown silken cocoon. These bees -pass the winter in a larva state, and do not appear until midsummer.</p> - -<p>“In one respect, the sexes of this genus differ from most other bees, -the males being much larger than the females.”</p> - -<p>The reader will see from this account how exact is the analogy between -the carpenter’s plane and the jaws of the bee. In consequence of the -simile employed by Mr. White, the insect has been popularly known by the -title of the Hoop-shaver Bee. It is a tolerably common insect, and -abounds in the South of England.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="TOOLS_CHAPTER_II" id="TOOLS_CHAPTER_II"></a>TOOLS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> -<small>THE SAW AND ITS VARIETIES.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Cutting Tools and their working.—Structure of the Edge.—The -Kris.—Edge of a Razor.—The Sword and the Apple.—Australian -Saw.—Fretwork Saw.—Various Saw-flies.—The Pioneer’s -Saw.—Cutting Tools of Trichiosoma.—Side Teeth of the Saws.—The -Cordon Saw, or Band Saw.—Tooth-ribbon of Whelks, Slugs, and other -Molluscs.—The Dog-whelk, or Purpura.—The Circular -Saw.—Sawyer-beetles and their Mode of Work.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">S</span>TILL keeping to the Cutting Tools and their varieties, we come to the -Saw, <i>i.e.</i> the cutting tool set with teeth upon its edge. Now, in plain -fact, there is no cutting instrument that does not more or less partake -of the character of the Saw; for, in the first place, it is absolutely -impossible for man to grind an edge so fine that, when magnified, it -will not appear to be deeply notched, and, in the next place, its -cutting powers are greatly due to the notches and teeth, and the -direction of their points.</p> - -<p>We will take both these subjects in turn.</p> - -<p>First, as to the notches, or serrated edge. I have now before me two -instruments, each the best of their kind, and in both of which the -serrations are essential to efficacy. The first is a Malayan dagger, or -“kris,” and the second is a surgeon’s lancet, made by Ferguson, of -London.</p> - -<p>In the kris the edge is intentionally serrated, having been eaten away -by means of acids until the required effect was produced. The Malayans -know by experience that such an edge is most deadly in a weapon, and -that it will cut certain vital parts which a smoother edge might pass -without doing any damage.</p> - -<p>Now we will take the lancet, and put it under the microscope,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span> when it -assumes the most curious resemblance to the kris. Its mirror-like -surface looks as if it had been very roughly treated with a coarse file, -while its thin and delicate edge, which is perfectly smooth to the eye, -and which will pass through a piece of stretched wash-leather without -any apparent opposition, becomes as rough and jagged as that of the -Malayan weapon.</p> - -<p>Take even, for example, the common butcher’s knife, which is perpetually -being sharpened on the “steel” that hangs at his belt. The reader may -observe that the butcher does not rub the blade of his knife backwards -and forwards on the steel, as unskilful persons do. Rapid as is the -movement gained by constant practice, any one may see that the blade is -always moved in one direction, so as to force the microscopical teeth to -point one way, and so to act as a saw when the knife is drawn across the -meat.</p> - -<p>The power of these teeth or notches may be inferred from a well-known -fact. If a razor, no matter how sharp, be pressed upon the human skin -without any “draw,” it will indent the skin, but not cut it, while the -slightest drawing movement will cause a deep wound. It is the knowledge -of this fact that enables an expert swordsman to sever an apple placed -on the palm of the bare hand, without even scratching the skin. I have -witnessed this feat, and at once saw that it was due to the absence of -any “draw” to the cut. The apple was laid on the palm of the hand, which -was opened as widely as possible, so as to flatten it. The sword was -then brought down on the apple with a sort of chopping movement, so -that, although it indented the skin, it did not even inflict a scratch.</p> - -<p>By the use of the “drawing” movement, the same sword severed a gauze -veil laid across it, the two halves floating in opposite directions. By -the same cut, I have seen some astonishing feats performed with an -Indian sword now in my collection, the objects of attack falling asunder -as if by magic, without any apparent force being used.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> now glanced at the principle of the Saw, we will proceed to some -of its details.</p> - -<p>The simplest form of Saw in existence is that which is in use among the -Australian natives, and consists of obsidian flakes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span> set along one side -of a stick. It looks a rude and inefficient affair enough, but it can -cut better than might have been thought, as I can testify from -experiments on such a saw in my collection.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_241_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_241_sml.jpg" width="466" height="235" alt="Image unavailable: SAW OF COMMON SAW-FLY (MAGNIFIED). GROOVES CUT BY SAW IN BARK. -HAND-SAW. TENON SAW. PIONEER’S SAW-SWORD." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SAW OF COMMON SAW-FLY (MAGNIFIED). GROOVES CUT BY SAW IN BARK. -HAND-SAW. TENON SAW. PIONEER’S SAW-SWORD.</span> -</div> - -<p>Many as are the varieties of the Saw, the principle is the same in all, -and the chief distinction lies in the shape and arrangement of the -teeth, according to the work which they have to do. Watch-spring Saws, -for example, which have to cut metal, have their teeth so slight as to -be hardly perceptible, and arranged nearly in a line with each other. -The Fretwork Saws, which have to cut delicate patterns in wood, with the -slightest possible waste of material, are of the same character. Then we -have the long curved teeth of the Circular Saws, which tear their way -savagely through great tree-trunks, and fill the air with clouds of -sawdust. There are also the Tenon Saw, with its thin blade and broad -back; the pioneer’s saw for cutting green wood, with its double array of -teeth, so as to make a wide “kerf” in which it shall not be clogged; -together with many others that we cannot enumerate here.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now examine some Saws as found in Nature.</p> - -<p>I need scarcely say that some of the best examples of natural saws are -furnished by those insects which are known to entomologists as -Tenthredinidæ, and to the general world as Saw-flies. These insects are -supplied by Nature with a pair of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span> most remarkable saws, which aid them -in depositing their eggs. Indeed, without these instruments, the whole -race of Saw-flies would long ago have become extinct.</p> - -<p>They haunt almost every kind of tree and many plants, and one valuable -plant, the Turnip, is so devastated by them, that whole crops are -sometimes swept away. As, therefore, the knowledge of the life-history -of any insect will tell us whether to protect or destroy it, and the -best method of adopting either course, we will cast a hasty glance at -some of our commonest Saw-flies, the instruments which they employ, the -mode in which they use them, and the analogies between them and the saws -made by the hand of man.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it must be observed that the use of these saws is to -cut grooves in young bark, these grooves being the depositories of their -eggs. It follows, therefore, that as a tolerably wide groove is needed, -the saw-blade is a tolerably thick one, and the teeth set on the same -principle as that which is employed in the saw-sword of the pioneer. -When the microscope is applied to the cutting instrument of the Saw-fly, -it reveals the fact that there are two horny saws, which work -alternately in their grooves, and that they are strengthened by a thick -plate of horn on their backs.</p> - -<p>The system of toothing is very complicated. Not only are the sides as -well as the edges of the saws toothed, but each tooth is furnished with -smaller teeth, after the fashion of the shark’s wonderfully effective -cutting apparatus. These subsidiary teeth vary greatly in shape and size -according to the species, and in some cases each tooth is quite a -complicated structure. In <i>Trichiosoma lucorum</i>, for example, a bee-like -insect, very common upon hawthorn, the teeth are extremely beautiful. It -is difficult to describe them without diagrams, but I will try to give -the reader an idea of them.</p> - -<p>Each tooth is somewhat of a lancet shape, but is not terminated by a -single point. At the tip comes the secondary tooth, which is conical and -stands on a footstalk. The cone, however, is not simple, but is made of -some seven or eight cutting plates, each smaller than its predecessor, -and the last being a sharp conical point. The reader may imagine how -effective such a saw would be in cutting green wood, the toothed sides -and the subsidiary teeth alike preventing the blades from clogging, -while<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span> the alternate movement of the saws enables them to do double work -in the same time.</p> - -<p>Mr. Westwood, who examined these insects very closely, throws out, in -his “Modern Classification of Insects,” the idea which forms the subject -of this book. Writing of the cutting weapon of the Saw-flies, he remarks -that “from its admirable construction it cannot be doubted that a -careful examination of its various modifications might furnish ideas for -improved mechanical instruments.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Gosse, in his “Evenings at the Microscope,” points out that, -beautiful and elaborate as these instruments are, they are but the -sheaths of a still finer and more delicate pair of saws. These secondary -saws have only a few teeth on the edge, and these near the point, -whereas the sides are furnished with a number of sharp blades, set on -their edges, slightly overlapping each other, and directed backwards. -There is a similar structure on the ovipositor of the Sirex, as we shall -see when we come to treat of Boring Instruments.</p> - -<p>Although the saws are made expressly so that they shall not stick in the -wood, there are many instances known where female Saw-flies have been -found dead on the branches, their saws still in the last groove which -they have cut. I am inclined to think that these must be females which -have deposited all their eggs, and which have died, as do nearly all -insects under similar circumstances. This opinion is strengthened by -some observations made by Mr. J. K. Lord on the Cicada, the female of -which is furnished with a similar ovipositor:—</p> - -<p>“I was curious to watch the female depositing her eggs.</p> - -<p>“She first clasps the branch on both sides with her legs, and with the -ends of the file very carefully slits up the bark. Then, placing the -instrument longitudinally, she files away until she has obtained -sufficient length and breadth. The <i>small</i> teeth of the files are now -used crosswise of this fissure, until a trench is made in the soft pith.</p> - -<p>“When large enough, slowly down the groove in the centre of the -instrument glides a small pearly egg, pointed at both ends, and so -transparent that the little grub within is clearly discernible. Gently -she lays it within its bed, and then drops a thin gummy material on it, -to secure it from moisture. This finished, she proceeds to deposit -another, and so on, until a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span> sufficient number are produced to fill the -fissure; then over all she drags the everted bark. It is easy to -perceive where the Cicada has been concealing her brood, by the -elevation on the branch.</p> - -<p>“In this manner she deposits about seven hundred eggs, going from branch -to branch, her marvellous instinct teaching her to select the most -suitable wood for the purpose. The time occupied in constructing each -nest was from fifteen to twenty minutes. Her earthly mission finished, -she drops, fainting and exhausted, from the branch, and dies.</p> - -<p>“The male, who is always trilling his refrain, goes on, indifferent, or -unconscious, that the task of his faithful spouse is finished, singing -even, until his time comes—then he too drops beside her. Thus the songs -one by one cease,—not only the Cicada’s, but all the forest choir, and -give place to blasts that sigh in mournful music through the leafless -trees.”</p> - -<p>The Sirex and several of the larger Ichneumon-flies are often found dead -in like manner, and I have no doubt from the same cause. An elaborate -description of the beautiful double saws of the Cicada is given by Mr. -Westwood in the work already quoted, together with illustrations.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Ribbon Saw, Cordon or Band Saw.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> some of my readers may be acquainted with a saw which has of -late years come into extensive use—namely, the Ribbon Saw, Cordon Saw, -or Band Saw. This is an endless steel band toothed on one edge, and -passing over two wheels. It has the advantage of being of almost any -breadth, some being several inches wide, while others are mere narrow -ribbons, barely the sixth of an inch wide. The fretwork of pianos and -other articles of furniture is cut almost exclusively by the Cordon Saw. -A thick piece of wood is cut of the requisite shape, and the upper and -under surfaces planed quite true to each other. The pattern is traced on -the upper surface, and a very narrow Cordon Saw is then applied to it, -cutting completely through the thick block, and adapting itself to all -the intricacies of the pattern. The block is then cut into thin slices, -so that a number of pieces of fretwork can be made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span> with comparative -ease. To those who have been accustomed to cutting fretwork with the -slow hand-saw, the Cordon Saw is simply fascinating, the slender steel -ribbon cutting through the wood with wonderful rapidity and very little -sound.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beautiful</span> as this invention is, it was long ago anticipated in Nature; -and the Cordon Saws, which we shall now see, are armed with teeth many -more in number, and far more complicated in detail, than those of any -saw made by the hand of man. I allude to the Tooth-ribbon possessed by -many of our common molluscs, such as the Limpet, the Whelk, the -Periwinkle, the Slug, &c. The last mentioned of these creatures -possesses a natural Cordon Saw with nearly twenty-seven thousand teeth, -and scarcely a tooth that is not elaborately cut into secondary teeth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_245_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_245_sml.jpg" width="444" height="225" alt="Image unavailable: PORTION OF TOOTH-RIBBON OF WHELK (HIGHLY MAGNIFIED). -RIBBON OR CORDON SAW." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PORTION OF TOOTH-RIBBON OF WHELK (HIGHLY MAGNIFIED). -RIBBON OR CORDON SAW.</span> -</div> - -<p>As all these creatures have their teeth differently formed and set, -according to the species, it will be impossible to describe them -separately. I will therefore restrict myself to the Tooth-ribbon of the -common Whelk, a specimen of which is now before me. When viewed through -the microscope, it is found to consist of a flat membranous ribbon, on -which are set three rows of teeth, those of the outer row being hooked, -and those of the inner one plain.</p> - -<p>The outer teeth are formed somewhat like the Hebrew letter כ, both of -the points being very sharp, and the central part being furnished with -two secondary teeth. All these<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> teeth overlap each other, so that some -care in manipulation is required before their form can be made out.</p> - -<p>Along the centre of the tooth-ribbon run successive rows of small, -lancet-shaped teeth, six in a row, so that altogether there are eight -teeth in each row.</p> - -<p>The power of this weapon is astonishing. Some of my readers may be aware -that Whelks are carnivorous beings, and that they swarm upon any dead -animal which may be found in the sea. Indeed, when we hear of the -mutilations which take place on dead corpses after a shipwreck, and -which are generally attributed to fishes, we may make up our minds that -the real delinquents are the Whelks, together with various crustacea, -and that the principal instrument in effecting such mutilation is the -tooth-ribbon which has just been described.</p> - -<p>The Whelks feed largely upon other molluscs, in spite of their shells. A -periwinkle has a peculiarly hard shell, and yet Mr. Rymer Jones saw a -Dog-whelk (<i>Purpura lapillus</i>) eat a periwinkle in a single afternoon, -first boring a hole through its shell with the tooth-ribbon, and then, -by means of the same weapon, licking it, so to speak, out of its shell.</p> - -<p>The Periwinkle itself has a similar tooth-ribbon, and so have the Limpet -and the pretty Top-shell. These creatures are vegetarians, but they are -furnished with similarly armed tongues, and use them in the same way. -Nothing is easier than to see these tooth-ribbons in use. When sea-water -is kept in glass vessels, a green flocculence is sure to collect upon -the glass and to render it opaque.</p> - -<p>If, however, a few Periwinkles and Top-shells are placed in the tank, -they immediately set to work at this confervoid growth, and by means of -the tooth-ribbon sweep off the green substance, leaving the glass nearly -clean. This movement can be seen with the naked eye, but with the -assistance of a pocket lens the action of the tooth-ribbon is -beautifully shown as it issues from its socket, makes its sweeping -curve, with the tiny teeth glittering like specks of glass, and then is -withdrawn ready for another sweep.</p> - -<p>Should sea-water and living Periwinkles not be easily obtained, the same -phenomenon may be observed in fresh water, and with the common -Pond-snail, which may be caught by thousands in any stream and in most -ponds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Circular Saw.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">In</span> one sense the Cordon Saw is a Circular Saw, but we now restrict the -name to the tool which has a circular blade, more or less deeply toothed -on the edge. The largest and coarsest of these saws are of enormous -diameter, have teeth several inches in length, and can cut a large -tree-trunk asunder in a wonderfully short time.</p> - -<p>There is a huge saw of this kind in Chatham Dockyard. It is kept in a -sort of cellar covered with flap doors, where it really has the air of -some dread monster lying in wait for prey. A tree-trunk is brought for -it to feed upon. The doors slowly open, the saw emerges, revolves so -fast that the eye cannot detect the teeth, seizes on the tree-trunk, -tears its way through with a scream and roar, and then sinks back into -its cellar. I have often watched this saw in action, and have never been -able to get over a kind of feeling that it was alive.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_247_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_247_sml.jpg" width="433" height="211" alt="Image unavailable: SAWYER-BEETLE. -CIRCULAR SAW." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SAWYER-BEETLE. -CIRCULAR SAW.</span> -</div> - -<p>Now, if we suppose the saw to be pierced in the centre, and to have -teeth on the inside instead of the outside, it would be equally -efficacious; and, indeed, we have several tools used for cutting iron -bars or pipes, that are constructed on a similar principle, though the -cutting tooth revolves slowly instead of rapidly, and is urged by a -lever handle.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is in Nature a Circular Saw of just such a character, the teeth -having their points directed inwards, and not outwards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span></p> - -<p>In tropical America there are several large beetles which, like our -Stag-beetle, feed upon the sap of trees, and obtain it by wounding the -young branches with their jaws.</p> - -<p>One or two of them are pointed out as having the power of cutting a -branch completely off by seizing it in their deeply toothed jaws, and -flying round and round the branch so as to convert themselves into a -circular saw. The late Mr. Waterton showed me a branch which had fallen -on his head, and which was said to have been cut off by the -Sawyer-beetle, as the insect is called. He did not actually see the -insect at work, but he had no doubt that the natives were right who told -him that it was the work of beetles’ jaws. Certainly the cut looked -exactly as if it had been made in the way described. The branch was -somewhat thicker than an ordinary walking-stick.</p> - -<p>The truth of this statement has often been denied, but I have -ascertained from personal observers that it is literally true. A loud -noise is produced by the operation, and, as the female is never seen to -perform it, the general idea is that it is a call to its mate.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="TOOLS_CHAPTER_III" id="TOOLS_CHAPTER_III"></a>TOOLS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> -<small>BORING TOOLS.—STRIKING TOOLS.—GRASPING TOOLS.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Bradawl and the Gimlet defined.—Natural Bradawls.—The -Ichneumon-flies.—A Pimpla engaged in Boring Operations.—Principle -of the Wedge.—Resisting Power of Earth.—Pitching Tents in -Sand.—Hidden Forces of Nature.—The Aloe-leaf and its Growth.—A -cruel Punishment.—Natural Gimlets.—Ovipositor of the Sirex, and -its Analogy to a Carpenter’s Gimlet.—The Auger and the -Gad-fly.—Striking Tools.—The Hammer.—Origin and Development of -the Tool.—The Axe.—The Woodpecker and the Nuthatch.—The -Ivory-billed Woodpecker.—Grasping Tools.—Pincers and their -Modifications.—Sugar-tongs and Coal-tongs.—Natural -Pincers.—Bivalve Molluscs.—The Clam’s Grip.—The Earwig.—Crab -and Lobster Claws.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Boring Tools.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">N</span>EXT in importance to the edged tools which cut, come the pointed tools -by which holes can be bored. We have an abundance of such tools, but -they can all be reduced to two types, namely, those which, like the -Bradawl, are forced between the fibres, and those which, like the -Gimlet, cut away the material as they pass through it.</p> - -<p>They may, again, be shown to be different modifications of a single -principle—<i>i.e.</i> that of the Wedge or Inclined Plane, which, as has -already been shown, is identical with that of the screw. The Bradawl is, -in fact, a sharp wedge, which is forced through the fibres, sometimes -being merely forced between them, and sometimes cutting them, and thus -forcing aside the severed fibres.</p> - -<p>A natural example of the Bradawl is to be found in various -Ichneumon-flies, especially those with very long ovipositors, which are -intended for boring into wood.</p> - -<p>All the Ichneumons are parasitic, laying their eggs in the larvæ of -other insects, mostly those of moths and butterflies.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> Generally these -larvæ exist in the open air, and the Ichneumon-fly has little difficulty -in piercing them. But there are some which live either in wood or -underground, and, in order to reach their hidden bodies, the Ichneumon -is furnished with an extremely long and sharply pointed ovipositor.</p> - -<p>This wonderful instrument is not so thick as an ordinary horsehair, -although it is composed of three portions, and seems to be utterly -inadequate to the task which it has to perform. Ascertaining by its -instinct the exact locality of the caterpillar which it desires to -pierce, the Ichneumon-fly clings firmly to the tree, bends the body so -as to bring the point of the ovipositor against the wood, and, by moving -the abdomen backwards and forwards, gradually works the instrument into -the wood, sometimes piercing it to a considerable depth.</p> - -<p>Mr. Westwood once saw an Ichneumon-fly thus boring its way into a dry -post, the wood of which must have been very hard. When she had bored far -enough, she partially withdrew the ovipositor, and then re-plunged it -into the hole that she had made, as if she were depositing eggs. While -engaged in this operation, she stood very high on her long legs, resting -only on the extremities of the feet. She belonged to the genus Pimpla.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> principle of the Wedge or Inclined Plane is admirably shown by -objects which we pass unheeded every day, and yet afford wonderful -examples of the power of the wedge.</p> - -<p>Scarcely any vegetable growth is so plentiful as grass, which has been -used in that sense by the highest of all authorities, “which to-day is, -and to-morrow is cast into the oven.” Grass forces its way -everywhere—not only in cultivated grounds, but in the wildest of lands, -where there is scarcely any nurture for it. Even among the habitations -of mankind the grass will have its way, and clothes deserted housetops -with verdure, and forces itself between the stones that pave neglected -streets.</p> - -<p>Place side by side some of these stones, together with a very young and -tender Grass-blade, and it will seem to be impossible that so fragile an -object should be able to exert any influence on the solid stone. Let any -one try to push a sharp skewer between the stones, and he will find that -he has to exert power sufficient to crush a thousand grass-blades. Yet -these slight and delicate objects will force themselves between<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span> the -stones, and sometimes to such an extent as to cover the whole roadway -with verdure.</p> - -<p>The force which is employed is simply marvellous, and can only be -appreciated by those who know the resisting power of earth, however dry -and loose it may be. Even sand has so strong a resistance that tents can -be pitched in the desert without difficulty. Of course the ordinary -tent-peg would be useless, but the desert dwellers can pitch their tents -with perfect security. They fasten the tent-rope to a branch or piece of -bush, scrape a hole in the sand, put the bush into the hole, cover it up -again, and it will withstand almost any strain, though it be only -covered with a few inches of sand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_251_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_251_sml.jpg" width="427" height="196" alt="Image unavailable: GRASS-BLADES. -WEDGE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GRASS-BLADES. -WEDGE.</span> -</div> - -<p>When miners blast rocks with gunpowder, they take advantage of the -resisting power of sand. They bore a suitable hole, place a charge of -gunpowder at the bottom, and then merely pour loose sand into the hole -until it is filled. When the powder explodes, the rock or coal is -shattered to pieces, but the sand is not blown out of the hole. This -operation is called “tamping.”</p> - -<p>Every one, again, knows how firm are gate-posts, and how they resist the -weight, jarring, and leverage of a heavy gate, all because they are sunk -a little way into the earth.</p> - -<p>Considering, therefore, that such fragile things as young grass-blades -can force their way through the superincumbent weight, we can but be -amazed at the aggregate of active force which is in full operation in -every pasture field and garden lawn.</p> - -<p>As far as I know, not being much of a botanist, every seed that springs -up does so on the wedge principle, though the form of the wedge may be -varied.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span></p> - -<p>A terrible example of the force which is exercised by this principle -among the vegetables is shown in some parts of the world where the Aloe -flourishes in a wild state. In our colder clime the Aloe, though it does -live in the open air, is a slow-growing plant. But, in its own land, it -shoots up with a surprising vigour, and its sharply pointed and -saw-edged leaves are said to grow to the extent of six inches in a -single night.</p> - -<p>Taking advantage of this rapid, and, at the same time, powerful growth, -the natives, when they want to punish a man with more than ordinary -severity, tie him hand and foot, and bind him to the earth just over a -sprouting aloe plant, and leave him there. In twenty-four hours the man -is nearly certain to be dead, the aloe-leaf having forced itself -completely through his body. Or, if he be not actually dead, he lives in -frightful tortures, which are continually increased by the flinty point -and notches forcing themselves slowly, but surely, through the body.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">For</span> an example of the Gimlet we may take the ovipositor of the Sirex, an -insect which I believe has no popular name. It is coloured much after -the same manner as the hornet, and is often mistaken for that insect by -those who are not versed in entomology. And, as its long and straight -ovipositor is generally taken for a hornet’s sting, the insect assumes a -double terror to the ignorant.</p> - -<p>Now, the real fact is, that in its larval stage of existence the Sirex -feeds upon the wood of the fir-tree—a diet which, to our ideas, is -about as unsatisfactory as can well be imagined. In order that the young -Sirex may be within reach of food, the egg must be introduced deeply -into the body of the tree, and, for the egg to be so received, a channel -must be cut for it.</p> - -<p>This is done by means of the marvellously formed ovipositor. Many -admirable descriptions have been given of the head of this instrument -and its boring powers, but I am not aware that any one has noticed the -secondary cutting blades that are set along the shaft of the principal -borer, and which answer exactly the same purpose as the spiral cutting -edge of the gimlet or auger.</p> - -<p>Not being desirous of repeating my own observations in different<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> words, -I transfer to these pages a short account of the ovipositor of the -Sirex, as examined by me when writing my work on British Insects, -entitled “Insects at Home,” and published by Messrs. Longmans and Co.:—</p> - -<p>“I very strongly recommend any of my readers who may obtain a female -Sirex to disengage the actual borer from its two-bladed sheath, and -examine it with the aid of a microscope. A half-inch object-glass will -give quite a sufficient power.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_253_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_253_sml.jpg" width="401" height="286" alt="Image unavailable: ŒSTRUS. BORING TOOL OF SIREX AND LARVA. -AUGERS. -BRADAWLS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ŒSTRUS. BORING TOOL OF SIREX AND LARVA. -AUGERS. -BRADAWLS.</span> -</div> - -<p>“It is straight, stiff, and elastic, as if made of steel, and, if bent, -will spring back to its proper form with the elasticity of a Toledo -rapier.</p> - -<p>“But the borer possesses an auxiliary cutting apparatus which places it -far above the rymer in point of efficacy. Even with an ordinary -magnifying lens, it is easy to see that the end of the borer is -developed into a sharp head, very much resembling that of a -boarding-pike, and that the outline of the shaft is broken into a series -of notches.</p> - -<p>“The half-inch glass, however, discloses a marvellous example of -mechanical excellence. The head of the borer is then seen to be armed -with long, sharp teeth, slightly curved inwards, and acting just as does -the carpenter’s ordinary centrebit.</p> - -<p>“So much for the head of the borer: we will now turn to the shaft.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span></p> - -<p>“It appears that, in order to make a clean-cut hole for the reception of -the egg, the shaft of the borer has to finish the task which the head -begins. Accordingly, it is armed on each of its sides with a series of -hard, sharp-edged ridges, running diagonally across it, and acting -exactly as do the sharp ridges of a coffee-mill.”</p> - -<p>In point of fact, the ovipositor of the Sirex is the natural type of the -improved gimlet of the present day. Instead, however, of having a -single, spiral, sharp-edged groove running along the whole length of the -shaft, it has a series of small, sharp blades, set exactly in the same -line as is taken by the spiral groove, and acting in exactly the same -manner—i.e. by cutting out successive portions of wood, and, by the -diagonal position of the blades, throwing out the debris as fast as it -is cut.</p> - -<p>I cannot but think that, if any modern tool manufacturer could take as -his model the saw-like ovipositor of the Tenthredinidæ, and the -auger-like ovipositor of the present insect, he would produce a series -of most valuable implements, possessing powers far beyond those of -ordinary tools.</p> - -<p>These short blades are arranged just like the “studs” on modern shells, -and very much resemble them in shape, though not in material.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Auger finds also a natural representative in the ovipositor of an -insect.</p> - -<p>That of the common Gad-fly (<i>Œstrus bovis</i>) is most beautifully -constructed. It is tubular in form, and is of a telescopic nature, -consisting of four tubes of different sizes, the smaller fitting into -the larger just as is done with the joints of a common telescope, or -those of a Japanese fishing-rod.</p> - -<p>The end of the ovipositor is developed into little projections, some of -which are armed with hard, sharp points, which act exactly like the -cutting edge of the auger. This elaborate appliance is necessary on -account of the thick, tough skin of the ox, which the Gad-fly has to -penetrate before it can deposit its eggs. Perhaps the reader may be -aware of the fact that the modern system of cutting channels in stone -with the diamond point, as was so well exemplified in the Mont Cenis -Tunnel, is but an imitation, and an imperfect one, of the method adopted -by the Gad-fly. We shall soon recur to this instrument.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Striking Tools.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">If</span> we search the records of antiquity as left by races of men that have -for countless ages vanished from the face of the earth, we shall find -that in some shape or other the Hammer was a tool in constant use, and -that in principle, though not in material, there was no difference -between the Hammer of the Stone Age and that of a blacksmith of the -present day.</p> - -<p>The development of the instrument can easily be traced, especially as it -is a tool which does not admit of much elaboration.</p> - -<p>The original hammer was evidently a simple stone, and answered equally -as a tool and a weapon. As, however, man progressed towards -civilisation, he found that the stone itself was insufficient for his -needs, and that he required much more force. The most obvious mode of -doing so was to take a larger stone, but this expedient soon became -valueless, inasmuch as a large stone was a cumbrous instrument to -handle, and could not be directed with any certainty or delicacy.</p> - -<p>The principle of the lever was then applied to the stone, which was -affixed to a handle, and thus became elevated into the rank of a -comparatively civilised tool. Sometimes the stone had a hole bored -through it, into which the handle of the hammer was inserted, as is the -case with most of our present hammers and pickaxes. Sometimes the end of -the handle was enlarged, and the stone thrust through it, as is now done -with the axes of Southern Africa. Sometimes a long, flexible rod was -used by way of handle, the centre of it taking two turns round the -stone, and the ends being lashed together. Handles thus made may be seen -in any blacksmith’s forge of the present day.</p> - -<p>The tool thus made was soon developed into various forms for different -uses. By lengthening and pointing the head, it became a pick for -loosening the earth. By widening and flattening the head, it became a -hatchet; and, by performing the same alteration in the pickaxe blade, it -became an adze. I possess a singularly ingenious tool from Borneo, in -which the head is movable, so as to be used as a hatchet or adze at -pleasure.</p> - -<p>In Demmin’s “Weapons of War” many such hammers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> axes are figured. -One of them is very remarkable. It is an ancient war-hammer made of -black stone, and is shaped exactly like a pickaxe, except that one end -of the head is carved into a semblance of some animal’s head. The handle -is passed through an oval hole in the centre, just like our pickaxes of -the present day. This remarkable example of the art of the Stone Age was -found in Russia. The head was nearly a foot in length.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span> possesses many examples of this principle, of which I have chosen -two, namely, the Woodpecker and the Nuthatch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_256_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_256_sml.jpg" width="410" height="204" alt="Image unavailable: NUTHATCH. -WOODPECKER. -HAMMER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NUTHATCH. -WOODPECKER. -HAMMER.</span> -</div> - -<p>The wonderful power of beak possessed by both these birds is familiar to -every one, but it is not so generally known that they do not merely peck -after the usual fashion among birds, <i>i.e.</i> delivering the stroke with -the force derived from the neck alone. These birds have an additional -leverage. Grasping the tree firmly with their feet, they not only peck, -but swing their whole bodies with each stroke, bringing their weight to -bear upon the object. They thus convert themselves into living hammers, -the feet acting the part of the human hand, the body of the bird being -analogous to the handle of the hammer, and the head playing the same -part in both cases.</p> - -<p>In England these birds are not known as well as they ought to be, partly -because they are both very shy creatures, and partly because the gradual -extinction of forests has deprived them, and especially the Woodpecker, -of their undisturbed homes. Yet those who are early risers may see both -birds in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span> places where their presence is quite unsuspected, except, -perhaps, by those who can recognise the signs which they have left -behind them.</p> - -<p>There is a common saying to the effect that “a carpenter is known by his -chips,” and the proverb is equally true of the Nuthatch and the -Woodpecker. Nutshells scientifically split asunder, and jammed into the -rough bark of a tree-trunk, betray at once the Nuthatch to the eye of a -naturalist; while an accumulation of shattered bark, splinters of wood, -and similar debris announces, in equally bold type, that a Woodpecker -has been at work.</p> - -<p>The power of the Woodpecker’s beak may be gathered from Wilson’s -well-known account of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker, which he had wounded -and was trying to rear. While staying at an hotel, he locked the bird in -his room, and, on returning within an hour, found an astonishing state -of things.</p> - -<p>“He had mounted along the side of the window, nearly as high as the -ceiling, a little below which he had begun to break through. The bed was -covered with large pieces of plaster, the lath was exposed for at least -fifteen inches square, and a hole large enough to admit the fist opened -to the weather boards, so that in less than another hour he would -certainly have succeeded in making his way through.</p> - -<p>“I now tied a string round his leg, and, fastening it to the table, -again left him. I wished to preserve his life, and had gone off in -search of suitable food for him. As I re-ascended the stairs, I heard -him again at work, and on entering had the mortification to perceive -that he had almost ruined the mahogany table to which he was fastened, -and on which he had wreaked his whole vengeance.”</p> - -<p>The beak of the Woodpecker was employed upon its new master quite as -forcibly as upon walls and furniture, but Wilson was of too generous a -nature to resent his injuries, and lamented sincerely when the bird -died.</p> - -<p>The reader will probably observe that the Hammer which has been given as -an illustration of this principle is the ordinary geologist’s hammer, -and that it has been selected because its head is so formed that one end -can be employed for the usual tasks of a hammer, while the other end, -with its slight curve and sharp point, is, in fact, a sort of pickaxe, -and used<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span> for the same purposes. Indeed, this instrument is an almost -exact reproduction of the stone hammer which has already-been mentioned, -the blunt end being represented by the carved head, and the sharp end by -the pickaxe point.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Grasping Tools.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Already</span> we have spoken of the Shears and Scissors, together with their -mode of action and dependence upon leverage. We now come to a set of -tools which, although equally dependent on leverage, develop that power -by grasping instead of cutting. Without these tools, the arts and -sciences could have scarcely made themselves felt, as there are but few -manufactures in which the artificer does not require a grasping power -far superior to that of the human hand.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the enormous power of the Pincers is never shown to better -advantage than in the great iron-works, where enormous masses of -white-hot metal have to be brought under the blows of the steam hammer. -I do not know of anything which affords a more imposing realisation of -the Divine command that man is to subdue the earth as well as to -replenish it. There is the vast hammer, striking blows which are felt -throughout a large area as if a succession of earthquakes had been let -loose. In the furnace there is an enormous mass of iron, heated to such -a degree that an unpractised eye could no more dare to look at it than -to stare a midsummer sun out of face.</p> - -<p>Where are the armies who are to cope with such forces? A few stalwart -and grimy men come forward, each man with a curious but unmistakable air -of one who wages a war of giants. The furnace door is opened, and out -rushes a blinding light which strikes on the eyeballs like a shock of -electricity. The men seize the handles of an enormous pair of Pincers, -suspended in the middle by a chain, and though no unpractised eye can -distinguish the glowing iron from the enveloping fire, they run the -Pincers into the furnace, seize the iron, swing it to the anvil, and -turn it this way and that way as easily as if it were a feather, while -the blows of the gigantic hammer descend upon it, enveloping them in a -torrent of sparks which spurt as if they were mere splashes of water, -and seem to do them no more harm.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span></p> - -<p>Taking the minor exposition of the Pincers principle and their use, we -may mention the ordinary Pincers which are mostly used for drawing -nails. Then there are the smaller Pincers called Pliers, all of which -are constructed on the same principle, and the chief of which are the -Round-nosed Pliers, the Long-nosed Pliers, and the Gas Pliers. Sometimes -a mixture of the Hammer and the Pincers is ingeniously contrived, as in -the tool which is represented on the right hand of the illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_259_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_259_sml.jpg" width="400" height="218" alt="Image unavailable: MUSSEL-SHELL. EARWIG. LOBSTER-CLAW. -SUGAR-TONGS. -PINCERS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">MUSSEL-SHELL. EARWIG. LOBSTER-CLAW. -SUGAR-TONGS. -PINCERS.</span> -</div> - -<p>Then we have the still smaller and feebler Pincers of civilised life, -such as the Sugar-tongs and the ordinary Coal-tongs of our firesides. -Anatomists could have had no practical existence without the Pincers, of -which their beautifully constructed and much-elaborated forceps are but -variations.</p> - -<p>Take, again, the dentist, with his series of shining instruments, which -he so carefully keeps out of sight until he has got his patient safely -in that awful chair, and which glide, as by a conjurer’s trick, empty -into an open mouth, and return in a few seconds with a tooth between -their polished jaws.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">All</span> these instruments have their parallels in Nature, and in many -instances the natural pincers might supply useful hints to modern -tool-makers.</p> - -<p>In the left-hand upper corner of the illustration is shown the common -fresh-water Mussel, which is so plentiful in almost all our rivers and -many of our ponds. Its scientific name is <i>Unio margaritiferus</i>. The -latter title, which signifies “pearl-bearing,”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span> is given to it because -it furnishes the British pearls which were at one time so highly valued.</p> - -<p>Like other bivalve molluscs, this Unio has the two halves of the shell -fitting quite tightly upon each other, and, when they are drawn together -by the contraction of the internal muscles, they can give a very severe -pinch. In many uncivilised parts of the world the natives take advantage -of this property, and use them as tweezers, chiefly for the purpose of -pulling out hairs which they are pleased to think are not needed.</p> - -<p>I need not state that with all bivalves the power is increased in -proportion to the size of the shell. Even an Oyster can pinch most -severely, while the Giant Clam, the shell of which weighs some four -hundred pounds, could nearly take off a man’s leg if it seized him.</p> - -<p>Mr. J. Keast Lord, in his “Naturalist in British Columbia,” relates an -amusing story that was told to him by an old settler respecting the -power of the Clam’s grip:—</p> - -<p>“You see, sir, as I was a-cruising down these flats about sun-up, the -tide jist at the nip, as it is now, I see a whole pile of -shoveller-ducks snabbling in the mud, and busy as dogfish in herring -time. So I creeps down, and slap I let ’em have it. Six on ’em turned -over, and off went the pack, gallows scared, and quacking like mad.”</p> - -<p>“Down I runs to pick up the dead uns, when I see an old mallard -a-playing up all kinds o’ antics, jumping, backing, flapping, but fast -by the head, as if he had his nose in a steel trap; and when I comes up -to him, blest if a large Clam hadn’t hold of him, hard and fast, by the -beak.”</p> - -<p>“The old mallard might ha’ tried his hardest, but may I never bait a -martin-trap again if that Clam wouldn’t ha’ held him agin any odds till -a tide run in, and then he’d ha’ been a gone shoveller sure as shooting. -So I cracked up the Clam with the butt of my old gun, and bagged the -mallard.”</p> - -<p>Of course the reader will remember that this was only an ordinary Clam, -and not one of the giant race.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the shell are two very perfect instances of natural Pincers, each -acting in a different manner, but on the same principle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span></p> - -<p>The Earwig is too familiar to need much description, but I may as well -state that its pincers are not primarily intended as weapons, although -they can be so used on occasion. (I was about to say, at a pinch, but -refrain.) They resemble our ordinary pincers in that both blades move -equally, and they are so completely under the control of their owner, -that the insect uses them with a delicacy of touch that a lady’s fingers -could hardly surpass. They are really tools, and not weapons, and are -employed for the purpose of folding the wide and delicate wings under -the tiny elytra.</p> - -<p>There is another insect called the Scorpion-fly (<i>Panorpa</i>), the male of -which is furnished with a pair of pincers at the end of a long and -flexible tail, articulated just like the tail of a scorpion, and moved -in exactly the same manner. It is but a little insect, but its gestures -are so menacing as it flourishes its tail about, that non-entomologists -may well be pardoned for being afraid of it. Moreover, small as are the -pincers, they really can give a smart nip, and make themselves felt on -the human skin.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> we want examples of exceedingly powerful pincers, we need only go to -the Lobsters and Crabs, especially to the latter, whose claws are often -of enormous thickness in proportion to the size of the animal. All those -who have visited the seaside know how severe is the pinch of the common -Green Crab, comparatively small though it be, and the same may be said -of the river crayfish, which is, in fact, a lobster in miniature.</p> - -<p>As to the lobster itself, fishermen are so well acquainted with the -power of its claws, that they tie them together with string as soon as -the animal is caught. Formerly they used to “peg” them, <i>i.e.</i> drive a -wooden peg into the joint so as to prevent it from moving. This custom, -however, is now prohibited by law on account of its cruelty.</p> - -<p>The power of the Crab’s claws is so great that a bite from a large Crab -will inflict a severe injury, and render a hand helpless. It has more -than once happened that men who have been feeling for Crabs in the -recesses of the rocks at low water have been seized, and seriously -imperilled, not being able to release themselves from the gripe.</p> - -<p>Indeed, it is said that there have been instances where the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span> Crab has -held so tightly, that the man has been drowned by the returning tide, no -one having come to his assistance. I am, however, inclined to doubt this -statement, thinking that the Crab would not be likely to remain in its -hiding-place very long after the water came up. Still, that such an idea -should be currently believed in many parts of England shows the -estimation in which the gripe of the Crab’s claw is held.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="TOOLS_CHAPTER_IV" id="TOOLS_CHAPTER_IV"></a>TOOLS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> -<small>POLISHING TOOLS.—MEASURING TOOLS.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Files and Sand-papers.—The Sheffield File and its Structure.—The -Equisetum, Mare’s Tail, or Dutch Rush.—Beauty of its Surface when -seen through the Microscope.—Sand-paper.—Skin of Dog-fish, Skate, -and Shark.—Skate-skin used for Sword-handles.—Distinction between -the File and Sand-paper.—Measuring Tools.—The Plumb-rule and the -Level.—Their Use in Tunnelling.—The Measure and its Uses.—The -Two-foot Rule and the Tape Measure.—Ovipositor of -Gall-fly.—Tongues of the Woodpecker, Wryneck, and Creeper.—The -Spirit-level and its Uses.—Theodolite and Callipers in Nature and -Art.—The Contouring-glass.—Pincers of Earwig again.—Jaws of -Insects.—The great Sialis of Columbia.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Files and Sand-papers.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">H</span>AVING now examined the analogies between the cutting, boring, striking -and grasping tools of Nature and Art, we come to those finishing tools -which smooth and polish the surface.</p> - -<p>The first is the File, an instrument which needs but little description. -It consists of a surface of hardened steel, broken up into rough-edged -teeth of infinite variety, according to the work which the file has to -do. It is rather remarkable, by the way, that at present the English -files are infinitely superior to those produced in any other part of the -world; that their teeth are all made by hand; and that a genuine -Sheffield file will first cut its way through a piece of iron in half -the time that would be occupied by a file of any other nation, and then -would easily cut its antagonist in two.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> long as the File is intended to work upon metal, there is little -difficulty in its manufacture, except that no machinery has yet been -invented which can give the peculiar edging of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span> the ridges, and to which -is owing the unmistakable “bite” of a real English file.</p> - -<p>But there are occasions when the hand of the most cunning file-maker is -baffled, and when it is necessary to cut files so delicate that the -unaided human eye cannot trace their teeth. Art, therefore, has recourse -to Nature, and the cabinet-maker, who cannot obtain any file made by -human hands which will answer his purpose in the higher branches of his -trade, makes great use of the “Dutch Rush,” as he calls it. It is not a -rush at all, but simply a species of Mare’s Tail, or Equisetum, a plant -which fills in profusion almost every marshy spot in England.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_264_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_264_sml.jpg" width="389" height="126" alt="Image unavailable: EQUISETUM. -FILE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">EQUISETUM. -FILE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The peculiar fitness of the Equisetum for this purpose cannot be -appreciated even by those who use it until it has been viewed under the -microscope. I have now before me a small piece of Equisetum, placed -under a half-inch power, and viewed by direct illumination, it being -treated as an opaque object.</p> - -<p>The microscope reveals at a glance the source of the power which the -ingenuity of man has taken advantage of. The surface of the Equisetum is -seen to be composed of myriads of tiny parallel ridges, each ridge -bristling with rows of flinty spicules, looking very much like the -broken glass upon the top of a wall. Minute as they are, these spicules -can do their work, and they enable the joiner to finish off work in a -manner that could not be accomplished by any tool made by human hands.</p> - -<p>I find, by recent inquiries, that modern joiners scarcely, if ever, use -the Equisetum, preferring emery-paper as cheaper and more expeditious, -and knowing that the popular eye is not able to appreciate the -difference of the surface obtained by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> the Equisetum from that which is -given by the finest emery-paper ever made. Wood-carvers, however, if -they be of the conscientious kind, and love their work for its own sake, -adhere to the Dutch Rush, and are all the happier for it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pass</span> we now to the coarser kinds of polishers, the chief of which is -popularly known as Sand-paper, and is made by coating some tissue with -glue, and scattering upon it sand of different qualities, according to -the work to be done. Sometimes, when the work is rough, the sand is -large, rough, and coarse, and sometimes, when the work is fine, the sand -is so carefully sifted before it is scattered on the glued paper, that -there is little distinction between the sand-paper and emery-paper. -Linen, by the way, is generally used instead of paper, as being more -enduring, less liable to crack, and capable of being folded so as to -obtain access to crevices which paper could not touch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_265_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_265_sml.jpg" width="399" height="162" alt="Image unavailable: DOG-FISH SKIN, MAGNIFIED. -SAND-PAPER, MAGNIFIED." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">DOG-FISH SKIN, MAGNIFIED. -SAND-PAPER, MAGNIFIED.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Again</span> in Nature we find a parallel, and the coarse Sand-paper of modern -Art has long been anticipated in the scale-clad skins of many fishes.</p> - -<p>The accompanying illustration is taken from the skin of a Picked -Dog-fish found by myself lying dead on the rocks in Bideford Bay. I cut -off a piece for transmission to the draftsman, and found that not only -did it feel exactly like cutting through a piece of very common -sand-paper, but that it blunted the edge of a new knife in exactly the -same manner as would have been done by the roughest of sand-paper.</p> - -<p>This kind of skin is common to all the shark tribe (including the -Dog-fishes, which are but sharks in miniature), and to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span> Skate, -Saw-fish, &c. I have now before me a small, but perfect example of the -Saw-fish, the surface of which is covered with flinty scales like those -of the Dog-fish, but very much smaller, requiring the aid of a -magnifying lens to distinguish them. Even to guess at the number of them -is impossible, for they cover the whole of the body, and extend to the -very end of the beak, in some places glittering in a strong light as if -pounded glass had been sprinkled all over the fish. One of the most -interesting points in their structure is the manner in which they reach -the rounded jaws, and there become converted into teeth powerful enough -to crush the animals on which the fish live. The structure of these jaws -will be explained in a future chapter.</p> - -<p>Some of the skates and sharks have these scales of great size, so as to -show their formation almost without the aid of a magnifying-glass. This -is the case with a species of skate, the skin of which is used by the -Japanese for wrapping round the handles of their best swords, and which -is greatly valued by that nation, the sword being an almost sacred -article in the eyes of a Japanese.</p> - -<p>There is a well-known museum in which these swords are labelled as -having handles of “granulated ivory.” Now, in the first place, there is -no such thing as granulated ivory; and, in the next, a mere glance ought -to tell the observer that the so-called ivory is a skin of some sort, -worked upon the handle while wet, and kept in its place by copper studs. -Even the junction of the edges is perceptible, and yet the authorities -of the museum in question, although they have been repeatedly corrected, -still persist in calling the skate-skin by the absurd title of -granulated ivory.</p> - -<p>However, if ivory could be granulated, it would certainly look very much -like the skate-skin. When examined closely, the scales, whether of -Dog-fish, Skate, Shark, or Saw-fish, are seen to resemble hexagonal -cones, not coming quite to a point, but truncated, so as to have an -hexagonal flattened tip. They are almost of a flinty hardness, -especially at their tips, and on inspection of them the observer is not -surprised at the use of Dog-fish skin in place of sand-paper.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may ask why the Equisetum should be taken as the -prototype of the file, and the skin of the Dog-fish<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span> as that of -sand-paper. The reason is this. The flinty points of the Equisetum are -set upon parallel ridges something like those of a file, while the -scales of the Dog-fish are without any apparent order, being crowded -against each other like the cutting particles upon the sand-paper. That -there should not be an order, and that a definite one, is out of the -question. But it has not yet been detected by human eyes, and therefore -may be practically treated as non-existent.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Tools of Measurement.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">In</span> many of the arts, more especially those which belong to engineering -and carpentering as a part of architecture, it is absolutely necessary -to make sure of a perpendicular line, <i>i.e.</i> a line which, if continued, -would reach from any point of the earth’s surface to its exact centre -below and its zenith above. Were it not for the power of producing this -line, none of the great engineering works of modern or ancient days -could have been undertaken.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, the wonderful tunnels which have been driven through -the earth, of which the Mont Cenis Tunnel is one of the greatest -triumphs of modern engineering. Beginning, as the workmen did, at -opposite ends of a tunnel many miles in length, and labouring only by -the lines laid down by the engineers, the men worked steadily on until -they met in the centre.</p> - -<p>A few blows, and the then narrow dividing wall was shattered, the men -shook hands through the aperture, and then, after enlarging it, leaped -wildly from one side to the other, having successfully solved the great -problem. With such marvellous precision had the lines been laid, that -only a few inches had to be smoothed down on either side, and the sides -or walls of the tunnel showed no traces of the junction.</p> - -<p>So rapid has been the progress of engineering that a tunnel of a mile in -length would, within the memory of man, have been thought as daring a -project as was the Mont Cenis Tunnel, which has just been given as an -example. Indeed, I know of a railway tunnel, not quite a mile in length, -where the engineers had committed some error, so that the two halves, -instead of meeting exactly, overlapped each other so much<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span> that the -mistake was only discovered by the workmen, who heard the strokes of -their companions’ picks on their sides, and not in front. Consequently, -a great waste of time took place, and the centre of the tunnel had to be -made with a double curve, like the letter S, and trains are obliged to -slacken speed until they have passed it.</p> - -<p>Those who have lived long enough to remember the current literature of -the past generation will call to mind the ridicule that was cast upon -the idea of a tunnel that should pass under the Thames. That it would be -useful if it could be completed, no one ventured to doubt, but that such -an idea could be conceived by any one out of a lunatic asylum was rather -too much for the journalists of the day. However, the tunnel was made, -and so proved the theorists wrong on the one side. And, when made, it -was of very little use, which proved them wrong on the other side. Now -the proposal to carry a submarine tunnel from England to France excites -not half the opposition that was elicited by the comparative -child’s-play of a tunnel under the Thames.</p> - -<p>The only mode of laying down the lines on which the men worked is by -suspending very heavy balls to very fine wires, and then, by means of -delicate optical instruments, ascertaining whether the wires are in line -with each other.</p> - -<p>Familiar instances of the use of this principle may be seen in the -plumb-rule and level of the builder or carpenter. The latter, with a -base of ten feet in length, is often used by the gardener when he wishes -to lay the absolutely level lawns that are required for our modern game -of croquet, where the hoops are scarcely wider than the balls, and the -lawn has in consequence to be nearly as level as a billiard table.</p> - -<p>I may here remark that the name plumb-rule is derived from the Latin -word <i>plumbum</i>, or lead, in allusion to the leaden weight at the end of -the string. The word “plumber” is due to the same source, and signifies -a worker in lead.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">These</span> invaluable aids to the development of civilisation are due to one -principle, namely, that which we call Gravitation, but which ought more -properly to be termed Attraction, and which attracts all parts of the -earth towards its centre. We are all familiar with the anecdote of -Newton and the falling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span> apple, which may be true or not, but which at -all events bears on the present subject. No matter on what portion of -the spherical earth a tree may be, every fruit becoming disengaged from -it is attracted to the earth, the line which it takes, unless disturbed -by external forces (such as wind, &c.), being that which passes from the -zenith to the centre of the earth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_269_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_269_sml.jpg" width="416" height="174" alt="Image unavailable: FALLING FRUIT. -PLUMB-RULE. -LEVEL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FALLING FRUIT. -PLUMB-RULE. -LEVEL.</span> -</div> - -<p>This imaginary line is a perfect perpendicular, and the visible line -which is formed by the delicate wire of the tunnel-boring engineering -instrument, or the comparatively coarse string of the plumb-rule and -level, are approximations sufficiently close for practical purposes. So -it is in a mathematical proposition. As mathematical lines have no -breadth, they are simply indicated or represented by the lines of the -figure, the bodily eye being incapable of seeing what is perfectly -visible to the mental eye, namely, length without width. So the wire and -string perform in practical work exactly the same office which is -fulfilled by the lines of a mathematical proposition drawn on paper.</p> - -<p>We have already, when treating of the Fall-trap, seen how this principle -is brought into operation by those who are utterly incapable of -discerning the physical principle, though they can apply it materially -with wonderful effect.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is, perhaps, needless to mention the value of the Measure to any -handicraftsman.</p> - -<p>I well remember that when, some twenty-four years ago, I was taking -lessons from a carpenter in the art of making ladders, gates, fences, -hurdles, and other rough-and-ready work, my quaint old tutor related an -anecdote of and against himself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span> He very ingeniously set me to work at -boring the auger-holes in the gate-posts which were to be united by the -mortise chisel and mallet, and to sweeten the rather severe, because -unaccustomed, labour, told me that, when he was a boy, he was doing just -the same thing.</p> - -<p>Being rather tired of twisting the auger handle (and no wonder either), -he withdrew the instrument, and put his finger into the hole by way of -ascertaining its depth. Immediately he found himself on his back, having -received a tremendous box on the ear from his father, whose parental -wrath was excited by the idea of his son condescending to use his finger -by way of measure, when he had a two-foot rule in its own special -pocket.</p> - -<p>There are, however, many cases where even a two-foot rule would be -insufficient for the work, and where a measure of thirty or forty feet -is needed.</p> - -<p>Now, there is no doubt that by means of a two-foot, or even a six-inch, -rule any number of feet might be measured accurately; but, considering -the number of junctions that have to be made, it is not likely that any -pretence to accuracy could be insured.</p> - -<p>Then, a rod of forty, or even of twenty, feet in length would be awkward -and unmanageable, and the only plan left is to take a string or cord of -the requisite length.</p> - -<p>Even here, however, is a difficulty. The string would not allow of short -measurements, such as inches, being written upon it. Let, however, a -broad tape of inelastic material be substituted for the string, and all -is easy enough.</p> - -<p>The next plan is to provide for the portability of the tape in question, -to insure its reduction into the smallest possible compass, and to be -sure that it is not twisted so as to damage its accuracy. These objects -are all attained by the ordinary Tape Measure of the present day, which, -whether it be a yard measure in a lady’s workbox, or a surveyor’s -measuring tape, is a ribbon of comparatively inelastic material, coiled -up when not wanted, and capable of being drawn out to its fullest -extreme when needed.</p> - -<p>Putting aside the breadth of the line, and consequently disregarding the -liability to twist, we have in the Fishing-reel of the modern angler an -exact case in point. So we have in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> the lady’s yard measure, and in the -gardener’s or builder’s tape, all these being modifications of the same -idea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_271a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_271a_sml.jpg" width="345" height="122" alt="Image unavailable: OVIPOSITOR OF GALL-FLY. -SPRING MEASURE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">OVIPOSITOR OF GALL-FLY. -SPRING MEASURE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Suppose now that we pass to Nature, so as to ascertain whether any such -provisions were in existence before it was imitated, however -unconsciously, by man. This certainly was the case with one of the -commonest and most insignificant of our insects, the little Gall-fly, -belonging to the genus Cynips. It could not lay its eggs without the aid -of a very long ovipositor, and, owing to structural details, it cannot -carry that ovipositor in a straight line, as is done by many insects, -some of which have already been mentioned. Accordingly, it is coiled up -exactly like our measuring tapes, and can be unrolled when needed. The -long, protrusible tongues of the Wryneck, Creeper, and Woodpecker are -examples of a similar structure, the tendinous portions being coiled -round the head when not needed.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spirit-level.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Having</span> now seen how the forces of Nature enable us to produce a -perfectly perpendicular line, we will see how the same force, though -applied in a different manner, enables us to produce a perfectly -horizontal line, the intersection of the two lines producing a right -angle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_271b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_271b_sml.jpg" width="406" height="65" alt="Image unavailable: FLOATING BUBBLE. -SPIRIT-LEVEL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FLOATING BUBBLE. -SPIRIT-LEVEL.</span> -</div> - -<p>The measuring tool in question is called the Spirit-level, and is -represented on the right hand of the accompanying illustration. Its -construction is very simple, consisting of a tube, nearly filled with -spirit, and having just one bubble of air in it. Now, owing to the force -of gravitation, the air-bubble must always be uppermost. Consequently, -if the tube be a perfect cylinder, whenever it is held so that the -bubble is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span> in the centre, the tube must be horizontal, a hair’s breadth -of deviation altering the line. I may here mention that, as far as the -principle of the instrument goes, water would serve the purpose as -effectively as spirit. But as in cold weather the water might freeze, -and so burst the tube, as well as being useless until it was thawed, -spirit is always substituted.</p> - -<p>This instrument is used for various purposes. Sometimes it is employed -for levelling billiard tables, or for ascertaining the exact level of -walls and other parts of buildings. Surveyors could scarcely do their -work without the Spirit-level, which forms an important part of their -chief instrument, the theodolite. Indeed, the new science of land -drainage, by which the tough, unproductive clay soil is converted into -fertile earth, is entirely dependent on the use of the Spirit-level, -which detects the slightest rise or fall in the ground.</p> - -<p>A most ingenious modification of the Spirit-level is used by military -engineers, and is known by the name of the “Contouring-glass,” a term -which requires some explanation.</p> - -<p>It is of the utmost importance that a military engineer should be able, -whether on foot or on horseback, to ascertain the approximate heights of -the various points which he visits, the efficiency or failure of a -battery very much depending on the comparative elevation of the spot on -which the battery is placed, and that of the place against which its -fire is directed. In an unknown country, of which no detailed maps -exist, an invading force must of necessity depend on the extemporised -surveys of their engineer officers, and one of the most valuable of -their devices is the system of Contouring, invented, as far as I know, -by the late Colonel Hutchinson, R.E.</p> - -<p>The idea is simple enough. A hill is seen, and the engineer makes a -sketch of it before he ascends. At the foot he halts, and marks the spot -where his foot presses the earth. He then looks in front at a spot -exactly on the level of his eye, marks it, and walks to it. He then -draws a line across his sketch, at the exact spot on which he is -standing, and that is the first “contouring line.” Others follow, until -he has reached the top of the hill.</p> - -<p>Now, if he can trust himself to look exactly horizontally, he has -ascertained the elevation of every part of the hill. He knows the height -of his eye from the sole of his foot, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span> calculates accordingly. -Suppose, for example, that it be five feet, and that ten contouring -lines are marked, he knows that the entire height is fifty feet, and -that each line means an elevation of five feet.</p> - -<p>This is a very excellent theory, but one which is not reduced to -practice so easily as it looks. There is nothing more deceptive than a -contour, especially upon an irregular hill, the invariable mistakes -being either greatly to overrate or underrate the height of the contour. -When I took my first lesson in this art I caused much amusement to the -professor under whom I was studying, by making Shooter’s Hill consist of -about seventeen contours. However, as many military students made very -much the same mistake, I was not so humiliated as I supposed.</p> - -<p>Of course, if a surveying officer be mounted, he takes the contour line -as measured from his eye to the ground through the centre of the saddle.</p> - -<p>After some practice the eye becomes so much accustomed to the contouring -lines that they are taken almost mechanically; but, until this result be -gained, an absolute proof is needed, which is furnished by the -Contouring-glass—which, by the way, is not a glass at all, after the -common acceptation of the word.</p> - -<p>It is a simple brass tube about three inches long, not thicker than a -man’s little finger, and open throughout. A small spirit-level is fixed -on its lower surface, and on the very centre of the upper surface is a -tiny steel mirror, which projects downwards like a knife-blade. In order -to get a “contour,” the observer looks through the tube, slightly -depressing its end. He then gradually raises it, still looking through -it. As the tube becomes exactly horizontal the bubble in the -spirit-level is reflected in the little mirror, and the object on which -the tube is directed is in consequence on a level with the observer’s -eye.</p> - -<p>At first the management of the contouring-glass is rather tedious; but -after a little practice it can be used without pausing for a single -step.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Invaluable</span> as is the Spirit-level, with its various modifications, it is -nothing but an adaptation of that natural law which causes the bubbles -to float on the surface of a stream instead of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> being submerged below -it. We have all seen the multitudinous bubbles of soda-water, or of any -effervescing liquid, and have noticed how they are very small when -generated, but enlarge quickly, and rise to the surface with a rapidity -equal to their enlargement. The same phenomena may be observed in any -water-fall, or even in the very familiar and unpoetical operation of -pouring beer from a jug into a glass.</p> - -<p>The reader will see that in the plumb-rule, the level, and the -spirit-level one single principle is employed, namely, the attraction of -matter towards the centre of the earth. In the two former instruments -this attraction gives a vertical line, and in the latter it gives a -horizontal line, but the principle is the same in both.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Callipers.</span></h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_274_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_274_sml.jpg" width="386" height="247" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF SIALIS. -CALLIPERS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF SIALIS. -CALLIPERS.</span> -</div> - -<p>We conclude the history of measuring tools with the Callipers. For -ordinary purposes, and upon a plane surface, the Compasses answer every -purpose. But there are various arts, especially sculpture, in which the -compasses, with their straight legs, are absolutely valueless, and their -place must be supplied by a differently shaped instrument. For example, -no ordinary compasses could measure the exact distance from the nostril -to the back of the head, or even touch two points at opposite sides of a -limb, and it is therefore necessary to have compasses with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span> curved legs. -These are termed Callipers, and can be used on a plane as well as on a -rounded surface.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Natural</span> Callipers are plentiful enough, and may be found extensively -among the insect tribes. There are, for example, the pincers of the -Earwig, which have already been described on <a href="#page_259">page 259</a>, and which are, in -the common species, formed exactly like the Callipers of the sculptor.</p> - -<p>Then we have various insect jaws, especially those of the carnivorous -species, one of the most curious being the large insect which is shown -in the illustration, upon a very reduced scale. In the male the jaws are -exceedingly long and curved, as may be seen by reference to the -illustration. I have now before me a pair of sculptor’s callipers, and -the resemblance between them and the jaws of the Sialis is strangely -close, the curve being almost exactly the same in both cases.</p> - -<p>The scientific name of this insect is <i>Sialis armata</i>, and it is a -native of Columbia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="OPTICS_CHAPTER_I" id="OPTICS_CHAPTER_I"></a>OPTICS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> -<small>THE MISSIONS OF HISTORY.—THE CAMERA OBSCURA.—LONG AND SHORT SIGHT.—STEREOSCOPE AND PSEUDOSCOPE.—MULTIPLYING-GLASSES.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Camera Obscura.—Telescopes, Microscopes, and Spectroscopes, -and their separate Objects.—Structure of the Camera Obscura.—The -Double Convex Lens.—Its Use as a Burning-glass.—The Meridian Gun -in Paris.—Signification of the Word “Focus.”—The Human Eye and -its Analogies to the Camera Obscura.—Forms of various -Lenses.—Long and Short Sight.—Their Causes and Means of -Remedy.—Alteration of Sight in the Diver.—Long and Short sighted -Spectacles.—The Eye of Birds.—Its beautiful -Structure.—Washing-glasses and the “Nictitating” -Membrane.—Combination of Images.—Natural Stereoscopes.—The -Pseudoscope and its Effects on an Object.—The -Multiplying-glass.—The Eight Eyes of the Spider and their -Arrangement.—The Seventy Thousand Eyes of the Butterfly.—Form of -the Facets.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">H</span>ISTORY seems to fall into natural divisions, and to write the records -of time in successive epochs, recording the advance of the human race. -Some of them have apparently disappeared except by the strange relics -which they have left behind, but though nothing is known of the men who -worked in these ancient times, they stamped their mark upon the earth, -and evidently left the world better than they found it.</p> - -<p>A very admirable treatise on this subject has been written by the late -Rev. J. Smith, called the “Divine Drama of Creation.” In this work he -divides the progress of the human race into five acts, like those of a -drama. The first act is the Hebrew Mission, the second the Greek -Mission, the third the Roman Mission and the Middle Ages, the fourth the -National Mission, and the fifth the Universal Mission.</p> - -<p>Certainly a scene of the last act is now in progress, and may be -entitled the Scientific Mission. The last hundred years have been indeed -the age of discovery, and, during that time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> the life of civilised man -has been quite altered, so that practically his sojourn upon earth has -been doubled. Steam, with all its various applications, electricity, and -other kindred arts have become so intermingled with our lives, that it -is difficult to imagine what our state would be if we were suddenly and -utterly deprived of them. The loss to all would be incalculable, and not -the least of the losses would be that of ready communion with our -fellow-creatures.</p> - -<p>Of these arts we will now take that which is named at the head of this -division of the book, and see how far it is a development of natural -facts.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Camera Obscura and the Eye.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">I have</span> already spoken of arts as being akin to each other. They are more -than this, and every day of the world’s progress teaches us that Art, -Science, and Manufacture are sisters, all born of one family, and all -depending mutually on each other.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, our present theme—namely, Optics—and see how -dependent it is upon Manufacture and Art. Without the former, man could -not construct those beautiful telescopes, microscopes, spectroscopes, of -the present day, which are evidently but the precursors of instruments -which will work still greater marvels.</p> - -<p>The first enables us to see solar systems without number, to which our -own, vast as it seems to us, is but as a grain of sand in the desert. -The next instrument makes revelations as marvellous of the infinitely -minute as does the telescope of the infinitely great, enabling us to see -living organizations so small that thirty-two millions could swim in a -cubic inch of water. The third, a comparatively modern instrument, -reveals the composition of objects, and can detect and register the -materials of which the sun and fixed stars are made, or detect an -adulteration in wine. It can adapt itself equally to the telescope and -microscope, and the very same instrument which will reveal the character -of an invisible gas in the Pole-star, when attached to the telescope, -can, when connected with the microscope, point out the presence of half -a corpuscle of blood where no other instrument could discover any trace -of it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span></p> - -<p>All these instruments, together with many others, will be described in -the present division of the work, and their analogies with Nature shown.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now take the subject of the Camera Obscura, an instrument with -which the photographic apparatus of the present day has made most of us -familiar. As its action depends chiefly upon the glass, or lens, through -which the rays of light pass into the instrument, we will first explain -that.</p> - -<p>A “lens” is a glass formed in such a manner that the rays of light which -pass through it either converge to a focus, or are dispersed, by means -of the law of refraction. Every one who has been photographed—and who -has not?—will remember that when the sitter has taken his position, the -photographer brings to bear upon him a circular glass fixed into a short -tube, and then looks through the instrument as if he were taking aim -with some species of firearm. It is no matter of wonder that when -savages see the photographic camera for the first time they are horribly -frightened, for there is really something weird-like in the appearance -of the lens thus presented.</p> - -<p>Now, this lens is of the shape called “double convex,” both sides being -equally rounded, so that a section of it would be shaped very much like -a parenthesis (). The effect of this form of lens is to bring the rays -of light to a point at a given distance from the centre. This point is -called the “focus,” and is well known by means of the common -burning-glass, which will set fire to objects placed in its focus, while -itself remains quite cool.</p> - -<p>I have seen lead pour down like water when placed in the focus of a -large burning-glass, and even the harder metals will yield to the power -of the sun’s rays when thus concentrated.</p> - -<p>There is nothing which gives a more vivid idea of the amount of heat -thrown on the earth by the rays of the sun than the effects of a -moderately large burning-glass—say one of six inches in diameter. If we -trace a circle of this size on the surface of the earth, it does not -seem as if any very great amount of heat can be received, but when we -catch the rays of that circle in our glass, and bring them together upon -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span> focus, the amount of heat can be appreciated. The well-known -meridian gun in the Palais Royal is fired by the sun. A burning-glass of -no very great size is placed over the touch-hole of the gun, with which -its focus coincides. The lens is turned in such a manner that, as the -sun attains the meridian, its rays are thrown upon the touch-hole, and -consequently fire the gun.</p> - -<p>The word <i>focus</i> is the Latin term for a domestic hearth, and is used in -allusion to the heat which is manifested at the point on which the rays -of the sun converge.</p> - -<p>It is evident that, after reaching the focus, the rays, if they be not -intercepted by some object, will cross each other, and form a large -image, but reversed. This part of the subject will presently be -explained.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> accompanying illustration shows two figures, one representing the -section of a double convex lens made by the hands of man, and the other -that of a double convex lens as seen in Nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_279_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_279_sml.jpg" width="350" height="161" alt="Image unavailable: CRYSTALLINE LENS OF HUMAN EYE. -DOUBLE CONVEX LENS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CRYSTALLINE LENS OF HUMAN EYE. -DOUBLE CONVEX LENS.</span> -</div> - -<p>The former has already been explained. The latter is the double convex -lens of the human eye, by means of which the images of external objects -are conveyed to the brain. Whenever this lens becomes thickened by -disease, the sight is gradually dimmed, and at last total blindness is -the result. This disease is popularly called “cataract,” and until late -days was incurable. Now, however, any good oculist will attack a -cataract, and either partially or entirely restore the sight. This -operation is performed by carefully removing the convex lens, and -supplying its place with a glass lens, which throws the rays of light on -the same focus.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span></p> - -<p>The figure shows the double convex lens of the human eye in its place.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> now seen something of the properties of the double convex lens, -we will examine its application to the Camera Obscura.</p> - -<p>The lens is placed on one side of the camera, and is so made that it can -be slid backwards and forwards, and the focus altered at will. The -camera itself is a box completely closed, so that no light can enter it -except that which passes through the lens. The latter is so arranged -that the rays which pass through it are crossed, and throw their image -on the opposite side of the camera. In the photographic camera a piece -of ground glass is placed at the end, so that the rays fall upon it, and -the operator can see whether the image is a good one. Of course the -figures are reversed, so that the sitter seems to be on his head, but -that is a matter of no consequence. Exactly the same effect is produced -by the marine telescope.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_280_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_280_sml.jpg" width="422" height="121" alt="Image unavailable: EYE AND IMAGE. -CAMERA OBSCURA AND IMAGE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">EYE AND IMAGE. -CAMERA OBSCURA AND IMAGE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The general structure of the camera is shown in the illustration, all -needless details being omitted.</p> - -<p>I may here remark that the term “camera obscura,” or dark chamber, -alludes to the fact that the box is completely closed, and, but for the -rays which pass through the lens, would be absolutely dark.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> opposite illustration shows the most perfect camera obscura that can -be imagined, namely, the human eye. Here we have a dark chamber, a -double convex lens, and an image falling upon the back. Here the optic -nerve comes into play, takes cognisance of the image, and conveys the -idea to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span> brain. With a little trouble, a real eye, say that of an -ox, can be dissected out, and employed as a camera obscura, the operator -seeing in the back of the eye, or “retina,” the same image which the ox -would have seen if it had been alive.</p> - -<p>In photography, the operator, when he has found that a perfect image is -thrown upon the ground glass, which represents the retina of the eye, -substitutes for it a sensitive surface, on which the rays are projected, -and which, by chemical means, produce a permanent instead of a fleeting -object.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Examples</span> of other lenses may be found in Nature. She, moreover, can -perform a task which man has never even attempted, namely, the change of -form in a lens according to the duty which it has to do. How this -wonderful object is attained we shall presently see.</p> - -<p>There is a form of lens extremely useful in Optics, namely, the -“Plano-convex” lens. This is, in fact, one half of a double convex lens, -the section being made through its edges, and the plane sides polished -as well as the convex. As, however, this is only a half of the double -convex lens, it does not need further explanation. Its natural -counterpart may be seen in the annexed illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_281_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_281_sml.jpg" width="377" height="156" alt="Image unavailable: HUMAN EYE: SECTION OF CORNEA, &C. -PLANO-CONVEX LENS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HUMAN EYE: SECTION OF CORNEA, &C. -PLANO-CONVEX LENS.</span> -</div> - -<p>A somewhat more complicated form of lens is called the “Meniscus,” one -side of which is convex and the other concave. A good example of the -meniscus may be found in the old-fashioned watch-glass, before -watchmakers took to flattening them, and watch-wearers were not ashamed -to carry a “turnip,” in which there was room to spare for the works. If -a section of such a glass were taken, it would assume the form of a -half-moon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span> This, in fact, is the meaning of the term “meniscus,” which -is a Greek word, signifying a little moon. If the same glass were solid, -or even filled with water, it would form a “plano-convex” lens.</p> - -<p>Of course the outer curve of the meniscus must be larger than the inner -curve, but in some cases the disproportion is very strongly marked, the -outer curve being very large, and the inner curve very small. An example -of such a meniscus may be seen in the human eye. If the reader will -refer to the illustration on <a href="#page_280">page 280</a>, in which the structure of the eye -is shown, he will see the meniscus lens in combination with the double -convex. The former has already been explained, and the latter is formed -by the vitreous humour which fills nearly the entire globe of the eye. -Its larger curve is due to the form of the eyeball, and the smaller to -the convex lens.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Long and Short Sight.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">It</span> has already been mentioned that the focus of a convex lens is shorter -in proportion to its convexity, and that in consequence its magnifying -power is increased. For example, the large glasses through which -pictures are viewed are comparatively thin in proportion to their -diameter, while the lenses employed for the highest powers of the -microscope are scarcely larger than small shot, and nearly as globular. -It naturally follows that any instrument to which a lens is adapted, -whether it be microscope or telescope, must depend for its focus on the -greater or less convexity of the lens in question.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_282_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_282_sml.jpg" width="424" height="152" alt="Image unavailable: FRAME OF OWL’S EYE. LENS OF DITTO. -SHORT AND LONG SIGHTED EYES (WITH SPECTACLES)." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FRAME OF OWL’S EYE. LENS OF DITTO. -SHORT AND LONG SIGHTED EYES (WITH SPECTACLES).</span> -</div> - -<p>Again taking as our example the human eye, we find that there are very -few persons who from youth to age possess or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span> preserve eyes which can -read small type at a moderate distance, and can clearly define the -outlines of distant objects. Nearly all people, even if in their youth -they possess good sight, lose it as they grow older. They can discern -distant objects well enough, but, when they come to reading, they are -obliged to hold the book at arm’s length before they can distinguish the -letters.</p> - -<p>This defect is caused by the insufficient convexity of the lens, so that -the focus is thrown too far back, and it is corrected by wearing -spectacles sufficiently convex to supply the deficiency in the lens of -the eye.</p> - -<p>An admirable example of temporary long-sightedness is familiar to every -diver, though he may be unconscious of its cause. Suppose that into very -clear water of some twelve feet in depth, a white object, say a common -jam-pot, is thrown, it can be clearly discerned from the shore, -unaltered in shape or size. But, when the diver searches for it, he sees -at first only something white, large, undefined, and wavering, and only -finds it resume its proportions as he approaches it. This phenomenon is -due to the pressure of the water upon the eyeball, which flattens it, -and so throws the focus too far back for a clear image. Nowadays this -defect is remedied by the use of very convex spectacles, so convex, -indeed, that, if worn in the air, they would render the wearer incapable -of seeing anything at more than an inch or so away from him. But, when -worn in the water, they only supply the deficiency of the compressed -eyeball, and so restore the focus to its proper position.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Those</span> who suffer from short-sightedness can see with great distinctness -objects which are close at hand, but those at a little distance seem to -have no particular outline, and appear as if they were viewed through a -fog, thus causing a constant and almost painful strain on the eyes. The -cause of this defect is the too great convexity of the lens, which -therefore throws its focus short of the required spot. The means of -remedy are exactly opposite to those which are used for long-sighted -persons, a concave lens being placed in front of the eye, so as to throw -the focus farther back, and relieve the organ from the strain.</p> - -<p>Although we have not yet invented a machine that can alter the focus at -will, we may take a hint from Nature. We have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span> already seen how the -pressure of water upon the front of the eye lessens its convexity, and -makes it long-sighted. Consequently, if we could apply pressure round -it, we could make it more convex, and so neutralise the weight of the -water.</p> - -<p>There is a wonderful piece of machinery in Nature which really does -perform this office, the eye, at the will of its owner, becoming either -telescopic or microscopic. This quality is very desirable in birds, -especially those which are predacious and of rapid flight, as they might -either fail to see their prey at a distance, or might dash themselves -against some obstacle when they were close upon it.</p> - -<p>The eye of the Owl affords a beautiful example of machinery which -produces this effect, and the means which are used may be understood by -inspecting the accompanying illustration.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that the eyeball is set in a framework composed of thin -bony plates, just like a glass in a telescope. When these plates are -relaxed, the whole eyeball is flattened, so as to enable the bird to see -an object at a very great distance. But, when they are contracted, they -render the whole eye globular in proportion to their pressure, and -enable the bird to see objects which are very close to it. In fact, the -eye becomes a telescope or microscope as needed.</p> - -<p>Many reptiles possess this arrangement of bones, but the birds have even -a more delicate mode of obtaining the focus of the eye. This is by means -of a curious organ called, from its shape, the “pecten,” or comb, which -is placed in the vitreous humour at the back of the eye, and connected -with the optic nerve. It is a congeries of arteries and veins, so that -it can be rapidly enlarged by forcing blood into it, or diminished by -allowing the blood to withdraw.</p> - -<p>As the liquid in which it rests is practically incompressible, it -follows that when the comb expands, it causes the chamber of the -vitreous fluid to expand, and so forces the lens forward. When, however, -the blood retires from the comb, the lens returns to its original place. -This, as the reader may have noticed, is the same principle as that -which is followed in altering the focus of a telescope in order to suit -the sight of different individuals. Perhaps a still better illustration -may be found in the coarse and fine adjustment of the microscope, the -former of which moves the whole tube, and may be compared to the bony<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span> -ring; while the latter causes one part to slide over the other, and is -analogous to the comb.</p> - -<p>The movements of this organ are believed to be as involuntary as the -dilatation and contraction of the iris; but, whatever may be the case, -it is one of the most beautiful examples of natural mechanics, and far -surpasses the most delicate machine that can be made by man.</p> - -<p>In the illustration of the microscope, which is to be found on <a href="#page_286">page 286</a>, -both these movements are given, the double vertical wheel being the -coarse movement, and the fine movement being supplied by the single -vertical wheel just above them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> we are on this subject, we may see how Art unintentionally copies -Nature, even in trivial details. Every one who is in the habit of using -optical instruments, more especially those who are forced to wear -spectacles, are aware of the necessity of keeping the glasses as clean -as possible, and, where the instruments are delicate, always have by -them a piece of clean wash-leather for the express purpose of wiping the -glasses.</p> - -<p>Here, again, Nature has anticipated Art. In our own case, we have in the -human eye a good example of such natural mechanism, the eyelids being -formed quite as much for the purpose of washing the surface of the -eyeball as of excluding light.</p> - -<p>Many animals are provided with a special apparatus for the purpose, -called the “nictitating membrane.” It is, in fact, a sort of inner or -supplementary eyelid, which can be drawn over the eye while the external -lids remain comparatively unmoved. It is very conspicuous in the owls, -and gives to those birds that almost comical look of perpetual blinking -with which we are so familiar.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Stereoscope and Pseudoscope.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Many</span> persons have wondered how it happens that, as we have two eyes, we -do not see two images instead of one. Practically, this is always the -case, for the eyes, especially when they look on solid bodies, see two -different images, because they contemplate the object from different -points of sight.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span></p> - -<p>This may be easily ascertained by looking at a given object first with -one eye, and then with the other, when it will be seen that the image -presented to the right eye is slightly different from that of the left -eye, but that the two can be combined into one by a very slight inward -movement of both eyes, and thus the effect of a solid body be produced. -Sometimes, when people are weak, and cannot control the united movement -of the eyes, not only two, but five or six images are at once presented -to the mind, and produce a strange sense of bewilderment and confusion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_286_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_286_sml.jpg" width="433" height="278" alt="Image unavailable: COMBINATION OF HUMAN EYES. -STEREOSCOPE. -BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">COMBINATION OF HUMAN EYES. -STEREOSCOPE. -BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Painters are obliged to avail themselves of this peculiarity, and to -make allowances for the double vision. If they do not, the effect of the -painting is flat, and it appears as if the artist had only used one eye.</p> - -<p>A good proof of this fact may be seen in Stereoscopic photographs, -especially of scenery. If each be viewed separately, it often appears -quite unintelligible, but, when they are combined by the instrument, -they seem to spring into life as it were, and appear solid enough to be -grasped.</p> - -<p>Now, the Stereoscope is avowedly constructed on the same principle as -the double vision of the eye, so that when it applies itself to two -photographs of the same object which have been taken from different -points of view, it combines them, and gives them as solid an appearance -as if they were realities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span></p> - -<p>So wonderfully close is the representation, that the idea of a place -obtained by means of the combination of the photograph and Stereoscope -is quite as vivid and correct as if it had been gained by actual -observation.</p> - -<p>The principle of the Stereoscope is now applied to the best microscopes, -and its value is incalculable, especially when low powers are used, -<i>i.e.</i> those of not less than half an inch focus. The real beauty of -many objects could never have been appreciated but for this discovery, -nor their true form defined.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration is shown the combining power of the -eyes. Supposing the right eye only to be brought to bear upon the little -cylinder, only one side of it will be seen, and it looks nearly flat. -The same is the case with the left eye. But, when both eyes are used -together, both sides of the cylinder are presented to the mind, and thus -we get the effect of solidity.</p> - -<p>The Stereoscope is so formed, by means of lenses, that the two figures -become combined into one, the rays of light being turned out of their -course by the arrangement of the glasses.</p> - -<p>The Stereoscope, however, although a useful assistant to the vision, is -not necessary. It is perfectly possible to combine the two figures -without any stereoscope, and to do so merely by squinting, if we may so -call it, at the figures. The power of combination is gained with a very -little practice, and in a short time the observer will be capable of -producing stereoscopic effects without needing a Stereoscope. This -ability is very useful when inspecting photographs in a shop-window. Of -course the figures are not so much enlarged as they are with the -stereoscope, but they are nevertheless quite as clear and well defined.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is an instrument called the Pseudoscope, which, as its name -imports, gives a false idea as to the nature of the object which is -viewed through it, converting hollow objects into solid, and <i>vice -versâ</i>. The following description of its effect is given by -Wheatstone:—</p> - -<p>“When an observer looks with the pseudoscope at the interior of a cup or -basin, he not unfrequently sees it at first in its real form; but by -prolonging his gaze he will perceive the conversion within a few -minutes; and it is curious that, while this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span> seems to take place quite -suddenly with some individuals, as if the basin were flexible, and were -suddenly turned inside out, it occurs more gradually with others, the -concavity slowly giving way to flatness, and the flatness progressively -rising into convexity.</p> - -<p>“Not unfrequently, after the conversion has taken place, the natural -aspect of the object continues to intrude itself, sometimes suddenly, -sometimes gradually, and for a longer or shorter interval, when the -converse will again succeed it—as if the new visual impression could -not at once counteract the previous results of recent experience. At -last, however, the mind seems to accept the conversion without further -hesitation; and after this process has once been completely gone -through, the observer, on recurring to the same object, will not find it -possible to see it in any other than its converted form, unless the -interval should be long enough to have allowed him to forget its aspect.</p> - -<p>“Vagaries, however, sometimes occur in these experiments of which it is -difficult to give any certain explanation, but which would be probably -found referable to the same general principle, if we were acquainted -with all the conditions of its operation.”</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Multiplying-glass.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Still</span> more extraordinary examples of the combining power of vision are -to be found in the eyes of spiders and insects, more especially when we -compare them with the work of man. If we take a common -Multiplying-glass, such as is shown in the figure, and look at a flower -or other object through it, we see the object repeated as many times as -there are different foci of vision in the instrument.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_288_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_288_sml.jpg" width="359" height="158" alt="Image unavailable: EYES OF SPIDER. -MULTIPLYING-GLASS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">EYES OF SPIDER. -MULTIPLYING-GLASS.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span></p> - -<p>Now, taking for example the eyes of a Spider, it would be natural to -suppose that the same result would occur, especially as the foci of the -eyes point in different directions. The left-hand figure in the -illustration represents the eight eyes of one of our common Spiders, -belonging to the genus <i>Clubiona</i>, which may be found in almost any -outhouse, sitting in its curious web, and ready in a moment to run for -safety into its silken tunnel.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that the foci of all the eyes are in different -directions, and so placed as to command a large radius. Observers have -remarked that the eyes are placed in Spiders so as to suit their habits. -“Those spiders,” writes Professor Owen, in his “Comparative Anatomy,” -“which hide in tubes, or lurk in obscure retreats, either underground or -in the holes or fissures of walls or rocks, from which they emerge only -to seize a passing prey, have their eyes aggregated in a close group in -the middle of the forehead, as in the Bird-spider, the <i>Clotho</i>, &c.</p> - -<p>“The spiders which inhabit short tubes, terminated by a large web, -exposed to the open air, have the eyes separated and more spread upon -the front of the cephalothorax.</p> - -<p>“Those spiders which rest in the centre of a free web, along which they -frequently traverse, have the eyes supported on slight prominences, -which permit a greater divergence of their axis; this structure is well -remarked in the genus <i>Thomisa</i>, the species of which live in ambuscade -in flowers.</p> - -<p>“Lastly, the spiders called <i>Errantes</i>, or Wanderers, have their eyes -still more scattered, the lateral ones being placed at the margin of the -cephalothorax.”</p> - -<p>Yet, although each eye produces a separate image, it is clear that upon -the mind of the Spider only a single idea can be impressed, for that -otherwise all would be confusion. There must, therefore, be some -mechanism in the structure of the eye, the nature of which we are not as -yet able to understand.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A still</span> more remarkable instance of a natural Multiplying-glass may be -found in the eyes of many insects.</p> - -<p>The form of multiplying-glass shown in the accompanying illustration is -probably familiar to most of my readers. It consists of a convex piece -of glass, cut into a number of facets, and showing in each facet a -distinct and separate image of the object to which it is directed. Now, -the compound eyes of insects are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> constructed on much the same -principle, except that the number of facets is infinitely more. Taking, -for example, the eyes of the Tortoise-shell Butterfly, we find that -there are about seventy thousand lenses or facets. Now, it is possible, -with care, to remove the eye from the insect, cleanse it, and arrange it -in ä microscope in such a way that objects can be seen through it. When -this is done, a separate image is seen in each facet, just as is the -case with the Multiplying-glass, only, as the facets are very much more -numerous, the effect is proportionately more striking.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_290_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_290_sml.jpg" width="336" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: INSECT EYE. -TUMBLER. -MULTIPLYING-GLASS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">INSECT EYE. -TUMBLER. -MULTIPLYING-GLASS.</span> -</div> - -<p>The reader may notice that the facets of the insect eye appear to be -hexagons as perfect as those of the honey-comb. This appearance is -probably due to the fact that each eye is covered with a convex plate of -glassy brightness and transparency, and that, when such objects are -viewed from the front, they appear to have hexagonal instead of rounded -outlines. A familiar example of this fact may be found in the glass -tumblers which are ornamented with rounded projections on their surface. -If a photograph of one of these tumblers be taken, the resemblance to -the hexagonal markings of the insect eye is so close that the tumbler -might easily be taken for the eye.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="OPTICS_CHAPTER_II" id="OPTICS_CHAPTER_II"></a>OPTICS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> -<small>THE WATER TELESCOPE.—IRIS OF THE EYE.—MAGIC LANTERN.—THE SPECTROSCOPE.—THE THAUMATROPE.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Limits to Sight in the Water.—Effect of a Ripple.—The Eyes under -Water.—The Water Telescope, its Structure and Mode of -Use.—Gyrinus, or Whirlwig-beetle, and its Double Set of Eyes.—The -Iris of the Eye, and its Double Set of Contractile -Fibres.—Cotterill’s Lock and its Structure.—The Magic Lantern and -its Principle.—Chinese Shadows.—Spectre of the Brocken.—An -Adventure in Wiltshire.—Effect of the Halo.—The -Spectroscope.—Its Structure explained.—A Star on fire.—Motes in -the Sunbeams.—Bessemer Steel made by aid of the -Spectroscope.—Absorption Bands.—Detection of Blood.—A Man’s Life -saved by the Spectroscope.—The Pocket Spectroscope.—The Rainbow, -Dewdrop, Soap-bubble, Opal, and Pearl.—The Thaumatrope.—Structure -of the Retina.—Complementary Colours.—The Zoetrope and -Chromatrope.—Wheel Animalcules and their Structure.—An Optical -Delusion.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Water Telescope.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">E</span>VERY one who has watched the movements of the various creatures which -live below the surface of the water is aware how entirely dependent he -is on the unruffled character of that surface. No matter how clear the -water may be, the least ruffling of the surface will effectually shut -out all sight:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“But if a stone the gentle sea divide,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Swift rippling circles rush on every side,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And glimmering fragments of a broken sun,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Banks, trees, and skies in thick disorder run.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">And there is an end of the observations. If, however, the eyes can -penetrate below the surface, the ruffling is of little consequence, so -long as the water is clear. Consequently, whenever the top of the bank -is sufficiently near the water, it is possible to continue the -observations by lying down, and immersing the head above the eyes. This -plan, however, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> not a very comfortable one, although I have often -followed it on a windy day when the surface was too ruffled to permit of -vision in any other way.</p> - -<p>Still, there is an instrument by which it is possible to counteract the -ruffle of the surface, and to see objects with tolerable plainness. This -is called the Water Telescope, and it is of very simple construction. -Like the ordinary telescope, it consists of a tube, but, instead of the -convex and concave lenses of that instrument, it has only a single glass -at one end, and that glass is perfectly plane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_292_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_292_sml.jpg" width="381" height="189" alt="Image unavailable: WHIRLWIG-BEETLE. -WATER TELESCOPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WHIRLWIG-BEETLE. -WATER TELESCOPE.</span> -</div> - -<p>When used, the eye is applied to the open end, and the glazed end -lowered into the water. The sight is then undisturbed by the ripple, and -the effect is the same as if the eyes themselves were lowered beneath -the surface.</p> - -<p>It is much used in looking for shells, sea-urchins, and other creatures -which live in the bed of the sea.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the insect world we have an example of a natural Water Telescope. I -do not say that the inventor of the Water Telescope took his idea from -the insect, but the reader will see that he might very well have done -so.</p> - -<p>There are sundry little beetles popularly called Whirlwigs or -Whirligigs, and scientifically known by the name of <i>Gyrinus</i>. All these -names allude to the insect’s habit of whirling about on the surface of -the water, with a movement which seems ceaseless and untiring. Allusion -has already been made to the Whirlwigs on page <a href="#page_22">22</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span></p> - -<p>Their object in their perpetual waltz is not so much amusement as food, -which chiefly consists of the tiny insects which fall into the water. -Now, in order to enable it to see both above and below the water, a -peculiar structure is required. Generally the insects possess one pair -of compound eyes, each group being set on the sides of the head. In the -Gyrinus, however, there are two sets of these eyes, one pair being on -the upper surface of the head, and the other on the lower surface. Thus, -while it can use the upper pair for seeing objects which are out of the -water, the lower pair of eyes, which are submerged, act the part of the -Water Telescope, and enable it to see objects that are below the -surface. Were it not for this precaution, even the ripples which it -makes by its own rapid progress would prevent it from seeing.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Iris of the Eye.</span></h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_293_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_293_sml.jpg" width="321" height="128" alt="Image unavailable: IRIS OF HUMAN EVE. -COTTERILL’S LOCK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">IRIS OF HUMAN EVE. -COTTERILL’S LOCK.</span> -</div> - -<p>I have often wondered, when contemplating the astonishing mechanism by -which the Iris of the Eye is able to contract or enlarge the pupil -according to the amount of light, whether any similar mechanism would be -used in Art. As anatomists know, the Iris is composed of two layers. One -consists of radiating fibres, which serve to enlarge the pupil, while -the other layer surrounds the latter, and by its elasticity serves to -contract it. As any one may see by looking in a mirror and shifting the -light, the pupil is perpetually changing its diameter, but always -retaining its circular shape. A glance at the illustration will show the -two layers, and aid the reader in understanding the mode in which they -work.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span></p> - -<p>Some years ago, while looking at the account given by Mr. J. Price of a -lock invented by Mr. Cotterill, I saw at once that the inventor, whether -consciously or not, had followed the mechanism of the eye, as far as -metal could be expected to imitate animal fibre.</p> - -<p>In the very centre of the lock there is a small circular opening, -resembling the pupil of the eye, and serving to admit the key, just as -the pupil admits light. Around this pupil, if we may so call it, are -ranged some twenty thin steel slides which move in channels, up and down -which they slide. Round the circumference of the lock are a -corresponding number of spiral springs, each of which presses on the -base of a slide, and forces it towards the centre.</p> - -<p>The reader will now see that the radiating slides of the lock represent -the radiating fibres of the iris, and that the spiral springs represent -the circular fibres. Both perform the same office, the steel slides -regulating the size of the aperture, and the spiral springs pressing -them all towards the centre. The key of the lock answers the same -purpose as does light in the eye, which by its mysterious pressure -enlarges or contracts the pupil.</p> - -<p>This is not the place to describe this very ingenious lock in detail, -but I may state that it has never been picked. Even Mr. Hobbs, who tried -it for twenty-four hours, gave it up, and, when he saw the interior -mechanism, said that if he had tried for a month he should have made no -progress. This is an unconscious testimony to the wisdom of following -Nature in Art.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Magic Lantern.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> are all familiar with the Magic Lantern, whether it may take the form -of the mere child’s toy, be developed into Dissolving Views, or throw -black shadows on a curtain, in which case it is called by the name of -Chinese Shadows. In all these cases the principle is the same. First we -have a light behind the object whose reflection is to be seen. Next we -have the object itself, and lastly the surface upon which it is -reflected. As to the variety of mirrors, lamps, and lenses which are -used to produce different effects, we may put them aside as foreign to -our present purpose.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_295_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_295_sml.jpg" width="413" height="245" alt="Image unavailable: MAGIC LANTERN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">MAGIC LANTERN.</span> -</div> - -<p>Generally the object is reflected upon a white curtain or sheet, but -sometimes, when a specially weird-like effect is needed, a cloud of -thick smoke takes the place of the sheet, and upon it the reflection is -shown, as seen in the accompanying illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span> has her Magic Lanterns as well as Art, and wonderful things they -are sometimes, the well-known Brocken Spectre being an excellent -example. It is not, however, necessary to visit the Brocken in order to -see this apparition, for I have seen it in perfection in England.</p> - -<p>Many years ago, when living in Wiltshire, I went before daybreak to the -top of a very high conical hill. The morning mist was so thick that I -could scarcely see my way up the hill. When I reached the summit, I -stood there for some time, trying to see the landscape, but the mist was -so thick that I could barely tell the points of the horizon by the -brighter look cast by the coming Day in the east.</p> - -<p>I was looking westward, when suddenly the sun rose behind me, and I saw -the Brocken Spectre as I have sketched it in the accompanying -illustration. It was a gigantic shadow of myself, projected on the mist, -just as a Magic Lantern projects the image on a sheet or a smoke-cloud. -Of course my gestures were repeated, and it really looked almost awful -to see this gigantic spectral figure set in the mist.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps the most extraordinary part of it was the enormous halo of -rainbow colours round the head. No matter where I moved, the halo -surrounded the head of the image, its colours being comparatively bright -near the centre, and becoming gradually paler towards the circumference.</p> - -<p>Another point about this natural Magic Lantern ought to be mentioned.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_296_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_296_sml.jpg" width="410" height="253" alt="Image unavailable: BROCKEN SPECTRE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BROCKEN SPECTRE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Wishing to show a friend the extraordinary sight of a Brocken Spectre, I -took him up the hill on a misty day like that which has been briefly -described. According to surmise, two spectres appeared instead of one, -but the halo was not doubled as well as the shadow. I could see my -friend’s shadow, and he could see mine. But, although the halo was as -bright as before, each of us could only see it encircling his own head. -We stood as close to each other as we could, we moved apart as far as -the nearly conical top of the hill would allow, and in both cases each -of us could only see his own halo.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may remember the wonderful spectre-scene drawn by Mr. -Whymper, and viewed from the Matterhorn just after the accident which -had killed several of his companions in the ascent of the hitherto -impregnable peak. In the mist there suddenly appeared three vast dark -crosses enclosed in an oval. Considering the highly-strung nerves of the -survivors, it was no wonder that they were all shaken by such an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span> -appearance, and that the guides were for a time too frightened to -proceed.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spectroscope.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Next</span> we come to one of the most astonishing and beautiful optical -instruments ever made by the hand of man. It is called the Spectroscope, -because it deals with a certain arrangement of rays which is called a -“spectrum.” Many years ago Newton discovered the cause of the lovely -colours which deck the rainbow, and the fact that, by passing a ray of -white light through a prism, it was decomposed into seven colours, which -invariably came in the following order—Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, -Blue, Indigo, and Violet. He also discovered that, by looking at that -coloured band through another prism arranged in a different manner, the -decomposed rays were again brought together, and white light was the -result.</p> - -<p>Newton had thrown the light on the prism through a round hole, but some -time afterwards Dr. Wollaston employed a narrow slit for the purpose, -and then found that the spectrum was traversed by dark lines which never -changed their places. On these lines depend all the discoveries that -have been made by the aid of the Spectroscope. The chief of them are -designated by the letters of the alphabet. (See page 300.)</p> - -<p>It was soon found out that if burning gases were viewed with the -Spectroscope, lines were still seen, but they were bright instead of -dark, and that they invariably occupied the place of one or more of the -dark lines shown by the spectrum of sunlight. Then it was discovered -that these burning gases absorbed or stopped out the light in the solar -spectrum, and from that moment the science rapidly advanced.</p> - -<p>At the present day the Spectroscope not only determines the metals which -exist in the sun, but also those of the fixed stars. It even analyzes -the constitution of double stars, and shows the reason why one star -should be red and the other green.</p> - -<p>One of the most astonishing discoveries in astronomy was due to the -Spectroscope.</p> - -<p>During the month of May, 1866, one of the stars in the Northern Crown -(<i>Corona Borealis</i>) was seen to undergo a rapid change. It was -originally one of the tenth magnitude, but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span> a short time increased in -size and brilliancy until it nearly equalled Sirius, Capella, or Vega. -It remained bright for some time, and then rapidly faded until it -resumed its former size.</p> - -<p>How this change was effected we never should have known but for the -Spectroscope. No sooner, however, was this instrument pointed at the -star than there appeared in the spectrum the three well-known -lines—red, green, and violet—which denote burning hydrogen. There was -no doubt on the matter, and the Spectroscope showed us that we were -witnessing a conflagration the like of which was never seen or scarcely -imagined.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_298_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_298_sml.jpg" width="367" height="306" alt="Image unavailable: RAINBOW." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">RAINBOW.</span> -</div> - -<p>Supposing our sun, which is known to be one of the stars, and about -which there are vast volumes of hydrogen gas, were to blaze out in a -similar manner, the result would be that the whole of the planets would -be consumed in a few seconds, and converted into gases. In an instant -every living thing would be swept off the surface of the earth by this -fearful heat, and, as Mr. Roscoe says, “our solid globe would be -dissipated in vapour almost as soon as drops of water in a furnace.” So, -as Mr. Huggins observes, the old nursery rhyme,—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Twinkle, twinkle, little star,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">How I wonder what you are,”—<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">is no longer tenable, for we really do know the composition of the -stars.</p> - -<p>The Spectroscope not only tells us the substance of which the sun and -the most distant stars are made, but gives us the same information about -the “gay motes that people the sunbeam.” It tells us that they are -common salt in very minute particles. They have been dashed into the air -by the winds as spray, and then dispersed over the whole globe. This is -one reason why we have so much salt in our bodies, and why the blood and -the tears are so salt.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is also applied to the arts. The well-known Bessemer process consists -in pouring melted iron into a peculiarly shaped vessel called a -“converter,” and blowing air through it for the purpose of burning out -the carbon. From the mouth of the converter issues a volume of -magnificent flames, and at a certain moment the skilled workman who -directs the process inverts the vessel and pours out the steel. A very -few seconds too soon or too late would spoil the whole of the metal, in -the former case it being simply brittle cast-iron; and, in the second, -becoming so thick that it could not be poured out.</p> - -<p>Only a few workmen could judge rightly the exact point at which to shut -off the air-blast. They watched the flame, and by some change in it, too -slight to be noticed by any except experienced eyes, knew the moment -when the iron was converted into steel.</p> - -<p>Such men could, of course, demand any wages they liked, and, by -striking, stop the whole works. The Spectroscope, however, performed -this delicate discrimination far better than the best workman. When -directed to the flame, the bright lines indicating carbon are seen in -the spectrum. When the blast has continued for some twenty minutes, the -carbon lines suddenly disappear, showing that the carbon has been burned -out, and giving to the workman the signal to shut off the air-blast.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> discovery was, that liquids gave dark lines, technically termed -absorption bands, of different widths and in different parts of the -spectrum. Even liquids which had no perceptible colour threw bands as -bold as those which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span> coloured, while coloured liquids threw totally -different bands, irrespectively of their own colour.</p> - -<p>For example, the green colouring matter of leaves, called chlorophyll, -throws a single broad band on the extreme left—<i>i.e.</i> across the red -part of the spectrum—so far back, indeed, that it is not easily seen at -first.</p> - -<p>Then, suppose that we make some pale solutions of red substances, such -as carmine, magenta dye, port wine, logwood, permanganate of potash, and -blood, it is possible to have them so exactly resembling each other that -not even the microscope can discriminate between them; yet the -Spectroscope instantly detects the colouring matter of each solution.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_300_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_300_sml.jpg" width="422" height="126" alt="Image unavailable: SPECTRUM OF SUNLIGHT, OR SOLAR SPECTRUM. -SPECTRUM OF BLOOD." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPECTRUM OF SUNLIGHT, OR SOLAR SPECTRUM. -SPECTRUM OF BLOOD.</span> -</div> - -<p>The instrument is, therefore, invaluable in detecting adulterations of -wine. For example, supposing that red wine is suspected of owing its -redness to logwood, and not to the genuine grape, a drop is mixed with -water and viewed through the Spectroscope, which instantly tells whether -the colouring matter is grape or logwood. And as, by photography, the -spectrum can be exactly copied, an indelible record is procured of the -true nature of the object.</p> - -<p>So marvellously delicate is the instrument with regard to blood, that it -detects the thousandth part of a grain of colouring matter in a -blood-stain.</p> - -<p>If upon the spectrum were printed the word BLOOD in the largest and -blackest of capitals, it could not be more legible to an ordinary reader -than are the two blood-bands to the eye of a spectroscopist. There is -nothing like them in nature, and whether it be by association of ideas, -or by absolute fact, these two bars have a strangely menacing look about -them. Not only that, but if the blood should be that of a person -suffocated with carbonic acid gas, the Spectroscope will say so.</p> - -<p>Some years ago a man owed his life to the Spectroscope. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span> mysterious -murder had been committed, and the police had arrested a man who was -found near the spot. He could give no intelligible account of himself, -and the sleeves of his coat and a part of his waistcoat were deeply -stained with a red substance just like clotted blood. A piece of each -garment was cut off and given to a well-known spectroscopist, who tried -the red matter in the instrument, and at once declared it not to be -blood. What it was he had not time to ascertain, so he sent it to a -brother in science, who, after examination, pronounced it to be red gum.</p> - -<p>By degrees, the man, who had been intoxicated when arrested, stated that -he had been to see a friend who was a journeyman hatter. It was then -found that he had been leaning on the workman’s board, and so had -carried off some of the gummastic with which hats are stiffened. Had it -not been for the infallible Spectroscope, the man might have lost his -life.</p> - -<p>Thus we see that the Spectroscope is the elephant’s trunk of optics, -equally fitted for the greatest and smallest, the farthest and nearest, -of objects. It is equally at home in earth and sky. When attached to the -telescope, it reveals the constituents of the stars, and, when affixed -to the microscope, it shows us the colouring matter of a green leaf. It -produces the best steel, and detects adulteration in wine. And, lastly, -as we have seen, it turns lawyer, and settles the evidence by which the -life of a man is lost or saved. It can determine the purity of the -smallest coinage, and tell us why a star changes in magnitude.</p> - -<p>Yet all these wondrous revelations are made by a few prisms and a -magnifying-glass. I possess a Spectroscope, made and presented to me by -Mr. J. Browning, the celebrated optician. This astonishing instrument is -only three inches long, and half an inch in diameter, so that it can be -carried in the waistcoat pocket. I always keep mine in a finger of a -white kid glove, which is amply sufficient for it. Yet it gives the -spectrum of the sun with its principal lines, will detect the fraudulent -wine merchant, and could have decided whether the accused man should be -acquitted or hanged.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Marvellous</span> and mighty as is this engine, it lay concealed in Nature ever -since the sun’s rays shone upon earth and a drop<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span> of water existed. The -Rainbow is nothing but a vast spectrum, a transverse slice of which -would be a good representation of the coloured band which is shown in -the instrument. It is prefigured in the ever-shifting rainbows of the -water-fall and fountain, which latter may even be seen in the fountains -of Trafalgar Square, while at the Crystal Palace their beauty has long -been noticed.</p> - -<p>There is not a dewdrop which is not a miniature Spectroscope, as it -glitters with its wondrous iridescence in the rays of the rising sun; -there is not an opal with its shifting hues, nor the splendour of the -soap-bubble, nor the nacre of the common river mussel or the ormer -shell, which does not owe its beauty to the same principles which govern -the Spectroscope. Every green leaf, and blue or pink or yellow petal, -every varying tint of the mackerel sky, every blaze of sunset and -bluegrey of sunrise, owes its beauty to those wondrous laws of light -which had been hidden for so many centuries, until they were unveiled by -the simple prism of the Spectroscope. As in so many instances, the -revelation lay concealed until the coming of the revealer, whose -inspired hand raised the dark veil of centuries.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Thaumatrope.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Middle</span>-aged persons will recollect that since the days of their -childhood a great variety of optical apparatus has been invented ending -in the word “trope.” This is a Greek word, signifying to turn, and is -given to the instruments because they revolve.</p> - -<p>All these toys—and they may some day become more than toys—depend on a -curious property of the human eye. The reader will remember that in the -description of the human eye, as compared with the camera obscura as -applied to photography, it was mentioned that the image was thrown from -the front to the back, and in the one case was received on a naturally -sensitive membrane, and in the other on a film rendered artificially -sensitive by chemical means. This membrane is called the “retina,” -because it not only receives the impression, but retains it for some -little time after the object is removed. It has been calculated that the -duration of the image is about the eighth part of a second.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span></p> - -<p>Thus the eyelids are perpetually and unconsciously closing and opening -with a rapid movement, popularly called “winking.” This movement is for -the purpose of cleansing the eyeball, and, were it not for the -image-retaining power of the retina, we should pass a considerable part -of our time in absolute darkness. As it is, the impression of external -objects on the retina lasts longer than the time occupied in winking, -and, in consequence, we are not conscious that any interval of darkness -has elapsed.</p> - -<p>Again, when we have been looking steadfastly at an object, and then move -our eyes, the image of that object is seen in the new focus; and it is -worthy of notice that such object is always seen in its “complementary” -colour. For example, if we have been looking at a scarlet spot, and -suddenly move our eyes, we shall see a spot exactly similar in size and -shape, but of green.</p> - -<p>I well remember that when I was a boy I was reading with almost feverish -anxiety the green handbill of a travelling circus, to which I hoped that -I might be allowed to attend. Having finished it, I asked for some -note-paper, for the purpose of putting my request in writing, but, to my -astonishment, mixed, perhaps, with a little irritation, all the paper -supplied to me was of a bright pink. For a time no arguments could -convince me that the paper was really white, until by degrees the pink -hue became paler and paler, and the paper assumed its normal whiteness.</p> - -<p>The fact was, that the eye had become saturated with the green—<i>i.e.</i> -the blue and yellow rays—and could see nothing but their complementary -colour, which was pink.</p> - -<p>A good example of this property may be found in a lighted stick, which, -if rapidly whirled round, appears to form a continuous circle of fire. -The reason of this is, that the impression made on the retina by the -fiery point does not cease until the stick has again come round in its -course.</p> - -<p>Then there are those well-known chromatic tops, in which are inserted -pieces of bent wire. When the top is spun these pieces of wire assume -exactly the appearance of transparent jugs, vases, glasses, and similar -articles. A very pretty illustration of this principle is given by a -little machine, which is made to revolve rapidly by means of a -multiplying wheel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span></p> - -<p>Upon its surface are fixed little pins, with polished globular steel -heads, and, when the handle is turned, these heads form the most -beautiful and intricate figures with exact accuracy.</p> - -<p>Another toy, called the Thaumatrope, or Wonder-turner, is equally -ingenious and beautiful, and is sufficiently simple to be made by any -one with a slight knowledge of drawing. A disc of white cardboard is -cut, and upon each side of it is portrayed some object. If the disc be -caused to revolve rapidly, these two subjects will be seen at the same -time, the image of each being held on the retina long enough to allow -the other to take its place.</p> - -<p>Some very beautiful combinations may be made by means of this -instrument. For example, a horse may be on one side, and a man on the -other, and, by spinning the disc, the man will be seen mounted on the -horse. Then we may have a boat on one side, and a rower with his oars on -the other. Similarly a mouse can be put into a trap, or a bird into a -cage.</p> - -<p>The reader must remember that these subjects must be drawn as if they -were upside down with regard to each other, so that the man who is to -ride the horse is drawn as if he were standing on his head, and the -mouse which is to enter the trap looks as if it were lying on its back.</p> - -<p>The most simple manner of spinning the disc is by means of two threads, -each being inserted near the edge of the disc, and exactly opposite each -other.</p> - -<p>A very ingenious modification of the Thaumatrope is made by inserting at -one side of the disc two strings, of which one is elastic. It is -evident, then, that by lengthening or shortening the elastic string, the -axis can be changed, and the objects on the opposite sides placed in -positions relatively different from each other. Thus the jockey may be -made to jump on and off his horse, the bird to go in and out of its -cage, the mouse to enter the trap, and so on. This simple invention -allows of infinite combinations, so that a tree may be made to sprout, a -man to move his limbs, and a bird to flap its wings. It was invented, I -believe, by Dr. Paris, author of “Philosophy in Sport made Science in -Earnest.”</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration are seen three figures, each -representing a means of obtaining an ocular delusion through the -principle of which we are now treating.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span></p> - -<p>The lower figure is called the Zoetrope, or Wheel of Life. As the reader -may see, it consists of a hollow cylinder, revolving on a centre, and -having within it a series of figures. When the wheel revolves, and the -figures are viewed through the slits, each figure seems to be in -lifelike motion, whence the name of Zoetrope. In the present case the -figures are those of boys jumping over posts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_305_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_305_sml.jpg" width="418" height="305" alt="Image unavailable: WHEEL ANIMALCULE. - -PHANTASMASCOPE. - -CHROMATROPE. - -ZOETROPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WHEEL ANIMALCULE. - -PHANTASMASCOPE. - -CHROMATROPE. - -ZOETROPE. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The mode in which this effect is produced is as follows:—Suppose that a -boy were really to jump over a post, he would go through a series of -motions, and his body be placed in a certain series of positions, before -he cleared the post. Supposing, then, that several points were chosen in -his course, and his body drawn as it would appear at these points, and -the drawings placed in their proper order in the Zoetrope, it is evident -that the figures must appear in movement. Before the retina loses the -image of the boy standing in front of the post, it takes in that of the -boy stooping, with his hands on the top of the post, and so on until he -has reached the ground on the opposite side.</p> - -<p>Another mode of producing the same effect, called the Phantasmascope, is -seen above the zoetrope. In this case the images are placed on the -inside of the disc, which is held opposite a mirror, and the figures -viewed through the slits.</p> - -<p>The last of these figures is the rather complicated one, like<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span> the back -of an “engine-turned” watch. This is called the Chromatrope, or Wheel of -Colour, and is always a favourite object in a magic lantern. It consists -of two circular plates of glass, one upon the other, and painted in -variously coloured curved lines, as seen in the illustration. When the -image is thrown upon a screen, and the glass plates turned in opposite -directions, a most singular and beautiful effect is produced. The lines, -unless the eye follows them very closely, disappear, and torrents of -coloured spots seem to pour from the centre to the circumference, or -<i>vice versâ</i>, according to the direction in which the glass wheels are -turned. So perfect is the illusion, that it is almost impossible to -believe that the movement is only circular, and not spiral.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we will pass from Art to Nature. The figure on the left hand of the -same illustration represents part of one of the Wheel Animalcules, so -called because they look exactly as if the fore-part of their bodies -were furnished with two delicate wheels, running rapidly round, and -evidently moving or stopping at the pleasure of the owner.</p> - -<p>Soon after the powers of the microscope became known, these -Wheel-bearers were discovered, and for a long time they were thought to -have a pair of veritable revolving wheels upon their heads. They were -naturally held in high estimation, as, although almost every kind of -lever can be found in the animal world, a revolving wheel had never been -seen. However, as the defining powers of the microscope improved, the -so-called wheels were found not to be wheels at all, but stationary -organs, and that their apparent revolution was nothing but an optical -delusion.</p> - -<p>The wheels are, in fact, two discs, around the edges of which are set -certain hair-like appendages, called “cilia,” from a Latin word -signifying the eyelashes. Each of the cilia has an independent motion of -its own, and, as they bend in rapid and regular succession, they produce -an effect on the eye similar to that of a revolving body. As for the -animal itself, they produce a double effect, either acting as paddles, -and forcing the animal through the water, or, when it is affixed to some -object, causing a current which drives into its mouth the minute beings -on which it feeds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span></p> - -<p>The particular species of Wheel-hearer whose mouth is here shown is -called scientifically <i>Limnias ceratophylli</i>. It derives the latter name -from the fact that it is mostly found on the submerged stems and leaves -of the Hornwort (<i>Ceratophyllum</i>), which is very common in ponds and -slow streams. The creature is, however, to be found on the water-growing -plants, and Mr. Gosse, in his “Evenings with the Microscope,” gives a -very full and graphic account of itself and its habits.</p> - -<p>He specially mentions the use of the wheels, and, by dissolving a little -carmine in the water, had the pleasure of seeing the coloured granules -swept into the mouth by the current caused by the cilia through the -jaws, and so into the stomach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_I" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_I"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> -<small>PRIMITIVE MAN AND HIS NEEDS.—EARTHENWARE.—BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT.—TOGGLE OR KNEE JOINT.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Contrast between Savagery and Civilisation.—Manufacture of -Weapons.—Earthenware of Art.—Sun-baked Vessels.—Earthenware of -Nature.—Nest of Pied Grallina.—Analogy with the Babylonish -Brick.—Nest of the Oven-bird.—A partitioned Vessel.—Necked -earthenware Vessels.—Nests of Eumenes, Trypoxylon, and -Pelopœus.—Proof of Reason in Insects.—The Ball-and-socket -Joint.—“Bull’s-eye” of Microscope.—The human -Thigh-bone.—Vertebræ of the Serpents and their Structure.—The -Sea-urchin and its Spines.—Legs and Antennæ of Insects.—The -Toggle or Knee Joint, and its Use in the Arts.—The hand -Printing-press and the Toggle-joint.—The human Leg and Arm.—Power -of the natural Toggle-joint.—Fencing and Boxing.—Heads of -Carriages.—“Bowsing” of Ropes.—Leaf-rolling Caterpillars.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N the primitive ages of Man the aids to civilisation were very few and -very rude. Some of them, especially those which relate to hunting and -war, have already been mentioned, and we now have to deal with some of -those which bear upon domestic life.</p> - -<p>Here we are in some little difficulty, for it is not very easy to draw -the line where domestic life begins, or the mode in which it shall be -defined. We may at all events connect domestic life with a residence of -some sort, and may, in consequence, neglect all such primitive savages -as need no domestic implements.</p> - -<p>Such, for example, are the few surviving Bosjesmans of Southern Africa, -not one of whom ever made a tool or an implement, or looked beyond the -present day. The genuine Bosjesman can make a bow and poison his arrows, -and he can light a fire; but there his civilisation ends. He cannot look -beyond the present hour, he has not the faintest notion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span> making a -provision for the future, nor did his wildest imagination ever compass -the idea of a pot or a pan.</p> - -<p>He kills his prey, and, if hunger be very pressing, he will eat it at -once without waiting for the tedious ceremony of cooking; or at the best -will just throw the meat upon the fire, tear it to pieces with his -teeth, and swallow it when it is nothing but a mass of bleeding flesh, -charred on the outside, and absolutely raw within. The Bosjesman has not -even a tent which he can call his own, any bush or hole in the ground -answering for a house as long as he wants it, and then being exchanged -for another.</p> - -<p>As far as we know, the only trace of civilisation in the Bosjesman is -his manufacture of weapons, and even his bow and arrows are of the -rudest and clumsiest forms. Nor is it likely that he will ever advance -any further; for, as is the wont of all savage tribes, he is -disappearing fast before the presence of superior races, and will -shortly be as extinct as the Tasmanians, the last of whom died only a -few years ago.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Earthenware.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> advent of real civilisation seems to depend largely upon the -construction, not of weapons, but utensils, and the most useful of these -are intended either for the preparation or the preservation of food. -That such vessels should be made of earth is evident enough, and it is -worthy of remark that the rude earthenware pot of the naked savage and -the delicate china of Sèvres should both be products of the earth, and -yet be examples of the opposite ends of civilisation.</p> - -<p>The most primitive earthenware vessels were simply baked in the rays of -the sun, the use of fire for hardening them being of later date. Rude -and simple as they are, some of these vessels possess tolerable -strength, and can answer every purpose for which they are intended. I -possess several pots made by the aborigines of the Essequibo district. -They are very thick and heavy in proportion to their dimensions, and are -still so fragile that I have been obliged to bind them with string -whenever they are moved.</p> - -<p>Simple as they are, however, they are pleasing to the eye, chiefly, I -presume, because they are made for a definite office,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span> and fulfil it, -and have no pretence about them. Then, as they are moulded by hand -alone, without any assistance from machinery of any kind, even a wheel, -the individuality of the maker is stamped upon them, and no two are -exactly alike either in form, colour, or ornament. A couple of these -rude vases are to be seen on the right hand of the accompanying -illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the same illustration are shown two examples of -earthenware vessels made by birds, which are nearly, if not quite, as -good as those made by the hands of civilised man.</p> - -<p>The upper figure represents the nest of the Pied Grallina (<i>Grallina -Australis</i>), a bird which, as its specific name implies, is a native of -Australia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_310_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_310_sml.jpg" width="395" height="193" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF PIED GRALLINA. - -NEST OF OVEN-BIRD. - -PRIMITIVE EARTHENWARE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF PIED GRALLINA. - -NEST OF OVEN-BIRD. - -PRIMITIVE EARTHENWARE. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>This nest is formed chiefly of clay, but a quantity of dried grass is -always mixed with it, and serves to bind it together. If one of these -nests be broken up, and compared with the bricks of which ancient -Babylon was built, it will be found that they are almost identical in -material, and that both are merely baked in the sun. In form it so -closely resembles an Essequibo jar in my possession, that if it were -removed from the branch, and similarly coloured, it would not be easy to -distinguish the one from the other.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> this is the nest of the Oven-bird of South America (<i>Furnarius -fuliginosus</i>), a bird allied to our common creeper. The drawing was -taken from a specimen in the British Museum.</p> - -<p>Like the nest of the Grallina, it is placed upon some horizontal<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span> bough, -and fixed so firmly that it cannot fall except by being broken to -pieces. Not being afraid of man, the Oven-bird often chooses a beam in -some outhouse for a resting-place, and has been known to build even on -the top of palings. As may be seen by reference to the illustration, the -nest is a very conspicuous one, and concealment is almost impossible.</p> - -<p>As in the Grallina nest, the material is remarkably hard and firm, as -indeed is necessary, to allow it to withstand the effects of the -rain-torrents which fall during the wet seasons of the year.</p> - -<p>There is a curious analogy in this nest with many articles of -earthenware. Not only among ourselves, but among uncivilised races, -earthenware vessels are constructed with partitions, so as to divide one -portion from another. If one of these nests be cut open, it will be -found to have a sort of partition wall across the interior, rising -nearly to the top of the dome, and so dividing it into two parts. The -wall also answers another purpose—<i>i.e.</i> that of strengthening the -entire structure. Within the inner chamber is the real nest, which is -lined with a thick layer of feathers, the outer chamber being bare, and, -as it is thought, being occupied by the male.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to pottery of a more elaborate shape. Both in the Grallina -nest and the earthen pot of the Essequibo Indian we have a vessel with a -mouth nearly as wide as its greatest diameter, and with a lip which is -very slightly turned over. There are, however, many varieties of pottery -in which the neck is narrow and long, and the lip is boldly formed. Some -examples of this form are given on the right hand of the accompanying -illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand are shown some nests of a solitary wasp belonging to -the genus Eumenes. It is a British insect, but seems to have been little -noticed, except by professed entomologists.</p> - -<p>It especially haunts heather, and affixes to the stems of the plant its -little globular nests, which are made of mud, and shaped as seen in the -illustration. Perhaps some of my readers may have seen the “Napier -Coffee Machine,” which draws the coffee into a glass globe furnished -with a short neck. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span> globe is shaped exactly like the nest of our -Eumenes, and, when I first saw one, I could not remember why its shape -was so familiar to me.</p> - -<p>As is the case with the birds’ nests which have been mentioned, the mud -of which the walls are built is of a most tenacious character, and, when -dried in the sun, can resist the heaviest rain. The cells are intended -as rearing-places for the young, only a single egg being placed in each -cell, which is then stocked with small caterpillars by way of food.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_312_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_312_sml.jpg" width="384" height="210" alt="Image unavailable: NESTS OF EUMENES. -ANCIENT NECKED POTTERY." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NESTS OF EUMENES. -ANCIENT NECKED POTTERY.</span> -</div> - -<p>There is a South American insect also belonging to the solitary wasps, -and remarkable for building a round nest exactly similar in material, -and nearly identical in shape, with that of the Eumenes. Its scientific -title is <i>Trypoxylon aurifrons</i>. The nest of this insect has a much -wider mouth than that of the Eumenes, and exactly resembles the upper -left-hand jar in the illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> South American solitary wasp, belonging to the genus -Pelopœus, makes nests of similar material, but nearly cylindrical in -shape instead of globular. The nest is built up of successive rings of -moistened and well-kneaded clay, exactly as human houses are built by -bricklayers. Indeed, the process of making a Pelopœus’ nest has been -happily compared to that of building a circular chimney.</p> - -<p>I may as well mention here that the name Pelopœus is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span> formed from a -Greek word signifying mud, and that the entire word may be translated as -“mud-worker.”</p> - -<p>As a proof that these insects possess reason as well as instinct, Mr. -Gosse mentions that one of them, instead of making her nest for herself, -utilised an empty bottle, and, after storing it with spiders, stopped up -the mouth with clay. Finding, after an absence of a few days, that the -nest had been disturbed, she removed the spiders, inserted a fresh -supply, and then closed the mouth as before.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Ball-and-socket Joint.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> will now see how some of the most useful mechanical inventions have -had their prototypes in Nature.</p> - -<p>There is, for example, the well-known “Ball-and-socket joint,” without -which many of our instruments, especially those devoted to optical -purposes, would be impracticable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_313_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_313_sml.jpg" width="408" height="232" alt="Image unavailable: HIP-JOINT. -SPINES OF SEA-URCHIN. VERTEBRÆ OF SNAKE. -BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT OF MICROSCOPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HIP-JOINT. -SPINES OF SEA-URCHIN. VERTEBRÆ OF SNAKE. -BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT OF MICROSCOPE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The figure on the right hand of the illustration represents the -“bull’s-eye” of my own microscope. It will be seen that there is a ball -half sunk in a cup, so that it can be turned in any direction. In point -of fact, the upper part of the ball is nearly concealed by another cup, -but, in order to show the structure, the upper cup has been removed. Who -was the inventor of the ball-and-socket joint I do not know, but I have -little doubt that he must have had in his mind many natural examples of -this joint, three of which are represented in the illustration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand are seen the upper part of the human thigh-bone and -that part of the hip-bone into which it fits.</p> - -<p>The reader will see that at its upper end the bone takes rather a sharp -turn, and is then modified into a ball. This ball fits into a -corresponding socket, technically named the “acetabulum,” and is thereby -endowed with freedom of motion in almost every direction. Generally we -do not practise our limbs sufficiently to develop that full freedom, but -those who have seen any good professional acrobats must have been struck -with the wonderful mobility of which the human body is capable.</p> - -<p>The socket is not a deep one, but dislocation of the hip is exceedingly -rare, the bone being held in its place by three powers. The first is due -to a short ligament, which, however, does not always exist, but, when it -is present, is useful in retaining the bone in its place. Then there is -the contractile power of the thigh muscles, which are always forcing the -ball into the socket. Lastly, there is the pressure of the atmosphere, a -force which is seldom taken into consideration, but which has great -influence on many parts of the human frame. This part of the subject -will be resumed when we come to treat of Atmospheric Pressure.</p> - -<p>The arms are jointed to the shoulder-blades in a very similar manner, -the upper arm-bone, or “humerus,” being furnished with a rounded end, -and fitting into a cup-like cavity in the shoulder-blade, or “scapula.” -This formation can easily be seen by separating the different bones of a -shoulder of mutton.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">At</span> the bottom of the illustration are given two vertebræ of a snake, -separated in order to show their structure. It will be seen that each -joint has a ball in front and a socket behind, thus giving the creature -that wonderful flexibility which is quite proverbial, and without which -it could not seize its prey.</p> - -<p>The following eloquent passage is taken from Professor Owen’s work -entitled “The Skeleton and the Teeth:”—</p> - -<p>“Serpents have been regarded as animals degraded from a higher type, but -their whole organization, and especially their bony structure, -demonstrate that their parts are as exquisitely<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span> adjusted to the form of -their whole, and to their habits and sphere of life, as is the -organization of any animal which we call superior to them.</p> - -<p>“It is true that the serpent has no limbs, yet it can outclimb the -monkey, outswim the fish, outleap the Jerboa, and, suddenly loosening -the coils of its crouching spiral, it can spring into the air and seize -the bird upon the wing: all these creatures have been observed to fall -its prey.</p> - -<p>“The serpent has neither hands nor talons, yet it can outwrestle the -athlete, and crush the tiger in the embrace of its ponderous overlapping -folds. Instead of licking up its food as it glides along, the serpent -uplifts its crushed prey, and presents it, grasped in the death-coil as -in hand, to its slimy, gaping mouth.</p> - -<p>“It is truly wonderful to see the work of hands, feet, and fins -performed by a modification of the vertebral column—by a multiplication -of its segments with mobility of its ribs. But the vertebræ are -especially modified, as we have seen, to compensate, by the strength of -their numerous articulations, for the weakness of their manifold -repetition, and the consequent elongation of the slender column.</p> - -<p>“As serpents move chiefly on the surface of the earth, their danger is -greatest from pressure and blows from above; all the joints are -fashioned accordingly to resist yielding, and sustain pressure in a -vertical direction; there is no natural undulation of the body upwards -and downwards—it is permitted only from side to side. So closely and -compactly do the ten pairs of joints between each of the two hundred or -three hundred vertebræ fit together, that even in the relaxed and dead -state the body cannot be twisted except in a series of side coils.”</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> upper right-hand figure represents a portion of the shell of an -Echinus, or Sea-urchin, together with two of the spikes.</p> - -<p>The reader will remember that in the description of the Heart-urchin, -and the mode in which it dug its way into the sand, the peculiar -mobility of the spines was mentioned. How that mobility is produced we -shall now see.</p> - -<p>If a living Sea-urchin can be procured, and placed in a glass vessel -filled with sea-water, it will at once be seen that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span> its surface is -thickly covered with spines. In some species these spines are as thick -as ordinary drawing pencils; but in most of those which are found on our -shores they are very slight, and scarcely longer than darning-needles. -They are in almost perpetual motion, and generally have a sort of -revolving movement, the base being the pivot.</p> - -<p>Now, if we take a dried shell of the Sea-urchin, we shall find that the -spines will come off with a touch, and, indeed, to preserve one with all -the spines complete is a most difficult business. Let us, therefore, -pull one from its attachment, and examine its base. This will be found -to be swollen into a cup-like form, as seen in the illustration; and, if -we look at the spot whence it came, we shall see that there is a little, -rounded, polished prominence, exactly fitting into the cup, just as the -ball of the human thigh-bone fits into the acetabulum. It has also its -ligament to keep it in its place, and its same set of muscles that move -it, and is altogether a most wonderful piece of mechanism. There are in -some species of Echinus about four thousand of these spines.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> legs of an insect afford excellent examples of the ball-and-socket -principle, the socket being on the body, and the ball on the base of the -leg. Some of our largest insects—such, for example, as the common -Stag-beetle—exhibit this principle very well. I have now before me a -Stag-beetle which has been dead for many years, and is quite dry and -hard. Yet I can rotate the legs almost as freely as if the beetle had -been just killed, so easily do the joints work. Even the antennæ, which -are affixed to the head by a similar joint, move about by their own -weight on merely changing the position of the insect.</p> - -<p>These are only a few of the many natural examples of the Ball-and-socket -joint, but they are sufficient for our purpose.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Toggle or Knee Joint.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Another</span> most useful invention now comes before us, called the -Toggle-joint, or Knee-joint, the latter name being given to it on -account of its manifest resemblance to the action of the human knee.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span></p> - -<p>This joint is shown in the illustration. It consists of two levers, -jointed together at one end, and having the other ends jointed to the -objects which are to be pressed asunder. It will be seen that if the -centre of the Toggle be pushed or pulled in the direction of the arrow, -so as to straighten the levers, the amount of pressure upon them is -enormous. Such an apparatus as this combines simplicity and power in a -wonderful manner, and is greatly used in machinery, especially in -presses, where the force is required to be great, but not of long -duration.</p> - -<p>An ordinary two-foot rule, when bent, affords a good example of the -Toggle-joint, and will exert a wonderful amount of force.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_317_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_317_sml.jpg" width="417" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: STRAIGHTENED -TOGGLES. - -FENCERS. - -BENT -TOGGLES. - -PRINTING-PRESS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">STRAIGHTENED -TOGGLES. - -FENCERS. - -BENT -TOGGLES. - -PRINTING-PRESS. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The illustration represents one of the common printing-presses that are -worked by hand. When the workman draws the handle horizontally, he -causes the two portions of the Toggle to approach a straight line. The -upper half of the Toggle being jointed to the fixed beam above, and the -other half to the movable plate or “platen” below, it is evident that -the latter will be pressed downwards with enormous force. Indeed, so -great is the power of this instrument, that a man of moderate strength -can exert a pressure of many tons.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now proceed from Art to Nature, and take first the human knee, being -the joint from which this piece of mechanism has derived one of its -names.</p> - -<p>If the reader will look at the figure of the fencers, he will see that -the arm and leg are both Toggle-joints. In the one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span> who is standing on -the defence they are bent, and in the other, who has just made a longe, -the Toggles of the right arm and left leg are straightened. It is by the -straightening of these joints, and not by the action of stabbing, that -the rapidity and force of a thrust are achieved.</p> - -<p>It is just the same in boxing. No one who has the least knowledge of -sparring strikes a round-handed blow, for, putting aside the ease with -which it is parried or avoided, it has scarcely any force in it. When a -boxer hits “straight from the shoulder,” he not only straightens the -Toggle-joint of his left arm, but that of his right knee also, so that -the force of the blow comes quite as much from the leg as the arm.</p> - -<p>It is by the right use of this joint that a small man, provided he be an -expert boxer, will easily conquer an ignorant opponent who far surpasses -him in size and weight. I have seen in a sparring-match a man not only -knocked down, but fairly lifted off his feet, by a blow from a smaller -opponent. The blow took effect under the chin, and, as the boxer hit -exactly the right moment in straightening both limbs, a very great force -was exerted with little apparent effort. I do not know which of the two -combatants was the more astonished, the one to find himself on his back -without exactly knowing how he got there, and the other to see his -antagonist prostrate without exactly knowing how the thing was done.</p> - -<p>The jointed apparatus by which the heads of carriages are raised or -lowered is a good example of the Toggle, and exemplifies the force which -a comparatively slight piece of machinery can exercise.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> form of the Toggle-joint is the process called by sailors -“bowsing” of rope. If a rope be fastened at both ends, and then pulled -in the middle, the ends are drawn forcibly towards each other. This plan -is mostly adopted in getting up sails. When a sail, say the mainsail of -a cutter, has to be hoisted as far as it will go, the last few inches -are always very obstinate. The word is then given to “bowse.” The rope, -or haulyard, is no longer pulled at the end, but a turn is taken round -the cleat, so that it does not give way. The rope is then forcibly -pulled away from the mast, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span> up goes the gaff a little higher. In -this way, by repeated bowsings, the gaff is coaxed, so to speak, up the -mast, and forced into its place.</p> - -<p>Some of the leaf-rolling caterpillars act in a similar manner, by -alternately bowsing and shortening their lines. As, however, their mode -of working will be described under another heading, we will say no more -of them at present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_II" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_II"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> -<small>CRUSHING INSTRUMENTS.—THE NUT-CRACKERS, ROLLING-MILL, AND GRINDSTONE.—PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERE.—SEED DIBBLES AND DRILLS.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Importance of Leverage in Crushing Power.—Nut-crackers a Lever of -the Second Order.—The Chaff-cutting and Tobacconists’ -Machines.—Jaws of various Animals.—The Wolf-fish or -Sea-wolf.—The Rolling-mill and its Action.—Gunpowder-mills and -Granulating Machine.—The “Jacob’s Ladder.”—The Mangle and its -various Adaptations.—The Grindstone.—Primitive Grindstones of the -Savage Races.—The Kafirs and the Inhabitants of -Palestine.—Ceasing of the Millstone.—“Facing” of -Millstones.—Tusk of the Elephant and its Structure.—Its Facings -always preserved.—Power of Self-renewal.—Pressure of -Atmosphere.—The Napier Coffee Machine.—The Cupping -Instrument.—The Pneumatic Peg.—The Magdeburg Hemispheres.—Plane -Surfaces of Glass or Metal.—Suckers of the Cuttle-fish.—Foot of -the Water-beetle.—The Limpet.—The Star-fish and its Mode of -Progression.—The Sucking-fish and the Fables connected with -it.—Its real Structure.—Modification of the Dorsal Fin.—The -Gobies and Lump-fish.—The Gecko and Tree-frog.—The Lampern and -the Medicinal Leech.—Seed Dibbles and Drills.—Labourers versus -Machinery.—Natural Dibble of the Grasshopper.—The Daddy -Long-legs.—Drills and Dibbles of the Ichneumon-flies.—A wonderful -Specimen from Bogotá.—The Pelecinus and its Mode of laying Eggs.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Crushing Instruments.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>S we are on the subject of leverage, we will take some examples of -levers in Art and Nature, without, however, even attempting to exhaust -the topic.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is shown a very familiar example -of a lever, namely, nut-crackers, with a nut between them. This useful -implement is simply an adaptation of levers of the second kind, the -power being represented by the human hand, the weight by the nut, and -the fulcrum being the joint of the instrument.</p> - -<p>The common chaff-cutter, which is worked by hand, is another familiar -example of this kind of lever, and so is the knife used by tobacconists -in cutting cake Cavendish into threads,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span> and by druggists for similar -purposes. In these instruments the point of the knife is jointed to some -fixed object, and becomes the fulcrum; the hand of the cutter supplies -the power, and the weight is the object which is being cut. It will be -seen that, by increasing the length of the handle, very great power can -be obtained.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_321_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_321_sml.jpg" width="458" height="235" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF WOLF-FISH. -NUT-CRACKERS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF WOLF-FISH. -NUT-CRACKERS.</span> -</div> - -<p>Exchanging the power for weight, we have in the common tongs, whether -used for the coals or for sugar, a leverage of a similar character, the -weight moving over a greater space than the power. A good example of -this is to be found in the deltoid muscle of the human arm. The muscle, -which furnishes the power, contracts about an inch, and, so doing, moves -the hand over some forty inches of space. It has been well stated that -if a man is able to hold in his hand, and with extended arm, a weight of -twenty-five pounds, the muscle must be exerting a power of forty times -as great, <i>i.e.</i> about a thousand pounds.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is little doubt that, in such Crushing Instruments as have been -mentioned, the idea has been taken from the jaws of sundry animals. We -know, for example, that with ourselves, if we desire to crack a walnut -or a filbert in our teeth, we always put it as far back as possible, so -as to make the leverage as powerful as possible. No one would ever dream -of cracking a nut with his front teeth, an act which would be very<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span> much -like that of trying to break a piece of coal by pinching it with the -tongs.</p> - -<p>The left-hand figure of the illustration represents part of the jaws of -the Wolf-fish, or Sea-wolf, as it is sometimes called, and a very -wonderful crushing machine it is. The Sea-wolf (<i>Anarrhicas lupus</i>), -sometimes called the Sea-cat, or Swine-fish, is tolerably common on our -coasts, and, as it sometimes attains a length of seven feet, and is -proportionately stout and muscular, the power of its bite may be -estimated. The fish in question feeds chiefly on crustacea and -hard-shelled molluscs, and is therefore furnished with an apparatus -which can crush their shells. Extremes meet. The Sea-anemones, which are -mere films of animal matter, and can be torn in pieces with the finger -and thumb, can seize, swallow, and digest a crab or an oyster in spite -of the thick and strong shells in which they are enclosed. So can the -Sea-wolf, and fishes of a similar character. But nothing intermediate -can touch them, and it is curious to reflect that such opposite means -should produce a similar effect.</p> - -<p>On reference to the illustration, the reader will see how exact is the -parallel between the Nut-crackers and the Sea-wolf’s jaws, both being -worked on the same principle, and both being furnished with a series of -projecting points, which are used for the purpose of preventing the -escape of the object which is to be crushed. The terrible grasping power -of the crocodile, the dolphin, and other predacious creatures can be -explained on the same principle.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Rolling-mill.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to another variation of the Crushing Machine, <i>i.e.</i> that in -which the motion is constant, and not intermittent, as is the case with -those machines which have just been mentioned.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may have visited those great iron-works in -which huge masses of iron are rolled into plates of greater or less -thickness, or are cut up into strips as easily as if they were butter.</p> - -<p>The mechanism is in its principle simple enough. The cylindrical rollers -are placed nearly in contact, and forced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span> towards each other by -mechanical means, such as levers, screws, or springs, or all three -combined. These cylinders revolve in opposite directions, and, if any -object be placed between them, they draw it through them, and present it -on the other side in a flattened condition.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_323_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_323_sml.jpg" width="420" height="190" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF SKATE. -CRUSHING-MILL AND ROLLER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF SKATE. -CRUSHING-MILL AND ROLLER.</span> -</div> - -<p>Many years ago, one of my schoolfellows, who had been brought up -entirely under the care of some maiden ladies, was visiting a workshop, -and must needs put his finger between two revolving rollers. Of course -the hand was drawn between them, and simply squeezed flat. The machine -was instantly stopped, and the hand extricated; and the strange thing -was, that the crushed and shapeless hand afterwards recovered its full -power, though not its shape, and was able to touch the keys of the -piano.</p> - -<p>The whole process of the Rolling-mill is singularly interesting, whether -it be used for large or small objects.</p> - -<p>Supposing that the grooved rollers of the illustration were cut across -so as to present a number of points, it is evident that anything which -got between them would be bitten to pieces, each piece being of a -tolerably uniform shape.</p> - -<p>This plan is now adopted in the granulation of gunpowder. After the -future powder has emerged from the hydraulic press in the form called -“press-cake,” it was formerly broken to bits with wooden or copper -mallets, and then placed in a very peculiar kind of sieve. This was -shaped like an ordinary sieve, but the bottom was made of cowhide, -pierced with innumerable holes. A round pebble was placed in the sieve, -and, when the latter was violently shaken backwards and forwards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span> the -powder was driven through the holes by the pressure of the stone, and -was afterwards separated into its various degrees of fineness.</p> - -<p>I have only twice seen this process, and confess to have been in a very -nervous state on both occasions. The sieve is whirled about with -enormous velocity, and the pebble flies round as if it were a thing -alive. Let but a broken needle or a fragment of stone get into the -sieve, or even let the stone itself break asunder, and there will be an -instantaneous explosion, which will hurl the house, the machinery, and -the workmen into unknown regions.</p> - -<p>Now, however, the mode of granulating powder is radically altered. There -is a series of double cylinders, such as shown in the illustration, and -each of them has the ridges cut into teeth in regular order. Thus the -first set of rollers or cylinders merely bites the press-cake into -convenient pieces, though seldom of the same weight.</p> - -<p>The press-cake, thus bitten to pieces, is passed through a series of -cylindrical sieves, each graduated with the utmost accuracy, and being -turned by means of machinery. Being set on a slope, the powder runs by -its own weight down them, and all those particles which cannot pass -through the meshes are poured out untouched at the lower end.</p> - -<p>The portions which are too large to pass the openings of the first sieve -are then handed onwards by means of a machine called a “Jacob’s Ladder,” -which consists of a series of little vessels or buckets strung on a -tape, and revolving over a couple of wheels. The first set of buckets -takes the coarsely bitten press-cake to the second set of rollers, the -teeth of which are comparatively small. Thence it is passed over to a -third set, and so forth, until it is delivered in any quality of grain -which may be required.</p> - -<p>The modern Mangle, again, affords a good example of this principle. The -old obtrusive, costly, and cumbrous Mangle, which was nothing more than -a heavy box of stones upon rollers, has given place to the modern system -of duplex action in rollers, and one of the old Mangles is not easily to -be seen, unless it be worked as a curiosity. In fact, it is nearly as -obsolete as the spinning-wheel, which yet may be seen in some of our -country villages, where scarcely one per cent, of the population has -ever been in a town, and many of them, the women <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span>especially, make it -their boast that they have never been beyond the outskirts of their -village.</p> - -<p>This clumsy machine is now replaced by the very simple invention which -has been in vogue for some years, and which can not only release, but -regulate, the pressure at any moment, by means of springs, levers, and -weights. This machine is, in fact, exactly the same as that which is -represented in the illustration, except that the rollers are quite -smooth. They can be adjusted to almost any amount of pressure by levers -and weights which are attached to the upper roller, and, when the linen -has passed through them, it has undergone the double operation of -wringing and mangling. This disposition of the rollers has long been -anticipated in the jaws of the Skate which crush to pieces the shells of -the whelks, periwinkles, &c., on which the creature feeds.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Grindstone.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Being</span> on the subject of jaws and teeth as a mode of breaking to pieces -objects which are placed between them, we will take those implements -which grind to powder, or “triturate,” instead of breaking or -flattening.</p> - -<p>From the very earliest ages, and as soon as man had begun to discover -the “staff of life,” the art of grinding naturally assumed an -ever-increasing importance.</p> - -<p>The first and most primitive mode of grinding corn and converting it -into meal was that which was followed by Sarah, when she welcomed her -husband’s guests, which we know, from internal evidence, was followed by -the uncivilised races who formerly inhabited this island, and by many -semi-savages of the present day.</p> - -<p>Nothing could be simpler than the machinery used, and nothing could -cause a greater waste of muscular power. Two stones were employed, a -large one upon which the grain was placed, and a smaller which was held -in the hands, and used for grinding the corn to powder, just as the -painters of the last century used to grind their colours. The Kafirs of -Southern Africa use this simple mill, and so exactly do they keep -unconsciously to the customs of long-perished natives, that if one of -their mills were buried for a few years and dug up again, it might be -mistaken for one of the ancient “querns.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a>{326}</span> As the stone held in the hand -was rounded, it naturally wore a rounded hollow in the lower stone, and -this made the process of trituration easier. Perhaps some of my readers -may have noticed that when a chemist makes up a prescription, and is -obliged to reduce one of the ingredients to powder, he always does so by -rubbing, and not by pounding, as is generally believed. He works the -pestle round and round the mortar with a kind of twisting motion, and -thus obtains a powder much too fine to have been produced by any amount -of pounding.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_326_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_326_sml.jpg" width="390" height="203" alt="Image unavailable: TOOTH OF ELEPHANT. -GRINDSTONE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TOOTH OF ELEPHANT. -GRINDSTONE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The labour of this operation is necessarily very severe, and therefore -the Kafir of the present day, as did his predecessors of the long-lost -races, declines to do it himself, but hands it over to the women. In -Palestine, as in other parts of the world, a simple mill has been -invented, which takes away much of the labour, and, above all, releases -the grinder from the obligation of leaning with her fall weight upon the -upper stone. In this mill the stones are similar. The upper is moved -backwards and forwards round a pivot, and the grain is passed between -them by means of a conical aperture in the upper stone, which answers -the purpose of our “hopper.”</p> - -<p>In order to work this mill, two women are required, sitting opposite -each other, with the mill between them, holding the same handle, and -assisting each other in turning the stone backwards and forwards. No one -who has not seen this operation can fully appreciate the force of the -saying that “two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be -taken, and the other left.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a>{327}</span></p> - -<p>It is worthy of remark that, even at the present day, the custom of -grinding corn is carried out in Palestine as it was so many centuries -ago, and that it is repeated in Southern Africa among the Kafir tribes. -In both parts of the earth the first sound of early morning is caused by -the millstones of the grinding women, and the amount and duration of the -noise afford a sure test of prosperity. Cessation of the millstones -signifies adversity and a thin population, as has been said by a writer -who lived not very far from three thousand years ago. Speaking of -tribulation, he mentions that “the grinders cease because they be few, -and that the doors shall be shut in the streets when the sound of the -grinding is low.”</p> - -<p>After awhile improvements were gradually introduced into the business of -grinding, not the least of which was covering its surface with ridges, -instead of leaving it entirely smooth, as it had been formerly. Millers -of the present time know the value of these ridges, and the additional -grinding power which this “facing” gives to a stone. One of these stones -is represented in the illustration, so as to show the system on which -the ridges and grooves are constructed.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span>, passing from Art to Nature, we find that the whole system of the -millstone, its movement and its ridged surface, existed in the times -when man had not yet come upon earth.</p> - -<p>The reader is probably aware that among the tooth-bearing animals there -are three types of teeth. First come the incisors, or cutting teeth, -which occupy the front of the jaw, and find their fullest development in -the rodent animals, such as the beaver, the squirrel, the rabbit, and -the rat. Next them come the canine or piercing teeth, which are so -highly developed in all the cat tribe. Lastly, there are the molar or -masticating teeth, so called from a Latin word signifying a millstone, -because their office is to grind food.</p> - -<p>As it is with these last that we have now to treat, we will say nothing -about the others.</p> - -<p>The molar teeth find their greatest development in the Elephant, the -structure of whose molars is exactly like that of our modern millstones. -There is certainly one very great difference. When the surface of a -millstone is rubbed away,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a>{328}</span> the stone must be re-faced, and sooner or -later is worn out altogether, and must be replaced with a new one. This, -however, is not the case with the Elephant’s molar teeth, which not only -keep their facing perfectly sharp, but have the faculty of renewing -themselves as fast as they are worn away.</p> - -<p>How these important objects are attained we shall now see.</p> - -<p>If the reader will refer to the upper left-hand figure of the -illustration, he will see that its surface is for the most part round, -with irregularly oval figures, close and thick at one end, and almost -disappearing at the other. These are the “facings” of the Elephant’s -tooth, and they are formed as follows:—</p> - -<p>The tooth, which is of enormous size, is not solid, but is composed of a -number of plates laid side by side, like a pack of cards when set on -their edge. Each of these plates is composed of a hard external layer of -enamel, and an internal layer of comparatively soft bony matter. A slice -of badly made toast affords a familiar parallel, the half-charred -outside representing the enamel, and the soft, sodden interior being -analogous to the bony matter. In order to show the arrangement of these -plates, a side view of part of the tooth is given on the same -illustration. Sometimes, when the teeth of fossil elephants are -discovered, these plates all fall asunder, the material which connected -them having been dissolved away in the earth.</p> - -<p>When, however, we look upon the upper surface of a recent tooth, we see -it present the appearance which is shown in the illustration. The -elongated oval marks are the edges of the hard enamel plates, while the -spaces between them are filled with the soft bony matter. It will be -evident, then, that if two teeth such as these be in opposite jaws, and -perform the task of grinding food, their surface will always be well -“faced.” Owing to the different hardness and density of the enamel and -bony substance, the latter will wear away with comparative rapidity, -leaving the former to project slightly, and thus to preserve the facing -of the natural mill.</p> - -<p>This is, indeed, but a modification of the beautiful animal mechanism -which keeps the teeth of a rodent animal always sharp, and always -bevelled off at the proper angle. If we could invent some plan whereby, -in our millstones, we could<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a>{329}</span> make the facing of much harder material -than the stone, we should make an advance in the miller’s art that would -render the millstones of the future as far superior to those of the -present as are our present millstones to the hand “quern” of the Kafir -women.</p> - -<p>Yet another improvement has to be made. Would it be possible to -construct a millstone which should not only retain its facing, but -possess the power of renewing itself in proportion as it is worn out? -This property is found in the Elephant’s tooth, and the illustration -will give a tolerably good idea of the simple and beautiful mechanism by -which it is brought into operation.</p> - -<p>The tooth, instead of being one solid mass, consists, as I have already -stated, of a series of plates set side by side. These plates are so -constructed that they are more worn away in front than behind. In -proportion as they are worn, a new tooth is built up behind the old one, -and gradually pushes off the old one. Now, if we could only construct -millstones with such properties, we should possess an absolutely perfect -instrument.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Pressure of Atmosphere.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">There</span> are many useful inventions which depend on the weight of the -atmosphere and the creation of a more or less perfect vacuum. There is, -for example, the common Pump, which raises water simply by the action of -the atmosphere. A pipe passes into the water, and in that pipe an -air-tight piston is inserted. When the piston is drawn upwards a vacuum -is formed, and the water is at once forced into it by the pressure of -the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>Then there is the graceful and useful Napier Coffee-making Machine, -consisting of a glass globe, and vase of the same material.</p> - -<p>Coffee and boiling water are put into the vase, and some hot water into -the globe. The two are then connected with the tube, and under the globe -is placed a spirit-lamp. Presently the water in the globe boils, -expelling the air and filling the globe with steam. The lamp is then -removed, and the steam in the globe is condensed, leaving a vacuum. The -pressure of the atmosphere then comes to bear upon the coffee in the -vase,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a>{330}</span> which is forced through the tube into the globe, producing -beautifully clear and well-flavoured coffee.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Surgery</span> employs the weight of the atmosphere in the operation called -“Cupping,” now rarely employed, but formerly in such constant use that -scarcely any man who had attained middle age had not undergone it. The -operation was intended for the purpose of removing the blood from some -definite spot. Persons, for example, who appeared to have a tendency to -apoplexy were regularly cupped between the shoulders twice a year, -<i>i.e.</i> in the spring and autumn.</p> - -<p>The mode of performing the operation is as follows:—A vase-shaped glass -vessel called a cupping-glass is placed close to the skin. The flame of -a spirit-lamp is then introduced for a moment in the glass so as to -expel the air, and the glass is rapidly placed with its mouth downwards -on the skin. If this be done with sufficient rapidity, the partial -vacuum in the cupping-glass causes it to adhere to the skin, which is -forced into it by atmospheric pressure, as shown in the illustration. -The blood is, of course, drawn towards the surface by the same means.</p> - -<p>The glass is then quickly removed, and a little brass instrument -applied, which, at the touching of a spring, sends out a number of small -lancet-blades so formed as to make very slight cuts. The glass is again -applied, and rapidly becomes filled with blood from the cuts, the air -having forced it in exactly as it forces the coffee in Napier’s machine.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the upper right-hand corner of the illustration is shown the -Pneumatic Peg, a comparatively recent invention, and useful in cases -where much strength is not required. The base of the peg is fitted with -a sort of cup made of india-rubber. When this base is pressed against a -smooth and flat surface, such as a pane of glass, the air is forced out -of the cup, and a vacuum formed. The pressure of the atmosphere then -causes the cup to adhere to the glass with sufficient force to enable -objects to be suspended from it.</p> - -<p>The boy’s well-known toy, the Sucker, is made on exactly the same -principle. A piece of leather, generally circular, though the shape is -not of much consequence, has a hole bored through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a>{331}</span> its centre, so as to -allow a string to be attached. The leather is then soaked in water until -it is quite soft. If it be firmly pressed on any smooth object, such as -a stone, the air is forced from under it, and it becomes capable of -sustaining a weight in proportion to its dimensions. As the air has a -pressure of about fifteen pounds on every square inch, it is easy to -calculate the weight which it will uphold, a margin being left for -imperfection of vacuum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_331_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_331_sml.jpg" width="446" height="471" alt="Image unavailable: SUCKERS OF CUTTLE. -LIMPET. -STAR-FISH. -SUCKING-FISH. -FOOT OF GECKO. -LAMPERN. -CUPPING-GLASS. -PNEUMATIC PEG. -SUCKER. -MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SUCKERS OF CUTTLE. -LIMPET. -STAR-FISH. -SUCKING-FISH. -FOOT OF GECKO. -LAMPERN. -CUPPING-GLASS. -PNEUMATIC PEG. -SUCKER. -MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES. - -</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> lower figure represents the instrument called the Magdeburg -Hemispheres, which are made for the purpose of showing the enormous -power of air-pressure. They are two hollowed hemispheres, having their -edges very accurately ground together. When used, a little lard is -rubbed on the edges in order to insure their exact fit, and they are -then<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a>{332}</span> pressed tightly together. The air is removed by means of the -common exhausting syringe, and it is found that the two adhere together -with such force that two strong men cannot pull them asunder. But, if -the tap be turned, and air admitted, they come apart without the least -difficulty.</p> - -<p>Similarly, if two plates of glass or metal be ground to exactly plane -surfaces, and pressed together, they adhere nearly as strongly as if -they were one solid piece.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now turn from Art to Nature, and examine some natural producers -of vacuum.</p> - -<p>One of the most celebrated is that series of suckers which may be found -upon the arms of the various Cuttles. At the upper part of the -illustration a figure is given of part of an arm, on which are four -suckers. When the animal wishes to attach itself to any object, it -presses the disc of the sucker against it, and simultaneously withdraws -the centre, exactly as the boy does with his toy sucker. And, as each -arm contains a great number of suckers, it is evident that the holding -power must be very great. Indeed, on one occasion when a comparatively -small specimen had fastened on a man’s arm, he could not remove it, but -was obliged to have it cut away piecemeal by an assistant.</p> - -<p>The common Water-beetle has similar suckers upon its first pair of feet, -and can adhere to smooth surfaces with great tenacity.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left of the cuttle-arm is the common Limpet, shown as it appears -when adhering to the rocks. Every visitor to the seaside who has -attempted to remove the Limpets may remember how difficult it is to stir -them when they have once taken their hold. If they can be taken by -surprise, they come away with a touch; but if they become alarmed, they -press the edges of the foot firmly against the rock, withdraw the -centre, and thus create the necessary vacuum.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> follows a Star-fish, shown as it appears when in the act of -walking, or rather, gliding along.</p> - -<p>This movement is obtained by the use of a vast number of long suckers, -exactly resembling the pneumatic peg, except<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a>{333}</span> that they are flexible, -and can be curved in any direction. It is really beautiful to see the -manner in which a Star-fish will glide along by means of its suckers, -its arms accommodating themselves to the irregularities of the ground, -and its multitudinous suckers protruded and withdrawn with a -never-ceasing movement.</p> - -<p>And, as the Star-fish is apparently blind, not having any organs which -can even be conjectured to serve the purpose of vision, this mode of -directing its course is not easily understood. Yet, blind though it may -be, it guides itself with as much accuracy as if it possessed eyes, and -evidently does so with a definite purpose, using its suckers with as -much decision as a centipede uses its legs.</p> - -<p>These suckers can be seen very well by placing a Star-fish in a shallow -vessel of sea-water, and laying it on its back. The suckers immediately -protrude themselves from their little apertures, and the arms slowly -curve themselves so as to find something to which the suckers can -adhere. Presently one or two of the suckers will take hold of the bottom -of the vessel. Others soon follow, and in a very short time the -Star-fish is on its legs, if we may so call them, and is quietly gliding -on its way.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the Star-fish is seen the celebrated Sucking-fish (<i>Echeneis -remora</i>) about which so many strange tales have been told, and which is -possessed of a structure remarkable enough to need no aid from -invention. The dorsal fin of this fish is modified in a most singular -manner. The spines of which it is so largely composed are metamorphosed -into flattened plates very much resembling the laths of a Venetian -blind, and form an instrument of suction identical in principle, though -not in form, with those which have already been described. When the -sucker is pressed against a smooth surface, a vacuum is formed, and the -fish in consequence adheres firmly to the object.</p> - -<p>The fact has been known for centuries, though it has only been lately -discovered, that the sucker was not a separate apparatus, but merely one -of the fins modified in a simple though effective manner. Indeed, any -one who has some slight notion of the structure of a fin can easily see, -by looking<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a>{334}</span> at the Sucking-fish from above, that the apparatus is -nothing more than the dorsal fin laid flat.</p> - -<p>I may mention here that the name of Echeneis is taken from two words -signifying “ship-holder.” It was given to the fish on account of a -curious notion which was fully believed until quite modern times, that -the Sucking-fish had the power of attaching itself to ships, and holding -them so firmly that they could not proceed in spite of sails and oars. -The word Echeneis is used by Aristotle in his “History of Animals.” The -specific name <i>remora</i>, or “delay,” is Latin, and is given to the fish -for the same reason.</p> - -<p>The little Gobies, which are so plentiful along our coasts, have the -ventral fins formed into a sucker, with which they can cling firmly to -any object, such as a leaf of seaweed or a smooth rock or stone. A -similar modification of the ventral fins is also found in the -beautifully coloured Lump-fish, or Lump-sucker, sometimes called the -Cock-paidle. One of these fishes, when placed in a bucket of water, -adhered so strongly to the bottom, that, when lifted by the tail, it -bore the whole weight of the pail and water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Just</span> below the Sucking-fish is drawn a foot of the curious little -lizard, the Gecko, so called from its peculiar cry. It is common in the -West Indies, and haunts houses, traversing their walls just as flies run -up panes of glass. It is enabled to perform this movement by means of -the structure of the feet. As the reader may see by reference to the -illustration, the toes are greatly widened and flattened. If the lower -surface be examined, it will be found to be furnished with a number of -plates very much resembling those of the sucking-fish, and performing -the same office.</p> - -<p>So rapid is the operation of these plates, that the animal can even leap -upon a perpendicular flat surface, and stick there. Perhaps the reader -may remember that the beautiful Tree-frogs, which cling so tightly to -leaves, are furnished with suckers on their toes, whereby they can hold -on even to an upright pane of glass. In fact, the smooth surface of the -glass seems to please them, and when they adhere to it they give an -excellent opportunity of examining the structure of the feet with a -magnifying-glass.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a>{335}</span></p> - -<p>Another example of the pressure of the atmosphere has been slightly -mentioned, when treating of the ball-and-socket joint. This is the joint -by which the thigh-bone is attached to the hip. As the rounded head of -the thigh-bone fits exactly into the cavity of the hip, and is, -moreover, well lubricated with the animal oil called synovia, no air can -obtain admission between the two. Consequently, they are held together -so firmly by the pressure of the atmosphere, that they retain their -places even after the whole of the muscular attachments have been -removed. Not without very great force can the thigh-bone be dislodged -from the shallow socket in which it lies; but, if a hole be bored so as -to admit the air, it comes out at once.</p> - -<p>Similarly, however firmly a limpet may cling to the rock, if the finest -needle were introduced so as to admit air, the creature could not retain -its hold for a moment.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> last figure on the illustration represents the common Lampern -(<i>Lampetra fluviatilis</i>).</p> - -<p>The mouth of this little fish is formed on the principle of the sucker, -and very firmly it can adhere, as I can state from much personal -experience. Indeed, it is rather alarming, to those who are unacquainted -with the character of the fish, to have it turn round and fasten upon -the hand. However, it is quite harmless, and those who are accustomed to -them will have half-a-dozen hanging on their hand at a time, and take no -notice of them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Already</span> has it been mentioned that Surgery has pressed into its service -the weight of the atmosphere by means of cupping. She also makes use of -Nature in a similar manner by employing the Leech for local and surface -bleeding.</p> - -<p>The mouth of the Medicinal Leech forms an exact parallel with the -cupping-glass and lancets, only that it is very far superior in its -powers. To make the analogy perfect, the lancets ought to be within the -cupping-glass, and the latter ought to be able to exhaust the air from -itself, and to be attached to a reservoir into which the blood could be -passed.</p> - -<p>I need hardly mention that the action of sucking as practised by the -young of all mammalian beings, from man downwards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a>{336}</span> is due to the same -principle. By the action of sucking a partial vacuum is formed, and the -pressure of the atmosphere upon the breasts forces the milk into the -mouth of the young.</p> - -<p>We might multiply examples <i>ad infinitum</i>, and we will therefore pass to -another subject.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Seed-drills.</span></h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_336_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_336_sml.jpg" width="410" height="311" alt="Image unavailable: ICHNEUMON-FLY. - -GRASSHOPPER. - -SEED-DRILL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ICHNEUMON-FLY. - -GRASSHOPPER. - -SEED-DRILL. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>Among the modern improvements in agriculture we may reckon the invention -of the Seed-drill as one of the most important. By means of this -invention, seed is greatly economized, the supply can be regulated, and -the sower knows exactly where every grain of seed goes. There is no -scattering, as in the wasteful broadcast plan, by which the seeds are -flung almost at random over the field, and may or may not fall into the -furrows. The Seed-drill, on the contrary, either stamps holes or ploughs -narrow furrows, measures the seed into them, and in some machines -replaces the earth. The former kind of machine rather deserves the name -of a dibble, and was invented for the purpose of superseding the use of -the hand-dibble.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337"></a>{337}</span></p> - -<p>It is really a pitiful thing to see human beings endowed with reason and -aspirations performing such a task as dibbling by hand, one going -backwards with a dibble in each hand, and the other following and -putting seed into the holes. Yet the field labourers have the greatest -objection to the machine dibble, as, indeed, they have to any sort of -labour-saving machine, thinking that it will lessen the demand for -labour, and prevent them from earning a livelihood.</p> - -<p>I well remember how a country clergyman, pitying the hard toil of the -hand-dibblers, took occasion when he visited town to purchase a machine -dibble wherewith one man could set eight rows of beans at once. It was a -very simple affair, comprehensible even by the dull brain of a Wiltshire -labourer. His trouble was all in vain, for no one would use it, and -there was such a disturbance about it in the village, that for the sake -of peace its owner laid it up in a loft and abandoned its use. There -might be some semblance of reason in thinking that it would deprive them -of their field labour, but no cottager would even use it in his own -garden, though it was freely offered to any one who wished to borrow it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">These</span> machines have their parallels in Nature, two of which are -represented in the illustration.</p> - -<p>The lower left-hand figure represents the female Grasshopper depositing -her eggs. She is furnished with a sharply pointed ovipositor, composed -of two blades. When she is about to lay her eggs, she searches for a -suitable piece of ground, where the earth is tolerably soft, and with -the closed ovipositor bores a hole. She then separates the blades -slightly, and an egg glides between them into the ground, precisely as -is done by the machine dibble with its beans. When I first saw and used -the instrument, some twenty-five years ago, the parallel struck me at -once.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> female of the familiar Daddy Long-legs (<i>Tipula</i>) acts in a similar -manner. She is furnished with an ovipositor too short to be used like -that of the grasshopper, and so she attains her object in a rather -different manner. Making use of her long stilt-like legs, she sets -herself nearly upright, with the point of the ovipositor in the ground. -She then twists herself<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338"></a>{338}</span> from side to side, just after the principle of -the bradawl, and so proceeds until she has made a hole large enough for -her purpose. The blades of the ovipositor are then separated, and the -egg placed in the hole, as has been described of the grasshopper.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> upper figure represents one of the large Ichneumon-flies depositing -the egg in the grub of some wood-inhabiting larva. How she bores the -hole has already been described when treating of Boring Tools, and the -process need not again be discussed. The principal point at present is, -that after the hole is bored, an egg can pass between the blades of the -ovipositor, though they are but little thicker than human hairs.</p> - -<p>One of the most extraordinary instances of this kind of ovipositor is -found in an Ichneumon-fly brought from Bogotá. The body, from the head -to the end of the tail, is not quite an inch long, while the ovipositor -is six inches and a half in length, and scarcely thicker than that of -the insect whose portrait is given in the illustration. Nothing is as -yet known of its habits, so that the object of this wonderfully long -ovipositor is a mystery. But that it should be used like other -ovipositors is evident enough, and the chief wonder is, what are the -mechanical means whereby an egg can be propelled between blades so long -and slender.</p> - -<p>There is a genus of Ichneumon-flies called Pelecinus. They deposit their -eggs in wood-boring larvæ, and we might imagine that the ovipositor -would be a long one. It is, however, extremely short, and the requisite -length is obtained by the form of the abdomen, the joints of which are -so long and narrow that they almost look as if they had passed through a -wire-drawing machine, the length of the head and throat being -three-eighths of an inch, and that of the abdomen an inch and a half. -This long abdomen belongs only to the female, that of the male being -short and club-shaped.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339"></a>{339}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_III" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_III"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> -<small>CLOTH-DRESSING.—BRUSHES AND COMBS.—BUTTONS, HOOKS AND EYES, AND CLASP.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Teazle and its Structure.—Its Use in raising the “Nap” on -Cloth.—Its Value in Commerce.—Artificial Teazles.—The modern -Cloth-dressing Machine.—The Brush an Article of -Luxury.—Definition of the Brush, and its various Uses.—Brushes in -Nature.—The Foot of the Fly and the Tail-brush of the Glow-worm -Larva.—Mode in which they are used.—The Comb.—Varieties of the -Comb as made in different Countries.—Combs in Nature.—Foot of the -Spider and its Uses.—Beak of the Toucan.—Comb of the -Scorpion.—Buttons, Hooks and Eyes.—Use of the Button.—The -Egyptian Garment.—The Buckle and the Shoe-tie.—The -Clasp.—Wing-hooks of various Insects.—The Saddle-back Oyster.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Cloth-dressing Machine.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N former days, when so much was done by hand that is now done by -machinery, the thistle called the Teazle (<i>Dipsacus fullonum</i>) was of -great value in British commerce, being used by countless thousands in -the manufacture of broadcloth.</p> - -<p>When the woollen threads are woven so as to form the fabric of the -cloth, there is no nap upon them, this having to be produced by a -subsequent process. The plan of former days was, to procure a quantity -of the seed-vessels of the Teazle, and dry them. They were then fastened -to an instrument something like a wooden battledore, and swept over the -surface of the cloth. By degrees the delicate hooklets which terminate -the many scales of the seed-vessel tore up the fibres of the cloth, and -produced the desired nap without impairing the strength of the thread. -When this nap is worn off, the threads are again visible, producing the -effect called “threadbare.”</p> - -<p>As the art of weaving continued to progress, the demand for Teazles -increased in due proportion, and vast quantities were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340"></a>{340}</span> imported from -abroad. Instead of being used by band, they were then fastened to the -circumference of wooden wheels as broad as the width of the cloth, and -made to revolve rapidly, while the cloth was pressed against them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_340_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_340_sml.jpg" width="400" height="186" alt="Image unavailable: TEAZLE. -CLOTH-DRESSING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TEAZLE. -CLOTH-DRESSING.</span> -</div> - -<p>For many years attempts had been made to construct artificial Teazles -which would not wear out so rapidly as did the dry seed-vessels, but -nothing could be constructed that was not too stiff or too strong, and -which did not injure the threads while producing the nap. At last, -however, this difficult problem has been solved, and the Teazle is no -longer an important article of commerce, its place being supplied by -delicately made cards of the finest and most elastic wire.</p> - -<p>In the illustration a head of Teazle is given on the left hand, and on -the right is seen the mode in which the wire cards are placed in the -machine, and the cloth drawn over them so as to produce the required -nap.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Brushes.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">It</span> is worthy of notice that there are many articles of comparative -luxury which could not be used until man had attained some degree of -civilisation. Among these we may class the Brush and the Comb, no true -savage ever troubling himself about either article. The Brush, indeed, -belongs to a much more advanced stage of civilisation than the Comb, for -whereas we find combs, however rude they may be, used in semi-savage, or -rather, barbarian countries, the Brush is, as far as I know, an adjunct -of a high state of civilisation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341"></a>{341}</span></p> - -<p>Brushes may be defined to be instruments formed of fibres set more or -less parallel to each other. The vast variety of brushes used in -different parts of Europe is indicative of the civilisation of the -nations who use them. Take, for example, the brushes used in household -management, such as the hearth-brush, the housemaid’s brush, the -Turk’s-head brush, the crumb-brush, the stair-brush, the carpet-brush, -the dusting brush, and many others.</p> - -<p>Then we have those which are applied to our garments, such as the -ordinary clothes-brush, the velvet-backed hat-brush, and the three kinds -of boot-brushes.</p> - -<p>In architecture, again, we should be very badly off without the -painting-brushes, the whitewasher’s brush, and the paper-hanger’s brush; -not to mention the exceeding variety of brushes used by artists both in -oil and water colours.</p> - -<p>As to brushes applied to our persons, we have an infinite number of -them. There is, of course, the hair-brush, without a pair of which, one -for each hand, no one with a respectable head of hair could be expected -to be happy.</p> - -<p>We may add to this the revolving brush worked by machinery, which is to -be found in the rooms of any respectable hairdresser, and which is a -sort of an apotheosis of the Hair-brush, especially when it is worked, -as in some places, by the electrical engine.</p> - -<p>Then there is the shaving-brush, once an absolutely necessary article in -a gentleman’s dressing-case, and above all requisite if the owner should -happen to be a clergyman. Nowadays, shaving is rapidly decreasing, and -of all the professions, those who are most largely bearded, both in -number of beard-wearers and dimensions of the beard, are to be found -among the clergy.</p> - -<p>Then there are any number of tooth-brushes for the interior of the -mouth, and of flesh-brushes, with or without handles, for the service of -the bath. There are even gardeners’ brushes, for the purpose of clearing -the plants of the aphides, or green-blight, as these insects are -popularly called by gardeners. So it will be seen that—absurd as the -proposition may appear at first sight—we may really accept the use of -the brush as a safe test of the progress of civilisation.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now glance at the illustrations of this subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342"></a>{342}</span></p> - -<p>On the right hand is depicted the once honoured Shaving-brush, the -terror of all stiff-bearded men on frosty mornings, and yet clung to -with a strange inconsistency. Many years ago a military member of the -House of Commons was sensible enough to wear his beard, and was, in -consequence, the butt for interminable jokes. At the present time, if -the House were counted, a great majority of the younger, and not a few -of the older, members will be found to wear either the beard or -moustache, or both.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_342_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_342_sml.jpg" width="420" height="187" alt="Image unavailable: FOOT OF FLY. -BRUSH OF GLOW-WORM LARVA. -HAIR-BRUSHES. -SHAVING-BRUSH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FOOT OF FLY. -BRUSH OF GLOW-WORM LARVA. -HAIR-BRUSHES. -SHAVING-BRUSH.</span> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may object that many nations in a state of -very partial civilisation are accustomed to shaving. So they are, but -they do not use the shaving-brush. Most of them content themselves with -pulling out the hairs by the roots, while others merely saturate the -hair with hot water, and so need no brush.</p> - -<p>Next to the shaving-brush is drawn a pair of ordinary Hair-brushes, such -as have been mentioned.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> to the left, we find an object which bears a curious resemblance -to the shaving-brush. This is an apparatus belonging to the larva or -grub of the Glow-worm. This creature feeds upon snails, and, in -consequence, gets itself covered with the tenacious slime. In order to -enable it to rid itself of this inconvenience, the larva is furnished -near the end of its tail with the curious apparatus which is here shown. -It consists of some seven or eight soft white radii, arranged so as to -produce a brush-like outline, and being capable of extension or -withdrawal at will.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343"></a>{343}</span></p> - -<p>It had long been known that this “houppe nerveuse,” as it is called, was -employed as an assistant in locomotion; but until comparatively late -years—I believe about 1826—no one seemed to be aware that it was used -as a brush. Its functions as a brush may be compared with the somewhat -similar offices fulfilled by the pincers of the Earwig, as mentioned on -page <a href="#page_259">259</a>.</p> - -<p>Next to the brush of the glow-worm larva is shown one of the fore-feet -of the ordinary house-fly, much magnified. Passing, as irrelevant to the -present subject, the use of the feet as organs of locomotion, we may -take them as being used for the purpose of cleansing the body of the -insect.</p> - -<p>I suppose that none of my readers has been sufficiently inobservant not -to have noticed the way in which a fly cleanses itself, behaving almost -exactly like a cat under similar circumstances. The fore-feet are -repeatedly passed over the head, which is bowed down to meet them, while -a similar office is performed for the rest of the body by the hind-legs. -The feet are then rubbed against each other, so as to free them from all -accumulations, just as the housemaid cleanses the hair-brush with the -comb before washing it. So mechanical is this process, that a fly has -been known to go through it even after it had been deprived of its head.</p> - -<p>The reader will see, on reference to the illustration, that the two -sharp and curved claws are capable of answering the purpose of combs, -and, indeed, are so employed.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Combs.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> will now proceed to the <span class="smcap">Comb</span>, and see how Art has been anticipated by -Nature.</p> - -<p>As long as human beings possess hair upon their heads, whether it be the -short, frizzed, woolly pile of the negro, the thick, coarse crop of the -Fijian, the coarse, straight hair of the Mongolian, or the long and fine -hair of the Georgian races, they must, as soon as they attempt any kind -of civilisation, form some instruments by which the hair can be dressed. -The simplest machine for this purpose is the Comb, and I possess many -varieties of this article, suitable to the different races for whom it -was made.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344"></a>{344}</span></p> - -<p>Putting aside the ordinary Combs of our European civilisation, such as -are given in the illustration, there are many others which are modified -according to the use which they have to fulfil.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_344_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_344_sml.jpg" width="400" height="218" alt="Image unavailable: FOOT OF SPIDER. - -BEAK OF TOUCAN. - -COMBS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FOOT OF SPIDER. - -BEAK OF TOUCAN. - -COMBS. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The simplest is the Comb of the celebrated Amazon regiment of Dahomey. -This is nothing but a slight skewer of ivory, some ten inches in length, -and amply sufficient for arranging the short woolly lumps which do duty -for hair on the head of a true negro. One of these very primitive combs -is in my collection, together with an undress costume of the Amazon in -question, and both being very much suited to each other. The comb being -a simple skewer, the dress is only a few thongs of leather, but they are -both equal to the requirements of their wearers.</p> - -<p>As much time would be lost in combing the hair with a single skewer, -especially when that hair belonged to any but the pure negro races, a -simple but obvious improvement was introduced. A number of skewers were -lashed together side by side, with their ends a little diverging, and -thus was formed the germ of our present Combs.</p> - -<p>As to the varieties of the Comb, they are simply endless; and whether -they are intended, in the form of the Currycomb, to smooth the harsh -coat of a horse, or, as a small-tooth Comb, to search the hair of the -young, they are all based on one principle.</p> - -<p>It is really curious to see how often two men, who cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345"></a>{345}</span> possibly have -seen each other, will hit upon the same idea, not only simultaneously, -but often in the very same words. So it is with regard to the Comb. In -no two parts of the world can the natives be more opposed to each other -than is the case with Fiji and Western Africa; yet I possess specimens -of combs from both countries, made on the same principles, and so -exactly in the same manner, that, except for the coarseness of the -African Comb, it would be almost impossible to distinguish between them. -There is but a slight difference in the size and shape of the two combs, -and yet nothing can be more distinct than the characters of the two -nations.</p> - -<p>I have also a Japanese Comb of the most ingenious construction. It is -made of wood, and cut exactly like our double ivory small-tooth comb; -but it is furnished with a curious kind of handle, consisting of a flat -piece of wood with a deep longitudinal slit, into which either side of -the comb fits; and so beautifully is it made, that when it is fitted -upon either side of the comb it looks as if handle and comb had been cut -out of the same piece of wood.</p> - -<p>The Fijian Combs are much after the same fashion as those of Western -Africa, except that, with the artistic nature of their kind, the -Fijians, instead of merely lashing together the numerous spikes of which -the comb is made, employ a variety of patterns, and seem to luxuriate in -the exuberance of artistic spirit which can make hundreds of combs, and -no two of them alike.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration are two examples of Natural Combs -which are well worthy of notice. The upper one is a foot of the common -Garden Spider (<i>Epeira diadema</i>), which has been several times mentioned -in this work in connection with different subjects.</p> - -<p>Every one who has watched the life of one of these creatures must have -noticed how often its hairy body becomes clogged with little bits of its -own web, and how dexterously it releases itself from such encumbrances. -The figure in the illustration shows how this can be done, the strangely -formed foot acting at the same time the part of comb and brush. It will -be seen that the curved spikes of the claws act as a comb, while the -bristle-like hairs discharge the duty of a brush.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346"></a>{346}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> only are these projections used as Combs, but as appendages which -insure the security of footing along the lines of the web. The reader -will easily remember that when a Spider rushes along its web to secure -its prey, it always runs along one of the radiating lines, which have no -viscid drops, and that it never misses its hold. The latter point is -secured by the structure of its claws, which are so made that if one -projection misses the line, another is sure to fasten upon it. Some -years ago, while watching “Blondin” go through his wonderful -performances, I was especially struck with the pattern on which he had -constructed the stilts upon which he traversed the rope. They were made -in the most exact imitation of the Spider’s foot, and though it is not -probable that he borrowed them from that object, the resemblance was so -close that he might readily have done so.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the spider’s foot is given the head of a Toucan, one of those -beautifully coloured and large-billed birds that inhabit tropical -America. These birds are very particular about their plumage, and even -when in captivity dress their feathers with the utmost care. When they -do so, the saw-like notches of the beak act the part of a comb, and the -fibrils of the feathers are by their action dressed parallel to each -other, and give to the whole bird its proper appearance of health.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">I may</span> here mention that there is one comb in Nature, the use of which -has never been clearly ascertained. This is the remarkable organ found -in the Scorpion, and simply known as the “comb.” There are two of them, -one on each side of the under surface. Their colour differs slightly -according to the species, but is generally a light yellow brown. The -number of teeth also differs extremely, for in the Rock Scorpion there -are only thirteen teeth, while in the Red Scorpion there are -twenty-eight.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Buttons, Hooks and Eyes, and Clasp.</span></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> now treated of brushes and combs as articles belonging to the -toilet, we will proceed to those which belong to the dress rather than -the person. It is a curious fact that, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347"></a>{347}</span> far as is known, buttons and -hooks belong only to advanced civilisation. The simplest garment is, of -course, a cloth of some material wrapped round the waist, and, as we see -in the wonderful Egyptian paintings which have survived their painters -some three thousand years, the simple fold can retain its grasp round -the loins, even through the exertions of a long day’s work.</p> - -<p>I was always at a loss, when looking at these drawings, to understand -how a single fold could retain so simple a garment in its place, but -when I made my first visit to the Hammam Turkish Bath in Jermyn Street -the mystery was at once solved. The “check,” as it is there called, is -long enough to pass about once and a half round the waist of an ordinary -man. One end of it is placed on the left side, so as to bring the lower -edge on a level with the knee. It is held by the left hand until the -right hand passes it round the waist. It is then turned over in a broad -single fold, and will remain in position for hours, the left leg having -free scope between the two ends, and yet not being needlessly exposed.</p> - -<p>Next to the simple fold comes the tie, which is in use all over the -world. The chief object of a good Tie is that it should retain its hold -as long as needed, be loosened with a touch in necessity, and, as a -matter of consequence, should never “jam.”</p> - -<p>Still, even the best of ties are liable to objection. I once heard an -argument on the subject of ties and buckles with regard to shoes. The -speakers were both Derbyshire men, and their phraseology was somewhat -obscure. However, both stuck to his own principles, one saying that -“when a shee-uew is boo-oo-oockled, it’s boo-oo-ookled;” and the other -asserting, in equally strong terms, that “when it’s tee-ee-eed, it’s -tee-ee-eed.”</p> - -<p>The buckle was here asserting its supremacy in civilisation over the -tie, and was palpably right. Any one, so rose the argument, can tie two -strings together, but the structure of the buckle is too complicated to -be understood, much less invented, by any uncivilised being.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> come, in natural order, the Button and the Clasp, each being -identical in principle. In the case of the former<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348"></a>{348}</span> the “eye” is placed -over the button, while in the latter the clasp or hook is passed through -the eye. Several examples of the Button and the Clasp are given on the -right hand of the illustration, and are too familiar to need -description.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> to the corresponding articles in Nature, they are very numerous. We -will take, for example, the Saddle-back or Crow Oyster of our own -shores. It is a most remarkable being. It deposits upon the object to -which it adheres a sort of button of shelly matter, and the lower valve, -which is nearly flat, has in it an aperture which is placed over the -knob, just as a button-hole goes over the button. As this arrangement is -confined to the lower valve, and cannot be seen unless the upper valve -be removed, the lower valve only is shown in the illustration, as it -appears when fastened to the side of a large limpet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_348_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_348_sml.jpg" width="393" height="220" alt="Image unavailable: WING-HOOKS OF INSECT. SADDLE-BACK OYSTER. -CLASPS AND BUTTON." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WING-HOOKS OF INSECT. SADDLE-BACK OYSTER. -CLASPS AND BUTTON.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> the Hooks and Eyes in Nature I have only taken two examples, though -there are many others.</p> - -<p>We all know the Bees, Wasps, Hornets, and other similar insects, and -that they possess four wings. I may here mention that no insect which -does not possess four transparent wings is capable of stinging.</p> - -<p>When the insect is at rest the four wings may be easily distinguished, -but when it is in flight they coalesce, so that practically the insect -has two wings instead of four. This object is attained in the following -way:—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349"></a>{349}</span></p> - -<p>The lower edge of the first pair of wings is turned over in a rather -stiff fold. The upper edge of the second pair of wings has a row of -small, but strong and elastic hooks. When the insect is about to fly, -the hooks are hitched into the fold, and so the wings are fastened -together. These hooks are shown in the illustration, and the reader will -easily see how effective they must be in their operation. An almost -exactly similar structure is found in the feathers of birds, and it is -by means of these tiny hooks that wings are enabled to present a -continuous, light, and elastic surface in the air.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350"></a>{350}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_IV" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_IV"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> -<small>THE STOPPER, OR CORK.—THE FILTER.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Vessels and their Covers.—Corks.—Mode of bottling Wine.—Conical -Corks and Stoppers.—Self-fitting Candles.—Candle-fixers.—The -Vent-peg.—The Blow-guns and their Missiles.—The Serpula and its -Conical Stopper.—The Filter.—The Bosjesman procuring Water.—How -to make a simple Filter.—The Earth as a Filter.—The Sea-mouse, or -Aphrodite, and its filtering Apparatus.—The Duck’s Beak, and its -beautiful Structure.—The Jaw of the Greenland -Whale.—Fork-grinder’s Respirator.—How Insects -breathe.—Spiracles, and their general Structure.—Spiracle of the -Fly.—Experiment upon a Cockroach, and its Result.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Stopper, or Cork.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HIS object, as depicted in the illustration, is a product of civilised -life, though, as soon as a savage could make a vessel, he seems to have -made a Cover for it if it were of large diameter, or a Stopper if the -opening were small. Even the very Bosjesman, who is quite unable to make -a clay vessel, and uses empty ostrich eggs by way of water-bottles, is -yet capable of making plugs with which he can stop up the apertures. -Then the Kafir, with his gourd vessels, whether they be for water or -snuff, makes a plug that fits tightly enough to exclude the air, as well -as to retain the contents.</p> - -<p>The invention of glass bottles necessarily brought with it the -introduction of a new kind of plug, and a material for such a plug was -found in the bark of the cork-tree, a species of oak. This bark -possesses the capability of compression to a very great extent, and, -being highly elastic, it expands as soon as the pressure is removed.</p> - -<p>Thus, in bottling wine, the corks are always made much too large to go -into the mouths of the bottles. They are first<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351"></a>{351}</span> dipped in a cup -containing the same wine, and are then compressed violently by a machine -worked by a handle, and which, being practically a powerful pair of -nut-crackers with a rounded gripe, must suit the shape of the cork. It -is then taken out of the machine, and, before it has had time to expand, -is rapidly fitted to the neck of the bottle, and driven home with a -wooden mallet. Expansion then takes place, and the bottle is rendered -air-tight, so that no damage is done to the wine.</p> - -<p>If the whole of the wine were to be drunk when the cork was removed, -this plan would be amply sufficient. But there are many cases where the -bottle is opened, and only part of the wine consumed. To re-cork the -bottle would be too troublesome, and to leave it uncorked would spoil -the wine. So the Conical Stopper was invented, which fits the neck of -any ordinary wine-bottle, according to the depth to which it is -introduced, and, by a slight screwing movement, sufficient compression -is obtained to render the bottle air-tight. One of these Conical -Stoppers is shown in the illustration on <a href="#page_352">page 352</a>. Sometimes they are -made of cork, and sometimes of india-rubber; but the principle is the -same in either case.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may have seen the Self-fitting Candles, which -require no paper to make them fit the candlestick. These are enlarged at -the base, which is made in a conical form, and slightly grooved. The -“Candle-fixers” that are so much in use at the present day are made -exactly on the same principle, being hollow cones of paper, which take -the place of the solid cone.</p> - -<p>The Vent-peg of casks is another instance of the cone used as a stopper.</p> - -<p>Another example is to be found in the Blow-guns and Arrows of tropical -America. In some districts the base of the arrow is fitted with a -conical appendage of light cotton, rather larger than the tube, but -capable of compression, so that it exactly fits the tube when pressed -into it. In other districts the cone is hollow, and made of some thin -and elastic bark.</p> - -<p>Some years ago one of our most eminent gun-makers hit upon the same idea -while making improved missiles for the game of “Puff and Dart,” and very -much surprised he was when I showed him the South American arrow, not -only with the same hollow cone at the base, but having also spiral<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352"></a>{352}</span> -wings along the shaft, so as to give it a rotatory motion as it passed -through the air. The hollow cones of his darts were made of -india-rubber, but the shape of the two was identical.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> the reader will refer to the left-hand figure of the illustration, he -will see a beautiful example of the Conical Stopper as existing in -Nature.</p> - -<p>This is the “Stopper,” as it is popularly called, and, scientifically, -the “infundibuliform operculum.” I prefer the former term myself, as -being less liable to misapprehension.</p> - -<p>The Serpula lives in a shelly tube of its own construction, and has the -power of protruding itself when it desires to obtain food, and of -withdrawing itself within the tube when alarmed. This movement is -performed so rapidly, that the eye can scarcely follow it, and the -mechanism by which it is done has already been described when treating -of War and Hunting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_352_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_352_sml.jpg" width="323" height="153" alt="Image unavailable: ANTENNA OF SERPULA. -CONICAL STOPPER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ANTENNA OF SERPULA. -CONICAL STOPPER.</span> -</div> - -<p>When it withdraws itself, the Stopper closes the mouth of the tube with -perfect exactness, so as to leave the inhabitant in safety. The reader -will see, on referring to the illustration, how exactly similar is the -Conical Stopper of Art to that of Nature, and how the inventor of that -article, as well as of the self-fitting candle, the candle-fixer, the -blow-gun arrow, and the vent-peg, might have found prototypes of their -inventions in Nature, if they had only known where to look for them.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Filter.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Even</span> in a state of uncivilisation man has been driven to invent a Filter -of some kind.</p> - -<p>The simplest kind of Filter is that which is used by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353"></a>{353}</span> Bosjesman -women when procuring water for the use of their families. When, as often -happens, the only water to be obtained is to be found in muddy pools -which have been trampled and perturbed by thirsty animals, the women -have recourse to a simple, though rather repulsive, expedient.</p> - -<p>Each woman is furnished with empty ostrich egg-shells by way of -water-vessels, and she also takes a couple of hollow reeds. Over the end -of one of these reeds she ties a bundle of grass, and then plunges it as -deeply as she can into the mud. After a little while she sucks up the -water through the tube, the grass acting as a filter, and she then -discharges it by the second tube into the egg-shells. In this way the -women will obtain water, where none but themselves could have procured -it. As to the repulsive mode of obtaining it, no one can be fastidious -when dying of thirst. Sir S. Baker mentions that when he was on his -travels he managed in a halt to save up enough water for a bath for -himself and his wife. He was about to throw away the soapy water, when -the vessel was snatched from his hands by two of his attendants, and the -contents eagerly drunk.</p> - -<p>The different varieties of the Filter which we use at the present day -are too familiar to need description. Whether they be made principally -of charcoal, which is a powerful disinfectant, or of merely stones, -gravel, and sand, they are all constructed on the same principle, -namely, the straining out solid substances, and allowing only the pure -water to pass through the interstices.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> to the Filters of Nature, they are almost innumerable. In the first -place, the Earth itself is the primary filter of all, taking into itself -all kinds of decomposing substances, separating them for the use of -vegetation, and delivering the pure, bright, and sparkling spring water -which we so highly and rightly value. The whole human body, again, is -practically a collection of the most elaborate and effective filters -that the mind of man can conceive. But we will pass to the more obvious -examples of filters as seen in animal life.</p> - -<p>On the upper left-hand portion of the illustration may be seen a long, -fat, hairy creature, called popularly the Sea-mouse, and known to -zoologists as <i>Aphrodite aculeata</i>. Although it inhabits the mud—and -sea-mud is about as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354"></a>{354}</span> noisome a substance as can be imagined—it is -clothed with a garment of such beauty that the rainbow itself can -scarcely rival, and not surpass it. The hairs with which it is so -profusely covered glitter and sparkle with every imaginable hue, among -which red and green seem to be predominant.</p> - -<p>These hairs occupy the sides of the body, but in the upper surface there -is a thick coating of felted hairs, interwoven with each other so -closely that they can with difficulty be separated. These hairs form a -natural filter, strain away the mud from the water, and allow the latter -to pour itself upon the organs of respiration. If, therefore, a specimen -be examined when it is first brought up by the dredge, the felted hair -will always be found to contain a considerable amount of mud, and much -washing is needed before the creature can be introduced into an aquarium -where the water is intended to be transparent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_354_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_354_sml.jpg" width="377" height="180" alt="Image unavailable: APHRODITE. DUCK’S BEAK. -FILTER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">APHRODITE. DUCK’S BEAK. -FILTER.</span> -</div> - -<p>I may here mention that the name of Aphrodite is a singularly happy one. -It signifies something that arises from the foam of the sea, and was -given to the goddess of beauty, because in the ancient myths she was -said to have sprung from the foam of the sea. Unpoetical as it may -appear, the German word Meerschaum, which is so familiar to us in -connection with pipes, is the exact equivalent of Aphrodite.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the Aphrodite is a figure representing the filtering apparatus -which is found in the beak of the duck. This singularly beautiful -apparatus is well worthy of examination, and the more important details -of its structure can easily be made out by the unassisted eye.</p> - -<p>In the first place, the upper half of the beak, or upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355"></a>{355}</span> mandible, as -it is scientifically called, is furnished along its edges with a row of -curved horny projections, very like the teeth of a comb, and each of -them coming to a point. There are some fifty or sixty of these teeth on -each side, and they are regularly graduated in size, being longest in -the middle of the beak, and becoming very short at either end. They are -set diagonally, with the tips pointing backwards. The edges of the lower -mandible are turned up in a sort of fold, on the outside of which is a -row of grooves corresponding with the teeth of the upper mandible, and, -like them, being set diagonally.</p> - -<p>These teeth and grooves would of themselves make a very efficient -filter, but they are further aided by the tongue. This is thick, fleshy, -and very mobile; so much so, indeed, that when the mouth is opened the -tongue is automatically thrust forward. The edges of the tongue are, -like those of the mandibles, furnished with a filtering apparatus. -Instead, however, of being horny and stiff like those of the mandibles, -they are membranous and exceedingly delicate. Indeed, in order to see -them properly, it is necessary to place the tongue under water, so that -the membranous filaments shall be floated apart instead of clinging -together by their own weight.</p> - -<p>The whole of this apparatus is abundantly supplied with nerves, and is -evidently a most exquisite instrument of touch. The reader will now -understand the peculiar movements of a duck’s beak while feeding. -Although the bird can and does eat solid food, such as barley, and, by -reason of its superior width of beak, will very much defraud the poultry -in a yard where ducks and hens are kept together, it is chiefly fitted -for extracting nourishment from water, and will find abundant -subsistence where a hen would die of starvation.</p> - -<p>When the beak is plunged into the water, the mandibles are rapidly -opened and shut, the tongue incessantly working backwards and forwards -between them. Consequently, not only are the solid parts of the water -strained between the comb of the upper beak and the grooves of the -lower, but they undergo a further sifting or filtering from the delicate -fibrils which fringe the edge of the tongue.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> familiar example of the Filter is to be found in the jaw of the -Greenland Whale. In this animal, as well as in its<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356"></a>{356}</span> congeners, the -“whalebone,” or “baleen,” as it is more properly called, is so formed -that it allows liquids to pass through it, while it retains solids. -Feeding as it does upon small marine matters, it would starve but for -the filtering power of the baleen, which enables the animal to take into -its vast mouth the sea-water with its inhabitants, and to expel the -water through the plates and fibres of the baleen, while retaining the -animals.</p> - -<p>The process of filtering, as well as the structure of the baleen, is so -familiar that it does not need further description.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now proceed to another filter, which is used in the air, and not -in water, namely, the Mouth-guard or Respirator of the fork-grinder.</p> - -<p>There is, perhaps, no trade which is more destructive of human life than -that of the fork-grinder was until the peculiar respirator was made -obligatory. The minute particles of steel thrown off by the grindstone -fill the air, and were necessarily inhaled. Now, the human lungs are -capable of enduring very bad treatment, but the introduction of -steel-dust into them is more than they can bear. Consequently the -duration of human life was very short, consumption almost invariably -setting in at an early age, and carrying off the men before they had -achieved middle age.</p> - -<p>Nor did the mischief end there. It was bad enough that life should be -shortened, but far worse that it should be wasted, as was mostly the -case. The men, knowing what their fate must be, were simply reckless, -and plunged into all kinds of debauchery, under the plea of “a short -life and a merry one.” They knew no better, and could scarcely be blamed -for their mode of living. And, as a matter of course, each succeeding -generation was worse, smaller, and feebler than the preceding.</p> - -<p>Then there came the invention of the Magnetic Respirator, by which the -fork-grinder’s trade was rendered as healthy as any other. It was made -of steel-wire gauze, and magnetised, so that the floating particles of -steel were not only stopped in their progress to the lungs, but arrested -by the magnetism, and, so to speak, taken prisoners by it.</p> - -<p>Even a well-made respirator of several layers, like those which are used -by persons suffering from weak lungs, would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357"></a>{357}</span> have been useful, but the -addition of magnetism doubled the efficacy while greatly diminishing the -cost, a single layer of wire being quite adequate to the office, and -was, in fact, quite a stroke of genius.</p> - -<p>The value of this invention is at once shown by the many complaints -which the workmen made when the Respirator was first introduced. They -complained that the apertures of the Respirator became so choked that -they could not breathe. This was perfectly true, but the complaint -showed the real value of the instrument.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_357_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_357_sml.jpg" width="341" height="155" alt="Image unavailable: SPIRACLE OF FLY. -RESPIRATOR OF FORK-GRINDER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPIRACLE OF FLY. -RESPIRATOR OF FORK-GRINDER.</span> -</div> - -<p>It was necessary for the workmen, every now and then, to clear off the -innumerable particles of steel which adhered to the magnetised wires, -and impeded respiration. But they never seemed to realise the fact that, -if it had not been for these wires, all the particles would have been -drawn into the lungs, and gradually choked them up, brought on -inflammation, and extinguished their life altogether. And, with the -usual repugnance to new ideas which is inherent in undeveloped minds, -the men stoutly resisted the introduction of the Respirator, and did -their best to reject an invention which doubled the length of their -lives, and enabled them to find long happiness in the world instead of -brief pleasure ended by sure and painful death.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span>, we will see how the principle of the Respirator is carried out in -Nature.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration is drawn one of the most perfect -Respirators, or air-filters, if we may use the term, that can be -imagined. Perhaps some of my readers may know that insects do not -breathe as we do. They have no lungs, but their entire system is -permeated by air-vessels, just as is our system<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358"></a>{358}</span> with blood-vessels, and -therefore the air, instead of being restricted to the lungs, is conveyed -to every part of the insect, the air-vessels extending to the very tips -of the wings and antennæ, and to the claws of the feet.</p> - -<p>Neither does the insect receive the air through mouth or nostrils as we -do. Along the sides of the body are certain oval apertures called -“spiracles,” from the Latin word <i>spiro</i>, which signifies breathing. -These spiracles can easily be seen by examining an ordinary silkworm. -They are situated in the soft and flexible skin which connects the rings -or segments of which all insects are composed, and pass directly into -two large air-tubes which run on either side of the body.</p> - -<p>It is evident that since an insect is so thoroughly permeated with air, -it must be furnished with means to render that air as pure as possible, -and at all events to preserve the respiratory system from being choked -with dust or other adventitious substances.</p> - -<p>How important the air is to an insect can easily be seen by dipping it -in oil, or even brushing an oiled feather on its sides so as to fill up -the spiracles. A man under the hands of the hangman or garotter could -not die more swiftly, so much does an insect depend on air. In fact, an -insect is almost wholly composed of air-tubes, but for which the great -thick-bodied dor-beetles could never use their organs of flight.</p> - -<p>Of course, although the spiracles can act as filters as far as the air -is concerned, they cannot be analysts, and consequently insects are -peculiarly sensitive to a bad atmosphere. There is, for example, the -well-known “laurel-bottle” of entomologists. A few young laurel-leaves -are crushed and placed in a bottle. As soon as an insect is introduced, -it breathes the prussic acid which is exhaled from the leaves, and at -once dies.</p> - -<p>So it is with the more delicate “death-bottle,” into which a little -cyanide of potassium is introduced, and covered with plaster of Paris. -The plaster prevents the poison from touching the insects and damaging -their beautiful colours. It permits the deadly vapour to roll through -its interstices; consequently, even the large-bodied moths, which are -tenacious of life almost beyond credibility, can barely run round the -bottle, when they roll over, and expire almost without a struggle, the -venomous atmosphere having saturated the entire body.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359"></a>{359}</span></p> - -<p>All entomologists know that the spiracles act as sieves, preventing any -extraneous objects from gaining admission into the breathing-tubes. But, -unless they have had personal experience, they cannot appreciate the -efficacy of the spiracle when acting as a respirator. Even the -microscope, though it may magnify the object to any extent, does not -show the wonderful filtering power of the spiracle. The figure in the -illustration represents a spiracle of the common “blue-bottle” fly, and -any one who wishes to examine such an object for himself can have but -little difficulty in doing so, especially in the warm season of the -year.</p> - -<p>How effectual is the barrier thus interposed by Nature between the -external world and the interior of the insect may be inferred from the -following narrative:—</p> - -<p>Many years ago, while absorbed in the comparative anatomy of insect -structure, I believed myself to have hit upon a plan for injecting the -minutest of tubes with mercury. So I took a male cockroach, placed a -vessel of mercury in the receiver of an air-pump, and suspended the -cockroach exactly over it. As the reader will fully have surmised, my -idea was, first to exhaust the air from the inside of the insect, then -to plunge it into the mercury, and then to admit the air, which, at a -pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch, was likely to drive the -mercury into the smallest of tubes. Such a plan was very successful with -ordinary tissues, and might succeed with insects.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, I exhausted the air from the vessel in which the cockroach -was placed, and kept it in a state of exhaustion for a whole day, so as -to prove that every particle of air was withdrawn from the insect. I -then plunged the cockroach deeply beneath the mercury, and admitted the -air, hoping that the severe pressure would drive the mercury into the -respiratory vessels. But not one particle of the mercury could pass -through the wonderful filter with which the cockroach had been provided, -and, except that I had learned the power of the spiracle, I might have -saved both the time and trouble.</p> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that, almost countless as are the species of -insects, no two of them possess exactly the same structure of the -spiracles, the individuality being marked as clearly in these tiny -organs as in the entire insect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360"></a>{360}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_V" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_V"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> -<small>THE PRINCIPLE OF THE SPRING.—THE ELASTIC SPRING.—ACCUMULATORS.—THE SPIRAL SPRING.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Springs and their various Structure.—The Elastic Spring.—The -Boy’s Catapult and its Powers.—The Pistolograph, its Principle, -and Uses to which it can be put.—Leaf-rolling Caterpillars, and -their Way of Work.—The Carriage Spring.—The Horse’s Hoof and its -complex Structure.—Fungi and their united Power.—The Chinese -Cross-bow.—The ancient Balista.—Skull of the Crocodile.—Bones of -young Children.—The Spiral Spring and its many Uses.—The -Toy-gun.—The Needle-gun.—Valved Brass Instruments.—Watch and -Clock Springs.—The Bed Spring.—Parallels in Nature and -Art.—Buffers of Railway Carriages.—Spring Solitaires.—The Bell -Spring.—Spiral Springs in Vegetable Tissues.—Poison Cells of -various Marine Animals.—Effects of the Spiral Springs.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Elastic Springs.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">H</span>ERE we come upon a subject so large, that it is difficult to define its -exact requisite limits. The principle of the elastic spring pervades all -Nature, and the numerous adaptations in Art are closely, though perhaps -not directly, attributable to the wide distribution of the spring in -Nature.</p> - -<p>There is, for example, the simple elasticity which enables a tree, when -bowed by the wind, to spring back so soon as the pressure is removed, -and which, indeed, is the power which enables a bow to propel an arrow. -Then there are spiral springs innumerable, many of them so minute that -they can only be seen by the aid of the microscope, and there are many -springs which exhibit their elasticity by their power of extension and -shortening, just as is done with the elastic fabrics which are so much -in vogue at the present day, and which seem so necessary to ordinary -comfort that we feel disposed to wonder how our forefathers managed -without them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361"></a>{361}</span></p> - -<p>We will now proceed to examine some of these springs in detail.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is one form of elastic spring which has of late years become more -familiar than agreeable, namely, the toy which is learnedly called a -“catapult,” though it has little in common with the ancient weapon whose -name it bears.</p> - -<p>As may be seen by reference to the illustration, it consists of one or -more india-rubber straps attached to a fork-like handle, and carrying a -small pouch in which is contained the missile. Although it is not -remarkable for accuracy, it can throw a stone or a bullet a considerable -distance, and its power can be very quickly increased by adding to the -number of the straps. Thus a catapult has been made which was capable of -sending a small pistol bullet through a wooden board, so that the -child’s toy might really become a dangerous weapon.</p> - -<p>Indeed, cases are known where the catapult has hurled a stone with fatal -effect upon human beings. In my own neighbourhood there are many -examples of glass being pierced by stones thrown from catapults just as -if they had been subjected to bullets shot from firearms, the holes -being quite small and round.</p> - -<p>The power of accumulating force by increasing the number of springs was -utilised by Mr. Scaife, when he invented his wonderful photographic -machine which he termed the “Pistolograph,” on account of the sound -which was produced when the portrait was taken.</p> - -<p>The idea was simple enough, though the practice of it was not so easy. -He wished to be able to take a photograph with an exposure of the least -possible time, and thus to attain freedom and action, instead of the -dull stiffness which generally characterizes photograph portraits. The -mode which he adopted was by introducing a peculiarly sensitive film, -which would take an impression in a mere moment, and then arranging the -machine so that an exposure of more than a moment was impossible.</p> - -<p>This was done by covering the lens with an exactly fitting door, -revolving on a pivot. The axis on which the door revolved was attached -to a number of india-rubber bands, exactly like those which are used for -confining papers. As the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362"></a>{362}</span> power of the springs increased with their -number, it naturally followed that the rapidity of the revolution was in -exact ratio with the number of the bands, so that the duration of -exposure to light could be measured with tolerable accuracy.</p> - -<p>So wonderfully well did this plan succeed that photographs of eclipses -were taken with perfect accuracy, a matter of great importance when time -has to be considered. Horses were also taken at full gallop, so as to -display their action, and the crowning achievement was the photographing -of a cannon in the act of firing, and the bursting of a charged shell. -So rapid is the action of the instrument, that in several cases where a -cannon or mortar had been photographed, even the track of the ball or -shell is visible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_362_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_362_sml.jpg" width="426" height="184" alt="Image unavailable: LEAF-ROLLING NESTS. -CATAPULT." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LEAF-ROLLING NESTS. -CATAPULT.</span> -</div> - -<p>It necessarily followed that when the springs caused the circular cover -to revolve with such rapidity, they made it close with a sharp report, -and so gave rise to the name of the machine. Moreover, as it had to be -used for rapidly moving objects, it was not fixed on a pedestal, but was -held in the hands, while aim was taken at the object, just as with a -pistol. When the observer thought that he had his aim correct, he -touched a trigger, round spun the cover, and the photograph was taken.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right hand of the illustration is seen the Catapult, made with -several springs, and on the left is shown an example of the Accumulator -as formed by Nature.</p> - -<p>The reader may probably be acquainted with the Leaf-rolling -Caterpillars, of which there are so many. I had often inspected these -curled leaves, and, on comparing them with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363"></a>{363}</span> size of the -caterpillars, had noticed that the muscular strength of the insect was -quite inadequate to the work which was done. That much of it was owing -to the “bowsing” system, which has already been described when treating -of the Toggle-joint, was very probable, but that some other force must -be employed was evident.</p> - -<p>On unrolling a leaf, the hidden force was at once explained, and showed -itself to be a system of accumulators exactly like those of the -pistolograph or the catapult. The caterpillar spins successive belts of -silken threads, and affixes them to the leaf, as shown in the -illustration. These threads are nearly as elastic as the india-rubber -bands of the catapult, and accordingly draw the leaf together. Another -set of belts is added above the former, and, as they harden and contract -in the air, they roll the leaf still further. The first row is then -shortened and tightened, and a third and fourth row are added in the -same fashion. So elastic are these belts, that if the leaf be carefully -handled it can be almost wholly unrolled, and will spring back again as -soon as the force is removed.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> form of accumulated force may be seen in the ordinary Carriage -Spring, one of which is shown in the illustration. It is made of a -number of strips of elastic steel lying upon each other, and suffered to -play upon each other by means of slots and rivets. The weight being -placed in the centre, it is evident that this very ingenious spring is -really an elastic girder, yielding to sudden pressure, and recovering -itself when that pressure is removed.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ingenious</span> as is this spring, it has many parallels in Nature, one of -which is here given.</p> - -<p>It is popularly thought the hoof of the horse is a solid mass of horn -destined to protect the feet against hard and rough ground. Such -certainly seems to be the opinion of farriers, who, in shoeing horses, -act exactly as if the horn of the hoof were structureless; whereas it is -a marvel of complicated mechanism. On looking at the exterior of a -horse’s hoof, it will be seen to be marked with a vast number of very -fine, but easily visible longitudinal lines, looking as if they were -scratches from a very fine needle. If the hoof be removed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364"></a>{364}</span> from the -foot, and examined upon the interior, it will be seen that each of the -apparent scratches signifies the edge of a very thin plate of horn, not -so thick as the paper on which this book is printed. The hoof, in fact, -is built up of multitudinous plates of horn, set side by side, and each -acting as a separate spring. It is this beautiful structure which allows -the horse to tread without a jar being sent through its whole system by -every step which it takes.</p> - -<p>A similar structure is to be found in all hoofed quadrupeds, and is -especially noticeable in the case of the Elephant. All those who have -watched the walk of an Elephant, no matter what its size may be, must -have been struck with the curious noiselessness of its movements. Its -weight may be measured by tons, and yet the enormous animal steps as -noiselessly as a cat. On examining one of the hoofs, after it is removed -from the foot, the cause of this marvellously silent tread is perfectly -evident. The whole of the hoof is composed of nearly parallel horny -plates, and by their united action they produce the required result.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_364_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_364_sml.jpg" width="401" height="174" alt="Image unavailable: HORSE-HOOF. -CARRIAGE SPRING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HORSE-HOOF. -CARRIAGE SPRING.</span> -</div> - -<p>Each plate in itself is very feeble, but, when united as they are at the -ends, they afford mutual support to each other. Similarly the separate -feathers in a couch would be crushed by a comparatively slight weight, -but when a number are confined together they support each other, and -form the soft, yielding couch with which we are so familiar. Horsehair, -when used as the stuffing for a couch or chair, acts in the same way, -and so do the fine filaments of wool when used under the name of -“flock.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365"></a>{365}</span></p> - -<p>Another good example of the power of accumulated force, although it has -no direct relation to the spring, is the well-known fact that fungi, -which are separately so fragile, are capable of lifting and retaining in -the air stones so large that two men could hardly carry them. Were the -stones laid down upon the fungi, the latter would be crushed, but, as -they grow beneath the stones, they accumulate their powers, and slowly, -but certainly, raise the weight from the ground.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> very principle of accumulated force has long been used in weapons -of war, and I possess several examples of such weapons. One of them is a -Chinese repeating Cross-bow, which was taken at the capture of the Peiho -Fort, and was really a formidable wall-instrument, carrying a reserve of -arrows, and delivering them with great rapidity. In point of fact, it -consists of three bows, placed upon each other, and playing upon each -other just as do the portions of a carriage spring. Such strength is -thus obtained, that the bow cannot be drawn by hand, but is worked with -a lever, as shown in the illustration. The whole machinery of the -weapon, including the self-notching and self-supplying system, is very -interesting, but is outside our present object. The very powerful bow of -the ancient Balista was made on the same principle, and was strong -enough to throw large stones and wooden beams.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_365_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_365_sml.jpg" width="437" height="132" alt="Image unavailable: JAWS OF CROCODILE. -CHINESE CROSS-BOW." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">JAWS OF CROCODILE. -CHINESE CROSS-BOW.</span> -</div> - -<p>I also have bows in my collection which are strengthened on the same -principle, though not exactly in the same manner. There are several -Indian, Chinese, and Japanese bows which are curved almost like the -letter C, and have to be reversed when strung. These bows are of no very -great size, but possess wonderful elasticity. They owe the latter -quality to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366"></a>{366}</span> sundry layers of sinew which have been affixed to the back -when wet, and which add enormously to the power of the bow, while they -very little enlarge its dimensions.</p> - -<p>Another bow, made by the natives of Vancouver’s Island, has the back -strengthened by a number of cords spun from sinew fibres, and possessing -the strength and elasticity to which we are accustomed in the strings of -the harp, guitar, or violin.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now turn to a parallel in Nature. This is to be found in the -lower jaw of the Crocodile, as is pointed out by Professor Owen, in his -work on the “Skeleton and the Teeth.”</p> - -<p>All persons who have a smattering of anatomy are aware that even in the -human body the most solid bones of the adult were originally composed of -several pieces, and that they only become fused together in course of -time. The jaw-bones, for example, were once so composed, and in the -Crocodile the junction is never completed, the pieces of bone remaining -separate, but being pressed firmly against each other during life.</p> - -<p>I have now before me the skull of a Gangetic Crocodile, in which, -although the animal was an adult when killed, the bones of the long -lower jaw are so loose that unless they were tied together the jaw would -fall to pieces.</p> - -<p>This analogy between Art and Nature is thus described by Professor Owen -in the work which has just been mentioned:—</p> - -<p>“The purpose of this subdivision of the lower jaw-bone has been well -explained by Conybeare and Buckland, by the analogy of its structure to -that adopted in binding together several parallel plates of elastic wood -or steel to make a crossbow, and also in setting together thin plates of -steel in the carriage spring.”</p> - -<p>Dr. Buckland also adds: “Those who have witnessed the shock given to the -head of a Crocodile by the act of snapping together its thin, long jaws, -must have seen how liable to fracture the lower jaw would be were it -composed of one bone only.... The splicing and bracing together of thin -flat bones of unequal length and of varying thickness afford -compensation for the weakness and risk of fracture that would otherwise -have attended the elongation of the parts.”</p> - -<p>A good example of the value of this structure of bone may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367"></a>{367}</span> be found in -young children. Before they are old enough to take care of themselves -they are perpetually falling down, and never hurting themselves. I have -seen a little girl of five years old roll from top to bottom of a lofty -staircase. It looked as if the child must be killed, but she was only -giddy with her many revolutions, and a little bruised about the elbows. -The reason of this curious immunity from injury is, that the bones, -especially those of the skull, are not completely united, and so act on -the principle of the compound spring.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spiral Spring.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">This</span> subject is so large, and there are so many examples, both in Art -and Nature, that it is not very easy to make selections which will -sufficiently answer the purpose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_367_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_367_sml.jpg" width="422" height="251" alt="Image unavailable: WATER-LILY. LILY. POISON-CELL OF HELIANTHOID. ANTHEROZOIDS. -SPIRAL SPRING. BED SPRING. WATCH SPRING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WATER-LILY. LILY. POISON-CELL OF HELIANTHOID. ANTHEROZOIDS. -SPIRAL SPRING. BED SPRING. WATCH SPRING.</span> -</div> - -<p>The upper left-hand figure of the illustration represents the ordinary -Spiral Spring made of wire, and used for its power of resuming its shape -when compressed. In early childhood most boys have had practical -experience of this spring in the toy guns and cannons with which they -are supplied. The spring is compressed by the ramrod, and held in its -place by a catch. If a pellet be placed in the gun, and the catch -released by pulling the trigger, the spring flies back to its former -shape, and drives the pellet.</p> - -<p>An exactly similar spring is used in the well-known “Needle-gun,”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368"></a>{368}</span> the -spring driving a needle through the explosive mixture, and so igniting -the charge.</p> - -<p>Our brass instruments would be very badly off without the spiral spring, -which is placed under the pistons. The elasticity allows the pistons to -be pressed down, and when the fingers are raised the pistons spring up -again.</p> - -<p>Another form of this instrument is seen on the right of the ordinary -spring. This is used in the manufacture of spring mattresses and -couches, and is made thinner in the centre, so as to allow of greater -elasticity.</p> - -<p>Below them is the spring which is used for watches and clocks, one end -being fastened to the rim of the barrel, and the other to the pivot. -When the latter is turned the spring becomes “wound up,” and, when -released, keeps the works going by pressing against them. Of the -“pall-and-ratchet” wheel, by which the movements are retarded, we shall -treat in another place.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration are a few figures of the Spiral -Spring as seen in Nature.</p> - -<p>On the extreme left of the group is a spiral cell taken from the -flower-stem of the Water-lily. As the reader will see, it is composed of -a number of fibres laid parallel to each other, and twisted into a -hollow spiral. In order to exhibit its shape the better, the spiral has -been partially uncoiled.</p> - -<p>On the extreme right is a corresponding spiral cell from the common -Lily, in which the spring power is given by two fibres twisted in -opposite directions. The reader will now understand and admire the -mechanism by which these plants attain their great strength and -elasticity, the stems being made of myriads of these spiral fibres.</p> - -<p>The oval body on the upper part of the illustration is a poison-cell of -a marine polyp, and is given here as an example of an animal spiral -spring, the others all belonging to the vegetable world.</p> - -<p>We shall see more of its structure a little further on, and will not now -examine it in detail.</p> - -<p>The two remaining figures represent the remarkable objects called -Antherozoids, <i>i.e.</i> the living creatures of anthers. They exist in vast -numbers in the non-flowering plants, and inhabit<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369"></a>{369}</span> those parts which -correspond with the anthers of the flowering plants. When placed in -water they have a curious way of coiling and twisting themselves -spirally, so as to make their way through the water in a tortuous, but -tolerably rapid, course. This movement is effected by the contraction -and expansion of the spirally twisted filament. The upper figure -represents a group of Antherozoids in their cells, and the lower is a -much more magnified figure of a single Antherozoid as it appears when -free, and in the act of moving through the water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the accompanying illustration are many examples of Spiral Springs, -both natural and artificial. We will take these in their order.</p> - -<p>The upper left-hand figure represents the “Buffer,” by which the -carriages of railway trains are prevented from jarring against each -other.</p> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may be old enough to remember the days of the -old railway carriages that were connected by short chains, and furnished -with buffers that were merely padded. As the train started a separate -jerk was given to every carriage by the tightening of the chains, and, -as it stopped, all the carriages bumped against each other in a most -unpleasant manner. Now, however, the buffers are furnished with powerful -springs, and are pressed strongly against each other by means of -screw-bolts, so that they form one continuous line.</p> - -<p>In fact—and here is another analogy between Art and Nature—a train, -when properly made up, bears a close resemblance to a human spine, the -carriages being analogous to the vertebræ, and the spring buffers to the -elastic cartilages between the vertebræ.</p> - -<p>Nowadays, owing to this arrangement, the whole train moves together, and -can be started and stopped so gently that the passengers are hardly -aware of movement or stoppage. For example, one of my friends was in a -train which came into collision with some obstacle. The carriages in -front were dashed to pieces, and several of the passengers killed. His -carriage, however, which was nearly at the end of the train, and had the -benefit of all the springs, was hardly shaken, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370"></a>{370}</span> the inmates did not -know for some little time that an accident had occurred.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_370_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_370_sml.jpg" width="442" height="647" alt="Image unavailable: BUFFER OF RAILWAY ENGINE. MOSS DISCHARGING SPORES. -SUPPORTING SPRING OF RAILWAY CARRIAGE. TENTACLE, WITH SPRINGS. -SPRING SOLITAIRE. SPRING-CELL OF MADREPORE. SPRING-THREAD OF SEA-ANEMONE. SPRING-CELL OF CORYNACTIS. -BELL SPRING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BUFFER OF RAILWAY ENGINE. MOSS DISCHARGING SPORES. -SUPPORTING SPRING OF RAILWAY CARRIAGE. TENTACLE, WITH SPRINGS. -SPRING SOLITAIRE. SPRING-CELL OF MADREPORE. SPRING-THREAD OF SEA-ANEMONE. SPRING-CELL OF CORYNACTIS. -BELL SPRING. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>Below the buffer is a Wheel Spring, made exactly on the same principle, -but set perpendicularly instead of horizontally.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371"></a>{371}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two figures beneath the wheel spring represent an object very -familiar to us, namely, a Spring Solitaire, one figure showing it as -open, and the other as closed. In this article the clasp is held in its -place by a spring, and is only released by pressure.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the solitaire is a very prosaic application of the Spiral Spring, -namely, that by which a house-bell is kept in vibration after the force -of the pull has ceased, and which renders the bell, as Dickens happily -remarks, so greedy to ring after it has been pulled.</p> - -<p>I made and employed a spring of a similar character in closing the door -of my parrot’s cage. Polly is a wonderfully clever bird, and a capital -talker. First, she had a cage with upright bars, two of which could be -slid upwards by way of a door. She soon found out the trick of the bars, -and used to escape, carefully replacing the bars afterwards.</p> - -<p>When she was transferred to a metal cage, she discovered that the door -slid upwards, and began at her old tricks. So I took a piece of -galvanised iron wire, coiled it into a spiral spring, fastened one end -to the upper part of the door, and the other by a hook to a staple at -the bottom of the cage. Consequently, when Polly lifted the door, and -loosened her grip for a fresh hold, the door closed itself again. So, -after awhile, Polly gave up the door, and now never tries to open it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> to the upper right-hand corner of the illustration, there is -shown a portion of Moss as it appears when magnified, and discharging -its spores. When they are ripe a vast number of little spiral springs -are let loose, and shoot the sporules into the air.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the moss are four figures, which are, in fact, the same object -differently magnified, and seen from different points of view. These -peculiar organs are technically termed “cnidæ,” from a Greek word which -signifies a nettle. The appropriateness of the name we shall presently -see.</p> - -<p>I have already mentioned that the tentacles of various marine animals -are furnished with poison-cells. The object of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372"></a>{372}</span> these cells is to -capture and kill the prey, and the mode of doing so is very remarkable.</p> - -<p>On the right and left of the illustration are two such bodies, in which -is seen a sort of elastic wire coiled spirally, apparently without -regularity, but really possessing a most beautiful order. That on the -left is the poison-cell of a Madrepore, and the other is the same organ -in a Corynactis. No sooner is the tentacle touched than the poison-cells -are mechanically acted upon. They are turned inside out, and the coiled -spring darts forth with wonderful violence.</p> - -<p>Slight as is the dart, so fine that it cannot be seen except with the -aid of a tolerably powerful microscope, it is a terrible weapon. -Although it is projected with sufficient force to bury itself to its -base even through so tough an object as the human skin, it could inflict -but little injury, and would, indeed, scarcely be felt. But it carries -with it a most irritant poison, which is apparently contained in the -little capsule. These cnidæ are very plentiful in the tentacles of the -Stinging Jelly-fish, or Stanger, as it is often called, and are charged -with a terrible poison.</p> - -<p>As is the case with all such poisons, its effects differ according to -the constitution of the being that is poisoned. There are some persons, -for example, who care no more for the sting of a bee than for the prick -of a needle, and there are those whom a single bee-sting will bring -almost to the gates of death. So with the tentacles of the Stinging -Jelly-fish and those of the Portuguese Man-of-war, and there are persons -who are scarcely affected with the sting of the scorpion.</p> - -<p>So it is with nettles. When I was a boy at school it was thought -necessary to wear an oak-leaf, or at least a portion of an oak-leaf, on -the 29th of May, and all who did not possess this talisman might be -flogged with nettles by those who did. As the school was situated in the -north of England, where the oak puts forth its leaves late in the -season, it was no easy matter to obtain a veritable oak-leaf, and we -used to take any leaf that we could procure, and cut it round the edges -into the similitude of a suitable oak-leaf.</p> - -<p>The effect of the nettles upon the boys was most curiously diversified. -Some cared nothing whatever for them; others suffered sharp but brief -pangs; while others, of whom I was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373"></a>{373}</span> one, endured the most lancinating -pain at the time, and for hours afterwards a hot, burning, fevered skin, -and a heavy, dull ache, accompanied by throbbings of the brain so -violent that it appeared as if the head would burst asunder at every -heart-beat.</p> - -<p>The fact of this inequality has been throughout life a valuable lesson -to me, <i>i.e.</i> that a punishment which will nearly, if not quite, kill -one man, will be no punishment at all to another.</p> - -<p>Of course I cannot answer for the effects of these very minute cnidæ -upon others, but I can state that they nearly killed <i>me</i>, and that if I -had been forced to swim another hundred yards, I should have collapsed, -sunk, and had a coroner’s jury return a verdict of “Found drowned in -consequence of cramp.”</p> - -<p>On me the effects were as follows:—First a slight, and then a severe, -tingling on the parts which had been struck. Then sharp, darting pangs. -Then a sudden shock as if a bullet had passed through the breast from -one side to the other. Consequent collapse, and suspension of the office -of both heart and lungs. I once had to walk nearly two miles after being -stung by one of these dread animals, and how often I fell before -reaching my lodgings I dare not say, but certainly once in every two -hundred yards.</p> - -<p>Even after partial recovery I should not have known my own face. It was -that of an old and wearied man of seventy, grey, wrinkled, and withered; -and many months elapsed before I felt myself sure that the weird-like -bullet would not drive through my breast, and leave me lying on the -ground gasping and speechless.</p> - -<p>These dreaded tentacles can sting as fiercely when separated from the -animal as when they are conjoined to it, as I can also testify from -personal experience.</p> - -<p>I have a natural alacrity in damaging myself, and there is scarcely a -representative bone in the body that I have not fractured or dislocated, -or both. Fortunately the cerebral vertebræ have hitherto escaped. I have -broken the right leg, right arm, two ribs, and right collar-bone; -dislocated the right ankle, and smashed nearly every bone of the right -hand. At present, the damage to the left side is restricted to two ribs; -and I hope that the Genius of Ossifraction may now be content with his -work.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374"></a>{374}</span></p> - -<p>But I equally seem to have a natural affinity for the tentacles of the -Stangers, which deliver their envenomed darts just as fiercely when they -are separated from the Medusa as when they are connected with it.</p> - -<p>A curious example of this fact befell me in the present year (1875). -Seeing that there had been a steady southern gale, which made Lundy -Island and Hartland and Baggy Points indiscernible, I dreaded my old -foes, and, instead of bathing from the “Pebble Ridge,” took to the great -“Nassau” Baths at Westward Ho. I sadly missed the roll of the waves, and -the placid rapture of lying with outspread arms as the vast Atlantic -billows came rolling in, flinging up the great grey boulders as if they -were corks, and letting them roll down the ridge again with a -thundering, and yet soothing, sound. Three miles or more inland may the -thunder of the Pebble Ridge be heard; and at night, even though a storm -be raging, tearing the leaves off the trees in whirling showers, -flinging great branches into the air like ostrich plumes, and howling so -that one person can hardly hear another speak, the dull, low, continuous -thunder of the Pebble Ridge is heard over all. I have often remained -awake at Bideford, simply on account of the deep roar of the Pebble -Ridge, as the rising tide rolled its vast waves along the coast from -Baggy Point, through Westward Ho and Clovelly, to Hartland.</p> - -<p>When there is a heavy sea, the “undertow” of these waves is so great -that even had no such things as Stangers existed, I should not have -ventured upon the Pebble Ridge. One of my friends, a strong swimmer, was -nearly drowned off that ridge by the undertow; and not long before I -visited Westward Ho a promising young man lost his life within a few -yards of that treacherous shore.</p> - -<p>Much against my will, I went to the new bath, which is always supplied -with a running current of sea-water; and I had hardly swum the length of -the bath before I felt the familiar nettle-like sting in my foot. -Fortunately it was only caused by a small fragment of a Stanger’s -tentacle, which had been severed from the animal and pumped into the -bath, and no harm ensued.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375"></a>{375}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VI" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VI"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /> -<small>SPIRAL AND RINGED TISSUES.—VARIOUS SPRINGS IN NATURE AND ART.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Spiral Tissues, and their Structure and Uses.—The movable -Gas-lamp.—Elastic Tubes.—Breathing-tubes of Insects, and their -Spiral Wire.—Ringed Tissues and their varied Structure.—Ringed -Tissues applied to modern Dress.—Chinese and Japanese -Lanterns.—Proboscis of the House-fly.—Trachea of various -Animals.—Mutual Tendency of Rings and Spirals towards each -other.—Fibres of the Yew-tree.—Diving and Divers.—Principle of -the Diving-bell.—How it is supplied with Air.—Structure of the -Air-tubes.—Nests of the Water-spider.—Diving by means of -Tubes.—Larva of the Drone-fly, and its Mode of breathing.—How to -examine them.—Leaping Springs.—The Skip-jack in Nature and -Art.—Skip-jack or Click Beetles.—The Spring-tail, Grasshopper, -Kangaroo, Gerboa, and other Jumping Creatures.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Spiral and Ringed Tissues.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E have now to consider the Spiral Tissue under another aspect, <i>i.e.</i> -that of acting as the internal support of an exterior membrane. Ringed -tissues are necessarily conjoined with the Spiral, as they both -discharge the same office, and in some cases merge almost imperceptibly -into each other in the same specimens. This is most beautifully shown in -the proboscis of the common House-fly, to which reference will presently -be made.</p> - -<p>The subject is so large that only a comparatively small selection of -examples can be made, the greater number belonging to Nature, and not to -Art.</p> - -<p>We will first take the common movable Gas-lamp, with its accompanying -tube. It is at present the tube of which we have to treat, the gas -itself being reserved for a future page.</p> - -<p>It is necessary that, in order to enable the lamp to be moved from one -spot to another, the tube through which the gas<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376"></a>{376}</span> passes must be so -constructed that if it be bent, or even coiled, it retains its form, and -does not become flattened. In order to obtain this object, a very long -thin wire is coiled spirally to a suitable length. Over this wire is -sewn the casing of the tube, which is afterwards made waterproof with -elastic varnish. A still simpler mode is by enclosing a spiral wire -within a tube of vulcanised india-rubber. It will be seen, then, that by -the elasticity of the spiral wire the tube must always retain its shape, -no matter how much it may be bent.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration are shown the movable Gas-lamp and -tube, and a portion of the latter is given with its spiral wire -partially unwound, in order to show its structure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_376_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_376_sml.jpg" width="424" height="217" alt="Image unavailable: TRACHEA OF INSECT, WITH ITS SPIRAL THREAD. -TUBE OF GAS-LAMP, WITH ITS SPIRAL WIRE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TRACHEA OF INSECT, WITH ITS SPIRAL THREAD. -TUBE OF GAS-LAMP, WITH ITS SPIRAL WIRE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The large tubes which convey air to divers are made in the same manner, -as they would not only succumb to the pressure of the water without the -wire, but could not be dragged over obstacles or round corners without -collapsing. It often happens that a diver is obliged, when surveying a -sunken ship, to traverse the whole of her interior, descending ladder -after ladder, and entering every cabin in the ship. This could not be -done but for the internal coil of wire within the tube. Reference will -presently be made to the subject of diving.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand is seen an object that looks something like a branch -hollowed very thin. It is a magnified view of part of the Trachea or -breathing-tube through which air is conveyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377"></a>{377}</span> into the system of an -insect. These breathing-tubes ramify to every portion of the body of an -insect, even penetrating to the extremities of the antennæ, the wings, -and the legs. It is obvious that as these organs are in tolerably -constant movement, and the legs are much bent at every joint by the -action of walking, the air-tubes which run through them must possess the -same qualities as those of the gas-lamp and diver.</p> - -<p>If one of these tracheæ be removed and placed under the microscope, it -will be seen to be constructed in a manner exactly similar to that which -has been described. Within the membrane which forms the tube proper -there is a very fine, but very strong thread, which is coiled exactly -like the wire spring. It is not attached to the membrane, and so strong -is it that, although it is all but invisible to the naked eye, it can be -drawn out as shown in the left-hand figure of the illustration. If laid -on a piece of glass, it immediately tries to recoil itself, and for some -little time will twist and curl about as if it were alive.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_377_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_377_sml.jpg" width="436" height="151" alt="Image unavailable: TRACHEA OF DRAGON-FLY LARVA. -TUBE OF HOOKAH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TRACHEA OF DRAGON-FLY LARVA. -TUBE OF HOOKAH.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the above illustration are two similar examples of the spiral thread -with a flexible tube. The right-hand figure represents one of the many -forms of the water-pipe, whether known as Hookah, Narghile, or -Hubble-bubble. In the simpler forms of this pipe, such as the latter, -the inhaling-tube is quite straight, and the bowl is held in the hands -of the smoker. In the more refined pipe, however, the tube is very long, -flexible, and made elastic by an inner spiral wire.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may remember that the larva of the Dragon-fly is a -most remarkable creature in consequence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378"></a>{378}</span> its methods of propulsion -and respiration. The water is taken into the interior of the body -through a peculiarly formed aperture, and then ejected with such -violence as to drive the body forward on the same principle as that -which causes a rocket to ascend.</p> - -<p>The figure on the left hand of the illustration is a representation of -the abdomen of this larva rather magnified, and opened so as to show the -interior. On either side run the two principal breathing-tubes, through -the delicate membranes of which the spiral thread can plainly be seen.</p> - -<p>These tubes are connected with a smaller set, and they with a still -smaller, so that at last they are of such tenuity that they can scarcely -be distinguished without the use of a glass. But, however small they may -be, they are always fitted with the spiral thread.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to the cases where the membrane is supported by a series of -rings, and not by a single spiral wire.</p> - -<p>In the right-hand division of the illustration are two specimens of -objects which shall be nameless, but which were drawn per special favour -at a milliner’s shop. Although the day has now happily gone by when the -larger object was in general wear, and seemed to be irrepressively -increasing in dimensions, certain modifications of it, under various -names, have made their appearance in almost every book of fashions and -every large milliner’s shop.</p> - -<p>Here we have the external membrane made of linen, calico, merino, or -similar material, distended by a number of elastic rings set at -tolerably even distances from each other.</p> - -<p>The two small objects represent the handy little paper lanterns so -common in China and Japan. They are composed of an external coat of -tough tissue paper, so thin that it allows the light to pass through it -with tolerable freedom, and of an internal series of elastic rings, -which not only support it and preserve its cylindrical shape, but allow -it to be folded up flat when not wanted.</p> - -<p>I possess a singularly ingenious lantern of this kind, made in Japan, -and displaying the thoroughness of work which characterizes that nation. -It is five inches in diameter, and the lantern itself is affixed at -either end to a circular wooden cap<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379"></a>{379}</span> the upper fitting over the lower. -Consequently, when the lantern is shut, it is entirely enclosed between -these two caps, which effectually preserve it from harm. It is -delicately finished, and has no less than thirty rings, made of very -narrow strips of bamboo. The upper cap has a little trap-door through -which the candle can be admitted and trimmed, and in its centre is a -small round hole for the passage of air.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the left-hand division of the illustration are shown several examples -of ringed and spiral tissues belonging to the vegetable world, in which -the principle is exactly the same as that of the Chinese lantern, &c. -That on the right hand is an example of simple rings within a membrane. -The central figure shows a double spiral, which produces very much the -appearance of a series of rings; and on the extreme left is an -interesting example which shows the transition in the internal supports -from spirals to rings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_379_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_379_sml.jpg" width="475" height="335" alt="Image unavailable: SPIRAL AND RINGED FIBRE (VEGETABLE). -NAMELESS OBJECTS. -PAPER LANTERNS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPIRAL AND RINGED FIBRE (VEGETABLE). -NAMELESS OBJECTS. -PAPER LANTERNS.</span> -</div> - -<p>I have already mentioned that the proboscis of the House-fly exhibits -this modification. If one of these objects be placed under a moderate -power microscope—the half-inch is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380"></a>{380}</span> quite enough—and examined, it will -be seen that there are some large tracheæ, just like those of the -Dragon-fly larva, on each side of the proboscis, and that, where the end -is widened and flattened into a sort of disc, their place is taken by a -set of very much smaller tracheæ, coming nearly to a point, and each -being supported internally by a series of incomplete rings, shaped very -much like the letter C. A slide containing this object well mounted can -be purchased at any optician’s for a shilling.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> trachea, or windpipe, as we call it, of all vertebrate animals, man -included, is formed on exactly the same principle, as any one may see by -going to a butcher’s shop, and looking at the trachea, or windpipe, by -which the lungs, or “lights,” as they are called, are suspended. Were it -not for this structure, we should not be able to bend our necks or turn -our heads.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_380_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_380_sml.jpg" width="196" height="209" alt="Image unavailable: OX. -PIG. -GOOSE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">OX. -PIG. -GOOSE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The accompanying illustration shows the tracheæ of three well-known -creatures. The left-hand figure is the trachea of an Ox, the central -figure that of a Pig, and the right-hand figure that of a Goose. Mr. -Tuffen West, who made the drawings, sent with them the following -remarks:—</p> - -<p>“The tracheæ of animals furnish some very interesting examples of -variation in the form and arrangement of the rings. Their purpose, -perhaps, one can but guess at in some cases; but doubtless, as being -works of the Master Builder, careful study would be repaid.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381"></a>{381}</span></p> - -<p>“In the Ox the rings are very strong and close, and in form like a -horse-shoe with the ends approximated.</p> - -<p>“In the Pig the incomplete rings are broad at one part, and narrow on -the opposite side, with a tendency to spiral arrangement. I imagine that -this would make a very rigid tube, and, indeed, it feels so in the hand.</p> - -<p>“Then, in the Goose, the narrowed lower part is that which is figured -just before the trachea reaches the sternum. The (complete) rings are -twice as broad in one half as in the other, and by the alternate -disposition of these differing widths, a tube is formed of great -flexibility fore and aft, but almost absolutely rigid in the lateral -direction. This seems to be so marked an evidence of design as to be -calculated to greatly raise our admiration.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_381_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_381_sml.jpg" width="447" height="239" alt="Image unavailable: RINGED TISSUES OF SUGAR-CANE -VEGETABLE SPIRAL TISSUES TENDING TO RINGS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">RINGED TISSUES OF SUGAR-CANE -VEGETABLE SPIRAL TISSUES TENDING TO RINGS.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have seen several examples of ringed tissues tending to the spiral -form, and it is but natural that we should expect to find spiral tissues -tending to the ring.</p> - -<p>In the accompanying illustration the two left-hand figures represent the -curiously modified ringed tissue which is to be found in the sugar-cane, -the left-hand figure being much more magnified than the other.</p> - -<p>The other figures represent four examples of vegetable spiral tissues, -in which it will be seen that there is a tendency to form rings, and -that if a number of rings were substituted for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382"></a>{382}</span> spiral, and the -object viewed in a slanting direction, it would be almost impossible to -distinguish between the ring and the spiral.</p> - -<p>Among the most remarkable of these examples are the two right-hand -figures. That on the extreme right represents a spiral vessel taken from -the so-called root, or “rhizome,” of the Water-lily, and the other is a -similar vessel taken from a branch of the Yew-tree. It has been -suggested that to this spiral structure is due the proverbial elasticity -of the yew-tree, which has from time immemorial rendered it the best -wood for the manufacture of bows.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Diving and Divers.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">It</span> has already been mentioned that the flexible tubes used by modern -divers are constructed on the model of several structures belonging to -the animal and vegetable kingdoms.</p> - -<p>We will now see how they are utilised.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the earlier stages of the diver’s art the Diving-bell afforded the -only means of gaining access to the bed of the sea, even in -comparatively shallow waters. The mode in which this result was obtained -was simple enough, and though it carried with it the germs of still -greater improvements, was but limited and uncertain in its action.</p> - -<p>The reader is probably aware that if a vessel be filled with air, no -liquid can obtain admittance until a corresponding amount of air be set -free. Suppose, for example, that an empty tumbler be inserted over a -basin of very clean water, and pressed downwards, it will be found that -scarcely any water will enter it, the air having taken up all the -available space, and only allowing as much space as may be accounted for -by its faculty of compression.</p> - -<p>It is evident, therefore, that if an enlarged tumbler could be lowered -to the bed of the sea, a man might be enclosed within it, and for a time -be able to support life by means of the air contained within the “bell,” -as this enlarged tumbler was popularly called.</p> - -<p>It is equally evident that within a short time the air within the bell -must be exhausted, and that, unless a fresh supply<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383"></a>{383}</span> could be introduced, -the diver within the bell would be as effectively drowned as if there -were no bell at all.</p> - -<p>The accompanying illustration is a kind of chart, so to speak, of the -mode in which air was formerly supplied to the bell.</p> - -<p>On the right hand is seen a section of the Diving-bell itself, together -with the seat on which the divers can rest. There is also an -escape-valve at the top of the bell, by which the vitiated air can pass -away; but, as it is not essential to the subject in hand, and is rather -complicated in structure, it has been omitted.</p> - -<p>Immediately on the left of the bell is a cask, to which several heavy -weights are attached. This cask contained compressed air, and, after it -was lowered by the side of the bell, the end of the flexible tube was -taken into the bell, the tap turned, and the compressed air rushed into -the bell, taking the place of that which had been exhausted by -respiration, and was allowed to pass through the escape-valve. I may -mention that the divers unexpectedly discovered that, when they were -breathing compressed air, they could dispense with respiration for a -wonderfully long time, the amount of oxygen taken in at a single breath -being enough to renovate the blood more than could be done by several -ordinary inspirations.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_383_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_383_sml.jpg" width="448" height="224" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF WATER-SPIDERS. -DIVING-BELL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF WATER-SPIDERS. -DIVING-BELL.</span> -</div> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration is seen a sketch of the nest of the -now familiar Water-spider (<i>Argyronetra aquatica</i>), taken from some -specimens in my possession.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384"></a>{384}</span></p> - -<p>The Water-spider is really a remarkable being. Itself a denizen of air, -breathing our earthly atmosphere just as we do, and as capable of being -drowned as ourselves, it nevertheless passes nearly the whole of its -existence under water, and in that strange locality lays its eggs and -rears its young. How this wonderful feat is performed we shall now see.</p> - -<p>When the female Water-spider wishes to deposit her eggs, she looks out -for a suitable locality, and, being a good diver, tests the various -aquatic herbage until she has found a favourable spot, and then sets to -work on her remarkable nest, which I believe is quite original in -zoology.</p> - -<p>After stretching a few stout threads by way of a scaffolding, she -attaches to the plant a small silken cell, shaped very much like an -acorn, but not so large. Ascending to the surface of the water, she -contrives to clasp a bubble of air between her last pair of legs, and, -laden with this airy treasure, dives below.</p> - -<p>As soon as she has reached the entrance to the cell, which is always -below, she loosens her hold of the air-bubble. It at once rises into the -cell, and expels a proportionate amount of water. Not many of these -journeys are required before the nest is filled with air, and then the -diminutive architect spends the greater part of its time in holding on -to the mouth of the little diving-bell, and supporting life by means of -the air within it.</p> - -<p>This nest, as the reader will see, is an exact representation of the -various diving schemes in which air-bells are the chief portions of the -machinery, although the air is conducted into them after a different -fashion.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to another mode of diving, in which the bell is practically -superseded by the flexible tube, which allows to the diver far more -range than can be obtained by the bell. In this case the diver wears a -peculiar dress, the chief part of which is a helmet so constructed that -air can be introduced to it from above the surface of the water, and, -after respiration, can escape by means of a valve.</p> - -<p>Air is pumped into the tube by assistants above water, and, as the tube -is long and elastic, the diver can move about with considerable freedom. -As is the case with the diving-bell, the diver’s tube is strengthened by -an internal spiral wire, so that it is always open, however it may be -bent or twisted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385"></a>{385}</span></p> - -<p>The right-hand figure of the illustration represents the diver examining -part of a sunken vessel. The tube through which he breathes is seen -passing to the surface of the water, and so is the line by which he -gives his signals to his comrades above. In his hand he holds a lamp -which can burn for a limited time, being connected by a smaller but -similarly constructed tube to a vessel of compressed air.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the same illustration are shown the curious Rat-tail -Maggots, as they are popularly called. They are the larvæ of the common -Drone-fly (<i>Eristalis tenax</i>), which is so common towards the end of -summer, and looks so curiously like a bee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_385_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_385_sml.jpg" width="445" height="287" alt="Image unavailable: RAT-TAILED MAGGOTS. -DIVER WITH AIR-TUBE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">RAT-TAILED MAGGOTS. -DIVER WITH AIR-TUBE.</span> -</div> - -<p>These creatures pass their larval life buried in the mud and below the -surface of the water, and yet are obliged to breathe atmospheric air. -This they do by means of the long appendages which have gained for them -the name of Rat-tails. These “tails” are very elastic, and are capable -of elongation and contraction to a wonderful extent.</p> - -<p>When the creature is undisturbed, it lies buried in the mud with its -head downwards, and its tail extended so that it reaches the surface of -the water. Within this tail are two air-tubes, which are connected with -the principal tracheæ, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386"></a>{386}</span> have already been mentioned. They are -wonderfully elastic, and, when the tail is extended to its utmost limit, -are nearly straight. When, however, the tail is contracted, the tubes -become self-coiled by their own elasticity, and shrink into the base of -the tail.</p> - -<p>As the tail is very transparent, it is easy to see how these movements -are conducted. The larvæ, which may be found in almost any stagnant -water, should be placed in a tall and narrow glass. Some mud should be -placed at the bottom of the glass, which should then be filled with -water to the depth of three inches or so.</p> - -<p>When the mud has quite subsided, and the water become clear, the long -slender tails of the larvæ will be seen so elongated that their tips -reach just above the surface of the water. A magnifying-glass will -easily show the two tubes within the tail.</p> - -<p>Let the glass be but slightly tapped, and all the tail is withdrawn in a -moment, so as to be out of reach of external danger. The -magnifying-glass will then show the two tubes lying contracted in the -base of the tail, and taking astonishingly little space, considering the -amount of elongation which they can sustain. And, on examining the -various bends and curves of the tubes, the value and power of the spiral -spring will at once be seen. True, they are very small, but in Nature -all things go by comparison, and our whole earth itself is as a grain of -sand upon the seashore among the grandeurs of the visible universe.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Leaping Spring.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> last of the springs which can be mentioned in this work are those -which are used for leaping purposes.</p> - -<p>The figure on the right hand represents the common Spring-jack or -Skip-jack with which children are always so much amused. It consists of -a flattened piece of wood called the “tongue,” which is inserted into a -twisted string, so that it forms a tolerably powerful spring. When -twisted round, and then suddenly released, it strikes against the ground -with such force that the whole machine is thrown into the air.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the Skip-jack is made of a fowl’s merrythought, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387"></a>{387}</span> shown in -the illustration; sometimes of the breast-bone of a goose; and sometimes -of a piece of wood cut into the semblance of a frog, and painted. In all -cases, however, the machinery is practically the same. I may mention <i>en -passant</i> that these frog Skip-jacks are most acceptable presents to -savage chiefs in many parts of the world, and that the most powerful and -venerable warriors are as delighted with these toys as any European -child of six years old.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we will turn to Nature, and see what she has in the way of -Skip-jacks.</p> - -<p>All entomologists will at once have before their minds the vast groups -of Skip-jack Beetles, technically termed <i>Elateridæ</i>, and also known as -Click-beetles, from the sharp clicking sound which they produce when in -the execution of their curious gymnastics. To this group belong the -fire-flies of warm countries, and it may be mentioned that the larvæ of -some of our species are too familiar to the agriculturist under the name -“wireworm.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_387_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_387_sml.jpg" width="400" height="178" alt="Image unavailable: SKIP-JACK BEETLE. GRASSHOPPER. -SKIP-JACK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SKIP-JACK BEETLE. GRASSHOPPER. -SKIP-JACK.</span> -</div> - -<p>All these beetles have very short legs and very long bodies, so that if -they should fall on their backs on a smooth surface, they could not -recover themselves. Now, as they, when discovered, instinctively try to -save themselves by falling to the ground, it is evident that some means -must be used to enable them to regain their position. This is found in a -most curious apparatus.</p> - -<p>Attached to the “prothorax” is a rather long, pointed, and very elastic -projection exactly corresponding with the tongue<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388"></a>{388}</span> of the Skip-jack. The -end of this tongue fits into a groove in the “sternum.”</p> - -<p>When the beetle falls on its back, it curves its body as shown in the -illustration, the tongue thus being freed from its groove. It then -smartly springs the tongue back into its place with the sharp clicking -sound already referred to, and does so with such force that it leaps -into the air to some height.</p> - -<p>Generally it falls on its feet, but if it should fail, it repeats the -process. If one of these beetles be laid on a plate or similar smooth -surface, it will skip ten or twelve times without stopping, and after a -short rest will begin again.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are some curious little beings, popularly called Spring-tails, -which afford excellent examples of the Leaping Spring. Their exact place -in the system of Nature is rather uncertain, some zoologists considering -them as insects, while strict entomologists reject them. They are very -small, and mostly of a darkish brown colour.</p> - -<p>Plenty of them may be found under stones in damp spots, under bark, and -in similar localities, though they are often found in houses, and have -frequently traversed the paper on which I have been writing this book. -Cellars are favourite localities of theirs, and a little flour sprinkled -on a plate or piece of paper in a cellar is tolerably sure to attract -them. Although they are certainly not more than the fifteenth of an inch -in length, they may be at once recognised by their peculiar attitude, -which very much resembles that of a dog or cat in its usual sitting -posture.</p> - -<p>As long as they are not disturbed they crawl about in a quiet manner, -but if touched, or even alarmed, they suddenly make a tremendous leap, -propelling themselves by means of a forked and elastic tail, doubled -under their bodies, and acting just like the tongue of a Skip-jack.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the Skip-jack Beetle is shown the common Grasshopper, as an -example of muscular leaping springs.</p> - -<p>We all know what wonderful leaps the Grasshopper, Cricket, and all their -kin can make, the leaping movement being evidently intended more as a -means of defence than as an ordinary mode of locomotion. The same may be -observed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389"></a>{389}</span> the Kangaroos and Gerboas, which are content to use an -ordinary walking pace when undisturbed, but when alarmed can make -tremendous leaps, and outstrip almost any pursuer.</p> - -<p>Even in Man, the Horse, the Dog, &c., which are most essentially leaping -animals, the same principle is employed, the legs being used as muscular -springs acted upon by the will of the owner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390"></a>{390}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VII" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VII"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER VII.<br /><br /> -<small>FOOD AND COMFORT.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Parents and their Young.—Milk, and the various Ways of obtaining -and using it.—The Kafir Tribes and Clotted Milk.—The Tonga -Islanders.—The Tartars.—Ants and Aphides.—Honey-dew.—Milch Cows -in Insect-land.—Fish-tanks and Aquaria.—Bill of the -Pelican.—Eggs and Chickens.—The Hen-coop.—Nest of -Termite.—Workers and Queen.—Egg-hatching.—The Hen and her -Young.—Artificial Egg-hatching Machine.—The Snake and her -Eggs.—The Gad-fly and Bot-fly.—Preservation of -Provisions.—Hanging Meat.—Eggs of the Lace-wing -Fly.—Spider-eggs.—The Butcher’s Hook and the Claws of the -Sloth.—Bats and Insects.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HIS subject is necessarily a very large one, and I shall, in -consequence, be obliged to compress it, though it might well make a -separate work by itself. For Food represents the very existence of Man, -considered as one of the animal world; and Comfort represents the -progress of civilisation, by which man leaves day by day his savage and -solitary nature behind him, and becomes social, moral, and elevated.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Putting</span> aside the instinct which forces the parent to feed the young -without external assistance, we come to those cases where the parent has -to seek food which the offspring could not have found for itself, and -often to prepare it for the use of the offspring.</p> - -<p>In the greater part of the world, the milk of various animals is the -staple of food, not only for children, but adults; and the “milk diet,” -as it is called, is strongly urged by many physicians of the present -day.</p> - -<p>The Kafir tribes, for example, a wonderfully powerful race of men, live -almost wholly on sour milk, mixed with maize flour, never eating such -valuable animals as kine except on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391"></a>{391}</span> great occasions. Yet the natives of -the Tonga Islands think that nothing can be more disgusting than for a -human being to drink the milk of a cow.</p> - -<p>How the operation of milking is conducted we need not say, whether it be -performed on the cow as with most nations, or the ass in case of need -with ourselves, or the mare as with the Tartars, or the goat and sheep -in various parts of the world. The milk of the sheep, by the way, is -singularly rich and nourishing.</p> - -<p>Suffice it to say that the animals which are to be milked are kept for -that purpose, and that the touch of the human hand, rightly applied, -induces the animal to part with its milky stores.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature there is an exact parallel.</p> - -<p>It has long been known that some species of Ants are in the habit of -acting in exactly the same manner as ourselves, in not only extracting a -nutritious liquid from other insects, but watching and tending those -which furnish their daily food just as a good dairyman watches and tends -his cows.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_391_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_391_sml.jpg" width="411" height="136" alt="Image unavailable: ANT AND APHIS. -MILKING COW." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ANT AND APHIS. -MILKING COW.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Ants, being insects, would naturally require insect cows, and such -are to be found in the Aphides, of which mention has already been made. -These insects are furnished with a pair of very small tubercles near the -end of the abdomen, and from them flows that sweet liquid which is so -familiar to us under the name of “honey-dew.” For centuries no one knew -the source of the sweet honey-dew which attracted all the bees of the -neighbourhood to the tree on whose leaves it was sprinkled, sometimes in -patches, and sometimes coating them with a thin shining coat, as if -varnished.</p> - -<p>At last it was discovered that the honey-dew is, in fact, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392"></a>{392}</span> liquid -exudations from these tubercles upon the backs of the aphides, and that -the ants feed regularly upon it. Not only do they lick up the honey-dew -that has fallen from the ants, but they milk them, so to speak, exactly -as a dairymaid milks a cow. With their antennæ the ants pat and stroke -the tubercles of the aphides, and in a few seconds a drop of pellucid -liquid appears at the extremity. This is the honey-dew, and is at once -lapped up by the ant, which proceeds from one aphis to another until it -has obtained its fill of the sweet food.</p> - -<p>How the ants carry off the aphides, cherish and guard them for the sake -of their honey-dew, is a story too long to be told, but it is well known -among entomologists. Our English ants are, however, totally eclipsed by -a Mexican species, which not only collects honey, but stores it in the -bodies of its kindred.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_392_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_392_sml.jpg" width="421" height="191" alt="Image unavailable: PELICAN. -FISH-TANK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PELICAN. -FISH-TANK.</span> -</div> - -<p>After taking precautions that no food can escape, the ants feed with -their sweet store their companion, who is thus doomed to pass the -remainder of life as a mere honey-cell. The abdomen becomes spherical, -smooth, and so transparent that the honey can be seen within it. It is -quite air-tight, and so preserves the fragrance of the honey until it is -wanted.</p> - -<p>So plentiful are these honey-ants, that they are an article of commerce, -and are sold by measure for the purpose of making a sort of mead. There -are many of them in the British Museum, with the honey still within -their transparent bodies, and they are well worth seeing.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> accompanying illustration represents the artificial and natural way -of preserving food in an uninjured state. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_393" id="page_393"></a>{393}</span> right-hand figure is that -of an ordinary glass aquarium, such as was in general use until the -properties of air and water were better understood, and it still need -not be rejected. It is simply a vessel in which water is contained, so -that aquatic or marine animals may be able to live in it for some time.</p> - -<p>There are infinite varieties of the “Fish-tank,” if we may so call it, -the chief of which is the “well,” which is so extensively used in -bringing fish to market.</p> - -<p>Through the bottom of the boat projects a sort of box pierced with -holes, so that the water has free access and egress. The sides of the -box are so high that there is no fear of the water rising into the boat. -When fish are taken, they are thrown into the well, and there can live -until they are wanted for sale.</p> - -<p>Also, as all know who are acquainted with river-banks or seashores, -fishermen have similar wells detached from the boats, and partly or -entirely sunk in the water. In them they keep their stock, and, when a -customer arrives, they simply draw the box ashore, so that the water -runs out, select what fish they choose, and replace the box in the -water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span>, the power of conveying fish to some distance without destroying -life has for countless ages been possessed by the Pelican, one of which -birds is shown in the accompanying illustration.</p> - -<p>As every one knows, the chief peculiarity of this bird is the large and -very elastic membrane of the lower jaw. When not in use, it contracts by -its own elasticity, and the bill looks quite slender, as well as long. -But, when distended with water and fish, it presents the appearance -shown in the illustration.</p> - -<p>Any one who wishes to see the exercise of this power can do so by -attending the Zoological Gardens, and visiting the Pelicans at -feeding-time, and an hour or two before it. They hardly seem to be the -same birds. Some years ago I made a series of sketches of the same -Pelican under different circumstances, and it is scarcely possible to -believe that they could be, as they are, truthful representations of the -same bird.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> right-hand figure of the next illustration requires no comment, as -it simply represents the ordinary hen-coop.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394"></a>{394}</span></p> - -<p>As everybody is aware, the object of the coop is to keep the hen within -its bars, while the little chicks can run in and out as they choose, and -the coop is made so as to prevent the egress of the mother, while the -offspring find no difficulty in escaping.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span>, in the world of insects we find an exactly analogous structure. As -is the case with many hymenopterous insects, there is in the nest of the -Termite, or White Ant, as it is popularly called, a single perfect -female, which is the mother of the nest. A similar arrangement occurs in -the common hive-bee, but there is a notable distinction between the -queen Bee and the queen Termite, the latter belonging to the -neuropterous order.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_394_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_394_sml.jpg" width="411" height="149" alt="Image unavailable: QUEEN TERMITE IN HER CELL. -HEN IN HER COOP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">QUEEN TERMITE IN HER CELL. -HEN IN HER COOP.</span> -</div> - -<p>The former is unconfined, and moves about from cell to cell, depositing -her eggs within them, and taking the greatest pains that they occupy -exactly their proper place within the cell. The latter never moves after -she has begun to deposit eggs, but remains motionless in the same spot, -and allows her subordinates to dispose of the eggs which she lays.</p> - -<p>How this end is achieved will now be seen.</p> - -<p>The reader is probably aware that the queen Termite attains to enormous -dimensions, her head, thorax, and legs retaining their normal size, but -the abdomen becoming several inches in length, and thick in proportion. -The legs are necessarily unable to move so vast a body, and in order -that so important a personage should not receive injury, a large oval -cell is built around her, from which she never moves for the rest of her -life. She has but one duty, namely, to lay eggs, and so is fed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395"></a>{395}</span> that she -may have strength to produce them. She is simply passive, and never even -sees her eggs, much less has care of her young.</p> - -<p>All the care of guarding and nurturing the eggs and young falls upon the -worker Termites. These insects are quite small, about the size of our -common Wood-ant.</p> - -<p>When they build the clay cell around their queen, they bore a number of -holes along the sides, which are just large enough to allow the workers -to pass freely, but which effectually exclude the soldier Termites, or -any foes larger than themselves.</p> - -<p>Through these apertures streams of workers are continually passing—some -entering the cell to fetch the eggs, and others coming out with eggs -carried carefully in their jaws.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_395_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_395_sml.jpg" width="428" height="218" alt="Image unavailable: “WURBLES” OF ŒSTRUS. -EGG-HATCHING MACHINE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">“WURBLES” OF ŒSTRUS. -EGG-HATCHING MACHINE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Thus, as the reader will see, we have in Nature an exact analogy of Art, -the Termite queen being confined within her cell exactly as is the hen -within the coop.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Being</span> on the subject of eggs and egg-hatching, we will take another case -in which Art has acknowledgedly followed Nature.</p> - -<p>We all know that eggs are developed into life by means of well-regulated -heat, and that with birds the general rule is, that the needful heat is -supplied by the parent bird, who sits upon them for a certain time, -until the young birds make their appearance in the world.</p> - -<p>Under ordinary circumstances, the aid of the parent bird is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_396" id="page_396"></a>{396}</span> quite -sufficient; but when the progress of civilisation requires that the eggs -of poultry should be hatched in numbers too great for the powers of the -parent bird, Man has been fain to imitate Nature, and to invent machines -whereby eggs can be hatched by artificial heat, regulated to the -temperature of the hen’s body.</p> - -<p>Various as are these machines in detail, they are all alike in -principle, and the right-hand figure of the accompanying illustration -will give a fair idea of the method which is employed.</p> - -<p>A box is fitted up with trays, on which the eggs are arranged. At the -bottom of the box there is the heat-producing apparatus, which can be -regulated at pleasure. The trays of eggs can be moved from one part of -the box to another, so as to insure the right amount of heat, and, if -this process be only carefully carried out, the young chicks emerge from -the eggs exactly as they would have done if the hen had sat upon them.</p> - -<p>This machine is sometimes called the Artificial Mother, and it is worthy -of notice that it is no modern invention, the ancient Egyptians having -used it more than three thousand years ago.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">With</span> regard to Nature, it would have been simple enough to give one -illustration of a bird sitting on her eggs, but I have preferred to -select a different subject, as more relevant to the question of -artificial heat.</p> - -<p>There is an insect to which we have had several occasions of reference, -namely, the Wurble-fly of the ox, scientifically known as <i>Œstrus -bovis</i>.</p> - -<p>The eggs of this insect are deposited in the skin of the ox, and are -there hatched by the heat of the animal. In proportion as the larva -grows, it raises lumps upon the skin, these being practically the roofs -of the artificial home. There are several other species of the same -genus, all of which have their eggs hatched by the heat of the animals -on which they are placed. There are, for example, the common Bot-fly -(<i>Œstrus equi</i>), whose eggs are hatched in the interior of the horse, -and the Sheep-fly (<i>Œstrus ovis</i>), whose eggs are hatched in the head -of the sheep. The common Snake leaves her eggs to be hatched in the -artificial heat produced by decaying vegetable matter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_397" id="page_397"></a>{397}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to the preservation of provisions.</p> - -<p>In the first place, we have the well-known “cache” of Northern -America—<i>i.e.</i> a spot wherein provisions are hidden, and their locality -only marked by signs intelligible to those for whose use they are -intended. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to mention that many -creatures—such as the dog, the squirrel, and most of the crow -tribe—are in the habit of concealing provisions for future use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_397_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_397_sml.jpg" width="461" height="206" alt="Image unavailable: SPIDER-NESTS. -EGGS OF LACE-WING FLY. -SPIDER-NEST. -PROVISIONS HUNG TO TREE BRANCH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPIDER-NESTS. -EGGS OF LACE-WING FLY. -SPIDER-NEST. -PROVISIONS HUNG TO TREE BRANCH.</span> -</div> - -<p>In those parts of the world, however, where the rights of hunters are -acknowledged, any one who kills a deer, or other animal of chase, and is -not able to carry off the entire body, can preserve it for his own use. -He simply cuts it up in hunter fashion, and hangs the various portions -to branches of trees, where they are out of the reach of wild beasts. -Stores like these, such as are shown in the illustration, are always -respected, and no hunter would dream of helping himself to the game -which was killed and dressed by another.</p> - -<p>Beasts of prey, however, cannot be expected to be so punctilious, and in -consequence the hunters hang their meat to branches which cannot be -reached.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature we find many similar examples, one or two of which are given -on the left hand of the illustration.</p> - -<p>In the centre is seen a group of eggs of the Lace-wing Fly -(<i>Hemerobius</i>), so called on account of the delicate, lace-like -structure of its beautiful pale green wings.</p> - -<p>When the female lays her eggs she always chooses a slight<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_398" id="page_398"></a>{398}</span> twig, and -upon it deposits a little drop of a slimy consistence. She then draws -out this drop into a thread, which hardens as it is brought into contact -with the air. At the extreme end of the thread she places an egg, which -is thus kept at some height above the ground, and defies the approach of -inimical insects. The eggs, as well as the stalks, are perfectly white, -and have so singular a resemblance to mosses, that for many years they -were actually classed and figured as such.</p> - -<p>These egg-groups are plentiful enough, if the observer only knows where -to look for them. I have several of them in my collection, and have -found that nearly every one who sees them for the first time takes them -for mosses. I never myself saw the pretty insect lay its eggs, and for -the description am indebted to Mr. A. G. Butler, of the British Museum, -who has kept them and watched their habits.</p> - -<p>The objects on either side of the Lace-wing Fly’s eggs are egg-groups of -certain spiders, suspended by threads from branches.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A still</span> more remarkable instance of unconscious imitation may be found -in the two objects in the accompanying illustration. It is hardly -necessary to say that the right-hand figure represents a portion of the -arrangement by which a butcher hangs up his meat out of harm’s way until -it is wanted.</p> - -<p>The hooks in question are simply formed into a double curve, like the -letter S, and can be slid along the horizontal bar without any danger of -falling.</p> - -<p>Now, in the common Sloth we have an exact prototype of the butcher’s -hook. The Sloth passes the whole of its life in the remarkable attitude -which is shown in the illustration. It lives among the branches—not on -them, but under them—its claws being long and curved, just like a -butcher’s hook. I have often watched the animal traversing the branches, -and have been greatly struck with the accurately picturesque description -of the late Mr. Waterton, who was the first to discover the real -character of the Sloth.</p> - -<p>It was he who found out that the previous ideas as to the Sloth’s mode -of life were utterly erroneous, and that, instead of being a sort of -bungle, the Sloth was as perfect in its way, and as well fitted for its -mode of life, as the lion or tiger. He discovered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_399" id="page_399"></a>{399}</span> that the animal -always hung from the branches, as shown in the illustration. In fact, as -Sydney Smith remarked in his witty review of “Waterton’s Wanderings,” -the Sloth passes his whole life in suspense, “like a young clergyman -distantly related to a bishop.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_399_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_399_sml.jpg" width="401" height="188" alt="Image unavailable: SLOTH. -BUTCHERS’ HOOKS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SLOTH. -BUTCHERS’ HOOKS.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are many other creatures which afford similar examples, though -perhaps none are so striking as the Sloth.</p> - -<p>For instance, there are the whole tribe of Bats, which, by means of the -curved claws attached to their hind-feet, can hang themselves head -downwards in the open air, and even swing in wind, without the least -fear of falling.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_400" id="page_400"></a>{400}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VIII" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_VIII"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br /> -<small>DOMESTIC COMFORT.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>How to make Home comfortable.—The Bed in its various Forms.—The -Feather Bed of Man.—The Eider-duck and her Plumage.—The Rabbit -and her Down.—The Long-tailed Titmouse and her wonderful -Nest.—The Hammock of civilised Man and Savage.—The Sailor’s -Canvas Hammock.—The String Hammock of tropical America.—Nest of -the Pensile Oriole.—Silken Hammock of the Tiger-moth and other -Insects.—The Mat Bed.—Cocoa-nut Matting.—The Robber-crab and its -Bed.—Strength and Uses of the Cocoa-nut Fibre.—The Surgeon’s -“Cradle” and the Pupa of Tabanus.—The Art of Sewing and the -Tailor-bird.—Principle of the Umbrella and its Original -Use.—Natural Umbrella on the Rosemary.—Servants and Slaves, and -the Distinction between them.—The Use of Slaves in hot -Countries.—Slavery in the Insect World.—The Ants and their -Slaves.—Ornamental Gardening and Pleasure-grounds.—The Hanging -Gardens of Babylon.—The Bower-birds and their Pleasure-grounds.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E now come to a different branch of the same subject, namely, the means -by which our dwellings are rendered comfortable.</p> - -<p>After having procured a dwelling which can withstand the elements, we -next look for a bed on which to repose, and which will ease the limbs -and brain, wearied by the toils of the day.</p> - -<p>Allusion has already been made to the ordinary feather bed and its -multitudinous natural springs. We now have to see how the various kinds -of beds are anticipated in Nature, and will begin with the feather bed.</p> - -<p>As to our own beds, nothing need be said about objects so familiar, -although, in order to preserve the parallelism, it is necessary to -introduce an illustration on the right hand of the page.</p> - -<p>On the left hand are shown two examples of natural feather<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_401" id="page_401"></a>{401}</span> beds, -selected from many others on account of the exact parallels which they -afford.</p> - -<p>We all know the wonderful warmth and lightness of the Eider-down -mattress or quilt, though there are comparatively few who know how the -Eider-down is procured.</p> - -<p>In common with many other creatures, the Eider-duck forms a bed for her -young by plucking the down from her own body. Rabbits do exactly the -same thing, as all boys know who have kept them, the only difference -being that fur is substituted for feathers. So do many insects, -stripping themselves of their own downy covering, and employing it for -the comfort of their offspring.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_401_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_401_sml.jpg" width="445" height="296" alt="Image unavailable: LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. -EIDER-DUCK. -FEATHER BED." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. -EIDER-DUCK. -FEATHER BED.</span> -</div> - -<p>The lower figure on the left hand represents the Eider-duck in the act -of plucking the far-famed down from her breast in order to make a soft -and warm couch for her young, and the amount of feathers which she will -devote to this purpose is simply astonishing. Their weight is -insignificant, but their bulk is wonderful.</p> - -<p>Above the Eider-duck is shown the nest of the common Long-tailed -Titmouse. It is the most perfect nest that is constructed by any British -bird. Its shape exactly resembles that of an egg, and it has but one -small aperture, as is shown in the illustration.</p> - -<p>The Titmouse lays a vast number of eggs, and almost fills<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_402" id="page_402"></a>{402}</span> the nest with -soft downy feathers, on which they can rest. If the finger be introduced -into the nest through the aperture, the tiny eggs can be felt reposing -in their natural feather-bed. In this case, however, the bird does not -denude herself of feathers, but has a way of picking them up wherever -she can find them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we will take another form of bed, namely, the Hammock, which is used -in many parts of the world.</p> - -<p>Putting aside the well-known hammock as used on board our ships, we will -take the same kind of bed as used among the natives of tropical America.</p> - -<p>In that wonderful part of the world, where water and vegetation reign -supreme, an aërial couch of some kind is absolutely needful, and is -supplied by the singularly ingenious hammocks which are constructed by -the natives. They are made of a fine, but marvellously strong fibre, -procured from the aloe plant by the simple process of soaking the long -leaves in water, and dashing them against a stone. The soft green parts -are eaten away, and the tough fibres remain in all their strength.</p> - -<p>From these fibres are woven the strings of which the Hammocks are made. -I possess four of the Hammocks, all made on different lines, but all -based on the same principle. In some the strings are laid parallel to -each other, and connected by transverse strings at regular intervals, -but in the best specimens they are interlaced diagonally into a sort of -loose network without knots, so that it yields in every direction to the -outlines of the body.</p> - -<p>It is one of the most comfortable couches ever invented, especially when -it is of considerable size. I have one specimen which, even in its -curved state, extends completely across a tolerably sized room. I never -use it because it is so comfortable that the temptation to lie in it is -almost too strong to be resisted.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> to Hammocks in Nature, they are almost too many to be computed.</p> - -<p>So we will first take the nest of the Pensile Oriole, which is shown in -the illustration, and which is an admirable example<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_403" id="page_403"></a>{403}</span> of the Hammock, -being woven from long vegetable fibres intertwisted very much like the -strings of the South American Hammock. And as if to increase the -resemblance, the bird, whenever it can do so, will carry off hanks of -cotton, linen, thread, or pieces of string, and weave them into its -nest.</p> - -<p>I have one of these nests, and, directly I saw it, was struck with its -exact similitude to the Hammock of human manufacture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_403_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_403_sml.jpg" width="433" height="186" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF PENSILE ORIOLE. -HAMMOCK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF PENSILE ORIOLE. -HAMMOCK.</span> -</div> - -<p>There are many other birds in various parts of the world especially in -Australia, which make their nests on exactly the same principle, though -in slightly varied forms.</p> - -<p>Also, in the insect world, there are innumerable examples of the natural -Hammock, the most common of which is that made by the caterpillars of -the Tiger-moth, and in which it slings itself while undergoing its -changes from the chrysalis to the perfect state.</p> - -<p>It is made of silken threads, interwoven so slightly that the chrysalis -can be seen through them, and so exactly like the Hammock of the South -American Indian that if a drawing were made and enlarged, one might -easily be taken for the other.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to the Mat Bed, which is so much used in the warmer parts of -the world, where the earth is dry, and the air so warm that nothing is -required but the slightest possible protection from the soil.</p> - -<p>In inland places, such as Southern Africa, the bed is made of long -grass-stems laid side by side, and sewn together with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_404" id="page_404"></a>{404}</span> sort of twine. -One of these beds in my collection is some three feet wide by seven feet -long, and can be rolled up into a cylinder so compact and light that -even a child could carry it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_404_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_404_sml.jpg" width="422" height="217" alt="Image unavailable: ROBBER-CRAB. -COCOA-NUT MAT." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ROBBER-CRAB. -COCOA-NUT MAT.</span> -</div> - -<p>Of course, when the Kafirs are on a journey, the women have to carry the -beds, together with the heavy wooden pillows and other necessaries, the -men carrying nothing but their weapons. I have a pair of figures made by -a native artist, representing a Kafir man and woman on a journey, the -woman staggering under her heavy burdens, the bed being included, and -the man stepping lightly along, with nothing but his spears and -knobkerries.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the sea-coasts, however, where the cocoa-nut palm grows, the fibre of -the husk is the principal material for bedding. These fibres lie so -parallel to each other on the surface of the cocoa-nut, that they are -easily stripped off, fastened together, and formed into mats of any -shape or thickness. One of these mats is shown on the right hand of the -illustration, and the reader will see how simple is its manufacture.</p> - -<p>Owing to the ease with which it is made into a fabric, the cocoa-nut -fibre was in great use as armour before the bullet set all armour at -defiance. It will be remembered that when Captain Cook was murdered, he -committed the mistake of firing a charge of small shot instead of a -bullet, and the fact that the cocoa-nut mat carried by the man at whom -he fired resisted the shot, encouraged the natives to attack and murder -him.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_405" id="page_405"></a>{405}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Even</span> the cocoa-nut mat has its precursor in Nature.</p> - -<p>There is a certain Crab inhabiting the cocoa-nut bearing parts of the -world, which not only makes itself a bed from the fibre, but supplies it -to mankind.</p> - -<p>This wonderful Crab has the power of ascending the cocoa-nut palms, -which is beyond the power of any man except a trained gymnast. It picks -out the ripest fruits, and with its powerful claws tears off the fibre -before breaking the shell and devouring the kernel, as is shown in the -left-hand figure of the illustration.</p> - -<p>After eating the kernel, which is at that time a soft, creamy substance, -quite unlike the hard, indigestible material which we in England know by -the name of cocoa-nut, the Crab carries off the external fibres into its -den, and there makes its bed of them. So great, indeed, is the amount of -cocoa-nut fibre thus collected that the natives are accustomed to save -themselves the trouble of climbing the trees, and merely search for the -holes in which these Crabs have made their nests, knowing the amount of -ready-gathered cocoa-nut fibre that is always to be found in them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> modification of the bed needs a short notice, especially as I -have practical and sad experience on the subject.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_405_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_405_sml.jpg" width="418" height="131" alt="Image unavailable: PUPA OF TABANUS. -SURGICAL CRADLE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PUPA OF TABANUS. -SURGICAL CRADLE.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is technically named the “cradle,” and is used to keep the bedclothes -from pressing on a damaged limb.</p> - -<p>When a mere lad I contrived, at cricket, to dislocate the right ankle, -and break the bone. An ignorant surgeon refused my request for a cradle, -and absolutely tied the cover of a book to the sole of the foot. Of -course this appliance was worse than useless. It acted as a lever, -allowing the clothes to turn the foot round, and to the present day the -right foot has never recovered its faculties. Had the simple “cradle” -been used—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_406" id="page_406"></a>{406}</span><i>i.e.</i> a few sticks bent into an arch-like shape, and tied -together, so as to keep the clothes from even touching the foot—all -would have been right.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is shown the surgical cradle, as a -defence to a damaged leg. On the left is shown the curious natural -cradle of the Gad-fly while undergoing its change into the perfect -state. It is quite hard and rounded, being formed from the skin of the -larva, and allows the pupa to lie within it, protected from any ordinary -pressure.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> point now comes before us.</p> - -<p>We cannot well have our bedclothes—indeed, any kind of clothes—without -the use of needles and thread. The simplest form of sewing is that which -is adopted in many parts of the world, namely, of boring holes and -pushing a thread through them, no eye being required in the needle. In -this way the Kafirs of Southern Africa and the Esquimaux of the Polar -regions make their beautiful garments of skins. I have for many years -had in constant use two South African cloaks, or karosses, and one made -by the natives of Vancouver’s Island, and they are now as good as they -were when they were first given to me. Naturally, such a mode of sewing -consumes much time, but, as time is not of the least value to these -native furriers, no harm is done, and the junctions of the different -skins is absolutely perfect. Even where holes have been made in the -skin, the native furrier has supplied their places with circular pieces -so neatly inserted, that on the outside not a trace of the junction is -visible, and even the very set of the hairs is preserved.</p> - -<p>Our very modern needles, with their eyes which carry the thread, are but -a modification of the original plan of boring holes, and pushing the -thread through them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span> has a singular parallel in the case of the Tailor-bird, which -sews leaves together by their edges, and makes its nest inside them. It -acts exactly like one of our own shoemakers, using its slender and -sharply pointed beak in lieu of the awl, and employing a slight but -strong vegetable fibre in place of the “waxed end” of the shoemaker, or -the sinew-thread of the Kafir.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_407" id="page_407"></a>{407}</span></p> - -<p>In the illustration an ordinary needle and thread are seen on the -right-hand side, and on the left are two nests of the Tailor-bird, taken -from specimens in the British Museum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_407_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_407_sml.jpg" width="388" height="194" alt="Image unavailable: TAILOR-BIRDS AND NESTS. -SEWING CLOTH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TAILOR-BIRDS AND NESTS. -SEWING CLOTH.</span> -</div> - -<p>The mode of sewing is strangely like that which is employed by the -uncivilised furriers who have been described, and much superior to that -which is seen in many other parts of the world. For example, I have a -West African quiver made of hide sewn together with stitches infinitely -more clumsy than those of the Tailor-bird.</p> - -<p>The reader will also remark that I might have placed this singular nest -in the category of beds, on account of the soft and warm lining on which -the young repose. I have, however, thought that it more properly belongs -to the present division of the subject.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sometimes</span> we require a temporary as well as a permanent shelter from the -elements, and procure it by means of the Umbrella.</p> - -<p>In many countries, especially those where the climate is hot, the -Umbrella is almost exclusively used, as, indeed, its name denotes, to -preserve its owner from the direct sunbeams, and is, in fact, the -“parasol” of our European ladies. It also is a mark of dignity, the -amount and quality of its decorations indicating rank, even though the -man who sits under its shade is clothed in a modest cotton cloth wrapped -round his waist.</p> - -<p>For the purpose of shielding the bearer from the sun the Umbrella was -first introduced, and the introducer incurred the obloquy usual in such -cases. Now, however, the Umbrella has<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_408" id="page_408"></a>{408}</span> by common consent become a -defence against rain and snow, the male sex leaving the parasol to the -gentler half of creation, and submitting themselves to the chance of a -sunstroke.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> all know the ingenious Umbrellas of Africa, China, Japan, Siam, &c.; -but there are few persons who know that a common magnifying-glass will -disclose thousands of beautifully perfect umbrellas on the leaf of the -Rosemary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_408_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_408_sml.jpg" width="400" height="189" alt="Image unavailable: HAIRS OF ROSEMARY. -UMBRELLA." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HAIRS OF ROSEMARY. -UMBRELLA.</span> -</div> - -<p>Pinch the Rosemary-leaf between the fingers, and a strong and peculiar -perfume is evolved, just as when the peel of the orange is squeezed. The -reason is the same in both cases, namely, the presence of multitudes of -spherical vessels which contain their essential oil, secreted by the -plant.</p> - -<p>In the orange they are sunk below the surface of the skin, and are -protected by it; but in the Rosemary they stand on slight footstalks, as -shown in the illustration.</p> - -<p>Being very delicate, and liable to be broken at the least touch, they -are protected by a series of curiously formed hairs, which extend over -them exactly as would an umbrella, and defend them from the elements.</p> - -<p>The surface of a Rosemary-leaf affords a singularly beautiful sight, -even with a common magnifying-glass, the tiny perfume-globes gleaming -like little pearls in the broken lights that shine through the -umbrella-like hairs.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to another part of domestic life, namely, Servants.</p> - -<p>There is a diversity of ideas on this subject, as we know by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_409" id="page_409"></a>{409}</span> the -various discussions respecting “lady-helps” and “gentlemen-helps,” which -bid fair to initiate a revolution in domestic life. Servants are -sometimes called the greatest plagues in life, but it is difficult to -see what could be done without them.</p> - -<p>Then there is the complaint that servants are not what they used to -be—the faithful retainers of the household, and considering themselves -members of it. Perhaps not, but I have had experience of several -faithful retainers, and invariably found them to be unmitigated tyrants, -assuming power, repudiating responsibility, and being practically the -master or mistress of the household.</p> - -<p>Then we come to the great question of slavery in its various bearings.</p> - -<p>Putting aside the now acknowledged diversity of races, and the -well-known fact that the negro in a state of slavery to a European is -infinitely better off than he would have been in his own country, where -there is no law but that of might, we must entertain the question of -enforced servitude, i.e. where the servants have no choice either in -entering or leaving their situations.</p> - -<p>It is, of course, opposed, and rightly, to our modern English ideas that -a slave, under such a name, should exist on British ground. Yet there -are thousands of Englishmen who are more wholly enslaved than was any -negro in the worst times of slavery. The chains may not be of visible -iron, nor the whips of tangible thongs, but they are, perhaps, all the -more galling and biting.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> of my readers may be aware that slavery exists in the insect world, -and probably existed long before man came on earth.</p> - -<p>There are many species of Ants which are absolutely incapable of -managing their own nests or rearing their own young, and which, in -consequence, impress into their service the workers of other species of -Ant, and hand over to them the entire labour of the establishment. They -can fight, and they can establish fresh colonies, but they cannot build -nests, nor nurse their young, and so they impress into their service -those Ants whose instinct teaches them to do both.</p> - -<p>Periodically the master Ants, if we may so call them, set off<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_410" id="page_410"></a>{410}</span> on a -slave-hunting expedition. They find out the nest of the special Ant -whose aid they need, penetrate into it, and bear off the pupæ, or “ants’ -eggs,” as they are popularly called. These are carried to their new -home, and are speedily hatched. They know no other home, and, led by -instinct, set to work as industriously as if they had never been -removed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_410_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_410_sml.jpg" width="422" height="190" alt="Image unavailable: SLAVE-CAPTURING ANTS. -AFRICAN SLAVE-GANG." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SLAVE-CAPTURING ANTS. -AFRICAN SLAVE-GANG.</span> -</div> - -<p>Those who have watched their habits are unanimous in declaring that they -seem perfectly happy and contented. No compulsion is used towards them, -and they work because told to do so by their own instinct. Work they -must, and it does not in the least matter to them for whom the work is -done.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> branch of this subject is shown in the accompanying -illustration, namely, the pleasure garden or playground.</p> - -<p>This is, as we all know, a token of high civilisation, and even in the -ancient times the hanging gardens of Babylon were reckoned as the -greatest wonders of that great city, the then mistress of the world.</p> - -<p>No savage ever dreamed of such a thing as a pleasure garden, nor could -appreciate it if he saw it. Yet there are birds which far surpass the -savage in this respect, and which build recreation grounds for the sole -purpose of amusement.</p> - -<p>These are the well-known Bower-birds of Australia, which I sincerely -hope may not be extirpated by the white man, as has been the case with -so many creatures, including the aborigines of Tasmania themselves.</p> - -<p>The Bower-birds, which are distantly related to our thrush<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_411" id="page_411"></a>{411}</span> and -blackbird, but are about as large as jackdaws, have a curious habit of -building arched bowers quite independent of their nests.</p> - -<p>The shape of one of these bowers is shown in the accompanying -illustration.</p> - -<p>The bird first weaves a sort of platform of flexible sticks, and then -fastens into them a number of other sticks, so set that they form a sort -of arched gallery. Through this gallery the birds love to run, and they -invariably decorate the ends with anything pretty that they can pick up, -such as feathers, coloured stones, shells, ornaments, and the like. So -well is this proclivity known, that whenever any one who is living in -the Bush loses any small piece of property, such as a pencil-case or -watch-key, or even a tobacco-pipe, he always goes to the Bower-bird’s -pleasure garden, and mostly discovers the lost property.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_411_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_411_sml.jpg" width="439" height="233" alt="Image unavailable: PLAYGROUND OF BOWER-BIRD. -GARDEN BOWER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PLAYGROUND OF BOWER-BIRD. -GARDEN BOWER.</span> -</div> - -<p>At the Zoological Gardens these Bower-birds have long lived, and it is a -most interesting sight to watch them weaving their platforms, raising -the bowers over them, and then keep running in at one end and out at the -other, like children at play, and with their burnished plumage gleaming -in the sunbeams.</p> - -<p>The right-hand figure simply depicts a modern pleasure garden, and needs -no description.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_412" id="page_412"></a>{412}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_IX" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_IX"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER IX.<br /><br /> -<small>ARTIFICIAL WARMTH.—RING AND STAPLE.—THE FAN.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Various Modes of warming Houses.—The Fire of the American Indian -and the Kafir.—The Oil-lamp of the Esquimaux.—The open Fireplace -and Chimney Stoves.—The laminated Stove and its Powers.—Gills of -the Lobster, Crab, and various Fishes.—Mode in which the Gills -act.—Why Fishes lie with their Heads against the Stream.—Drowning -a Fish.—The Ring and Staple, and their various Uses.—Head-bones -of the Fishing-frog or Angler-fish.—The Fan and its -Modifications.—Japanese and Chinese Fans.—The Feather Fan.—The -Palm-leaf.—Indian Fans.—The Hive Bee and its Wings.—Fans of the -Essequibo and South Sea Islanders.—The Fan Fire-guard.—Antennæ of -the Cockchafer.—Burial.—Various Modes of disposing of the -Dead.—Ordinary Habits of dying Animals.—Dead Insects.—The -Funeral-ant and its wonderful Habits.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Artificial Warmth.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">P</span>ASSING from the direct to the indirect comforts of a household, we will -take Artificial Warmth.</p> - -<p>The savage, as a matter of necessity, makes a fire in the middle of his -hut, and lets the smoke have its own way. Sometimes, as is the case with -the North American Indians, the top of the conical hut is open, and the -whole edifice is a single chimney of large dimensions, something like -the “chimney-corner” of past days, which only survives in such places as -the New Forest.</p> - -<p>Then there are the various Kafir tribes of Southern Africa. They have no -aperture in their huts except the tiny doorway, which can only be -entered on hands and knees. But they must have their fire. No argument -can persuade them that they had better make their fire and cook their -food outside the hut. So the wood-smoke fills the hut, coats it with a -lining of soot, and gets out as it can through the sticks and withes of -which the simple edifice is built.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_413" id="page_413"></a>{413}</span></p> - -<p>As a contrast, we have the oil-lamp of Esquimaux-land, where there is no -provision for ventilation, where the snow-houses are tightly closed and -crammed with inhabitants, and where no one seems to need fresh air.</p> - -<p>The next step in civilisation is to construct a tube for the purpose of -carrying off the smoke, such as we know by the name of chimney or flue, -and to place the fire within it. We English people have an ingrained -love for the open fireplace, and though it really is an expensive -arrangement, it is worth the cost. Granting that it carries much of the -heat into the chimney instead of throwing it into the room, it has at -least the advantage of acting as a ventilator, of ejecting air which has -been rendered poisonous by respiration, and drawing a fresh supply from -the outer atmosphere.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the world, especially in Germany and the United States, -the place of the open fire is taken by closed stoves, without any -ventilation whatever, much to the discomfiture of ordinary Englishmen. -Still, there are buildings, such as public halls and places of worship, -in which open fireplaces are wholly impracticable, and where it is, -therefore, necessary to make use of the stove.</p> - -<p>It need hardly be said that in such cases the chief object is to procure -the greatest amount of heat with the least expenditure of fuel, and that -object seems to be best attained by the Laminated Stove shown on the -right hand of the illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_413_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_413_sml.jpg" width="432" height="224" alt="Image unavailable: GILLS OF SHARK. -GILLS OF TROUT. -STOVE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GILLS OF SHARK. -GILLS OF TROUT. -STOVE.</span> -</div> - -<p>In this stove, the outer surface, instead of being plain, is divided -into a number of perpendicular plates, which are heated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_414" id="page_414"></a>{414}</span> by the -contained fire, and expose a very large surface of hot metal to the air. -Thus the heat, instead of being wasted by being drawn through the flue -or chimney, is thrown into the room, and keeps up a perpetual supply of -warm air.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">That</span> the invention of this stove is an ingenious one nobody can deny. -But Nature has been long in advance of Art in the way of exposing as -large a surface as possible with the least expenditure of space.</p> - -<p>Very familiar examples of this structure may be found in the many -creatures which inhabit the waters and breathe by means of gills, which -extract the oxygen of the water.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, a Lobster or a Crab, open it, and look at the white, -pointed, uneatable objects which are popularly called “ladies’ fingers.” -These are the gills, or breathing apparatus, and their structure is -really wonderful. They are composed of innumerable laminæ, or very thin -plates, covered with an exceedingly fine membrane, and placed closely -side by side, but with sufficient distance between them to allow the -water to percolate the whole structure.</p> - -<p>With the aid of an ordinary pocket lens the observer may make out a most -wonderful system of blood-vessels, which permeate every one of the -myriad laminæ, and which extract the life-giving oxygen from the water -as it passes between them.</p> - -<p>Then, to pass to animals of a higher order, take the gills of fishes. -Any fish will do, provided that it be fresh, and, if it can be examined -immediately after death, so much the better. Taking things reciprocally, -the gills of the fish and the laminæ of the stove, are identical in -principle, namely, the exposure of much surface with little loss of -space.</p> - -<p>If possible, the observer should inject the blood-vessels of the gills -with the conventional crimson and blue wax, showing the currents of the -arterial and venous blood. Each lamina forms a most wondrous object, and -may be gazed upon for weeks with increasing admiration.</p> - -<p>Every one who has watched the habits of fishes must have noticed that in -running waters they always have their heads against the stream, and do -not greatly care about shifting their positions.</p> - -<p>In still waters, especially such as those of the ordinary glass<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_415" id="page_415"></a>{415}</span> -aquaria, the fish are perpetually on the move, whereas in such a river -as the Dove of Derbyshire, and even the Darenth of Kent, large trout may -be seen almost motionless, but invariably with their heads directed up -the stream.</p> - -<p>The reason is evident enough. As long as the fish lies with its head up -the stream the water flows through its gills, and enables it to breathe. -Were the passage of the water stopped, the fish would be drowned. -Consequently, all good anglers, when they hook a fish which is worth -taking, keep its head down the stream, prevent the water from washing -over its gills, and consequently render it so weak by deprivation of -oxygen, that it becomes an easy prey, and is rendered subservient to a -line of a single hair. Let the fish breathe, and a single struggle would -smash a line of treble the strength. But keep it from breathing by -directing its head down the stream, and it rapidly loses all strength, -and can be directed into the landing-net, or brought within the scope of -the gaff, without a chance of escape.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">I need</span> hardly remark that on the right-hand side of the illustration is -shown a Laminated Stove, and that on the left are drawings of the gills -of the Shark tribe and the common Trout. If the reader would really like -to look into the subject for himself, I should suggest the purchase of a -cod’s head and shoulders and a lobster. The breathing apparatus can be -removed from each for examination, and the remainder will serve as a -first course for dinner.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Ring and Staple.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Humble</span>, and apparently insignificant, as the principle of the Ring and -Staple may be, we owe no small amount of our domestic comfort to it. It -meets us in all kinds of ways, in the hinges of our boxes, in the -padlocks of our doors, in the innside fastenings for our horses, in the -seaside fastenings for ships’ cables, and in a thousand other ways too -many to enumerate.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right-hand side of the next illustration is shown the Ring and -Staple as used for the purpose of mooring ships and boats, it being -absolutely necessary that the machinery, simple<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_416" id="page_416"></a>{416}</span> as it is, must be -capable of working in any direction, and with some latitude as to the -extent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_416_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_416_sml.jpg" width="365" height="222" alt="Image unavailable: HEAD-BONES OF ANGLER-FISH. -STAPLE AND RING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HEAD-BONES OF ANGLER-FISH. -STAPLE AND RING.</span> -</div> - -<p>On the left hand are shown two of the wonderful bones which are found in -the head of the Fishing-frog or Angler-fish (<i>Lophius</i>), and which serve -as decoys, by means of which the smaller fish are entrapped into the -vast jaws of the Angler-fish.</p> - -<p>It is clearly necessary that these singular appendages should be capable -of movement in every direction, and this object is attained by the -structure which is here shown, and which is almost equal to the -ball-and-socket joint for its freedom of movement. It will even allow of -partial rotation, so as to cause the little strip of skin at its end to -assume the aspect of a living worm, and entice the smaller fish into the -jaws of the dread trap that lies open before them.</p> - -<p>A figure of this fish may be seen on page <a href="#page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Fan.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Except</span> in permanently cold countries, a Fan of some kind seems to be an -absolute necessity. Sometimes, as in the greater part of Europe, it is -used only by the softer sex. The harder sex would often be only too glad -to use it if they dared, and the same observation is equally true with -regard to the parasol.</p> - -<p>But, in such lands as Japan and China, the Fan is an absolute necessity -of existence. Men, women, and children alike carry their Fan, and almost -perpetually use it. I<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_417" id="page_417"></a>{417}</span> remember, when the troupe of Japanese acrobats -were in England, that one of them exhibited the national use of the Fan -in an excessively ludicrous manner.</p> - -<p>One of his comrades ascended to the roof of a lofty building, hung by -his legs to one of the rafters, and held in his hands a bamboo pole -which was twenty feet long. Another Japanese also ascended, climbed over -his comrade, and settled on the bamboo pole, to which he clung only by -the clasp of his bare feet. Suddenly he slipped down the pole, stopped -himself when within a few inches of the end, squatted there with perfect -unconcern, though at least forty feet from the ground, took his fan from -the back of his neck, and fanned himself while gravely surveying the -startled audience.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_417_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_417_sml.jpg" width="392" height="219" alt="Image unavailable: PALM-LEAF. -JAPANESE HAND-SCREEN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">PALM-LEAF. -JAPANESE HAND-SCREEN.</span> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may remember Chang, the Chinese giant, who, -by the way, in private life was a polished gentleman. He was never -without his fan, always keeping it fluttering gently with an ease only -to be acquired by a lifelong practice, and I really think that if he had -been deprived of it he would have been seriously ill. How he slept -without it is a wonder, for in his own house the fan was incessantly in -motion, and was worked with apparent unconsciousness on his part.</p> - -<p>I have often wished that in our country the ladies would manage their -fans in the same quiet way when they are in a church or a concert-room, -for the perpetual rattle of the joints is enough to distract any -preacher or conductor, and very often does so.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_418" id="page_418"></a>{418}</span></p> - -<p>As to the shape of the Fan, it varies greatly according to the country, -but it may almost invariably be traced to some familiar object.</p> - -<p>There is, for example, the common Japanese Fan or Screen, which is -avowedly made on the model of the Palm-leaf, the ribs of the leaf being -represented by split portions of a bamboo stem. The right-hand figure in -the preceding illustration is taken from one of the common sixpenny -Japanese fans that may be seen in many shop-windows.</p> - -<p>There are exactly sixty ribs in the fan, all produced by splitting the -bamboo into strips, kept in their place by a slight rod of the same -material, and covered with two pieces of thin printed paper. Seeing that -the original cost cannot be more than a penny, it is wonderful how such -articles can be produced, and give a living to the makers.</p> - -<p>The reader will observe that the shape of the Japanese Fan is almost -exactly that of the Palm-leaf, with the exception of the jagged edges, -and a better pattern could not be found. Then there are many Indian Fans -framed on the same model, but which revolve on their handles, and are -swung slowly round and round by the servants before the guests, and thus -become miniature punkahs.</p> - -<p>Here, again, we may find a parallel in Nature. The common hive bee -ventilates its dwelling by using its wings in lieu of fans. When the -hive is really in want of fresh air, the bees set to work, and wave -their wings backwards and forwards for a considerable time, so that they -necessarily expel the foul air from the interior of the hive, and create -a partial vacuum, which can only be filled by fresh air from without.</p> - -<p>Fans of very similar shape are in use among the South Sea Islanders and -the inhabitants of the Essequibo district. They are often used as -bellows when a fire has to be raised, but their primary object is to be -employed as fans.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> we come to those fans which are made of flattened sticks, which -move on a pivot. This is, indeed, the ordinary form of the fan at the -present day, the sticks being sometimes wide enough to constitute the -entire fan, but mostly being connected with a sort of lining made with -silk, paper, or feathers. Such fans as these can be moved on their -pivots, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_419" id="page_419"></a>{419}</span> as to occupy a comparatively small space; and the same can -be said of the modern fender-guards, which can be folded up when the -room is unoccupied, and which form an effectual protection against the -danger of ladies’ dresses coming in contact with the fire.</p> - -<p>Examples of such a screen, and two fans, are given on the right hand of -the accompanying illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_419_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_419_sml.jpg" width="427" height="207" alt="Image unavailable: ANTENNA OF COCKCHAFER. -IVORY FAN. FEATHER FAN. -FIRE-GUARD." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ANTENNA OF COCKCHAFER. -IVORY FAN. FEATHER FAN. -FIRE-GUARD.</span> -</div> - -<p>On the left hand is shown one of the natural objects from which the -fans, &c., might well have derived their origin. It is one of the -antennæ—or horns, as they are popularly called—of the common -Cockchafer. The end of this antenna is composed of a number of flat -plates, which work on a pivot exactly like the sticks of a fan, and, -like those sticks, can be folded into a wonderfully small compass, or -opened out into a fan-like shape.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Burial.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Last</span> scene of all.</p> - -<p>I do not think that it matters very much to one who has “shuffled off -this mortal coil” what becomes of the coil in which he had been -imprisoned. Whether the abandoned body be buried in the earth, or sunk -in the sea, or devoured by wild beasts, or consumed by fire, signifies -nothing to him, though it may signify much to his surviving friends.</p> - -<p>As a rule, the animals, of whatever kind they may be, contrive to -dispose of their mortal remains in some mysterious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_420" id="page_420"></a>{420}</span> manner, so that not -a vestige of them is to be found. Take, for example, the domestic cat, -and see how few bodies are found of cats which have died natural deaths.</p> - -<p>For instance, there was my own cat “Pret,” who lost his life from the -bites of rats. He was blind, and so lamed that he could scarcely crawl. -Yet, on the day of his death, he three times escaped from his -comfortable bed in front of the fire, dragged himself through a hedge, -down a steep bank, across a road, up another bank, through a crevice in -a park fence, and curled himself up to die under a blackberry-bush.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_420_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_420_sml.jpg" width="427" height="194" alt="Image unavailable: BURYING-ANTS. -SAVAGE FUNERAL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BURYING-ANTS. -SAVAGE FUNERAL.</span> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps it was mistaken kindness on my part, and I should have acted -better if I had left him to die in peace. But, though I carried him back -three times, and though he was quite unable to see, he contrived to slip -out of the house, and to find the same spot for his last resting-place -on this earth.</p> - -<p>I have heard that some cats have been known to bury their young, and Dr. -J. Brown tells a most touching story of a dog that committed her dead -puppy to the river.</p> - -<p>But as to Insects, until a few years ago, no one ever dreamed that the -principle of burial could be found among them. What millions of insects -die in every year, and how seldom is a dead insect found! Flies, gnats, -and the smaller insects might escape observation, but the large moths, -butterflies, beetles, dragon-flies, &c., are scarcely ever found dead.</p> - -<p>In my own neighbourhood, for example, the Stag-beetle, nearly the -largest and most conspicuous of British insects, swarms to an almost -unpleasant degree, especially in the summer evenings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_421" id="page_421"></a>{421}</span></p> - -<p>Yet I have never found a dead Stag-beetle that had not been killed by -violence. What becomes of the bodies of the countless millions of -creatures that annually pass into their other world is a problem which -at present no one seems to be able to solve.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Still</span>, there are instances where even insects are known to bury their -dead, and I scarcely need say that they are to be found among the Ants.</p> - -<p>The story is a very curious one, and is narrated at length in the -<i>Journal of the Linnæan Society</i>, vol. v. p. 217.</p> - -<p>It happened that a lady found that her little boy was being stung by -ants, and she at once killed them and threw their dead bodies away. -After some time a number of ants came out of their nest, formed a -procession as regularly organized as that of any undertaker’s funeral, -dug graves for each dead ant, laid the body in it, and covered it up -again with earth.</p> - -<p>They carried their organization to such an extent that they even had -relays of bearers. But the strangest part of the story is that several -worker ants would not assist in the funereal ceremonies. The soldiers at -once set on them, killed them, and tumbled them all promiscuously into a -common grave.</p> - -<p>Such scenes were repeatedly witnessed by the lady, a Mrs. Hutton, who -wrote the account while she was living in New South Wales.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_422" id="page_422"></a>{422}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_X" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_X"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER X.<br /><br /> -<small>WATER, AND MEANS OF PROCURING IT.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Necessity of Water to Man.—Composition of the Human -Body.—Natural and Artificial Distillation.—The Traveller’s -Tree.—Pitcher-plants and Monkey-pots.—Stomach of the Camel, and -its Analogy to the Honey-comb.—Dewdrops.—Use of the Still at -Sea.—Perspiration and its cooling Properties.—The Turkish -Bath.—Perfume and Ether Spray.—Condenser of the Low-pressure -Steam-engine.—The Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer.—Ice produced in a -red-hot Vessel.—Power of Water.—How Fountains are made.—Modern -System of Hydrants.—Hydraulic Mining.—The Victoria and Niagara -Falls.—Artesian Wells.—The Norton Tube, &c., in Abyssinia.—The -Water-ram and Spout-hole.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T has often been remarked that man can live a comparatively long time -without solid food, providing that he can only obtain water, of which -the chief bulk of the human body is made. Dying by thirst is a horribly -painful death, but, according to Mr. Mills, the ill-fated Australian -traveller, “starvation on nardoo (an innutritious plant) is by no means -unpleasant, but from the weakness one feels, and the utter inability to -move one’s self.”</p> - -<p>Those who have been shipwrecked, and unable to obtain fresh water, have -always found that the tortures of thirst were infinitely harder to -endure than those of hunger; and the reader will probably remember that -those who perished in the Black Hole of Calcutta owed their deaths -chiefly to thirst, their bodies being exhausted of moisture by the heat -of the room, and no fresh supply attainable.</p> - -<p>Civilisation especially shows itself in the way in which water is -brought within the reach of every one, even in the most crowded of -cities. The reader may probably call to mind the wonderful aqueducts of -ancient Rome, the gigantic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_423" id="page_423"></a>{423}</span> remains of which still exist. Then, as to -our own country, we are all practically acquainted with some water -company, by which the water, more or less purified, is brought into our -houses, and can be obtained by the mere turning of a tap.</p> - -<p>Yet all this ingenuity is but a following of natural prototypes, as will -presently be seen; and even the familiar Water-tank, as shown at the -right hand of the illustration, has been anticipated by Nature.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration there are three examples of natural -water-tanks, two belonging to the vegetable, and one to the animal -kingdom.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_423_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_423_sml.jpg" width="455" height="300" alt="Image unavailable: TRAVELLER’S TREE. - -STOMACH OF CAMEL. - -PITCHER-PLANT. - -CISTERN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TRAVELLER’S TREE. - -STOMACH OF CAMEL. - -PITCHER-PLANT. - -CISTERN. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>That on the extreme left, with a number of radiations, represents a -portion of a Madagascar palm, popularly called the Traveller’s Tree. -Having very large leaves, arranged in the manner there shown, the -Traveller’s Tree condenses the nightly dews, and allows them to trickle -down into the hollows of the leaf-stems.</p> - -<p>There the water remains, out of the reach of sunbeams or wind, and if a -traveller happens to be thirsty, all he has to do is to pierce the base -of one of these gigantic leaves, and out rushes a stream of the purest -water, as is shown in the illustration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_424" id="page_424"></a>{424}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> to the Traveller’s Tree is shown one of those extraordinary -vegetables called Pitcher-plants, from the strange conformation of the -leaves. They inhabit Borneo, Siam, and other hot countries. In these -remarkable plants some of the leaves are developed into suitable -pitchers, with hinged lids, exactly like our hot-water jugs. They serve, -however, a different office, and contain cold water which the plant has -distilled from the dew.</p> - -<p>As the monkeys are in the habit of resorting to these plants when -thirsty, they are sometimes called Monkey-pots. There is an admirable -account of the Pitcher-plants and their development in the <i>Transactions -of the Linnæan Society</i>, vol. xxii. part iv. The scientific name of -those plants is Nepenthes.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> the vegetable comes a rather celebrated animal cistern, namely, a -portion of one of the stomachs of a Camel.</p> - -<p>It exactly corresponds with that part of an ox which butchers call -“honey-comb tripe,” and consists of a multitude of cells, which can be -closed or opened at will. When the camel takes in its provision of -water, it can treat this portion of the stomach much as the hive bee -treats the honey-bag, and fill its cells with water.</p> - -<p>By degrees, when it finds the necessity for moisture, it can squeeze the -water out of these receptacles into the digestive portion of the -interior, and so can sustain life for a wonderfully long time under -conditions which would kill any other animal. I may remark, by the way, -that the amount which a camel can drink, and the length of time through -which it can endure its desert life, have been much exaggerated. There -is another point to be considered, namely, the curious resemblance -between these cells and the honey-comb of the hive bee. Every one knows -that honey, no matter how tightly closed, will crystallize and lose its -best qualities if kept in jars, whereas if it be allowed to remain in -the waxen comb, where it is divided into very small portions, it will -remain good for years.</p> - -<p>It is just the same with the cells of the camel’s stomach, they being -able to preserve water in a pure state by distributing it among a number -of small cells, which can be opened or closed at will.</p> - -<p>Then we come to the various means of obtaining water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_425" id="page_425"></a>{425}</span></p> - -<p>Reference has already been made to the Filter, by which foul water can -be made pure for human consumption, and we will therefore pass to -another mode of obtaining pure water, namely, the Still.</p> - -<p>In former days, if there were a failure of the supply of fresh water on -board ship, the whole of the occupants must necessarily perish. Now, -however, no such danger exists, as every well-furnished ship carries at -least one Still, by means of which the sea-water can be made to abandon -its salt, and to give out nothing but pure water fit for drinking.</p> - -<p>Even in cases where no regular Still has been on board, an extemporised -Still has been made from a kettle, a gun barrel, or piece of lead -piping, or anything of a similar nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_425_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_425_sml.jpg" width="437" height="199" alt="Image unavailable: DEWDROPS. -STILL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">DEWDROPS. -STILL.</span> -</div> - -<p>The principle of the Still is simple enough, and is shown by the -diagram, rather than drawing, on the right hand of the illustration. -There is a vessel in which liquid is boiled. From the upper part of it -rises a tube through which the steam must pass as it is generated. The -tube in question is generally of considerable length, and is coiled -inside a vessel filled with cold water, rendered colder by ice, if -possible.</p> - -<p>As the steam passes through the cold tube condensation takes place, and -it becomes liquid again, but deprived of its heavier particles, so that -if sea-water be placed in the still, the salt is left in the vessel, and -nothing but pure water passes through the tube. In dissecting-rooms a -small still is almost invariably kept. Many preparations are of such a -nature that the spirit in which they are placed becomes discoloured, and -has to be repeatedly changed. Now, even methylated spirit is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_426" id="page_426"></a>{426}</span> an -expensive article, and therefore, instead of being thrown away, the -discoloured spirit is placed in the still, and reproduced in a clean and -transparent state.</p> - -<p>Nature affords innumerable examples of distillation, the chief of which -are the Dewdrops which have already been mentioned. During the daytime -the air is full of moisture drawn by the sunbeams from ocean. We cannot -see it, but it is there, and when the chill of night cools the various -trees, herbage, and other such objects, the aërial moisture is condensed -upon them, which is then known by the name of Dew.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration are shown the tiny Dewdrops as -hanging on the slight threads of a spider’s web, and collected in larger -drops upon a leaf.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are many other familiar examples of the principle of condensation, -the commonest of which is the so-called steam as it pours from the spout -of a kettle. In point of fact, it is not steam at all, but only water -condensed into very small drops. At the orifice of the kettle it is -quite invisible, but when it passes into the air, and is condensed, the -tiny globules become visible. The same fact may be noticed in the -Napier’s Coffee Machine, which has already been mentioned. When the -water is boiling in the glass globe no steam is visible, though the -upper portion of the globe is entirely filled by it. But, no sooner is -the cork removed, and the steam allowed to escape, than it at once -becomes visible as a white cloud, being, indeed, a miniature copy of the -rain-clouds that float above us.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Then</span> there is that mostly invisible passage of liquid through the -multitudinous pores of the body, which is generally known as -perspiration. It is invisible in warm weather, but on a cold day is as -visible as a rain cloud.</p> - -<p>The Turkish Bath affords a good example of this fact. Sometimes the -hottest room attains a temperature of 250° or more, water boiling at -212°. When a bather goes into that room, he appears to have a perfectly -dry skin, the moisture being in the form of invisible steam, and swept -off as soon as it is generated.</p> - -<p>But, if he passes at once into the cold room, he is so enveloped in -vapour that for a few moments he is wrapped in it as in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_427" id="page_427"></a>{427}</span> cloud, and -can scarcely be seen, the vapour having been condensed by the cold air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_427_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_427_sml.jpg" width="451" height="310" alt="Image unavailable: HEATED HORSE. - -PERFUME SPRAY. - -FREEZING BY EVAPORATION. - -WET-BULB -THERMOMETER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HEATED HORSE. - -PERFUME SPRAY. - -FREEZING BY EVAPORATION. - -WET-BULB -THERMOMETER. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>A very familiar instance of this sudden condensation may be seen in the -streets of London on any winter day. There may be a couple of omnibus -horses, nearly at the end of their day’s work, and quite tired out. -Suddenly they are pulled up by the driver, and as suddenly disappear for -a moment or two, being concealed in a cloud of moisture proceeding from -their bodies. Of course in a hot day there is more of the moisture, but -the warmth of the atmosphere prevents it from condensation, and so it is -not visible.</p> - -<p>One valuable property of the system of evaporation and condensation is -its cooling power. Thus it is that a person who is ill with fever tosses -about with a burning skin until the pores of the body act, and allow the -normal moisture to pass through them. Then the body cools by -evaporation, and the patient begins to amend.</p> - -<p>So it is that the bather can endure in the Turkish bath a heat so great -that a glass of water, if held in the hand, would speedily boil, and a -piece of meat be cooked in about the same period. But, if the air were -not dry enough to carry off the perspiration, the bather would be -scalded to death.</p> - -<p>A most valuable adaptation of the principle is shown in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_428" id="page_428"></a>{428}</span> little -glass machine for dispersing perfumes in the form of spray. In cases of -headache it is almost invaluable, the spray cooling the heated forehead, -like magic, and at the same time filling the room with the grateful -perfume.</p> - -<p>It has even a greater claim to human gratitude, as I can personally -testify. I have the strongest objection to a surgeon’s knife, especially -when I know, from sad experience, that he is going to make very free use -of it. But, on the last occasion, I cared nothing for it, owing to the -happy invention called Ether Spray.</p> - -<p>The effects were remarkable. First, a delicious cooling of a spot raging -with internal fires. Then it was rather colder than I liked. Then it was -much colder than I liked. Then it became almost too cold to bear, -reminding me of my childhood’s feet on the outside of the Birmingham -coach in the depth of winter.</p> - -<p>Suddenly all sensation ceased, and the skin became white as parchment. -Out came the surgeon’s bistoury, and I looked at him with as calm -composure as if he had been whittling a deal plank. There was absolutely -no feeling whatever, the local nerves having been temporarily frozen, so -great is the power of evaporation. If it ever be my lot again to endure -cold steel, I shall have the ether spray.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the extreme right of the illustration is seen the “Wet-bulb” -Thermometer, which carries out the same principle, the thermometer being -double, and one bulb being covered with a wet envelope, while the other -is dry.</p> - -<p>Below is one of the many inventions for making artificial ice, all of -them depending on the cooling power of evaporation. Perhaps some of my -readers may have seen molten iron poured over the human hand without -doing the least harm, or mercury frozen in a red, or rather a white, hot -vessel. Both these phenomena are due to the cooling power of -evaporation, which is made to act with extreme rapidity, and so absorbs -the heat until even mercury is rendered solid, and can be cast in a -mould like a leaden bullet.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the accompanying illustration we have an example of the Condensating -principle as applied to the steam-engine, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_429" id="page_429"></a>{429}</span> popularly known as the -“Low-pressure Engine.” In this case force is reconverted, so to speak, -and, if a cubic inch of water has been converted by heat into a cubic -foot of steam, creating a pressure in one direction, it can be -reconverted by cold, and so produce a pressure in another direction.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is owing to this fact that some parts of the world are always hot and -always wet, Guiana being a striking example.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_429_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_429_sml.jpg" width="431" height="156" alt="Image unavailable: RAIN-CLOUD. -CONDENSER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">RAIN-CLOUD. -CONDENSER.</span> -</div> - -<p>The wind blows over the ocean, absorbing moisture as a sponge does -water. As it passes from the sea over the land, it is met by secondary -mountain ranges, too low to arrest its progress altogether, and high -enough to have their summits clothed in eternal snows. As soon, -therefore, as the warm, water-laden winds pass over these mountains, the -moisture is condensed by their frozen tips, and down rushes the rain in -torrents.</p> - -<p>Even in our own temperate land we can often trace the cause of a heavy -rain to the presence of a lofty hill, or even an exceptionally tall -spire. The moist climate of Oxford has been attributed by scientific men -quite as much to its spires and towers as to its low-lying situation.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to the various modes of extracting the water which is laid -up within the earth, and which only slowly ascends to the surface when -drawn up by the heat of the sun.</p> - -<p>Water is everywhere, but the depths at which it is found are vastly -different. For example, at one house in which I lived it was not -possible to dig for three feet without coming to water. In another, no -water was found within some two hundred feet, and, as I several times -relieved the old gardener of the task of drawing the water for the day’s -consumption, I have reason to remember the depth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_430" id="page_430"></a>{430}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_430_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_430_sml.jpg" width="403" height="167" alt="Image unavailable: SPRING. -FOUNTAIN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPRING. -FOUNTAIN.</span> -</div> - -<p>The pail, rope, and winch which were in use at that time—and may be -still, to the sorrow of the gardener—are but a sort of semi-savage way -of procuring water from the depths of the earth. It is a well-known fact -that under certain conditions water always finds its own level, <i>minus</i> -the friction of the channel through which it passes. On this principle -all fountains are made. Those, for example, at the Crystal Palace, which -fling their waters to such a height, are fed from tanks on the summit of -the two great water towers. And, were it not for the friction of the -water in the tubes, and that of the air, the fountains would rise as -high as the tanks from which they are fed.</p> - -<p>Such is the case with springs, especially with those of an intermittent -character, in which latter instance the rushing of the water is exactly -coincident with the filling of the hidden tank which supplies it.</p> - -<p>The modern Hydrant system, which bids fair to supersede the cumbrous -machinery of fire-engines, even when worked by steam, is based on the -same principle. The water-tanks are placed at such a height that, when a -hose is attached, and the tap turned, the water can be thrown over the -roof of the highest building. Such hydrants have been attached to -Canterbury Cathedral since the fire which so nearly consumed that -magnificent and venerable building.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very</span> remarkable use has been made of this power of water in mining -operations. Most of my readers know that in gold mines the metal is -chiefly found scattered among quartz, one of the hardest of the -minerals. The usual plan has been to dig out the quartz, pound it to -powder with specially<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_431" id="page_431"></a>{431}</span> devised machines called “stamps,” to pass the -powder through mercury, which amalgamated with the gold, and gave it up -again on being heated to a certain temperature.</p> - -<p>Now a different mode of mining is brought into operation, the pickaxe, -spade, and stamps, with all their expensive machinery, being abandoned, -and water made to do the duty of all three, some ingenious individual -having noticed the effect which water has on the hardest rock.</p> - -<p>Such, for example, is the case with those wonderful Victoria Falls of -Africa, where the rushing water has cut its sinuous channel through so -many hundreds of yards of rock. Such, also, is the case with the more -celebrated, but not so wonderful, Falls of Niagara, which have been -gradually working their way backwards, having worn away the rocks over -which they fall, and which are shown to be many miles away from the spot -where the river first discharged itself over the cliff.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_431_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_431_sml.jpg" width="431" height="196" alt="Image unavailable: HYDRAULIC MINING. -WATER-FALL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HYDRAULIC MINING. -WATER-FALL.</span> -</div> - -<p>In fact, it is well known that the Falls are receding at a definite rate -annually, and that the rate has been calculated with scientific -accuracy. The cliffs of our own coasts-say of Margate or -Ramsgate—crumble away with equally calculable speed.</p> - -<p>In the hydraulic mining system large tanks are erected, at least two -hundred feet above the level of the mine. From these tanks proceed -pipes, terminated by hose, just like those of our ordinary fire-engines. -The miners, instead of using pickaxe or crowbar, simply direct the -streams of water against the solid rock. Their effect is tremendous. -They tear it to powder, and carry it down the wooden troughs called<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_432" id="page_432"></a>{432}</span> -“flumes,” in which the mercury is so arranged that not a single atom of -quartz rock can pass without having its gold extracted.</p> - -<p>The following graphic account of Hydraulic Mining at Nevada is taken -from Mr. J. K. Lord’s “Naturalist in British Columbia:”—</p> - -<p>“Near Nevada are the famed Hydraulic washings. The gold is disseminated -through terraces of shingle conglomerates, often three hundred feet in -thickness. These terraces are actually washed entirely off the face of -the country by propelling jets of water against them, forced by pressure -through a nozzle.</p> - -<p>“To accomplish this, the water is brought in canals, tunnels, and wooden -aqueducts, often forty miles away from the ‘draft.’ This supply of water -the miners rent.</p> - -<p>“As we near the washing spot, in every direction immense hose, made of -galvanized iron, and canvas tubes six feet round, coil in all directions -over the ground like gigantic serpents, converging towards a gap, where -they disappear.</p> - -<p>“On reaching this gap, I look down into a basin or dry lake, three -hundred feet below me. The hose hangs down this cliff of shingle, and -following its course by a zigzag path, I reach a plateau of rock, from -which the shingle has already been washed.</p> - -<p>“A man stands at the end of each hose, that has for its head a brass -nozzle. With the force of cannon-shot, water issues in a large jet from -this tube, and propelled against the shingle, guided by the men, washes -it away as easily as we could sweep a molehill from off the grass.</p> - -<p>“The stream of water, bearing with it the materials washed from out the -cliff, runs through wooden troughs called ‘flumes,’ floored with -granite. These ‘flumes’ extend six miles. Men are stationed at regular -distances to fork out the heavy stones.</p> - -<p>“Throughout its entire length, transverse strips of wood dam back a tiny -pond of mercury. These are called <i>ruffles</i>—gold-traps, in other words, -that seize on the fine dust-gold distributed through the shingle. The -flumes are cleaned about once a month, and the gold extracted from the -mercury.</p> - -<p>“I try with a powerful lens to detect gold amidst the material<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_433" id="page_433"></a>{433}</span> they are -washing, but not a trace is discoverable, and yet it pays an immense -profit to the gold-washers.”</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are two more modes of extracting water, which will be but -cursorily mentioned.</p> - -<p>The reader will remember that water finds its own level, and that the -terrific power of hydraulic mining is owing to the fact that the water -expends its force against the solid rock instead of ascending into the -air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_433_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_433_sml.jpg" width="402" height="157" alt="Image unavailable: ARTESIAN WELL. -NORTON’S TUBE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ARTESIAN WELL. -NORTON’S TUBE.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is now found that, even without artificial assistance, water has a -habit of finding its own level, and that, if it be allowed its own -course, it will contrive to find its way nearly to the highest point -whence it derived its origin. On this principle are based the Artesian -Wells, which, when they “strike water,” spurt it up in a torrent, as is -the case with the now celebrated Norton Tubes, which are screwed down -into the earth like hollow gimlets, and which always contrive to extract -the water hidden beneath the surface of the earth.</p> - -<p>The success of our army in Abyssinia was greatly owing to these Norton -Tubes, which, being of small diameter and of peculiar make, could be -screwed into the ground when the troops made a halt, unscrewed when they -left the spot, and used again for the next halt.</p> - -<p>Similarly, the French used the Artesian-well system with wonderful -success in Northern Africa. Water is the chief necessity of life in that -part of the world, and a nation who could cause pure cold water to -spring out of the hot and thirsty sands was naturally looked upon as -something more than human.</p> - -<p>Yet the principle was exactly the same in both cases. Water<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_434" id="page_434"></a>{434}</span> is always -latent somewhere beneath the surface of the earth, and, if a tube can be -driven deep enough, the water will come up it.</p> - -<p>The accompanying illustration shows the Artesian Well and Norton’s Tube, -and their similitude in principle, the tube penetrating through various -layers of soil, until it reaches the water which it seeks.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Then</span> there is another way by which water can be made to force itself to -a considerable height. Not being much of a mathematician, I do not -recollect the exact proportional height to which a stream of water may -raise itself, but if any one can secure a fall of some eight or ten -feet, he can furnish his house with water by means of the “Ram,” a chart -of which is shown in the illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_434_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_434_sml.jpg" width="419" height="211" alt="Image unavailable: SPOUT-HOLE. -WATER-RAM." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPOUT-HOLE. -WATER-RAM.</span> -</div> - -<p>The principle of the Ram is, that the water is allowed to flow down a -tube, when it meets with a valve. This valve is suddenly closed by the -pressure, and the water is forced onwards by the shock. Much water -escapes at each blow of the valve, but that does not signify.</p> - -<p>The force of water thus suddenly stopped is hardly appreciated. Even in -ordinary houses the sudden turning of a water-tap has been known to -burst the pipe and deluge the house with water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature a similar effect is produced, called popularly the -“Spout-hole.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_435" id="page_435"></a>{435}</span></p> - -<p>It is a hole or tunnel on the seashore, passing upwards from the level -of the sea to the summit of the cliff.</p> - -<p>When the waves are urged against the tunnel by the wind, the water is -dashed into it. Being partially checked by the friction, which acts -exactly like the water that is checked by the Ram, the wave hurls itself -up the channel, and flies out in showers of spray, high above the level -of the original wave which caused it.</p> - -<p>In the illustration are shown the Water-ram with its globular valve, and -the safety or escape valve of the waste water. On the left is shown one -of the natural Spout-holes, with the water dashing through its tunnel -into a mass of spray.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_436" id="page_436"></a>{436}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XI" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XI"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XI.<br /><br /> -<small>AËROSTATICS.—WEIGHT OF AIR.—EXPANSION BY HEAT.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Ascent and Descent.—The Balloon and the Parachute.—Description of -the Balloon.—The Montgolfier Balloon.—Causes of its -Abandonment.—The Gas Balloon.—Hydrogen Gas and its -Manufacture.—The Gossamer Spider.—Reasons of its Ascent and -Descent.—Many Species of Gossamers.—Description of the -Parachute.—Its Mode of Action.—A Balloon converted into a -Parachute.—Toy Parachutes.—Natural Parachutes.—The Dandelion -Seed and its Structure.—The Flying Squirrel.—The Flying -Monkey.—Flying Mice and Flying Opossums.—The Flying Dragon and -its Pseudo-wings.—The Flying Frog.—Weight of Air.—Pressure per -Square Inch.—The Air Ocean and its Storms.—Principle of -Air-currents.—The Sun, the Earth, and the Air.—Ventilation of -Mines.—Choke-damp and Fire-damp.—The Air-shafts.—Chimneys of -Factories.—The Steam-blast.—The Barometer, and Mode of its -Construction.—Water and Mercury.—Sucking Eggs and -Sugar-cane.—Expansion of Water and Metals by Heat.—The -Thermometer.—Wheel-making.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Aërostatics.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E will begin this chapter with the only two modes at present known by -which man can ascend from the earth or descend to it with safety, -namely, the Balloon and the Parachute, the latter being generally -attached to the former, and detachable at pleasure.</p> - -<p>The Balloon is, in fact, as its name imports, a large, hollow, air-tight -ball, filled with some substance lighter than ordinary air. The original -Balloons by Montgolfier were filled with heated air exactly like our toy -fire-balloons. Just as the supply of hot air is kept up in them by a -sponge dipped in lighted spirits of wine, so in Montgolfier’s balloons -the same object was attained by straw which was kept continually burning -in a grate.</p> - -<p>There were, however, two disadvantages about this plan. The first was -the great danger of fire, which on one occasion did<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_437" id="page_437"></a>{437}</span> ignite a balloon -when at a great height. The second was the perpetual labour required in -keeping the fire alight. Straw burns very rapidly, and so the aëronaut -had no opportunity of making those meteorologic observations in which -consist almost the entire value of the balloon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_437_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_437_sml.jpg" width="407" height="299" alt="Image unavailable: GOSSAMER SPIDER. BALLOON." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GOSSAMER SPIDER. BALLOON.</span> -</div> - -<p>Then it was thought that hydrogen gas, being about fourteen times -lighter than ordinary air, would answer the purpose, and such has proved -to be the case. Formerly the gas was made at great expense from -sulphuric acid and zinc, but it is now found that the common coal-gas is -quite as efficient, very much cheaper, and fills the balloon much more -rapidly.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> same principle, though not the same form, is found in Nature.</p> - -<p>There are certain tiny spiders called Gossamers, which have a curious -power of floating in the air. They have been seen on the tops of lofty -spires, and they are sometimes so numerous that the air is full of their -floating webs, and the ground is white with those that have descended.</p> - -<p>Their mode of ascent is this. They climb to the top of some elevated -object, if it be only a grass-blade. They then pour out a tuft of long, -slender threads, which shortly begin to tend upwards. As soon as the -Spider feels the pull, it crawls upon the web, and sails away into the -air. The duration and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_438" id="page_438"></a>{438}</span> height of the ascent depend much on the wind and -character of the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>The web ascends because it is for the time lighter than the atmosphere. -But, as it gradually becomes laden with the moisture that more or less -fills the air, it becomes heavier than the atmosphere, and gently sinks -to the ground.</p> - -<p>What may be the object of these aërial voyages no one knows. They may be -for the purpose of capturing minute insects, or they may be for mere -amusement. But in either case they are highly instructive, as showing -the principle on which the balloon was framed.</p> - -<p>The little Gossamer Spider is shown on the left hand of the -illustration, clinging to its floating web. I believe that the Gossamer -is not a single species of Spider, but that there are many species which -deserve the name, being able to float in the air when they are small, -but losing that capacity as they increase in size and weight.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to another branch of the same subject, namely, the safe -descent from a great height by means of the Parachute.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is the ordinary Parachute as it -appears when open and closed, in either case having somewhat the -appearance of a large umbrella. It is hung to the balloon in its closed -state, and when detached it falls rapidly for a yard or two with -startling rapidity. The pressure of the air thus forces the ribs open, -and gives sufficient assistance to the atmosphere to insure a gentle -fall.</p> - -<p>On one memorable occasion, when the late Albert Smith was in the car of -a balloon upwards of a mile from the ground, the balloon burst. -Fortunately it burst so completely, that the silk was driven into the -closely meshed netting, and formed an extemporised parachute, which took -the voyagers to the earth with safety, except some rather severe -bruises.</p> - -<p>Children often amuse themselves with miniature parachutes. They take a -square piece of thin paper, tie threads to the four corners, and then -bring the ends together, a cork taking the place of the car. They then -launch it from a high window, and should there be a favourable breeze, -it is wonderful how far it will be carried before it comes to the -ground.</p> - -<p>Once, when a boy of eleven, and consequently thoughtless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_439" id="page_439"></a>{439}</span> I set a -chimney on fire by one of these Parachutes. I wished to see whether it -would go up the chimney, and come out at the top. Unfortunately it was -caught by a flame as it was launched, flew up in full blaze, and, as the -chimney needed sweeping, the result was inevitable.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_439_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_439_sml.jpg" width="452" height="501" alt="Image unavailable: FLYING SQUIRREL. DANDELION SEED PARACHUTE -FLYING DRAGON. (OPEN AND CLOSED). (OPEN AND CLOSED). -FLYING FROG." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FLYING SQUIRREL. DANDELION SEED PARACHUTE -FLYING DRAGON. (OPEN AND CLOSED). (OPEN AND CLOSED). -FLYING FROG. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>In the centre of the illustrations, and at the top, are two examples of -a well-known natural Parachute called the Dandelion seed. The -resemblance to the real Parachute is wonderful, the actual seed -occupying the place of the car, and fulfilling the same office, <i>i.e.</i> -keeping the seed upright until it reaches the ground.</p> - -<p>When the tuft is closed, as is the case before the pretty ball of seeds -bursts from the green envelope in which they had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_440" id="page_440"></a>{440}</span> confined during -the process of development, its form bears the same startling -resemblance to the Parachute.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Passing</span> from the vegetable world, there will be seen three examples of -Natural Parachutes. Several others will be mentioned, but we have no -space for description or figure. It will be seen, however, that the one -principle which characterizes them all is the exposure to the air of a -flattened and large surface, in proportion to the size of the object.</p> - -<p>Before beginning the description, however, I must mention that nearly -all animal parachutes can to a certain extent guide their course, while -neither the balloon, the gossamer, the parachute, nor the various winged -seeds have the least power of guidance, but must follow every current of -air in which they may happen to float.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> upper figure represents a Flying Squirrel.</p> - -<p>There are many species of Flying Squirrel, but they all agree in one -point. The skin of their sides is modified into a very thin fold, which -extends as far as the feet.</p> - -<p>It is very elastic, so that when it is not in use it falls into folds or -wrinkles, and is hardly perceptible. But should the Squirrel wish to -pass from one tree to another, without coming to the ground, it spreads -its legs as widely as possible, so as to stretch the membrane into a -wide, flat surface. It then boldly springs into the air, and sweeps upon -its mark with a sort of skimming movement. Except that it does not -revolve, it passes through the air much after the fashion of an -oyster-shell when thrown horizontally.</p> - -<p>Many mammalia are constructed after a similar fashion, such as the -Colugo, or Flying Monkey, the Flying Mice, and the Flying Phalangists, -or “Opossums,” as they are popularly called.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the centre is the Flying Dragon, or small lizard, which very probably -gave rise to the fabled Dragons in which our ancestors so devoutly -believed. Indeed, on looking back at the old illustrated works on -Natural History, there can be but little doubt on the subject.</p> - -<p>In this creature, the ribs, instead of the legs, carry the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_441" id="page_441"></a>{441}</span> flat and -elastic membranes. When simply crawling on the branches, after the -manner of tree-lizards, the ribs lie flat against the sides, and the -membranes collapse, so that the shape of the body is little different -from that of any crawling lizard.</p> - -<p>But the ribs are movable at will, and, when the creature wishes to pass -from one tree to another, it extends the ribs, stretches the membranes, -and launches itself into the air, exactly as has been narrated of the -Flying Squirrel.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> lowest figure represents a most extraordinary animal, called the -Flying Frog. Only one specimen is believed to be known, and that was -discovered in Borneo by Mr. Wallace.</p> - -<p>Here we have an analogy with the bats of the present day and the -pterodactyles of the past, namely, the elongation of the toes, and the -stretching of a web between them. In the two latter animals, however, -only the toes of the two fore-legs are elongated, whereas, with the -Flying Frog, the elongation is found in both pairs of limbs. The ends of -the toes are furnished with adhesive pads, like those of the tree-frogs, -to which it is probably related.</p> - -<p>By means of the four membranes, the creature is able to sweep through -the air for some distance, and, indeed, this power was the reason why it -was caught. It was seen to skim from one tree to another, and was -immediately secured. Had it remained sticking on the tree, it would -probably have escaped observation.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Weight of Air.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already noticed that hydrogen gas is fourteen times lighter than -air, and infer necessarily that the weight of the atmosphere must be -very considerable if so heavy an object as a balloon, with its car, -instruments, sand-bags, and passengers, can rise and float in it.</p> - -<p>We are not conscious of its weight, because it permeates us, and the -pressure is neutralised. But, in fact, we live at the bottom of a vast -ocean which we call the atmosphere; and as, on an average, there is a -pressure of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, we have to -sustain an almost incredible<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_442" id="page_442"></a>{442}</span> weight. Let, for example, any one measure -the surface of his own hand, reduce it to square inches, add together -fifteen pounds for every square inch, and he will then appreciate the -weight of the atmospheric ocean in which we live. On an average, every -human being endures a pressure of some ninety thousand pounds.</p> - -<p>This ocean is in perpetual movement, sometimes violently, which we call -storm; sometimes gently, which we call breeze; and sometimes very -gently, which we call calm. There are air-spouts as well as -water-spouts; and, in fact, the water-spout is nothing but a continuance -of the air-spout, as is shown by the moving sand-columns of the desert. -Whatever may be the character of the winds, as we call this movement, -the air is never for a moment still; and, indeed, were it to be still -for any time, the whole human race would perish.</p> - -<p>How winds are caused we shall see by the aid of the diagram on the -left-hand side of the illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_442_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_442_sml.jpg" width="387" height="176" alt="Image unavailable: AIR-CURRENTS. VENTILATION OF MINES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">AIR-CURRENTS. VENTILATION OF MINES.</span> -</div> - -<p>The original cause is the sun. His rays fall upon the earth, heating it, -and so by radiation heating the air. Now, as has been remarked, heated -air will cause a heavy balloon to float through ordinary air, and to -carry up a considerable amount of dead weight besides; consequently the -heated air must ascend, while cool and heavier air rushes in to take its -place, and thus the currents are produced. Were the earth set straight -upright, the currents would invariably run in one direction; but, as it -is tilted on one side, the needful variety is obtained, and we find the -winds blowing from all parts of the compass.</p> - -<p>The principle, therefore, of all winds is, that heat expands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_443" id="page_443"></a>{443}</span> and -therefore becomes lighter than air at an ordinary temperature.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Were</span> it not that man has taken advantage of this principle, there could -not be a deep mine in England. In any deep excavation, even though it be -a well, foul air, mostly composed of carbonic acid gas, always collects, -and, being much heavier than atmospheric air, lies at the bottom of the -pit as surely as hydrogen would rise out of it. To breathe this air is -as certain and as sudden death as to take prussic acid, and no mine can -be worked as long as “choke-damp” is in it.</p> - -<p>In coal mines there is an additional source of danger, namely, the coal -gas, which is nearly identical with our coal gas of the streets, and -takes fire when brought into contact with flame. To rid the mines of -these gases, a simple, ingenious, and effectual remedy is used. A -ventilating shaft is made, which reaches from the bottom to the mouth of -the pit. At the bottom, diagonal shafts are made, entering the main -shaft, as shown on the right hand of the illustration. One of these is -connected with a furnace, and the other, or others, open into the mine.</p> - -<p>The heat of the furnace rarefies the air in the shaft, causing it to -rush upwards with great violence, and so, by creating a partial vacuum, -to force the air in the shaft to follow it. The loss of air thus caused -is supplied by fresh air from above, which, by the law already -described, is obliged to take the place of that which was driven out. -Thus a complete circulation of air is kept up, and a well-managed mine -has a fresher atmosphere than many houses in which the windows are -mostly kept shut, and the only ventilation is accomplished by -occasionally open doors.</p> - -<p>The “draught” of our domestic chimneys is owing to this principle, and -the reason why factory chimneys are built of such enormous height is, -that the column of heated air may be increased, and consequently that -the draught may be stronger, and the heat of the furnace made fiercer.</p> - -<p>The “Steam-blast,” by which the escape steam of engines is sent into the -chimney, is another example of this principle, the steam taking the -place of the hot air.</p> - -<p>Further examples of the weight of the atmosphere are given<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_444" id="page_444"></a>{444}</span> in the -illustration. That on the right represents the common Wheel Barometer, -which marks the weight of the air by a hand moving in front of a dial. -If the hand moves towards the right, the weight of the air is -increasing; if to the left, it is decreasing.</p> - -<p>There are certain words, such as Wet, Change, Fair, Dry, &c., on the -face of the dial, but they are only conventional, the real test of the -weather being the direction in which the hand moves. For example, if -with a west wind the hand moves from Dry towards Fair, rain may be -expected; whereas, if it should move from Wet to Change with an east -wind, we may reasonably think that fine weather is coming.</p> - -<p>The whole cause of this revolution of the hand may be found in the -weight of the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>It is found that a column of water thirty feet high, or a column of -mercury thirty inches high, is exactly equal in weight to a column of -air of the same diameter, but some forty odd miles high, so that the two -columns precisely balance each other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_444_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_444_sml.jpg" width="391" height="256" alt="Image unavailable: SUCKING SUGAR-CANE. SUCKING AN EGG. BAROMETERS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SUCKING SUGAR-CANE. SUCKING AN EGG. BAROMETERS.</span> -</div> - -<p>Suppose, then, the water or mercury to be placed in tubes closed at the -top and open at the bottom, the water or mercury will exactly balance -the air, and will not escape from the tubes. It necessarily follows that -if the air be heavier than usual, it will force the liquid higher into -the tubes, and, if it be lighter than usual, will allow them to fall -lower. This is the principle of the Barometer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_445" id="page_445"></a>{445}</span></p> - -<p>The mechanism of the hand and dial is shown in the diagram which -occupies the centre of the illustration. For convenience, sake the -mercury column is mostly employed, but several Water Barometers, some -thirty feet in length, have been constructed.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand is seen a boy engaged in sucking an egg. The plan -employed is simple enough. A tolerably large hole is made at one end, -and a very small one at the other. The yolk having been broken up by a -long needle, or similar implement, the larger hole is placed to the -lips, and, suction being used, the contents pass into the mouth.</p> - -<p>Were it not for the hole at the end opposite the mouth, it would be -impossible to extract the contents, but the air rushes through the -aperture, and so forces out the contents of the egg.</p> - -<p>Above is a representation of the way in which Sugar-cane is sucked. The -reader probably knows that the Sugar-cane, like the wheat-stem, has -knots at certain intervals, which divide the cane into a number of -separate parts.</p> - -<p>There is quite an art in sucking the Sugar-cane. If a joint be cut off, -and the lips applied to the end, not a drop of the sweet juice would be -extracted. But if a notch be cut close to the joint, as shown in the -illustration, the air can gain access, and then the juice flows easily -enough.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_445_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_445_sml.jpg" width="362" height="204" alt="Image unavailable: BOILING WATER. -THERMOMETER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BOILING WATER. -THERMOMETER.</span> -</div> - -<p>It has already been mentioned that air expands when heated. The same -rule holds good when applied to other objects, such as the various -liquids, metals, &c. A very familiar example of this fact is the -“boiling over” of water, when the vessel has<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_446" id="page_446"></a>{446}</span> been filled too much to -allow for the expansion of the heated liquid.</p> - -<p>Advantage has been taken of this principle in the formation of the -Thermometer, a word which signifies “heat-measurer.” Liquid of some kind -is placed in an hermetically sealed tube, generally terminating with a -bulb, and in proportion to the heat the liquid expands, and is forced up -the tube.</p> - -<p>Any liquid will answer to a certain extent, but, as water freezes at -32°, it would be useless for measuring degrees of cold below the -freezing point. Coloured spirits of wine are used; but the very best -liquid is mercury, which is a metal in a state of fusion.</p> - -<p>This expansion by heat is so powerful in iron, that it is utilised in -several ways.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, wheel-making. The iron tire is made rather smaller -than the wheel, and is then placed in a fire until it is red-hot. It -then expands so much that it can be easily slipped over the wheel as it -lies on the ground. Cold water is then dashed on it, and the tire -contracts with tremendous force, binding the parts of the wheel firmly -together.</p> - -<p>In all buildings where iron is much used, such as iron bridges, iron -beams, &c., it is necessary to make allowance at both ends, so as to -permit the iron to expand on a hot day and contract on a cool one. -Buildings formed of stone and iron were once thought to be safe in case -of fire. They are now known to be just the contrary, the stone flying -with the heat, and the iron expanding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_447" id="page_447"></a>{447}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XII" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XII"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XII.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Cassava Press and its Structure.—Mode of using it.—The -Siamese Link.—An ingenious Robbery.—Muscles and their Mode of -Action.—Human Arms and Steelyard.—Change of Direction.—The Human -Hand and Wrist.—Story of a Carpenter.—The Pulley.—Reduction by -Friction.—Past and present Engines.—Oiling Machines.—Treatment -of the Sewing Machine.—Use of Paraffine.—Disuse of Machine -hurtful.—Human Joints.—Synovia and its Value.—Disuse of Joints -hurtful.—The Lazy-tongs and its Usefulness to -Invalids.—Suggestions for Improvement.—Larva of the Dragonfly and -its Mask.—Curious Mode of seizing Prey.—Proboscis of the -Housefly, and Mode of using it.—The Apple-parer.—Squirrel and -Nut.—Structure of Teeth.—Rock-splitting.—Powers of Ice.—How the -Pebble-ridge is formed.—Splitting Stones by Moisture.—The Diamond -Drill.—Ovipositor of the Gad-fly.—Curious Similitude of -Structure.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Means and Appliances.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N this chapter we will take some miscellaneous appliances of force both -in Art and Nature.</p> - -<p>In the accompanying illustration is shown the Cassava Press of Southern -America, a most effective and simple instrument for extracting the -juices of the root. These juices are poisonous when raw, but, when -properly boiled and cooked, they make an excellent sauce.</p> - -<p>The press in question is an elastic tube made of flat strips of cane -woven together exactly like the “Siamese Link,” which will be presently -described. The cassava root, after having been scraped until it -resembles horseradish, is forced into the press until it can hold no -more. The result is, that the tube is shortened and thickened, being -widest in the middle.</p> - -<p>It is then hung by its upper loop to the horizontal beam of a hut. A -long pole is passed through the lower loop, the short end is placed -under a projecting peg on the upright post of the house, and a heavy -weight attached to the longer end. A powerful leverage is thus obtained, -the tube is forcibly shortened,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_448" id="page_448"></a>{448}</span> and the juice exudes through the -apertures of the woven cane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_448_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_448_sml.jpg" width="349" height="287" alt="Image unavailable: CASSAVA PRESS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CASSAVA PRESS.</span> -</div> - -<p>When it begins to run slowly, a woman seats herself at the end of the -pole, so as to increase its weight. I must mention here that in the -illustration the press is too near the middle of the pole. This is -because the exigences of our page do not admit of the requisite length. -But if the reader will kindly assume the end to which the stone is -attached to be three or four times longer, he will have an idea of the -great power which is exerted upon the cassava.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the illustration is the same cassava press as seen -when empty, and both figures, as well as that of the pot for receiving -the juice, are taken from specimens in my collection.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right hand of the following illustration is the Siamese Link, -which caused such a sensation when it first came out.</p> - -<p>A finger is inserted at each end, and, when the owner attempts to -withdraw them, the Link contracts, and the harder the pull, the tighter -is the hold. If the fourth instead of the first finger be employed, the -hold of the Link is exceedingly strong.</p> - -<p>The only mode of release is by pushing the fingers together, when the -Link will relax. It should then be held by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_449" id="page_449"></a>{449}</span> remaining fingers of one -hand, so that it shall not contract again, and the finger of the other -hand comes out at once.</p> - -<p>An ingenious robbery was once committed by means of the Siamese Link. A -man of good address struck up an acquaintance with a jeweller. One day -he produced a Siamese Link, and challenged him to get his fingers out -when once they were in. So the jeweller was told to put his hands behind -his back, and push his little fingers as far in as he could.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_449_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_449_sml.jpg" width="218" height="327" alt="Image unavailable: MUSCLES Of LEG. -SIAMESE LINK." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">MUSCLES Of LEG. -SIAMESE LINK.</span> -</div> - -<p>This he did, when the treacherous friend made a clean sweep of all the -rings, brooches, ear-rings, and such jewellery as was within his reach, -while the unfortunate jeweller was vainly tugging at the Link. This only -occupied a few seconds for a practised hand, and the thief quietly -opened the door, shut it, and was lost in the passing crowd before the -jeweller could recover from his surprise.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left of the same illustration is a view of the muscles of the -human leg, which, as the reader will see, are curiously like the -distended cassava press. Although the mode of applying the force -differs, the principle is the same.</p> - -<p>In the latter case an external force is applied to the press, but in the -latter an internal, or rather a central, force is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_450" id="page_450"></a>{450}</span> applied to the bones. -It is evident that if a similar process were carried on with the cassava -press, and the central portion forcibly distended, the supports at -either end would be drawn powerfully towards each other. Substitute the -muscle for the press, and the bones for the poles, and this is muscular -action.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Here</span> we have a diagram which speaks for itself, as far as muscular -action is concerned, but there is another point to which we shall -presently pass.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_450_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_450_sml.jpg" width="408" height="148" alt="Image unavailable: HUMAN ARM. -STEELYARD." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HUMAN ARM. -STEELYARD.</span> -</div> - -<p>The muscle of the arm is seen running along the bone, passing over the -elbow, where it is held down by a tendinous band, and, by its -contraction, enabling the arm to be bent so as to uphold a considerable -weight. The mechanical analogy between this arrangement and the common -Steelyard is too evident to need any explanation except inspection of -the diagram.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is, however, another point which is worthy of consideration. The -muscle does not proceed at once from the shoulder to the wrist, but -passes under the tendinous band above mentioned, and so produces a -change of direction when the arm is bent.</p> - -<p>There is a more complicated arrangement of a similar character in the -human hand, a diagram of which is given in the left-hand figure of the -accompanying illustration.</p> - -<p>The fingers are, of course, moved by a set of tendons, and the muscles, -from which these tendons spring, are attached to the fore-arm (I -purposely omit the scientific titles, though they would be much easier -to write). Any of my readers can prove this for themselves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_451" id="page_451"></a>{451}</span></p> - -<p>Let him first grasp the upper arm firmly, and bend the limbs, and he -will at once find that the swelling of the muscle shows the source of -power.</p> - -<p>Then let him do the same, but grasp the fore-arm, and he will find that -the muscles are quiescent, showing that the former set of muscles belong -to the entire arm, and not to the fingers, while the muscles of the -lower arm have nothing to do with the bending of that limb.</p> - -<p>Now let him grasp the fore-arm, and open and close the fingers, and he -will feel a whole set of muscles rise, and swell and harden under his -grasp. Next let him bend his hand inwards, and he will find that the -fingers work perfectly well, though the direction of force is changed.</p> - -<p>This is owing to a band of tendons passing across the wrist, under which -the finger-tendons play. The course of the tendons is marked in the -illustration by leaving them white.</p> - -<p>The wondrous structure of the human hand and its multitudinous tendons -can only be appreciated by actual dissection, but an idea of their -variety and use may be obtained by watching the hands of a skilful -pianoforte-player. This struck me forcibly the first time that I ever -heard Thalberg play.</p> - -<p>While on the subject of tendons, I may mention a curious case. A -journeyman carpenter missed a blow with his axe, and struck his left -hand at the junction of the thumb and wrist. The important tendon was -severed, and the inner muscles, having no counteracting force, dragged -the thumb into the hollow of the hand.</p> - -<p>To all appearance, the man could no longer earn a living as a carpenter. -But he would not be discouraged, and while he was in hospital he -borrowed a book, and studied the anatomy of the human hand. By means of -this knowledge he constructed a sort of semi-glove, in which he -introduced pieces of watch-spring, that supplied the place of the lost -tendon.</p> - -<p>Not content with this, he studied Euclid for the purposes of his trade, -so as to get the most possible out of a piece of wood of given -dimensions, and be able to go straight to his mark by a problem, instead -of doing it slowly and clumsily with a two-foot rule and a pair of -compasses. When I saw him last he was a master carpenter in a large and -increasing business.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_452" id="page_452"></a>{452}</span></p> - -<p>Man has unconsciously imitated Nature in the invention of the Pulley, -whereby the direction of force may be altered almost at will. In this -case the cord takes the part of the working tendon, and the Pulley of -the fixed tendinous crossbar. There is much matter of interest in the -tendons, but, as our space is fast waning, I must resist the temptation -of describing them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> all machinery one of the chief objects of the machinist is to reduce -friction as much as possible. He makes all the joints as smooth as tools -can polish, and always introduces oil or some lubricating substance into -the joints. Otherwise the engine rattles with a noise proportionate to -its power, and wastes its force on the friction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_452_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_452_sml.jpg" width="419" height="254" alt="Image unavailable: TENDONS OF HAND. -PULLEY." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TENDONS OF HAND. -PULLEY.</span> -</div> - -<p>In my childish days a steam-engine of any kind used to rattle so loudly -that conversation was almost impossible. Now they are made with such -perfection, that the vast engines in use at the pumping stations of the -metropolitan drainage are almost absolutely silent.</p> - -<p>There is the enormous hall, filled with gigantic beams and rods, and -cranks, and wheels. A single man turns a little handle, and the whole -machinery starts into life. Beams rock, cranks and wheels revolve, rods -slide up and down, and all in a silence which is nearly appalling in its -manifestation of unassuming strength. Indeed, many a hand sewing -machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_453" id="page_453"></a>{453}</span> makes far more noise than one of those giant engines, and all -because in the latter friction is avoided as far as possible, every -screw is well braced up, and every joint is kept well lubricated.</p> - -<p>Here I may observe that few sewing machines get fair play. They rattle, -they squeak, they become stiffer daily, they snap the thread, and then -decline work altogether. And in almost every case this is done by -neglect on the part of the owner, who does not lubricate every point of -the machine which works upon another.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_453_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_453_sml.jpg" width="390" height="222" alt="Image unavailable: LUBRICATION OF JOINT. -OILING MACHINE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LUBRICATION OF JOINT. -OILING MACHINE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Ladies especially are very careless in this respect, and will mostly -omit three or four of the oiling points. They might just as well omit -them all, as a single unoiled point will disarrange the harmonious -motion of the whole machine. I have often been called in as surgeon in -such cases, and have almost invariably been able to point to several -spots which needed oil, and did not get it. Sometimes, out of false -economy, an inferior oil is used, which speedily clogs and hardens, and -stops all movement. In such a case the best remedy is to apply paraffine -liberally, and use it for a quarter of an hour or so. It will soon -dissolve the clogged oil, which may be worked out by turning the handle -or crank of the machine.</p> - -<p>Of course the best remedy is to take the machine to pieces, polish the -joints, lubricate them, and put it together again. But this is a -perilous process, and an amateur, if he tries it, will generally find -himself with half-a-dozen pieces for which he can find no place. -Paraffine will answer every purpose, and I have released many a -stiffened machine by its use.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_454" id="page_454"></a>{454}</span></p> - -<p>Then some people leave their machines untouched for days, or even weeks, -and then wonder that they work stiffly. Every day the machine should he -worked, if only for a few seconds, and then it will seldom stiffen. It -is just the same with steamers. When they are in harbour, though the -fires be out, and they are not meant to move for weeks, the engines are -always turned round at least once daily.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Both</span> these rules hold good in the animal kingdom.</p> - -<p>To every joint there are attached certain glands that supply a kind of -oily substance technically named “synovia,” which acts exactly the same -part as the oil or grease of machinery. If these glands do not do their -duty, and the supply of synovia be defective, the joints become stiff, -painful, and crackle when they are moved.</p> - -<p>Then, exactly as the joints of a machine become stiff from non-usage, so -do those of a human being. We will take, for example, the Indian Fakirs -who vow that they will not move some limb from a definite posture. At -first the exertion is trying and painful, but by degrees the disused -joints lose their faculty of motion, and, even if their owner wished to -move a limb, he could not do it.</p> - -<p>The right-hand figure of the illustration represents the lubrication of -an ordinary sewing machine, and the left-hand figure is a section of the -human knee-joint, showing the gland which supplies the synovia.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> some of my readers may think that such a subject as the -“Lazy-tongs” is too trivial for a work which deals, however lightly, -with science. But there may be some who know the inestimable benefit of -Lazy-tongs under certain conditions.</p> - -<p>There are many cases where a severe injury has occurred, or where -rheumatism has fixed its tiger-claws in the joints, so that movement is -all but impossible. There may be no one in the room to help the invalid, -and even to stretch the arm over the table is as impossible as to jump -over the house.</p> - -<p>Then it is that the real value of the Lazy-tongs becomes manifested, and -that it shows itself in the light of a supplementary limb. With a mere -movement of the fingers it can be stretched across any table which is -likely to be placed before<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_455" id="page_455"></a>{455}</span> an invalid, and seize the required object by -the tongs at the further end.</p> - -<p>The only drawback to its use is, that the instrument cannot be shortened -without opening the tongs. But, if some plan could be devised whereby -the tongs could retain their hold under those conditions, the instrument -would be a perfect one.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Exactly</span> such a Lazy-tongs we have in Nature, in the well-known “mask of -the larva and pupa of the Dragon-fly.” It is called a mask because, when -closed, it covers the face.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_455_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_455_sml.jpg" width="423" height="167" alt="Image unavailable: HEAD AND PROBOSCIS OF HOUSE-FLY. -MASK OF DRAGON-FLY LARVA. -LAZY-TONGS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HEAD AND PROBOSCIS OF HOUSE-FLY. -MASK OF DRAGON-FLY LARVA. -LAZY-TONGS.</span> -</div> - -<p>It chiefly consists of two flat, horny plates, hinged in each other like -a carpenter’s two-foot rule, and being capable of extension to a -considerable length. The end is widened, and furnished with two jaws, -which take the part of the tongs in the instrument above described.</p> - -<p>This curious apparatus is used for the purpose of securing prey.</p> - -<p>I have kept many of these creatures, and watched their mode of feeding. -As has already been mentioned, they have two modes of progression, -<i>i.e.</i> walking by means of legs like those of ordinary insects; and -driving themselves along by ejecting water from the tail, on the -principle of the rocket. As far as I have seen, the latter mode is -always used in taking prey. The Dragon-fly larva always lives at the -bottom of the water, though it can force itself to the surface if -needful. And, like the dreaded ground-shark, it seizes its prey from -beneath.</p> - -<p>Its favourite food is the larva of the whirlwig-beetle, a fat white -grub, with a number of white, soft, feathery gills fringing its sides. -In order to produce a current of air over these gills, the larva -wriggles itself up to a height of several<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_456" id="page_456"></a>{456}</span> inches, and then sinks slowly -down, with the white gills floating on either side.</p> - -<p>Should a Dragon-fly larva be near, it sees the grub ascending, glides -quietly under it without using its legs so as to cause alarm, waits for -it to sink, darts out the mask, seizes it in the jaws, drags it to its -mouth, and the grub is seen no more. So voracious are these larvæ, that, -if only two are kept in the same vessel, one is sure to devour the -other.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> good example of the Lazy-tongs is the Proboscis of the common -House-fly. We have all seen these insects alight near sugar, or any -other tempting food, unfold the proboscis, pour a drop of liquid in the -sugar, dissolve it, suck it up, and then shut up the proboscis as if by -hinges.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> labour-saving machine is the Apple-parer, a comparatively modern -invention. The principle is, that a knife is pressed lightly by a spring -against a revolving apple, and set at such an angle that nothing but the -outside peel can be removed. Where large numbers of apples have to be -pared, as in making preserves or in hotels, this is a most useful -invention.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_456_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_456_sml.jpg" width="413" height="207" alt="Image unavailable: SQUIRREL AND NUT. -APPLE PARER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SQUIRREL AND NUT. -APPLE PARER.</span> -</div> - -<p>When I first saw it at work, the operation seemed familiar to me, but I -could not at first remember the parallel. At last it flashed across me -that a Squirrel eating a nut was the natural parallel of the Paring -Machine.</p> - -<p>After splitting the shell and extracting the kernel, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_457" id="page_457"></a>{457}</span> Squirrel takes -the latter between its fore-paws, presses it against its upper incisor -teeth, and makes it revolve rapidly. In a second or two the kernel is -perfectly peeled, and is then eaten.</p> - -<p>In this case the incisor teeth of the Squirrel take the part of the -knife, the muscles of the leg that of the spring, and the sharp edges of -the upper teeth that of the knife. The structure of the Rodent teeth has -already been explained in page 233.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> wonderful effects of water in breaking up the hardest rock have -already been described. We will now proceed to another branch of the -same subject.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_457_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_457_sml.jpg" width="425" height="190" alt="Image unavailable: FROST-CLEFT ROCK. -STONE-SPLITTING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FROST-CLEFT ROCK. -STONE-SPLITTING.</span> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps some of my readers may have wandered along our rocky coasts, and -have seen how large masses of rock are continually detaching themselves, -though they are so hard that a cold chisel is needed to make any -impression upon them.</p> - -<p>Then they fall into the sea, and are rolled backwards and forwards until -they become smoothed and rounded, and are called pebbles, while the -portion that is rubbed off them is called sand. The phenomenon is well -shown in the wonderful Pebble Ridge of North Devon.</p> - -<p>The real agent is ice.</p> - -<p>We all know that, when water freezes, it expands considerably. This -accounts for two phenomena.</p> - -<p>First, as it expands, it becomes lighter than water, and consequently -floats on the surface.</p> - -<p>Next, there are few of us who have not seen water-bottles<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_458" id="page_458"></a>{458}</span> cracked by -the freezing of the water. The most common, and perhaps the most -unpleasant, example of this propensity is the bursting of water-pipes in -the winter, followed by a flooding of the house when the thaw comes.</p> - -<p>This is caused by the expansion of the frozen water, which will burst -not only a thin leaden tube, but a stout iron vessel. Care should -therefore be taken, at the beginning of winter, to cover up all exposed -portions of leaden pipes, and there will then be no danger. There was -one pipe in my house that was always bursting, but after I covered it -with two or three layers of carpet placed loosely over each other, so as -to entangle the air and form a non-conductor, the pipe has never frozen, -and the water supply has been uninterrupted by the severest frosts.</p> - -<p>I am told that a still better plan exists, especially in places where -the pipes cannot be thoroughly protected by external wrappings. Let six -inches or so of the leaden pipe be removed, and its place supplied by a -vulcanised india-rubber tube.</p> - -<p>The ice <i>must</i> expand somewhere, and chooses the spot where least -resistance is offered to it. Consequently, it expands in the -india-rubber tube, but does not break it, and, when the thaw comes, -there is no overflow of water.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Man</span> utilises this power of ice in stone-splitting. Instead of taking the -trouble to cut the stone by manual labour, the workmen bore a series of -holes, fill them with water, insert tightly a wooden plug to prevent the -ice, when formed, from oozing out of the holes, and leave the rest for -the frost to do.</p> - -<p>A like effect is produced in the warm weather by substituting similar -plugs, but quite dry, having been baked for hours in an oven, for the -purpose of driving out every particle of moisture. These plugs are -hammered into the holes as deeply as they will go, and there left. Even -if there be no rain, the nightly dews make their way into the pores of -the dry wood, and cause it to swell with such irresistible force that -the stone is split with scarcely any manual labour on the part of the -workmen.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Yet</span> another plan for cutting hard stones. Some of my readers may be -aware that a singularly ingenious instrument<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_459" id="page_459"></a>{459}</span> has been invented for -cutting boles in granite and other hard rocks. It is called the Diamond -Drill, because its tip is armed with uncut diamonds.</p> - -<p>It is necessary that the diamond should not be cut, as the natural edges -are needed. A glazier’s diamond, for example, is always set as it came -out of the mine. The stories that are told about cutting out panes of -glass with a diamond ring are all absurd. A diamond, when it has once -passed through the hands of the jeweller, cannot cut glass. It can -scratch glass, but not one whit better than a flake of ordinary flint.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_459_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_459_sml.jpg" width="425" height="88" alt="Image unavailable: BORER OF ŒSTRUS. -DIAMOND-HEADED BORER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BORER OF ŒSTRUS. -DIAMOND-HEADED BORER.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is found that the Diamond Drill works with wondrous rapidity, cutting -away the stone with ease, and suffering scarcely any damage itself. The -tube to the end of which the diamonds are fixed is generally made in -telescopic fashion, so as to allow it to penetrate deeply into the rock, -without the necessity of shifting the machine by which it is turned. I -need hardly say that its rate of speed is very great indeed.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Our</span> old friend, the Gad-fly, again affords an example of a parallel.</p> - -<p>The ovipositor is tubular, telescopic, and furnished at the top with -five little hard, sharp, scaly knobs, which act the same part as the -diamonds of the mining tool. Even the scoop-like shape of the tip, and -the telescopic shaft, are almost identical in both instances.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_460" id="page_460"></a>{460}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XIII" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XIII"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XIII.<br /><br /> -<small>TELESCOPIC TUBES.—DIRECT ACTION.—DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.—TREE-CLIMBING.—THE WHEEL.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Telescopic Tubes, their Structure and Uses.—The Japanese -Fishing-rod.—The Tripod Wheel-bearer and its Telescopic -Structure.—The Rat-tailed Maggot.—Locomotion.—Direct -Action.—The Rocket, the Water Tourniquet, and Electric -Tourniquet.—Cuttle-fish.—The Flying Squids.—The Paper -Nautilus.—Proceedings of newly-hatched Calamaries.—Larva of the -Dragonfly.—Distribution of Weight.—The Snow-shoe, its Structure -and Mode of using it.—The Skidor of Norway.—A formidable Rifle -Corps.—The Mud-patten.—Foot of Duck tribe.—Foot of -Jacana.—Locomotion of Water-gnat.—Tree-climbing.—Mode of -ascending Palm-trees.—The Value of a Hoop.—The “Girt Pupa” and -Butterfly.—Principle of the Wheel.—The primitive Wooden -Wheel.—Spoked Wheels.—Driving Wheel of the Bicycle.—Naturally -spoked Wheel of the Chirodota.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Means and Appliances</span> (<i>continued</i>).</h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E will now treat rather more in detail the two subjects which were -lightly touched upon at the end of the last chapter.</p> - -<p>The reader will remember that the diamond-headed borer is made in -telescope form, so as to be adjustable at pleasure. It was also remarked -that the ovipositor of the Gad-fly was made in a similar fashion, so as -to be withdrawn within the body of the insect when not needed, and -protrusible to a considerable extent when the Gad-fly wishes to deposit -her eggs.</p> - -<p>As to our modern telescopes and opera-glasses, they are so familiar that -there is little use in describing them, except to say that their -framework consists of a number of tubes of gradually lessening diameter, -the one sliding within the other, so that the instrument can be -lengthened or shortened at will, so as to suit the focus of the -observing eye.</p> - -<p>A very ingenious adaptation of the telescopic principle is seen in the -Japanese fishing-rod, which is now tolerably well<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_461" id="page_461"></a>{461}</span> known. Our own -telescopic rods require to be withdrawn at the butt-end, and then fitted -together in front. But the Japanese rods are so made that, after taking -off the ferrule of the seeming walking-stick, a mere fling of the hand -will send joint after joint flying out, and fixing themselves in regular -succession. So admirably are these rods made, that even blowing into the -butt-end will have the same effect.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the most perfect, if not the most perfect, example of the -telescopic tube is to be found in the Tripod Wheel-bearer (<i>Actinurus</i>), -one of the numerous aquatic Rotifers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_461_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_461_sml.jpg" width="407" height="248" alt="Image unavailable: ACTINURUS TAIL, OPEN AND CLOSED (MAGNIFIED). -TELESCOPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ACTINURUS TAIL, OPEN AND CLOSED (MAGNIFIED). -TELESCOPE.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is not usually so small as the generality of its class, being nearly -one-twentieth of an inch in length, and visible to the unassisted eye, -provided that the owner of the eye in question knows how to use it.</p> - -<p>When placed under a microscope of moderate power, the Actinurus is seen -to be built almost wholly upon the telescopic pattern. Only the centre -of the body remains stationary, the two ends being framed on the -principle of the telescopic tube, and capable of being enclosed within -the central portion, just as is the case with the Japanese fishing-rod.</p> - -<p>In the illustration the Actinurus is shown in two attitudes. In the -upper figure it is represented as having the fore-part of the body -entirely, and the tail part nearly, withdrawn within the central -portion. The lower figure shows the same specimen with all its -telescopic tubes drawn out to full length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_462" id="page_462"></a>{462}</span></p> - -<p>The creature is perpetually elongating and contracting its body by means -of these tubes, so that a measurement of its length is not easy to -obtain.</p> - -<p>A full and interesting description of this curious Rotifer may be found -in Gosse’s “Evenings at the Microscope,” p. 300. The long tails of the -Rat-tailed Maggot, already described under the head of Diving, are good -examples of the drawtube as found in Nature.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Locomotion.—Direct Action.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> second point which has to be elucidated is that or progress by means -of Direct Action.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_462_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_462_sml.jpg" width="432" height="313" alt="Image unavailable: NAUTILUS. - -LARVA OF DRAGON-FLY. - -ROCKET. - -WATER TOURNIQUET. - -ELECTRIC TOURNIQUET." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NAUTILUS. - -LARVA OF DRAGON-FLY. - -ROCKET. - -WATER TOURNIQUET. - -ELECTRIC TOURNIQUET. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>We have already seen how vessels can be propelled by sail, oar, paddle, -or screw. We have now to consider a mode of progress which requires none -of these things, but which works by means of Direct Action.</p> - -<p>Such, for example, is the progress of a Rocket through the air.</p> - -<p>The heated gases rush out with tremendous violence, and, by their -pressure, urge the heavy rocket into the air with the rush, roar, and -bang so familiar to all who have witnessed a good display of fireworks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_463" id="page_463"></a>{463}</span></p> - -<p>A rocket in the act of ascent is shown in the uppermost figure of the -accompanying illustration.</p> - -<p>Below it is shown the Water Turbine, the principle of which is evident -from the sketch.</p> - -<p>From each of the apertures a stream of water is forcibly directed, and, -by its resistance, spins the vessel round and round. There are several -shops in London in which this instrument may be seen at work.</p> - -<p>Although in such positions it is necessarily a mere toy, it carries with -it, in common with many other toys, the germs of valuable inventions. -Indeed, there have been attempts to utilise the principle of Direct -Action in the propulsion of vessels, but as yet the mechanical -difficulties have proved practically insuperable, and, although a vessel -has been thus propelled, the expense has been heavier than that of the -paddle or screw, and the speed not nearly so great.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration is another example of Direct -Action, called the Electric Tourniquet.</p> - -<p>In the two previously mentioned instruments the motive power is visible, -but in this it is invisible except in the dark.</p> - -<p>The principle is exactly the same as in the pocket or water tourniquet; -but, instead of heated air or a stream of water, electricity is used. -The instrument is attached to an electric machine, and fully charged. -The electric fluid rushes out of the points, forces itself against the -air, and so, by its recoil, drives the machine round and round upon its -pivot.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will now take two examples of Direct Action as found in Nature.</p> - -<p>Perhaps many of my readers have seen the Octopus, and admired the manner -in which it glides through the water, trailing its long arms behind it. -Whence the force comes is not easily seen, and the creature appears to -move almost by volition. In reality, however, it employs Direct Action. -It takes water into the body, and then it ejects it through a tube -called the “siphon” with such force that the animal is propelled -backwards through the water.</p> - -<p>Some of the creatures belonging to the Cuttles, and popularly called -Squids, can use such extraordinary powers that they can project -themselves far out of the water. In consequence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_464" id="page_464"></a>{464}</span> of this power, they are -sometimes called Flying Squids, and, as they have been known to shoot -themselves completely over the hull of a large ship, they well deserve -the name.</p> - -<p>The common Squid of our coasts, which furnishes the so-called -Cuttle-bone, affords us a good example of Direct Action. I once hatched -a number of young Squids from the grape-like eggs, and it was most -curious to see how the little creatures shot about as soon as they -escaped from the egg.</p> - -<p>They also utilised the siphon in another way. Poising themselves just -above the sand with which the bottom of the vessel was covered, they -directed a stream of water upon it, and thus formed little cavities into -which they settled like birds into their nests.</p> - -<p>The figure represents the Paper Nautilus as it appears while passing -through the water. Just at the base of the tentacles is seen the short -siphon, from which it is pouring the stream of water which drives it -along.</p> - -<p>Below the Nautilus is seen the larva of the common Dragonfly. We have, -when treating of the Lazy-tongs, already described the mode in which the -insect takes its prey, and our object could not be served by repetition. -Suffice it to say that the insect is shown in the act of ejecting water, -and so shooting itself along in preparation for seizing prey.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Distribution of Weight.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Being</span> on the subject of locomotion, we will examine a few of the -contrivances by which a man is enabled to pass in safety over soft -substances into which he would otherwise sink.</p> - -<p>The first and best-known of these is the Snow-shoe of Northern America. -It is a framework of wood, shaped as shown in the upper figure on the -right-hand side, and strengthened by two cross-bars. The interior of the -“shoe” is filled in with hide thongs arranged much like those of a -racket, and stretched as tightly. The front of the snow-shoe is slightly -turned up, so as to avoid the danger of the point sticking in the snow, -an event which, however, generally happens to a novice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_465" id="page_465"></a>{465}</span></p> - -<p>These instruments are of considerable size, a specimen in my collection -measuring exactly five feet in length, by fifteen inches in width.</p> - -<p>Supported on the snow-shoe, the hunter is enabled to glide unhurt over -the deep snow in which he must have sunk without some such aid. He can -thus hunt the bison, the wapiti, or any of the larger animals, being -able to pass rapidly over the surface, while they are laboriously -ploughing their way through the snow-drifts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_465_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_465_sml.jpg" width="438" height="382" alt="Image unavailable: FEET OF DUCKS. SNOW-SHOE. -FOOT OF JACANA. MUD-PATTEN. -WATER-GNAT. SKIDOR." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FEET OF DUCKS. SNOW-SHOE. -FOOT OF JACANA. MUD-PATTEN. -WATER-GNAT. SKIDOR. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>It occasionally happens that the snow falls before the shoes are ready. -In this case the hunter is obliged to extemporise snow-shoes by cutting -them out of thin boards.</p> - -<p>Several years ago, when snow fell heavily and remained unmelted for many -days, some Canadians, who were visiting England, made quite a sensation -by donning their snow-shoes, and travelling over the snow-clad country. -It was very pretty to see the easy way in which they could shoot down a -hill, and to watch the peculiar gait which is needed by the snow-shoe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_466" id="page_466"></a>{466}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">At</span> the bottom of the illustration is shown a portion of a curious skate -used in Norway, and called Skidor.</p> - -<p>These remarkable implements achieve by means of length the task which -the snow-shoe accomplishes by width. They are made of wood, and, though -but a few inches in width, are ten feet or more in length. One is always -a few feet shorter than the other, for the convenience of turning. Much -practice is needed for the management of the Skidors, but, when they are -fairly mastered, they enable their owner to travel at a wonderful pace.</p> - -<p>The Norwegian hunter is quite as dependent on his Skidor as the North -American on his Snow-shoe, and uses it for exactly the same purpose. A -corps of these hunters has been organized for war, and very formidable -they were, hanging on the skirts of the enemy, and giving him no rest, -day or night. They never came within fifty yards of each other, so that -even cannon were useless; and, as soon as they thought that they were -endangered, they dispersed in all directions, only to reunite and swoop -down again on the enemy at the first opportunity.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> central figure represents the Mud-patten, which, as its name -implies, plays the same part towards mud that the snow-shoe and skidor -do to the snow. Like them, also, it is not easy to manage; and a novice -is tolerably certain to drive the front of the patten into the mud, and -so get an awkward and not aromatic fall.</p> - -<p>This patten, which is merely a square piece of board attached to the -foot, is in use on many of our coasts where the ebbing tide runs out to -a great distance, leaving a vast expanse of soft mud. Like the skidor -and the snow-shoe, it is mostly used by sportsmen, especially in the -winter, when wild-duck shooting sets in.</p> - -<p>Aided by the pattens, a sportsman can travel for miles over mud that -would otherwise swallow him up, shoot his birds, and secure them when -fallen. While engaged in winter shooting on the Medway, we have often -lost birds because they fell beyond a deep mud-bank, and we had no means -of crossing it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration are some natural parallels<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_467" id="page_467"></a>{467}</span> of -these artificial aids. The two upper figures represent two forms of -webbed feet, and the analogy between them and the snow-shoe and -mud-patten is too obvious to need explanation.</p> - -<p>In the centre is the foot of the Jacana, an Asiatic bird. Its foot may -well be taken as the analogue of the skidor, length taking the place of -breadth, and enabling the weight to be distributed over a large surface.</p> - -<p>This bird finds its food in rivers and lakes, and, by reason of its -enormously long toes, can walk with safety over slight floating -vegetation, which would give way at once under the tread of any bird -except a Jacana. Very good representations of this bird are to be seen -in Japanese works of art, especially those which are mounted as screens. -Even the peculiar gait of the bird is given with marvellous truth.</p> - -<p>The last figure represents the common Water-gnat (<i>Gerris</i>), which may -be seen in almost any piece of fresh water, however small. Ponds that -are open to the south, and sheltered from the north wind, are its -favourite localities.</p> - -<p>It is a carnivorous being, feeding almost wholly on insects that fall -into the water. In order to capture them, it runs rapidly over the -surface of the water, the long slender legs distributing its weight over -a large surface, and so keeping it from sinking. Only the last two pairs -of legs are employed for this purpose, the first pair being held in -front of the body, and used for the purpose of capturing prey.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Tree-climbing.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Another</span> curious aid to locomotion is shown in the accompanying -illustration.</p> - -<p>In many parts of the world, where the cocoa-nut palm grows, the natives -have invented a simple, but ingenious, plan for ascending the tall, -curved stem. Such a thing as an upright palm-tree is unknown, and -consequently the ascent of the branchless stem is not an easy task -without artificial assistance.</p> - -<p>When I treated of Warfare and the different modes of scaling walls, the -climbing-spur was casually mentioned. The implement of the palm-climber, -however, is simpler and more effective, as it leaves both hands at -liberty when desired.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_468" id="page_468"></a>{468}</span></p> - -<p>The man cuts a long piece of one of the tough and almost unbreakable -creepers which festoon the trees of tropical climes. He passes it round -the trunk which he wishes to climb, and fastens the ends firmly -together, so as to form a large loose hoop. He then passes the hoop over -his head, until it presses against his back, as seen in the -illustration, and serves to support him as he leans against it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_468_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_468_sml.jpg" width="397" height="251" alt="Image unavailable: GIRT PUPA AND BUTTERFLY. -CLIMBING PALM-TREE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GIRT PUPA AND BUTTERFLY. -CLIMBING PALM-TREE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Taking the hoop by the two sides, he lifts it up the trunk as far as he -can, places the soles of his feet against the tree, and so walks up it, -hitching the hoop upwards at every step. When he has reached the top of -the tree, he supports himself entirely by the hoop, while his hands are -at liberty to be used in getting the cocoa-nuts.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the insect world there are many examples of support being given by a -belt passing round the body.</p> - -<p>Among the Butterflies, for example, there are many which, in their pupal -stage of existence, are attached to upright stems. They are fixed to the -stem by a few threads at the tail, answering to the feet of the -tree-climber, while the body is kept in position by a stout silken -thread passed loosely round it.</p> - -<p>The illustration represents the pupa of the common Swallow-tailed -Butterfly, while in the centre is the same insect in the perfect state -as it appears when resting. It really seems as if<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_469" id="page_469"></a>{469}</span> the ancient habit of -the pupa had been remembered by the perfect insect, the long ends of the -hinder wings taking the place of the pupal tail, and the legs that of -the belt.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Wheel.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Yet</span> another aid to locomotion is found in the <span class="smcap">Wheel</span>, a contrivance for -diminishing friction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_469_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_469_sml.jpg" width="389" height="142" alt="Image unavailable: WHEEL-SPICULE OF CHIBODOTA. -CART-WHEEL." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WHEEL-SPICULE OF CHIBODOTA. -CART-WHEEL.</span> -</div> - -<p>When man first learnt that heavier weights could be dragged than -carried, he simply placed them on flat boards to which ropes were -attached. The next step was necessarily the invention of the sledge, the -burden resting on two parallel runners, the ends of which were slightly -curved so as to prevent them from hitching against any small -obstruction. In some countries—such, for example, as in -Esquimaux-land—the sledge is the only vehicle practicable, and even -Europeans, when they visit that country, are fain to adopt the sledge if -they would live.</p> - -<p>But, in more temperate zones, the Wheel is paramount. In its earlier -stages the wheel was a very simple business. It was simply a section of, -a tree-trunk, dubbed roughly round, and with a hole in the centre, -through which the axle passed. Such wheels are still in existence in -many parts of Europe; and, owing to the want of regularity of outline in -the circumference, and the utter absence of grease, the wheels keep up a -continuous shriek, almost deafening to those who are unused to it, but -perfectly unheeded by those who own or drive the vehicle.</p> - -<p>The next improvement was to make the circumference of the wheel as -perfectly circular as the art of man could devise, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_470" id="page_470"></a>{470}</span> instead of -having the wheel solid, to fill up its interior with spokes, thus -gaining lightness and strength at the same time.</p> - -<p>Of all locomotive wheels, I suppose that the modern Bicycle affords the -best example. The driving wheel is larger than the hind wheel of an -ordinary coach, and yet the spokes are not nearly so thick as the -porcupine quill with which this account is written.</p> - -<p>If we look at the ancient sculptures and paintings of Egypt and Assyria, -as preserved in the British Museum, we shall see that either kind of -wheel was used according to the work which it had to do. The solid, -uneven, squeaking, wooden wheel was devoted to agriculture, while the -light, spoked wheel was sacred either to warfare or hunting.</p> - -<p>Let us hope that in the two latter cases some modicum of grease might -have been used, as the outcries of tortured and unlubricated machinery -are enough to drive away all wild beasts which come within the range of -its complaints, while the nervous system of hunter or warrior must have -been seriously damaged by it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Even</span> in such a structure as the spoked Wheel, Nature has anticipated -Man.</p> - -<p>My readers may remember that, when treating of nautical matters, I -mentioned the singular anchor-shaped spicules that are found upon one of -the sea-slugs, called Synapta.</p> - -<p>There is another group of these creatures inhabiting the Mediterranean, -in which the skin-spicules take a different form. Like those of the -Synapta, they are too small and translucent to be seen without the aid -of the microscope and carefully adjusted light. But, just as the -spicules of the Synapta resemble the ancient anchor, so do those of the -Chirodota resemble the ancient wheel, the similitude being in both cases -absolutely startling.</p> - -<p>Not only that, but, as all readers must be aware, if they have studied -practical mechanics, there are many machines which are toothed on the -inner, and not the outer, side of the circumference. Here, in the -Chirodota, the inner toothing is manifest.</p> - -<p>What purpose it serves we know not. The Chirodota’s wheels (of which -there are thousands) never revolve, neither<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_471" id="page_471"></a>{471}</span> do the anchors of the -Synapta hold the ground. Yet the very fact that such exceedingly minute -objects should be so carefully constructed tells us at once that they -must have some important purpose to serve, though at present that -purpose is a mystery which no one has attempted to solve.</p> - -<p>I have little doubt that when the hour and the man arrive, as arrive -they surely will, we shall find in these tiny and almost unrecognised -spicules the keys to treasures of wisdom which at present have been -opened to no human being.</p> - -<p>The whole history of the progress of the human race shows that facts -have been allowed to accumulate, fought about, and turned in all -directions, before the generaliser comes who pierces to the heart of -everything, reduces apparent discrepancies to harmony, and usually is -rewarded by finding some one else assume the credit of his discoveries, -and receive all the honours and emoluments.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_472" id="page_472"></a>{472}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XIV" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XIV"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XIV.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Paper and its many Uses.—The Egyptian Papyrus.—India -Paper.—China and its Manufactories.—Materials of which Paper is -made.—Annual Consumption of Material.—The “Water Mark.”—Nature’s -Papers.—Wasps and Hornets.—The common Wasp, and the various -Materials of its Nest.—Utilisation of -Material.—Papier-mâché.—Printing.—Nature-printing.—Method and -Results of the Process.—Use of the Electrotype.—“Facing” the -Copper Plates with hard Metal.—The Coal Mine and its -Nature-printing.—Stippling, its Use and Abuse.—The Line and the -Dot.—Modification of the Dot.—Flower-petals.—The -Pelargonium.—Plaster Castings.—Stereotyping and -Electrotyping.—Modern Method of taking Plaster Casts.—The -Principle of Corrugation.—Flower-pot Covers.—Iron Buildings.—The -Polistes and its Corrugated Dwellings.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Art.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span>E will now touch lightly on the subject of Art.</p> - -<p>In the present day one of the most indispensable accessories to art is -Paper.</p> - -<p>It is a curious fact that we have no records as to the time when paper -was first invented. The Egyptian papyrus we do not consider, as it was -not paper in our sense of the word, although we have retained the name.</p> - -<p>Paper is a vegetable fibre carefully disintegrated, made into a pulp -with water, and then dried in thin sheets. As is the case with many -arts, China seems to have taken the lead in paper manufacture, and we -are even now indebted to that country for the “India Paper” on which the -finest proofs of engravings are taken. This paper is made from the inner -bark of the bamboo. “Rice Paper,” so called, is not paper at all, but -only a kind of pith cut spirally, and flattened by pressure.</p> - -<p>There is scarcely any vegetable fibre of which paper cannot be made, and -various plants have been suggested for this purpose, such as the -stinging-nettle, cabbage-stalks, hop-bines,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_473" id="page_473"></a>{473}</span> the waste of sugar-cane, -sawdust, &c. Straw has already been successfully used, and so has -Esparto grass.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, when there was a scarcity of material for paper-making, -the well-known Grass-wrack of our shores (<i>Zostera marina</i>) was brought -into partial use. I believe, however, that the experiment was not a -successful one. The Chinese make their paper of bamboo, macerating and -pounding it until it is reduced to a pulp, and then shaken into fibres -in a mould.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_473_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_473_sml.jpg" width="431" height="365" alt="Image unavailable: NEST OF HORNET. PAPER-MAKING. -NEST OF TREE-WASP. PAPER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NEST OF HORNET. PAPER-MAKING. -NEST OF TREE-WASP. PAPER. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>With us, white paper, such as is used by the writer, printer, or artist, -is made almost exclusively of cotton or linen rags. Upwards of a hundred -and twenty thousand tons weight of rags are annually consumed in this -country for the manufacture of paper. After being bleached, they are -torn and ground into a pulp, which is then handed over to the actual -maker.</p> - -<p>The illustration represents paper-making by hand, a process which is now -rarely used, except for special kinds of paper. Omitting technical -details, the mode of paper-making by hand is as follows:—The pulp being -prepared, the workman takes a “mould,” <i>i.e.</i> a frame with a bottom of -closely woven wire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_474" id="page_474"></a>{474}</span> Having put into the mould a sufficient quantity of -pulp, he shakes the mould so as to spread the pulp evenly over the -surface. The water runs away between the wires, the sheet of pulp is -transferred to a piece of felt, and when it is dry it becomes paper. If -a sheet of ordinary note-paper be held up to the light, the marks of the -wires are plainly perceptible. The so-called “water-mark” is due to -wires twisted into the requisite shape.</p> - -<p>The Chinese workman makes his paper exactly on the same principle, but -the bottom of his mould is made of bulrushes instead of wires.</p> - -<p>As for machine-made paper, the process seems absolutely magical. Endless -bands of felt and wire are substituted for the hand frames, and, the -pulp being poured in at one end, the finished paper is poured out at the -other, and self-wound on rollers. Without any exaggeration, paper is now -made by the mile, the only limit to its length being the size of the -rolls.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> I mention Paper-making in the world of Nature, many of my readers -will at once know that I am about to refer to the Wasp tribe.</p> - -<p>These insects were paper-makers long before even the Chinese had -invented the art, and, so exactly similar is the mode of action, that -man might well have copied from the insect.</p> - -<p>The Wasp gnaws a bundle of vegetable fibres, mostly of wood, sound or -decaying, according to the species. It masticates them until it has -reduced them to a pulp, and then, by means of its jaws, spreads the pulp -into sheets of various shapes and sizes.</p> - -<p>With some of the pulp it forms hexagonal cells like those of the bee, -and with some it makes the roof-like covering which defends the cells. -Not only that, but it can make a sort of papier-mâché, which it uses for -the flooring, if we may so call it, of the different strata of cells, -and for the pillars which bind them together.</p> - -<p>Like our own paper manufacturers, it is economic of material, will -re-masticate any superabundant paper, and is only too glad if it can get -hold of any paper made by man. I have seen a wasps’ nest which was made -entirely from the empty blue and white cartridges that were thrown away -by soldiers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_475" id="page_475"></a>{475}</span></p> - -<p>Then there is as much difference in the papers made by wasps as in those -made by man. In this country all wasps’ nests are made of very fragile -material, but in South America there are some wasps which make the -external covering of their nests as hard and white as the stiff -cardboard employed by artists.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> now got our paper, we will glance at one or two modes of using it -for Art. Papier-mâché has already been mentioned, and it is worthy of -notice that there are now in existence many decorated ceilings which are -made of this material, on account of its great strength and its -non-liability to fire.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_475_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_475_sml.jpg" width="413" height="176" alt="Image unavailable: FERNS IN COAL. -NATURE-PRINTING." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">FERNS IN COAL. -NATURE-PRINTING.</span> -</div> - -<p>The first invention which we shall notice is that which is known by the -name of Nature-printing, and which has been so successful in -transferring to paper an exact representation of vegetable foliage.</p> - -<p>One simple tolerably efficacious mode of Nature-printing has long been -known. A piece of paper being rubbed with lamp-black and oil, the leaf -was laid upon it and gently rubbed, so as to transfer the lamp-black to -the nervures. It was then laid on a sheet of white paper, and again -rubbed, when an impression of the leaf was left upon the paper.</p> - -<p>The present system of Nature-printing is far in advance of this rather -rude method, and amounts to an exact reproduction of the plant, not only -in form and detail, but in colour.</p> - -<p>In order to illustrate this beautiful process, I cannot do better than -transfer to these pages the following account of Nature-printing as -given in Ure’s “Dictionary of Arts,” &c. It is an abstract of a lecture -delivered by Mr. H. Bradbury at the Royal Institution.</p> - -<p>“Nature-printing is the name given to a technical process<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_476" id="page_476"></a>{476}</span> for obtaining -printed reproductions of plants and other objects upon paper, in a -manner so truthful, that only a close inspection reveals the fact of -their being copies; and so distinctly sensible even to touch are the -impressions, that it is difficult to persuade those unacquainted with -the manipulation that they are an emanation of the printing-press.</p> - -<p>“The distinguishing feature of the process consists, first, in -impressing natural objects—such as plants, mosses, seaweeds, and -feathers—into plates of metal, causing, as it were, the objects to -engrave themselves by pressure; secondly, in being able to take such -casts or copies of the impressed plates as can be printed from at the -ordinary copper-plate press.</p> - -<p>“This secures, in the case of a plant, on the one hand, a perfect -representation of its characteristic outline, of some of the other -external marks by which it is known, and even in some measure of its -structure, as in the venation of ferns and the ribs of the leaves of -flowering plants; and, on the other, affords the means of multiplying -copies in a quick and easy manner, at a trifling expense compared with -the result, and to an unlimited extent.</p> - -<p>“The great defect of all pictorial representations of botanical figures -has consisted in the inability of art to represent faithfully those -minute peculiarities by which natural objects are often best -distinguished. Nature-printing has therefore come to the aid of this -branch of science in particular, whilst its future development promises -facilities for copying other objects of nature, the reproduction of -which is not within the province of the human hand to execute; and even -if it were possible, it would involve an amount of labour scarcely -commensurate with the results.</p> - -<p>“Possessing the advantages of rapid and economic production, the means -of unlimited multiplication, and, above all, unsurpassable resemblance -to the original, nature-printing is calculated to assist much in -facilitating not only the first-sight recognition of many objects in -natural history, but in supplying the detailed evidences of -identification, which must prove of essential value to botanical science -in particular.”</p> - -<p>Many plans have been tried with only partial success, but that which is -now in operation produces the most wonderful results. The plants are -laid upon sheets of lead, and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_477" id="page_477"></a>{477}</span> passed through rollers, so as to -leave an impression in the soft metal. The electrotype then comes into -play, exact copies of the impression being taken by it. As the face of -the electrotyped plate is covered with a slight deposit of some hard -metal, usually nickel, a great number of copies can be taken without -damaging the plate.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A wonderfully</span> exact parallel to Nature-printing is seen in almost every -coal bed. In the coal are found impressions of various leaves, mostly -ferns, and so exact are they, that the different species have been -determined and named with as much accuracy as if, instead of mere -impressions, they had been the fern-leaves themselves.</p> - -<p>Indeed, if it were needed, it would be perfectly easy to take -electrotype plates from these impressions, and to treat them in exactly -the same manner as those obtained in the way which has already been -described.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Stippling.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> now come to another branch of Art, namely, the production of shadow -in an engraving by means of Stippling, i.e. the insertion of dots -instead of lines. At one time the Stipple was in great favour. Then it -was almost wholly abandoned in favour of the line, and now it is much -used in conjunction with the line, especially for the delicate shading -of flesh tints, such as faces, female arms, &c.</p> - -<p>In the illustration a little stippling of a cheek is shown, the dots -being purposely exaggerated.</p> - -<p>A singularly beautiful modification of the Stipple is now in use. When -the engraver wishes for exceptional softness of shading, he does not -content himself with mere dots, but, with the aid of his -magnifying-glass, converts each dot into a tiny star with three or more -rays. Thus the dots seem to melt into each other, and the requisite -softness is obtained.</p> - -<p>A very good example of this star-stipple is seen in the well-known print -called “Coming of Age.” If the face and neck of the girl in the -foreground be examined with a magnifying-glass, the apparent dots will -be seen to be stars, so beautifully arranged that the projecting rays of -one fuse themselves, so to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_478" id="page_478"></a>{478}</span> speak, with, those of the surrounding stars, -as is shown in the illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Whether</span> the engraver who hit upon this singularly effective plan took it -from Nature, I cannot say, but he well might have done so, had he -examined the petal of a flower through a good microscope. We all know -the peculiar rich softness of a petal, and how our very best floral -artists feel the impossibility of transferring it to paper.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_478_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_478_sml.jpg" width="388" height="205" alt="Image unavailable: STIPPLING. -PETAL OF GERANIUM." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">STIPPLING. -PETAL OF GERANIUM.</span> -</div> - -<p>The real reason for this special beauty lies in the star-stippling of -the petal. The whole surface of the petal is covered with multitudinous -projections, which are, in fact, undeveloped hairs. These projections -are wrinkled down the sides, and so, when viewed from above, they -present the curious star-like appearance shown on the right hand of the -illustration.</p> - -<p>The drawing is taken from a petal of Pelargonium prepared by myself.</p> - -<p>There is yet one point in the petal which the star-stipple has not -touched, and probably cannot touch. I mean the slight projection of the -stipple-hairs, which give an effect of light and shade as well as mere -flat softness.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Plaster Casts.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already mentioned the electrotype, and may now come to a branch -of art which is much associated with it, namely, the Stereotype.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_479" id="page_479"></a>{479}</span></p> - -<p>As many of my readers may know, types are very valuable articles, and -must not be wasted. If, therefore, a book should be thought likely to -have a steady sale, much of its value would be lost if the types were -kept standing, inasmuch as they could not be used for any other work.</p> - -<p>In such cases the Stereotype is employed. Omitting minute details, the -process is as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_479_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_479_sml.jpg" width="426" height="232" alt="Image unavailable: SHELL-CAST IN CHALK. -CAST IN PLASTER OF PARIS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SHELL-CAST IN CHALK. -CAST IN PLASTER OF PARIS.</span> -</div> - -<p>The type, ready set up, is carefully oiled. Plaster of Paris mixed with -water is then poured into a shallow trough, and the type pressed into -it. In a short time the plaster hardens, and the type is withdrawn. The -plaster mould is then baked, to drive off all moisture, and type metal -is poured into it. Thus a solid mass is procured, instead of a number of -separate pieces, so that there is no danger of disturbance, and the -whole block can be multiplied <i>ad libitum</i> if needed. This process sets -free the types, which can be broken up and used again.</p> - -<p>The ordinary method of taking plaster casts is nearly the same as that -which has been described. The object to be cast is oiled, and plaster of -Paris carefully applied to it. When it is “set,” the plaster “mould” is -removed and dried. The process is then reversed, the interior of the -mould being oiled, and plaster poured into it, so as to produce an exact -reproduction of the original.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature we have almost exactly the same process, although it is -necessarily conducted in a much slower manner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_480" id="page_480"></a>{480}</span></p> - -<p>All who have tried their hand at practical geology must be aware of the -multitudinous casts of perished beings which are found in various -strata. Sometimes the casts are those of vegetables, the original -material having been decomposed, and stony matter taken its place. -Sometimes there are casts of fishes or echini, while shells, and even -insects, are found to have been cast almost as perfectly as could be -done with plaster of Paris at the present day.</p> - -<p>As might be anticipated, the chalk deposits are peculiarly rich in these -casts, the fine particles of the chalk taking the place of the plaster -of Paris.</p> - -<p>In the illustrations are shown examples of casting in Art and Nature. On -the right hand is a cast of fruit and leaves, which may afterwards be -reproduced in plaster, wax, papier-mâché, or electrotype. On the left is -shown one of the shells so common in the chalk, the upper figure -representing the shell itself, and the lower the mould that has been -formed around it.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Corrugated Iron.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already seen that the Wasps are paper-makers. We may now see how -some of the Wasps have anticipated a valuable invention of man, namely, -the principle of corrugation, whereby a thin plate gains strength.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_480_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_480_sml.jpg" width="364" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: NESTS OF POLISTES. -CORRUGATED IRON." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NESTS OF POLISTES. -CORRUGATED IRON.</span> -</div> - -<p>Even a sheet of paper gains great strength by corrugation, as is seen in -those paper covers which are so much in use for the decoration, or -rather the concealment, of flower-pots. But the best example that can be -given of this principle is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_481" id="page_481"></a>{481}</span> Corrugated Iron, which has come so much -into use for temporary buildings, such as schools, places of worship, -reading-rooms, &c. It is very light and very strong, and can be used -either for roof or walls with equal success.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">By</span> means of certain wasps belonging to the genus Polistes, Nature -produces corrugated dwellings, which are made of very thin materials, -but which are marvellously strong in proportion to their weight.</p> - -<p>The insects belonging to this genus are all exotic, but are spread over -a very large surface of the earth.</p> - -<p>So strong are the nests made by some of these species, that they need no -external covering, the corrugated paper supplying at the same time -strength and warmth, the latter element being furnished by the air which -is entangled between the corrugations.</p> - -<p>There are many species of Polistes, mostly belonging to Australasia and -tropical America, the latter displaying the greatest variety of form and -structure in the nest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_482" id="page_482"></a>{482}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XV" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XV"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XV.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Electricity, Magnetism, and Galvanism mutually convertible.—The -Force co-extensive with Nature.—Uses of Thunder-storms.—Languor -from Want of Electricity.—Frictional and Voltaic -Electricity.—Origin of the Name.—Structure of the Voltaic -Pile.—A simple Example of the Pile.—Nerves of a Frog’s Leg.—The -Electric Shock, and how to produce it.—The Electric Jar and -Battery.—Animal Electricity.—The Torpedo and Electric -Eel.—Structure of the Electric Apparatus.—The Electric Spark -obtained from both Fishes.—Channels of Electricity in the -Body.—The Will and the Muscles.—Electricity the conducting -Agent.—The Human Body permeated by Nerves.—Telegraph Wires and -the Nervous System.—Lightning and the Electric Spark.—The -Electric Light and its Power.—The Fire-fly, the Glow-worm, and the -luminous Inhabitants of the Sea.—Magnetism and Diamagnetism.—The -Electric Telegraph and the Compass.—The Principle identical in -both Instruments.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Electricity and Magnetism.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T has long been known that Electricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism are -but different manifestations of the same force, and that one can be -converted into the other at will. It is also known that this wonderful -and most important principle lies latent in everything, and only needs -the proper machinery to evoke it.</p> - -<p>The few following illustrations are intended to show its prevalence in -Nature, and that human art does not create, but only makes manifest a -power that exists, but lies latent until called forth.</p> - -<p>Without going into details, which would occupy the whole of such a -volume as this, I may mention that Electricity saturates all the -material creation, and that even man himself is not only a reservoir of -electricity, but that he feels positively ill if the normal amount be -not supplied.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, the hours that precede a thunder-storm. We feel -languid and depressed. We cannot bring our thoughts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_483" id="page_483"></a>{483}</span> together. We are -almost incapable even of bodily labour. The reason is, that the portion -of the earth on which we live has parted with some of its electricity, -and has drawn it out of our bodies.</p> - -<p>Then comes the welcome thunder-storm; clouds overcharged with -electricity come to restore the balance. The lightning flashes from the -clouds to the earth as soon as they are near enough; the rain falls, -carrying with it stores of silent electricity; and in an hour or two all -seems changed.</p> - -<p>The air, which hitherto seemed to afford no nourishment to the lungs, is -bracing and invigorating. The nervous system recovers its tension, and -the brain can act without a painful effect. All Nature seems to put on a -different aspect, and brightness and vigour take the place of dulness -and languor.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_483_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_483_sml.jpg" width="436" height="264" alt="Image unavailable: GALVANISING A FROG’S LEG. -VOLTAIC PILE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GALVANISING A FROG’S LEG. -VOLTAIC PILE.</span> -</div> - -<p>By a strange coincidence, there is just such a lack of electricity as I -am writing, and the barometer has rapidly sunk to such a degree that a -storm seems inevitable.</p> - -<p>One of the chief difficulties in dealing with such a subject as this is -to know where to begin. We will, however, do our best to take a general -view of it, without going into details.</p> - -<p>Many centuries ago it was well known that amber, if rubbed with a dry -cloth, would first attract, and then repel, various small and light -substances. Indeed, the Greek word for amber, namely, <i>Elektron</i>, has -given its name to the modern science of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_484" id="page_484"></a>{484}</span> Electricity. Many other -substances, such as glass, sealing-wax, &c., possess the same property.</p> - -<p>This frictional electricity is but transient, the electric fluid, if we -may be allowed to use the term, being driven out by main force from the -material in which it was latent, just as fire is procured by the -friction of two dry sticks. There is, however, a form of Electricity -called Galvanism, from its discoverer, Galvani, who, somewhere about -1790, discovered that the limbs of a dead frog might be excited to -action by electricity applied to the nerves.</p> - -<p>Afterwards, Volta of Pavia, from whom the Voltaic Pile is named, took up -Galvani’s discoveries, and produced electricity without friction, by the -contact of differently conducting substances.</p> - -<p>The right-hand figure represents the Voltaic Pile. It is composed of a -series of plates arranged in the following manner—Zinc, Silver, and -Cloth, the whole being moistened with diluted acid. Copper will answer -the purpose nearly as well as silver, and is not so costly. A very -simple mode of demonstrating the presence of electricity is by taking a -piece of zinc and a silver coin, and placing one below and the other -above the tongue. If the two be then brought together, a very peculiar -taste is perceived, and a sudden flash of light seems to pass across the -eyes.</p> - -<p>The illustration represents on the right hand the Voltaic Pile as at -present made, and on the left are the two hind-legs of a frog, with the -upper part of the nerves made bare for the purpose of experimenting. The -dotted lines show the extent of the movements of the leg when the -galvanic current is passed through the nerves.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to a plan whereby electricity can be accumulated, or locked -up, so to speak, and be discharged at once with a definite shock instead -of being poured away by degrees. This can be done in many ways, the most -common being that which is known by the name of the Electric Jar. It is -a glass vessel coated within and without with tin-foil, and having a -metal rod passing through the cork in such a way that while the lower -end is in contact with the inner coating of tin-foil, the other end is -guarded by a ball.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_485" id="page_485"></a>{485}</span></p> - -<p>Electricity is now poured into the interior of the jar, and, when -contact is made between the inner and outer coatings, a sudden discharge -takes place. If a number of persons hold each other’s hands, and those -who form the two extremities touch the outer coating and the ball which -communicates with the inner coating, a sharp discharge is at once made, -passing through all the bodies, and inflicting a smart shock, especially -at the elbows.</p> - -<p>Similar effects can be produced with the Voltaic Battery, but, as that -instrument has already been figured, the Electric Jar has been selected. -Of course any number of such jars can be connected together, and the -shock will be proportionately increased in intensity.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Nature we have several-parallels. Putting aside the obvious one of a -lightning-flash, which has already been mentioned, we pass to two -remarkable examples of the capability of animal structure to produce -electricity, to store it up, so to speak, and discharge it at will. Both -these creatures are fishes, one belonging to the Skates or Rays, and the -other to the Eels.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_485_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_485_sml.jpg" width="422" height="217" alt="Image unavailable: TORPEDO. - -ELECTRIC EEL. - -ELECTRIC BATTERY." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TORPEDO. - -ELECTRIC EEL. - -ELECTRIC BATTERY. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>The upper figure on the left-hand side of the illustration represents -the Torpedo, sometimes called the Cramp-fish, Numb-fish, or Electric -Ray. Fortunately for us, it is but seldom found on our coasts, but it is -tolerably common in the warmer parts of the world.</p> - -<p>The electric organ in this fish is double, and so large that its shape -can easily be recognised even through the skin. It is made up of a vast -number of discs arranged upon each other in columns like the metallic -portions of the Voltaic Pile, and separated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_486" id="page_486"></a>{486}</span> from each other by delicate -membranes, which take the place of the cloth. When I mention that more -than eleven hundred columns have been found in a single Torpedo, and -that each column contains several hundred discs, it may be imagined that -the shock which such a creature can give must be a very powerful one.</p> - -<p>The object of this power seems to be analogous to that of the venomous -serpent, <i>i.e.</i> to enable the creature to secure its prey by either -killing it or rendering it temporarily insensible by an electric shock. -As if to show that the delivery of the shock is achieved by an exertion -of will, observers have noticed that just before the shock is delivered, -the eyes are depressed in the head like those of a toad when swallowing -a large insect.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A still</span> more powerfully electric animal is the Electric Eel of Southern -America. It sometimes attains a length of six feet, and its electric -organs are four times as proportionately large as those of the torpedo.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt as to the object of the electric power of this eel, as -I have often seen it kill fish, and then eat them.</p> - -<p>When about to deliver its shock, it curves its body towards the intended -victim, stiffens itself, and with a sort of shudder the electric fluid -is emitted. The fish at which it is aimed never seems to escape, but, -simultaneously with the shudder on the part of the Electric Eel, turns -on its back and lies motionless until it is picked up by its destroyer.</p> - -<p>Neither the Torpedo nor the Electric Eel has unlimited stores of -electricity. If irritated into delivering repeated shocks, each -discharge is less powerful than its predecessor, until at last the -creature is almost wholly powerless, and must rest and recruit itself -before it can lay up fresh stores of the electric fluid.</p> - -<p>I may add that the electric spark has been obtained from both these -fishes. It was only a small spark, but in such experiments a small spark -is as satisfactory as a large one.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">What</span> are the channels by which the electric fluid is transmitted through -our bodies?</p> - -<p>They are the nerves, which convey from and to the brain a subtle fluid, -if it may be so called, just as the arteries and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_487" id="page_487"></a>{487}</span> veins convey blood to -and from the heart. If any of these nerves be electrified, even after -the death of the animal, or after the separation of a limb from the -body, muscular movements are induced, and the limb moves as if instinct -with life.</p> - -<p>Without these nerves we should be unable to feel the severest shock, but -they permeate the body so completely, that not a part of the skin can be -pricked without a nerve being wounded.</p> - -<p>It is by means of these conductors that the will is made to act upon the -limbs. The mind, for example, desires the legs to walk, and they do so, -the order being transmitted to them through the nerves.</p> - -<p>As a rule, we are unconscious of this process. But, when paralysis takes -place, and the nerves refuse to perform their functions, the will is -absolutely useless, and, however desirous a man may be of walking, he -cannot move a step if the nerves of his legs are paralyzed. In cases -where the paralysis comes on slowly and in detail, the patient mostly -becomes conscious of the part played by the nerves, and feels that his -will can to a certain degree rouse the expiring powers of the nerve -fluid.</p> - -<p>This in its turn is but the conductor for another and infinitely more -subtle fluid, of which our space will not allow us to treat, but which -forms the connecting link between body and spirit. Perhaps some of my -readers may have seen those curious preparations of the human form, when -the arteries have been injected with red wax, and the veins with blue -wax, and then the fleshy portions dissolved away by chemical means.</p> - -<p>The result is a perfect human form, and even to the very tips of the -fingers and toes the blood-vessels follow the contour of the body. Did -we have means of injecting the nervous system, we should arrive at -similar results, except that the nerves would be found infinitely more -intricate than the veins and arteries. Thus a human being is a series of -human forms, interwoven with each other, and mutually dependent on each -other.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is curious to see how the great discoveries of modern days have but -copied Nature.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, the network of telegraphic wires which is day by day -spreading itself over the surface of the earth, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_488" id="page_488"></a>{488}</span> the parallel will -at once be visible. Just as the brain transmits its message to the limbs -by means of the nerves, so does the same brain transmit its message -through thousands of miles, by utilising the wires which are but the -rough and coarse imitations of the wonderful nervous system of the human -frame.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> illustration shows the parallelism as well as can be done by a mere -chart.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_488_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_488_sml.jpg" width="425" height="237" alt="Image unavailable: NERVES. -TELEGRAPHIC WIRES." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">NERVES. -TELEGRAPHIC WIRES.</span> -</div> - -<p>On the left-hand side is shown the manner in which a nerve-group is -distributed to different parts of the body. On the right the railway -telegraph wires are seen, and, as the reader will probably remember, -branch wires are carried into the signal boxes, just as branch nerves -are carried to the most distant parts of the body.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">I have</span> already mentioned the Electric Spark, and that it is, in fact, a -miniature lightning-flash, the little crackling report being a miniature -thunder-clap. It can be produced by frictional electricity, or by the -voltaic pile in its many variations, or by animal substances alone, as -in the case of the torpedo and electric eel.</p> - -<p>We now come to a modification of the spark, whereby a continuous current -of electricity is sent through two charcoal points, and inflames them -with such intensity that the eye cannot look upon its dazzling -whiteness. There is none of the yellowness about it which is so great a -drawback to our artificial lights, whether they be gas, candle, or lamp, -and which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_489" id="page_489"></a>{489}</span> makes ladies’ dresses that are really beautiful by day look -dull and almost ugly by night.</p> - -<p>It is wonderful to see how the Electric Light kills all other lights. -The brightest gas becomes dull, and its shadow is thrown on the wall -which it formerly illuminated, and the most delicate tints of silks and -satins suddenly display themselves in the blinding whiteness of the -Electric Light.</p> - -<p>At present it is too costly to be brought into common use, but its -intensity is so great that serious ideas have been formed of dispensing -with street lamps altogether, and illuminating towns with a few electric -lamps placed at a considerable height, and having their beams reflected -downwards.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_489_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_489_sml.jpg" width="417" height="296" alt="Image unavailable: LIGHTNING. - -FIRE-FLY. - -GLOW-WORM. - -ELECTRIC LIGHT." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LIGHTNING. - -FIRE-FLY. - -GLOW-WORM. - -ELECTRIC LIGHT. - -</span> -</div> - -<p>London is thought to be a specially fit subject for this mode of -lighting, as the electric beams can pierce the fogs which the gas-lamp -only augments, and give the traveller some hope of finding his way -through the most familiar streets.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the illustration the right-hand figure represents the Electric Light -as at present in use. The upper portion of the left-hand side represents -the forked lightning, whose dazzling whiteness is so familiar to us, -even in the noon of a summer’s day.</p> - -<p>Below are shown the Fire-fly of warm climates, and the Glow-worm, which, -in our comparatively cool country, cheers the summer evenings with its -pale lamp. As to the source of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_490" id="page_490"></a>{490}</span> this mysterious light, which burns -without producing heat sufficient to be recognised by our most delicate -instruments, we know but little.</p> - -<p>There are instruments so infinitely more sensitive than the best -thermometer, that they will record instantaneously an increase of heat -if a human being passes in front of them, though at several yards’ -distance. Yet no effect is produced on them by any of the Fire-flies or -the Glow-worm. The spectroscope itself gives little or no information, -the spectrum of the light being without bands or bars, and being what is -technically called a “continuous” spectrum.</p> - -<p>Last year I tried numbers of Glow-worms with the spectroscope, and -always with the same result. I never saw the Fire-flies alive, but, no -matter what may be the colour of the light, the spectrum, whether of the -Glow-worm or any of the Fire-flies, seems to be always continuous, and -so to give but little information as to its source.</p> - -<p>There appears, however, to be little doubt that animal electricity is -the real cause of this curious phenomenon, and that the force which is -expended in the torpedo and electric eel, in giving shocks accompanied -by slight electric sparks, may develop itself in these insects by -producing a continuous light. And just as the electric fishes can emit -or withhold the shock as they please, so can the Fire-flies and -Glow-worms give out or retain the light by which they are so well known.</p> - -<p>Then we come to the multitudinous luminous inhabitants of the sea, -which, as many of my readers have probably seen, convert the waves into -rolling masses of living fire.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Magnetism.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Now</span> we come to another condition of electrical force, called <span class="smcap">Magnetism</span>.</p> - -<p>One form of it is strongly developed in the Loadstone, an ore of iron. -This ore has the property of turning east and west when suspended -freely, it attracts any object made of iron, and can communicate its -powers to iron by merely stroking it. There is in the Museum at Oxford a -splendid specimen of the Loadstone, which has imparted its virtues to -thousands of iron magnets, and has lost none of its virtues by so doing.</p> - -<p>All bodies are now known to be magnetic in some way or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_491" id="page_491"></a>{491}</span> other. Several, -such as iron, nickel, and one or two other metals, turn north and south -when suspended on a pivot, but the great bulk of other bodies turn east -and west, and are called Diamagnetics.</p> - -<p>As we all know, the property of turning north and south has been -utilised in the Compass, without which modern science would be -paralyzed, and travel rendered impossible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_491_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_491_sml.jpg" width="363" height="121" alt="Image unavailable: LOADSTONE. -COMPASS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LOADSTONE. -COMPASS.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is worthy of notice that although the magnetic needle of the compass -turns to the north, it does not do so because it is attracted by the -north pole, but because it is repelled from the east and west.</p> - -<p>We have long known that if a current of electricity be sent round a -magnetic needle, the latter at once turns at right angles to it. On this -principle depends the Electric Telegraph. When communication is made by -using the handles, a current of electricity is sent round the needles, -and causes them to turn at right angles until stopped by a little ivory -pin, which prevents them from overshooting themselves.</p> - -<p>There is a perpetual stream of electricity passing over the earth from -east to west, and in consequence all magnetic bodies are forced to turn -at right angles, just as is the case with the magnetic needle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_492" id="page_492"></a>{492}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XVI" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XVI"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XVI.<br /><br /> -<small>TILLAGE.—DRAINAGE.—SPIRAL PRINCIPLE.—CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Systems of cultivating Ground.—The Fallow System.—Manuring the -Ground.—Custom of China.—Nature’s Abhorrence of Waste.—What -becomes of Dead Animals.—Burying-beetles.—The Scarabæus-beetles -and their Work.—Drainage <i>versus</i> Sewage.—Clay Soils and -Drains.—The Mole, the Earth-worm, Rats, Mice, and Rabbits.—The -Flexible Drain and the Lobster’s Tail.—The Turbine Pump and the -Ascidian.—The Spiral Principle.—The Smoke-jack, Kite, and Wings -of Birds.—Centrifugal Force.—Revolution of Planets.—The -“Governor” of the Steam-engine.—The Sling, Amentum, and Mop.—The -Gyroscope, the Bicycle, and the Hoop.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">S</span>EVERAL times, in the course of this work, we have touched upon man’s -dealings with the earth, such as mining and tunnelling. We will now take -another side of the same question, and, in connection with Tillage, -consider Drainage, whereby superabundant moisture is removed from the -earth, and Manuring, whereby the exhausted soil is renovated.</p> - -<p>We will take this subject first.</p> - -<p>It has long been known that it is impossible to get more out of the -ground than exists in it, and that when the soil has been so worked as -to become unproductive, there are only two remedies. The one is to allow -the ground to remain uncultivated for a time. It must be ploughed in -deeply, as if it were to be sown with a crop, and must be left to -recruit itself from the air. This is the now abandoned “fallow” system, -which used to be in full operation when I was a child.</p> - -<p>As, however, population increased, and with it the perpetually -increasing demand for food, land was found to be too precious to be -allowed to lie fallow and idle. Then came the system of rotation of -crops, potato following wheat, clover<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_493" id="page_493"></a>{493}</span> following potato, &c. But, above -all, agriculturists learned that in the long-run there is nothing so -cheap as manure, i.e. the return to the soil by animals of the elements -which these animals took out of it.</p> - -<p>On the right hand of the illustration (page 495) is shown the simplest -mode of enriching the soil, namely, by spreading the manure on the -surface of the earth, and then digging it in. Any mode of thus enriching -the earth is a proof of civilisation. No savage ever dreamed of such a -thing, and I doubt whether barbarians recognised the principle at any -time.</p> - -<p>Nowadays we have recognised the necessity of returning to the soil in -one form the elements which we have taken from it in another. As usual -in such arts of civilisation, the Chinese have long preceded us. They -waste nothing, carrying, perhaps, its principles to an extent which -scarcely suits our European ideas.</p> - -<p>They even utilise the little clippings of hair, to which every Chinaman -is almost daily subject, if he wishes to keep up his self-respect in -public. The barbers carefully preserve these clippings, and sell them to -gardeners. They are too precious to be used in general agriculture, but -the flower artist, when he plants the seed, puts in the same hole a -little pinch of human hair, knowing it to be a strong stimulant to -growth.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Without</span> multiplying examples of artificial manuring, most of which are -too familiar to need description, we will proceed to the methods by -which Nature has for countless centuries achieved the same work that Man -has lately learned to undertake.</p> - -<p>Nature abhors waste, and in the long-run will prove it, however wasteful -may be the ways of her servants. Take, for example, the case of an -ordinary tree, such as an elm, an oak, or a birch. In the autumn the -leaves fall. In the next summer scarcely a dead leaf can be found. They -have been decomposed by rain, dews, and gases, and have thus returned to -the earth more than the nutriment which they took out of it.</p> - -<p>Here man is apt to interfere. Knowing the invaluable productive powers -of decayed leaves, he removes them as they fall, and stores them in -heaps so as to form the costly, but almost indispensable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_494" id="page_494"></a>{494}</span> “leaf mould.” -In so doing, however, he deprives the trees of their natural nutriment, -and by degrees they dwindle and die.</p> - -<p>Nature, in this case, shows her superiority over Art.</p> - -<p>Then we have the remarkable fact that millions of animated beings die -annually, and no vestige of their remains is found. Hyænas and vultures -might account for a few bodies, the remnants of which have been found in -ancient caverns. But there is no hyæna which could crush the leg bones -of an adult elephant; and yet I suppose that neither in Africa nor Asia -has any one discovered the body of an elephant or rhinoceros that had -died a natural death.</p> - -<p>In the first place, there is the curious point, which I have already -mentioned, and which is shared by nearly every race of human savages, -that when an animal feels that it has received its death-stroke, it -accepts the conditions, withdraws itself from those who yet have life in -them, and yields up its life as calmly as if it were but sleeping.</p> - -<p>But what becomes of the body? As to such enormous beings as elephants, -the various species of rhinoceros, and whales, which are as large as -several elephants, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus put together, I cannot -say from practical knowledge.</p> - -<p>Still, as size is only comparative, the rule that holds good with a -small animal may hold equally good with a large one. It is my lot to -walk very often upon the banks of the Thames. It is a charming walk at -high water, but at low water there is too much odoriferous mud, and -there are too many dead dogs and cats to make it an agreeable resort, -except for enthusiastic entomologists, who seem to swarm in this -neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>Scarcely has such a carcass been stranded than it is beset by -Burying-beetles of various kinds. Hundreds upon hundreds can be shaken -out of the corpse of a dog or cat, and, before the next tide has come -up, there is scarcely any flesh left on the bones, it having been dug -into the earth by the Burying-beetles.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Then</span> there is that wonderful family of Scarabæus-beetles, which do us -invaluable service as scavengers and agriculturists. They follow the -path of the caravans, and effectively cleanse the course which has been -traversed. Even<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_495" id="page_495"></a>{495}</span> man is obliged to utilise as fuel the droppings of the -horses, cows, and camels; but the Scarabæus goes further, collecting all -that man does not need, and burying it in the earth.</p> - -<p>The instinct of the female Scarabæus urges it to gather together the -rejecta, to form them into balls, placing an egg in the middle of each -ball, and to bury them in the ground. Thus a double object is attained, -the offensive substances being removed from the surface of the ground, -where they do harm, and being transferred below the surface, where they -do good.</p> - -<p>Even the curious instinct of the dog, which leads it to bury bones, &c., -which it cannot consume, and which it often forgets, if well fed, leaves -them to be consumed by the all-absorbing earth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_495_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_495_sml.jpg" width="442" height="179" alt="Image unavailable: SCARABÆUS-BEETLES. -MEN MANURING GROUND." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SCARABÆUS-BEETLES. -MEN MANURING GROUND.</span> -</div> - -<p>It is evident that, in the end, the earth <i>must</i> receive back again that -which has been taken from it. If, for example, we follow the present -most wasteful plan of drainage, and fling into rivers everything which -ought to be utilised on land, it only gets into the sea in the end, and -in the course of years is decomposed, and returns to the earth in the -form of gases. Meanwhile, however, we have robbed the locality, deprived -it of the nourishment which it required, and forced ourselves to supply -it elsewhere at a costly rate.</p> - -<p>So runs the cycle of creation. Sooner or later, Nature will have her -way, and the more we help her, the better it will be for us.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> course I do not mean to condemn Drainage, which is an absolute -necessity in agriculture, and a matter of life and death in households. -But, when rightly conducted, it only signifies that water is removed -from a spot which is overstocked<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_496" id="page_496"></a>{496}</span> with moisture to one where it is -needed. Wet clay lands, for example, which were unproductive in point of -crops, and injurious in point of human health, have been converted by -judicious drainage into fertile and healthy grounds.</p> - -<p>This, as it will be seen, is a very different business from removing -from the soil the elements which rightly belong to it, and which sooner -or later, in some form or another, it will claim and recapture.</p> - -<p>Still, it is evident that in the progress of civilisation there must be -accumulations of all kinds of refuse, which savages utterly disregard. -Then we come to the question of the Drain combined with the Sewer, and -are enabled to see how the hand of man, if properly directed, only -follows the course of Nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_496_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_496_sml.jpg" width="414" height="197" alt="Image unavailable: TUNNEL OF MOLE. -SEWER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TUNNEL OF MOLE. -SEWER.</span> -</div> - -<p>So we undermine our towns with a complex system of drains which are -understood by only a very few people. For example, just as a tree is -only half visible, the roots being about equivalent to the branches, -London is only half visible, the subterranean architecture being little, -if at all, inferior to that of the surface.</p> - -<p>Here, again, we are met by Nature. Very few of us can appreciate the -extensive subterranean works which underlie us, even where the hand of -man has never been placed. Putting aside a multitude of tiny creatures, -there are, in our own country, the earth-worms which pierce the ground -in all directions, at the same time draining and manuring it. They -penetrate it with their little burrows, thus admitting the air, which -the earth needs as much as we do, and allowing moisture to take its -right place. Then there are the moles, that are perpetually travelling -after the earth-worms, and making drainage galleries of wonderful<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_497" id="page_497"></a>{497}</span> -extent. Then there are the numerous other burrowers, such as rabbits, -mice, and rats, which are common everywhere, besides the less plentiful -foxes, badgers, and various burrowing birds, all of which assist more or -less in the drainage of the earth.</p> - -<p>Even bees and wasps of different kinds assist in this work, the hardest -soil yielding to their small, though powerful, jaws and feet, and so -being made, if only temporarily, able to carry off the superabundant -moisture.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_497_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_497_sml.jpg" width="411" height="137" alt="Image unavailable: TAIL OF LOBSTER. -FLEXIBLE WATER MAIN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TAIL OF LOBSTER. -FLEXIBLE WATER MAIN.</span> -</div> - -<p>One of the most ingenious modes of Drainage was that which was invented -by Watts, and was avowedly based on Nature. He had engaged himself to -carry a drain tube through, or rather over, an extremely irregular bed -of a river, where the pipes must accommodate themselves to existing -conditions. The modern system of pipes not having been brought into -existence, Watts had to adapt himself to circumstances, and did so by -making his pipe on the model of a Lobster’s tail, as shown in the -illustration.</p> - -<p>We have already seen how the same object has been utilised in warfare as -a pattern for armour, but it does seem rather strange that it should be -employed in the tranquil arts of peace.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> method of removing superfluous water is by the <span class="smcap">Turbine Pump</span>, by -which the water, instead of being cast up in successive jets, was flung -out in a continuous torrent. Some of my readers may remember the -sensation which was created at the first Exhibition of 1852 by the then -extraordinary powers of the Turbine Pump.</p> - -<p>Yet this is, after all, nothing but an imperfect copy of the now -celebrated being to which human beings have been supposed to owe their -origin, namely, the Ascidian, popularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_498" id="page_498"></a>{498}</span> known by the name of the -Sea-squirt, and with very good reasons.</p> - -<p>As a rule, it keeps up a rotation of tentacles, such as is shown in the -illustration, acting exactly on the principle of the Turbine Pump, and -drawing in and discharging water with a power that is perfectly -astonishing in so small a being. Beside this, it has the power of -flinging out at once the whole of its watery contents, and any one who -has incautiously handled a mass of Ascidians, and been drenched by them, -can answer with more truth than satisfaction as to the water-absorbing -power of the Turbine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_498_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_498_sml.jpg" width="394" height="210" alt="Image unavailable: ASCIDIAN. -TURBINE PUMP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">ASCIDIAN. -TURBINE PUMP.</span> -</div> - -<p>Then the Ascidian can do what the Turbine cannot do. In the Turbine the -water which is taken in must necessarily be ejected in equal -proportions. With the Ascidian the same thing takes place, but with the -additional power of ejecting all the contained water, and then beginning -afresh.</p> - -<p>There is now no doubt that the Circular or the Turbine Pump is the most -powerful in such cases as emptying mines of the water which, in spite of -all precautions, will make its way in, and destroy the labours of the -miners. But I merely wish to carry out the object of this work by -remarking that the invaluable Turbine Pump is only a very inferior copy -of a natural pump, which existed, as far as we know, centuries before -Man could find his place upon this earth.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Spiral.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">In</span> an early portion of this work the Spiral or Screw was touched upon, -mostly in connection with the propulsion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_499" id="page_499"></a>{499}</span> vessels. We will now extend -it a little further, and see how it is modified so as to perform other -offices than those which have been described.</p> - -<p>Allusion has already been made to the Spiral or Wedge principle, but -some of the illustrations were accidentally omitted. I therefore -introduce them here, this being a chapter of miscellanea.</p> - -<p>The Windmill has previously been described, as has also the ship’s -Screw, another form of which is here given.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_499_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_499_sml.jpg" width="439" height="349" alt="Image unavailable: BIRDS’ WINGS AND TAILS. -SMOKE-JACK. SHIP’S SCREW. WINDMILL. KITE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BIRDS’ WINGS AND TAILS. -SMOKE-JACK. SHIP’S SCREW. WINDMILL. KITE.</span> -</div> - -<p>In the centre is shown the mechanism popularly known as the Smoke-jack, -though it really works by means of hot air, and only becomes gradually -choked by the soot which the smoke by degrees deposits upon it. It is, -in fact, nothing but a windmill working horizontally instead of -vertically, the vanes being moved by the rapidly ascending heated air. -So powerful is the spiral pressure of this air, that in my old college -days at least a dozen rows of heavily laden spits were perpetually -turned by a single Smoke-jack. It is many years since I visited my old -college, and I cannot say whether the Smoke-jack still exists, but, as -it did its work well so long ago, I presume that it does so now.</p> - -<p>Then there is the well-known spiral ventilator set in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_500" id="page_500"></a>{500}</span> windows of -workshops. Perhaps its revolution may not assist the air-current, but it -does, at all events, show how much exhausted air has to be expelled from -the room, and consequently how much fresh air needs to be brought into -it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> the reader may be surprised to see that the Wings and Tail of a -bird and a boy’s Kite are placed among the examples of the Spiral -principle. Yet such is the fact. If the reader will move up and down the -wings of any bird which will not bite him, he will find that there is in -them a peculiar screwing motion, difficult of description, but very -observable.</p> - -<p>It is mostly for want of this movement that all our attempts at fitting -wings to human beings have been such utter failures. We can make the -wings work up and down well enough, but we cannot as yet impart to them -the all-important spiral movement.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">That</span> very well-known toy, the Kite, is another example of the same -principle which drives the screw steamer. Its “tail,” which need be -nothing but a piece of string with a proportionate weight at the end, -keeps the Kite in a slanting position, providing that the “belly-band” -be properly arranged. The consequence is that the pressure of the wind -acts on it as on a wedge, and so drives it upwards until the combined -weight of itself and the string counterbalance the upward pressure.</p> - -<p>Indeed, the only object of the string is to keep the Kite at a proper -inclination; and, if that object could be attained by the force of -gravity alone, the Kite would ascend to a height nearly double that to -which it can at present attain.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Centrifugal Force.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Closely</span> connected with the spiral principle is Centrifugal Force, that -marvellous power which gives to our whole solar system its ceaseless -movements, and may extend, as far as we know, to other and vaster -systems yet unknown.</p> - -<p>Tie a ball to a string, and swing it round, and it will be an exact, -though rough, representation of the double power by which the movements -of the heavenly bodies are governed, our earth being included among -them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_501" id="page_501"></a>{501}</span></p> - -<p>The string represents the force of attraction, which binds all our -planets to the sun, and their satellites to the planets, while the force -that is employed in swinging the ball represents the mysterious power -that issues from the sun, and gives motion to the planets. The metaphor -is a very homely one, but it is nevertheless correct.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the accompanying illustration are several examples of Centrifugal -Force as found both in Nature and Art. On the left hand we have diagrams -of some of the heavenly bodies, showing the revolution of their -offspring, so to call them, while on the right are seen examples of -Centrifugal Force as applied to human use. For convenience’ sake, the -illustrations have been separated into two portions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_501_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_501_sml.jpg" width="479" height="250" alt="Image unavailable: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF HEAVENLY BODIES. -CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF “GOVERNORS” OF ENGINE. SLING. -AMENTUM AND MOP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF HEAVENLY BODIES. -CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF “GOVERNORS” OF ENGINE. SLING. -AMENTUM AND MOP.</span> -</div> - -<p>In the first of these illustrations we have the “Governor” of the -steam-engine, that wonderfully ingenious and simple piece of mechanism -which controls the force of the steam, and, without the superintendence -of man, acts almost as a living being might.</p> - -<p>It is composed of two heavy metal balls, hinged, as shown in the -illustration, to a movable collar which slides up and down the central -rod. When the engine is at work the Governor revolves, and the harder it -works, the more rapid is the revolution. Consequently, as it revolves, -the balls diverge and draw the sliding collar up the rod.</p> - -<p>Here lies the whole beauty of the invention. The sliding<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_502" id="page_502"></a>{502}</span> collar is -connected with the safety-valve. Thus, if the engine should be working -beyond its proper powers, the Governor draws up the collar, and releases -sufficient steam to take the undue pressure off the boiler. Thus the -engine may be left, so to speak, to manage itself.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> are shown two examples of Centrifugal Force as applied in ancient -warfare, namely, the Sling, which is now retained merely as a boy’s toy, -and the Amentum, which was practically a sling attached to a spear. Both -weapons have been superseded by the modern firearms, but the Sling is -really a more formidable offensive weapon, in skilful hands, than is -generally suspected.</p> - -<p>A good slinger is as sure of his aim as a good rifleman, and can send -his missile to a wonderful distance. Were I to be armed with the best -pistol hitherto invented, I should be sorry to fight an accomplished -slinger, unless under cover.</p> - -<p>The really tremendous power of the Sling is obtained by Centrifugal -Force, the weapon, with its missile, being whirled in the air, and then -one string being loosed with a peculiar knack something like the “loose” -of a good archer. In consequence, the centrifugal force is converted -into direct force, and the missile flies directly forwards.</p> - -<p>The Amentum is simply a cord tied to a javelin, so that the thrower has -the advantage of a lever, which, after all, is only the conversion of -centrifugal force.</p> - -<p>The very familiar Mop, flinging off its moisture to a considerable -distance, needs no description; but I have introduced it to show the -action of centrifugal force in small as well as in great things.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> next illustration shows how this very same power acts upon the -greatest as well as the least of objects, and enables them to maintain -positions which otherwise they must of necessity fail to do. Take, for -example, our own Earth, and its peculiar position of being tilted on one -side, so as to give us the alternative seasons as it flies on its annual -course.</p> - -<p>This is simply due to its own rapid revolution, which, on the same -principle that keeps the arrow and the rifle-ball straight on their -course, prevents it from altering its position.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_503" id="page_503"></a>{503}</span></p> - -<p>The very same principle acts on the boys’ Tops, and is shown in a really -remarkable manner by the professional Japanese top-spinners, who will -place several tops upon each other, as shown in the illustration, and -make them sway backwards and forwards in the most extraordinary manner, -sometimes being all upright, and sometimes leaning almost at right -angles to each other.</p> - -<p>A favourite mode of illustrating this power of Centrifugal Force is by -the Gyroscope, a figure of which is given on the right hand of the -illustration. The interior wheel is made to revolve rapidly, and the -effect of the revolution is to enable the instrument to maintain a -horizontal position, even when suspended on one side, as shown in the -engraving.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_503_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_503_sml.jpg" width="423" height="157" alt="Image unavailable: REVOLUTION OF EARTH. -JAPANESE TOPS. -GYROSCOPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">REVOLUTION OF EARTH. -JAPANESE TOPS. -GYROSCOPE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The power of this revolution is quite wonderful, even in a small -Gyroscope which can be purchased for a few shillings. It almost seems to -be alive, and to insist on retaining its position, in spite of all -efforts to the contrary.</p> - -<p>This principle is used in the swinging cabin of the Bessemer ship, and -is also employed by quoit-players in keeping their missile steady as it -flies towards the mark. Even the now fashionable Bicycle is managed on -the same principle.</p> - -<p>As is well known to all bicycle riders, it is comparatively easy to -maintain the balance when the pace is rapid and the wheels revolving -quickly. The difficulty is, to do so when the pace is slow, and the -rider is deprived of the centrifugal force which keeps him on his -balance almost in spite of himself. It is just the same with a child’s -hoop, which runs straight and upright when it is driven rapidly, or -when, for example, it runs downhill. But, as soon as the centrifugal -force is expended, it begins to waver, loses its direction, and soon -falls to the ground.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_504" id="page_504"></a>{504}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XVII" id="USEFUL_ARTS_CHAPTER_XVII"></a>USEFUL ARTS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER XVII.<br /><br /> -<small>OSCILLATION.—UNITED STRENGTH.—THE DOME.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Connection of Oscillation with Centrifugal Force.—Equality of Time -in Oscillation.—The Spider.—The Stone and String.—Pendulum of -the Clock, and its Effect on the Machinery.—Acceleration and -Retardation.—Compensating Pendulums.—The Metronome, and its Use -in Music.—A simple Metronome.—Value of the Instrument in -War.—The Escapement, and its Connection with the Pendulum.—Mode -of Action.—Larva of Burying-beetle.—Earthworms and -Serpents.—Union is Strength.—The Hippopotamus Rope and its -Structure.—The Spider-web.—Distinction between the -Threads.—Principle of the Dome.—The Arch, and its Connection with -the Dome.—Esquimaux Huts.—Receiver of the Air-pump, and its Power -of Resistance.—The Human Skull and the Egg.—Accidental -Resemblance.—The Salad-dressing Bottle.—The Medusa, Strobila, and -Hydra.</p></div> - -<p>A portion of our last chapter dealt of Centrifugal Force. We will now -proceed to another well-known power, which seems to be a variation, or -perhaps a division, of the same power. I mean the principle of -<span class="smcap">Oscillation</span>, which has done so much for the present state of the world. -I mention the connection of the two principles because it is evident -that, if Oscillation were continued in one direction, it would be -converted into centrifugal force. In fact, it can only be considered as -centrifugal force interrupted.</p> - -<p>The chief point in this subject is the equal time occupied by the -oscillating body, no matter what may be the “arc” distance through which -it sways, provided that the length of the line remains the same. The -discovery of this principle by Galileo in a church at Florence is too -well known to need repetition.</p> - -<p>This principle may be observed by any one, and at almost any time. The -Spider at the end of its line illustrates it, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_505" id="page_505"></a>{505}</span> so does a stone tied -to a string, both of which objects are shown in the illustration.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> various departments of Art, Oscillation is absolutely invaluable. We -will take, for instance, the best known of these examples, namely, the -Pendulum, by which the movements of clocks are regulated. Without some -mode of regulation, the works would run down rapidly, and the clock -rendered incapable of measuring time. But, in the Pendulum, we possess a -means of making a clock go at any desirable rate, and be faster and -slower at pleasure; a long Pendulum working slowly, and a short one -rapidly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_505_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_505_sml.jpg" width="433" height="316" alt="Image unavailable: SPIDER. -OSCILLATING WEIGHT. -METRONOME. -PENDULUM." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SPIDER. -OSCILLATING WEIGHT. -METRONOME. -PENDULUM.</span> -</div> - -<p>How the Pendulum affects the working of a clock may be seen by reference -to the right-hand figure of the illustration. The movements of the clock -are connected with the Pendulum by means of an ingenious piece of -mechanism called an “escapement,” because it only allows the wheel shown -in the illustration to move one cog at each swing of the Pendulum.</p> - -<p>Now, as in the latitude of London a pendulum which is a trifle more than -thirty-nine inches in length swings once in a second, it is evident -that, by lengthening or shortening the Pendulum, we have the rate of the -clock entirely under command.</p> - -<p>For example, if a Pendulum be required to swing once in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_506" id="page_506"></a>{506}</span> two seconds, it -must be four times as long as that which swings once in one second, -while to swing once in three seconds it must be nine times as long, the -length being measured by the square of the time of vibration.</p> - -<p>We are thus able to “regulate” clocks by lengthening the Pendulum if -they be too fast, and shortening them if they be too slow. The reader -will probably have remarked that the conditions of the atmosphere—such -as heat, cold, moisture, or dryness—must have an effect on the length -of the Pendulum, and thus alter the rating of the clock. So they do, and -in consequence the Compensating Pendulums have been invented, some of -them being made of metallic rods of different powers of expansion, -mostly brass and steel, while others carry a quantity of mercury in a -glass tube near the bottom of the Pendulum.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> familiar example of the Pendulum is the Metronome, which is -simply a Pendulum with a weight at the top as well as counterpoise below -the bottom, the weight moving up or down so as to decrease or hasten the -pace. Generally a bell is added to it, which is struck at the beginning -of each bar.</p> - -<p>The exactness of its beats is perfect, as is known to all musicians, and -is calculated to take the conceit out of players who are apt to -disregard their time. I knew one lady, a really good pianiste, before -whom I placed my Metronome. Before she had played many bars she broke -down, exclaiming that the horrid bell always said “ting” in the wrong -place. However, she soon acknowledged the value of the instrument, and -was glad to use it.</p> - -<p>A very good Metronome may be made by fastening a bullet to the end of a -piece of tape, and swinging it backwards and forwards, regulating the -tape according to the time required. Such a Metronome is very portable, -and extremely useful where the conveyance of the clockwork instrument -would be troublesome. Moreover, its beats can be seen by a great number -of persons. I have often used it myself.</p> - -<p>Such a Metronome is used in the army, in order to regulate the pace of -the soldier’s step, it being of the last importance that the pace should -always be the same. Otherwise it would be impossible to calculate the -time which ought to be consumed in marching a certain distance, and the -military calculations<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_507" id="page_507"></a>{507}</span> on which depends the success or failure of a -campaign would be wholly upset, half an hour too soon or too late -meaning failure.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Escapement.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">As</span> we are on the subject of the pendulum and Escapement, we will say a -few words about the latter piece of mechanism. It is here given on a -larger scale than in the previous illustration, so that its action may -be more easily understood. Whether in watch or clock, the Escapement is -exactly the same in principle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_507_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_507_sml.jpg" width="384" height="147" alt="Image unavailable: LARVA OF BURYING-BEETLE. -ESCAPEMENT OF WATCH." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">LARVA OF BURYING-BEETLE. -ESCAPEMENT OF WATCH.</span> -</div> - -<p>First there is the escapement wheel, the circumference of which is -furnished with a number of very deep cogs, varying as to the work which -they have to do. Then there comes the escapement itself, which swings on -its pivot, and is regulated in its oscillations by the pendulum. As it -swings backwards and forwards, it is evident that only one tooth of the -wheel can “escape,” and only that in one direction.</p> - -<p>We can reverse a steam-engine, but the man has yet to be found who can -reverse a clock, <i>i.e.</i> enable it to continue going in the opposite -direction. The only mode would be to enable one set of cogs to flatten -themselves, so as to pass the escapement, and a second set to start up -in exactly the opposite direction. Or perhaps there might be two -parallel escapement wheels, capable of being connected or disconnected -with the clock at pleasure. As, however, a reverse movement is quite -needless, no such invention seems to have been made.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand is seen an example of the same principle as shown in -Nature. It represents a larva or grub of the Burying-beetle. It has no -legs available for locomotion, and yet it can get along with tolerable -speed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_508" id="page_508"></a>{508}</span></p> - -<p>Many years ago, when living in Wiltshire, I was much struck with this -fact. There had been an epidemic among sheep, which killed them off so -fast that the farmers would at last not even bury them, but took off the -skins, and left the bodies to moulder as they best might.</p> - -<p>It was very unpleasant for the farmers, but just the contrary for the -Burying-beetles, which simply swarmed in the deserted carcasses. If one -of them were tapped with a stick, hundreds of these larvæ came scuttling -out, displaying an activity which was really remarkable in creatures -practically legless.</p> - -<p>In reality this movement is achieved by an apparatus very similar in its -action to that of the escapement. The rings, or “segments,” of which the -body is composed, are furnished with rows of sharp points, arranged very -like the cogs of the escapement wheel. By alternately elongating and -contracting the body, these points catch against surrounding substances, -and force the creature onwards, only allowing of movement in one -direction.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader will remember that in an earlier part of this work it -has been mentioned that the various worms propel themselves by the same -means. So do the Serpents, the edges of the scales serving the same -purpose as the hairs of the worms and the hooks of the grub.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Union is Strength.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">ON</span> the left hand of the accompanying illustration we have an example of -the wonderful power obtained by uniting together a number of -comparatively weak objects. It represents a portion of the rope attached -to the harpoon with which the natives of some parts of Africa attack and -kill the hippopotamus.</p> - -<p>Considering that a full-grown hippopotamus weighs several tons, and, in -spite of its enormous size, is as active as a tiger, we can infer the -strength of the rope which must be needed to hold such an animal when -excited with rage and pain.</p> - -<p>A few years ago the female hippopotamus at the Zoological Gardens, when -deprived of her cub, actually tried to leap over the lofty iron barrier, -and so far succeeded as to throw her weight on the uppermost bar. -Fortunately it was made of well-wrought iron, and was only bent by her -weight. Had it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_509" id="page_509"></a>{509}</span> been made of cast-iron, like most railings, she would -have snapped it like glass.</p> - -<p>Now, the fibres of which the rope is composed are individually feeble, -but, when they lend their strength to each other, their strength is -amazing. It is well shown by a lasso in my possession, made of the -fibres of the aloe-leaf. It is scarcely as thick as a man’s little -finger, and yet it is strong enough to resist the efforts of the most -powerful wild bull. I have some of the separate fibres, and it is -interesting to notice how fibres so slight when separate should be so -strong when united. Part of the rope has been unlaid, so as to show the -manner in which it has been put together.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_509_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_509_sml.jpg" width="436" height="215" alt="Image unavailable: HIPPOPOTAMUS ROPE. -SPINNERET OF SPIDER." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HIPPOPOTAMUS ROPE. -SPINNERET OF SPIDER.</span> -</div> - -<p>Towards the harpoon itself, a number of small cords laid loosely side by -side are used, so as to prevent the hippopotamus from severing the rope -with his chisel-like teeth, which he would assuredly do if it were -single. The multitudinous cords become entangled among the teeth, and -baffle his efforts; but still their unity is their strength; and, though -the animal may sever one or two of them, the others retain their hold -until he dies under a shower of spears.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right-hand side of the illustration is the Spinneret of the -ordinary garden Spider, showing the many orifices from which the silken -threads emerge. It is a remarkable point, and one which, I believe, is -seldom noticed, that the Spider can at pleasure combine all these fibres -into a single cord, or issue and keep them separate, just as is the case -with the hippopotamus rope.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_510" id="page_510"></a>{510}</span></p> - -<p>The latter operation may be seen whenever a large fly gets into the web. -The Spider darts at it, bites it, and then, ejecting a loose mass of -fibres, rolls it up in a moment, as in a shroud, carries it off and -hangs it in a convenient place, and mends the broken meshes of the web. -But both kinds of the cords of the net are made differently from the -winding-up fibres, the former being fixed together, and the latter kept -separate.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Principle of the Dome.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> are all familiar with Domes, especially when the Dome of St. Paul’s -is the most conspicuous object in our metropolis. Few persons, however, -except professional architects and builders, seem to ask themselves the -principle on which the Dome is constructed.</p> - -<p>The strength of the arch is well known, and the Dome is practically a -number of arches, affording material support to each other, and so -enormously increasing the strength of the edifice.</p> - -<p>A good idea of the Dome principle may be formed by taking two croquet -hoops, placing them at right angles to each other, tying them together -at the intersection, and pushing the ends in the ground. Even by this -very simple arrangement considerable strength can be obtained; but, if -the hoops be sufficiently multiplied to form a close Dome, it will be -evident that the strength will be correspondingly increased.</p> - -<p>So strong, indeed, is the Dome, that it could be made without mortar or -cement, although, of course, its strength is increased by their use. A -very good example of a Dome thus constructed is found in the “igloo,” or -snow-hut of the Esquimaux, which has already been described.</p> - -<p>As to the example which I have selected, it would have been easy enough -to have chosen one of the great Domes of the world, such as St. Peter’s -at Rome, St. Maria del Fiore at Florence, St. Paul’s of London, or St. -Geneviève or the Invalides of Paris.</p> - -<p>I have, however, selected the present example on account of the thinness -of its walls, the fragility of its material, and the enormous pressure -which it has to undergo. This is the “Receiver” of the Air-pump. It is -made of glass not thicker than an ordinary tumbler, and yet, even when -exhausted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_511" id="page_511"></a>{511}</span> of air, it will resist the pressure of the atmosphere for -days together.</p> - -<p>When it is remembered that the Receiver is deprived of its internal air, -and therefore has to resist a pressure equal to fifteen pounds on every -square inch of its surface, it may be imagined how strong the Dome is. -Were the top or either side to be flat, it would be crushed as soon as a -vacuum was formed sufficient to deprive it of the support of the air -within.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A glance</span> at the illustration will show how the Receiver is modelled on -the same plan as the Human Skull, the outlines being curiously similar. -It is this formation which imparts such strength to so thin a set of -bones as those which compose the human skull as enables them to protect -a sensitive organ like the brain, on which both reason and life itself -depend.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_511_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_511_sml.jpg" width="405" height="212" alt="Image unavailable: HUMAN SKULL. -RECEIVER OF AIR-PUMP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">HUMAN SKULL. -RECEIVER OF AIR-PUMP.</span> -</div> - -<p>Eggs also form good examples of the wonderful strength obtained by this -principle, their thin shells protecting the yolk and the white, as well -as the chick through its progress to maturity.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> last subject in this chapter is a curious example of an evidently -accidental resemblance in form.</p> - -<p>The figure on the right of the accompanying illustration will at once be -recognised as one of those Salad-dressing Bottles which try to conceal -by their shape the small volume of their contents.</p> - -<p>That on the left represents one of the many forms through which the -Medusa passes before it attains its perfect form. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_512" id="page_512"></a>{512}</span> was long thought -to be a separate creature, and was known under the scientific name of -Strobila. Modern researches have, however, made the discovery that it is -one of the transitional stages between the creature known as the -Trumpet-hydra (<i>Hydra tuba</i>) and the Medusa, popularly known as -Jelly-fish.</p> - -<p>The former almost exactly resembles the Hydra of our fresh waters. It is -a tiny transparent gelatinous bag—so transparent as to be scarcely -perceptible, and with some thirty or forty long and delicate tentacles -hanging from its open end. These tentacles are used in catching the -minute creatures on which it feeds. It is fixed, and, to use Mr. Rymer -Jones’s simile, looks like a beautiful silk-like pencil waving amidst -the water. Its length is not quite half an inch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_512_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_512_sml.jpg" width="309" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: TRUMPET-HYDRA. -SALAD-DRESSING BOTTLE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TRUMPET-HYDRA. -SALAD-DRESSING BOTTLE.</span> -</div> - -<p>That it should be identical with the remarkable form shown in the -illustration seems impossible, but such is the case. Its body becomes -contracted as if tied with strings, and every segment thus formed -develops a set of tentacles, breaks away, and swims off in the form of a -Medusa. The upper segment is exhibited as undergoing this process.</p> - -<p>The figure is magnified so as to show the structure better, its right -length being about one-third of an inch. A full and graphic history of -this creature and its manifold changes may be found in Mr. Rymer Jones’s -“Aquarian Naturalist.”</p> - -<p>It is not likely that the inventor of the Salad-dressing Bottle ever saw -a Hydra, but the resemblance is strangely exact.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_513" id="page_513"></a>{513}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="ACOUSTICS_CHAPTER_I" id="ACOUSTICS_CHAPTER_I"></a>ACOUSTICS.<br /><br /> -CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> -<small>PERCUSSION.—THE STRING AND REED.—THE TRUMPET.—EAR-TRUMPET.—STETHOSCOPE.</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Science of Sound.—Rhythmical Vibrations.—The Drum.—Primitive -Drums.—The Solid and Hollow Log.—The Bass Drum and -Kettle-drum.—African Drums.—Gnostic Gems and the Ashanti -Drum.—Tympanum, or Drum of the Human Ear, and its Mechanism.—An -artificial Tympanum.—The String.—The Bow and the Harp.—The -Harpsichord and the Zither.—The Bow and the Violin.—The -Cricket.—The Vibrator, or Reed.—The Jew’s Harp and -Harmonium.—The Cicada and its Song.—Harmonics upon Strings.—The -Æolian Harp.—Harmonics upon the Trumpet.—The Trombone.—Trachea -of the Swan.—The Ear-trumpet.—The Sea-shell.—The -Stethoscope.—Savage Food.—The Aye-aye.—The Siren and its -Uses.—Echo and Whispering Gallery.</p></div> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N a work of this nature it would be absolutely impossible, not to say -out of place, to give an account of so elaborate a subject as Acoustics, -<i>i.e.</i> the science of Sound. Suffice it to say, that all sounds are -produced by the vibration of air, and that the fewer vibrations, the -lower is the sound, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> - -<p>When such vibrations are produced regularly, they form Musical sounds, -but, if irregularly, the sounds can be only distinguished under the term -of Noise. The earliest germ of music lies in certain savage races, who, -as long as they can maintain a rhythmical beat on any resonant -substance, do not particularly care what it is. A hollow tree is a -splendid instrument in their opinion, but, if this cannot be had, a dry -log of wood will answer the same purpose.</p> - -<p>Some tribes, more ingenious than others, cut a deep groove upon the -upper surface of a log, hollow it through this groove, and then hammer -away at it to their hearts’ content. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_514" id="page_514"></a>{514}</span> next move was to cut off a -section of the trunk of a tree, hollow it, set it on end, and then beat -it on the sides.</p> - -<p>Lastly, some one hit upon the idea that if the open upper part of the -hollowed log were covered with a tightly stretched membrane, and that if -the membrane, instead of the log, were beaten, the resonance would be -increased. In consequence, the real Drum was invented, and seems to have -existed from time immemorial in parts of the world so distant that they -could not have had any communication with each other.</p> - -<p>Take, for example, the well-known “Bass Drum” of our bands, which is -shown on the right hand of the figure. We make it a very ornamental -article, with frame of metal, and heraldic decorations of all kinds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_514_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_514_sml.jpg" width="356" height="180" alt="Image unavailable: BONES AND DRUM OF EAR. - -a TUBE OF EAR. -b DRUM. -c HAMMER. -d ANVIL. -e STIRRUP. - - DRUMS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">BONES AND DRUM OF EAR. - -a TUBE OF EAR. -b DRUM. -c HAMMER. -d ANVIL. -e STIRRUP. - - DRUMS.</span> -</div> - -<p>Lying against it is one of a pair of Kettle-drums, such as are always -seen in mounted bands. They look very easy to play, but, if the reader -will try a pair, he will soon find his mistake.</p> - -<p>But there are savage tribes of Western Africa who make Drums of such -wonderful power that their sullen roar is heard for miles around, as -their slow, triple beat summons the tribe to arms like the fiery cross -of the Highland clans. As to shape, lightness, and beauty, our Drums are -infinitely superior to theirs, but, so far as I can gather from personal -and written narratives of African travellers, none of our Drums surpass -theirs in richness, depth of tone, and power of carrying sound.</p> - -<p>Sometimes these Drums, instead of being mere cylinders, are carved into -the most strange and fantastical patterns. I possess one of these -curious Drums, brought from Ashanti, and carved out of a solid piece of -wood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_515" id="page_515"></a>{515}</span></p> - -<p>The strange point in it is, that it represents a double head carrying, -after all negro fashions, a sort of vessel upon it. One part of the head -represents a human head (not that of a negro), while the other merges -gradually into an eagle’s head and beak. It is, in fact, a Gnostic gem, -and would pass muster as such if it had been engraved on chalcedony, -cornelian, or other semi-precious stones which are employed in the -seal-engraver’s art.</p> - -<p>Upon this composite head is placed the Drum itself, which is also cut -out of the solid block, and which, after the fashion of West African -Drums, has a hole on one side.</p> - -<p>This remarkable instrument was given to me by an old merchant captain, -who brought it himself from West Africa, and who, when I made his -acquaintance, had actually painted it all kinds of colours, planted it -in his garden, and was using the Drum as a flower-pot. Of course, as -soon as it came into my possession, I put it in “pickle,”—i.e. a strong -solution of alkali,—brushed off the paint, and placed it in my museum, -where it is now.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration on page <a href="#page_514">514</a> is given a sort of map -or chart of the human Ear, with its internal Drum, or Tympanum, as it is -scientifically termed.</p> - -<p>It is by the vibration of this Drum that hearing is made possible, the -vibrations of the air being transmitted to the Drum by means of a -beautiful bony apparatus, termed the Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup. -Sometimes the action of the Drum is partially checked, and then the -sufferer is said to be “hard of hearing.” Sometimes it is broken, or its -action totally clogged, and then he is said to be “stone deaf.” There -have been cases where an artificial tympanum has been inserted, and -answered its purpose fairly well.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The String and Reed.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">It</span> has previously been mentioned that all sounds are owing to vibrations -of the air. But there are many ways of producing these vibrations, and -each mode gives a different quality of tone. We have already seen, by -means of the drum, how sound is produced by percussion. We shall now see -how sounds can be produced by the vibrations of a String.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_516" id="page_516"></a>{516}</span></p> - -<p>If the string of a bow be pulled and smartly loosed, the result is a -distinctly musical sound, higher or lower according to the length and -tension of the string. Perhaps some of my readers may recall the passage -in Homer’s “Odyssey,” where Ulysses strings the fatal bow:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Heedless he heard them; but disdained reply,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">The bow perusing with exactest eye.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Then, as some heavenly minstrel, taught to sing<br /></span> -<span class="i1">High notes responsive to the trembling string,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">To some new strain when he adapts the lyre,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Or the dumb lute refits with vocal wire,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Relaxes, strains, and draws them to and fro;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">So the great master drew the mighty bow,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And drew with ease. One hand aloft displayed<br /></span> -<span class="i1">The bending horns, and one the string essayed.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">From his essaying hand the string let fly,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Twanged short and sharp, like the shrill swallow’s cry.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The Harp is, in fact, nothing but a magnified bow, with a number of -strings of graduated length and tension. Some very beautiful experiments -have been made on this subject by the Rev. Sir F. A. G. Ouseley, -Professor of Music at Oxford, who stretched a string of sixty-four feet -in length, and found that although, when vibrating, it must produce a -note, there was no human ear that could distinguish it. Yet, if combined -with other musical instruments, it would probably do its work well. The -theory of the vibrations will be briefly described on another page.</p> - -<p>These vibrations may be produced in various manners. The string may be -pulled with the fingers, as in the harp, the guitar, the zither, or even -the violin, &c., in pizzicato passages.</p> - -<p>The old harpsichord, now an instrument vanished into the shadows of the -past, pulled the strings with little strips of quill, acting like the -thumb-ring of the zither-player. The “plectrum” of the ancients acted in -the same manner, and the Japanese have at the present day a sort of -guitar played with a plectrum. I have heard it, but cannot particularly -admire the effect, the notes appearing to be without feeling, and as if -they were played on a barrel-organ.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, as in our modern pianos, the strings are struck by hammers -instead of being pulled by fingers, plectrum, or goose-quill.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_517" id="page_517"></a>{517}</span></p> - -<p>The most ingenious mode of causing musical vibration is the Bow, which -is too familiar to need a detailed description. Suffice it to say that -it really is a modified bow, the place of the string being supplied by a -flat band of horsehair, which is drawn over the string, and so causes it -to vibrate. In order to enable the bow to grip the string, it is rubbed -with resin almost as often as a billiard-player chalks his cue.</p> - -<p>Some skill is required even in producing a sound by the bow. It looks as -if any one could do it, but a novice, if he extorts any sound at all, -never rises above a squeak. When I took my first violin lessons, nearly -thirty years ago, I was so horrified at the discordant sounds elicited -from the instrument, that I retired to the topmost garret of the house -in order not to hurt any one’s feelings except my own.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_517_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_517_sml.jpg" width="432" height="204" alt="Image unavailable: CRICKET. -CICADA. -VIOLIN. -JEW’S HARP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">CRICKET. -CICADA. -VIOLIN. -JEW’S HARP.</span> -</div> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration is seen a well-known example of the -imitation of Nature by Art. This is the common Cricket, whose loud -shrill call is more familiar than agreeable.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, while engaged on my “Insects at Home,” I gave much time -to the examination of the structures by which such a sound can be -produced. On the under side of the wing-covers, or “elytra,” as they are -scientifically termed, are notched ridges, which, when examined with a -moderate power of the microscope, have something of this appearance -~~~~~~~. The friction of these notches produces the musical sound, -which, as the reader will see, is exactly analogous to the friction of -the bow upon the string.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_518" id="page_518"></a>{518}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Next</span> we come to the Vibrator, sometimes called the Reed. It is -introduced into various musical instruments, such, for example, as the -harmonium, the clarionet, the oboe, the bassoon, and various organ -pipes.</p> - -<p>The simplest form of the Vibrator is shown in the Jew’s Harp, as it is -popularly called, though it is not a harp, and has nothing to do with -Jews.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_518_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_518_sml.jpg" width="414" height="121" alt="Image unavailable: VIBRATING STRINGS. -ÆOLIAN HARP." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">VIBRATING STRINGS. -ÆOLIAN HARP.</span> -</div> - -<p>The word is really a mistaken pronunciation of “jaw’s harp,” because the -instrument is held against the teeth, while its tongue is vibrated by -strokes of the finger. These vibrations affect the air within the mouth, -and, by expanding or contracting the mouth, the sound is lowered or -raised according to the laws of Acoustics. Of course, the range of notes -is very small, being limited to those of the common chord, and even they -being attainable only by a practised performer. Very good effects, -however, have been produced by means of a series of Jew’s Harps, set to -different tones by loading the end of the tongue with sealing-wax or -similar substances.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">An</span> apparatus constructed on the same principle is to be found in the -vocal organs of the male Cicada. If one of these insects be examined on -the lower surface, two curious and nearly circular flaps will be seen, -just at the junction of the thorax with the abdomen. It is by the action -of these two little vibrators that the insect is able to produce a sound -so loud, that in calm weather it may be heard at the distance of a mile.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> accompanying illustration is, in fact, a sort of chart as to the -vibration of sound.</p> - -<p>On the right is shown the <span class="smcap">Æolian Harp</span>, with its upper lid raised, so as -to show the structure of the strings. These are all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_519" id="page_519"></a>{519}</span> tuned to the same -note, the present D being generally accepted as being most free from -false tuning, and less liable for the errors of “temperament.” Several -of the strings are an octave lower than the others, but the tonic is -always the same.</p> - -<p>The instrument is placed in a current of air, generally in a window, -with the sash let down upon it, and the air-currents set the strings -vibrating in a most wonderful manner.</p> - -<p>There is no need for human fingers to touch them, but they automatically -divide themselves into the component parts of the common chord, and -produce octaves, fifths, and thirds <i>ad infinitum</i>.</p> - -<p>On the left hand of the same illustration is exhibited a string of the -same length and tension, vibrating in two different ways. The upper -figure shows it divided into three portions, each of which gives the -fifth above the tonic, and all of which, when sounding simultaneously, -give a fulness and richness to the tone which could only be attained -otherwise by three distinct instruments. All players of stringed -instruments know how invaluable are these harmonics, without which many -passages of well-known music could not be played, and which are produced -by “damping,” and not pressing the strings.</p> - -<p>So, if the string be lightly touched, or damped at the crossing portion -at either end, the result will be that the string divides itself into -three portions, and all three resound simultaneously.</p> - -<p>The lower string is vibrating in thirds, having divided itself into four -portions. If it were damped in the middle, it would divide itself into -two portions, and sound octaves.</p> - -<p>The subject is a most interesting one, but our space is nearly -exhausted, and we must pass to another branch of it.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> all brass instruments furnished with a mouthpiece, and not with a -reed, the notes are obtained by vibrations of the enclosed air, caused -by the movement of the lips. They are all set to some definite tonic, -sometimes C natural, but mostly to a flat tone, such as B flat or E -flat.</p> - -<p>Taking the ordinary military trumpet or bugle as an example, we have -(when we have learned how to play it), first, the tonic. By alteration -of the lips we get the octave above the tonic. Then comes the fifth; -then the third, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_520" id="page_520"></a>{520}</span> is, in fact, another octave; and then a few other -notes, the truth of which depends on the ear of the player.</p> - -<p>Now, all these notes are obtained by means of the lips, which set the -column of air vibrating, and divide it into harmonics. The apparently -complicated bugle-calls of the army are nearly all formed from four -notes only, <i>i.e.</i> (taking C as the tonic) C G C E G.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_520_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_520_sml.jpg" width="399" height="273" alt="Image unavailable: TRACHEA OF SWAN. -TROMBONE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">TRACHEA OF SWAN. -TROMBONE.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Trombone, which is shown on the right hand of the illustration, has -the advantage of being lengthened at will, and thus giving the performer -a fresh tonic, and consequently another series of harmonics. Valved and -keyed instruments have a similar advantage, the one acting by -lengthening, and the other by shortening, the column of air. The former -is infinitely the better plan, as it sets more harmonics vibrating, and -consequently gives a greater richness of tone.</p> - -<p>A familiar example of this is to be found in the Ophicleide and -Euphonium. The former is eight feet in total length, and alters its -tonic by eleven keys, which shorten the column of air. The latter is of -the same length, but, by the employment of valves, can be made sixteen -feet in length. Consequently the euphonium has practically killed the -ophicleide, just as the ophicleide killed the serpent. The -cornet-à-pistons, the brass contra-basso, the flugel horn, the tenor -sax-horn, &c., are all constructed on the same principle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_521" id="page_521"></a>{521}</span></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand of the illustration is shown the wonderful apparatus by -means of which the Swan produces its far-resounding cry. The windpipe, -or “trachea,” as it is technically named, passes down the neck, -protected by the bones, until it reaches the chest. There it leaves -them, enters the cavity of the chest, and contorts itself in such a -manner as to obtain greater length, just as is the case with the -trombone and valved instruments.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Acoustics as Aids to Surgery.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">We</span> have already seen how the air-vibrations poured in at the small end -of the trumpet can make resonant notes. We have now to see how the -reverse process can be employed, and sounds poured into the larger end -be conveyed to the ear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_521_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_521_sml.jpg" width="320" height="120" alt="Image unavailable: EAR-TRUMPET. -CONCHA OF HUMAN EAR." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">EAR-TRUMPET. -CONCHA OF HUMAN EAR.</span> -</div> - -<p>The Ear-trumpet is a familiar example of such an instrument, and, as it -is shown in the illustration, there is no need of further description. -It is rather remarkable, by the way, that the length of tube does not -seem to interfere with the conveyance of sound, as may be seen by the -speaking-tubes which are now so common in private houses, hotels, and -offices.</p> - -<p>I know of one church in which there is a special seat for deaf persons. -The reading-desk and pulpit are both fitted with the large ends of -Ear-trumpets. From them pass tubes under the flooring, and so into the -seat, where they can be applied to the ear of the deaf worshippers.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the right hand is the “Concha,” as it is called, of the human ear, -which is evidently constructed for the purpose of collecting and -concentrating sounds. Instinctively, if we wish<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_522" id="page_522"></a>{522}</span> to near any sound more -distinctly, we place the open hand behind the ear, so as to enlarge its -receptive capacity, and send a greater volume of sound into the ear.</p> - -<p>The well-known experiment of holding a shell to the ear so as to hear -the murmur of the sea is due to the same cause, the shell collecting, -though in a mixed manner, all the surrounding sounds, and making a -murmur which really resembles the distant wash of the waves upon the -shore.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_522_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_522_sml.jpg" width="428" height="298" alt="Image unavailable: SAVAGE TAPPING TREE. -SURGEON USING STETHOSCOPE." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">SAVAGE TAPPING TREE. -SURGEON USING STETHOSCOPE.</span> -</div> - -<p>Then, if we examine the various animals which need acute hearing, either -to seize prey or escape from enemies, we shall find that they have large -and mobile ears, which can be directed so as to catch the expected -sound. The hare, rabbit, and deer are examples of the latter, while the -former are well represented by the domestic cat, whose ears are always -pricked forward when she hears the scratchings of a mouse.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> most useful appliance is the <span class="smcap">Stethoscope</span>, which enables the -skilful surgeon to investigate the interior of the body almost as -clearly as if it were transparent. It is perfectly simple, being nothing -but a trumpet-shaped piece of wood, formed as shown in the illustration. -Sometimes it is hollow, and sometimes solid, but the result is the -same,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_523" id="page_523"></a>{523}</span> sound being transmitted through wood in a most remarkable manner.</p> - -<p>For example, if one end of the longest scaffolding pole be slightly -scratched with a pin, the sound will be distinctly heard by any one who -places his ear against the other end, though the person who uses the pin -can scarcely hear the sound himself. The surgeon, therefore, places the -broad end of the Stethoscope upon the patient, and the other upon his -ear, taps more or less lightly with his fingers, and by the sounds -transmitted through the Stethoscope ascertains the condition of the -internal organs.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the left hand is an illustration of the mode in which the Australian -savage, without the least idea of the theory of Acoustics, utilises the -sound-conducting power of wood. If he wishes to know whether or not a -hollow tree is tenanted by an animal of which he is in pursuit, he -places his ear against the tree, taps it smartly with his tomahawk, and -listens for the movement of the animal inside.</p> - -<p>So delicate is this test, that it is employed even when the native is -hunting for the large beetle-grubs on which they feed, and which are -accounted a luxury even by Europeans, when they have once overcome the -prejudice attaching itself to eating, without cookery, fat white grubs -as thick and long as a man’s finger.</p> - -<p>The Aye-aye is said to eat in exactly the same manner, tapping with its -long finger the trunks and branches of trees and, if it hears a maggot -inside, gnawing it out.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Measurement of Sound.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Of</span> late years we have had an instrument which enables us to measure the -vibrations of sound as accurately as the barometer measures the weight -of the atmosphere, the thermometer the temperature, and the photometer -the power of light. This is the Siren, which is shown on the right hand -of the accompanying illustration.</p> - -<p>To explain this instrument fully would require ten times the space which -we have at command, and necessitate a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_524" id="page_524"></a>{524}</span> number of drawings. I will, -therefore, endeavour to explain its principle in as brief terms as -possible.</p> - -<p>The reader will observe that at the lower part of the instrument there -is a disc pierced with a number of holes, and that above these are two -dials. Below the perforated disc, and therefore unseen, is a circular -plate, also pierced with holes. When a pipe is attached to the lower -part of the instrument, and air propelled through it, the disc begins to -revolve, every revolution being recorded by the dials, after the fashion -of the ordinary gas-meter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_524_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_524_sml.jpg" width="389" height="192" alt="Image unavailable: GNAT. -HUMBLE-BEE. -SIREN." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">GNAT. -HUMBLE-BEE. -SIREN.</span> -</div> - -<p>As the pressure is increased, the air, passing through the holes, -assumes a rhythmical beat, which soon becomes metamorphosed into musical -notes. It is evident, therefore, that, by means of this instrument, the -number of vibrations which produce a definite tone can be measured with -absolute accuracy by any one who has an ear capable of appreciating a -musical note.</p> - -<p>It is by means of the Siren that the much-disputed tonic of C will be -settled, the Continental and the English C being greatly at variance, -and even the English C having been advanced almost a tone since the time -of Handel. Much is it to be wished that Italy, the home of song, and -England, the patron of song, could unite in their tonic, instead of -having systems so widely different that an Italian singer is at a loss -with the English pitch, as is an English singer with the Italian pitch.</p> - -<p>The Siren is even brought into the service of entomologists, enabling -them to measure by the sound the rapidity with which a flying insect -moves its wings. By means of this instrument<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_525" id="page_525"></a>{525}</span> we know the origin of the -sharp, piercing “ping” of the Gnat, and the heavy, dull boom of the -Humble-bee, both of which insects are given in the illustration.</p> - -<p>Before taking leave of this subject, I may mention that the instrument -is called the Siren because it sings as well under water as in the air, -provided that water instead of air be driven through it.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Echo.</span></h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Our</span> last page will be given to the phenomenon called by the name of -<span class="smcap">Echo</span>, which consists in the power of solid substances, whether natural -or artificial, of reflecting the waves of sound thrown against them, -just as a mirror reflects the waves of light.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_525_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_525_sml.jpg" width="435" height="271" alt="Image unavailable: WHISPERING GALLERY." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="kapzion">WHISPERING GALLERY.</span> -</div> - -<p>Very often the Echo is naturally formed, as shown in the illustration, -by rocks which cast back the sound—waves thrown against them. This is -the case in several parts of Dovedale in Derbyshire, where a pistol shot -is reverberated backwards and forwards in a most wonderful manner, and a -trumpet blast repeats itself over and over again.</p> - -<p>At Walton Hall, the residence of the late C. Waterton, Esq., there is a -wonderful Echo, nearly half a mile from the house. Mr. Waterton had -discovered the Echo, which proceeded from the walls of the house, and, -having found its focus, placed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_526" id="page_526"></a>{526}</span> it a large stone, called the -Echo-stone. Any one sitting on this stone, and singing, speaking, or -whistling towards the house, heard every sound repeated, as if in -mockery.</p> - -<p>The celebrated Whispering Gallery in St. Paul’s Cathedral is nothing but -an ordinary Echo, though so intensified by the process of radiation, -that the sound is transmitted from one side of the dome to the other, -just as light or heat is reflected from concave mirrors.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_527" id="page_527"></a>{527}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2> - -<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, - -<a href="#Z">Z</a></p> - -<p class="nind"> -<a name="A" id="A"></a><span class="lettre">A.</span><br /> - -Aard-vark, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Abattis, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br /> - -Acaleph, <a href="#page_15">15</a><br /> - -Acorn Barnacles, <a href="#page_90">90</a><br /> - -Acoustics, <a href="#page_513">513</a><br /> - -Acrida viridissima, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Actinurus, <a href="#page_461">461</a><br /> - -Adze, <a href="#page_234">234</a><br /> - -Æolian Harp, <a href="#page_518">518</a><br /> - -Aërostatics, <a href="#page_436">436</a><br /> - -Air-gun, <a href="#page_77">77</a><br /> - -Aloe, <a href="#page_252">252</a><br /> - -Amentum, <a href="#page_502">502</a><br /> - -Amphidotus cordatus, <a href="#page_224">224</a><br /> - -Anchor, <a href="#page_39">39</a><br /> - -Angler-fish, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Antherozoids, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br /> - -Ant-bear, <a href="#page_100">100</a><br /> - -Ant-lion, <a href="#page_52">52</a><br /> - -Anthidium manicatum, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -Ants, <a href="#page_391">391</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a><br /> - -Ants’ Nest, <a href="#page_214">214</a><br /> - -Aphides, <a href="#page_391">391</a><br /> - -Aphrodite aculeata, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br /> - -Apple-parer, <a href="#page_456">456</a><br /> - -Aquarium, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Archer-fish, <a href="#page_78">78</a><br /> - -Architecture, <a href="#page_159">159</a><br /> - -Argus Star-fish, <a href="#page_89">89</a><br /> - -Armadillo, <a href="#page_189">189</a><br /> - -Armour, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Art, <a href="#page_472">472</a><br /> - -Artesian Well, <a href="#page_433">433</a><br /> - -Arundinaria Schomburgkii, <a href="#page_28">28</a><br /> - -Ascalaphus, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br /> - -Ascidian, <a href="#page_497">497</a><br /> - -Aspidomorpha excelsum, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Auger, <a href="#page_254">254</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="B" id="B"></a><span class="lettre">B</span>.<br /> - -Baited Traps, <a href="#page_97">97</a><br /> - -Ball-and-socket Joint, <a href="#page_313">313</a><br /> - -Balloon, <a href="#page_436">436</a><br /> - -Bamboo, <a href="#page_28">28</a><br /> - -Band Saw, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br /> - -Barea, <a href="#page_147">147</a><br /> - -Barometer, <a href="#page_444">444</a><br /> - -Basket-urchin, <a href="#page_89">89</a><br /> - -Bats, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Battering-ram, <a href="#page_153">153</a><br /> - -Beak of Duck, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Beaver, <a href="#page_233">233</a><br /> - -Beds, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Bee, <a href="#page_220">220</a><br /> - -Beroë, <a href="#page_15">15</a><br /> - -Bessemer Process, <a href="#page_299">299</a><br /> - -Bicycle, <a href="#page_503">503</a><br /> - -Binocular Microscope, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Birdlime, <a href="#page_98">98</a><br /> - -Blow-gun, <a href="#page_75">75</a><br /> - -Boat, <a href="#page_5">5</a><br /> - -Boat-hook, <a href="#page_44">44</a><br /> - -Boatman, <a href="#page_12">12</a><br /> - -Boiling Water, <a href="#page_445">445</a><br /> - -Bombardier-beetle, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Bombyx mori, <a href="#page_179">179</a><br /> - -Bosjesman, <a href="#page_308">308</a><br /> - -Bot-fly, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Bower, <a href="#page_410">410</a><br /> - -Bower-birds, <a href="#page_410">410</a><br /> - -Bowsing of Rope, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Brachinus crepitans, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Bradawl, <a href="#page_249">249</a><br /> - -Brocken Spectre, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> - -Brown-tailed Moth, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Brushes, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br /> - -Buffer of Train, <a href="#page_369">369</a><br /> - -Bullet-making Machine, <a href="#page_157">157</a><br /> - -Bunday, <a href="#page_69">69</a><br /> - -Burdock, <a href="#page_117">117</a><br /> - -Burial, <a href="#page_419">419</a><br /> - -Burying-ants, <a href="#page_420">420</a><br /> - -Burying-beetle, <a href="#page_507">507</a><br /> - -Buttons, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br /> - -Buttresses, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="C" id="C"></a><span class="lettre">C</span>.<br /> - -Cache, <a href="#page_397">397</a><br /> - -Callipers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_528" id="page_528"></a>{528}</span> <a href="#page_274">274</a><br /> - -Caltrops, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br /> - -Camel, <a href="#page_424">424</a><br /> - -Camera obscura, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Candle, <a href="#page_351">351</a><br /> - -Carriage Spring, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Cassava Press, <a href="#page_447">447</a><br /> - -Catapult, <a href="#page_361">361</a><br /> - -Catchpoll, <a href="#page_104">104</a><br /> - -Cathedral, <a href="#page_166">166</a><br /> - -Centrifugal Force, <a href="#page_500">500</a><br /> - -Cephalotus, <a href="#page_98">98</a><br /> - -Chaff-cutter, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Chameleon-fly, <a href="#page_11">11</a><br /> - -Chinese Paper Lantern, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -Chinese Repeating Cross-bow, <a href="#page_365">365</a><br /> - -Chinese Stink-pot, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Chirodota, <a href="#page_470">470</a><br /> - -Chisel, <a href="#page_232">232</a><br /> - -Chœtodon, <a href="#page_78">78</a><br /> - -Chromatrope, <a href="#page_305">305</a><br /> - -Cicada, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_518">518</a><br /> - -Circular Saw, <a href="#page_247">247</a><br /> - -Cistern, <a href="#page_422">422</a><br /> - -Clam Shell, <a href="#page_260">260</a><br /> - -Clasp, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br /> - -Climbing-spur, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Cloth-dressing Machine, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Club, <a href="#page_52">52</a><br /> - -Cnidæ, <a href="#page_371">371</a><br /> - -Coffee-making Machine, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Coluber natrix, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br /> - -Combs, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Compass, <a href="#page_491">491</a><br /> - -Concealment, <a href="#page_144">144</a><br /> - -Condenser, <a href="#page_428">428</a><br /> - -Contouring-glass, <a href="#page_272">272</a><br /> - -Coracle, <a href="#page_22">22</a><br /> - -Cordon Saw, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br /> - -Cork, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Corrugation, <a href="#page_480">480</a><br /> - -Cossus ligniperda, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -Crab, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br /> - -Crab-pot, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br /> - -Creeper, <a href="#page_203">203</a><br /> - -Cricket, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_517">517</a><br /> - -Crow-oyster, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br /> - -Crushing Instruments, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Cuckoo-spit, <a href="#page_146">146</a><br /> - -Culex pipiens, <a href="#page_9">9</a><br /> - -Cupping, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Cuttle-bone of Sepia, <a href="#page_166">166</a><br /> - -Cydippe, <a href="#page_15">15</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="D" id="D"></a><span class="lettre">D</span>.<br /> - -Daddy Long-legs, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Dagger, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Dam, <a href="#page_210">210</a><br /> - -Dandelion Seed, <a href="#page_439">439</a><br /> - -Decticus griseus, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Deer-trap, <a href="#page_104">104</a><br /> - -Dew, <a href="#page_426">426</a><br /> - -Diamond Drill, <a href="#page_459">459</a><br /> - -Digging-stick, <a href="#page_223">223</a><br /> - -Dionea muscipula, <a href="#page_97">97</a><br /> - -Dipsacus fullonum, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Disguise, <a href="#page_147">147</a><br /> - -Divers, <a href="#page_382">382</a><br /> - -Diving-bell, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Diving Dress, <a href="#page_384">384</a><br /> - -Dog-fish Skin, <a href="#page_265">265</a><br /> - -Dome, <a href="#page_510">510</a><br /> - -Doors and Hinges, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br /> - -Drag, <a href="#page_43">43</a><br /> - -Dragon-fly, <a href="#page_455">455</a><br /> - -Dragon-fly Trachea, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> - -Drainage, <a href="#page_492">492</a><br /> - -Driver-ant, <a href="#page_201">201</a><br /> - -Drosera, <a href="#page_100">100</a><br /> - -Drum, <a href="#page_514">514</a><br /> - -Dutch Rush, <a href="#page_264">264</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="E" id="E"></a><span class="lettre">E</span>.<br /> - -Ear, <a href="#page_515">515</a><br /> - -Ear-trumpet, <a href="#page_521">521</a><br /> - -Earth-worm, <a href="#page_44">44</a><br /> - -Earwig, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br /> - -Eaves, <a href="#page_184">184</a><br /> - -Echeneis remora, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br /> - -Echinococcus, <a href="#page_40">40</a><br /> - -Echinus, <a href="#page_315">315</a><br /> - -Echo, <a href="#page_525">525</a><br /> - -Echo-stone, <a href="#page_526">526</a><br /> - -Eel-pot, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br /> - -Egg-hatching Machine, <a href="#page_395">395</a><br /> - -Eider-duck, <a href="#page_401">401</a><br /> - -Elastic Springs, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br /> - -Elateridæ, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Electric Eel, <a href="#page_486">486</a><br /> - -Electric Light, <a href="#page_488">488</a><br /> - -Electric Ray, <a href="#page_485">485</a><br /> - -Electric Tourniquet, <a href="#page_463">463</a><br /> - -Electricity, <a href="#page_482">482</a><br /> - -Elk, <a href="#page_131">131</a><br /> - -Elk-yard, <a href="#page_131">131</a><br /> - -Emperor-moth, <a href="#page_104">104</a><br /> - -Epeira diadema, <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br /> - -Equisetum, <a href="#page_264">264</a><br /> - -Ermine-moth, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Escapement, <a href="#page_507">507</a><br /> - -Ether Spray, <a href="#page_428">428</a><br /> - -Eumenes, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> - -Eye, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Eye of Spider, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="F" id="F"></a><span class="lettre">F</span>.<br /> - -Fairy Martin, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Fall-trap, <a href="#page_140">140</a><br /> - -Fan, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Feather Mail,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_529" id="page_529"></a>{529}</span> <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Fencers, <a href="#page_317">317</a><br /> - -File, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br /> - -Filter, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_425">425</a><br /> - -Fire, <a href="#page_412">412</a><br /> - -Fire-fly, <a href="#page_489">489</a><br /> - -Fire-guard, <a href="#page_419">419</a><br /> - -Fish-hook Spiculæ, <a href="#page_117">117</a><br /> - -Fish-scales, <a href="#page_189">189</a><br /> - -Fish-tank, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Fishing-frog, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Flying Dragon, <a href="#page_440">440</a><br /> - -Flying Frog, <a href="#page_441">441</a><br /> - -Flying Squirrel, <a href="#page_440">440</a><br /> - -Foot of Aard-vark, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Foot of Mole, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> - -Foot of Mole-cricket, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> - -Fork-grinders, <a href="#page_356">356</a><br /> - -Fort, <a href="#page_129">129</a><br /> - -Fountains, <a href="#page_430">430</a><br /> - -Frog, <a href="#page_484">484</a><br /> - -Furnarius fuliginosus, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br /> - -Fur of Beaver, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="G" id="G"></a><span class="lettre">G</span>.<br /> - -Gad-fly, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a><br /> - -Galleria alvearia, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -Galleria-moth, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -Garden Spider, <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br /> - -Gecko, <a href="#page_334">334</a><br /> - -Geometra Caterpillar, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Geranium, <a href="#page_478">478</a><br /> - -Gerris, <a href="#page_467">467</a><br /> - -Gills of Fish, <a href="#page_414">414</a><br /> - -Gimlet, <a href="#page_252">252</a><br /> - -Gin, <a href="#page_95">95</a><br /> - -Girder, <a href="#page_193">193</a><br /> - -Glow-worm, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href="#page_439">439</a><br /> - -Gnat, <a href="#page_9">9</a><br /> - -Goat-moth, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -Goby, <a href="#page_334">334</a><br /> - -Gold-tailed Moth, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Goose-grass, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Gossamer Spider, <a href="#page_437">437</a><br /> - -Grallina Australia, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br /> - -Grasping Tools, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br /> - -Grass-blade, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br /> - -Grass-snake, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br /> - -Grass-wrack, <a href="#page_473">473</a><br /> - -Grasshopper, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a><br /> - -Great Green Grasshopper, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Grindstone, <a href="#page_325">325</a><br /> - -Gyrinus natator, <a href="#page_22">22</a><br /> - -Gyroscope, <a href="#page_503">503</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="H" id="H"></a><span class="lettre">H</span>.<br /> - -Hammer and Anvil, <a href="#page_515">515</a><br /> - -Hammock, <a href="#page_402">402</a><br /> - -Hand, <a href="#page_450">450</a><br /> - -Harpoon, <a href="#page_71">71</a><br /> - -Heart or Hairy Urchin, <a href="#page_224">224</a><br /> - -Hedgehog, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br /> - -Hemerobius, <a href="#page_397">397</a><br /> - -Hen-coop, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Hippopotamus, <a href="#page_508">508</a><br /> - -Hippopotamus Tooth, <a href="#page_234">234</a><br /> - -Hirundo Ariel, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Hoof of Elephant, <a href="#page_364">364</a><br /> - -Hoof of Horse, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Hookah, <a href="#page_377">377</a><br /> - -Hooks, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> - -Hooks and Eyes, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br /> - -Hoop-shaver Bee, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -House-fly, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_456">456</a><br /> - -Human Spine, <a href="#page_369">369</a><br /> - -Hydra, <a href="#page_512">512</a><br /> - -Hydrant, <a href="#page_430">430</a><br /> - -Hymedesmia, <a href="#page_117">117</a><br /> - -Hyponomeuta padella, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a><span class="lettre">I</span>.<br /> - -Ice, <a href="#page_457">457</a><br /> - -Ice-house, <a href="#page_179">179</a><br /> - -Ichneumon-fly, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br /> - -Injecting Syringe, <a href="#page_65">65</a><br /> - -Iris of Eye, <a href="#page_293">293</a><br /> - -Ita Palm-tree, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="J" id="J"></a><span class="lettre">J</span>.<br /> - -Janthina communis, <a href="#page_48">48</a><br /> - -Japanese Fishing-rod, <a href="#page_460">460</a><br /> - -Japanese Singlethorn, <a href="#page_124">124</a><br /> - -Jaws of Crocodile, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> - -Jaws of Pike, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -Jaws of Shark, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br /> - -Jaws of Whale, <a href="#page_355">355</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="K" id="K"></a><span class="lettre">K</span>.<br /> - -Kedge, <a href="#page_41">41</a><br /> - -Kite, <a href="#page_500">500</a><br /> - -Knee-joint, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Kris, <a href="#page_239">239</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="L" id="L"></a><span class="lettre">L</span>.<br /> - -Lace-wing Fly, <a href="#page_397">397</a><br /> - -Lagopus vulgaris, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Lamp, <a href="#page_412">412</a><br /> - -Lampern, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Lampetra fluviatilis, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Lancet, <a href="#page_83">83</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a><br /> - -Lappet-moth, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Laurel-bottle, <a href="#page_358">358</a><br /> - -Lazy-tongs, <a href="#page_454">454</a><br /> - -Leaf cutter Bees, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Leaf-insect, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Leaf-rollers, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -Leech,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_530" id="page_530"></a>{530}</span> <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Lighthouses, <a href="#page_207">207</a><br /> - -Limnæa stagnalis, <a href="#page_6">6</a><br /> - -Limpet, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Loadstone, <a href="#page_490">490</a><br /> - -Lobster, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_497">497</a><br /> - -Locust, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Long-tailed Titmouse, <a href="#page_401">401</a><br /> - -Lophius, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Low-pressure Engine, <a href="#page_429">429</a><br /> - -Lump-sucker, <a href="#page_334">334</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="M" id="M"></a><span class="lettre">M</span>.<br /> - -Maelström, <a href="#page_1">1</a><br /> - -Magdeburg Hemispheres, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br /> - -Magic Lantern, <a href="#page_294">294</a><br /> - -Magnetic Respirator, <a href="#page_356">356</a><br /> - -Main Gauche, <a href="#page_73">73</a><br /> - -Mangle, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br /> - -Mangrove-tree, <a href="#page_143">143</a><br /> - -Manuring, <a href="#page_492">492</a><br /> - -Mare’s Tail, <a href="#page_264">264</a><br /> - -Mason Wasp, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Mat, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> - -Meadow Orchis, <a href="#page_100">100</a><br /> - -Measure, <a href="#page_267">267</a><br /> - -Medusa, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_512">512</a><br /> - -Megachile, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Metronome, <a href="#page_506">506</a><br /> - -Microgaster alvearius, <a href="#page_174">174</a><br /> - -Microgaster glomeratus, <a href="#page_174">174</a><br /> - -Milk, <a href="#page_390">390</a><br /> - -Mines, <a href="#page_443">443</a><br /> - -Mining, <a href="#page_430">430</a><br /> - -Misericorde, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Mole, <a href="#page_496">496</a><br /> - -Mole-cricket, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Mont Cenis Tunnel, <a href="#page_267">267</a><br /> - -Mop, <a href="#page_502">502</a><br /> - -Mortar, <a href="#page_217">217</a><br /> - -Moselekatze, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -Moss, <a href="#page_371">371</a><br /> - -Mountains, <a href="#page_216">216</a><br /> - -Mouse-trap, <a href="#page_97">97</a><br /> - -Movable Gas-lamp, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> - -Mud-patten, <a href="#page_466">466</a><br /> - -Mud Walls, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Multiplying-glass, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br /> - -Muscles of Leg, <a href="#page_449">449</a><br /> - -Mussel-shell, <a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a><br /> - -Myrapetra scutellaris, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Myrmeleo, <a href="#page_52">52</a><br /> - -Myrmica Kirbyi, <a href="#page_184">184</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="N" id="N"></a><span class="lettre">N</span>.<br /> - -Nature-printing, <a href="#page_475">475</a><br /> - -Nautilus, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_464">464</a><br /> - -Needle-gun, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> - -Nemertes Borlasii, <a href="#page_93">93</a><br /> - -Nerves, <a href="#page_486">486</a><br /> - -Net, <a href="#page_85">85</a><br /> - -Northern Crown, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br /> - -Norton Tubes, <a href="#page_433">433</a><br /> - -Notonecta glauca, <a href="#page_13">13</a><br /> - -Nshiego Mbouvé, <a href="#page_160">160</a><br /> - -Nut-crackers, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br /> - -Nuthatch, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="O" id="O"></a><span class="lettre">O</span>.<br /> - -Octopus, <a href="#page_463">463</a><br /> - -Odynerus murarius, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Œstrus bovis, <a href="#page_254">254</a><br /> - -Ophion, <a href="#page_174">174</a><br /> - -Optics, <a href="#page_276">276</a><br /> - -Orchis morio, <a href="#page_100">100</a><br /> - -Oscillation, <a href="#page_504">504</a><br /> - -Ostracion, <a href="#page_122">122</a><br /> - -Orang-outan, <a href="#page_161">161</a><br /> - -Oven-bird, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br /> - -Owl’s Eye, <a href="#page_284">284</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="P" id="P"></a><span class="lettre">P</span>.<br /> - -Paddle-wood Tree, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Paint, <a href="#page_219">219</a><br /> - -Palm-leaf, <a href="#page_418">418</a><br /> - -Paper, <a href="#page_472">472</a><br /> - -Parachute, <a href="#page_438">438</a><br /> - -Parasol, <a href="#page_407">407</a><br /> - -Pea-shooter, <a href="#page_74">74</a><br /> - -Pelecinus, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br /> - -Pelicans, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Pelopœus, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br /> - -Pendulum, <a href="#page_505">505</a><br /> - -Pensile Oriole, <a href="#page_402">402</a><br /> - -Perfume Spray, <a href="#page_428">428</a><br /> - -Periwinkle, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br /> - -Phantasmascope, <a href="#page_305">305</a><br /> - -Philetærus socius, <a href="#page_135">135</a><br /> - -Pholas dactylus, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Phryganea, <a href="#page_192">192</a><br /> - -Physa fontinalis, <a href="#page_8">8</a><br /> - -Physalis pelagicus, <a href="#page_46">46</a><br /> - -Pichiciago, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Piddock, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Pied Grallina, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br /> - -Pill Millipede, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Pincers, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br /> - -Pinna pectinata, <a href="#page_35">35</a><br /> - -Pinna-shell, <a href="#page_35">35</a><br /> - -Pistolograph, <a href="#page_361">361</a><br /> - -Pitfall, <a href="#page_50">50</a><br /> - -Plane, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br /> - -Pneumatic Peg, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Poison, <a href="#page_62">62</a><br /> - -Polar Bear, <a href="#page_137">137</a><br /> - -Polistes, <a href="#page_481">481</a><br /> - -Polynoe, <a href="#page_71">71</a><br /> - -Porches, <a href="#page_183">183</a><br /> - -Porcupine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_531" id="page_531"></a>{531}</span> <a href="#page_110">110</a><br /> - -Porcupine Ant-eater, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br /> - -Porthesia auriflua, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Porthesia chrysorrhœa, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Portuguese Man-of-war, <a href="#page_46">46</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Pouch-shell, <a href="#page_8">8</a><br /> - -Pressure of Atmosphere, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Printing-press, <a href="#page_317">317</a><br /> - -Proboscis of Fly, <a href="#page_379">379</a><br /> - -Processionary Moth, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Projectiles, <a href="#page_74">74</a><br /> - -Propolis, <a href="#page_220">220</a><br /> - -Pseudoscope, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Ptarmigan, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Pucunha, <a href="#page_76">76</a><br /> - -Puff and Dart, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a><br /> - -Pulley, <a href="#page_452">452</a><br /> - -Pyramids, <a href="#page_216">216</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Q" id="Q"></a><span class="lettre">Q</span>.<br /> - -Quilt Armour, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="R" id="R"></a><span class="lettre">R</span>.<br /> - -Radius, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Rain-cloud, <a href="#page_429">429</a><br /> - -Ranjows, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br /> - -Rat-tail Maggots, <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Rattan, <a href="#page_204">204</a><br /> - -Razor, <a href="#page_236">236</a><br /> - -Receiver of Air-pump, <a href="#page_511">511</a><br /> - -Reduvius personatus, <a href="#page_146">146</a><br /> - -Reed, <a href="#page_518">518</a><br /> - -Reverted Spikes, <a href="#page_102">102</a><br /> - -Ribbon Saw, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br /> - -Ring and Staple, <a href="#page_415">415</a><br /> - -Ringed Tissues, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -Robber-crab, <a href="#page_405">405</a><br /> - -Rocket, <a href="#page_462">462</a><br /> - -Rod and Line, <a href="#page_90">90</a><br /> - -Rolling-mill, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br /> - -Rosemary, <a href="#page_408">408</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="S" id="S"></a><span class="lettre">S</span>.<br /> - -Sabella, <a href="#page_218">218</a><br /> - -Saddle-back, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br /> - -Sailing Raft, <a href="#page_5">5</a><br /> - -Salad-dressing Bottle, <a href="#page_511">511</a><br /> - -Sand-paper, <a href="#page_265">265</a><br /> - -Saturnia pavonia minor, <a href="#page_104">104</a><br /> - -Saw, <a href="#page_239">239</a><br /> - -Saw-fly, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Sawyer-beetle, <a href="#page_248">248</a><br /> - -Scale Armour, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Scales of Butterfly’s Wings, <a href="#page_187">187</a><br /> - -Scaling-fork, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br /> - -Scarabæus, <a href="#page_494">494</a><br /> - -Scissors, <a href="#page_228">228</a><br /> - -Screw, <a href="#page_498">498</a><br /> - -Sea-anemone, <a href="#page_8">8</a><br /> - -Sea-basket, <a href="#page_89">89</a><br /> - -Sea-mouse, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br /> - -Sea-urchin, <a href="#page_315">315</a><br /> - -Seed-drills, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br /> - -Sepia officinalis, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Serpula, <a href="#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a><br /> - -Sewage, <a href="#page_496">496</a><br /> - -Sewing, <a href="#page_406">406</a><br /> - -Shark-tooth Sword, <a href="#page_56">56</a><br /> - -Shears, <a href="#page_228">228</a><br /> - -Sheep-fly, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Shell of Tortoise, <a href="#page_188">188</a><br /> - -Ship-worm, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Short-tailed Manis, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a><br /> - -Sialis armata, <a href="#page_275">275</a><br /> - -Siamese Link, <a href="#page_448">448</a><br /> - -Silkworm, <a href="#page_158">158</a><br /> - -Silkworm Cocoon, <a href="#page_179">179</a><br /> - -Siren, <a href="#page_523">523</a><br /> - -Sirex gigas, <a href="#page_252">252</a><br /> - -Skidor, <a href="#page_466">466</a><br /> - -Skip-jack Beetle, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Skull, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_511">511</a><br /> - -Slates, <a href="#page_188">188</a><br /> - -Sling, <a href="#page_502">502</a><br /> - -Sloth, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> - -Slug, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br /> - -Smoke-jack, <a href="#page_499">499</a><br /> - -Snow-house of Esquimaux, <a href="#page_163">163</a><br /> - -Snow-house of Seal, <a href="#page_163">163</a><br /> - -Snow-shoe, <a href="#page_464">464</a><br /> - -Spade, <a href="#page_223">223</a><br /> - -Spear, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Spectroscope, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br /> - -Spider, <a href="#page_509">509</a><br /> - -Spider-crab, <a href="#page_147">147</a><br /> - -Spiked Defences, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Spiracles of Fly, <a href="#page_357">357</a><br /> - -Spiral, <a href="#page_498">498</a><br /> - -Spiral Spring, <a href="#page_371">371</a><br /> - -Spiral Tissues, <a href="#page_375">375</a><br /> - -Spirit-level, <a href="#page_271">271</a><br /> - -Spokeshave, <a href="#page_236">236</a><br /> - -Spout-hole, <a href="#page_434">434</a><br /> - -Sprat-sucker, <a href="#page_71">71</a><br /> - -Spring, <a href="#page_430">430</a><br /> - -Spring-bow, <a href="#page_142">142</a><br /> - -Spring-gun, <a href="#page_142">142</a><br /> - -Spring-jack, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Spring Solitaire, <a href="#page_371">371</a><br /> - -Spring-tails, <a href="#page_388">388</a><br /> - -Spring-trap, <a href="#page_95">95</a><br /> - -Squirrel, <a href="#page_456">456</a><br /> - -Stag-beetle, <a href="#page_248">248</a><br /> - -Star-fish, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Steam-blast, <a href="#page_443">443</a><br /> - -Steelyard, <a href="#page_450">450</a><br /> - -Stereoscope, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Stereotype,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_532" id="page_532"></a>{532}</span> <a href="#page_479">479</a><br /> - -Stethoscope, <a href="#page_522">522</a><br /> - -Stickleback, <a href="#page_218">218</a><br /> - -Still, <a href="#page_425">425</a><br /> - -Stinging Jelly-fish, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Stinging-nettle, <a href="#page_67">67</a><br /> - -Stipple, <a href="#page_477">477</a><br /> - -Stoat, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Stone-fly, <a href="#page_192">192</a><br /> - -Stopper, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Stove, <a href="#page_413">413</a><br /> - -Stratiomys, <a href="#page_11">11</a><br /> - -Stratiomys chamæleon, <a href="#page_11">11</a><br /> - -String, <a href="#page_515">515</a><br /> - -Subterranean Dwelling, <a href="#page_213">213</a><br /> - -Suckers of Cuttle-fish, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Suckers of Water-beetle, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Sucking Eggs, <a href="#page_445">445</a><br /> - -Sucking-fish, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br /> - -Sucking Sugar-cane, <a href="#page_445">445</a><br /> - -Sumpitan, <a href="#page_75">75</a><br /> - -Sundew, <a href="#page_100">100</a><br /> - -Surgical Cradle, <a href="#page_405">405</a><br /> - -Suspension-bridge, <a href="#page_202">202</a><br /> - -Swallow-tailed Butterfly, <a href="#page_468">468</a><br /> - -Sword, <a href="#page_56">56</a><br /> - -Sword-grass, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> - -Synapta, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href="#page_470">470</a><br /> - -Synovia, <a href="#page_454">454</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="T" id="T"></a><span class="lettre">T</span>.<br /> - -Tachina, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br /> - -Tail of Scorpion, <a href="#page_66">66</a><br /> - -Tailor-bird, <a href="#page_406">406</a><br /> - -Tearing Weapons, <a href="#page_112">112</a><br /> - -Teazle, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Teeth, <a href="#page_327">327</a><br /> - -Telegraph, <a href="#page_487">487</a><br /> - -Terebella, <a href="#page_218">218</a><br /> - -Teredo, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Termite, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Thaumatrope, <a href="#page_302">302</a><br /> - -Thigh-bone, <a href="#page_314">314</a><br /> - -Thornback-crab, <a href="#page_147">147</a><br /> - -Throwing-stick, <a href="#page_79">79</a><br /> - -Ties, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Tiger-beetle, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Tiger-claw, <a href="#page_112">112</a><br /> - -Tiger-moth, <a href="#page_403">403</a><br /> - -Tiles, <a href="#page_187">187</a><br /> - -Tillage, <a href="#page_492">492</a><br /> - -Tipula, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Toggle, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Tools, <a href="#page_222">222</a><br /> - -Tools of Measurement, <a href="#page_267">267</a><br /> - -Top, <a href="#page_503">503</a><br /> - -Torpedo, <a href="#page_485">485</a><br /> - -Tortoise, <a href="#page_229">229</a><br /> - -Toucan, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br /> - -Trachea of Animals, <a href="#page_380">380</a><br /> - -Trachea of Insects, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> - -Trap-door Spider, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Traveller’s Tree, <a href="#page_423">423</a><br /> - -Tree-caddis, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br /> - -Trench, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Trichiosoma lucorum, <a href="#page_242">242</a><br /> - -Tripod Wheel-bearer, <a href="#page_461">461</a><br /> - -Triquetra, <a href="#page_219">219</a><br /> - -Troglodytes calvus, <a href="#page_160">160</a><br /> - -Trombone, <a href="#page_520">520</a><br /> - -Trunk-fish, <a href="#page_122">122</a><br /> - -Trypoxylon aurifrons, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br /> - -Tunnel, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a><br /> - -Turbine Pump, <a href="#page_497">497</a><br /> - -Turkish Bath, <a href="#page_426">426</a><br /> - -Turtle, <a href="#page_229">229</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="U" id="U"></a><span class="lettre">U</span>.<br /> - -Ulna, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Umbrella, <a href="#page_407">407</a><br /> - -Useful Arts, <a href="#page_308">308</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a><span class="lettre">V</span>.<br /> - -Vallisneria Plant, <a href="#page_38">38</a><br /> - -Varnish, <a href="#page_219">219</a><br /> - -Velella, <a href="#page_2">2</a><br /> - -Venus Fly-trap, <a href="#page_97">97</a><br /> - -Vertebræ of Snake, <a href="#page_314">314</a><br /> - -Victoria Regia, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Violet Snail, <a href="#page_48">48</a><br /> - -Voltaic Pile, <a href="#page_484">484</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="W" id="W"></a><span class="lettre">W</span>.<br /> - -Walls, <a href="#page_177">177</a><br /> - -Walrus, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br /> - -Waraus, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -Wart-biter, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Wasp, <a href="#page_474">474</a><br /> - -Wasp-comb, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Water-boatman, <a href="#page_13">13</a><br /> - -Water-fall, <a href="#page_431">431</a><br /> - -Water-gnat, <a href="#page_467">467</a><br /> - -Water-lily, <a href="#page_382">382</a><br /> - -Water Main, <a href="#page_497">497</a><br /> - -Water-ram, <a href="#page_434">434</a><br /> - -Water-snail, <a href="#page_6">6</a><br /> - -Water-spider, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Water-tank, <a href="#page_423">423</a><br /> - -Water Telescope, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Water Turbine, <a href="#page_463">463</a><br /> - -Wax, <a href="#page_220">220</a><br /> - -Wax-moth, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -Weaver-bird, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a><br /> - -Webbed Feet, <a href="#page_467">467</a><br /> - -Wet-bulb Thermometer, <a href="#page_428">428</a><br /> - -Wheat Straw,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_533" id="page_533"></a>{533}</span> <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Wheel, <a href="#page_469">469</a><br /> - -Wheel Animalculæ, <a href="#page_306">306</a><br /> - -Whelk, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br /> - -Whirlwig-beetle, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> - -Whispering Gallery, <a href="#page_526">526</a><br /> - -Wind, <a href="#page_442">442</a><br /> - -Window, <a href="#page_190">190</a><br /> - -Woodpecker, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br /> - -Woolly Bear, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br /> - -Wurble-fly, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Z" id="Z"></a><span class="lettre">Z</span>.<br /> - -Zarabatana, <a href="#page_76">76</a><br /> - -Zoetrope, <a href="#page_305">305</a><br /> - -Zostera marina, <a href="#page_473">473</a><br /> -</p> - -<p class="c"> -THE END.<br /> -<br /><small> -PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO. LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON.</small> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_534" id="page_534"></a>{534}</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><a name="transcrib" id="transcrib"></a></p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="padding:2%;border:3px dotted gray;"> -<tr><th align="center">Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:</th></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bombadier-beetle=> Bombardier-beetle {pg 144}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">very ong after=> very long after {pg 262}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">the Multipying-glass=> the Multiplying-glass {pg 290}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">fills the air=> fill the air {pg 356}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">cook their flood=> cook their food {pg 412}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">If the hand move towards=> If the hand move towards {pg 444}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">protecting the yelk=> protecting the yolk {pg 511}</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="308" height="500" alt="Image unavailable" title="" /></div> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nature's Teachings, by J. 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