diff options
66 files changed, 17 insertions, 24318 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c64c5b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53273 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53273) diff --git a/old/53273-0.txt b/old/53273-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0b0bf5c..0000000 --- a/old/53273-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12024 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Famous Assassinations of History, by Francis Johnson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Famous Assassinations of History - -Author: Francis Johnson - -Release Date: October 13, 2016 [EBook #53273] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAMOUS ASSASSINATIONS OF HISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - Famous Assassinations - of History - - [Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR] - - - - - Famous Assassinations - of History - - From Philip of Macedon, 336 B.C., to - Alexander of Servia, A.D. 1903 - - BY FRANCIS JOHNSON - - _WITH TWENTY-NINE PORTRAITS_ - - [Illustration] - - Chicago - A. C. MCCLURG & CO. - 1903 - - - - - COPYRIGHT - A. C. MCCLURG & CO. - 1903 - - Published September 19, 1903 - - UNIVERSITY PRESS · JOHN WILSON - AND SON · CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. - - - - -Preface - - -The thirty-one assassinations, famous in history, which are narrated in -this volume, have never before had their stories told in a collected -form in any language. The accounts of them were scattered through the -historical works of all nations, and through many volumes of private -memoirs, which had to be scanned for proper and trustworthy material. It -is hoped that their presentation in this form will make an interesting -volume, not only for the student of history, but also for the general -reader, on account of the historical and psychological interest which -attaches to them. - -These assassinations embrace a period of nearly twenty-five -centuries,--that of Philip of Macedon, in 336 B.C., being the first, and -that of Alexander and Draga, in the present year, being the last. Only -those assassinations have been included which either had an important -and political bearing on the world, or on the nation immediately -affected, or which left a profound, and, it would seem, indelible -impression on the imagination of contemporaries and posterity. All those -which were not distinguished by one of these features were excluded from -this series. - -It will undoubtedly occur to some who read this volume that it should -have included the assassination of President Garfield. It was omitted, -not from any want of respect or sympathy for the memory of our -illustrious martyr-President, but simply for the reason that his -assassination rather grew out of the morbid aberration of one diseased -mind than out of the general spirit of the epoch in which he lived. - -Others may think that the assassinations of Henry the Third of France, -of Henry of Guise, and of Marshal Coligny, which are certainly famous in -history, should have found a place here. But they all grew out of the -same spirit of religious hatred and conflict in France during the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and Henry the Fourth was selected -as its most illustrious victim. - -It has been the object of the writer to make each of these “famous -assassinations” the central scene of a picture in which the political, -religious, or national features of the epoch in which the assassination -occurred are portrayed with historical fidelity and strict impartiality. - -F. J. - -LAFAYETTE, IND., August 1, 1903. - - - - -Contents - - -CHAPTER I - - PAGE - -ASSASSINATION OF PHILIP OF MACEDON (336 B.C.) 3 - - -CHAPTER II - -ASSASSINATION OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS (133 B.C.) 11 - - -CHAPTER III - -ASSASSINATION OF JULIUS CÆSAR (44 B.C.) 25 - - -CHAPTER IV - -ASSASSINATIONS OF TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS, NERO (A.D. 37-68) 35 - - -CHAPTER V - -ASSASSINATION OF HYPATIA (A.D. 415) 41 - - -CHAPTER VI - -ASSASSINATION OF THOMAS À BECKET (December 29, 1170) 53 - - -CHAPTER VII - -ASSASSINATION OF GESSLER (A.D. 1307) 67 - - -CHAPTER VIII - -ASSASSINATION OF IÑEZ DE CASTRO (A.D. 1355) 77 - - -CHAPTER IX - -ASSASSINATIONS OF RIZZIO AND DARNLEY -(March 9, 1566; February 9, 1567) 89 - - -CHAPTER X - -ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE (July 10, 1584) 111 - - -CHAPTER XI - -ASSASSINATIONS BY IVAN THE TERRIBLE (1560-1584) 131 - - -CHAPTER XII - -ASSASSINATION OF HENRY THE FOURTH OF FRANCE (May 14, 1610) 147 - - -CHAPTER XIII - -ASSASSINATION OF WALLENSTEIN (February 24, 1634) 165 - - -CHAPTER XIV - -ASSASSINATION OF THE BROTHERS JOHN AND CORNELIUS -DE WITT (August 20, 1672) 191 - - -CHAPTER XV - -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXIS, SON OF PETER THE GREAT (June 26, 1718) 211 - - -CHAPTER XVI - -ASSASSINATION OF PETER THE THIRD OF RUSSIA (July 17, 1762) 221 - - -CHAPTER XVII - -ASSASSINATION OF GUSTAVUS THE THIRD OF SWEDEN (March 17, 1792) 249 - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -ASSASSINATION OF JEAN PAUL MARAT (July 13, 1793) 283 - - -CHAPTER XIX - -ASSASSINATION OF PAUL THE FIRST OF RUSSIA (March 24, 1801) 301 - - -CHAPTER XX - -ASSASSINATION OF AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE (March 23, 1819) 315 - - -CHAPTER XXI - -ASSASSINATION OF THE DUC DE BERRY (February 13, 1820) 327 - - -CHAPTER XXII - -ASSASSINATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN (April 14, 1865) 343 - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER THE SECOND OF RUSSIA (March 13, 1881) 359 - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM MCKINLEY, -PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES (September 6, 1901) 381 - - -CHAPTER XXV - -ASSASSINATIONS OF ALEXANDER I. AND DRAGA, -KING AND QUEEN OF SERVIA (June 10-11, 1903) 399 - - - - -Illustrations - - -Julius Cæsar _Frontispiece_ - - _To face page_ - -Philip of Macedon 3 - -Tiberius Gracchus 11 - -Caligula 35 - -Claudius 37 - -Thomas à Becket 53 - -Gessler 67 - -Iñez de Castro 77 - -David Rizzio 89 - -Lord Darnley 94 - -William of Orange 111 - -Ivan the Terrible 131 - -Henry IV. 147 - -Wallenstein 165 - -John de Witt 191 - -Cornelius de Witt 205 - -Alexis 211 - -Peter III. 221 - -Gustavus III. 249 - -Jean Paul Marat 283 - -Paul I. 301 - -August von Kotzebue 315 - -Duc de Berry 327 - -Abraham Lincoln 343 - -Alexander II. of Russia 359 - -William McKinley 381 - -Alexander I. of Servia 399 - -Queen Draga 409 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -PHILIP OF MACEDON - -[Illustration: PHILIP OF MACEDON] - - - - -Famous Assassinations - - - - -CHAPTER I - -ASSASSINATION OF PHILIP OF MACEDON - -(336 B. C.) - - -The assassination of Philip of Macedon, which occurred in the year 336 -B.C., was one of the most important in ancient history, not only because -it terminated the glorious career of one of the most remarkable men of -his times, but also because it led immediately to the accession of -Alexander, one of the supremely great men of history,--an event which -would very likely not have taken place at all if Philip had continued to -live for a number of years and had himself selected the successor to his -throne. Philip of Macedon was then at the height of his power. The -battle of Chæronea, in 338 B.C., had made him the master of Greece; and -by his tactful and generous treatment of the vanquished he had even been -appointed by the Amphictyon League commander-in-chief of all the Greek -forces, which he intended to lead, at the head of his Macedonian army, -against the Persians, and to conquer their mighty empire. This -stupendous plan, by whose accomplishment Philip would have anticipated -the glorious achievements of Alexander, his son, was frustrated by his -assassination. - -While Philip had arranged everything for his descent upon Persia, and -had been frequently absent from home, his domestic affairs in his own -capital, which had never been of a very satisfactory character, took -such an unfavorable turn as to require his personal attention. As a -husband, Philip had often given just cause of complaint to Olympias, his -royal spouse. Wherever he went he formed liaisons, and several -illegitimate children were openly recognized by him as his own. But when -Olympias, the Queen, laid herself open to a suspicion of having violated -her marriage vows in his absence, he repudiated her, charging her with -gross infidelity, and intimating that he had very strong doubts of being -the father of Alexander. Olympias thereupon went back to her native -state, Epirus, accompanied by Alexander, who was highly incensed at the -treatment shown to his mother and himself. - -Philip contracted a second marriage with Cleopatra, a niece of Attalus, -one of his generals; and it is said that at the wedding feast Attalus, -half intoxicated, expressed the wish and hope that Cleopatra might give -the Macedonians a lawful heir to the kingdom. This remark, overheard by -Alexander, so enraged him that, throwing a full cup at Attalus’s head, -he shouted to him: “What, you scoundrel! am I then a bastard?” Whereupon -Philip, taking Attalus’s part, rose from his seat, and rushing with his -drawn sword upon Alexander would have run his son through, if he had -not, being himself more than half drunk with wine, slipped and fallen on -the floor; at which sight Alexander scornfully said: “See there the man -who is making great preparations to invade Asia at the head of a -powerful army, and who falls to the ground like a helpless child in -going from one seat to another.” - -It is said that after this debauch both Olympias and Alexander retired -from Philip’s capital, the one going to Epirus, and the other to -Illyria. By the counsels and efforts of Demaratus, the Corinthian, an -old friend of the royal family, Philip was, however, induced to send for -Alexander, and the son returned to his father’s court. Soon afterwards, -Cleopatra gave birth to a son; and the fears of Alexander, who remained -in communication with his mother and was filled with jealous rage by -her, revived. - -It is more than likely--although absolute proof of it has never been -furnished--that Olympias, in her revengeful jealousy, planned the -assassination of the King who had so cruelly offended her pride as a -woman, and who, she supposed, was also plotting to exclude her own son -from the throne and place upon it the son of her young rival. An -opportunity for this act of revenge soon presented itself. A young -Macedonian, named Pausanias, had been mortally offended by Attalus and -Queen Cleopatra. He appealed to the King for reparation of the wrong -done to him; but this being refused, he resolved to revenge himself by -taking the King’s life. All historians seem to agree that Pausanias was -encouraged and incited to this act of revenge by Olympias; but whether -or not Alexander was cognizant of the murderous plot, and approved it, -has never been satisfactorily explained, and remains one of the unsolved -problems of history. - -The occasion for the murderous act of Pausanias was the wedding of -Alexander’s sister with her uncle Alexander, King of Epirus. Philip -considered this marriage between his daughter and the brother of his -first wife, Olympias, an act of consummate statesmanship, inasmuch as it -transferred an enemy and an ally of Olympias to his own side and made a -friend of him. He therefore resolved to make the nuptials of this -ill-matched couple as brilliant as possible. Grand Olympian games and -spectacular festivities were arranged, and an incredible display of -luxury and pomp, unheard of in those days, was planned to show to the -wondering eyes of Greece the court of the new master of the civilized -world in matchless splendor and grandeur. All the cities of Greece had -sent delegations to these brilliant festivities; most of them came with -costly wedding presents, among which golden crowns were conspicuous. -Poets sent nuptial hymns and poems celebrating the beauty of the bride -and the genius of the father in the most extravagant terms; and a noted -dramatist of that age, Neoptolemus, composed a tragedy for the occasion, -in which Philip, under a fictitious name, was represented as the -conqueror of Asia and the triumphant vanquisher of the great Darius. - -It was at the theatre, in which this tragedy was to be performed, that -Philip met his doom. Accompanied by a brilliant cortège of all that were -renowned at his court for birth, talent, and wealth, he proceeded to the -theatre. On approaching the entrance, he bade the noblemen surrounding -him to advance, and his body-guard to fall back, so that he might be -personally more conspicuous before the enraptured eyes of his subjects. -The procession was led by priests in white robes, each carrying a statue -of one of the twelve principal gods; and a thirteenth statue, even more -richly draped and ornamented than the others, with the insignia of -divinity upon it, was that of Philip himself. - -It was the supreme moment of his pride and happiness; but it was also -his last. The noblemen and courtiers had already disappeared in the -building. The body-guard, obedient to the King’s orders, remained -behind. Just at the moment when the King stepped forward, alone, under -the gateway of the theatre, a man sprang from a side corridor, thrust a -sharp short sword into his side, and hurried off as the royal victim -reeled and fell. In the tremendous confusion which arose, the assassin -came very near making his escape. He ran toward a swift horse which was -kept in readiness for him by friends who evidently knew of the murder -and were in the plot; and, dazed as the people were who witnessed the -assassination, he would probably have escaped, had not his sandal caught -in a vine-stock and caused him to fall, which gave some of his pursuers -time to lay their hands on him before he could get up. In their rage, -they killed him with their spears and tore him to pieces. - -The surroundings and execution of this plot bear a strong resemblance to -the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. In both cases there was an -individual murderer, the scene was a theatre, the act was done with -incredible audacity in the presence of a large concourse of people, and -the murderer was crippled by a misstep after the fatal blow. - -The assassination of Philip of Macedon was not only one of the boldest -and most dramatic in history, but it was also one of the earliest in -point of time. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -TIBERIUS GRACCHUS - -[Illustration: TIBERIUS GRACCHUS] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -ASSASSINATION OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS - -(133 B. C.) - - -In the history of ancient Rome there occurs one political assassination -which stands out as an event of special significance, not only on -account of the great celebrity of the victim, but also owing to the fact -that it is the first occasion on record in which the conflicting -economical interests of different classes in a republic were settled by -a resort to arms, instead of being adjudicated on principles of equity -and justice, or simply by public authority. - -This great historical event was the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, which -was soon followed by the forced suicide of his brother, Caius -Gracchus,--the immediate result of their attempt to enforce an agrarian -law passed as an act of justice to the poorer classes of Roman citizens. -The law was violently opposed by the rich, who organized an armed -revolution against its originators and were powerful enough to do away -with them. - -There is in the whole conflict about that agrarian law (the so-called -Sempronian law) a modern feature which makes it especially interesting -to Americans at a time when party issues turn largely on economical -questions, and when the antagonism between capital and labor (or the -rich and the poor) threatens to enter the acute stage. It will be -noticed that at that early age (more than two thousand years ago) -capital already had a power and commanded a political influence against -which right and justice, allied to poverty, battled in vain. History, -both ancient and modern, has been written largely in conformity with the -ideas and prejudices of the ruling classes, and in praise of them, while -their enemies and opponents have generally been unjustly criticised and -denounced as disturbers of public order and peace, or even as anarchists -and rebels against public authority. The two illustrious brothers, the -Gracchi, have shared this unjust treatment of historians, and in the -estimation of many, pass to-day as dangerous and seditious characters -whose death alone could have saved Rome from greater calamities. An -impartial investigation of their case will, in our opinion, furnish -sufficient proof to reverse this historical judgment. - -The two Gracchi were the sons of Sempronius Gracchus, the famous Roman -tribune, who won distinction by his great independence and ability in -the administration of his office, and of the equally famous Cornelia, -daughter of Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the renowned vanquisher of -Hannibal. The brothers, so closely united and so much alike in political -sentiments, designs, and efforts, were of different character, -temperament, and appearance. Tiberius, who was nine years older than his -brother, was gentle and mild in conduct; and his countenance, his eyes, -and his gestures were of peculiar and winning gentleness. His brother -Caius was animated, vehement, and high-tempered. His eloquence was -distinguished by the same characteristics, while that of Tiberius was -tactful, persuasive, and conciliatory. Tiberius would have made an -ideal preacher; Caius seemed to be predestined for the part of a popular -advocate and orator. - -Tiberius had seen military service and won distinction both by his -bravery and prudence in Spain as aid to his brother-in-law, Scipio -Æmilianus, who was the commander-in-chief. It was, therefore, not his -illustrious birth alone, but individual merit also, which caused him to -be elected tribune of the people in the year 133 B.C. As such he -introduced a bill for the re-apportionment of the public lands and their -distribution among the poorer citizens of Rome. Various explanations -have been given for this action of Tiberius Gracchus. It has been said -that he was instigated by others to introduce a measure which could not -fail to arouse against him the strongest hostility of the rich -proprietors of some of these lands. But from a statement in writing left -by his brother Caius, it appears that the idea of the bill originated -with Tiberius himself, and that its introduction sprang much more from a -noble and generous impulse than from political ambition. - -Even to-day the traveller who traverses the silent and depopulated -desert of the Roman Campagna, which is owned by a limited number of -large proprietors and is left in an almost uncultivated state, is struck -forcibly with the thought that the unwise and unjust distribution of the -land has had much to do with the desolate and unproductive aspect of -this district, which under judicious and scientific cultivation might -yield rich harvests and contribute materially to the welfare of the -inhabitants of Tuscany. The same thought struck Tiberius Gracchus as, on -his departure for Spain, he travelled through Tuscany and found it -almost a desert, or, at best, only rudely cultivated in some parts by -barbarian and imported slaves. It was at that time that he first -conceived the idea of bringing about a change--an idea which continued -to haunt his mind until he was in a position to realize it. And in doing -so he found a precedent for legislative action. - -There already existed a law at Rome--the so-called Licinian law--which -limited the number of acres to be possessed by any one citizen to five -hundred. But this Licinian law had been a dead letter for many years, -and there were many rich citizens in Rome who counted the number of -their acres by the thousand or even ten thousand. It was this violation -of the Licinian law, and the open injustice done to the poor by this -violation, which Tiberius Gracchus wanted to correct. He therefore -introduced a new agrarian law which aimed to revive the Licinian law, -but at the same time greatly modified and attenuated its provisions. The -change in the law which Tiberius Gracchus proposed was in one respect an -act of injustice, because it put a premium on the violation of the law -as it had existed, instead of punishing that violation by imposing an -adequate fine. Under the new law a citizen might hold 500 acres of the -public lands in his own name, and in addition, 250 acres for each son -still under the paternal roof and authority. Moreover, the new law -provided that, whenever a citizen should be compelled to give up land -which he held in excess of the share which the law allowed him, he -should be reimbursed for this loss, at the appraised value, from the -public treasury. Tiberius Gracchus also favored the immediate -distribution of the confiscated lands among the poor as their absolute -property, and proposed that, whenever a Roman colony was founded on -conquered territory, a similar distribution of the newly acquired land -should be made. - -The new law was enthusiastically applauded by the Roman people, even -before it had been legally adopted; but the Senate most violently -opposed it, because many Senators would have been deprived by its -passage of most valuable lands. In order to defeat it they prevailed -upon one of the ten tribunes to object to the third reading of the law. -The unanimous support of the tribunes was necessary for its passage. -When the day for the public vote on the law had come, an immense -multitude of people was assembled at the Forum. The ten tribunes entered -and took their seats on the platform. Tiberius Gracchus arose and -ordered the clerk to read his law, but was immediately interrupted by -Octavius, who ordered him to stop. The interruption caused an immense -sensation and commotion among the spectators. Tiberius, after having -vainly tried to persuade Octavius to withdraw his objection, adjourned -the meeting to a later day. During this interval he used all his power -of persuasion to overcome the resistance of Octavius, but in vain. It -was then that Tiberius Gracchus, in his intense desire to pass a public -measure which he considered highly beneficial to the people and almost -indispensable to the public welfare, resolved to resort to an expedient -which was really unconstitutional and which is the only public act of -his that gives the least foundation to the charge of sedition so -generally preferred against him. He came to the conclusion that the only -way to overcome the veto of Octavius was to depose him from his office -by a popular vote. This was a clear violation of the Constitution, and -he carried out his intention in spite of the loud protests of the -Senate. - -The scene on the Forum in which Octavius was deposed must have been very -pathetic and impressive; and while it signified an immediate victory for -Tiberius Gracchus, it nevertheless incensed a great many Roman citizens -and turned them against him. It is safe to say that this scene sealed -his doom and furnished the principal reason for his assassination. -Plutarch, a reliable and impartial authority, describes the scene as -follows: - - “When the people were met together again, Tiberius placed himself - in the rostra and endeavored a second time to persuade Octavius. - But all being to no purpose, he referred the whole matter to the - people, calling on them to vote at once whether Octavius should be - deposed or not; and when seventeen of the thirty-five tribes had - already voted against him, and there wanted only the vote of one - tribe more for his final deprivation, Tiberius put a short stop to - the proceedings, and once more renewed his importunities; he - embraced and kissed him before all the assembly, begging with all - the earnestness imaginable that he would neither suffer himself to - incur the dishonor, nor him to be reputed the author and promoter - of so odious a measure. Octavius did seem a little softened and - moved with these entreaties; his eyes filled with tears and he - continued silent for a considerable time. But presently looking - toward the rich men and proprietors of estates, who stood gathered - in a body together, partly for shame, and partly for fear of - disgracing himself with them, he boldly bade Tiberius use any - severity he pleased. The law for his deposition being thus voted, - Tiberius ordered one of his servants, whom he had made a freeman, - to remove Octavius from the rostra, employing his own domestic - freed servants instead of the public officers. And it made the - action seem all the sadder that Octavius was dragged out in such an - ignominious manner. The people immediately assaulted him, while the - rich men ran in to his assistance. Octavius, with some difficulty, - was snatched away, and safely conveyed out of the crowd; though a - trusty servant of his, who had placed himself in front of his - master that he might assist his escape, in keeping off the - multitude, had his eyes struck out, much to the displeasure of - Tiberius, who ran with all haste, when he perceived the - disturbance, to appease the rioters.” - -The law was then passed, and commissioners were immediately appointed to -make a survey of the lands and see that they were equally divided. - -The forcible ejection of Octavius and the subsequent passage of the new -agrarian law opened a chasm between Tiberius Gracchus and the -patricians, which nothing but his death could close up. He had made -himself immensely popular with the poor, and other laws which he -introduced increased that popularity. But the more the poor idolized -him, the more the rich hated and abhorred him; and a large number of the -better and more thoughtful class of plebeians resented his bold -violation of the Constitution in removing Octavius from office. - -Such were the conditions when the time for the expiration of his -official term as tribune approached, and he as well as his friends saw -the necessity for his reëlection as a measure for protecting his life. -He therefore appeared as a candidate for reëlection; and when on the -first day of the election no choice had resulted from the vote, the next -day was appointed for the final decision. Tiberius knew that not only -his political career, but his very life depended on the result, and he -therefore left no stone unturned to rally his friends to the rescue. But -unfortunately, it being harvest time, many of his adherents were absent -from the city, and could not be reached in time for the struggle. - -On the day following, the Senate convened at an early hour, while the -people assembled at the Capitol to proceed with the vote. However, -great confusion prevailed, and a large number of outsiders tried to -force their way in and establish themselves among the voters. And even -the appearance of Tiberius Gracchus, although he was received with loud -acclamations, failed to restore order in the assemblage. Moreover, he -showed by the depression in his countenance and conduct that he had lost -confidence in the success of his cause. Several evil omens which he had -encountered on his way to the Capitol disturbed his mind. At daybreak a -soothsayer, who prognosticated good or bad success by the pecking of -fowls, informed him that all his efforts to induce the fowls to eat had -failed. Tiberius then remembered that, a short time before, two serpents -had been found in his helmet. On stepping out of the house he stumbled -on the threshold and hurt his great toe so badly that it bled profusely. -As he walked through the streets he saw on his left hand two ravens -fighting on the roof of a house, and suddenly a stone, detached from the -roof, fell at his feet. The friends of Gracchus, who surrounded him, all -stopped, and he himself hesitated as to whether he should proceed or -return to his house. However, a philosopher from Cuma, one of his -intimates, who was credited with inspiring Gracchus with his democratic -ideas and who was free from the superstition of the Romans, persuaded -him to continue on his way to the Capitol. - -There the voting of the tribes was proceeding with great noise and -confusion. All at once Gracchus noticed that one of his friends, Lucius -Flaccus, a Senator, had mounted an elevation from which he could be -easily seen, but where he was too far off to be heard, and was -indicating by motions of his hand that he wished to communicate some -important news. Tiberius told the crowd to let Flaccus pass. With great -difficulty the Senator reached Tiberius and informed him that at the -session of the Senate, after the Consul had refused to have him -arrested, a resolution had been passed to kill him, and that the -Senators had armed a large number of their clients and slaves to carry -out this purpose. Tiberius immediately informed the friends who -surrounded him of the action of the Senate, and signified to those at a -greater distance the danger in which he was placed, by raising his hands -to his head,--and it was this motion, entirely innocent in itself, which -hastened his ruin. His enemies construed it as a desire on his part to -wear a crown, and carried this ridiculous news to the Senate chamber. It -caused a perfect explosion of maledictions and threats among the -Senators; and Scipio Nasica, the most violent of all, immediately made a -motion that the Consul be instructed to save the Republic and to -exterminate the would-be tyrant. The Consul replied that he would resist -any factious and criminal attempt against the Republic, but that he -would not put to death a Roman citizen without trial. On this Scipio -Nasica turned to the Senators, exclaiming: “Since the Consul betrays the -city, let those who want to defend the laws follow me!” and followed by -a large number of Senators and their clients, he rushed toward the place -where Tiberius Gracchus, surrounded by his friends, was observing the -progress of the election. Immediately a riot and fight ensued. The -Senators, who were armed with clubs, canes, stones, or whatever weapon -they could lay their hands on, rushed upon the crowd of voters, -overthrew, beat, and killed them, stamping them under their feet and -quickly and irresistibly advancing toward the spot where they beheld -the man who was the object of their rage and bloodthirstiness. Tiberius, -unarmed and forsaken by his friends, turned round to seek safety in -flight, but, stumbling over those who had been knocked down, fell to the -ground. It was at that moment, while Tiberius was trying to get on his -feet again, that one of his own colleagues, a tribune of the people, -dealt him a powerful and fatal blow, striking him on the head with the -leg of a stool. Others rushed up and struck him again and again, but it -was only a lifeless corpse which suffered from their abuse. Three -hundred of his friends had fallen with him. It was the first Roman blood -which had been shed in civil war, and this first conflict deprived Rome -of one of its most illustrious citizens. - -It is unnecessary to go into any details regarding the death of Caius -Gracchus, who took up and continued the work of his brother. To the -measures in favor of the poor which had been advocated by Tiberius, he -added others,--for instance, regular distributions of corn among the -poor at half price, the imposition of new taxes upon articles of luxury -imported from foreign countries, and employment on public works for -mechanics and laborers who could not find employment on private -contract. It will be seen that these measures, as well as some other -projects of minor importance which Caius Gracchus advocated and caused -to be enacted as laws, form part of the platform of modern labor -parties, and that the Gracchi can fitly be designated as the founders of -these parties. They both fell victims to the attempt to carry out their -theories. At first, it would seem, Caius Gracchus at the request of his -mother, was inclined to abandon the projects of Tiberius; but one night, -says Cicero in his book _De Divinatione_, he heard Tiberius saying to -him: “Why hesitate, Caius? Thy destiny shall be the same as mine--to -fight for the people, and to die for them.” It is said that this -prophecy determined him in his course, and that his death was the -consequence. In 121 B.C., during a public riot and conflict organized by -his enemies for his destruction, he committed suicide, dying not by his -own hand, but by commanding his slave to stab him,--an order which was -promptly obeyed. The assassination of the one and the forced suicide of -the other immortalized the two brothers. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -JULIUS CÆSAR - - - - -CHAPTER III - -ASSASSINATION OF JULIUS CÆSAR - -(44 B. C.) - - -Americans are not great students of history, especially ancient history. -Very likely the assassination of Julius Cæsar, one of the most important -events in the history of ancient Rome, would also be among the “things -not generally known” among Americans, had not Shakespeare’s great -tragedy made them familiar with it. It is true, the aims of the -dramatist and of the historian are wide-apart. The dramatist places the -hero in the centre of the plot, and causes every part of it to -contribute to the catastrophe which overwhelms him under the decree of -fate. He is the victim of his own guilt. The historian makes the great -man but one of the principal factors in the evolution of events, and if -a Cæsar or a Napoleon succumbs in the struggle, it is by force of -external circumstances against which his genius is powerless to contend, -although his ambition or his passion may have been the dominant cause of -arraying those circumstances against him. By his matchless genius and -incomparable art, Shakespeare has, to a certain degree, in his “Julius -Cæsar,” solved the difficult problem of combining the task of the -dramatic poet with that of the historian, and has placed before the -spectator not only Cæsar himself with his world-wide and imperialistic -ambition as the central figure of the play, but also Rome with its -republican recollections and aspirations in antagonism to Cæsar’s -ambition. The delineation of the character of the foremost man of the -ancient world by the greatest dramatist of modern times, and his skilful -grouping of the great republicans struggling for the maintenance of -republican institutions, have been so indelibly engraved upon the minds -of modern readers that the assassination of Julius Cæsar, which took -place at Rome 44 B.C., is nearly as familiar to them as the -assassination of Abraham Lincoln. And if we, in this series of Famous -Assassinations in History, devote a chapter to it, it is simply for the -reason that the series would be incomplete without it. Moreover, it may -be both interesting and useful to call to the mind of the reader the -circumstances and surroundings which led to the downfall of Cæsar. The -conspiracy and assassination removed from the scene of action the -master-mind of the age, without saving the republican institutions; and -it is only by explaining the causes that we can do justice to the noble -intentions of the conspirators, while lamenting the assassination of -Cæsar as a public misfortune for Rome, inasmuch as it removed the strong -hand that could have prevented the anarchy and civil war which broke out -among his successors, immediately after his disappearance from the -public stage. - -Cæsar was at the height of his power. His achievements had eclipsed the -military glory of Pompey, and by his wonderful career he might truly be -looked upon as the “man of destiny.” On his return from Gaul, when the -Senate had rejected his request for a prolongation of his command, and -had ordered him to disband his army and to give up the administration of -his province, his popularity was so great that his homeward journey, -escorted as he was by his victorious army, was but a continuous -triumphal march. Not only Rome, but all Italy welcomed him home as its -greatest man, and was ready to heap its greatest, nay even divine honors -upon him. - -The Senate and its chosen commander-in-chief, Pompey, had fled on the -approach of Cæsar. In the decisive battle of Pharsalus Cæsar defeated -Pompey, and by this victory became the sole ruler of the Roman Republic. -Pompey was assassinated on landing in Egypt, as a fugitive, and Cæsar -returned to Rome, where he was received with the tumultuous acclamations -of the people, and conducted to the Capitol as the savior of the -country. The Senate, which had just made war upon him and outlawed him -as an enemy of the fatherland, appointed him dictator for ten years with -absolute and supreme power, gave him a body-guard of seventy-two lictors -to proclaim his majesty and inviolability, and ordered his statue to be -placed beside that of Jupiter on the Capitol. A public thanksgiving -festival, continuing for forty days, was proclaimed, and four brilliant -triumphs for his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, were -accorded to him. - -Never before in the history of Rome had such honors, which seemed to -pass the human limit, been conferred on any Roman citizen. It was -evident that of the Republic nothing but the name remained, and that -Cæsar, the dictator, was in fact the absolute monarch of the immense -Empire. Once more the friends of liberty made an effort to shake off -the yoke which Cæsar had imposed on the Republic. They flocked to the -standards of the sons of Pompey, but the bloody and hard-fought battle -of Munda sealed their fate; and Cæsar, again victorious, remained the -absolute master of the civilized world,--not without an enemy, but -certainly without a rival. - -On his return to Rome new honors and new ovations awaited him. The -dignity and pride of Roman citizenship seemed to have been lost entirely -in the crouching servility with which the most distinguished and most -highly stationed citizens prostrated themselves at the feet of the -all-powerful ruler. Resistance to Cæsar had apparently disappeared. All -bowed to his surpassing genius and ability, and to these qualities he -added acts of clemency, kindness, and gentleness, which won him the -hearts even of those who, from political principle, had opposed him. But -while thus openly the more than imperial power of Cæsar was generally -recognized, and while the Senate and the tribunes had been degraded to -the position of mere tools to his autocratic will, there still remained -in the hearts of a number of high-minded patriots the hope and anxious -desire to save the republican form of government from the grasping -ambition of the conqueror, who was evidently not satisfied with being -Imperator in fact, but wanted to be also Imperator in name. At least the -repeated attempts of the most intimate friends and most trusted -lieutenants of Cæsar to induce him to accept the crown at the hands of a -subservient people, and his rather hesitating conduct in refusing these -proposals, seemed to confirm this suspicion. - -These enthusiastic Republicans cautiously disguised their hostility to -the Imperator under the mask of devoted friendship. Their hope was, -perhaps, that Cæsar’s imperial régime would be but temporary and that, -like Sulla, he would sooner or later get tired of his dictatorship, and -resign his imperial honors. But Cæsar did not think of abdicating the -honors he had won; on the contrary, every act and every public utterance -of his indicated that he wished to prolong and augment them rather than -to abandon them. In public he was anxious to show his preëminence. He -appeared dressed in the costume of the kings of Alba, and with royal -insignia. One day, when the entire Senate waited upon him in front of -the temple of Venus, he remained seated while he was addressed, during -the entire ceremony. His statue at the Capitol was placed beside those -of the ancient kings of Rome, as though he were to continue their line. -New titles of honor, not to say worship, were added to those which had -been conferred upon him at the first moment of his brilliant victories, -and his lieutenants and followers welcomed and adopted them as something -that was due to his superhuman wisdom and greatness. He was called not -only “Father of the Country,” but “Demi-God,” the “Invincible God,” -“Jupiter Julius,”--as though Jupiter himself had taken mortal form and -shape in him. - -This public adoration irritated the Republicans we have mentioned, to -the highest degree. They secretly charged Cæsar with encouraging or -instigating this worship of himself, because they knew that his friends -would not have proposed it unless confident that he would be pleased by -it. Brutus and Cassius were at the head of these Republicans. Brutus, a -stern Republican, a Roman in the noblest acceptation of the word, was -reputed to be Cæsar’s son, the offspring of an adulterous love-affair, -and was openly favored and distinguished by him. Cassius, a -distinguished general, was much more prompted by jealousy and envy than -by civic virtue and republican principle. When these two men and their -friends became thoroughly convinced that Cæsar’s ambition would stop at -nothing, and that the new imperialistic régime was to be permanent, they -came to the conclusion that nothing but Cæsar’s death could prevent -these calamities. They therefore resolved to assassinate him. - -The ides of March (the fifteenth day of the month) in the year 44 B.C., -was selected as the day of the assassination. The conspiracy had been -formed with the greatest secrecy, but it came near failing at the -eleventh hour. Cæsar’s wife had had dreams and presentiments of bad -omen, and she persuaded him not to go to the Senate on that day. Very -reluctantly he consented to remain at home. But Decimus Brutus, one of -the conspirators, who was afraid that the postponement of the -assassination might lead to its discovery, went to Cæsar’s residence, -ridiculed the dreams of a timid woman, and said he could not believe -that they would influence the mind of the great Cæsar. Then Cæsar, half -ashamed at having yielded to his wife’s entreaties, accompanied him. On -his way to the Senate a paper was handed to Cæsar, which gave all the -particulars of the conspiracy, and warned him not to go to the Senate -session on the fifteenth of March, because it was the day set for his -assassination. But Cæsar kept the paper in his hand without reading it. -Under various pretexts, all the particular friends of Cæsar had been -kept from attending the session of the Senate, so that when he arrived, -he was surrounded only by enemies or by those who were not considered -his friends. The conspirators acted promptly. Cæsar was defenceless, -and in a few minutes he lay prostrate,--a lifeless corpse, showing -thirty-five wounds, many of which were absolutely fatal. The most -celebrated of all political assassinations had been successful; and by a -peculiar irony of fate, the dying Cæsar fell at the feet of the statue -of Pompey, his great rival, whom he had vanquished at Pharsalus. His -death did not, as the conspirators had hoped, prevent the establishment -of the Empire; it but delayed it for a few years. - -Cæsar has had many worshippers and admirers, and comparatively few -calumniators and belittlers. Unquestionably he was one of the most -extraordinary geniuses that ever lived, equally great as a general and -as a statesman, as an orator and as a historian. In the whole range of -history there is but one man--Napoleon--who, in the vastness of his -conceptions and the masterly perfection of their execution, can be -justly compared with him. All other men whom national vanity has -occasionally placed by Cæsar’s side only suffer from the comparison; -their immense inferiority appears on even superficial investigation. He -was in fact the foremost man the world had seen to his day, and, but for -his equally great rival in modern times, would still occupy the pinnacle -of human greatness alone. Very likely, if he had lived, Rome would have -been the happier. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS, NERO - -[Illustration: CALIGULA] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ASSASSINATIONS OF TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS, NERO - -(A. D. 37-68.) - - -At the time of the assassination of Julius Cæsar, the Roman people, and -especially the higher classes, had reached a degree of perversity and -degeneracy which appears to the modern reader almost incredible. They -had become utterly unfit for self-government. The most atrocious public -and private vices in both sexes had taken the place of the civic virtues -and the private honor for which the ancient Roman had been famous the -world over. In public life, corruption, venality, and bribery were -general; a public office-holder was synonymous with a robber of the -public treasury. Nepotism prevailed to an alarming degree, and the -ablest men were unceremoniously pushed aside for the incapable -descendants of the nobility. In times like those, only the very -strongest hand and the sternest character and mind can restrain the -masses from falling into anarchy and civil war, and impose on society -moderation and the rule of law. - -The assassination of Cæsar had a most demoralizing effect on the Roman -people. The hand of the master who might have controlled the unruly -masses and restrained the degenerate nobility lay palsied in death; the -giant intellect, which had embraced the civilized world in its dream of -establishing a universal monarchy, thought no more; and the results were -chaos, anarchy, and civil war. The absence of the master mind was -lamentably felt; his heirs were unable to control the wild elements -which the assassins had set free; and for many years, rapine, bloodshed, -murder, and spoliation ruled supreme throughout the vast extent of the -Roman Republic, until finally, in the year 30 B.C., Octavianus Augustus, -Cæsar’s nephew, succeeded in establishing that imperium of which Cæsar -had dreamed, and for which his genius and his victories had paved the -way. - -The imperial era, beginning with a display of magnificence and splendor, -both in military achievements and literary production, soon degenerated -into an era of crime, which, at least in the highest classes of society, -has never been equalled in history. Its worst feature was, perhaps, the -utter degradation and depravity of the women even of the highest -classes, and their readiness to sacrifice everything--chastity, shame, -name, and reputation--to the gratification of their passions. Soon the -women excelled the men in assassinating, by poison or dagger, their -victims or rivals. Augustus, the first Emperor, showed on the throne -much less cruelty than he had manifested as a triumvir; but Livia -Drusilla, his third wife, was the first of those female monsters on the -throne of the Cæsars--Livia, Agrippina, Messalina, Domitia--who never -shrank from murder, if by blood or poison they could rid themselves of a -rival or of an obstacle to their criminal ambition. Livia, who wished -Tiberius, her son by a former marriage, to be the successor of Augustus -on the imperial throne, caused Marcellus (the - -[Illustration: CLAUDIUS] - -husband of Julia, daughter of Augustus), and also Julia’s two sons, to -be poisoned; and by these crimes secured the succession for Tiberius. -She is also suspected of having poisoned Augustus himself. - -Tiberius, the second of the Roman Emperors, lives immortal in history -rather by his crimes than by his valorous deeds. So does Caligula, the -third, and Claudius, the fourth, and Nero, the fifth Emperor,--who were -all assassinated after comparatively short reigns, but who had exhausted -all forms of cruelty and crime; while their wives, Messalina, Agrippina, -and Poppæa will live in history forever as the unrivalled types of -female depravity. Above all, Messalina, the wife of Claudius, who ruled -from the year 41 to the year 54 of the Christian era, became notorious -for every species of vice. In her libidinous and voluptuous excesses, as -well as in the demoniacal conception of her murderous plots against her -enemies, she was easily first and foremost,--the real empress of the -vicious and fallen women of Rome: she became their open rival in the -houses of ill-fame in her capital, she contended with them for the palm -of obscenity and prostitution, and vanquished them all. - -Unless the great historians of Rome had recorded these excesses as facts -abundantly substantiated by irrefutable testimony, the reports would -have been relegated to the domain of fable, because they are too -revolting to be believed without sufficient authority. Can the human -mind conceive, for instance, an act of greater criminal insolence than -that which the Empress Messalina committed by marrying, publicly and -under the very eyes of the capital, a young Roman aristocrat, Caius -Silius, for whom she was inflamed with an adulterous passion, while her -husband, the Emperor, was but a few miles away at Ostia? And yet -Tacitus, a stern and truthful historian, records this as an undeniable -fact, adding that future generations will be loath to believe it. - -When, in the year 68 A.D., Nero expired by the dagger of a freedman, -courage having failed him to commit suicide, the family of Cæsar the -Great became extinct, even in its adopted members. Only one hundred and -twelve years had elapsed since the greatest of the Romans had fallen by -the daggers of the Republican conspirators; but that short period had -sufficed to subvert the Republic and to erect a despotic Empire on its -ruins, to flood the vast territory of Rome, which embraced the entire -civilized world, with streams of blood, to place imbeciles and assassins -on the throne of the Cæsars, and to adorn the brows of courtesans and -prostitutes, their partners in crime and depravity, with the imperial -diadem. Never before in human history had human depravity and human lust -displayed themselves more shamelessly; never before had the beast in man -shown its innate cruelty so boldly and so openly as during the reigns of -these five Roman Emperors. It is almost a consolation for the sorrowing -mind to read that Tiberius was choked to death; that Caligula was beaten -down and stabbed; that Claudius was killed by a dish of poisonous -mushrooms; and that Nero, the last of Cæsar’s dynasty, was helped to his -untimely death by the poniard of a freedman. Quick assassination was all -too light a punishment for these monsters of iniquity who had so often -feasted their eyes on the tortures of their innocent victims. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -HYPATIA - - - - -CHAPTER V - -ASSASSINATION OF HYPATIA - -(A. D. 415.) - - -Never, perhaps, did the wonderful genius of Alexander the Great appear -to better advantage than when he selected Alexandria as a commercial -centre and distributing point for the products of three continents, and -as an intellectual focus from which Hellenic culture should be -transmitted to those countries of Asia and Africa which his victories -had opened to Greek civilization. The rapidity with which the city--to -which Alexander had given his own name--grew to the dimensions of a -great capital and a world-emporium, proved the sagacity and ingenious -foresight of its founder, and was unrivalled among all the cities of the -ancient world. It became the greatest seaport of the world, surpassing -in the grandeur and magnificence of its buildings every other city -except Rome itself; and when, through the genius of the Ptolemies, the -successors of Alexander as rulers of Egypt, the great library was added -to its monuments and treasures of art, it became also the intellectual -capital of the world, rivalling and in some respects eclipsing the city -of the Cæsars. It is true, long before Alexandria had reached its -greatest prosperity, the creative power of Hellenic genius in the higher -spheres of poetry and philosophy had passed its zenith. In the -so-called Alexandrian age of literature the most beautiful and most -poetical inspirations were the idyls of Theocritus. But Alexandria was -the first city in the ancient world which became the seat of a -many-sided, methodical scholarship, and of systematic, zealous studies -of the exact sciences,--a university in the modern sense. It also became -the great library city of the world. - -It is true, the great library of inestimable value collected by Ptolemy -Philadelphus (who also purchased the large library of Aristoteles) had -been ruthlessly destroyed in the Alexandrian war of Julius Cæsar. But -Ptolemy Physcon collected a second valuable library, which was augmented -by the splendid library of King Eumenes of Pergamus, and formed by far -the grandest collection of books to be found in the world. Mark Antony -gave this splendid library to Queen Cleopatra. It comprised the -intellectual treasures of the ancient world, and was placed in a wing of -the Serapeum,--in that gigantic and magnificent building which was the -grandest temple of ancient Egypt and the pride of Alexandria. The great -city of the Ptolemies, with a population of nearly a million souls, had -also become a sort of neutral territory upon which all religions could -meet on equal terms. The cosmopolitan character of this great commercial -centre, in which Christians, Jews, and pagans of all countries competed -for the acquisition of wealth, made it natural for all these different -citizens to live in harmony and mutual toleration. The time came, -however, when Christianity was proclaimed the official state religion -under Theodosius the Great, upon whose instigation or order the Roman -Senate (not by a unanimous, but by a simple majority vote) passed a -resolution declaring that the Christian religion should be the only true -religion for the Roman Empire. This official declaration became the -signal for a brutal persecution of the old religion throughout the -Empire, and especially in its eastern provinces. Very prominent in this -work of persecution and destruction was Theophilus, Archbishop of -Alexandria, who was famous far and wide as one of the great lights of -the Church and as a man of exceptional piety, although many of his -actions are utterly inexcusable from a moral point of view. Theophilus -was in constant warfare with the pagans and Jews of Alexandria, who -quite often joined hands in fighting him. But, as a rule, they were -defeated by the pugnacious prelate, who, on such occasions, always found -at his command a formidable army composed of the mob of the city and of -the monks of the desert of Nitria, which was near the city. The main -object of Theophilus’s attacks was the great Serapeum, in which immense -treasures of gold, silver, and sacred vessels were stored away, and -which contained also the great collection of books,--a perfect armory of -pagan philosophy, religion, and poetry,--which was especially obnoxious -to him. By shrewdly misrepresenting the spirit of revolt among the Jews -and pagans of the city, he succeeded in getting an edict from the -Emperor authorizing him to destroy this temple of ancient wisdom and -culture,--and, for the second time, the magnificent library of -Alexandria was partly destroyed, partly scattered to the winds. - -The audacity of Theophilus had inflicted terrible defeats on the -non-Christian population of Alexandria, and had utterly disheartened it. -On the other hand, the Christian inhabitants showed by their increasing -arrogance that they were conscious of the supremacy of their church and -of the exclusive protection to which their religion entitled them. -However, in spite of this cruel discrimination there still remained at -Alexandria a large and intelligent element true to the old religion, or -rather to the old philosophy. - -Theophilus died in the year 412 A.D., and was succeeded by his nephew -Kyrillos, better known as St. Cyril, who continued the vindictive policy -against the Jews and pagans which his uncle had inaugurated. It was not -long before Cyril had fanaticized the mob against the Jews to such an -extent that the latter, driven to despair, took up arms against their -aggressors, who had undertaken a regular crusade against their lives and -property. Pitched battles and massacres took place in the streets of -Alexandria. Hundreds of the unfortunate Jews were slain, and very likely -the Jewish population would have been entirely exterminated or expelled -from the city, had not Orestes, the imperial governor, interfered in -their behalf, and defeated the infuriated mob and the monks of Nitria, -who as usual had taken a hand in the fight. But it was a long and -stubbornly contested battle. Although Cyril personally did not show -himself, it was nevertheless well known that he directed the attacks -against the Jews from his hiding-place. Moreover all his most intimate -friends actively participated in the riot and strenuously resisted the -efforts of the governor to restore peace. - -One of these friends personally assaulted and seriously wounded the -governor. After the revolt had been quelled, this man was put on trial -and sentenced to death. In vain Cyril appealed for mercy and tried to -save the life of the accused man. Orestes was implacable, and the -condemned man was executed. The disdain with which he had been treated -by the governor, enraged the prelate and stimulated him to revenge. A -large procession of priests and citizens took the body of the criminal -from the gibbet and carried it to the principal church of Alexandria, -where the Archbishop read high mass and delivered a sermon full of -admiration and eulogy for the victim, filling the hearts of the -congregation with hatred and contempt for the authorities, and invoking -the punishment of Heaven upon their heads. But even this public -demonstration did not satisfy the Archbishop; and with consummate -cruelty he hit upon a plan for deeply wounding the governor without -attacking him personally. - -At that time there lived at Alexandria a young lady of great talent and -renown. Her name was Hypatia. She was the daughter of Theon, a -celebrated mathematician who lived at Alexandria, and whose genius for -mathematics she seemed to have inherited. She first became his pupil, -but soon surpassed him in ability and reputation. She also applied -herself with great zeal and rare penetration to the study of the -philosophy of Plato, whom she greatly admired and much preferred to -Aristotle. Since Alexandria had no professors superior to herself in -attainments and learning, Hypatia went to Greece and for several years -attended the lectures of the most famous professors of Athens. She then -returned to Alexandria, and was immediately invited by the authorities -to the chair of philosophy in the University. Hypatia accepted this -honor and filled the position with brilliant success. It was not only -her profound and extensive learning, embracing the entire compass of -the exact sciences, but also the charm of her persuasive and mellifluous -eloquence which filled her hearers with admiration. - -Her reputation as a public lecturer soon equalled her renown as a -mathematician and philosopher, and a number of the most distinguished -men of Alexandria and other cities were among her regular disciples, -listening with delight to her dissertations. One of her most -enthusiastic students was Synesius, afterwards Bishop of Ptolemais, who -always held her in affectionate reverence, although she had steadily -refused to profess the Christian religion. Orestes, the governor, was -also among the number of her admirers and was frequently seen at her -lectures, which were attended by Christians as well as by pagans. To the -great qualities of her mind were added rare physical beauty and a -suavity of manners which won the hearts of all those who became -acquainted with her. Several of Alexandria’s most prominent citizens -desired to marry her, but she refused all proposals because she wanted -to live only for the sciences to which she had devoted her life. In -spite of her great popularity and the steadily increasing number of -admirers, Hypatia’s reputation was spotless; she had many friends, but -never had a lover. While this eminent woman’s celebrity as a -thinker--which entirely eclipsed his own--would have been sufficient to -fill the heart of Cyril with envy and jealousy, there was an additional -reason for his hatred and hostility. Orestes, the governor, was a -frequent visitor at her house and was known to consult her frequently on -important public questions. The Archbishop, perhaps justly, attributed -to Hypatia’s influence the governor’s evident leaning toward paganism -and his open admiration for the philosophical doctrines of the Greek -philosophers. Seeking for a victim on whom to vent his spite against -Orestes, he therefore selected Hypatia as the one whose destruction -would hurt him most deeply, while at the same time it would deliver -himself and the church from their most dangerous opponent. It was -comparatively easy for him to inflame the minds of the ignorant masses -with rage against the woman who was represented to them as the -implacable enemy of their religion, and whose pernicious teachings had -led so many others from the path of virtue and salvation. - -Everything was carefully but secretly prepared for the fatal blow, which -was struck in the month of March, 415. It was a beautiful sunny day, and -Hypatia got ready to proceed to the University, where she was to lecture -that forenoon. A carriage was waiting for her at the door of her -residence. When she entered the carriage she was surprised at the -unusual number of people filling the street, and at the great number of -monks passing through their ranks and apparently haranguing them. She -could not account for this strange gathering, for it was not a Christian -holiday, nor was any civil procession to come off that morning. - -All at once she noticed that this great assemblage of people began to -move in the direction of her own house. As it came nearer she heard wild -exclamations and threats, without comprehending, however, that she was -the object of this hostile demonstration. At the head of the procession -marched Peter, the reader, one of the most fanatical of the priests of -the city; he had played a very prominent part in the previous riots, and -was evidently the leader in this new movement. With growing -astonishment Hypatia saw them coming, but in the consciousness of her -innocence she had no fear. She was soon to be cruelly disabused. - -As soon as the rioters were within a few hundred feet of her residence -and saw her seated in her carriage ready to start, the leaders and those -in the front rank rushed toward her. Peter, the reader, was the first to -reach her and to lay hands on her. As she recoiled from his touch in -terror, others climbed upon the wheels of the carriage and dragged her -down into the street. She resisted and called for help, but her cries -died away unheard in the tumult of the roaring and jeering multitude who -surrounded the carriage and with ever-increasing violence uttered -threats against her. - -Popular excitement is a flame which feeds itself by the electric current -emanating from thousands of impassioned and excited minds. It is ready -on slight provocation to burst forth in all-devouring violence. But a -few minutes had passed from the moment the procession reached Hypatia’s -carriage until the infuriated mob, holding the victim firmly in their -grasp, had torn the garments from her body and hurried her with wild -cheers and laughter to the Cæsarium, the great Christian church. -Paralyzed with fear, unable to utter anything but screams and cries for -help, she was dragged, in a state of perfect nudity, through the -streets, and neither her helplessness nor her beauty softened the hearts -of her tormentors and murderers. She was doomed to die, to be sacrificed -at a Christian altar, atoning for her unbelief and her pernicious -teachings with her life. One of her own friends, like herself adhering -to the ancient cult and to Platonic philosophy, fitly compared Hypatia’s -murder to the sacrifice of a Greek goddess by drunken and infuriated -barbarians. But the crowning infamy of this assassination, as brutal as -any that history has recorded, was that the victim was dragged to the -church of Christ,--Christ, the incarnation of love and mercy,--and -slaughtered there amidst the yells and curses of the so-called -believers. - -Hundreds of women had swelled the mob, and like the men they were -brandishing flints, shells, and broken pottery, with which to cut and -lacerate their victim that they might feast their eyes on her agony. - -Charles Kingsley has given in his famous novel, “Hypatia,” a -heart-rending description of the last moments of the illustrious -woman-philosopher. The description may not be accurate in every little -detail, but Mr. Kingsley sees the scene with the eye and with the -imagination of a poet, and his description is poetically true. Our -readers will thank us for quoting his words in rendering this final -scene:-- - - “Whither were they dragging her?... On into the church itself! Into - the cool dim shadow, with its fretted pillars, and lowering domes, - and candles, and incense, and blazing altar, and great pictures - looking from the walls athwart the gorgeous gloom; and right in - front, above the altar, the colossal Christ watching unmoved from - off the wall, his right hand raised to give a blessing--or a curse? - - “On, up the nave, fresh shreds of her dress strewing the holy - pavement--up the chancel steps themselves--right underneath the - great, still Christ: and there even those hell-hounds paused.... - She shook herself free from her tormentors, and springing back, - rose for one moment to her full height, naked, snow-white against - the dusky mass around--shame and indignation in those wide, clear - eyes, but not a stain of fear. With one hand she clasped her golden - locks around her; the other long white arm was stretched upward - toward the great still Christ, appealing--and who dare say in - vain?--from man to God. Her lips were open to speak; but the words - that should have come from them reached God’s ear alone; for in an - instant Peter struck her down, the dark mass closed over her again - ... and then wail on wail, long, wild, ear-piercing, ran along the - vaulted roofs.... What in the name of the God of mercy were they - doing? Tearing her piece-meal? Yes, and worse than that!... It was - over. The shrieks had died away into moans, the moans to - silence.... A new cry rose through the dome: ‘To the Cinaron! Burn - the bones to ashes! Scatter them into the sea!’” - -In the whole annals of crime not a more heart-rending and more brutal -scene can be found than the murder of Hypatia. The assassination of the -beautiful young Princess de Lamballe, the friend of Marie Antoinette, -during the worst days of the French Revolution, bears some resemblance -to it; but, after all, political fanaticism is never equal in its -intensity and cruelty to religious fanaticism. Moreover, the fate of -Hypatia shows that not all the martyrs were on the side of Christianity -in the early ages of the Christian church. It should be stated, however, -that a general cry of horror resounded through the world when the -terrible news of Hypatia’s death crossed the seas and was echoed from -land to land, and that the Christian Church, by its most illustrious -representatives, was loud in its denunciation of the murder. - -Upon the fame and name of St. Cyril the murder of Hypatia has left a -lasting stain; for the plan and execution were generally attributed to -him. Even Catholic Church historians, both ancient and modern, criticise -him severely for his imprudent and ill-advised instigations against -Hypatia and her followers, although they try to protect his memory -against the reproach of having intentionally caused her death. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THOMAS À BECKET - -[Illustration: THOMAS À BECKET] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -ASSASSINATION OF THOMAS À BECKET - -(December 29, 1170) - - -One of the most remarkable careers and one of the most famous -assassinations in the middle ages were the career and the assassination -of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. His life (at least after -he had been elevated to the Primacy of England) and his death show him -as the great representative of the Church of Rome, standing up for the -defence of its rights and dying in their defence; and they show also how -necessary, in those dark ages, was a superhuman power, to hold the -arrogance and brute force of warriors and princes in check, and bring -into subjection their unbridled passions and their insolent usurpations. -Even if Thomas à Becket miserably perished in his bold resistance to -kingly assumption, his death was a wholesome lesson to the tyrants on -European thrones, and raised him higher in the estimation of the world -than a victory over King Henry the Second would have done. - -Thomas Becket, or, as he is oftener called, Thomas à Becket, rose to his -eminent station in State and Church from comparatively low birth. He was -born in 1119, the son of a London merchant and an Oriental mother. This -lady had followed the merchant to England after his return from the -Holy Land, where he had been a crusader. The merchant rapidly acquired -wealth, and was able to give his son, who was distinguished by brilliant -talents, a splendid education. After having studied for some time at -Oxford, the young man was permitted to complete his studies at the -University of Paris, which at that time attracted students from all -parts of Europe by the reputation of its professors and the superiority -of its methods of instruction. From Paris Thomas went to Bologna, in -order to study theology; by his travels and the application and zeal -with which he pursued his studies, he acquired an exceptional reputation -for the extent, variety, and depth of his knowledge. On his return from -Italy Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was charmed with the attainments -and learning of the young man, and recommended him to the King for the -appointment of Chancellor. The King appointed him and made him also the -tutor of his son. In the position of Chancellor he ingratiated himself -with the King, and his counsels in matters of State and of importance to -the crown proved so valuable that the King soon distinguished him above -all other courtiers and officials, and treated him more as a friend than -as a subject. - -Having inherited immense wealth from his father, and having, moreover, -been endowed by the munificence of the King with a number of offices and -benefices from which he derived large revenues, the Chancellor made a -great display of splendor and wealth. His household eclipsed almost that -of the King himself, and looked more like the court of a prince than the -household of a citizen. However, he neglected no opportunity to show his -loyalty and devotion to the King. In 1159 he accompanied the King to -Toulouse, with a retinue of seven hundred knights and twelve hundred -mounted men, all of whom he had equipped at his own expense. The King -also intrusted him with a confidential mission to Paris, where he was to -negotiate the marriage of the King’s eldest son with the eldest daughter -of the King of France. The Chancellor succeeded in concluding a family -alliance between the two courts, and conducted the young princess -personally to England. - -In 1162 Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, died, and King Henry the -Second immediately declared that Thomas à Becket should be his -successor. When the King’s plan to make him Archbishop was mentioned to -Becket, he protested against it, and it would seem, sincerely. He even -went so far as to tell the King, when the latter urged him to work for -his election, that he was making a mistake in advocating his elevation -to the See of Canterbury, using these words: “If I should be raised to -that office, you would soon hate me as much as you now love me; for you -will meddle in the affairs of the Church more than I can consent to, and -people will not be wanting to embroil us.” But the King laughed at these -warnings. He supposed that Becket, as Archbishop, would be as -complaisant and willing a tool to assist him in curtailing the -prerogatives of the Church and transferring them to the crown, as he had -been on a former occasion. He therefore continued to use his influence -in favor of Becket’s election, and succeeded in placing him in the -Archbishop’s See. At first the Pope objected to his election, but he -finally ratified it in order to please the kings of England and France, -who had both appealed to him in Becket’s behalf. - -No sooner had Becket been installed as Archbishop of Canterbury--which -dignity carried with it that of Primate of England--than he entirely -changed his mode of living. No more luxury, no more display of wealth, -no more horses or magnificent costumes for him! On the contrary, the new -Archbishop ostentatiously chose the coarsest and plainest garments. -Instead of the fine lace shirt of former days he wore a coarse -haircloth, dirty in the extreme, and his outer garments were frequently -ragged. His food was of the plainest quality, consisting of bread, -water, and skimmed milk. He affected austerity in every way, frequently -flogged himself for impure thoughts or nominal sins which he might have -committed, and every day he knelt and washed the feet of thirteen -beggars. He resigned his office as Chancellor in order to devote all his -time and zeal to his new office and the affairs of the Church. - -The King did not like the change in the Archbishop’s ways, and protested -against his resignation, but Becket would not reconsider it. The King -rightly guessed that there might be a hidden meaning and a secret -ambition in the Archbishop’s sudden conversion to Christian humility, -which so strangely contrasted with his past conduct. The storm between -the two mighty men, each self-willed and irascible, was brewing, and -when it finally broke out, it was fierce and relentless. It never ended -until the prelate lay prostrate as a victim of assassins before the -altar of the church which he tried to protect from the King’s -usurpation. - -It was not long before the conflict broke out. It then appeared that the -change which had taken place in Becket was not confined to the outer man -only, but had also affected his relation to the Church and the State. -From a King’s counsellor and servant he had suddenly turned to be the -counsellor and servant of the Church, and he carried over into his new -station the impulsiveness and stubbornness which had always -distinguished him in the service of the King. It is difficult to say -which of the two, in this struggle for ascendency, was right, or rather -which of the two was the more to blame. For while the King was -aggressive, arrogant, domineering, in the consciousness of his power, -the Archbishop was imperious, insolent, and inconsistent, inasmuch as he -now boldly condemned what he had formerly counselled. But it seemed to -be a trait of Becket’s character, that he always devoted himself -unconditionally to the master he served at the time, and that from the -moment he abandoned the service of the King for that of the Church it -was quite natural for him to defend the interests and rights of the -latter against the usurpations of the former. - -At that time a priest who had committed any crime could be tried by an -ecclesiastical court only; consequently very few criminals of this class -were convicted and adequately punished; in most cases the accused, even -if found guilty, were only reprimanded and degraded. This abuse was -carried to such excess that during the first years of the reign of Henry -the Second no less than one hundred murders committed by priests had not -been punished. A priest had seduced the daughter of a gentleman living -in Worcestershire, and, confronted by the angry father of the girl, -assassinated him. Public indignation was aroused by this atrocity to -such an extent that the King ordered the arrest of the guilty priest and -his trial before a civil tribunal. Becket protested against this order, -claiming that it was an infringement of the prerogatives of the Church. -He ordered an ecclesiastical court to investigate the charges, and the -result was as usual, that the punishment awarded was only degradation. -The King was furious. He made up his mind to beat the Archbishop at his -own game and to punish him for his presumption. He therefore submitted -the question of ecclesiastical immunities and of church prerogatives to -a council of jurists and ordered them to investigate whether these -prerogatives were founded on a solid historical basis. The jurists knew -what sort of decision the King wanted, and they gave it. Thereupon the -King convened a general council of the high nobility and also of the -Church at Clarendon, and there, among other restrictions placed upon the -Church, it was enacted that members of the clergy indicted for a crime -should be tried by civil tribunals, exactly like other subjects. - -Becket, seeing that all the barons and many prelates had submitted to -the decree of the council, was compelled to yield, and swore to obey it; -but his submission was caused only by his powerlessness. But when this -so-called Constitution of Clarendon was sent to the Pope for -ratification, he rejected it haughtily and condemned it in the most -energetic manner. Thereupon Becket, basing his action on the -condemnation of the Pope, openly retracted the consent which he had -given to the Clarendon decree, and subjected himself to great -austerities and macerations proportionate to the greatness of the sin he -had committed in yielding to the royal demands. He even refused to -perform any functions connected with his episcopal rank until the Pope -had acquitted him of his great wrong against the Church. This action -made the rupture between the King and the Archbishop irreparable. Henry -swore to have his revenge on a priest who was not only an ingrate but a -perjurer. He arraigned him before a parliament convened at Northampton -in 1165 as a rebel, as having violated his oath of allegiance. Becket -was convicted, his personal estate was confiscated, the revenues of his -archbishopric were seized, and Becket himself, abandoned even by his -clergy, fled to France, whose King, in spite of the protests of Henry, -offered him a refuge. - -Becket’s spirit was far from being broken. From his retreat in France he -wrote to the bishops of England that the Pope had annulled the -Constitution of Clarendon, and at the same time he excommunicated a -number of those, bishops as well as other high officials, who had -assisted in violating the sacred rights of the Church. The King answered -by exiling all his relatives from England, and forbidding his subjects -to correspond with him, or to send him money; he even forbade prayers in -behalf of the Archbishop to be offered in church. - -But the conditions between the Church and the court created by this -conflict were such that the King found it expedient to make overtures of -reconciliation to Becket, first through the bishops and church officials -of England, and afterwards personally. In a conference which he held for -that purpose with the King of France, he said to the latter: “There have -been several kings of England, some more and others less powerful than -myself; there have been also several Archbishops of Canterbury, in my -opinion as respectable and as sainted as Thomas à Becket; let him show -to me the same deference which the greatest of his predecessors have -shown to the least powerful of my predecessors, and there will be no -controversy between us.” King Henry also offered to take the clergy of -France as umpires in the questions at issue; but when Becket stubbornly -refused to be reconciled to the King of England, the King of France lost -his patience and withdrew the protection which up to that day he had -accorded to him. - -These and other changes unfavorable to him finally induced Becket to -lend to the King’s proposals of reconciliation a more willing ear, and -at last an interview took place between them which resulted in their -reconciliation--apparently at least. The interview was much more cordial -than might have been supposed from the exceedingly strained relations -that had existed between them for years. The Archbishop approached the -King as became a subject, and the King met him with the humility shown -at that time to princes of the Church; when they parted, Becket bent his -knee to the King, who held the stirrup of his horse as the Archbishop -mounted. The interview had resulted in settling their differences. Both -had made concessions, but the larger part of these had been made by the -King. All the Archbishop’s personal property had also been restored to -him; he thereupon agreed to return to England and resume the functions -of his office. He had been absent seven years. - -The people at large, and especially the poor, greeted him with -enthusiasm; but the barons kept away, and some of them showed open -hostility to the Archbishop, or mysteriously hinted at a speedy ending -of his newly regained honors. His arrival in England had been preceded -by a messenger from the Pope carrying writs of excommunication for three -English bishops who had been especially hostile to Becket. These -bishops immediately went to Normandy, where Henry the Second had -remained, and laid their complaints before him, laying all the blame on -Becket, whom they charged with inflaming the people of England against -their King and sowing discord in their hearts. When these matters were -laid before him, and also a statement that Becket had excommunicated two -barons whom he considered his special enemies, the King got into a rage -and exclaimed: “What? Is there among the cowards whom I feed at my table -not one brave enough to deliver me from this firebrand of a priest?” -These words could have but one meaning. Four of the barons took it upon -themselves to deliver the King from the obnoxious priest. The King -afterwards declared that he had never intended to suggest the -assassination of Becket; but what other construction could be given to -his words? The assassination itself was one of the most dramatic in -history. The would-be murderers travelled in such haste that a messenger -whom the King sent after them to warn them not to kill Becket could not -overtake them. Arriving at Canterbury on December 29, 1170, they, with -twelve other noblemen, went to the Archbishop’s residence, and -expostulated with him concerning the excommunication of certain priests -and barons, and when he refused to revoke the excommunications, the -barons left him with threats. They returned toward evening. The bell of -the church was ringing for vespers, and the Archbishop had gone there. -The priests wanted to close and barricade the doors, but he objected. -“The doors of the house of God should not be barricaded like a -fortress!” said he. Just then the assassins came in, brandishing their -swords and calling for the traitor. The priests surrounding the -Archbishop fled in terror; only his cross-bearer stayed with him. It was -so dark that neither the intruders nor the priest could be seen -distinctly. Another voice called: “Where is the Archbishop?” “I am -here,” answered Becket. “I am no traitor, but only a priest of the -Lord!” They were afraid to kill him in the holy precincts. Once more -they asked him to absolve those he had excommunicated. He refused, -because they had not repented. “Then you shall die!” they cried. “I am -ready, in the name of the Saviour,” he answered; “but I forbid you, by -the Lord Almighty, to touch any of these present, priests or laymen.” -They heeded him not, but rushed upon him, and with three or four thrusts -from their swords, one of them splitting his skull, laid him prostrate -at the foot of the altar. - -The murderers hurried back to Normandy to get their reward. The news of -the murder, when it reached the ears of the King, struck terror into his -heart. He knew he was, and would be held, responsible for Becket’s -death. Fear seized him, that he would feel the Pope’s wrath, that he -would be excommunicated, that England and his possessions in France -would be placed under an interdict, that the Saxon population of -England, which already revered Becket as a saint, might rise in open -rebellion against him. He therefore made haste to disclaim publicly any -complicity in the murder, and sent an ambassador to the Pope to assure -him of his entire innocence and of his profound grief at the bloody -deed. The Pope at first refused to receive the ambassador, and it was -only by means of many prayers, promises, and humble supplications that -he finally absolved the King of intentional complicity in the heinous -crime. The King actually purchased this absolution by pledging himself -to support, during three years, two hundred well-equipped horsemen for -the protection of the Holy Sepulchre. - -But even this act of papal absolution was not deemed sufficient by the -King to protect him from the evil consequences of the assassination. To -remove this danger the King two years afterwards undertook a pilgrimage -to the tomb of Becket, who had in the meantime been buried in the -Cathedral with royal honors. As soon as the steeple of the Cathedral -appeared on the horizon, the King dismounted, and proceeded on his way -barefooted, his bleeding feet leaving a spot of blood at every step. On -his arrival at the tomb he prostrated himself, and subjected himself to -the humiliation of a severe flagellation at the hands of the monks, each -of whom applied to his bare back three strokes from a knotted rope. - -Having undergone this public chastisement, the King remained praying and -fasting the following night, prostrated on the tombstone. Next morning -he returned to London, where, immediately after his arrival, he fell -seriously ill from the effects of his pilgrimage. - -The Pope canonized the martyr who had so heroically died in the defence -of the prerogatives of the Church. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -GESSLER - -[Illustration: GESSLER] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ASSASSINATION OF GESSLER - -(A.D. 1307.) - - -The assassination of Julius Cæsar and of the first Roman Emperors led to -greater demoralization of the people, and thereafter to anarchy, -bloodshed, civil war, and ultimately to an atrocious despotism; but at -an interval of twelve hundred and forty years after the death of Nero -there occurred a political assassination, growing out of personal -revenge, which freed a whole people from oppression and placed the -murderer among the heroes of mankind and the liberators of nations. We -speak of William Tell, the national hero of Switzerland, who in 1307 -deliberately murdered Gessler, the Austrian governor. - -This governor, who resided at the castle of Kuessnacht, had committed -the greatest outrages and acts of despotism against the inhabitants of -his gubernatorial district, embracing the so-called three Waldstädte -(Forest Cantons),--Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. Until then these Forest -Cantons had enjoyed a republican government, and had given to the German -Empire a merely nominal recognition, by acknowledging the German Emperor -as their suzerain. There is a great resemblance in the relations between -these Swiss Cantons and the German Empire to the relations which -existed, before the South African war, between the two Boer Republics -and the crown of England. Rudolph of Hapsburg, himself a Swiss by birth, -who had been elected German Emperor, had pursued a liberal policy toward -the Cantons and in special charters had guaranteed to them their -inherited rights and liberties. But his son Albrecht the First, who -succeeded Rudolph on the imperial throne, resolved to do away with these -prerogatives, deprive the Swiss Cantons of their independence, and make -them subject to the crown of Austria. Theretofore the German Emperors -had been represented in a few cities of Switzerland by bailiffs, who -exerted the same authority in the Cantons as our federal judges in -United States Territories; but Albrecht changed their duties and -authority entirely, investing them with many additional powers, so that -they became practically governors of their districts, appointed by the -Emperor and administering their office as imperial officials. - -Against this change the inhabitants of the Cantons entered their solemn -protests; they sent delegations to Albrecht to remonstrate with him; but -he gave evasive answers, increased the soldiery protecting the -governors, shut his ears to all complaints about their arrogance and -growing usurpation, and secretly encouraged them “to do all in their -power to break the stubborn resistance of these uncouth mountaineers and -boors, and make them obedient subjects of the Austrian crown.” To the -strong men of the Cantons, who had never bowed their necks under the -yoke of a foreign despot, the tyranny of these Austrian governors became -intolerable; their leading men made up their minds to throw it off by -all means, and to maintain their independence at any cost. Even the -members of the nobility scattered through the Cantons were indignant at -the arbitrary and haughty ways of the imperial bailiffs, who treated -them with the same arrogance as they treated the common people; they -therefore made common cause with the latter, so that practically the -imperial officials were isolated in a hostile country, without friends -or party. - -The public discontent culminated in a secret conspiracy, of which Walter -Fuerst of Uri, Werner Stauffacher of Schwyz, and Arnold Melchthal of -Unterwalden, were the originators. These three men, each a -representative and influential citizen of his own Canton, met at the -house of Walter Fuerst and agreed to meet for further consultation on -the Ruetli, an elevated plateau, hidden in the woods, near the lake of -Uri, on certain nights, each undertaking to bring along ten men tried -and true, who had promised to act with them, for life and death, for the -deliverance of their country. They also pledged themselves by oath to -keep this league a secret from all but the initiated, who like -themselves had sworn to coöperate for the deliverance of the country, -until the time had come for united action on one and the same day. This -was done in the fall of 1307. A later consultation of the conspirators -on the Ruetli took place some weeks afterwards, and was attended by the -three leaders and thirty others. They were all full of enthusiasm and -hope of victory. They all pledged the almost unanimous support of the -inhabitants of the three Cantons, and finally agreed that the people -should rise in rebellion on New Year’s Day, 1308. The humane feature of -this proposed revolution appears from their joint agreement, affirmed -under oath, that, in expelling the Austrian governors and their -followers from their castles and their country, they would not kill them -except in self-defence, but would treat them with leniency and charity. -Is it not as if we heard Oom Krueger and his friends of the Transvaal -and Orange Free State counsel on measures for their independence? They -placed their full confidence in the justice of their cause, the -assistance of God, and their own bravery. - -The day for the execution of their plot was anticipated by an unforeseen -event. Gessler, the Governor of Uri and Schwyz, had made himself -especially odious by all sorts of petty acts of tyranny. Among these was -an order that the ducal hat of Austria was to be placed on the top of a -long pole to be erected on the market space of Altorf and that nobody -should pass by it without uncovering his head and showing it respect as -if the Duke of Austria (Albrecht, Emperor of Germany) himself were -there. The citizens generally complied with the order. But one day -William Tell and his little son passed by the hat without minding -Gessler’s order. William Tell was the son-in-law of Walter Fuerst, one -of the three leaders of the Ruetli conspiracy, and, like Walter Fuerst -himself, he was looked upon with suspicion by the Austrian authorities. -The openness with which he ignored Gessler’s order was immediately -construed as an act of defiance and rebellion. He was taken before -Gessler, and the cruel bailiff imposed upon him a punishment which, he -thought, would wound him to the heart. - -“Tell,” said he to him, “by your act of disobedience you have forfeited -your life. But I will be merciful to you,” and pointing to Tell’s -crossbow, he continued: “You have the reputation of being the best -archer of our Canton, if not of all Switzerland. I have never seen a -test of your skill yet; very well, let your skill be tried now, and if -it is as great as your reputation it will save your life. There is an -apple. Place it upon your boy’s head, and at a distance of thirty steps -shoot it with an arrow. But take good aim! For, if you hit the boy, your -life will pay for it!” - -William Tell complied with the cruel order, and with his usual masterly -skill brought down the apple from the boy’s head. Gessler was enraged at -the result, and, before dismissing Tell, he asked him with an insidious -smile: “Now tell me, William Tell, why did you take two arrows from your -quiver before you took aim at the apple on your boy’s head? Tell me -sincerely, and whatever your answer may be, your life shall not be -imperilled.” - -Carried away by his wrath, Tell contemptuously replied: “If I had missed -my aim and hit my boy, the second arrow was for you, and, by God -Almighty, it would not have gone astray!” - -“That’s what I thought,” cried Gessler, and turning to his escort he -ordered them to put Tell in chains and take him to the boat on the lake. -“Your life,” said he to Tell, “is not in peril; but I will take you to -my castle in Kuessnacht; there in one of the darkest dungeons -underground you shall be imprisoned, and may find time to repent the -rebellious words which you have uttered!” - -In the immediate neighborhood of Kuessnacht, on a mountain top -overlooking the town, was the fortified castle where Gessler resided. It -was on the way to that residence that Tell did the act by which he -satisfied his personal revenge and also freed his country from the -bloody tyranny of the despot. While Gessler and his prisoner were -crossing the lake, a storm arose, which endangered the boat. The fury of -the tempest filled the hearts of the boatmen with dismay and terror, and -tremblingly they turned to Gessler, saying: “The boldest and most -skilful boatman in the Canton is Tell. He may be able to save the boat, -but we cannot! Set him free and he may bring us safe to port.” - -Gessler ordered the chains to be removed from Tell’s limbs and ordered -him to take the helm, promising him life, liberty, and a full pardon if -he should bring them safe into port. Tell took the helm, and the boat, -obedient to its master’s hand, sped through the storm-tossed waves like -a seabird dancing on the surface. But turning round a rock-bound bluff -close to the shore, Tell suddenly took up his cross-bow lying on the -bench near by, and with a mighty leap jumped on the rock, hurling the -boat far back into the hissing and tempestuous flood. - -Gessler also escaped from the watery grave, but only to meet his doom on -land even before he had reached his home. Tell was lying in ambush on -the road from the lake to Kuessnacht. It was the road which Gessler and -his party had to take on their return to the castle, if they should -succeed in effecting a landing on the shore. After some time Gessler, -accompanied by a few friends, came in sight. No sooner had the party -entered the defile than Gessler, shot through the heart by Tell’s -unerring arrow, fell from his horse. - -Tell’s shot was the signal for the general uprising of the people of -Switzerland. Years of struggle and warfare against Austria’s nobility -and armed forces followed Tell’s heroic act, but the entire -independence of Switzerland was finally secured. Switzerland is to this -day a free and independent republic, and Tell’s name shines with -imperishable lustre not only as its great national hero, but also among -the immortal patriots and liberators of mankind. - -We are well aware that recent historical criticism has expressed doubt -as to Tell’s great act of deliverance, and even as to his existence, and -that in some histories the tale is simply relegated to the domain of -legend and tradition. But there is no real justification for this -decision. It is founded only on a statement in the chronicle of Saxo -Grammaticus recording a feat of archery in Scandinavia similar to that -of William Tell, and performed hundreds of years before Tell’s day. - -As Johannes von Mueller, the great historian, judiciously says: “It -shows but scanty knowledge of history to deny the truth of a historical -event simply because another similar event occurred in another century -and country.” But truth or fiction, history or legend, the heroic act -and name of Tell will live on, immortal and inspiring, as they have -lived during the last six hundred years. Poets and novelists have -immortalized the great national hero of Switzerland in song and story. -Frederick Schiller, Germany’s greatest dramatist, has made him the -central hero of his greatest drama, and has given his name to that great -hymn of liberty and patriotism, which stirred up the German nation to -its glorious struggle against Napoleon the First. It is one of the few -truly patriotic assassinations recorded in history. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -IÑEZ DE CASTRO - -[Illustration: IÑEZ DE CASTRO] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -ASSASSINATION OF IÑEZ DE CASTRO - -(A.D. 1355.) - - -As one of the most cruel and heart-rending tragedies of the middle ages, -the love-story and the assassination of Iñez de Castro has lived in song -and story for five hundred and fifty years, and still awakens echoes of -pity and sorrow whenever read or heard. - -Constancia, the wife of Pedro, son of Alfonso the Fourth of Portugal, -and heir-presumptive to the crown of that kingdom, died in 1344, and -left to her husband a son of tender age, named Ferdinand. Pedro -thereupon desired to marry the countess Iñez de Castro, a young lady of -great beauty and loveliness, and, like himself, sprung in direct -lineage, but on her mother’s side, from the royal house of Castile. Iñez -de Castro was of an illustrious family, it is true, but her rank was not -deemed sufficient to entitle her to become the wife of the Crown Prince; -therefore when Dom Pedro mentioned to his father his intention to marry -her, the King positively refused his consent. Dom Pedro, however, -instead of obeying his father, secured permission from the Pope, and -secretly married her, bestowing upon her the full rank and all the -rights of a legitimate wife. - -In the meantime the King and his advisers urged Dom Pedro to get -married again, and proposed a number of young princesses of renowned -beauty and ancestry for his choice. But Pedro, without disclosing the -secret of his marriage with Iñez de Castro (rumors of which were -nevertheless whispered and busily circulated at the court of the King), -persistently rejected all these proposals, giving no other reason for -his refusal than his personal disinclination to marry. While Pedro’s -father reluctantly accepted his son’s emphatic declaration, the most -trusted advisers and counsellors of the King, Diego Lopez Pacheco, Pedro -Coello, and Alvaro Calvarez, did not, because they were afraid lest the -influence of the beautiful and accomplished Iñez de Castro--no matter -whether she was legally married to Pedro or not--would be dangerous and -possibly fatal to their own preëminence at the court, as soon as Pedro -should succeed his father on the throne. They shrewdly worked upon the -King’s mind by insinuating that if the rumor of Pedro’s secret marriage -should prove to be true, the ultimate succession of Ferdinand, Pedro’s -son by his first wife, to whom the King was very much attached, might be -endangered, and that possibly the son of Iñez de Castro would become -Pedro’s successor on the throne. - -The King summoned Pedro to a private interview, and asked him concerning -his relations with Iñez de Castro, informing him at the same time of the -rumor of his secret marriage. Pedro denied the truth of this rumor, -admitting, however, that Iñez de Castro, while not his wedded wife, was -so dear to his heart that on her account he would not consent to form a -new matrimonial alliance, no matter how illustrious by birth or beauty -the princess proposed to him might be. The emphasis with which Pedro -made this assertion satisfied his father that the rumor of a secret -marriage was true; and when the King, at the next cabinet council, -repeated to his confidants the result of his interview with the Crown -Prince, they predicted that the greatest calamities would arise, after -the King’s death, from the Crown Prince’s infatuation for Iñez, which -they ascribed rather to unnatural evil influences than to the surpassing -beauty and loveliness of the young woman. The King, a man of very -irascible temperament, became excited and indignant; he declared again -and again that, if there were no other means of separating Pedro and -Iñez, the young woman would have to die. The council then broke up. - -It was but a short time afterwards that Dom Pedro left the court for a -few days to go out hunting with some friends. But warned by his mother, -who had heard of the King’s evil designs upon Iñez de Castro, he had -taken her and her two children to Coimbra, where he left them in a -convent to await his return. On the day after his departure, King -Alfonso suddenly appeared at the convent and demanded to see Iñez de -Castro. Pedro’s wife immediately made her appearance, accompanied by her -two children. As she looked upon the King, whose mien was grim and -menacing, and who was surrounded by a number of his knights in full -armor, a presentiment of some terrible calamity which was to befall her -and her two children entered her breast, and from an impulse of both -fear, and of hope to save her children, she threw herself at the King’s -feet, imploring him to forgive her and to take pity on her innocent -children. Alfonso’s heart melted with pity at the sight of so much -beauty and innocence. He raised her from her kneeling position and told -her to be of good cheer, and that no harm would befall her. And then -turning round, he left the convent, followed by his attendants, who were -not a little surprised at this peaceful ending of a visit which had -promised to be a tragedy. - -But while Iñez already congratulated herself on her lucky escape from a -terrible death, and even on her good fortune in having softened the -King’s heart toward herself and her two children, she was nevertheless -doomed to ruin. The three counsellors so hostile to her had not -accompanied the King on his visit to the convent; they were waiting for -the return of their sovereign at some distance from Coimbra, and were -greatly disappointed when they learned from his own lips that, instead -of having slain with his own hands, as he had promised to do, the woman -who had seduced his son and enthralled him either by her beauty or by -the employment of supernatural means, he had changed his mind concerning -her, and now spoke feelingly and affectionately of her and her sweet -children. The counsellors concealed with great difficulty the irritation -and disgust with which the King’s weakness filled them; they immediately -proceeded to counteract the favorable impression which Iñez had made, -uttering the foulest insinuations and aspersions upon her character. The -very change which she had succeeded in effecting in the King’s -sentiments toward her was made the means of renewing and corroborating -the charge that evil spirits were assisting her in bewitching the royal -family for her own selfish purposes. “Since she has so easily captured -your majesty,” said one of them cunningly, “who can hope to resist her -and her ambitious designs? Poor Ferdinand!” - -The artful mention of the name of the young prince, whose right of -succession was endangered by the recognition of Iñez de Castro, was -sufficient to elicit from the King the promise that his son’s mistress -should never be received at the court. Having obtained this concession, -the three counsellors found it comparatively easy to persuade him that -the original purpose for which they had come to Coimbra--the death of -Iñez--was the only salvation for the throne and the dynasty, and that it -was his duty as a monarch to remove her as soon as possible in order to -avert greater calamities. They told him that it was perhaps right that -he had not soiled his royal hands with the blood of one who was unworthy -of the high distinction of dying by his sword, but that it was a duty he -owed to the state and to the legitimate heir to the throne to order her -death at the earliest moment. Alfonso was weak and foolish enough to -believe them and to sanction the murder of the fair and innocent wife of -his son. That very night Iñez de Castro fell a victim to the daggers of -two assassins. - -The assassination provoked terror throughout Portugal and Spain, and -general were the denunciations of the King and the counsellors who had -advised him to commit the crime. But in this case what followed the -murder has, even more than the atrocity of the crime itself, made it -famous in song and story. The murder of Iñez de Castro occurred in 1355. - -A rumor of the tragedy reached Dom Pedro while he was taking dinner at -the small tavern of a village, some thirty leagues from Coimbra. The -Crown Prince was travelling incognito, and neither the host nor the -guests of the tavern, except his own companions, knew him and how -deeply he was interested in the terrible news which a cattle dealer had -just reported as the latest sensation in the city. Dom Pedro hurried -back to Coimbra and to the convent. The rumor was only too true. His -idolized wife was dead. Three horrible wounds, each of which would have -been sufficient to cause death, disfigured her beautiful corpse; but her -countenance shone with angelic radiance and sweetness, and the agony of -death seemed to have left no trace on it. When Dom Pedro learned from -the nuns how the assassins had demanded entrance in the name of the King -and had burst open the bedroom of Iñez and butchered her without mercy, -he knelt down by the coffin and swore bloody vengeance against all those -who had taken a hand in this inhuman and atrocious crime. He called upon -Heaven to assist him in bringing the assassins and their instigators to -justice, and laying his hands upon the breast of his murdered wife, he -swore that he would not desist from the pursuit of the guilty persons, -even if he had to seek them on the throne. The meaning of these words -could not be misconstrued, for it was generally understood that, while -the three counsellors had proposed the murder, the King had given his -consent to it. When Dom Pedro’s threat was repeated to him, the King, -highly incensed, loudly proclaimed that Iñez de Castro’s death was a -just punishment for her criminal liaison with the Crown Prince, in open -violation of the King’s order, and assumed the full responsibility for -the murder. The Crown Prince, so rudely repelled by his father and -deeply wounded by the disgrace heaped upon his virtuous wife, refused to -return to the court; on the contrary, he called his friends, and the -friends of Iñez de Castro, her brothers and cousins, to arms. The cruel -and unjustifiable homicide he justly ascribed to the calumnies and -intrigues of a set of rapacious cut-throats who were ready to sacrifice -everything to their own personal interests, and who had deceived the -King. In a very short time Dom Pedro found himself at the head of an -army, with which he invaded those provinces in which the castles and -mansions of the counsellors were situated. With merciless severity their -lands were laid waste, their castles razed to the ground, their families -and friends killed, and everything was done to make their very names and -memories odious to their fellow-men. - -By that time the King had also been informed by high dignitaries of the -Church that the union between his son and Iñez de Castro had been -consecrated, that the Pope himself had granted them permission to get -married, and that strict secrecy had been observed simply out of high -regard for the King, in the hope that he would never hear of it and -would consequently not feel irritated by it. This information had a -powerful effect on the King’s mind. He began to see what a great crime -he had committed in sanctioning the murder of a virtuous and innocent -young wife, whose only fault had possibly been her yielding, against the -King’s outspoken wishes, to the Prince’s ardent wooing. And when the -Queen, Dom Pedro’s mother, added her supplications and tears in behalf -of her son, whom the murder of his wife had made nearly insane from -grief, the King became more and more willing to be reconciled to him. He -not only forgave his acts of rebellion, but even made amends, as much as -he could, for the cruel wrong he had done him. - -Under such circumstances it was comparatively easy for the Archbishop -of Braga, whom the Pope had authorized to impart to the King the -information concerning Dom Pedro’s marriage, to effect a reconciliation -between father and son. Thereupon the son returned to the court, where -he was received with the highest honors, after he had solemnly promised -not to take revenge on the counsellors who had been instrumental in -causing the death of his wife, and who had already been so severely -punished by the devastation of their lands and the destruction of their -castles. To consent to this condition was the cruelest sacrifice on the -part of Dom Pedro, but he finally yielded to the tears and prayers of -his mother--very likely, however, as we shall see, with a mental -reservation. - -Two years later, King Alfonso the Fourth died, and Dom Pedro ascended -the throne of Portugal. The old King’s death was also the signal for the -flight of his three counsellors, Pacheco, Coello, and Gonsalvez, whose -absence was first noticed at the King’s obsequies. They had sought -refuge in Castile, because they felt instinctively that it would not be -safe for them to remain in Portugal, and that the ill-concealed hatred -of Dom Pedro might break forth at any moment and punish them terribly -for the part they had taken in Iñez de Castro’s death. In fact Pedro had -never forgiven the assassins of his wife. On the contrary, his heart had -never ceased to yearn for the day when he could not only take full and -bloody revenge on her persecutors and murderers, but also restore the -honor of her name and memory, which had been sullied by the calumnies of -those scoundrels. - -Castile was at that time ruled by Pedro the Cruel, one of the worst and -most bloodthirsty tyrants that ever sat upon a Spanish throne. Some of -his victims had made their escape into Portugal and had found -protection at the court of Alfonso, Dom Pedro’s father. But when the -counsellors of Alfonso arrived at his court, Pedro the Cruel formed the -diabolical plan of delivering them up to Pedro of Portugal, provided the -latter would deliver, in exchange for them, the Castilians who had found -an asylum in his kingdom. No more agreeable proposition could have been -made to the King of Portugal, and the exchange was readily made. Two of -the counsellors, Coello and Gonsalvez, were transported in chains to -Portugal, and executed with inhuman cruelty. They were put to the -torture in the hope of extorting from them the names of other -accessories to the crime; thereupon they were burned at the stake, and -their hearts were torn out; and thereafter their ashes were scattered to -the winds. Pacheco, however, escaped this terrible fate. Being absent -from the court of Castile when his two colleagues were arrested, he fled -to Aragon. - -After having in this manner satisfied his vengeance on the assassins, -King Pedro assembled the high nobility and the great dignitaries of his -kingdom at Cataneda, and in their presence swore that, after the death -of his first wife, Constancia, he had legally married Iñez de Castro; -that the Pope of Rome had given him special permission to do so, and -that the marriage ceremony had been performed by the Archbishop La -Guarda, in the presence of two witnesses, whom he mentioned by name. He -ordered these facts to be entered upon the archives of the state and to -be proclaimed publicly in every city, town, and village of the kingdom. -The children of Iñez de Castro were declared legitimate and entitled to -all the rights and prerogatives of princes of the blood, including -succession to the throne of Portugal. Proceeding thence to Coimbra, the -King ordered the vault in which the remains of Iñez had been deposited -to be opened, her corpse, which had been embalmed, to be dressed in a -royal robe and placed upon a throne, and her head to be adorned with a -royal crown. He compelled his attendants, composed of the highest men of -the monarchy, to pass by the throne and bow their knees and kiss the -edge of the Queen’s robe,--in fact, to show the same reverence and -respect to the dead Queen as they might have shown to the living Queen -on the day of her coronation. As soon as this ghastly ceremony was over, -the corpse was placed in a magnificent metal coffin and escorted by the -King and a most brilliant cortège of knights and noblemen to Alcobaza, a -royal residence about seventeen miles from Coimbra, and placed in a -royal vault. A magnificent monument, which represented Iñez de Castro in -her incomparable beauty and loveliness, was shortly after erected near -the vault. It was the last tribute which the love and admiration of her -husband could render to her memory. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -RIZZIO AND DARNLEY - -[Illustration: DAVID RIZZIO] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -ASSASSINATIONS OF RIZZIO AND DARNLEY - -(March 9, 1566; February 9, 1567) - - -Among the female rulers of Europe there is one who on account of her -matchless beauty, her genius, her adventurous life, but especially her -tragic death, has enlisted the attention and admiration of authors and -poets even to a higher degree than Catherine the Second of Russia or -Elizabeth of England, who perhaps surpassed her in political genius. -More regretted and admired for her misfortunes and accomplishments than -condemned for her sins and crimes, Mary Stuart, the beautiful Queen of -Scots, lives in the recollections of posterity as a vision of -incomparable grace, beauty, and loveliness, hallowed by the genius of -great poets and redeemed by a tragic and cruel death. To no historical -memory poetry and tradition have been more kind and more idealizing than -to Mary Stuart; and yet she deserves a place in this gallery of -assassinations not as a victim, but as a murderess. - -After reading the descriptions in prose and verse of her personal -charms, of her matchless beauty and grace, of her elegance and wit, of -her poetical inspiration and musical accomplishments, it is almost -impossible for the stern historian to maintain the self-possession of an -impartial judge and record the misdeeds of which this bewitching -creature was unquestionably guilty. She seemed to combine in her -incomparable personality all the physical and mental perfections woman -is capable of. We will say, however, that the crimes which have justly -been laid to her charge were, in part at least, excusable either on the -ground of the surrounding circumstances or of great provocations. Murder -itself, in the rude country and in the equally rude and violent times in -which it was committed, had not that horrid significance which -stigmatizes it in a more refined and cultured state of civilization. - -Mary Stuart was the only daughter of King James the Fifth of Scotland by -his second wife, Marie de Lorraine. She was the niece of the famous -princes of the house of Guise--Duke Francis of Guise and the Cardinal de -Lorraine--who were rivals in authority and power with the kings of -France, and who on several occasions rose superior to them. James the -Fifth died young, with his daughter yet in her cradle. Quite young she -was betrothed to the Dauphin of France, who became afterwards King -Francis the Second, and she was married to him when a mere child. Her -renown for beauty and genius resounded from one end of Europe to the -other. With remarkable facility she learned French, Italian, Greek, -Latin, history, theology, music, painting, dancing, and she excelled in -writing poetry. Some of her short poems are still famous in French -literature. But her life as Queen of France was but a short dream of -splendor and delight. The weak and emaciated Francis the Second died -after a reign of eleven months, and the crown went to his young brother, -Charles the Ninth. - -Mary Stuart retired for a while to a convent at Rheims, but soon, upon -the death of her mother at Edinburgh, she proceeded to Scotland, where a -throne awaited her. Quite a number of enthusiastic adorers among the -high nobility of France followed her to her new home, because they could -not bear the thought of separating from a princess so charming and -beautiful,--a princess who kindled in the hearts of all men who were -brought into contact with her, desires and frequently a passion which -became fatal to them. Unquestionably Mary Stuart was one of the most -dangerous coquettes who ever lived, and at the brilliant and voluptuous -court of the Valois in France, almost under the personal direction of -the famous Diana de Poitiers, she had cultivated the art of using her -extraordinary charms and accomplishments for the seduction of men to her -best advantage. One of the most conspicuous of these followers from -France was Du Chatelard, the scion of one of the noblest houses of the -French monarchy. He bears the sad distinction of having been the first -victim to Mary Stuart’s intrigues, and of having paid for the mad and -uncontrollable passion which he had conceived for her with his life. -Chatelard himself was a young man of high accomplishments. He was a poet -and musician, and by his sweet voice he easily won the favor of the -young Queen. She imprudently gave him so many proofs of her favor and -openly admitted him to such a close intimacy that young Chatelard not -without reason believed that she returned the love which he had -conceived for her. And Mary was not in the least afraid to show her -fondness for him. It is authentically reported, for instance, that in -bidding him goodnight in the presence of the court “she kissed him below -the chin, looking at him in a way that set his whole soul afire.” No -wonder that the young man in the transport of his passion committed acts -of indiscretion and madness, which in a short time led to his execution, -without visibly affecting the beautiful coquette who had encouraged his -passion. One night the ladies of the palace discovered him hidden behind -the curtains of the Queen’s bed, but his audacity was ascribed to his -thoughtlessness and vanity. He was expelled from the palace for a while, -but was soon afterwards forgiven and received again into the Queen’s -intimacy. This act of pardon turned the young man’s head again. He made -no secret of his glowing admiration for the Queen, and addressed amorous -verses to her, which were repeated by her attendants. One evening he was -again discovered in the Queen’s bedroom, where he had secreted himself -under the Queen’s bed. This second time he was put on trial, and was -condemned to death for having conspired against the Queen’s life. In -vain he protested his undying love for Mary Stuart, but the judges were -inexorable, and Mary herself, who had been trifling with his heart so -long, and who with a single stroke of the pen could have pardoned and -saved him, coolly handed him over to the executioner. A scaffold was -erected before the windows of Holyrood Palace, where Mary resided, and -Du Chatelard, the grand-nephew of the famous Chevalier Bayard, suffered -death with a heroism worthy of his great ancestor. His last words were, -as he cast a sorrowful look upon the windows behind which the Queen -stood with her attendants: “Farewell, thou who art so beautiful and so -cruel, who killest me, and whom I cannot cease to love!” - -The death of Chatelard was the first of a series caused by the mad -passion which Mary Stuart kindled in the hearts of her adorers. Another -attendant who had followed Queen Mary from France to Scotland, and whose -tragic fate is even more generally known than that of Du Chatelard, was -David Rizzio, an Italian musician, who for some time had been attached -to the court of Francis the Second of France. Rizzio was of low birth, -but had some talent as a composer of songs and as a singer, and had been -brought from Italy by the French Ambassador at Piedmont, from whose -service he passed into that of one of the enthusiastic noblemen who had -escorted the young Queen to Scotland. The Queen’s attention was soon -attracted to the Italian composer and singer, and she begged Rizzio of -the nobleman, so that he might enter her own service and by his art make -her forget the lonesome hours and the homesickness for France which she -felt would be the inevitable result of her residence in Scotland. By a -congeniality of taste the poor and lowborn Italian artist and the -beautiful young Queen were thrown together a great deal, and gradually -the love for the art ripened into a preference for the artist. He soon -became the declared favorite and private secretary of the Queen, who -made him practically the omnipotent counsellor and minister of her -policy. - -The scandal of this singular preference, which was at once announced as -a vulgar love affair, spread rapidly over all Scotland, and gave rise to -loud complaints by the Protestants, headed by John Knox, who preached -against the “woman of Babylon” and her low-bred paramour. The Queen was -blind to the consequences of her infatuation for this lute player, a -mere servant, who moreover, by his Italian nationality and Catholic -religion, defied the narrow prejudices of the Scotch people. In spite -of her beauty, youth, and loveliness the Queen became very unpopular, -not only with the nobility, but with the great mass of the people. - -At that very time Mary Stuart was induced, mainly through the influence -of Queen Elizabeth of England, to contract a marriage with Henry -Darnley, a young Scot of the almost royal house of Lennox, of great -physical, although somewhat effeminate, beauty, but of very inferior -mind. On seeing this young Adonis, Mary Stuart fell immediately and very -desperately in love with him, while it was noticed that Darnley showed -much greater coldness than men generally manifested in their gallantry -toward her. Darnley, descending from a daughter of Henry the Eighth, had -perhaps as good a title to the crown of England as Mary Stuart, and by a -marriage of these two claimants, it was expected that their interests -would be consolidated and consequently strengthened. The interest which -Queen Elizabeth of England had to promote this marriage was her hope of -lowering Queen Mary’s standing and authority in the eyes of her many -Catholic adherents in England by this marriage with an English -subject,--an intention in which Elizabeth was largely successful. In -spite of the strong opposition of a number of the most prominent Scotch -nobles and most notably of Lord Murray, Mary’s half-brother, the -marriage was consummated on the twenty-ninth of July, 1565. On the other -hand. David Rizzio, Mary’s Italian secretary and confidant, had very -warmly advocated and promoted the marriage, and Darnley openly paid -court to him, expecting great results from his influence over the Queen. -Why Rizzio should have so eagerly encouraged the - -[Illustration: LORD DARNLEY] - -marriage is involved in doubt. Very likely the scandalous stories -circulated about the Queen’s relations to Rizzio were mere inventions; -and Rizzio, who moreover was deformed and ugly, far from being the -Queen’s lover, was only ambitious; he hoped to have even a greater share -of political authority under a nominal king, whom he recognized as an -intellectual nonentity, but whose personal beauty diverted the young -Queen’s thoughts from the cares of government. - -During the first months after the wedding Rizzio’s expectations were -fully realized. The young Queen in the transport of her passion for -Darnley paid no attention to government affairs; her whole mind and soul -seemed to be enwrapped in her love for her young husband; apparently she -cared for nothing else but to caress him and to shower her favors upon -him. She conferred upon him the title of king, without, however, giving -him the attributes of royal power, which she reserved for herself. If -Darnley had been a man of greater mental calibre he could very easily -have made himself king in fact as well as in name; but he was a weakling -in every respect. After the first few weeks had passed away in the -closest intimacy with her consort, Mary’s extreme fondness, not to say -idolatry, of him, entirely disappeared, and in a very short time her -conduct toward him assumed a degree of estrangement and coldness which -contrasted strangely with the cordiality which had preceded them. Mary’s -full confidence and intimacy turned once more toward Rizzio, whose -ascendency over her mind seemed to be greater than ever before. More -than anybody else Darnley was dissatisfied with this turn of affairs. He -saw that the chance of empire had slipped away from him, and he found -that it was impossible for him to recover his former standing with the -Queen. In vain he tried to be admitted to a direction of the government -affairs and to perform some of the duties which seemed to pertain to his -exalted station in the state; but Queen Mary obstinately refused to -accede to these demands. Darnley, who ascribed this refusal, in part at -least, to Rizzio’s influence, then joined the party of political -malcontents who, either from motives of personal ambition or of -religious antipathy, were anxious to bring about the overthrow of the -Italian favorite and place a national and, if possible, a Protestant -ministry in power. To carry out this plan they won Darnley over to their -side, and filled his mind with dark insinuations and jealousy against -Rizzio. It seems they also promised him a co-regency with the Queen, and -full royal authority equal to hers in case the much-hated Italian should -be removed. - -These prospects were sufficient to inflame Darnley’s ambition and make -him a willing tool in the hands of Rizzio’s enemies. He did not shrink -even from murder, and committed it openly and defiantly. As soon as the -conviction had been established in his mind that Rizzio stood in the way -of his ambition, he resolved upon his assassination, which was not only -to lead to his own aggrandizement, but also to punish Mary for having -preferred the Italian to him. He did not wait long to carry his plan -into execution; and the brutality and reckless ferocity with which the -murder was committed were even more atrocious and repulsive than the -crime itself. Only a brute and cowardly knave could have planned it. - -The murder was committed on the evening of Sunday, the ninth of March, -1566, in the Queen’s private dining-room in the palace of Holyrood, -adjoining her bedroom. The Queen was there with the Countess of Argyle, -one or two other ladies, and Rizzio, her secretary. The best of feeling -and humor prevailed in the little party. There was not the least -indication or suspicion of impending trouble or danger. Nevertheless an -armed force of five hundred adherents of the conspirators, under the -lead of one of Darnley’s lieutenants, had been posted on the outside so -as to surround the palace entirely. The greatest caution had been -observed to avoid all noise, and the first intimation that something was -wrong was conveyed to the little party in the dining-room by the sudden -appearance of Darnley. With great familiarity he throws his arm around -the Queen’s waist. He is almost immediately followed by Ruthven, one of -his friends, who is clad in full armor and is ghastly pale from -excitement and fear. The Queen haughtily commands him to leave the room; -but before he can answer, her bedroom is filled with men bearing torches -and brandishing their swords, nearly all under the influence of liquor, -and calling with loud and threatening voices for Rizzio. The Italian -knows immediately what this scene means. He jumps from his seat and -takes refuge behind the Queen, clutching her gown with the grasp of -despair and imploring her to save his life. Mary Stuart at this moment -stands erect in the consciousness of her outraged dignity, her eyes -sparkling with indignation and wrath, and trying to protect Rizzio -against the crowd of aggressors who are pushing up to her, upsetting the -table on which she leans her hand, and trying to push her aside in order -to get at Rizzio. For a few moments she succeeds in keeping them at bay; -but then it is Darnley who comes to their rescue. He seizes the Queen, -tries to push her away, and takes hold of Rizzio’s hand in order to make -him loose his grasp of Mary’s gown. In this struggle Mary has partly -uncovered the Italian, and one of the conspirators, espying the -opportunity, plunges a dagger over Mary’s shoulder into Rizzio’s breast. -It is a signal for a general assault on the unfortunate victim. Like -madmen they rush upon him from all sides; they drag him from behind the -Queen, who is herself in danger of being slain; they beat him, they kick -him, they plunge their swords, their knives, their daggers into his -bleeding and mutilated body, they pull him by the hair, lifeless and -maimed as he is, through the dining-room, through the bedroom, to the -outer door of the antechamber, and only desist when they see that it is -nothing but a corpse which they are maltreating. - -The dead silence which suddenly follows gives notice to Mary that the -horrid crime has been fully committed, that her favorite lies prostrate -and silenced forever at the threshold of her bedroom. What wonder that -in that terrible hour thoughts of revenge and hatred against Darnley, -the leader of this gang of savages and murderers, arise in her brain, -never to leave it again? - - * * * * * - -The assassination of Rizzio had opened a chasm between Mary Stuart and -Darnley which nothing but his own blood could fill up. From the very -first moment it became evident--and the Queen made no secret of it--that -Mary Stuart intended to resent the foul murder of one who, if he had not -been her lover, had enjoyed her confidence and her friendship, and whom -not even her personal intercession had been able to save from a most -cruel and entirely undeserved death. Immediately after the murder, when -Ruthven came back to her presence, with the blood-stained dagger still -in his hand, and demanded wine, she answered: “It shall be dear blood to -some of you!” Nor would she permit the blood of Rizzio to be washed off -the floor; she wished that it should forever remain as a mark of the -murder which had been committed there, and she ordered a partition to be -built between the grand staircase and the door of the antechamber -leading to her bedroom, in order to protect the blood-stained floor from -being desecrated by the feet of visitors. In this condition the Palace -has remained for centuries and the stains caused by Rizzio’s blood have -withstood the lapse of hundreds of years. - -The halcyon days which Mary had tried to create for herself at -Holyrood--the days and hours which she had hoped would console her by -poetry, music, and song for her absence from France--had come to a -sudden and cruel end. The conspirators were not satisfied with having -slain Rizzio; his murder was only the unavoidable means to accomplish a -certain purpose,--to get control of the government. They kept the Queen -in close captivity and would not permit any of her friends, not even her -ladies, to see or confer with her. It was then that Mary resorted to her -great power of duplicity. Carefully concealing the profound horror and -disgust with which the sight of Darnley filled her, she convinced him -easily that her interests and his were identical, that his strength lay -in his exalted station as consort of the Queen, and that their continued -estrangement and enmity would only lead to the elevation of her -half-brother, Lord Murray, or some other great nobleman. Darnley was -only too easily persuaded; he fell readily into the trap which the -deceitful Queen had set for him. In his overweening vanity, and -convinced of his own invincibility, he ascribed the passionate appeals -and the affectionate solicitations of the Queen for his support to a -renewal of her former love and passion for him. Carried away by her -tenderness and loveliness, he promised to release her from her captivity -and to abduct her to Dunbar castle, where she would be secure from any -plots of her enemies. Darnley induced a number of his personal friends -and adherents to join him in this undertaking, and a few nights later -the flight from Holyrood to Dunbar was effected with complete success. - -Darnley, after having thus separated his cause from that of the enemies -of the Queen,--who were seriously debating whether she should be -imprisoned for life, exiled from the country, or put to death,--went a -step further. He openly denounced the assassination of Rizzio as an -inexcusable crime, and disclaimed all previous knowledge of and -complicity in it. Nobody believed him,--neither the Queen, who had seen -his active participation in the murder when he could easily have -prevented it; nor the conspirators, who knew that he had planned all the -details, had helped in its execution, and had promised to protect those -who would take a hand in it. But Darnley’s lying declaration served the -political aims of the Queen well. From Dunbar she issued an appeal to -the loyal people and nobles of Scotland, imploring their assistance -against the rebels who had driven her from Edinburgh and had insulted -and threatened her in her own palace, and using the presence and the -declaration of the King to contradict the stories and accusations -circulated by the conspirators and “rebels” against her scandalous -private life. Eight thousand loyal Scots responded to this appeal of -their Queen, and at the head of this enthusiastic army Queen Mary and -her husband returned to Edinburgh and once more took possession of -Holyrood. - -It was not long before the Queen threw off the mask of affection for -Darnley, which she had assumed for political purposes, and openly again -showed that aversion which she really felt for him. Not even the birth -of her son, who afterwards as James the Sixth ruled over Scotland and as -James the First over England, changed the strained relations between -husband and wife. There seems to be no doubt that the new cause of these -strained relations, which grew more apparent from day to day, was a -criminal and adulterous love affair which had quite suddenly sprung up -between the Queen and one of the noblemen of her court, the Earl of -Bothwell. - -The new favorite was a scion of one of the noblest and most renowned -families of Scotland, but his personal history was far from being -honorable. The mere fact that a man with such antecedents could appear -at court and be received in the very highest society is a sad comment on -the moral tone prevailing at that court and in that society. Bothwell -was at that time no longer a young man. When quite young he had one day -disappeared from the castle of his fathers and, on reaching the coast of -the North Sea, had joined a gang of adventurers who, as pirates, -infested those waters and were a terror to the merchant vessels of all -the nations of Europe. By natural ability, unbounded courage and daring -the young Scotchman had rapidly risen to a commanding position among the -wild corsairs; his name was repeated with fear and awe from the coasts -of Denmark to the west coast of Ireland. In one of the desperate -engagements with warships of the Hanseatic League he had lost one eye, -but had saved his life and his freedom. Many years of his life he had -passed in this wild and adventurous career. Then the news of the death -of his father reached him, and one morning he reappeared in his -ancestral home to take possession of his vast domain. The turbulent -condition of Scotland, the civil war between Protestants and Catholics, -the struggles for supremacy between the crown and the nobility, were -congenial to his adventurous and reckless spirit. He had been among the -first to greet Mary Stuart on her arrival from France and had shown her, -from the first day he saw her, an enthusiastic, almost worshipful -devotion. He was a passionate adorer of female beauty, and the romantic -halo of his past life which surrounded his brow had secured for him -triumphs in love-affairs with some of the fairest women of the court. He -was among those who escorted Mary from Holyrood to Dunbar, and again he -was one of those who led her back in triumph from Dunbar to Edinburgh. -During this return march Bothwell distinguished himself by the skill of -his military dispositions, by his boldness and intrepidity, and -attracted the personal notice of the Queen. - -At Holyrood the acquaintance between the Queen and the daring general -quickly ripened into love and intimacy, although the Queen took great -care at first to conceal the new passion which had taken possession of -her inflammable heart, even from her closest friends. But while these -efforts on the part of the Queen may have been successful in deceiving -her intimate friends, there were always eyes turned upon her which were -not so easily deceived,--and these eyes were those of the ambassadors -of England, France, and Spain accredited at her court. They watched her -conduct very attentively, and almost simultaneously reported to their -sovereigns the nascent favor with which the Queen looked upon Bothwell, -and the growing coldness which became noticeable between her and -Darnley. It was only a serious accident, which befell Bothwell soon -afterwards and which imperilled his life for several days, that revealed -the new passion of the Queen to the whole court and placed the new -favorite at the head of the government, with similar honors and similar -powers to those previously showered on Rizzio. - -We are neither writing a personal history of Queen Mary, nor a political -history of her reign; we are merely writing a history of the -assassinations of which she was, so to speak, the central figure that -gave them world-wide celebrity. We have therefore carefully excluded -from our narration all political and biographical facts which were -either not directly connected with these assassinations or had not a -psychological bearing upon them. - - * * * * * - -We have reached the period when Mary--blinded by passion and infatuated -with love for a man utterly unworthy of her, or to speak more correctly, -of the exalted position she occupied in the world--surrendered not only -herself, but also the dignity of the crown and the honor and the -interests of the realm to the Earl of Bothwell, known to the entire -court as a profligate and libertine of the worst sort and as a most -unscrupulous and reckless adventurer. It was this infatuation for -Bothwell and the shameless liaison she formed with him from which all of -Queen Mary’s sufferings and disasters now flowed in rapid succession. -Not even her incomparable beauty and loveliness could save her from the -contempt attached to this disgraceful liaison, of which she made soon no -more a secret than she had formerly made of her preference for Rizzio. -But while in her infatuation for the Italian singer the artistic taste -of the Queen was rather successfully used by her admirers as an excuse -for her enthusiastic preference for him, there was absolutely no excuse -for her liaison with Bothwell. And Bothwell did all he could do to -strengthen the unfavorable impression of Mary’s conduct by the haughty -and overbearing rudeness with which he treated the greatest lords and -the highest dignitaries of the kingdom, including the King himself, for -whom he openly showed the greatest contempt. - -Outraged by the insults which he had to endure day after day and from -which the Queen herself did not seem to be willing to protect him, -Darnley suddenly left the court and went to Glasgow, where he took up -his residence in the house of his father, the Earl of Lennox. The King’s -sudden departure caused more unfavorable comment than the Queen had -anticipated. It greatly disconcerted her, because she was afraid that -from Glasgow Darnley might issue an appeal to the Scotch people, and -especially to the dissatisfied nobility, laying before them his -complaints and calling upon them to overthrow the disgraceful rule of an -adulterous wife and her paramour. - -Soon the news came from Glasgow that Darnley had fallen seriously ill, -that he was suffering from the small-pox and was expected to die. The -Queen took advantage of this serious illness and once more resorted to -her power of dissimulation, which had served her so well after Rizzio’s -death. She intended now to employ it not only to temporarily deceive and -beguile her husband, but to decoy him into an ambush and put him to -death. Incredible as the enormity and ferocity of the crime may appear, -especially on the part of a young and beautiful woman distinguished by -so many mental advantages, there seems not to be the least doubt that -Mary, in going to Glasgow and appearing at the bedside of her sick -husband as a loving wife, had this horrid crime in view and successfully -paved the way for its execution. She again played with consummate art -the part of a loving and trembling wife, and deceived Darnley so fully -that he promised to follow her to Edinburgh as soon as the progress of -his convalescence would make it possible for him to undertake the -journey. Thus fully assured of Darnley’s forgiveness, she returned to -Holyrood and perfected there, together with Bothwell, the arrangements -for his murder. - -When Darnley arrived at Edinburgh, a short time afterwards, he was not, -as he ought to have been, taken to the royal palace, where he could have -been cared for better than anywhere else, but to a private residence in -an isolated location in one of the suburbs of the city, whose salubrious -location, it was alleged, would facilitate the King’s rapid recovery. -Darnley himself was greatly surprised at these arrangements, especially -when he learned that the Queen would not take up her residence with him, -but would remain at the Palace. Apprehensions of some impending danger -haunted his mind, and he became melancholy and despondent. However, the -Queen by her appearance and the excess of her tenderness soon dispelled -his vague fears and convinced him that only care for his enfeebled -condition and the hope of quickening his convalescence had prompted her -to select his residence, from which he would be promptly removed after -his complete recovery. In order to reassure him fully, she remained -several nights with him, occupying a room immediately beneath his own, -and manifesting toward him the greatest affection and solicitude. One of -her pages slept in the same room with him, and five or six servants, -whom Bothwell had appointed, formed the entire household. - -Late in the evening of February 9, 1567, the Queen left the house and -went back to Holyrood to pass the night there, because one of the -musicians attached to the royal chapel was to be married that night, and -she had promised to be at the wedding. It was while the -wedding-festivities were going on at Holyrood and while the Queen was -dancing with some of the courtiers in the most careless and unaffected -manner possible, that a terrific explosion took place which was heard -and felt in all parts of the city and at Holyrood. Soon the rumor spread -that the house of the King had been blown to atoms and that all the -inmates were buried under the ruins. This rumor was only partly true. -The morning light of the tenth of February revealed the fact that the -house had been blown up by means of an underground mine; but the corpse -of the King was not found among the ruins. On the contrary, it was -found, together with the corpse of the page, in an orchard adjoining the -house, and neither the King nor the page showed any marks of gunpowder; -but the bloated condition of their faces and the marks of finger-nails -on their necks showed that both had been choked to death and had been -left lying on the ground where the assassins had killed them. It was -then surmised that both the King and the page, having been disturbed in -their sleep by the approach of the assassins, had tried to make their -escape through the orchard, but had been overtaken in their flight and -slain. The explosion had unquestionably been intended to destroy all -vestiges of the crime by burying both the assassins and their victims -under the ruins, but it had either taken place too soon, before the -murderers could have carried the King and the page back to the house, or -the assassins had hurried away immediately after committing the deed. At -all events, Darnley was dead. - -The evidences of premeditated murder were so plain that from the very -first not the least doubt was manifested as to the character of the -calamity. Neither was there the least uncertainty in the public mind as -to the author or authors of the terrible catastrophe and the -assassinations attending it. The public voice immediately named Bothwell -as the murderer and added, in a whisper, the name of the Queen as his -accomplice. In those times murders were committed so often that the -murderers in a majority of cases escaped unpunished. But in this case -the rank of the victim was so exalted, and moreover the circumstances -surrounding the crime were so damaging to the authority of the crown, -that public opinion demanding an investigation of the death of the King -could not be disregarded. The Queen, who, if innocent, should have been -the first to insist on a thorough investigation of the crime by which -her husband was killed, affected an absolute indifference in the matter. -She utterly disregarded the damaging rumors which openly charged -Bothwell with the murder, and by this indifference confirmed the -suspicion of her silent active (or at best, passive) participation in -the crime. The Queen even openly defied public opinion by leaving -Bothwell in the undisturbed possession of the honors and dignities she -had conferred upon him, and by adding new ones, showing the continued -favor the Earl enjoyed, in spite of the public clamor raised against -him. “But Banquo’s ghost would not go down!” The excitement and the -indignation of the people rose to the highest point. On her appearance -in the streets, the Queen was insulted by the women. She found it -necessary for her safety to leave Holyrood and seek refuge in the -fortified castle. Bothwell had the audacity to demand a public trial, -because the Earl of Lennox, Darnley’s father, had openly accused him of -the murder; and the cowardly judges, overawed by the power of the -accused, by the royal troops, by the authority of the Queen, acquitted -him, while the whole people considered and declared him guilty. - -We have reached the end of this atrocious murder. Posterity holds Queen -Mary guilty of the crime of having murdered her young husband. Her -abduction by Bothwell and her marriage to him, although apparently -forced upon her, had been planned by the two murderers even before the -assassination. Mary’s long imprisonment and final execution at the -bidding of a cruel and jealous rival has often been deplored by -biographer, historian, and dramatist,--but were they more than a just -atonement for crimes as atrocious as they were unprecedented? - - - - -CHAPTER X - -WILLIAM OF ORANGE - -[Illustration: WILLIAM OF ORANGE] - - - - -CHAPTER X - -ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE - -(July 10, 1584) - - -It was said by one of the wild revolutionists of France, in extenuation -of his incessant demands for the execution of a larger number of the -nobility, that the tree of liberty, to grow vigorously, should be -watered with plenty of blood. Alas! The history of the republics of the -world, not only since the great French Revolution of 1789, but at all -times, both ancient and modern, proves the justice of this assertion, -but none furnishes a more convincing proof of it than the history of the -Dutch Republic in its heroic struggle against the gigantic power of -Spain and other monarchical nations. At the very threshold of that -history stands the luminous figure of the great Prince of Orange, -William the Silent,--warrior, statesman, orator, and patriot; whose -assassination, closely following upon the murders of the night of St. -Bartholomew, is but the first of the crimes committed against the -illustrious men of the Dutch Republic--Olden Barnevelt, the brothers De -Witt, and others. - -The assassination of William of Orange is of a semi-political and -semi-religious character. The revolt of the Netherlands against Spanish -rule, of which the Prince of Orange was the principal figure, originated -in religious conflicts between the Netherlanders--most of whom were -Calvinists or Lutherans--and the bigoted King of Spain, Philip the -Second, who was more Catholic than the Pope himself. It was one of the -fixed ideas of Philip the Second, a perfect monomania, that in the -immense empire over which he ruled, none but faithful believers in the -Catholic faith should be tolerated, and that all heretics or dissidents -should be exterminated with fire and sword. In the Pyrenean -peninsula--for Portugal was at this time annexed to Spain--this idea was -most radically carried out, and year after year the Inquisition, which -flourished there as the first institution of the state, handed over -thousands of victims, convicted or suspected of heresy, to a most cruel -death at the stake for the purpose of purifying the spiritual atmosphere -of the country. But when an effort was being made on the part of the -King to introduce the same system of spiritual purification into the -Netherlands, which he had inherited from his father, the Emperor Charles -the Fifth, and whose population was mostly of Germanic race, that effort -met with a most stubborn and almost insuperable resistance. - -Already, under Charles the Fifth, all attempts to smother the Protestant -Reformation--which had entered the Netherlands both from Germany and -France and which had immediately found many adherents--had failed. The -Emperor, himself a Netherlander and familiar with the character of the -people, had deemed it prudent to abolish the Inquisition (at least in -name) and not to interfere too strongly with those personal rights of -the inhabitants which their municipal or provincial statutes guaranteed -to them. Moreover the Emperor had a very affable and popular way of -dealing with the people, and he could do a great many things which no -other ruler might have presumed to do. When Charles the Fifth abdicated -in 1555, the grief of the people of the Netherlands was not only -general, but sincere; they seemed to feel instinctively that the change -which was to occur in the government was full of impending dangers and -calamities for them. The personality of the new ruler fully justified -these apprehensions. Philip the Second came to the Netherlands from -England, where he had resided a short time as consort of Queen Mary, and -his reputation for bigotry, fanaticism, and cruelty had preceded his -arrival. Many of the acts of bloodshed and cruelty which were committed -under that reign were more or less justly imputed to his influence, and -his new subjects trembled at the prospects of similar scenes of -persecution and despotism. No wonder that on the twenty-fifth of -October, 1555, when the act of abdication was consummated at Brussels, -and when the infirm Emperor, leaning upon the shoulder of Prince William -of Orange, appeared before the representatives and high dignitaries of -all the provinces constituting the Netherlands, and ceded the government -to his son, who stood on his right side, a shudder passed through the -high assembly. Many eyes passed apprehensively from the open and kindly -countenance of the Emperor, then bathed in tears, to the sinister and -cruel features of King Philip. What a contrast also between the majestic -form and noble countenance of William of Orange and the small, feeble, -narrow-chested son of Charles, who with distrustful eyes looked down -upon this assemblage of nobles as if they were strangers or enemies, and -whom not even the glitter of royalty could invest with dignity, -although his features showed uncommon pride and haughtiness! The hopes -of the people of the Low Countries rested upon the one; their fears were -centred on the other. - -Unquestionably it had been the Emperor’s intention to place William of -Orange by the side of his son as chief adviser and protector; but the -characters of the two were so different--the one broad, humane, manly; -the other narrow, bigoted, timid--that it soon became manifest that a -hearty coöperation of the two men for the welfare of the state was -impossible. Moreover the aspirations and tendencies in regard to the -government of the provinces which the two men entertained were -absolutely conflicting, the Prince being in favor of liberal -institutions and scrupulous observance of the guaranteed rights of the -provinces, while the King was illiberal and despotic, without regard for -the local customs and rights of the Netherlanders, anxious to -concentrate all powers in his hands and to subordinate the whole -government to his autocratic will. - -These conflicting tendencies and these antipathies grew and became -intensified as the months and years passed by; consequently, when Philip -in 1559 left Brussels for Spain, he did not appoint the Prince of Orange -Governor-General of the Netherlands, to which position he was clearly -entitled, but conferred that honor with the title of regent upon his -half-sister, Margaret, Duchess of Parma, who shared his own fanatical -ideas. As her chief adviser he appointed Cardinal Granvella, a man of -great sagacity and talent, but filled with animosity against the enemies -of the Catholic Church, and in full though secret accord with the King -concerning the necessity of wiping out the privileges of the “arrogant -burghers of the Low Countries.” William of Orange was appointed -Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand, and a member of the Council of -State, a sort of cabinet for the Regent Duchess in which Cardinal -Granvella was the leading spirit. Several other prominent noblemen of -the Dutch provinces, Count Egmont, the conqueror of Gravelines, and -Count Hoorn, were also members of the Council of State; but they were in -a minority, and the Spanish or Cardinalistic party ruled its decisions -absolutely. All of these decisions were hostile to the guaranteed rights -of the Provinces; they interfered with freedom of conscience; they -reintroduced the Spanish Inquisition under the disguise of creating new -episcopal sees and attaching two inquisitors to each; and by -establishing Spanish garrisons in the fortified towns they violated the -constitutional right of the provinces that no foreign troops should be -stationed there. The protests of the Prince of Orange and of Counts -Egmont and Hoorn were of no avail, so these three distinguished members -refused to attend the sessions of the Council of State. - -In the meantime a spirit of public dissatisfaction and disorder -manifested itself which showed to the sagacious Regent that the measures -enacted and enforced by Cardinal Granvella would lead to a revolt -against the Spanish régime. The people of Brussels showed their hatred -and contempt for the Cardinal in many ways. In public processions they -carried banners with insulting inscriptions or offensive caricatures and -cartoons exhibiting him in ridiculous positions. Alarmed at these -manifestations of public hostility, the Duchess Regent applied to the -King, imploring him to remove Granvella from his post as President of -the Council of State. The King reluctantly complied with the request, -but Granvella’s removal did not change the spirit of the Council; and it -was only too evident that its decisions were emanations from the King’s -own mind. When Count Egmont, who had gone to Madrid on a special mission -to plead for the personal and political rights of the Netherlanders, -urged upon the King to give them greater religious liberty and to annul -some of the stringent laws of the Council of State, Philip got into a -rage and exclaimed: “No, no, I would rather die a thousand deaths and -lose every square foot of my empire than permit the least change in our -religion!” And he added that the decrees of the Council of Trent, which -had recently been held, and which had affirmed anew the immutable -doctrines of the Catholic Church, should be rigidly enforced in all his -states. New instructions to that effect were sent to the Netherlands, -followed by new convictions and new executions. - -It was at this perilous and critical time that William of Orange openly -accepted the Lutheran faith. Shortly before, he had been married to -Princess Anne of Saxony, a daughter of the famous Maurice, Elector of -Saxony, and a fervent Lutheran. William’s conversion to Protestantism -has been often ascribed to the influence of his wife, but it should be -remembered that William was born a prince of Nassau in Germany and the -son of Lutheran parents, and that his Catholicism dated only from the -time of his later education at the court of Charles the Fifth, where he -was placed as a page at the early age of nine years. William had never -forgotten the lessons of Protestantism which he had imbibed in his early -childhood, and while professing the Catholic faith in later years, he -had retained that respect and that affection for the principles of the -Reformation which so peculiarly qualified him to act as umpire and -leader in a contest in which religion played so conspicuous a part. - -Up to that time the nobility had taken much less interest in the -religious quarrels than the lower classes of the people; but the -steadily increasing number of convictions and executions for heresy -aroused their fears that the Spanish monarch intended to abolish their -time-honored privileges and wished to substitute a Spanish autocracy for -their liberal self-government. Against this intention they loudly -protested, Catholics as well as Protestants, and bound themselves to -stand together in their resistance to further acts of aggression. They -presented petitions and protests to the Duchess Regent who received them -in a conciliatory spirit, and forwarded them to the King, recommending -at the same time greater leniency and moderation. But Philip the Second, -getting tired of the many complaints and remonstrances reaching him from -Brussels, and determined to stamp out heresy at whatever cost, sent the -Duke of Alva, the sternest and most cruel of all his commanders, at the -head of a considerable army to the Netherlands, with full powers to -restore order and to reëstablish the authority of the Catholic Church. -From the well-known character of the commander-in-chief it could not be -doubted that the King’s severe orders would be carried out in the most -cruel and unrelenting spirit, and that neither age nor sex nor rank -would be spared. That Alva’s mission would be successful, the King did -not doubt for a minute. But it was on his part a case of misplaced -judgment, because his narrow mind could not measure the difference -between the Jews and Moriscoes, and the Netherlanders: against the -former the policy of violence and compulsion had been successful; -against the latter that same policy was doomed to ignominious failure. -The rumor that he would come as a bloody avenger preceded Alva’s -arrival, and filled the hearts of the Netherlanders with terror. A -regular panic ensued, and an emigration _en masse_ was organized; it -looked as though the northern provinces were to be depopulated entirely -by this exodus of men, women and children, mostly belonging to the -mercantile and working classes, and taking their merchandise and their -household goods with them. - -The sending of an army composed entirely of Spaniards and Italians into -the Netherlands was so flagrant a violation of the constitutional rights -of the provinces, which the King had sworn to maintain, that the Prince -of Orange thought the time for open resistance had come, and he -conferred with Egmont, Hoorn, and other prominent men concerning its -organization. But finding it impossible to organize united resistance -against Alva’s army, William of Orange, with his profound insight and -with his distrust in the Spanish King’s intentions, deemed it prudent to -leave the Netherlands and withdraw to his estates in Germany instead of -imperilling his head by remaining at Brussels. It was in vain that he -tried to persuade Egmont, to whom he was greatly attached, to accompany -him and to place his valuable life beyond the reach of the Spanish -“avenger.” Egmont’s openhearted and confiding character refused to -believe the sinister forebodings of the penetrating genius of his -friend; he relied on his immense popularity among the Netherlanders and -on the great services he had rendered, on the battle-field, to the -House of Hapsburg. He therefore remained at Brussels, and even welcomed -Alva on his arrival at the capital. The Spanish commander conducted -himself as the regent _de facto_ without paying much attention to the -Duchess, who still held that position nominally. One of his first -official acts was the appointment of a special tribunal, which he named -the Council of Troubles, composed exclusively of Spaniards, to try -charges of heresy and treason. The people, however, found another, and -more appropriate name for it. On account of the indecent haste and -rapidity with which persons were tried, convicted, and executed by this -Council, they named it “The Bloedraad” (The Council of Blood). The -number of victims was so great that gallows and scaffolds had to be -erected in all the cities and towns of the Netherlands, and that the -executioners were kept busy in beheading and quartering the heretics and -“traitors.” Counts Egmont and Hoorn had been arrested, soon after Alva’s -arrival, on the charge of treason; they were also tried before the Court -of Troubles and convicted on trumped-up charges. They were beheaded, -together with eighteen members of the nobility, at the public square of -Brussels. - -This infamous act stirred up William of Orange to immediate action. What -he had foreseen and predicted had come to pass. Evidently it was Alva’s -intention to kill off the leaders in order to get control of the great -mass of the people without much difficulty or resistance. William of -Orange himself was charged with treason and summoned to appear before -the judges of the Court of Troubles. But since his appearance at -Brussels would have been equivalent to his conviction, he refused to -recognize the jurisdiction of the court, claiming that as a knight of -the Golden Fleece he had the right to be tried by the King personally -and by no other judges than his peers. At the same time he published an -address to the King in which he defended his public actions in a -masterly manner, convincing every unbiased mind not only of his -patriotic devotion to his country, but also of his loyalty to his -sovereign in all his legitimate and constitutional acts of government. -The Duke of Alva took no further notice of this defence; but when the -day for William’s appearance at court had passed, he was sentenced to -death, and his property, personal and real, was confiscated as that of a -rebel and traitor. - -In the meantime the Prince of Orange had not been idle in Germany. He -had appealed to his co-religionists for assistance, pointing out to the -Protestant princes that the cause of Protestantism itself was the issue -of the war in the Netherlands, and that the complete victory of the -Spanish army over the Netherlanders would be followed by an overthrow of -the Protestant churches, both Lutheran and Calvinistic, in Europe. He -succeeded in collecting a considerable army, which he divided into two -corps, placing the one under the command of his brother Lewis, Count of -Nassau, and invading Brabant with the other. The Count of Nassau was -defeated in battle and driven out of Frisia with heavy loss, while Alva -avoided giving battle to the Prince of Orange. By skilful manœuvres -the Spanish general tired out the patience of the German troops, and -when the severe cold of winter set in, the Prince, finding himself -without means of paying his soldiers and getting no support from the -inhabitants (who were overawed by the Spanish authorities), had to -disband his army and to return, temporarily, to Germany. Alva triumphed -and pompously reported to the Spanish King that both the rebellion and -heresy had been stamped out in the Netherlands, and that his presence -was hardly required there any longer. In his overweening vanity he went -even so far as to order a bronze monument to be erected in his own -honor, in which he was represented as a conqueror, standing with one -foot on a Dutch nobleman in full armor and with the other on a man of -the people, kneeling and with a Lutheran prayer-book in his hands. - -It is not my intention to go into the details of the cruel war in the -Netherlands,--cruel even beyond human imagination,--to recount the -sufferings, the tortures, the atrocities, the martyrdom imposed upon the -unfortunate victims of political and religious persecution, conceived by -human fiends educated in the school of the Spanish Inquisition and -warmly applauded by him whom both his cotemporaries and posterity have -justly named “the demon of the South.” Such a war had never been seen -between nations claiming to be civilized; and never has patriotic -devotion in defence of home and country, of liberty and creed, been -carried to a higher degree than by those brave Netherlanders in the -sixteenth century. The world should never forget the immense service -which they rendered to mankind by victoriously maintaining the -principles of religious liberty, which, without their heroic -perseverance, would very likely have perished under the incubus of -Spanish despotism and the Spanish Inquisition. That they did not succumb -and perish must be considered one of the marvellous enigmas of history, -in which the finger of God is plainly visible. Immortal glory and -renown should be accorded to the gallant leader who, under the most -discouraging and desperate circumstances, never lost hope and confidence -in the righteousness and final triumph of his cause, and who, undaunted -by personal danger and persecution, never wavered in his loyalty to -principle, and held high the banner of popular sovereignty and -individual liberty, until the pistol shot of a hired assassin -interrupted his glorious career. - -If to-day, after the lapse of three centuries, we look back upon that -career, our admiration for William of Orange grows steadily. We follow -him from his first appearance on the public stage of the Netherlands, as -a friend and confidant of Charles the Fifth, as a loyal adviser of the -Duchess Regent, as a loyal subject pleading with Philip the Second and -warning him to respect the rights of citizenship and religion of the -Netherlanders,--pleading and warning in vain; we behold him unsheathing -his sword for the defence and, when they appeared to be lost, for the -recovery of those rights, toiling, struggling, fighting for the people, -always subordinating his own interests to those of the nation and to the -sublime cause of which he was the acknowledged champion; we recognize -him as the first in the field, the first in the council-room, filling -his countrymen with an enthusiasm and a confidence which alone could -sustain them in undergoing sufferings and hardships unequalled in -history. Thus he stands before us fully realizing and even surpassing -the eulogy which Goethe wrote for the monument of another national hero, -perhaps worthy, but certainly not so worthy of it as William the -Silent:-- - - “In advance or retreat, - In success or defeat, - Ever conscious and great, - Ever watchful to see, - From foreign dominion he made us free!” - -In translating Goethe’s inscription on the famous Blücher monument at -Rostock we were strongly impressed with the fact that it was even better -adapted for a monument of the great Prince of Orange than for that of -the indomitable, but rather reckless, “Marshal Vorwärts.” - -The King of Spain had from the first day of his accession known the -powerful influence which the Prince of Orange exerted in the -Netherlands. The Prince stood without a rival at the head of the -nobility, and his eminent talents enhanced the authority which his -illustrious birth had secured for him. The King was also informed by his -special representatives--the Duchess Regent, Granvella, the Duke of -Alva, Don John of Austria, and others--that this authority was steadily -increasing, that the great mass of the people idolized the Prince, that -his wish was a law for the burghers, and that practically the revolt, -its failure or success, depended on him. The exalted character of the -Prince precluded the very idea of winning him over to the other side by -means of high distinctions or honors, much less by pecuniary bribes or -corruption, and nothing remained therefore for the King to do, if he -wanted to get rid of the dangerous popular leader, who held a number of -the provinces entirely under his sway, than to place him beyond the pale -of the law and to offer a high reward for his head. This method of -removing rivals or enemies was not unusual in those days; and it should -cause no surprise that the monarch who is, and very likely justly, -suspected of having ordered the murder of his half-brother, Don Juan -d’Austria, and also that of his own son, Don Carlos, was perfectly -willing to adopt this method of getting rid of the Prince of Orange, who -in his eyes was not only a rebel, but also a heretic, and as such -deserved death a hundredfold. The price he put on the Prince’s -head--twenty-five thousand ducats--showed sufficiently the importance he -attached to his life, and how willing he was to tempt assassins by the -enormous sum of the reward. - -The King, who evidently had experience in such matters, had not -miscalculated the temptation, for several attempts were made on the -Prince’s life in consequence; but they always failed, and it would -almost seem as if that life was under the special protection of -Providence that it might carry out the plans predestined for it. In -1582, Juan Jaureguy, a young man in the employ of a Spanish merchant of -Antwerp, and a religious fanatic, fired a pistol shot at the Prince -which came very near killing him. The ball entered the head under the -right ear, passed through the roof of the mouth, breaking several teeth, -and came out under the left jaw-bone. For a while the Prince’s life was -despaired of, but he finally rallied and recovered. His would-be -assassin was immediately killed, and his accomplices, of whom there were -several, were publicly strangled and quartered. In order to deter others -from making attempts on the Prince’s life, the ghastly remains of these -accomplices, one of them a Dominican monk, were nailed to the gates of -Antwerp. The joy at the Prince’s recovery was general, and thanksgiving -days, with divine service in the churches and public halls, were held -in a number of the provinces. Unfortunately neither these public -demonstrations of gratitude and delight, nor the terrible warnings -addressed to assassins were sufficient to protect a life so valuable to -his country and to the world. - -Another assassin was more successful than Jaureguy. The scene of the -murder, which took place on the tenth day of July, 1584, was the city of -Delft in Holland. Shortly after the noon hour of that day a -common-looking man, who had found access to the Prince’s residence for -the purpose of securing a passport, approached the Prince as he came -from the dining-hall and fired three shots at him, one passing through -the stomach and causing his death after a very short while. The assassin -was a man still young, less than thirty years of age. He was a -Frenchman, Balthasar Gérard by name, who had come from his home in -Franche-Comté or Burgundy to carry out his hellish design, which was -inspired by religious fanaticism and encouraged by Jesuits of the -College of Trèves. Through these he was introduced to the Duke of Parma, -then Governor-General of the Netherlands, who promised him the royal -reward in case of success, and other royal favors besides. Gérard had -made his preparations for the murder with considerable circumspection; -these preparations were very similar to those which Booth made for his -escape after the murder of Abraham Lincoln, and just like Booth, Gérard -stumbled and fell in making his escape and hurt himself, and this led to -his arrest. - -After having undergone the most terrible tortures, his joints having -been wrenched and his body nearly roasted alive, he was executed in the -most cruel manner imaginable. His right hand was burnt off with red-hot -irons; the flesh was torn from half a dozen different parts of his body, -which was then broken on the wheel. Gérard was still alive; his vitality -was wonderful. The executioners then disembowelled and quartered him; -tore out his heart and flung it in his face. It was then only that the -unfortunate man breathed his last. His head was then cut off and placed -on a pike of a gate in the rear of the Prince’s residence, and the four -parts of his body were fastened to the four gates of the city. This -cruel mutilation and dismemberment of the assassin’s body was hardly -sufficient to satisfy the vengeance of the people; the certainty that -the King of Spain stooped even to murder of the basest sort to recover -his sovereignty over the Netherlands exalted their desire for absolute -and lasting national independence to a sort of religious dogma which -made all hope of peace illusory. - -When the assassin’s hand cut short the life of the Prince of Orange, he -had not completed the great work for which he had toiled, fought, -suffered and died. But part of that work had been done, and it had been -done so well and so thoroughly that the Republic stood on a firm -foundation ready to receive the other provinces which were still in the -power of Spain as a fitting superstructure. For this reason history -recognizes William the Silent as the founder of the Dutch Republic and -of the independence of the United Provinces. - -To Americans the character of William the Silent is of special interest -because it bears, in many respects, a striking resemblance to that of -George Washington. Both were the principal figures in wars for the -independence of their countries; both were soldiers and statesmen of a -high order. If Washington was very likely the greater general, William -the Silent was very likely the greater statesman, and the success of the -American cause would have been as impossible without Washington as the -failure of the Dutch struggle would have been certain without William of -Orange. Both were sterling patriots and subordinated their own interests -to those of the nations they represented; but in this respect Washington -was, perhaps, superior to William, who had an eye on the possibilities -which might arise after a successful issue of the war. It should be -remembered, however, that William of Orange was a prince and sovereign -before he was made the head of the Netherlanders rising in revolt -against Spain, and that, as a sovereign, it was natural for him to look -after the interests of his family and dynasty. As far as mental and -moral qualifications are concerned, both men were distinguished by that -perfect equilibrium of powers of the mind and powers of the soul, which -is but rarely found in men of the highest rank. Neither of these -statesmen had the capacity of immediately conceiving and executing plans -of a decisive character. Their minds, although full of resources, worked -slowly in elaborating such plans; they weighed and hesitated before -taking action; but as soon as their minds had been made up and a plan -had been resolved upon, they acted without wavering, and held on to it -until success or failure resulted from it. The great respect in which -Washington has been always held by British historians and statesmen is, -perhaps, the noblest tribute that can be paid to his character and -abilities. The fact that Philip the Second relied less on his splendid -armies, led by some of the ablest generals of Europe, and on his -powerful navy, than on the death of William the Silent is, perhaps, the -greatest eulogy which can be given to the great founder of the Dutch -Republic. Unquestionably the Spanish monarch considered the twenty-five -thousand gold pieces which he offered for the assassination of William -of Orange, although an enormous sum for those times, but a very cheap -equivalent for the life of a man who had been the very life and soul, -the inspiring genius of the rebellious Dutch provinces. If monuments of -foreign statesmen and rulers are to be erected on American soil, no -fitter and no worthier man can be found for that honor than William the -Silent. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -IVAN THE TERRIBLE - -[Illustration: IVAN THE TERRIBLE] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -ASSASSINATIONS BY IVAN THE TERRIBLE - -(1560-1584) - - -Russian history abounds in instances of famous assassinations. Sometimes -these murders were committed by the rulers of Russia, at other times -these rulers themselves were the victims. Ivan the Fourth, whose very -surname, “the Terrible,” sufficiently indicates his character, was one -of the most cruel and inhuman monarchs who ever ruled over a nation, -either in ancient or modern times. It is therefore not one famous -assassination which we wish to describe, but a series of monstrous -crimes, unparalleled in history as the acts of one individual. - -Ivan was only three years old when his father died. A regency was -formed, composed of his mother and a council of boyars, belonging to -different factions, who were constantly at war with one another. At no -time had Russia been more poorly governed. As Ivan grew up, he was -despised and maltreated by the haughty nobility; his favorites were -abused. In order to divert his mind from nobler occupations and keep him -in profound ignorance of public affairs, he was amused and entertained -with coarse and brutal games which developed his innate cruelty and -ferocity, and made him, at an early age, the terror of those who were -subordinated to him. He delighted in torturing and slowly killing -domestic animals, and also in crippling and killing old men and old -women whom he encountered in the streets while riding fast horses or -driving a carriage like a madman, without looking either right or left. -He was a mere boy yet--hardly fourteen--when the boyars began to fear -him and predicted a reign of terror when he should assume the reins of -government. - -At seventeen, he dissolved the regency and declared his intention to -reign for himself. He also wanted to get married, and sent out -messengers to the different provinces of the Empire to pick out the most -beautiful young girls and send them to the capital, that he might choose -a wife from among their number. Many noblemen hid their handsome -daughters, or sent them far away from home on hearing of the Czar’s -intention. His reputation for excessive cruelty had reached already the -remotest parts of the Empire, and nearly every boyar trembled at the -mere idea of becoming his father-in-law. But the messenger succeeded -nevertheless in bringing together several hundred young girls of -extraordinary beauty, and sent them to the capital. Ivan then chose from -their number Anastasia Romanowna, a young girl of great beauty and great -brilliancy of mind. He fell desperately in love with her, and through -the superiority of her mind she gained a great influence over him, and -succeeded even in keeping his cruelty in check. - -Ivan was a man of natural ability. He had some striking qualities, and -might have been a great ruler if his education had been entrusted to -competent and wise teachers. At an early age he learned the art of -dissembling to perfection, and possessed the rare faculty of keeping -his plans and intentions secret even from his closest friends. It was -only after the conquest of Kasan that he threw off the mask. Until then -he had been exceedingly friendly and kind to a number of the powerful -noblemen, who considered themselves almost his peers in rank and birth. -But when that conquest had added to his power and authority, he suddenly -said to his boyars: “At last I am free! God has made me the master over -all. Beware!” Again it was his wife, Anastasia Romanowna, who with rare -political sagacity prevented him from too openly showing hostility and -impatience at their pretentious conduct. He was very young, and could -afford to wait. But in 1560, when Ivan was only twenty-nine years old, -Anastasia, his best friend and his ablest counsellor, died, and he found -no loving hand to restrain his passions and keep his cruelty and -ferocity in check. Nevertheless, for some time after her death the -softening influence of his wife (whom he had really loved) over his -cruel nature made itself felt, and for the next four years he proceeded -rather cautiously. He considered all the boyars his enemies and -traitors; and he commenced murdering them, one at a time. - -In 1564 he threw off all restraint. He suddenly disappeared with all his -soldiers and servants, and rumors were circulated that he intended to -abdicate the crown and to retire from public life. The abject fear in -which the people had lived for thirty years had fully demoralized them. -Boyars, clergymen, and the great mass of the people went nearly crazy at -the idea that their “dear little father” would no longer rule over them. -At last they discovered his place of retirement, and the manifestations -of public delight at this discovery were almost boundless. Delegation -after delegation waited upon him and implored him on their knees that he -might return to his capital and continue to govern them. At last Ivan -consented to return, but he consented conditionally. He demanded--and -they all cheerfully agreed to the demand--that he should have full and -absolute power to punish all his enemies and all traitors by banishment -or death and confiscation of their property, without being interfered -with, even by the clergy. It was a regular _coup d’état_. From this act -dates the absolute rule of the emperors of Russia, and Ivan the Fourth -thenceforth took the official title of “Czar of all the Russias,” which -his successors have retained to the present day. - -Ivan had carefully matured his plan. He took possession of a certain -number of cities and country districts, expelled the proprietors from -them, declared them territory forfeited to the government, and -distributed them among certain of his own adherents upon whose fidelity -he could count. These adherents generally were taken from the lowest -classes of the people, knew no other law than the will of their master, -and obeyed him blindly. While confiscating all these estates without -mercy or hesitation, on the most trivial or far-fetched pretexts, he was -shrewd enough to respect constitutional rights in other parts of the -Empire. His plan was to increase the imperial private domains gradually -to enormous proportions by dispossessing year after year the legitimate -proprietors of the soil, and by this method to destroy the power of the -nobility. In order to accomplish this purpose he did not hesitate to -employ the most cruel and disreputable means for the conviction and -punishment of his intended victims. - -One of his favorite ways for entrapping and punishing a rich boyar was -to order one of the servants employed in the imperial household to steal -jewelry or other valuables, and then to seek refuge in the boyar’s -residence. Of course, the fugitive was closely pursued by the Czar’s -guards, drawn from his hiding-place, and then massacred together with -the boyar and his family, who, the Czar pretended to believe, were the -thief’s accomplices and deserved death as well as the offender. But much -oftener the terrible Czar rushed down, with a numerous suite of his -followers, upon the residence of a wealthy boyar, put all the men, the -children and the old women of the domain to the sword, carried off the -young women and girls, and abandoned them on the highways after he and -his gang had satisfied their desires on them. On the trumped up charge -that Grand Duke Wladimir, his own cousin, as well as the Grand Duke’s -wife and grown daughters had participated in a conspiracy against the -Czar’s life, he forced him to commit suicide by drinking poison, while -the Grand Duchess and her beautiful young daughters, and all their -ladies of honor and female servants, were divested of their garments, -exposed in a state of complete nudity on the market space of the town -adjacent to their domain, and afterwards butchered in cold blood. -Wladimir’s immense wealth and all his real estate were confiscated by -the crown. In this manner Ivan succeeded in overpowering the boyars, one -after another, in a very short time, and acquiring immense wealth. He -visited the different provinces and departments in succession, and -wherever he appeared he left a track of desolation, rapine, and murder. -From the capital of each province he organized marauding tours in all -directions, placing each under the command of an officer on whose -devotion to himself and ferocity to others he could count. But the most -terrible expeditions were those which he commanded himself. It can -truthfully be said that wherever Ivan “visited,” he destroyed everything -in sight,--not only the human inhabitants, but also the farm and -domestic animals, even dogs and cats. He took also a pleasure in -draining ponds and creeks, so as to cause the fish to die, and after -having killed or mutilated all things living, he ordered the buildings -to be set on fire, and left the scene of his cruelty and lust amidst the -wild huzzas of his comrades. No civilized, or half-civilized country had -ever witnessed such atrocities on the part of its own ruler. - -If Ivan was not travelling and marauding he resided generally in the -Alexandrowna Convent, which he had strongly fortified. This convent, -situated in the neighborhood of Moscow, and surrounded by dense forests, -was not only the scene of his bestial orgies and excesses, and of his -more than beastly cruelty, but also of his hypocritical zeal for -religion and divine service. The convent, although transformed into a -palace, remained still a convent. Ivan’s most abject and infamous -favorites were acting as monks, while Ivan himself performed the -functions of the pontiff. He also acted as a bell-ringer for the church. -Quite early in the morning, at four o’clock, mass was read and public -service was held in the church, lasting till seven o’clock. Regularly -every evening, from seven to eight o’clock, there was again divine -service. The time intervening between the dinner and the last church -service was employed by him in going to the torture rooms of the palace -where his victims--and there was always a number of them--were subjected -to the most excruciating pain, and in many cases tortured to death. To -be invited to these scenes of horror was a mark of imperial favor. - -Ivan was never in better humor or happier than after having witnessed -the tortures or the execution of a man whom he had sacrificed to his -greed for wealth or to his vindictiveness. It is reported that one day -when one hundred and twenty persons were to be executed--either -strangled, hung, beheaded, or quartered--at Moscow, and when the -inhabitants of the streets near the place of the execution had fled in -horror from the neighborhood, the Czar sent out his soldiery and -compelled thousands of citizens to be spectators of the wholesale -butchery. He sat there himself on an elevated stage applauding the -torturers and executioners when, in his opinion, they had done their -task well and had prolonged the agony of the victim as much as possible. -When the cruel spectacle was over, he rose to his feet and addressed the -spectators as follows: “My loyal subjects! You have seen torture and -death! Some of you are horror-struck at what you have witnessed! My -punishment is severe, but it is just. All these men and women were -traitors to their Czar, and deserved to die. Answer me, was I right in -punishing them?” And the tremendous audience, almost frightened to -death, as with one voice replied: “Glory and long life to the Czar! -Death to the traitors!” The sight of blood, of suffering and of death -seemed to have an intoxicating effect on this unparalleled monster, and -he never tired of it to the day of his death. - -The high dignitaries of the Church fared no better at Ivan’s hands. -Whenever they stood in the way of his ambition, or whenever they -presumed to criticise him for his crimes, he treated them with the same -cruelty and inflicted the same punishments upon them as upon the boyars. -In that way he imposed silence on the clergy, and caused them even to -sanction his worst misdeeds. But one day, after an especially atrocious -marauding expedition of the Czar, the Metropolitan of Moscow mustered -sufficient courage to reprimand him publicly. On the twenty-second of -March, 1568, Ivan entered the cathedral, expecting the blessing of the -high-priest. The latter did not stir, but kept his eyes fixed upon a -picture representing Christ in all his glory. “Holy Father,” said one of -the boyars to the Metropolitan, “the Czar is here; bless him!” “I do not -recognize the Czar!” replied the Metropolitan. “Since this world was -created and the sun was placed in the skies, it has never been known -that a Czar has committed such atrocities and crimes in his own state as -ours has. Here in this church we offer our prayers to God, and beyond -its walls the blood of innocent Christians is shed in torrents.” Then -turning to Ivan, he said in a loud voice: “The very stones under thy -feet will rise against thee and cry out against thy crimes and -atrocities! God has bidden me tell you and warn you, even if I should -suffer death for my boldness!” And death was his punishment, although -not at the very moment. As a rebel, he was sentenced to imprisonment for -life at Twer. But it happened so that Ivan, the year after, passed -through Twer on one of his marauding expeditions. It was then that he -remembered Philip, the Metropolitan, who had accosted him so boldly. He -sent half a dozen of his soldiers to the prison, and they strangled the -Metropolitan without previous notice. This assassination paved the way -for many others among the clergy, until Ivan had so intimidated them -that thenceforth not even a whisper was heard among them against his -cruelties. - -It then became apparent how readily the example of an infamous ruler is -followed by his courtiers and attendants. The boyars and officers -accompanying him on his expeditions of murder and pillage tried to -surpass him in iniquity; in their very appearance they showed their true -character, adorning themselves with symbols of their ferocity. When they -started on their marauding tour, they attached a bleeding dog’s-head and -a broom to the neck and saddle of each horse, signifying by these -decorations that they would bite like savage dogs and sweep off the -ground all they could find. Whomsoever they found on the highways they -would arrest and hang as traitors to the Czar, and in the villages and -towns on their route they would commit the most horrid excesses, sparing -neither sex nor age. If the inhabitants had fled at their approach, they -reported them to the Czar as his enemies who were plotting against his -life, and he issued decrees of vengeance declaring their property -confiscated and their lives forfeited. In this way they kept the -inhabitants at home waiting in terror for the arrival of their -tormentors. - -After having decimated and terrorized the nobility and the clergy, Ivan -turned his attention principally to the merchants and wealthy citizens. -The commercial centres, in which a great amount of capital had -accumulated, were the special objects of his greed, especially if they -showed a spirit of independence. Prominent among these was Novgorod, the -ancient and wealthy city, proud of her free institutions and her honored -name. It was this pride and her great wealth which pointed out Novgorod -as a victim for Ivan’s wrath and cupidity, and the manner in which he -planned and executed his evil designs on the city shows his diabolical -genius at its height. Never has tyrant or despot conceived a more -sinister and treacherous plot for the ruin of a great city and for the -assassination of its inhabitants. The horrors of St. Bartholomew’s night -pale in comparison. - -A Polish vagabond, on the personal command of Ivan, wrote a petition, -with the forged signatures of the Archbishop of Novgorod and a large -number of leading and wealthy citizens and addressed to the King of -Poland, in which the latter was supplicated to assume the sovereignty -over Novgorod and the province in which it was situated, and to assist -the citizens in their desire of shaking off the yoke of Ivan. By Ivan’s -direction this petition was concealed in the great cathedral, behind a -picture of the Holy Virgin. The Polish vagabond, after having executed -the task dictated to him, came to Moscow and charged the city of -Novgorod with treasonable designs against the Czar. Upon this -information the Czar immediately sent messengers with the Polish -vagabond to Novgorod, where, as a matter of course, the forged petition -was found hidden behind the picture of the Holy Virgin in the cathedral. -This was considered proof sufficient to condemn the whole city. No -further investigation was deemed necessary. Ivan kept quiet, but the -inhabitants knew what was in store for them. They trembled and waited. -They had not to wait a long time. Two weeks after the discovery, on the -twenty-first day of January, 1570, the first detachments of an imperial -army, commanded by some of Ivan’s most trusted and most cruel -lieutenants, entered the city. They immediately proceeded to seal the -doors of all the churches and chapels, and took possession of the -residences of the wealthy inhabitants, where they established their -headquarters. All traffic was suspended. No citizen was permitted to -leave the city, nor could goods of any kind be shipped from it. A dead -silence and fear hung over the city. Nobody knew what the Czar intended -to do, but that he would do something horrible, everybody felt, and also -that there was no escape from him. - -At last he came. He took up his residence in the Archbishop’s palace. He -treated the priests and the Archbishop himself like servants; he drank -and feasted with his boyars, while the priests had to wait upon him at -table. And then suddenly, when he rose, he uttered a loud shout of -triumph, and this was the signal for his lieutenants to order a general -pillage throughout the city. Without any control by their superiors, the -soldiers committed plunder, murder, violence, and outrages of all kinds. -The treasures accumulated in the churches and large business houses Ivan -had reserved for himself, and his orders were strictly observed; nobody -touched what he had designated for his share. The palace of the -Archbishop became the scene of the most beastly orgies and excesses. The -wives and daughters of the noblest families were dragged before Ivan, -and after having picked out the most beautiful for his own use, he -turned the others over to his lieutenants and companions. Many of the -unfortunate women committed suicide, many others died from the effects -of the terrible abuse to which they had been subjected. The Czar knew no -pity. “Such scenes of horror, iniquity, and inhumanity,” says a foreign -eye-witness, “had not been seen in the world since the destruction of -Jerusalem.” - -The work of devastation, pillage, murder, violence, and incendiarism -lasted five weeks. At last the Czar thought it was time to stop the -bloody carnival. The measure was full to overflowing,--not only the -measure of misery, affliction, distress, and death for the unfortunate -and innocent inhabitants of Novgorod, but also the measure of lust and -cruelty for himself. The constant indulgence in voluptuous excesses told -upon his constitution; he was worn out and surfeited with animal -gratification; his eyes had a vague, almost lifeless expression; his -herculean frame commenced to tremble, his legs to totter. No less than -twenty-seven thousand persons, men, women, and children, had perished; -there was not a family which did not lament one or more dead among its -members. The corpses were thrown into the river, and at some points they -had been thrown in in such numbers that the river was impeded in its -current. On the first day of the sixth week, Ivan called citizens living -in all the different streets of the city together and addressed them as -follows: “Men of Novgorod, and all of you who are still alive, pray to -God and thank him for your escape from peril; thank your Czar too, for -it is to his mercy and his fear of God that you owe your safety; and -thank also his soldiers, whose humane treatment saved you from death. -Pray to God that he may give us power and strength to vanquish all our -enemies! Much blood has been shed for the punishment of traitors. These -traitors are responsible to God for all that has happened here during -the last five weeks. May God have mercy on them. And now stop your -crying and weeping! Live and be happy, and may your city grow and -prosper!” - -Cæsar Borgia could not have done better than this brutal monster of the -North. He was the genius of cruelty and hypocrisy personified in one -man. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HENRY THE FOURTH OF FRANCE - -[Illustration: HENRY IV.] - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ASSASSINATION OF HENRY THE FOURTH OF FRANCE - -(May 14, 1610) - - -Religious wars--that is to say, civil wars for religious causes--had -desolated France for half a century, and tranquillity and apparent -harmony had finally been restored only by the genius of one man--Henry -the Fourth. He it was who issued the Edict of Nantes, conferring equal -religious and political rights upon the professors of both religions, -the Protestant and the Catholic. - -A short time after Martin Luther had inaugurated the great movement of -religious reform in Germany, a similar movement had also been organized -in France; but it was only since 1536 and through the influential and -energetic agitation of John Calvin that it had assumed large dimensions -and acquired a really national importance. After the disastrous battle -of Pavia and after his release from Spanish captivity, King Francis the -First had ordered a cruel persecution against the Protestants for -political reasons, but it had utterly failed to put a stop to this -movement. On the contrary, a great many noblemen had joined the new -church and the originally purely religious movement had gradually -assumed a pronounced political character. But this change of tendency -only added fuel to the flame of intolerance and persecution. Not only -were hundreds of professors of the new church most cruelly executed on -the gallows or burnt alive for heresy, but among the Waldenses in -Provence and in the valleys bordering on Savoy a wholesale massacre was -inaugurated, which aimed at nothing less than their entire extirpation. -On account of their peaceful and industrial habits, these people had for -a long time enjoyed toleration in spite of their dissenting religious -opinions. No less than twenty flourishing villages were destroyed and -burned to the ground, and their entire population, men, women and -children, were butchered in the most barbarous manner. But it seemed as -if the very horror which such acts of inhumanity inspired, and the -heroic constancy and bravery with which these unfortunate victims of -religious fanaticism had sealed their convictions with their blood, had -rather increased than diminished the ranks of the Protestants. The -French translation of the Bible, which was secretly circulated -throughout the kingdom, proved also a powerful means of propagandism for -the principles of reform among the better educated and thinking classes. - -Francis the First died in 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Henry the -Second, who considered the Protestant movement merely a political -question, and treated it as such. In Germany he supported the Protestant -princes in their fight against Charles the Fifth, but at home, in -France, he persecuted the adherents of Calvin even more persistently and -cruelly than his father had done. Hundreds of excellent citizens were -sent to the gallows or to the stake for heresy, and even the possession -or sale of a French Bible was deemed a sufficient crime to warrant the -death punishment. Henry the Second died after a reign of twelve years, -in 1559, from a wound received in a tournament and inflicted -accidentally by the captain of his own body-guard. His successor, -Francis the Second, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scotland, was entirely -under the control of his wife’s uncles, the Duke of Guise and the -Cardinal of Lorraine. For the Protestants matters grew worse and worse. -Francis the Second, who was merely a boy, died after a reign of less -than two years, and was succeeded by his brother Charles the Ninth, of -bloody St. Bartholomew Night’s memory. He was succeeded by Henry the -Third, who after an inglorious reign, in which torrents of blood had -flowed without quenching the fire of religious fanaticism, was -assassinated in 1589 by Jacques Clément, a young Dominican monk, who had -become exasperated at the concessions which the King had made to the -Protestant Church. Before expiring, King Henry the Third recognized the -young King of Navarre as his successor, who then ascended the throne of -France under the name of Henry the Fourth. - -The wars which devastated France during the preceding three reigns were -waged almost without interruption; they were of a semi-religious and -semi-political character. These wars must be largely ascribed to the -pernicious influence of Catherine de Médicis, the wife of Henry the -Second, and the mother of his three sons, Francis the Second, Charles -the Ninth and Henry the Third. Her name stands in history as a synonym -for an astute, unscrupulous, cruel, and intriguing ruler and politician. -At the time of Henry the Third’s assassination, he was investing the -city of Paris, which was in the hands of his enemies, the League, under -the command of the Duke of Mayenne, who himself was aspiring to the -throne. It was therefore not an easy matter for the new King to assume -the reins of government, the half of his kingdom being in arms against -him, and the royal army itself, in whose ranks he was fighting, being -hostile to the religion he (as a Protestant) professed. - -But Henry the Fourth was equal to the difficult task. In fact, he was -one of the most remarkable men who ever sat on a European throne. His -career up to that day had been extremely stormy; his escape from death -and perils innumerable was wonderful and stamped him as a man of -destiny. It is reported of him that when he was present one day as a -very young man at a brilliant reception at the French court, where -nearly all the prominent men of the French capital were assembled, he -strongly impressed the foreign ambassadors with the brilliancy of his -wit and the sagacity of his observations. One of them said: “In this -whole assemblage of dukes, princes and great dignitaries, I see but one -man fit to rule either as king or emperor,” and pointing to Henry of -Navarre he continued: “It is that young man with the eye of an eagle!” - -Henry the Fourth was born in 1553, the son of Antony of Bourbon. His -mother was Jeanne d’Albret, only child of Henry the Second, King of -Navarre, and of his wife, Queen Margaret of Navarre, who has won a -lasting place in literature by her famous collection of novels, known as -the “Heptameron.” Much of the genius and _esprit_ which distinguished -the grandmother was inherited both by her daughter and her grandson. -Jeanne d’Albret was not only an excellent woman and mother, but she was -also an enthusiastic admirer and supporter of the Calvinistic doctrine, -and brought up her son in that faith. On account of her religion both -Philip the Second of Spain and Catherine de Médicis, Queen of France, -hated her intensely, and it seems that at an early day a sort of rivalry -arose between Catherine and the mother of the boy concerning his -education. Catherine maintained that, inasmuch as Henry was a royal -prince and might be called upon some day to ascend the throne of France, -it was absolutely necessary to educate him in the Catholic faith in -order to make him worthy to rule over a Catholic country and occupy a -throne whose occupant had for centuries been honored with the noble -title of the “eldest son of the Church.” - -In this contest over the boy the mother remained victorious, and, true -to her religious convictions, she surrounded him with Protestant -professors. But Catherine de Médicis was not a woman to abandon a scheme -which she had formed and in which politics played a large part. She -therefore concocted a plan for the abduction of young Henry, which would -have succeeded and would have placed him under the immediate control of -Philip the Second of Spain, had it not been betrayed to Henry’s mother, -the Queen of Navarre. Henry was thereupon hurried off to La Rochelle, -the headquarters of the Protestant army, where he was soon placed in -nominal command of all the Protestant forces, although the famous -Admiral Coligny was its real leader. - -We may fitly pass without comment the stormy years preceding Henry’s -elevation to the throne of France. In order to reconcile the Protestant -and the Catholic branches of the reigning dynasty, Catherine de Médicis -was successful in her plan of a marriage between Henry of Navarre and -her own daughter Marguerite, although the Pope hesitated a long time in -giving his permission to this family alliance, which was in every -respect a very unfortunate one. As far as Catherine de Médicis was -concerned, her principal intention in planning it was the hope of -continuing under Henry the Fourth’s reign (if he ever should become -king) the absolute rule which she had so successfully maintained under -the reign of her sons. Far from using her influence and authority to -secure, if possible, the happiness of the young couple, she held out to -both all possible temptations to lead them astray, and openly advanced -Henry’s liaisons with other beautiful ladies of the court. It is also -pretty well established by historical evidence that Catherine, in order -to withdraw Henry from the beneficial influence of his mother, caused -her death by poison in the very year of his marriage. At the massacre of -St. Bartholomew’s night, Henry escaped death by abjuring Protestantism, -King Charles the Ninth having left him the choice between going to mass -and suffering death. Henry preferred the former and professed -Catholicism as his religion until 1576, when he suddenly and secretly -left the court, and, retracting his forced abjuration, placed himself -once more at the head of the Protestant party. - -In 1584 the death of the Duke of Anjou made Henry the legitimate heir to -the crown of France, and five years later, the death of Henry the Third -made him King. But only the southern provinces and the Protestants -recognized him as their king. The Catholics vehemently protested against -this heretical king, and refused obedience to him. The League, which -kept an army of 30,000 men in the field against him, and which was -supported by the King of Spain, not only refused to recognize him, but -proclaimed an aged uncle of his, the Cardinal de Bourbon, King of -France, and Spain adhered to this decision. The civil war between the -contending factions continued with greater fury and obstinacy than ever, -and it was in this campaign, in which Henry always fought against -tremendous odds, that he displayed his wonderful ability and tact as a -political and military leader. Finally his second conversion to -Catholicism on the twenty-third of July, 1593, which was simply a -political measure and not at all dictated by religious motives, decided -the succession to the throne in his favor, although it took years of -warfare and diplomatic negotiation to secure his recognition by Spain -and the leaders of the League. - -Henry the Fourth’s greatest political achievement, by which he -manifested his far-seeing ability as a statesman, was the Edict of -Nantes, promulgated on the thirteenth of April, 1598. It guaranteed -freedom of conscience and equality before the law to Catholics and -Protestants; and it was the first great manifesto of religious -toleration issued by any ruler. But noble and high-minded as it was, -even if inspired only by political motives, the fanatics of the Catholic -Church would not forgive him. Unquestionably it was the Edict of Nantes -which caused his assassination,--an act of revenge with which the Church -paid back the injury it supposed it had received at his hands. - -Henry, with the assistance of his great minister, the Duke of Sully, -devoted the first few years, after peace had been restored, to building -up the prosperity of the country, which had been distracted by war for -nearly forty years. In this he admirably succeeded. With wonderful -rapidity the monarchy recovered from the disasters and calamities of the -religious and civil wars. Without Henry’s success, late as it came, this -national improvement would have been impossible, and France would have -sunk into the same condition of intellectual lethargy and material decay -from which Spain has suffered for three centuries. But Henry’s ambition -went much beyond the borders of his kingdom. The house of Hapsburg, a -branch of which ruled Spain, appeared to him too dangerous for the -security and greatness of France. He supported the German Protestant -princes in their opposition to Austria, which wanted to take possession -of Juliers-Cleves, two German principalities, and sent an army of ten -thousand men to their assistance. Henry wanted to join personally this -army on the nineteenth of May, 1610. On the thirteenth of May he -published a decree appointing the Queen, Mary de Médicis, Regent of the -kingdom, and her coronation was celebrated on the same day with great -pomp. - -On the fourteenth of May, the day after the coronation, the King was -assassinated by Francis Ravaillac in the Ferronière Street at Paris, -where his carriage had stopped a few minutes. It was this short delay -which gave Ravaillac a chance: he climbed upon the hind-wheel of the -carriage and stabbed the King twice with a long poniard, with deadly -effect. It was thus that the greatest King France has produced died at -the hands of a miserable fanatic, at a moment too when, according to the -statement of Sully, who knew him better than any other man, he had -formed a plan of establishing a great European confederation, founded on -the civil equality of Catholics and Protestants and on an equilibrium -of power among the great nations of Europe. Ravaillac was executed with -revolting barbarity on the twenty-seventh of May, but not even the -repeated application of the torture elicited the least information as to -the motives or the accomplices which he may have had in his crime. -Henry’s death was a cruel loss not only for France, but for the whole -world. - -The assassination of Henry the Fourth ended in France the era of famous -political murders, which during the religious wars had taken off -Coligny, Henry of Guise, and the two kings, Henry the Third and Henry -the Fourth, all during one generation. But of these only the -assassination of Henry the Fourth has made a lasting and profound -impression on his contemporaries as well as on posterity. It has -enhanced his reputation and glory by enshrining his name among the great -martyrs of history. It was one of the most patriotic and high-minded -thoughts of Voltaire to make Henry the Fourth the hero of his epic poem -“La Henriade,” which although not ranking with the great poems of -Milton, Tasso, and Virgil, in poetic merit, is still a noble hymn of -liberty and a glorification of religious toleration, as well as of -Henry, its representative. It is uncertain whether the profound horror -which the assassination of Henry caused throughout the world, or the -terrible punishment inflicted on Ravaillac, caused assassins to desist -from their nefarious work, but certain it is that no new assassination -of a king or any member of the royal family of France took place from -the death of Henry the Fourth to the assassination of the Duc de Berry, -the presumptive heir of Charles the Tenth, in 1820. Not that no -attempts on the life of any or all of the French monarchs since the -days of Henry the Fourth were made; but all such attempts had failed, -and instead of killing the rulers, had only led to the cruel and -horrible execution of the conspirators. - -Most remarkable among these was the assault of Damiens on King Louis the -Fifteenth, one of the most dissolute and worthless monarchs,--one who in -the gratification of his lusts was utterly oblivious of common decency -and shame. Louis the Fifteenth came nearer reviving the atrocious -immorality of Claudius, Caligula, Caracalla, Heliogabalus in the palace -of the Cæsars of ancient Rome, than any other modern monarch had done. -It was the age of Madame de Pompadour and the monstrosities of the “deer -park.” The French nation blushed at the excesses of the court, which -paved the way for the great Revolution, already dimly foreseen by some -ingenious observers, as one of the necessities of the future. It was at -this time, when public indignation, not to say public disgust, had -reached its culminating point, that an attempt on the life of the King -was made. - -It was on the fifth of January, 1757, at six o’clock in the evening, on -a cold and dark day, that he stepped out of the doorway of the palace of -Versailles and went up to a carriage waiting for him to take him to -Trianon. All at once he felt that somebody had run against him, and at -the same time that he was bleeding from a wound in the side. He uttered -a cry of pain and alarm, and when the torch-bearers drew near and -surrounded him, the King noticed a man who alone among all those present -had kept his hat on. “This man has assaulted and wounded me!” exclaimed -the King, pointing to the man whose head remained covered. “Arrest him, -but do not harm him!” It makes almost a painful impression to find that -an embodiment of vice and debauchery like Louis the Fifteenth should at -such a moment have been inspired with feelings of mercy toward his -assassin, and should have used almost the identical words which fell -from the lips of the pure and high-minded President McKinley after -Czolgosz had fatally wounded him! But history records them, and we must -give even the devil his due. - -The attempt on the King’s life caused a tremendous sensation in Paris, -where immediately the most exaggerated reports concerning the fatal -wounding of the King and the discovery of a widespread conspiracy to -assassinate him were circulated. Damiens was treated with the greatest -severity. As though the crime which he had tried to commit had been -really committed, and as though the stab he had given to the King had -had fatal effect, the criminal was treated as a regicide, and the -terrible machinery of the law provided for in such cases, and in France -not employed since the trial of Ravaillac, was put in operation. Even -during his transportation from Versailles to Paris measures of -precaution were used, as if a state prisoner of the most dangerous -character and of the greatest importance were to be guarded. Regiments -of soldiers surrounded his carriage, and six sergeants with drawn swords -marched on each side. Strict orders had been issued to the citizens of -Paris not to go out on the streets or appear at the front windows of -their houses. Everything had been done to create the impression of a -conspiracy against the government which counted many influential men -among its members and of which the assassin was merely the tool, while -those who were directing him and using his arm against the King, had to -be sought in the highest classes of the aristocracy, and especially -among the enemies of Madame de Pompadour. Great efforts were made to get -a full confession from Damiens. Who was he? How had he formed the plan -to assassinate the King? Who had instigated him to commit the act? Who -were his accomplices? These were the questions to be solved by the -French police authorities, and for whose solution they did not hesitate -to apply the most cruel measures known to them. But the result of their -painstaking investigation was far from realizing their expectations. It -was found that Damiens belonged to the lower classes of the people. He -had learned the trade of a locksmith, but had preferred to enter the -service of rich lords and ladies as a domestic. Being of a very restless -and quarrelsome disposition, he had changed his positions as often as -Gil Blas had changed his masters. He had been in the houses of -parliamentarians, clergymen, noblemen, orthodox Catholics, Jansenists, -Molinists, Protestants, free thinkers. Often he had served at the table -of the great lords and ladies of the kingdom and had listened to the -conversation of the guests; and invariably the subject of the -conversation had turned on the disgraceful conduct of the King, on his -excesses, on the shameful orgies of the court, on the mysteries of the -“deer park,” where not only the virtue of young girls of the people was -ruthlessly sacrificed, but also the money extorted from the sweat of the -people criminally squandered. Wherever he had gone he had heard the same -story, and it had made a deep impression upon him. Damiens had always -been of an eccentric turn of mind; he had even had spells of religious -exaltation, and for three years he had seriously meditated on the -possibility of rescuing the King from his sinful excesses and debauches. - -He finally had come to the conclusion that the only possibility of -turning the King’s mind away from his vicious habits and arousing his -soul to sentiments of honor and duty might come through fear, by placing -him in the immediate presence of death. This thought preyed so -incessantly and so strongly on his mind that he resolved to become the -instrument of the King’s redemption, by attacking and wounding, but not -killing him. The attempt on the King’s life was therefore the result of -a psychological process which was, perhaps, based on wrong and -extravagant premises, but which, if all the circumstances are taken into -consideration, was rather meritorious than criminal in its aim. The -assassin had acted strictly in accord with his preconceived theory. He -had in his possession a knife with two blades, one of which was very -long, sharp and pointed like a dagger, while the other was quite short -and sharp. It seemed to be impossible to inflict a mortal wound with the -short blade, and Damiens had used it in wounding the King. He had no -accomplices. At first, very likely to mitigate his punishment, he had -hinted at the existence of a widespread conspiracy, contemplating the -assassination of the King, the Dauphin, and others, but he soon -retracted these statements, and even the most severe application of the -torture could not elicit from him any other declaration than this: that -he had no accomplices, that nobody, not even his wife and his young -daughter, had known anything of his intention; that he did not intend to -kill the King, though he could easily have done so; that he had only -intended to wound him for the purpose of frightening and warning him; -that his act had been inspired by the wish of saving France and the -dynasty. - -But all these statements, which could not be controverted by conflicting -evidence, made no impression upon judges who had fully made up their -minds beforehand, and who looked upon the man that wanted to touch even -the King’s finger with the same horror as upon a regicide who might have -stabbed him through the heart and killed him. The sentence passed upon -Damiens was therefore in conformity with their preconceived opinion, and -cruel in the extreme. It was based upon the sentence carried out against -Ravaillac for having killed the greatest of kings and one of the -benefactors of mankind. Though Damiens was an eccentric ponderer, a -foolish dreamer, who had but slightly wounded a heartless voluptuary -that had deserved death a hundred times, his sentence was terrible -beyond description, and was actually carried out in the presence of an -immense multitude. At first his right hand, in which was placed the -knife with which he had struck the King, was burned to the bone. -Thereupon his arms, his legs, his breast, his back and his feet were -lacerated with burning tongs; molten lead, boiling oil, burning sulphur, -rosin, and wax were poured into the open wounds; and finally, while he -was still suffering unimaginable pain, four strong horses, hitched to -his arms and legs, tried for half an hour with all their might to tear -out his limbs. After that time only one arm remained in the body, and it -took another five minutes’ work to pull it out of its socket. The body -of the unfortunate man had been pulled to almost double its length and -width, and its power of resistance amazed all the spectators. When at -last the cruel execution was over, the bleeding trunk and the arms and -legs were thrown upon a pile of wood near the scaffold and destroyed by -fire. The spectacle had struck terror into the hearts of the beholders. - -But even with this terrible act of revenge the criminal justice of -France was not satisfied; it reached out for the innocent family of the -criminal. His father, his wife, and his daughter were banished from -France for life, not to return there on penalty of death, while his -brothers, sisters, and other relatives had to change their names. The -house in which he was born was burned to the ground, and any other trace -which he might have left was carefully obliterated. The crime of Damiens -was not one of the famous assassinations in history, but it caused such -a sensation in Europe, and it was punished so cruelly, that we thought -his attempt on the life of Louis the Fifteenth might very properly be -recorded in this book. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -WALLENSTEIN - -[Illustration: WALLENSTEIN] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -ASSASSINATION OF WALLENSTEIN - -(February 24, 1634) - - -In a previous chapter we have seen how a King of England got rid of a -contentious Archbishop of the Church of Rome by assassination when the -latter stood in the way of his usurpation. In a similar manner, also by -assassination, an Emperor of Germany freed himself from a general who -had twice saved him from ruin, but who had grown too powerful for his -security, and whose loyalty he (perhaps justly) mistrusted. Although -nearly three hundred years have passed away since Wallenstein’s -assassination at Eger, Bohemia, the most searching investigations of -historians have been unable to establish beyond a reasonable doubt the -certainty or extent of his treasonable intentions, although there are -strong indications that they existed, and that the crown of Bohemia, as -a sovereign state, was to be the price which he exacted for his treason. - -The religious war, which had broken out between the Emperor of Germany, -as representative of the Catholic Church, and the Protestant princes of -North Germany in 1618, had been waged with great cruelty and varying -success for several years. Neither party had won such decisive -advantages that the end of the terrible struggle, which partook as much -of the character of a civil war as of a religious war, could be -predicted with any degree of certainty. The most unfortunate feature of -this strife was that not only the different German princes were fighting -against each other, but that also foreign princes, upon the invitation -of the Germans, participated in the struggle and gave their support to -either the Catholic or the Protestant side. The German princes -themselves had formed two different alliances: the Catholics had formed -the League, while the Protestants were members of the Protestant Union; -and both parties had powerful armies in the field commanded by -experienced and able generals, the Catholics by Tilly, the Protestants -by Mansfeld and the Duke of Brunswick. The greatest of these generals -was perhaps Tilly, but he was extremely cruel and vindictive, fully as -much from religious hatred for the enemies of his church as from natural -disposition. His conquest and pillage of Magdeburg has given to his name -a deplorable immortality. The Emperor of Germany, Ferdinand the Second, -was rather nominally than actually the war-lord of the Catholic party; -for the Catholic League, which had placed the army in the field, had -elected Maximilian of Bavaria as its supreme chief. Thus, while the -Catholic armies were called the Imperialists, and while the victories -which they achieved were supposed to redound to the Emperor’s glory, -Ferdinand could not repress a feeling of humiliation at the thought that -he owed these victories and the advantages which resulted from them more -to the generosity and loyalty of the Catholic League than to his own -power and resources. Once or twice Protestant soldiers had even -threatened him in his own imperial palace, and he had owed his safety -from capture or death only to the timely intervention of some Spanish -and Croatian horsemen who dispersed the aggressors. - -In November, 1620, Tilly had, at the head of a powerful army, won a -decisive victory over the army of the Protestant Union by the battle of -White Mountain; then, having restored Bohemia and Moravia to the rule of -the Emperor, the victorious general quickly marched to the Palatinate, -where the cause of the Protestants was at that time supreme. But he was -defeated there by the Protestant army under Mansfeld and the Margrave of -Baden; and at that time Protestantism might have been triumphantly -established in western and northern Germany at least, had not the two -victorious Protestant generals made the mistake of separating their -armies,--a mistake which proved fatal to both of them. Tilly was not -slow to see the advantage which he gained by this dismemberment of the -army which had so signally defeated him at Wiesloch; he rallied his -forces and defeated first the Margrave of Baden at Wimpfen, and shortly -afterwards Mansfeld and the Duke of Brunswick at Höchst. Then the -Protestant armies crossed the frontier of the Netherlands in the hope of -receiving assistance from England. - -In the meantime the German Emperor, emboldened by the successes of -Tilly, strained every nerve to reëstablish Catholicism and stamp out -Protestantism in the Empire. The excessive zeal which he displayed in -accomplishing this purpose, and the terrible work of destruction which -Tilly and his lieutenants were carrying on in all those districts of the -Empire which were unfortunate enough to fall under their sway, were, -however, the means of setting Protestantism on its feet again, of -reviving the waning hopes of the German Protestant princes, and of -arousing a powerful interest in their behalf among their neighbors. The -most important accession which the cause of Protestantism had at that -time was that of King Christian the Fourth of Denmark, who joined the -Protestants with a large army and took supreme command in northern -Germany. - -Such were the conditions in Germany at the moment when the man who is -the subject of this chapter appeared on the stage as principal actor in -the terrible war of thirty years. This man, one of the most remarkable -men of the seventeenth century, and one of the most eminent generals in -German history was Wallenstein. For seven years he was the greatest man -of the war, eclipsing the fame of Tilly himself, filling the minds of -enemies and friends, and finally that of the Emperor himself, with vague -fears and apprehensions of his treason and unbridled ambition. But in -the flower of his age his life was cut short by the hands of assassins. - -The Empire seemed to be hopelessly divided between Catholicism and -Protestantism, and civil war with all its terrors and horrors laid waste -its fairest provinces. The Emperor had lost much of his authority, while -Maximilian of Bavaria, commander-in-chief of the armies of the Catholic -League, wielded a power which was supreme wherever the so-called -Imperialists held possession of country or town. It was a humiliating -position for the Emperor, but he was utterly powerless to extricate -himself from it. Suddenly a deliverer came to him in the person of -Albert, Lord Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman, who had married the -daughter of Count Harrach, the Emperor’s special favorite. He was -immensely rich, and had won great military distinction in the Bohemian -wars. It was this Lord Wallenstein who on a morning in June, 1625, -presented himself before the Emperor Ferdinand of Germany with a -proposition which, at first, appeared so extravagant and incredible to -the Emperor himself and to his counsellors that they doubted the sanity -or sincerity of the man who made it. But he insisted on the feasibility -of his plan with so much eloquence and enthusiasm that they finally -consented to it. Wallenstein proposed to the Emperor to enroll, entirely -at his own personal expense, an army to fight for the cause of the -Emperor and to protect his hereditary states, provided he should have -the power to make that army at least fifty thousand strong, to appoint -all the officers, and take supreme command himself, without being -interfered with by other generals, no matter how highly stationed they -might be. The immense wealth of Wallenstein guaranteed the financial -success of the plan; moreover he received permission to make his army -self-sustaining by pillage, marauding, and forced contributions in all -those districts which it might temporarily occupy. - -When the new plan and the appointment of Wallenstein to the command of a -large army--larger than any other in the field--became known, the world, -and especially Germany, was struck with amazement, and there were but -few who believed that it could be carried out. But those who doubted did -not know the tremendous energy, the boundless resources, and the -towering ambition of the man. The plan was carried out to its fullest -extent: within a few months a large and well-equipped army was ready to -take the field, and Wallenstein, whose name was comparatively unknown in -the history of war, suddenly assumed an importance which eclipsed that -of the renowned generals of the Catholic League and of the Protestant -Union. The suddenness of his elevation, the apparent mystery surrounding -him, and the rumors of the royal rewards in store for him, made the -imperialistic generals very jealous. It may be truthfully said that from -the very moment Wallenstein took command of his army, he had not only to -face the Protestant armies in the field, but also to guard against his -Catholic rivals, who used their high connections at the imperial court -to undermine his position and blacken his character in a most -unscrupulous manner. The achievements of Wallenstein fully realized the -high expectations of the Emperor. He displayed consummate generalship in -the field, and had a magnetic power of attraction which caused his whole -army, both officers and men, to idolize him. At the same time his army -increased rapidly and wonderfully. It soon reached the one hundred -thousand mark and still they were coming, while the armies of the League -were decreasing at a fearful rate from camp diseases and the ravages of -war. The Emperor made him Duke of Friedland, and “the Friedlanders” -became soon a terror to friend and foe. In his march of victory, which -extended from Hungary and Transylvania to the Baltic Sea, he swept the -Protestant armies from the face of the earth. Where the Friedlanders had -passed, no human dwelling, no human being remained to tell of the -cruelty and devastation which had struck the country, and which fell -with the same crushing weight on Catholics and Protestants. The army was -to be self-sustaining and was therefore given full liberty of pillage -and marauding wherever it went. Coming to the extreme north of Germany, -he invaded Mecklenburg, whose dukes had furnished men and money to the -King of Denmark in his campaign against the imperialists. The King of -Denmark had after a decisive defeat left Germany and returned to his own -kingdom, and on Wallenstein’s approach the Duke of Mecklenburg also -hastily decamped and left his country to the mercy of the conqueror. -Wallenstein took possession of it and was rewarded with the title of -Duke of Mecklenburg and the rank of a sovereign prince of the Empire. -The royal crown of Bohemia, which rumor and secret whisperings -designated as the reward in store for him after the conclusion of peace, -was now not so far off as on the day he took the command of his army. -But the higher he rose, the greater became the envy and hatred of his -rivals, especially of the sovereign princes whose countries and cities -had suffered from the passing of his army. - -From Mecklenburg Wallenstein turned to Pomerania, where Stralsund, one -of the greatest fortresses of the Empire, impeded his further progress. -Wallenstein invested it with his army, and made several assaults, which -were successfully repulsed. The brave inhabitants had sworn to hold out -to the last and rather perish in the defence of their hearths and homes -and families than surrender their city to a conqueror who showed no -mercy to the vanquished. Wallenstein, on the other hand, was determined -to enter the city as a conqueror. Hearing that the inhabitants would -defend the city unto death, he swore that he would take it, even if it -were bound with chains to Heaven, and he laid a regular siege to it. -But all his efforts were in vain. The Swedes succeeded in giving succor -to the beleaguered city from the seaward side, reinforcing it with -troops, ammunition, and provisions. Finally, after a delay of two months -and a loss of twelve thousand men, Wallenstein abandoned the project of -taking the city, raised the siege, and returned to Mecklenburg. There -the conquest of the strongly fortified city of Rostock consoled him to a -certain extent for his failure at Stralsund. - -Emboldened by the great successes of Wallenstein and the almost complete -overthrow of the Protestant armies, the Emperor rather rashly undertook -to reinstate the Catholic Church in all its former privileges and to -compel the Protestant states to restore all the property and real estate -which had been confiscated and estranged from that church during the -preceding eighty years. To carry out this imperial plan the so-called -Restitution Edict was promulgated,--a very unwise measure, which spread -consternation and alarm throughout the Empire, and fanned the dying -embers of the religious war into a new flame. Not only Protestants, but -many Catholics protested against the edict, and Wallenstein himself -criticised it sharply. But the Emperor would not recede from the -resolution he had taken. - -Wallenstein’s influence was already rapidly declining; his overthrow was -near at hand. In 1630 the imperial diet of Regensburg was held. All the -sovereign princes of Germany, and especially all the Electors of the -Empire were present, and they made jointly a terrible onslaught on -Wallenstein, whom they all hated or envied. They united their complaints -against him and demanded his immediate and peremptory dismissal from -the service, as a punishment for the outrages committed by his army and -for the extortions and exorbitant levies which he had made from friend -and foe for his own self-aggrandizement. For a long time the Emperor -resisted these demands and stood up for the great general to whom he -owed so much; but he was anxious to secure the votes of the Electors for -his son, the King of Hungary, as heir to the imperial crown, and the -dismissal of Wallenstein was to be the price for these votes. He -therefore issued the decree, deposing Wallenstein from his office of -generalissimo of the army. It is said that he trembled in affixing his -signature to the document, and that for weeks afterwards he lived in -extreme fear of the wrath of the powerful chieftain. But Wallenstein -took his disgrace very coolly. The news came to him at a moment when he -was with Seni, a famous astrologer, in whom he placed implicit -confidence. Seni had just predicted to him, from a configuration of the -stars, that he would experience a tremendous disappointment, but that -this disappointment would be followed soon by his complete reinstatement -in all the honors which he might be deprived of. Wallenstein took the -decree of deposition as the confirmation of Seni’s prediction. Without -showing much irritation, and only with an expression of regret that the -Emperor had been ill-advised and had yielded to bad counsels, he left -the army and withdrew to Prague, the capital of Bohemia, to live there -in royal splendor and luxury. - -When Wallenstein’s soldiers were informed of the dismissal of their -chief, whom they idolized and regarded with an affection mingled with -awe and terror, there was danger of an open revolt against the -Emperor’s decree; but Wallenstein himself and some of his generals -quieted their rage and suppressed all manifestations of rebellion. -Thousands of soldiers and a great number of officers refused to remain -in the Emperor’s service, declaring that they had enlisted only in order -to serve under Wallenstein and under no other commander. More than one -half of the entire army left the service, and most of the officers, at -their own request, accompanied the deposed general to his new place of -residence, Prague. The disgrace of the general, or rather the act of -removal which, in the eyes of the German princes, was intended to -disgrace him, turned out to be a triumph, greater than a victory in the -field, and made his position in Germany even more conspicuous. Moreover, -everybody seemed to feel that the hour of his reinstatement would soon -come. And Wallenstein, on his part, neglected nothing to confirm this -opinion, which flattered his vanity, and which he firmly believed would -be realized, because “it was written in the stars.” - -It was perhaps as a challenge to his princely enemies at the imperial -court and in defiance of the Emperor himself that he established his -household on a footing more becoming a reigning monarch than a private -citizen. He had a secret desire to accustom the people of Bohemia to -look upon him as the man who might, within a short time, be called upon -to rule over them as king. Otherwise it is hardly reasonable to suppose -that he would have paraded such wealth and magnificence as could not but -confirm the charges preferred against him by his influential -enemies,--namely, gigantic extortions and robberies of public and -private moneys, and plans to satisfy an insatiable ambition. His palace -had six public entrances, and he caused a hundred houses to be torn down -to enlarge the vacant place surrounding it. By day and by night it was -guarded by sentinels, and during the night the public streets leading to -it were barred with chains, that the rest of the Duke might not be -disturbed. In the hall leading to the antechamber of his private -apartments fifty halberdiers were constantly on guard, while sixty -pages, all from the best families of Germany, four chamberlains, six -barons, and a master of ceremonies belonging to one of the most -illustrious houses of the Empire, were always ready to receive the -orders of the great man. Whenever he travelled, his own carriage was -drawn by eight full-blooded horses; his attendants followed in fifty -carriages, each drawn by six horses, while as many baggage wagons, each -drawn by four horses, transported the baggage for the ducal procession, -and sixty richly mounted cavaliers formed the regular escort of “His -Highness.” - -As if Providence wished to advance the pretensions of Wallenstein, the -Emperor’s affairs took a turn for the worse soon after his removal from -the command of the army. Incensed at the intolerance of the German -Emperor and his Restitution Edict, which was to be enforced in its full -severity, Gustavus Adolphus, the great and high-minded King of Sweden, -came to the assistance of the Protestant princes of northern Germany. He -came not unsupported; behind him, and as his secret ally, stood the King -of France, or rather Richelieu. This great French statesman, although a -cardinal of the Catholic Church, saw the time had come to curtail the -power of Austria, and therefore utilized the military genius of -Gustavus Adolphus to effectually cripple the Emperor’s power, and to -raise France to a predominant position in Europe. Richelieu equipped and -subsidized the Swedish armies and, by doing so, enabled the Swedish -King, whose country was comparatively poor and whose resources were -consequently limited, to take the field in Germany with a strong force. - -On the twenty-fourth of June, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed his army in -Pomerania. That date marks the turning-point in the fortunes of the -Thirty Years’ War. The Swedish King’s piety, and the strict discipline -which he maintained in his army, stood in such glaring contrast to the -excesses and outrages committed by the armies of Tilly and Wallenstein -that the King was welcomed by the sovereigns of northern Germany as a -savior and liberator. It is not our purpose to describe the glorious and -victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus in the Empire. Suffice it to say -that the conditions of victory and defeat, of triumph and despondency, -were entirely reversed, that the imperial armies were unable to stem the -tide of victory which had set in for the Protestant cause since the -Swedish King’s appearance on German soil, that his progress southward -was rapid and incessant, that the Catholic princes were either -vanquished or fugitives from their states, and that the Emperor himself -was trembling in his palace at Vienna, as report after report informed -him of the uninterrupted onward march of the royal hero. Who can help? -Who can oppose and prevent this steady march of conquest? To the -terrified mind of the Emperor only one man presents himself. It is -Wallenstein. But Wallenstein has been mortally offended by him. How can -the Emperor humiliate himself before a subject and assuage his wrath? -The danger is increasing. - -Gustavus is still on the Rhine, but he prepares an invasion of -Würtemberg, many of whose inhabitants will gladly welcome him. The -advance of his army, under General Horn, is in Franconia and driving the -Imperialists before him. No time is to be lost. The Emperor sends a -friendly message to Wallenstein; but the message is haughtily rejected, -and the messengers are treated with arrogance, not to say contempt. He -sends back word to the Emperor that he does not care to repair the -faults of others; that he is not on friendly terms with the allies of -the Emperor; that he is tired and sick of war; that he is in need of -rest, etc. The Emperor sends new messengers, holds out new rewards. He -insists and appeals. At last, in December, 1631, Wallenstein promises to -raise a new army, equip it and place it in the field by the first of -March, 1632; but he positively refuses to command it. The magic power of -his name renews the prodigy of six years before. On the first of March -the hereditary states of Austria--Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia--had -furnished him a splendid army of forty thousand men. But it was a body -without a soul; it lacked a leader able to command it and lead it to -victory. The most urgent demands, prayers, supplications of the Emperor -at last decide Wallenstein to take the command of this army, which is -crazed with enthusiasm when he finally accepts. But he accepts only on -conditions most humiliating to the Emperor. He will be generalissimo of -the armies of Austria and Spain; he will appoint all his subordinate -officers; the Emperor will not be permitted to join the army, and will -in no way interfere with its direction or movements; Wallenstein will -receive one of the hereditary states of Austria as a reward; he will be -war-governor of all the territory occupied by his army; he will have the -right to levy contributions, and all confiscated property will belong to -him; he alone can grant amnesty; he will remain Duke of Mecklenburg, -even if another crown be given to him; all his expenditures will be paid -back to him at the conclusion of peace; and in case of defeat, he will -have the right to retire upon Vienna, and remain there. These -conditions, readily granted by the Emperor, made Wallenstein practically -the Dictator of the Empire. - -It was at Nuremberg, one of the most ancient and prosperous cities of -Bavaria, that the two great captains met face to face for the first -time. Gustavus Adolphus had many friends in the city, which he wanted to -protect against the Imperialists and from which he had received many -reinforcements and supplies. His army had taken quarters in the -immediate neighborhood. When Wallenstein approached, the King expected -an immediate attack, but in this expectation he was disappointed. -Whether he was afraid to endanger his party and his own reputation by -the chances of a battle, or whether he thought that to check the -victorious progress of the King was equivalent to a victory and would -dishearten his allies, or whether the hope of starving the army of the -King by cutting off his communications and supplies prompted his action, -Wallenstein massed his army in front of Nuremberg, erected breastworks -and strongly fortified them, and observed every movement of his great -antagonist. It was evident that he wished to avoid giving battle. In -this way they remained for eleven weeks opposed to one another, neither -daring to become the aggressor or to leave his fortified position. It -was the King who moved first. Provisions both in his camp and in the -city were getting very scarce, and a contagious camp disease had broken -out among his troops and spread to the city, decimating the ranks of his -army. He therefore resolved to attack the position of Wallenstein and -take it by storm. A terrible battle ensued. The Swedes and the -Protestant army showed wonderful bravery, but the heavy artillery of -Wallenstein mowed them down in long lines, and they were unable to stand -the incessant volleys of shot and shell which poured into their ranks -all day long. The assault was repulsed with terrible loss to the Swedish -army, and Wallenstein had the glory of having inflicted the first defeat -on Gustavus Adolphus. This defeat was the more painful to the King -because he had lost from ten to twelve thousand of his best soldiers and -some of his ablest commanders in the vain attempt to take Wallenstein’s -position. But the defeat had no other bad results for Gustavus Adolphus, -for Wallenstein permitted him to retreat from Nuremberg without -molesting, attacking or pursuing him, although his army was greatly -superior in numbers to the King’s army, and although his loss during the -battle of the preceding day was much smaller; in fact Wallenstein’s loss -in killed and wounded was estimated at no more than one thousand. - -This neglect of Wallenstein to annihilate the King’s army, when -everything seemed to favor such an attempt, is among the strongest -evidences of his treacherous sentiments. It caused consternation at -Vienna, and his enemies charged him openly with treason. But the -Emperor had no right to interfere! Finally Wallenstein also left his -fortified camp, but instead of following Gustavus Adolphus to Thuringia, -he went in an easterly direction and invaded Saxony, where he captured a -detachment of two thousand five hundred Swedes and with them Count -Thurn, a German nobleman, who for some reason or other had left the -Emperor’s service and had entered the Swedish King’s. This Count Thurn -was especially odious to the Emperor, and when the news of his capture -reached Vienna, there was general rejoicing. The Count would -unquestionably have been executed, but to the utter dismay of the court -Wallenstein set him free and permitted him to return to the King,--as -his enemies asserted, with secret overtures from the Imperialist -commander. It is possible, although by no means certain, that -Wallenstein, remembering how ungratefully he had been treated before, -and thinking that the same ingratitude might be shown to him again as -soon as his services were no longer needed, may have tried to open -negotiations with the Swedish King to secure from him personal -recognition and advantages which he was afraid would be withheld from -him after the King’s final overthrow. His fears were certainly not -unreasonable, for the Emperor was surrounded by, and lent a willing ear -to, the bitter enemies of Wallenstein, and to the very men who had -brought about his first disgrace and dismissal. The King, on the other -hand, if he received such overtures from Wallenstein, either distrusted -him or did not see fit to act upon them favorably, possibly because -Wallenstein’s terms were too extravagant. - -As soon as Gustavus Adolphus had learned of Wallenstein’s invasion of -Saxony he turned round, and in forced marches hurried also to Saxony in -order to protect that unfortunate country from the ravages of the -Friedlanders. The Elector of Saxony, while secretly favoring the German -Emperor, had appealed to the King of Sweden for protection, and Gustavus -Adolphus had granted his request. He marched so rapidly that -Wallenstein, when informed of his approach, at first refused to believe -the truth of the report, but nevertheless prepared to give him a warm -reception. Having sent, a few days before, his most renowned cavalry -general, Pappenheim, in another direction, he now sent messengers after -him to recall him. The two great captains met at Lützen on the sixth of -November. A terrible battle ensued, in which Gustavus Adolphus was -killed. But Wallenstein was defeated; at least he left the battle-field -in the possession of the enemy and retreated to Bohemia. - -This retrograde movement and his retreat from the battle-field were -unfavorably commented on at Vienna and declared unnecessary. -Insinuations of treason were again whispered into the Emperor’s ear, and -his suspicion was aroused to such a degree that Wallenstein’s removal -from the army was resolved upon, although this intention was kept secret -for a while. The Emperor surrounded himself with Spanish soldiers to be -safe from an attack of the Friedlanders. He also succeeded by bribes and -promises in estranging a number of Wallenstein’s prominent lieutenants -from him and in securing them for his own service. To some extent -Wallenstein was kept informed of these secret steps of the Emperor, and -he tried to counteract them and to protect himself. He renewed his -negotiations with the Swedes and the Protestant princes, who had found -in Bernard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, a worthy successor of King Gustavus -Adolphus as a military leader; and it is said that an agreement had been -made by the two leaders of the opposing armies that Wallenstein’s forces -should join the Protestant army, and that they jointly should impose -conditions of peace upon the Emperor. It goes without saying that a -sovereignty for Wallenstein--most likely that of Bohemia--was included -in the terms of peace. - -Before this agreement could be carried out, events occurred which not -only precipitated the downfall, but cut short the life of the -over-ambitious military chieftain. It was of the greatest importance to -Wallenstein to find out how far he would be able to rely on his army -commanders and on their regiments in carrying out his treasonable -projects. He first revealed these to three of them,--Terzky, Kinsky, and -Illo,--the first two related to him by marriage, and the last an avowed -and bitter enemy of the Emperor, who had refused to raise him to the -rank of count. It was Illo who undertook to find out how the generals -and colonels would feel and act; he called them together one evening and -very cautiously proceeded to inflame their minds against the Emperor and -glorify the services of Wallenstein, who, he said, was the only one who -could have saved the Emperor from ruin, and who was now to be sacrificed -again to the envy and jealousy of his enemies. This announcement caused -loud protests and great indignation among those present. “But,” -concluded Illo, “the Duke is not willing to undergo this new -humiliation, which is a shameful reward for his long and glorious -services; no, he will not wait until it pleases the Emperor to kick him -out, but he will go voluntarily and resign his command; but what pains -him deeply is the thought that, in doing so, he must leave his devoted -friends and comrades, and cannot reward them as he intended.” It may -well be thought that these remarks kindled revolt in the hearts of the -soldiers, and that they swore they would not let the Duke -leave the army. The next morning they sent a delegation to their -commander-in-chief, imploring him to desist from his intention of -leaving the army, and assuring him that they would stand by him, no -matter what might happen. It was only when a second delegation of the -highest and most popular officers waited upon him, that the Duke gave -way to their entreaties and promised to remain at the head of the army. -But he attached one condition to this promise: he exacted from all the -commanders a written pledge that they would all, jointly and singly, -stand by him as their chief, and would consider his removal from the -command of the army a public calamity. They all agreed to this -condition, and a paper embodying this declaration was gotten up to be -signed by all of them. - -Illo took it upon himself to secure all the signatures, and in order to -make short work of it, invited the commanders to an evening party at his -headquarters, where he read the paper to them; but, in order to preclude -all suspicion in the minds of the signers, Wallenstein had inserted a -clause which bound the signers to the agreement only as long as -Wallenstein used the army in the service of the Emperor. After Illo had -read the paper containing the saving clause, he dexterously withdrew it -and substituted for it another copy without the clause, and unknowingly -the commanders signed it. Moreover, most of them were half or entirely -intoxicated and could not have discovered the deception; but one or two -had remained sober, and when they read the paper again before signing -it, they found that it was different from the one which had been read to -them. They indignantly charged Illo with having practised a fraud on -them, and the company broke up in confusion and anger. This half-failure -seems to have opened Wallenstein’s eyes to the real situation in which -he found himself. Many of his commanders were too devoted Catholics to -make common cause with the enemies of their Church, and while they were -willing to stand by Wallenstein to the last as the defender of their -faith, they refused to follow him into the Protestant camp and as a -deserter from the Emperor’s service. It also opened the Emperor’s eyes -to the necessity of prompt action, unless he would permit Wallenstein to -concoct some plan by which he might lead the whole army into the camp of -the Protestants. He therefore secretly commissioned General Gallas, one -of Wallenstein’s subordinates, to take command of the army as soon as -the time had come for openly deposing the Duke of Friedland. It was a -game of duplicity and deception on both sides. The Emperor tried to -cheat Wallenstein out of his command and reward, and Wallenstein tried -to cheat the Emperor out of the army. - -Until then Wallenstein had been at Pilsen; but after the demonstration -of the commanders, he deemed it advisable for his own plans and -interests to transfer his headquarters to the strongly fortified city of -Eger, which was commanded by Gordon, whom he considered one of his most -reliable friends. The larger part of the army remained at Pilsen, while -Wallenstein himself, escorted by a number of picked regiments under the -command of his most trusted lieutenants, went to Eger. But there he was -to meet his doom. The thunderclouds of imperial wrath had been gathering -more and more threateningly above his head. Wallenstein saw them not and -feared them not. Had not the stars prophesied his coming elevation? Even -when the Emperor published a proclamation, which was secretly -distributed in the army, declaring him a rebel and offering a reward for -his surrender, dead or alive, he would not believe it; he laughed at it -when it was shown him. Under ordinary circumstances he would have had -the courage to treat any imperial edict with contempt, for with his army -his name was a much greater power and authority than that of the -Emperor; but a complication had arisen which in the minds of his -soldiers paralyzed his efforts and reëstablished the Emperor’s -supremacy. This complication was the increasing strength of the -Protestant armies. The Duke’s army, lawless, cruel, and violating every -rule of morality, was nevertheless composed of men who stood in slavish -fear of the Church and of the priest, and as soon as Wallenstein turned -against these two, the soldiers turned against him. They were willing to -follow him to death in a Catholic cause, when death would open to them -the gates of Paradise, but they refused to follow him to death when -death would deliver them to the everlasting torments of hell. - -With this invisible moral power the great commander had not reckoned. -Among the very men whom he had picked out as his escort to Eger were his -murderers. And they did not wait long, for fear that others might -anticipate them in their bloody work, and capture not only the imperial -reward, but also the benedictions of the Church. These men were Gordon, -the commander of the Eger garrison, and Leslie (both Scotchmen), -Deveroux and Butler (both Irishmen). They had always been enthusiastic -friends and admirers of Wallenstein, but they were also fanatical -Catholics, and when they had to choose between their commander and the -Church, their devotion to the latter prevailed. Deveroux was the leading -spirit in the plot. He had received private instructions from Gallas and -Piccolomini and won over the others. They also secured the assistance of -a number of soldiers in their regiments, and solemnly pledged themselves -to surrender Wallenstein’s person, dead or alive, to Gallas, who was to -take command of the imperial army. But in order to prevent interference -with their dark design, Gordon, the commander of the garrison, invited -them all to the citadel for an evening entertainment. At this -entertainment, while eating supper, Illo, Terzky, Kinsky and Newman, -were murdered. It was on a Saturday evening, February 25, 1634, the day -after they had arrived with Wallenstein at Eger. Wallenstein himself was -not present. He had retired early that night, after having once more -consulted the stars with his Italian astrologer, who discovered -unfavorable signs in the constellations. But it seems Wallenstein paid -no attention to these warnings, and fell soundly asleep soon afterwards. -Toward midnight, or perhaps shortly after midnight, he was aroused from -his sleep by a loud noise. Coming from the citadel, where Wallenstein’s -lieutenants had been slain, Butler, with a number of his dragoons, and -Deveroux, with a number of his halberdiers, marched up to Wallenstein’s -residence. Since both Butler and Deveroux were well known to the guards -in the hall, they were immediately admitted, but when they reached the -anteroom to the Duke’s apartments, the sentinel wanted to stop them. He -was cut down, not, however, before he had called for help, and cried -out: “Murderers! Rebels!” It was this tumult that aroused Wallenstein. -He jumped out of bed and hurried to the window to ask the sentinel -posted at the entrance what was the matter. At that moment the door -leading to the anteroom was burst open, and Deveroux, a halberd in his -hands, and followed by half a dozen of his men, entered the bedroom, -where he found himself face to face with Wallenstein. “Are you the -scoundrel,” said he, “who wants to rob his Imperial Majesty of his -crown? You must die now!” And without having given any answer, -Wallenstein received a stab of the halberd which lacerated the -intestines and caused almost immediate death. Like Cæsar, he might have -exclaimed, “Et tu, Brute!” for he had always especially befriended and -distinguished this man Deveroux, who had come to him poor and -friendless, and who owed to him everything. One of the halberdiers -wished to throw Wallenstein’s corpse out of the window, but Deveroux -would not permit it; he rolled the body up in a table cover and had it -transported to the citadel, where the Duke’s murdered friends were lying -in the yard, waiting for their burial. Wallenstein’s body was placed by -their side. It was then resolved to send the bodies of the dead generals -to one of Illo’s country-seats, which was in the neighborhood. In -placing them in their coffins, it was found that Wallenstein’s coffin -was too small, and in order to force him into it his legs had to be -broken. - -Thus died one of the most remarkable men of the seventeenth -century,--the greatest of the German generals of the terrible Thirty -Years’ War. As a strategist, he may not have been fully the equal of -Gustavus Adolphus, but he had a magnetic power over his men which even -that great commander did not possess, and which would have made him -invincible, had not superstition and religious awe counteracted it. The -German Emperor, hearing of his assassination, appeared to be overwhelmed -with grief, and ordered three thousand masses to be read for the -salvation of his soul; but he tried in vain to deceive the world by this -hypocritical sorrow for a murder which he had planned and for which he -rewarded the assassins. To this very day the treason of Wallenstein -remains shrouded in doubt; and very likely it will remain forever an -unsolved problem. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -JOHN AND CORNELIUS DE WITT - -[Illustration: JOHN DE WITT] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -ASSASSINATION OF THE BROTHERS JOHN AND CORNELIUS DE WITT - -(August 20, 1672) - - -Never, perhaps, was the old saying, “Republics are ungrateful,” more -strikingly verified than in the case of the two brothers De Witt, who, -after having rendered many great services to the Dutch Republic, were -foully murdered by an infuriated mob in the streets of the Hague, August -20, 1672. John and Cornelius de Witt were the sons of a distinguished -citizen of the city of Dordrecht, who had represented that city in the -general assemblies of Holland and Friesland and was known as an eloquent -and incorruptible defender of popular rights. He had placed himself at -the head of the anti-Orange party because he considered the ambition and -power of the princes of Orange a standing danger to the Republic. Grown -up under the direction of such a father, the two sons had naturally -imbibed his strong democratic principles, and their undoubted patriotism -was strongly tinged with hostility to the house of Orange. The two De -Witts have often been compared to the Gracchi, and, like those -illustrious Romans, they worked and died for their democratic -principles. Both were highly talented and, while quite young, rose to -the highest honors and dignities among their countrymen,--Cornelius, the -elder of the two, by his eminent legal ability and his skill as a -military and naval director and commissary, and John, by his eminence as -an administrator and statesman. It is difficult to decide which of the -two was intellectually the superior. A medal struck in their honor bore -the inscription, “Hic armis maximus, ille toga.” It should not be -inferred, however, from this inscription, that Cornelius, to whom the -word “armis” applied, was at any time commander-in-chief of the Dutch -army and navy, since he held only the office of government inspector of -the navy, in which capacity he greatly distinguished himself. - -John was, at the age of twenty-five, elected pensionary of the city of -Dordrecht, and two years later, in 1652, Grand Pensionary of Holland, -one of the highest offices in the United Provinces. His political -influence was very great, and he used it to the best of his ability -against the house of Orange. William the Second, Prince of Orange, had -died on the second of October, 1650, leaving only a widow and a -posthumous son as his heirs. On these circumstances, so unfavorable to -the illustrious house which had played for so many years a conspicuous -part in the history of the Netherlands, John de Witt built his hopes of -dealing a deathblow to its political pretensions and of abolishing -forever the office of stadtholder. It was, however, no easy task to -accomplish this object. The province of Zealand was full of friends and -partisans of the late stadtholder, who vigorously opposed any attempt in -the direction contemplated by De Witt; and the other provinces, either -from loyalty to the house of Orange, or from a secret jealousy of the -supremacy of the states of Holland, which always wanted to control the -policy of the Republic, either openly rejected the plans of De Witt or -modified and attenuated them as exaggerated. - -At the moment when John de Witt took the reins of government, the states -were at war with England, and the war had taken a very unfavorable turn -for them. The Dutch admirals had suffered several terrible defeats. -Tromp, one of their most celebrated naval heroes, had been killed in -battle, and an English fleet was cruising along the coast of Holland, -blockading its ports, and paralyzing its commerce. But De Witt repaired -these disasters with such rapidity, and restored to the Dutch navy such -a formidable strength by his administrative genius, that Cromwell was -willing to enter into negotiations for peace, which he had haughtily -rejected before. A treaty of peace, submitted by the Grand Pensionary of -Holland and signed at Westminster on the fifteenth of April, 1654, -reëstablished virtually the conditions which had existed between the two -nations before the war. However, the Dutch Republic was compelled to -recognize the superiority of the English flag in the channel, and bound -itself to give the Stuart dynasty no support, and that no Prince of -Orange should be elected again either Stadtholder or Captain-General. -This last section of the treaty was signed, at first by the province of -Holland only, and was kept secret for a long time. In getting this -provision of exclusion of the house of Orange passed (which, by the way, -was as welcome to De Witt as to Cromwell) by the other provinces also, -the Grand Pensionary practised a good deal of duplicity, and laid -himself open to serious charges of official deception which later on -contributed to his downfall. - -In the meantime another complication had arisen and taxed the -statesmanship of the Dutch government and the patriotism of the -Netherlanders to the utmost. In France Louis the Fourteenth had taken -the reins of government into his own hands, and manifested an ambition -for conquest which endangered the security of all his neighbors. -Although the wife of Louis, at the time of her marriage, had solemnly -renounced all her rights of succession to the Spanish throne and any -Spanish provinces, the King nevertheless after the death of his wife’s -father, Philip the Fourth, claimed the Spanish Netherlands as justly -belonging to his wife, and defended this claim not so much by argument -as by an invasion and armed occupation of the disputed territory. No -state was more deeply interested in the outcome of this dispute than the -Netherlands. With growing fear they beheld the rapid progress which the -armies of the French King under the command of great generals were -making, and they thought that their own independence might suffer from -the immediate neighborhood of so powerful and aggressive a monarch. With -great skill the Dutch government secretly formed an alliance with Sweden -and England by which these three powers agreed that the Spanish -Netherlands should remain under Spanish dominion and that Louis the -Fourteenth should be prevented from annexing them to the French -monarchy. This Triple Alliance was too powerful to be defied by the -French King, and he made peace with Spain, evacuating Franche-Comté, -which he had already conquered, but retaining possession of a number of -important cities in the Netherlands,--such as Charleroi, Douai, Lille, -Tournay and Oudenarde, which by the genius of Vauban were converted -into almost impregnable fortresses. Dutch statesmanship was the obstacle -which had placed itself in the King’s way and frustrated his ambitious -designs. Personal irritation and offended vanity were added to his -chagrin at the failure of his plans. - -A boastful medal was struck in the Netherlands commemorating the -diplomatic victory which their government had achieved over the power of -France. On this medal a Dutch statesman was represented as Joshua -bidding the sun (the symbol of Louis the Fourteenth) to stand still. For -this arrogance the Republic was to be punished, and with matchless skill -and cunning the French government went to work to prepare for its -overthrow. The general political situation of Europe was highly -favorable to the consummation of the French designs. The Emperor of -Germany, a weak and pusillanimous sovereign, had his hands full in the -eastern provinces of the Empire, in which the Turks had advanced -victorious up to the very gates of Vienna; he was therefore powerless to -oppose French aggression in the Netherlands. Moreover special -negotiations had been opened with some of the sovereign princes of -northern Germany by which the French monarch secured the right to march -his armies through their territory on their way to the United -Netherlands without touching Spanish territory. With equal success the -French diplomats dissolved the Triple Alliance, and made both Sweden and -England, former allies of the Dutch Republic, subservient to the French -monarch. Sweden received an annual subsidy of 600,000 dollars from the -French treasury, and England a subsidy of 350,000 pounds sterling and -also the promise of the province of Zealand as its share of the -dismemberment of the United Netherlands. Princess Henrietta of France, -wife of the Duke of Orleans and sister of Charles the Second of England, -was sent by the wily French King to England to negotiate this infamous -treaty. She succeeded in accomplishing her object mainly through the -influence which one of the ladies of her suite, Mademoiselle de -Querouet, gained over the mind of the English King, who made her his -mistress and bestowed on her the title of Duchess of Portsmouth. - -Having thus fortified himself on all sides and deprived the United -Netherlands of the possibility of taking the field against him with any -chance of success, Louis declared war upon them. The result could not be -doubtful. Moreover the domestic discord and the active struggle between -the political factions added much to the gravity of the situation, and -partly paralyzed the efforts of the government to arouse the provinces -to a full comprehension of the danger. John de Witt was the chief -executive of the government, and upon him rested largely the -responsibility of the situation. The Orangist party turned its main -attacks against him, and spared neither criticism nor calumny to -undermine his standing and authority. It charged him directly with -having, either through incompetency or something worse, neglected to -place the country in a suitable state of defence, and then having -provoked a war with a powerful enemy. These charges against De Witt were -largely unjust, and were preferred only to punish him for his opposition -to reinstating the house of Orange in the stadtholdership and in the -chief command of all the military forces of the Republic. - -John de Witt had made two radical errors in his estimate of the -political situation. He knew that Louis the Fourteenth felt irritated at -the Dutch Republic’s action in preventing his acquisition of the Spanish -Netherlands; but he did not know that the French King would resent that -action, and make gigantic preparations for crushing the Dutch Republic. -Never before had such tremendous efforts been made by a great nation to -destroy a weak neighbor. The war was to be short and decisive, and the -insolent “traders”--that was the name the haughty French King gave to -the citizens of the Netherlands--were to be punished radically. The -second error which De Witt committed was his underestimation of the -venality and corruption existing in the government circles of his former -allies, England and Sweden. He learned at an early day that French -diplomacy had induced them to recede from the Triple Alliance; but he -did not realize at the time that French gold and French promises had -persuaded these two powers to make common cause with him for the -dismemberment of the Republic, and to furnish troops for that purpose. -When finally the full reality of the King’s revengeful plan was revealed -to him, he not only aroused the people of the Netherlands to a -realization of the terrible danger which threatened them, but he also, -with his usual energy, went to work to find assistance against the -overwhelming odds among the other European powers, and his experienced -statesmanship served him well in bringing into play all the different -motives, both personal and political, by which he could hope to -influence their decisions. - -Unfortunately the allies he could enlist in his cause were too weak to -constitute an adequate counterpoise to the enormous power of his -opponent. In stating the general political situation of Europe -preceding the attack of Louis the Fourteenth on the Dutch Republic, we -have already mentioned the causes which prevented the other powers from -active interference in behalf of the Netherlands. The aggressive Turk, -also influenced by French money, kept the Emperor of Germany busy in his -eastern provinces, and left him little time to care for other things -than his own protection. Moreover Louis the Fourteenth had, by -munificent presents and liberal payments, won the secret support of the -Emperor’s prime minister, Lobkowitz, who did all in his power to -overcome his master’s fears concerning the intentions of the French -King, and frustrated the efforts of the King’s enemies to draw him over -to their side. De Witt had to contend with these difficulties in -securing little more than the moral support of the Emperor; but when the -rapid progress of the French arms had revealed to him the danger which -threatened the Empire, he consented reluctantly and hesitatingly to a -sort of active intervention for the protection of the German territory. - -One ally of the Dutch Republic should not be forgotten here--Frederick -William, the great Elector of Brandenburg, whose political genius -enabled him to see the disastrous consequences which the growing power -of the King of France would have not only for the German Empire, but -also for his own possessions on the Rhine. He, therefore, concluded an -alliance with the Dutch Republic, promising an army of twenty thousand -men in defence of German soil against the aggression of the French King, -and used besides his influence over the German Emperor in persuading him -to join the alliance. The Elector of Brandenburg was for one reason a -particularly valuable ally, because his army was needed to keep in -check the Swedes, who were to take the field in northern Germany as soon -as the German Emperor would show a disposition to coöperate with the -Dutch Republic. The decisive victory of Fehrbellin, in which the great -Elector routed a Swedish army much superior in numbers to his own, -showed how gloriously he performed his part of the programme. - -It was at this time that the Prince of Orange, although only twenty -years old, appeared to the Dutch people as a savior from these -threatened calamities. The young Prince, after the death of his mother, -in 1661, passed under the guardianship of John de Witt, who had him -instructed in political science and in the study of modern languages. It -would seem that, with the foresight of genius, he foresaw the prominent -part which Prince William would sooner or later play in the history of -the Republic, and that, in spite of his personal antipathy to the house -of Orange, he was patriotic enough to educate him well for his coming -career. The precarious condition of his health, which seemed to -disqualify the Prince for the hardships and exposures of military life, -had no influence whatever on his ambition to equal the great -achievements of his ancestors. An opportunity for reaching the goal of -his ambition was given him when the States-General, in obedience to the -urgent demand of the people, appointed him Captain-General of the -Republic. Although the powers of the new commander-in-chief were limited -by several provisions, yet the Republican party, under the leadership of -De Witt, demanded more and better guarantees for curbing the ambition of -the Prince. It demanded and obtained from the States-General an order -that the Captain-General should be obliged to swear to maintain the -Perpetual Edict suppressing the stadtholdership and prohibiting its -reëstablishment. John de Witt also strongly opposed the life-appointment -of the Prince of Orange until he should have completed his twenty-second -year, while the Orangists and the Prince himself made his -life-appointment a condition for his acceptance. A compromise was -finally reached, and Prince William of Orange, known in history as -William the Third, was solemnly inaugurated in his new office of -commander-in-chief. On him was imposed the difficult task to oppose the -armies of Louis the Fourteenth, commanded by Condé, Turenne, Luxembourg -and Vauban. Entire harmony and good-will seemed to exist between the -Grand Pensionary and the Prince after the latter’s appointment to the -command of the army. They corresponded in a very cordial tone, and De -Witt showed the greatest eagerness to satisfy the wishes of the Prince -for the thorough defence of the country. It is not our purpose to -mention in detail the indefatigable exertions of John de Witt to place -the country in a suitable state of defence. But these exertions and the -measures they resulted in were not sufficient to avert the calamities of -the war and to prevent a conquest which everybody had foreseen. The -Netherlanders had enjoyed peace for twenty-four years, and this long -rest had unaccustomed the country to war. The constant quarrels between -the different parties had weakened the unity of the Republic, and when -the time for united and patriotic action came, the nation was but ill -prepared for it. - -On the sixth of April, 1672, France issued a declaration of war which -had been long expected. Louis the Fourteenth celebrated beforehand the -conquest he was about to undertake, although some of his most -experienced generals, Condé for instance, did not share his confidence. -However, the rapidity with which the French, after having crossed the -Yssel, took cities and fortresses almost without firing a gun, seemed -fully to justify Louis the Fourteenth in his anticipation of an easy and -brilliant victory. One short month had sufficed to place at the mercy of -the French monarch the flourishing and prosperous Republic, which four -years before had interrupted him in his march of victory. No man -suffered more both as a patriot and as a public official, from the -disastrous turn in public affairs than John de Witt. He had done all -that a sagacious statesman and a noble-minded patriot could do to -prevent, and failing in this attempt, sought to repair the disasters -which overwhelmed the Republic. But the ungrateful people failed to -stand by him and reward his exertions for the public welfare. And not -only the honor of having saved the independence of his country in this -unequal conflict was denied to him, but his life itself was lost, as a -sacrifice to popular hatred and fanaticism. - -Under these exasperating circumstances--each new day bringing -information of a new calamity, of the surrender of a fortress, of the -capitulation of a garrison, of the precipitate retreat of the army--it -was not only natural, it was a matter of duty and patriotism for John de -Witt, the head of the government, to enter into negotiations with the -conqueror in order to check his rapid advance and get from him better -terms of peace than might be expected after he had captured the last -bulwarks of Dutch independence. It was by no means De Witt’s plan to -open negotiations for the surrender of Dutch independence; but he hoped -that the French King would consent to suspend hostilities during the -progress of the negotiations, and that this intermission would give the -Republic time to strengthen its bulwarks. In case of an unfavorable -result, he would resume armed resistance with greater chances of success -than before. John de Witt had frequently, during the months preceding -the outbreak of the war, insisted on making adequate preparations to -meet an attack of the French King, whose restless ambition for military -glory and territorial expansion was well known. He had also pointed out -(if all other means should fail) the necessity of again, as in the war -with Spain, resorting to those means of defence which nature had placed -in the possession of the Dutch, by opening the sluices and cutting the -dykes, in order to let the sea overflow the bottom lands of the country, -and thus protecting Holland, and above all Amsterdam, from foreign -occupation. This last measure of defence, terrible and destructive as it -was necessarily, was really the anchor of hope upon which the minds of -Dutch patriots rested their expectations of final triumph. - -The Dutch navy was in excellent condition. It was still mistress of the -seas, and it had lately, under the able command of De Ruyter one of the -greatest naval heroes that ever lived, won two great victories over the -fleets of France and England, which secured the Republic against the -landing of foreign troops from the sea side. The Republic had spared no -efforts to keep the navy in splendid condition, and more than any other -man Cornelius de Witt had contributed to its efficiency. He was an -intimate friend of Admiral de Ruyter, and during the naval battle of -Solbay, although seriously ill, he sat by his side, as the official -delegate of the States-General, assisting him with his counsels, and by -his very presence inspiring sailors and commanders with patriotic -devotion. The greatness of his services to the Republic had been -formally recognized after that battle by a unanimous vote of thanks of -the States-General. - -It would seem almost a matter of impossibility that with such a record -of patriotism, integrity and devotion to the public welfare, the voice -of calumny should have been successfully raised against the two -illustrious brothers; but it was done nevertheless by the Orange party, -which did not forgive their opposition to the elevation of Prince -William. The young Prince had, during the short campaign, won no martial -laurels by victories in battles or by the capture of fortresses; but he -had shown eminent qualities which promised glorious results if an -opportunity were given for unfolding them. He was wise and circumspect -beyond his years, self-collected and cool amid the most pressing -dangers, inexhaustible in resources, and while thoroughly loyal to the -Republic, yet proud of his ancestors and the preëminent part they had -played in the history of their country. - -As soon as the report became public that the Grand Pensionary had taken -steps for negotiations with the French King, the Orange party denounced -them as acts of treason, and loudly demanded that Prince William should -be placed in supreme authority. It also asserted that the failure of the -campaign so far was due to the restrictions foolishly and criminally -imposed on the Prince, who might have saved the Republic if he had been -permitted to follow the inspirations of his own genius and had not been -fettered by instructions from men that had been his life-long enemies -and who preferred the rule of a foreign monarch to the stadtholdership -of a Prince of Orange. In this manner the public mind was filled with -hatred toward the De Witts, while gradually the young Prince of Orange -became the idol of the nation. Recollections of the glorious -achievements of his forefathers, of their perseverance and patience, of -their intrepidity and resoluteness, and of their final triumphs in -situations as perilous as theirs, were awakened in the hearts of the -burghers, and made them inclined to a restoration of the stadtholdership -in behalf of the Prince. It was to be expected that sooner or later -public excitement, aggravated from hour to hour by the unfavorable -reports from the seat of war, would manifest itself in a violent -explosion and fall with destructive force upon the very heads which were -most entitled to public gratitude and veneration. - -Two attempts on the lives of the two brothers in the summer of 1672--an -attack on John de Witt which came very near killing him and prostrated -him for weeks on a sick bed, and the other on Cornelius, who escaped -from it almost unhurt--were the first serious manifestations of the -public ill-will. It was only too evident that the Orange party was at -the bottom of these outbursts of hostility, and that Prince William -himself was not a stranger to the intrigues. On the second of July, -1672, the Prince of Orange was elected Stadtholder of Holland and -Zealand for life. These were the only two provinces not occupied by the -French armies, and the Prince’s - -[Illustration: CORNELIUS DE WITT] - -election was therefore equivalent to his appointment as Stadtholder of -the Republic. In effect it placed the De Witts at his mercy. - -In vain the Grand Pensionary handed in his resignation on the fourth of -August. The Orange party was not satisfied with permitting him to retire -from the public service; it formed a sinister conspiracy which engulfed -the two illustrious men in ruin and death. A worthless scoundrel, a -certain Tichelaar who on several occasions had been accused of felonies, -openly charged Cornelius de Witt with having tried to bribe him to -assassinate the Prince Stadtholder,--a proposition which he had -indignantly rejected in spite of the tempting rewards offered to him. -Incredible as it may appear, the accusation, contradicted both by the -noble character of Cornelius de Witt and by the bad reputation of the -informer, was eagerly acted upon by the authorities of Holland. -Cornelius was arrested and imprisoned at the Hague, where for four days -he was subjected to the infamy of the torture. It was hoped that in his -agony he would make a confession of guilt which, true or not, would -justify his partisan judges in passing a sentence of death on him. But -Cornelius remained firm in his disdainful denial of the odious -accusation, and the repetition of the torture on four different days did -not change his testimony. Under these circumstances his base judges, -instruments of the Stadtholder and his party, did not dare to pronounce -the death sentence against him; but they found him guilty nevertheless, -deprived him of all his public dignities, and exiled him for life from -the territory of the Republic. - -It may appear strange that the Orange party persecuted Cornelius de -Witt, who was the brother of the Grand Pensionary, with such venomous -hatred; but an occurrence which had shortly preceded his arrest will -explain the ill-will of the leaders of the Orange party. Like the other -cities of Holland, the city of Dordrecht had, by a vote of its Common -Council, revoked the Perpetual Edict. Cornelius de Witt had but a few -weeks before returned from the battle of Solbay, where he had so greatly -distinguished himself, and was confined to his bed by serious illness. -Being one of the highest city officials, his signature was required on -the act of revocation, and the Orange leaders demanded that the document -should be forthwith presented to him. City officials, followed by an -excited and hostile mob, took it to his residence and requested him to -sign it. He refused. In vain his family, his friends, and his servants -implored him to affix his signature, telling him that a mob of thousands -of excited people surrounded the house and threatened to demolish it and -kill the inhabitants if his name should not appear on the paper. Finally -the supplications and tears of his wife and children, imploring him not -to sacrifice their lives by his obstinacy, induced him to affix his -signature, but he added the two initials V. C. to it; and when the -officials asked him what those two letters meant, he answered, “They -stand for the words ‘Vi coactus’” (yielding to violence). This -declaration caused an outburst of indignation in the crowd, and but for -the speedy erasure of the obnoxious initials by his wife, and the -energetic efforts of his friends to protect him, Cornelius de Witt would -very likely on that day have paid for his boldness with his life. It was -ascertained that Tichelaar, who shortly afterwards accused him of -having planned the assassination of the Prince of Orange, had been one -of the mob surrounding the house and vociferously demanding the -punishment of the rebellious magistrate. The infamous charge of -Tichelaar against the great patriot had unquestionably sprung from the -scene at Cornelius de Witt’s residence. The Orange leaders saw that it -would not be safe for them or their master to let republicans like the -two De Witts remain among them, and their death was resolved upon. - -The twentieth of August, 1672, was the fatal day which was to seal the -doom of the two illustrious brothers. Cornelius, crushed by the sentence -of perpetual banishment pronounced against him, remained in his cell at -the Buitenhof, the terrible prison of the Hague. On the morning of that -day John de Witt was called to the Buitenhof, where his brother wished -to see him. Although warned by his friends not to go, the brave -ex-Pensionary did not hesitate to comply with the summons. It was a -false message. Reaching the prison, he found himself entrapped and at -the mercy of the mob, which had assembled before the prison howling and -shouting, “Hurrah for Orange! Death to the traitors!” It was but a short -time after his arrival, and after a hurried and pathetic interview with -his brother, that the rabble, instigated by the calumnies of the Orange -men, burst open the doors of the prison, and with axes and -sledge-hammers and clubs forced their way up to the cell where Cornelius -was imprisoned. At the sight of the two brothers the fury of the mob -knew no bounds. Like tigers they jumped upon them, threw them down, -clubbed and slew them amid cries of beastly exultation. “There goes the -Perpetual Edict!” one of the butchers is said to have exclaimed as a -powerful blow with the butt-end of his musket prostrated John de Witt -senseless at his feet. Another murderer came up, and noticing symptoms -of returning consciousness in the countenance of the Pensionary, he -fired his pistol at him, blowing out his brains. Cornelius was killed by -a tremendous blow with an iron bar which fractured his skull; he died -instantly. But death alone did not satisfy the slayers. With unheard-of -brutality they kicked, beat and abused, in every possible manner, the -lifeless bodies, and finally, after having stripped off their clothes, -dragged the mangled and disfigured remains from the jail to a gibbet -which had been erected by volunteer executioners, and hung them by the -feet. The popular frenzy went so far that the murderers cut and tore the -flesh in pieces from the bodies of “the great traitors, John and -Cornelius de Witt,” and sold them in the streets of the city for a few -cents each. - -Thus suffered and died, on the twentieth of August, 1672, two of the -purest and most high-minded patriots that any nation has -produced,--murdered by their own people, whom they had served faithfully -and successfully for many years. Their death is a dark blot on the -annals of the Dutch Republic: and it is an indelible stain on the -otherwise great and fair name of William the Third of Orange, -Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and afterwards King of England. -History has forgotten many crimes, but it will not forget the -assassination of the brothers De Witt. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -ALEXIS, SON OF PETER THE GREAT - -[Illustration: ALEXIS] - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXIS, SON OF PETER THE GREAT - -(June 26, 1718) - - -The sudden death of Alexis, son of Peter the Great by his first wife -Eudoxia, has always been and is still shrouded in mystery; but the -prevailing opinion of historians is that the unfortunate young man was -assassinated by direct order of his father, and all the surrounding -circumstances point to this conclusion. We think we are therefore -justified in placing it here among the famous assassinations in history. -It is the darkest chapter in the history of Peter the Great, a monarch -whose achievements as a civil administrator, reformer, and general -entitle him to a high rank among the really great rulers of Europe; but -these achievements should not be made a cloak or excuse for a crime from -which not only modern civilization, but human nature itself, shrinks -back in horror. - -It is not necessary here to go into the details of the marvellous -activity and energy of Peter’s life. More than any other ruler of -ancient or modern times he stands before the world as a model national -reformer, introducing, by the force of an indomitable will, the most -sweeping changes and reforms into the social, economical, political, -industrial, and commercial life of the nation over which he rules, -breaking with all the traditions of the past, and lifting his nation by -a supreme effort from comparative barbarism into semi-culture, and -starting it on the road to political greatness and commercial -importance, on which it has made such astounding progress during the -last two hundred years. The personal genius and initiative of Peter the -Great have contributed more to the development of Russia’s resources, -and he has done more to raise her to her present position in Europe than -all other causes combined. It is sad for the philanthropist and -historian to admit that these great qualities were obscured by vices and -habits that were, perhaps, the tribute which even the greatest of -mortals has to pay to his age and to his nation. - -As a very young man Peter had married Eudoxia Laputkin, the daughter of -a powerful and influential family. It was not a love marriage, but he -had hoped to gain from this alliance a strengthening of his pretensions -to the throne. Eudoxia was very handsome, but, while she pleased Peter, -she had not the power to win his exclusive affection. She bore him a -son, Alexis, but even the birth of an heir--generally so anxiously -expected by autocrats--could not firmly establish intimate relations -between Peter and Eudoxia while he permitted the boy to remain entirely -under the care of the mother and her relatives. Unfortunately the -Laputkin family was strongly attached to ancient Russian traditions and -usages. It was entirely under the influence of the priests and clung to -the prejudices and prerogatives of the Russian aristocracy. Alexis was -brought up in these opinions and absorbed them from his infancy. In -fact no two minds, and no two temperaments could have been more at -variance than those of the father and of the son; and, as the boy grew -up, the antagonism between Peter and Alexis became greater and more -pronounced. - -Whether from incompatibility of temper or some other cause, Peter -discarded Eudoxia and had her shut up in a convent in 1698; he then took -the boy out of her hands and entrusted his education to teachers in -sympathy with his own ideas. But they found it impossible--and even -Peter himself, in spite of rigorous measures and cruelty--to eradicate -from the mind of the boy the conservative and old-Russian principles -which his mother and the Laputkins had, as it would seem, planted deep -within it. When Peter divorced Eudoxia and shut her up in a convent, the -antipathy of the boy turned into hatred, and he clung only the more -stubbornly to his mother and her family. As he grew older, he became -intemperate and dissipated; but, more than these vices, the sluggishness -of his mind and the open hostility with which he looked upon the great -reforms in which Peter was engaged and in which he took great pride, -irritated his father to such a degree that the Czar formed the plan of -excluding him from the succession. - -In order to break his bad habits and possibly to bring about a salutary -change in his rude and uncouth conduct, Alexis was married quite young -to a Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, a lovely and refined young -woman of great personal beauty; but Alexis treated her very coldly and -cruelly. The fact that his father had selected his bride was sufficient -cause for him to treat her with contempt and aversion. She bore her -misfortune with great resignation; but died of a broken heart, after -having given her husband two children, a daughter and a son. The latter -afterwards ascended the throne as Peter the Second. - -The death of his wife made but little impression on Alexis, who had been -living for a long time in open adultery with his mistress, an illiterate -serf from Finland. When this matrimonial attempt to reform Alexis had -failed, the Czar, more than ever incensed at his obstinacy, gave him the -choice between changing his ways and being sent to a convent. The Czar -was the more inclined to shut him up in a solitary place of confinement -because Catherine, his second wife, had just given birth to a son, and -Peter might hope to have a male heir, even with Alexis out of the way. -The birth of this half-brother filled the mind of Alexis with vague -fears. But being assured by his friends, and especially by the Laputkins -and the priests, that he might easily, at the proper time, get out of -the convent, since the cowl would not be nailed to his head, he -hypocritically declared in favor of the convent, and told his father -that he had a greater vocation for spiritual things than for the -government of an empire. The confinement was, however, not so very -solitary as it might have appeared to the Czar; on the contrary, both -Alexis and Eudoxia were the chief personages around whom the malcontents -and all the opponents of reform clustered with hopeful expectation. -Alexis treated his imprisonment so lightly that he imprudently spoke of -what he was going to do as soon as he had ascended the throne. “I shall -be the Czar,” said he; “they cannot keep me out of the succession. Let -his foreigners intrigue against me; I shall beat them all, for the -people are for me, and I’ll set all things right again. We shall then be -Russians once more!” - -In the meantime Peter the Great had started on a new European tour. -Catherine, his wife, accompanied him. He went to Prussia, Denmark, -Holland, England and France, and was received everywhere with the -greatest honors and distinctions. At Amsterdam the unwelcome news -reached him that Alexis had left his convent under a false pretence, -saying that he would join the Czar on his travels; but he had proceeded -to Vienna and placed himself under the protection of the German Emperor. -The Czar immediately despatched two of his most intimate friends with -instructions to bring him back, alive or dead. But when the two -messengers reached Vienna, the Czarowitz had left that city already, and -his whereabouts was unknown. But after a diligent search, it was -discovered that he had gone to Naples and had found an asylum at the -Castle of St. Angelo. The messengers hurried to Naples and succeeded in -getting an interview with the Prince, in which they exhausted their -eloquence to induce him to return with them to Russia. They read to him -also a letter written by his father, who promised him that, upon his -immediate return, his escapade would be forgiven and forgotten. The -Prince was not willing to go, and consented only when the Viceroy of -Naples joined his own request with the entreaties of the messengers. The -Czar had returned already to St. Petersburg when Alexis arrived. - -The Prince hoped to be kindly received and to be treated like a -repentant son; but in this expectation he found himself badly deceived. -He was immediately arrested and subjected to a very severe -interrogatory, in the course of which he implicated a number of -prominent persons in having planned and assisted him in his flight from -Russia. And then a mock trial of the most infamous character was -enacted. The young Prince had already renounced all his rights to the -crown; but this renunciation did not assuage the vindictive spirit of -his father. Those whom Alexis, in his confusion and in the agony of the -torture, had implicated in the crime of which he was accused, were tried -for high treason, convicted, and beheaded or broken on the wheel. The -ex-Empress Eudoxia was transferred to a dungeon in another prison, after -having been cruelly chastised by two nuns. Alexis himself, from whom the -cruel application of the torture (during which the Czar was present) had -extorted the confession of crimes which he had never committed, was -convicted of high treason and sentenced to be beheaded. The Czar -insisted on a verdict of capital punishment, and the one hundred and -eighty-one judges composing the court obeyed the imperial brute; they -rendered a unanimous verdict. Peter hypocritically said that he would -pardon him. When the decision of the judges and his father’s promise of -clemency were communicated to Alexis, he was overcome with terror and -excitement, and led back to prison. The next day it was reported that he -had died of apoplexy, but that in his last moments an affectionate -interview had taken place between him and his father. Another report -stated that the Czar had withdrawn his pardon and ordered his son to be -beheaded without delay. And still another report, almost too horrid to -be true, says that Peter, with his own hands, cut off the head of his -son. There is no doubt that the young man was foully murdered. The story -of his death by apoplexy was merely invented to whitewash the memory of -one of the greatest, but also of one of the most brutal and cruel rulers -that ever lived. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -PETER THE THIRD OF RUSSIA - -[Illustration: PETER III.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -ASSASSINATION OF PETER THE THIRD OF RUSSIA - -(July 17, 1762) - - -In a previous chapter we have told the story, full of horror and crime, -of the life of Ivan the Terrible of Russia. It was not one famous -assassination which placed that life-story in this series of historical -murders; it was an uninterrupted, long-continued succession of -butcheries and assassinations which entitled it to this place. In the -long line of historical characters extending through the ages there is -not one who so fully deserves the designation of a wholesale assassin as -Ivan the Terrible, the demon of the North. But strange to say, the -Russians, who during his lifetime execrated him and fled from him as -from contagion, to-day seem to have forgotten his iniquities, and place -him among their great rulers. Let Karamsin, one of the few great -historians Russia has produced, explain this seeming anomaly: “Such was -the Czar! Such were his subjects! Their patience was boundless, for they -regarded the commands of the Czar as the commands of God, and they -considered every act of disobedience to the Czar’s will as a rebellion -against the will of God. They perished, but they saved for us, the -Russians of the nineteenth century, the greatness and the power of -Russia, for the strength of an empire rests in the willingness of an -empire to obey.” Words like these make us comprehend--what otherwise -would be utterly incomprehensible to us--that a monster like Ivan the -Terrible was permitted to continue his career of crime and murder until -it was terminated by death brought on by disease and not by violence. - -The history of Russia, after the death of Ivan the Terrible, is full of -crimes and assassinations. Czars and heirs to the crown were ruthlessly -murdered in order to make way for usurpers and pretenders, until these -again fell victims to conspiracies. The most famous of these -assassinations is that of Peter the Third, not only because it was -carried out in the interest of his own wife, the Empress Catherine, but -mainly perhaps because Russia, at that time,--1762--had already entered -the list of great European powers. Peter the Third was the son of -Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and of the Grand-Duchess -Anna of Russia, oldest daughter of Peter the Great. As such, young Peter -had even a better right to the crown of Russia than the Empress -Elizabeth, who was a younger daughter of Peter the Great; and it was -Elizabeth herself who, in 1742, sent for Peter--then a boy at school in -Germany--and declared him her heir and successor to the crown. - -Peter was then only fifteen years of age. His education until then had -been designed to fit him for the throne of Denmark and Sweden, upon -which his father had a just claim; but preferring the prospect of -sitting on the throne of the Czars, he went to St. Petersburg. The -Empress spared no pains to educate her nephew for the high and difficult -task which was in store for him as the future ruler of Russia. But it -was in vain that she tried to make a Russian of him; he remained not -only at heart, but also in his tastes, his manners, his conduct, his -amusements and occupations a German; and what was worse, he liked to -show publicly and privately how strongly attached he was to the land of -his birth, and how profoundly he despised the people of Russia, over -whom he was to rule. In a foreign-born crown-prince such a disposition -would have been a serious political mistake under all circumstances, but -it was especially so in this case, since Russia had been engaged, for -years, in war with Frederick the Great of Prussia, and had made great -sacrifices in men and treasures to conquer him and to cripple his -growing power and influence in Europe. - -Elizabeth hated Frederick the Great with the passion of a woman offended -in her vanity. He had said of her: “She is as ugly as a cat and as -treacherous; the very thought of her makes me sick.” The hatred of the -Empress did not prevent the Crown Prince from openly expressing his -unbounded admiration for the Prussian King. True, Peter was mentally too -insignificant to comprehend the real greatness and genius of Frederick; -but he admired the strict discipline, the rigid training, the incessant -military exercises, the severe punishments for the slightest infraction -of the rules and the least symptom of insubordination,--in short, all -the outward and visible work in the preparation of a model army; and the -Prussian army had become the model of Europe since the days of King -Frederick William the First. He was anxious to introduce these Prussian -features into the Russian army, expecting very likely that such -externals would be the principal means of making an army invincible. -That it took the genius and the untiring energy of a Frederick to bring -about this invincibility he failed to see. When Peter had grown up to -manhood his military zeal increased and became a perfect passion. But he -felt no desire to join the Russian army in the field and earn military -distinction and honors; no, he preferred to stay at home and act the -drillmaster of a regiment of Holsteiners, which the Empress had -organized for his especial pleasure, and to whose equipment, drill and -exercises the young Grand Duke devoted most of his leisure hours. The -men were uniformed and armed exactly like Prussian grenadiers, and all -the officers belonged to prominent German families. The organization of -this regiment made the Grand Duke very unpopular among the members of -the Russian nobility, and they lost no opportunity in blackening his -character and belittling his mental qualifications. - -In 1745 Peter married the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, the daughter of a -Prussian field-marshal. She was distinguished by great beauty and high -mental attainments, and afterwards won world-wide renown under the name -of Catherine the Second. She was originally named Sophia Augusta, but -when the Empress Elizabeth selected her for the wife of her successor, -she adopted the name of Catherine. Before his marriage, Peter had led a -rather dissolute life, but for a couple of years after the wedding the -young couple seemed to be quite happy. Peter himself was very -good-looking and, although not a man of brilliant mind, was of average -intelligence and culture. An attack of small-pox destroyed his good -looks; and this circumstance combined with the volatile character of -his wife caused an estrangement, which seemed to grow from year to year, -and finally degenerated into absolute hatred. From that time on husband -and wife, although not formally divorced or even separated, lived each a -life of unrestrained vice. - -No sooner had the courtiers noticed the growing coldness between them -than they tried to ingratiate themselves with the young and beautiful -but profligate Catherine, and some of them succeeded only too well. The -first of her lovers was Count Soltikoff, one of the handsomest men of -the Russian court, and first chamberlain of the Grand Duke. In his -privileged position in the service of the Grand Duke he had so many -opportunities of meeting the Grand Duchess, that soon the closest -intimacy was established between them. But somehow or other a report of -the liaison reached the ears of the Empress, and she sent Soltikoff on a -diplomatic mission to Turkey in the hope of putting a stop to it. But -the Grand Duchess easily consoled herself. No sooner had Soltikoff left -the capital than Catherine formed a new liaison. Her next lover was the -beautiful and chivalrous Prince Poniatowski, of the renowned Polish -family; the scandal became so notorious and excited so much envy and -jealousy among the Russian courtiers that it reached the ears of the -Grand Duke, who applied to the Empress and demanded that his wife be -punished for her shameful conduct. The Empress, who was guilty herself -of many scandalous love affairs, did not reprimand the Grand Duchess, -but sent Poniatowski back to Poland. A short time afterwards he -returned, however, having been appointed Polish Ambassador at the court -of St. Petersburg. The Grand Duke was indignant at his unlooked-for -return, and having one day surprised him in a very intimate -_tête-à-tête_ with Catherine, upbraided him and her in the presence of -the whole court, threatening at the time to drive him like a dog from -the palace, and to imprison her in a convent. At the same time the Grand -Duke himself was very far from leading an exemplary life. He had picked -out among the ladies of the court a young and beautiful girl, Countess -Woronzow, and made her his mistress. - -The time came when the Empress Elizabeth was on her deathbed. She made -then a last attempt to reconcile the Grand Duke and the Grand Duchess, -in order to secure peace for Russia; but the estrangement and repugnance -which they felt for each other was so great that this attempt failed -utterly. In fact, the chasm widened immensely after the death of -Elizabeth, and neither the husband nor the wife took care to conceal it. -Moreover, immediately after Peter’s accession to the throne, a radical -change occurred in the policy of the government,--a change that was -warmly approved by some, but most bitterly opposed by others. Two great -political parties were formed, and although the opponents of the -government were compelled to practise their agitation in secret, they -nevertheless counted a number of the most influential men among their -leaders. The new Emperor broke loose entirely from the traditional -policy of Russia; he not only withdrew from the Franco-Austrian -alliance, but he sent orders to the Russian generals in the field -against Frederick the Great of Prussia to coöperate with him. Peter -himself donned the uniform of a Prussian general, which grade Frederick -the Great had conferred upon him at his special request; all exercises -and manœuvres of the Russian army were, by direction of the Czar, -fashioned after those of the Prussian army, and Russian traditions and -customs were disregarded. - -The indignation and discontent among the high nobility of Russia at -these “reforms”--which they ridiculed and despised--knew no bounds. In -these sentiments they were encouraged by the Czar’s wife, who both from -personal hostility and from the intuition of her far-sighted political -genius, opposed them as anti-Russian and as the manifestations of a -Teuto-maniac unfit to rule over the great Russian nation. Her husband -became more and more aggressive in his threats. He spoke openly, among -his intimates, of his intention to imprison Catherine in a convent and -to marry his mistress, Elizabeth Woronzow, and branded the son whom -Catherine had borne to him, as a bastard, who would be excluded from the -succession. It was therefore in self-defence that Catherine surrounded -herself with men of power and influence. She entered into close -relations with high officers of the Russian army, who still adhered with -loyal devotion to the traditions of Peter the Great and Elizabeth; and -although far from being pious and religious herself, she surrounded -herself with the high dignitaries of the Russian Church, whom Peter -insulted by neglect. Catherine, on the other hand, manifested a great -interest in religious ceremonies and a strict observance of the Greek -Church service; and at all times prominent clergymen were guests at -Peterhof, her residence. - -Peter the Third wished to realize on the throne of Russia the ideal of -enlightened despotism, of which his idol, King Frederick the Second of -Prussia, was so illustrious a model. One of his first acts was to recall -the political exiles from Siberia--among them the two fieldmarshals -Münnich and Biron, who had been exiled by Elizabeth. It is assuredly one -of the most lamentable spectacles to behold on the throne of a great -Empire an ignorant, narrow-minded, whimsical, and fanatical ruler, -introducing, under the name of “reforms,” vital and extraordinary -changes in the administration and government, utterly unsuited to the -character and culture of his nation. Even with the best intentions he -will fail and pass for a fool. - -Many of Peter’s measures were humane and just, and might have been -considered judicious if he had not, by the manner in which he introduced -them, provoked a resistance which proved fatal to them. He had no -knowledge of Russian character, and looked down upon public sentiment. -Even as Czar he gave public expression of his contempt for Russia, and -placed it in every respect below Germany. With incredible -self-sufficiency he disregarded all counsels to be more prudent in his -public utterances and to proceed more slowly in his efforts to -Prussianize Russia’s methods of administration and her system of civil -and criminal jurisprudence. He abolished time-honored institutions; he -attacked the privileges of the Church and the clergy; he ordered the -churches and chapels to be deprived of their wealth and golden ornaments -and images; he confiscated real estate belonging to the government, but -occupied and taken possession of by the clergy; he reduced the -exorbitant salaries of great noblemen in the provinces. By such acts he -engendered protests, dissatisfaction, and threats in the very classes -upon which the throne has to lean in despotic countries. To cap the -climax, he dismissed the Russian body-guards and surrounded himself -exclusively with German troops. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, his own -cousin, was placed in command of these German regiments, under whose -protection the Emperor considered himself absolutely safe. The King of -Prussia, who was well informed on all matters going on at the Russian -court, and who more than anybody else in Europe had an interest at stake -to prolong the reign of his admirer, warned him again and again against -the intrigues of his wife and the “old-Russian party,” but Peter was -blinded by his prejudices and paid no attention to the warnings. He -underrated his wife’s talent for political combinations and intrigue, -and was far from suspecting that from the very first day of his reign -his fate was sealed and his days numbered. - -A great historian has called Catherine of Russia “the -Messalina-Richelieu” of history, indicating by that combination that she -was a monster of voluptuousness, insatiable in lust, and a prodigy of -statecraft and political shrewdness. The name is wonderfully -appropriate, for hardly ever has any female ruler, with the exception of -the infamous Roman Empress, so shamelessly prostituted herself as -Catherine the Second of Russia, and never has any woman, not even -Elizabeth of England, possessed political genius to a higher degree. It -was Peter the Great who introduced Russia into the list of European -states, but it was Catherine the Second whose genius breathed into the -gigantic empire its policy of grasping and ambitious expansion, which -has placed her standards as tutelary guards already over the northern -half of Asia, and which is yet far from being satisfied. - -While the Czar was amusing himself with new reforms which were at best -dead letters and created new enemies for him, his wife was untiring in -her efforts to win new friends and new supporters for the great _coup -d’état_ which she was preparing as the crowning act of her ambition. She -wanted to be Empress in her own name, in order that she might make -Russia great and not be molested and embarrassed by a husband whom she -hated and despised. Her own personal memoirs, written in French and -published in London in 1858, whose authenticity has never been seriously -doubted, shows that when only fifteen years old, she was possessed by -this ambition, which she afterwards so fully realized. Among the -influential persons whose active coöperation Catherine had secured for -her ambitious plans was Princess Dashkow, a young woman of excellent -education and great ability, and sister of Elizabeth Woronzow. Princess -Dashkow, who, on account of the superiority of her mind had great -influence over her sister, proved a powerful auxiliary to Catherine in -this most critical period of her married life. Through her, Catherine -gained Count Panin, one of the ablest men of Russia and governor of the -young Grand-Duke Paul, Catherine’s son, as her ally. She told Panin that -she knew from her sister (the Czar’s mistress) that Peter the Third was -on the point of repudiating his wife, that he denied the legitimacy of -the young Grand Duke, that he intended to exclude him from the -succession, and to declare Ivan the Sixth his successor. This Prince had -been dethroned by Elizabeth and was retained as a prisoner in the -fortress of Schlüsselburg, but had fallen into idiocy. These -confidential communications induced Panin, who trembled for his own -position and possibly for his head, secretly to join the army of -malcontents, whose programme it was to dethrone Peter the Third, -proclaim his son, Paul, Emperor, and Catherine Regent of the Empire -during Paul’s minority. This programme was not exactly that of -Catherine, who aspired to be the sovereign Empress of Russia, and not -merely the Regent during her son’s minority, but with consummate ability -she welcomed Panin’s overtures as steps leading to her own elevation. - -Whether Catherine had fully weighed and approved all the possibilities -which might result from the revolution which she had planned and for -which she had found so many instruments willing to help her, will very -likely remain forever an unsolved problem. Was she willing to sanction -the murder of her husband in order to step over his corpse to the -throne? This has been an open question with native and foreign -historians. Perhaps she honestly believed with Panin that she might get -rid of Peter in some way without either killing him or imprisoning him -for life. But it is absolutely certain that Catherine, in the summer of -1762, came to the conclusion that the time had come for striking a -decisive blow; and it is equally certain that, although not cruel by -nature, she never shrank back from any means to remove obstacles -standing in the way of her ambition. By the agency of her generals, -Suwarow, Potemkin, and Repnin, she sacrificed whole nations to her -ambition, and swept them off the face of the earth without feeling any -compunction at the barbarities committed. Does it look improbable -therefore that she may have consented to the assassination of her -husband, whom she detested, when all other means of silencing his claims -to the throne appeared unsafe? - -A very important part, in fact the most important of all, in the -conspiracy against the Czar, was taken by the Orloffs, and especially by -Count Gregor Orloff, the favored lover of Catherine, who had the -reputation of being the handsomest officer of the Russian army. The -Empress was passionately in love with him, although pretty well founded -rumors asserted that she bestowed her secret favors also on Gregor’s -brother, Alexis, a perfect giant in stature and of herculean strength. -All the Orloffs--Gregor, Alexis, Ivan, and Feodor--held positions as -officers in the imperial guards or in the artillery, and were among the -warmest adherents of Catherine, whose elevation would raise them, as -they well knew, to the highest position in the Empire, immediately by -the side of the throne. They became active agitators for her in the -army, and were really the principal actors in the terrible drama of -Peter’s assassination. Quite a bloody tradition attached to the Orloff -family, and the part which they were to play in the revolution against -Peter the Third lent new confirmation to it and recalled it to the minds -of the Russian people. At the time when Peter the Great abolished the -strelitzi, attended their horrid executions, even helped in them, one -day the block of the executioner was so crowded with the heads of the -victims that there was no room for others. Then one of the condemned -coolly stepped forward and pushed several of the heads off the bench, as -if it had been his business to do so. The Czar looked on in astonishment -and turning to the man, who had already attracted his attention by his -herculean frame and the classic beauty of his features, asked him: “What -are you doing that for?” “To make room for my own head!” was the cool -reply. Peter the Great, who admired personal courage above everything -else, was so well pleased with the reply, that he immediately pardoned -the condemned and set him free. This pardoned officer was a young -nobleman, named Orloff--the grandfather of the five Orloffs who played -such a conspicuous part in the revolution of 1762, and one of whom -murdered Peter the Third with his own hands. - -The outbreak of the revolution, as is usual in such cases, was caused by -an unexpected and trifling occurrence. A young officer of the imperial -guards, who had been won over to the party of Catherine, one evening -while under the influence of liquor, talked about the impending -revolution and was arrested by other officers who were not in the -conspiracy. Gregor Orloff heard of the arrest and immediately hurried to -Catherine, who was at Peterhof and had already retired for the night. -But Orloff went directly to her bedroom, aroused her from sleep and told -her that immediate action on her part was necessary, unless she wanted -to imperil and very likely lose the game for whose success they had been -working so patiently. - -Catherine’s resolution was quickly taken. She immediately got up, -dressed rapidly, and half an hour afterwards the carriage which had -carried Orloff from St. Petersburg, returned thither with the Empress -and her attendant. It was five o’clock in the morning of the -twenty-ninth of June when they arrived at the capital. Two hours later -Catherine was on horseback, dressed in the uniform of a general of the -imperial guards, which Count Buturlin had furnished, on her way to the -armory of the Preobrajenski guards, accompanied by Gregor and Alexis -Orloff, and an escort of high officers who were in the conspiracy. -Princess Dashkow, also in an officer’s uniform, had preceded her, and -had announced to the officers of the guards that the Emperor, Peter the -Third, had died suddenly, that the Empress would shortly appear among -them in order to receive their homage and their oath of obedience as -heiress to the throne and Regent of the Empire during the minority of -her son. The officers consented immediately and influenced their -soldiers without difficulty when they were reminded of the late Czar’s -unjust partiality for the German regiments, and of Catherine’s -unwavering kindness to them. Both officers and soldiers greeted -Catherine, therefore, very enthusiastically when she arrived an hour -later, and both swore allegiance and devotion to her. Catherine’s -bearing on this trying occasion, was full of courage and dash. She had -never looked more beautiful, and the three regiments were perfectly -charmed with their new ruler. She then proceeded with her escort to the -Casan Church, where, in the meantime, the Archbishop of Novgorod and the -entire clergy of the capital had been assembled and were waiting for -her. The Archbishop administered the oath of office to her, and -Catherine swore to respect the laws and institutions of the Empire and -to protect the religion of the people, whereupon the entire clergy swore -allegiance to her. A solemn Te Deum, sung by thousands of voices, -terminated the grand ceremony, while the roar of artillery announced to -the inhabitants of St. Petersburg the accession of a new ruler. -Catherine had reached the goal of her ambition; she was now the -sovereign ruler of Russia, not merely in name, but in fact. She returned -to the imperial palace, where an immense multitude greeted her with -enthusiastic cheers. Many thousand roubles were scattered among the -populace, which was moreover treated liberally with whiskey and other -intoxicants, and cheered vociferously, until Catherine, who looked -charmingly beautiful in her gaudy uniform, showed herself again and -again on the balcony. Count Galitzin, vice-admiral of the Russian fleet, -was on a visit at St. Petersburg on that day. Catherine sent for him, -won him over to her side by amiability and promises, and sent him back -to Kronstadt, the Russian naval port, to inspire the garrison and -sailors of that stronghold with enthusiasm for the Empress,--so that the -capital was protected on the seaward side against a possible attack by -Peter the Third. - -But even after having acted so promptly and so energetically, and after -having got possession of the capital and the principal part of the army -and the navy, Catherine had still a great deal to do, and her -penetrating genius did not underrate the danger of the situation in -which she found herself. All her successes in the capital among officers -had been secured by the fraudulent assertion that the Czar had died -suddenly, and there was no certainty whether Peter’s sudden appearance -at the capital, or a well-authenticated report that he was still among -the living and was hastening toward the capital, might cause a sudden -change in public sentiment. Undaunted by these secret apprehensions, and -impelled by the restless energy of her devouring ambition, she never -wavered in her resolution, but pressed onward toward the consummation of -her dangerous but tempting project, which seemed to be almost within her -grasp. Through the active agitation of her friends, and the strong and -widespread hostility of the people and the army against Peter’s -ill-advised measures of “reform,” she could, almost from the first -announcement of her accession to the throne, command an army of fifteen -thousand well-equipped men, who were ready to die for her against any -pretender, Peter the Third included. - -The outbreak of the revolution was so sudden that Peter was taken -entirely by surprise, and would not listen to the first reports when -they reached him. He had gone on that very day to Oranienbaum, an -imperial summer resort, about twenty miles from St. Petersburg, where he -enjoyed himself with his Holstein guards, his favorites, and his -mistress, Elizabeth Woronzow. There were altogether about two thousand -soldiers with him; but there was also Field-marshal Münnich, Russia’s -most renowned soldier, and a man of great authority in the army. -Moreover Münnich was a man of great personal courage, and if Peter had -followed his counsels, he might have saved his crown and his life. -Münnich’s advice was to take immediate and bold measures, to meet -aggression by aggression, and to oppose the immense prestige of the -legitimate ruler to the revolutionary usurpation of an ambitious and -adulterous wife. But neither Peter’s personal character, nor his -immediate surroundings would admit of the acceptance of such bold and -aggressive action. He was like a helpless child, hesitating and -vacillating, sending out orders, and revoking them the next hour; asking -everybody’s advice, and following nobody’s. His mistress was bewailing -his misfortune, cursing Catherine and her treachery, and falling into -hysterics at the mere thought of a bloody struggle for supremacy -between Peter and his wife. It was easy to foresee the outcome of so -much indecision, vacillation and cowardice on one side, and of so much -determination, firmness and courage on the other. - -After nearly the whole day had been spent in fruitless attempts to come -to a decision, Münnich finally, at about eight o’clock in the evening, -succeeded in persuading Peter to go on board of a yacht and proceed to -Kronstadt, where, he expected, the Emperor would be warmly welcomed. If -this step had been taken earlier in the day, it would very likely have -been successful. But it will be remembered that Catherine, after her -return from the Casan church, had an interview with Count Galitzin, -commander-in-chief of the naval forces at Kronstadt, and had secured his -coöperation. The Emperor was therefore not permitted to enter the -harbor, and when he himself appeared in the fore-part of the yacht and -proclaimed his identity, he was simply told to return to where he came -from, and that Russia had no longer an emperor, but an empress. Münnich -then appealed to Peter not to be deterred by such words, but to get into -one of the boats, in which he would accompany him, and to effect a -landing. “They will not shoot you,” the old field-marshal said, “this -whole affair is a bold game some of the high officers are playing, but -the soldiers are kept in ignorance, and when they meet their Emperor -face to face they will throw down their arms.” But when the women heard -from Peter that he would undertake to effect a landing on the coast, -they burst into tears and filled the ship with loud lamentations and -cries, and the Czar’s mistress threw herself at his feet imploring him -not to expose his precious life to the bullets of the rebels, and not -to abandon her, helpless and heartbroken, to the revenge of his enemies. -Peter was only too glad to take her despair as a pretext to recede from -Münnich’s proposition. - -Münnich was disgusted and wished the women were a thousand miles off; -but he made still another proposition. He wanted to turn the imperial -yacht toward Reval, where quite a number of Russian warships were -assembled. Peter was to take command of this fleet, sail to Pomerania, -land on Prussian soil, proceed as rapidly as possible to the large -Russian army concentrated there, and return at the head of that army to -St. Petersburg, which, as the old and bold field-marshal believed, would -not even attempt to make resistance. “Within sixty days,” said he to -Peter, “your Empire will be at your feet again, your wife will be at -your mercy, and your whole people will hail you as a conqueror and -savior!” The plan was good and would very likely have succeeded if it -had been promptly acted upon. There were nearly eighty thousand Russian -soldiers--and they were the _élite_ of the Russian army--in Pomerania, -and if Peter had been supported by them, he could easily have quelled -the rebellion and recovered the throne. - -But Peter was not the master of his own decisions. He obediently bowed -to the will of his mistress and her lady friends, and they strongly -protested against this new plan of the old fighter and “war-horse,” who, -they declared, had no heart and did not know what love meant. Countess -Woronzow persuaded Peter that the proper thing for him to do was to -return to Oranienbaum or Peterhof and make his peace with the Empress, -who would be only too glad to make an arrangement with him satisfactory -to both. This suggestion corresponded too well with the pusillanimous -and vacillating character of Peter to be rejected by him. So the whole -party returned to Peterhof, and negotiations were at once opened with -Catherine tending towards a reconciliation of the husband and wife. -Peter addressed a letter to his wife in which he offered her the -co-regency of the Empire, assuring her at the same time that the -occurrences of the past week should be entirely forgotten and that love -and harmony should in the future prevail in the imperial household. The -letter was haughtily rejected by the Empress; no answer came to it but a -verbal message that it was too late, and that no further communication -from him would be received except an act of entire abdication. Peter -thereupon surrendered unconditionally. He wrote a second letter to his -wife, in which he very humbly asked permission both for himself and his -mistress, Countess Woronzow, and a number of his attendants to return to -Holstein, where they would live quietly in retirement from all public -affairs. In order to carry out this wish, he asked for a pension -enabling him to live in becoming style, and in exchange for these favors -he recognized Catherine as Regent of the Empire during his son’s -minority. - -Major-General Michael Ismailoff, one of Peter’s most intimate and most -trusted friends, was the bearer of this valuable document, which seemed -to satisfy Catherine, but was not equally satisfactory to Count Gregor -Orloff, who hoped to secure the hand of the Empress when Peter had been -put out of the way. Orloff’s secret design was to assassinate Peter and -then take his place by Catherine’s side. The Orloffs therefore took hold -of General Ismailoff, after he had handed the Czar’s letter to the -Empress, and induced him by supplications and brilliant promises to come -over to their side, and to assist them in making Peter a prisoner as the -only means of restoring peace and avoiding civil war. At first Ismailoff -resisted their offers, but at last he yielded. He returned to Peterhof -and played the part of a traitor to perfection. He told Peter that he -had delivered his letter to the Empress, and that she would, as a matter -of course, grant the request he had made, but that she was overcome with -sorrow at the turn things had taken, that she was perfectly willing to -admit him to a co-regency and to be reconciled to him, and that she was -anxious to meet him in a private interview at Oranienbaum in order to -arrange matters to their mutual satisfaction. - -Peter fell easily into the trap. He immediately accepted the invitation -and got ready to go to Oranienbaum. At first he proposed to go there -under the escort of his Holsteiners, but Ismailoff persuaded him to let -them stay at Peterhof, because it might look as though he distrusted the -Empress and might offend her. Peter therefore went to Oranienbaum, -accompanied only by Ismailoff, who encouraged him in his most -extravagant expectations of a brilliant career still in store for him. -But there was a sad and sudden awakening from this dream of greatness. -On his arrival at Oranienbaum he found the courtyard filled with forty -or fifty kibitkas; and Ismailoff, changing his conduct and tone -suddenly, told him that he was a prisoner. Peter, without arms and -without friends, resigned himself to his fate almost without a word of -protest. He was led to one of the kibitkas, already occupied by two -strong officers armed to the teeth, and then all the kibitkas started -at once in as many different directions as there were roads leading to -Oranienbaum. This was done in order to deceive the spectators as to the -direction which Peter’s kibitka had taken. He was conveyed to Robzak, a -country villa near the village of Kraskazelo, a short distance from -Petersburg, but rather isolated and out of the way of the regular -traffic. Moreover precautions were taken to surround the villa with -soldiers. Peter was treated almost with cruelty in his solitary -confinement. He was not permitted to communicate with anybody, and his -friends were kept in profound ignorance as to his whereabouts. Many of -them believed that he was either at Peterhof or at Petersburg. He -addressed a pitiable letter to the Empress in which he humbly petitioned -her to send him his negro servant, with whom he liked to play, his -favorite dog, his violin, his Bible and a few novels. But the letter -remained unanswered, and none of the things asked for were sent. - -In the forenoon of July seventeenth, Alexis Orloff, accompanied by -several officers, arrived at Robzak. They had an order from the Empress -admitting them to Peter’s presence. Orloff and an officer named -Tepelof--both men of herculean strength--entered the deposed Emperor’s -room, and found him in a despondent mood. They carried some -delicacies,--among them bottles of old Burgundy wine, which was -poisoned. They announced to Peter that his term of imprisonment would -soon be ended, and that he would then be permitted to return to -Holstein, his native country. Peter was overjoyed at this announcement, -and invited the officers, whom he treated as his guests, to take dinner -with him; they readily consented and produced the delicacies and the -wine they had brought. At the dinner-table Orloff presented a glass of -Burgundy to Peter, who swallowed it rapidly; but the wine was so -strongly poisoned that he felt the effect almost instantly. He jumped -from his chair, screaming and howling with pain. “I am poisoned! I am -poisoned!” he cried, “give me milk, give me oil!” The two assassins -terrified with what they had done sent for milk and oil, which he -swallowed eagerly. But after a few minutes they took courage again and -resolved to complete their murderous work. Peter’s cries had attracted -two or three officers, who entered the room; but instead of protecting -him, they assisted the conspirators. All at once Alexis Orloff rushed -upon Peter, who had thrown himself upon his bed, writhing in pain, and -tried to choke him. Peter himself was a man of herculean strength, and -defended himself with the courage of despair. The iron grasp of Orloff’s -fingers did not release his throat, and the Czar’s face became as black -as a negro’s. At last, by a terrible blow, he freed himself from Orloff, -but while he tried to take breath, the four or five assassins rushed -upon him all at the same time; they dragged him from the bed, and when -he fell into an arm-chair, they threw a large napkin round his neck and -strangled him until he was dead. He fell from the chair to the floor and -expired in a few minutes. A number of officers had witnessed the -terrible scene from a terrace which afforded a full view of the -prisoner’s room. - -The admirers of Catherine have often denied her active participation in -the crime of Peter’s assassination; but they have never succeeded in -making the world believe in her innocence. In fact, how could she be -innocent, since the assassins were admitted to Peter’s presence upon a -direct order issued by her, with no other business for them to do than -to kill him? And then her conduct after the horrible crime had been -perpetrated is sufficient evidence of her guilt. She did not regret the -murder, and she rewarded the murderers. Even in the announcement of -Peter’s sudden death she manifested a brutality which defied decency and -common-sense. In a few words, without adding one word of sorrow at the -death of one who, as she asserted, was the father of her son, she -announced to the Russian people and to the foreign ambassadors at St. -Petersburg that the dethroned Czar Peter the Third, had suddenly died -from the effects of a hæmorrhoidal colic, to which he was subject, and -which had caused a stroke of apoplexy. This cool declaration was to -account for the horrible appearance of Peter’s countenance, which looked -almost black even in death, and which could not be concealed from the -people. It had always been customary to exhibit to the public the corpse -of a deceased Czar and to place him on a catafalque where the people -could see him and pay their respect to him. This public exhibition could -not be avoided without immensely strengthening the suspicion of foul -play; and Catherine boldly underwent the ordeal. The black hue of the -countenance could not be changed, but Peter’s neck was entirely covered -up with a very high and stiff stock, which concealed the finger-marks of -his assassins. Among the spectators was the old field-marshal, Prince -Trubetzkoi, well known for his rudeness and sincerity. He rapidly -stepped up to the bier, where Peter lay in state, and exclaimed in a -loud tone of voice: “Why, why, Peter Fedorowitch, what ridiculous kind -of necktie have they bundled around your neck? You never wore such a -thing in your life; why should you wear it now when you are dead?” And -he began to open the stock, and would have exposed Peter’s throat to -public view, if the guards, in spite of the high rank of the Prince, had -not forcibly dragged him away. - -Unfortunately for the memory of Catherine the Second the assassination -of her husband was not the only assassination caused by her usurpation -of the Russian throne. It will be remembered that Peter had repeatedly -threatened to disown, and consequently to exclude from the succession, -Paul, the son whom Catherine had borne to him, and whom he openly -branded as a bastard, and to this threat he added the declaration that -he would name as his successor the young ex-Emperor Ivan the Sixth, who -had been dethroned by the Empress Elizabeth, and who was still -imprisoned at Schlüsselburg. This threat was fatal to the poor young -Prince, who during his long seclusion had become half-idiotic and had -lost the knowledge of his identity. But nevertheless the fear that he -might be used by her enemies as a legitimate pretender, with better -rights to the crown than her own, haunted Catherine’s mind, and she did -not rest until he had fallen a victim to the assassin’s dagger. - -Strict orders had been issued to the commandant of the fortress of -Schlüsselburg that on the first attempt to liberate Ivan he should be -immediately put to death. And then a new infamy was committed which very -likely sprang from Catherine’s own diabolical genius. There was a young -and poor lieutenant named Mirowitch, in the garrison of Schlüsselburg -who was infatuated with admiration for the Empress and anxious to render -her a service. He was approached by one of his superior officers -(probably an Orloff) and his attention was directed to Ivan. “If he were -out of the way,” he was told, “the Empress would never forget it, and -would reward the service in an imperial manner.” Mirowitch took the hint -and resolved to merit the Empress’s gratitude by assassinating Ivan. -Under some pretext he really came to the door of the room in which Ivan -was kept a prisoner. Two officers were on guard there, but when they -heard Mirowitch’s voice demanding admittance and threatening to break -open the door, they rushed upon Ivan and put him to death. Then they -opened the door, and finding Mirowitch before them, they showed him -Ivan’s corpse and arrested him. Mirowitch was put on trial. The crime he -was charged with was an attempt to abduct the imprisoned Ivan and to -proclaim him Emperor of Russia. Mirowitch did not defend himself. He -only smiled. He knew who stood behind him and would protect him from -injury. He was found guilty and sentenced to be beheaded. He laughed at -the sentence and never lost courage. With a smile he ascended the -scaffold and looked around, wondering why the imperial messenger with -the pardon and the reward was not coming. The priest approached him and -prayed for him. He listened with little attention, and still a smile -hovered on his features. But suddenly the executioner took hold of him, -held him in his iron grasp, and threw him down. It was the last moment -and no messenger appeared yet; and then only Mirowitch realized his -terrible fate. With a scream of mad rage he commenced wrestling with the -executioner, and while uttering a cry of execration against Catherine, -his severed head rolled upon the scaffold. The assassination of two -czars--one of them her own husband--was the bloody price which Catherine -paid for the throne which she was to make great and renowned by a long -and glorious reign. How easily great crimes are forgotten if committed -by sovereigns of genius! - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -GUSTAVUS THE THIRD OF SWEDEN - -[Illustration: GUSTAVUS III.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -ASSASSINATION OF GUSTAVUS THE THIRD OF SWEDEN - -(March 17, 1792) - - -On the seventeenth of March, 1792, Gustavus the Third, King of Sweden, -was assassinated by Ankarström, a Swedish nobleman, and this crime -caused a sensation throughout Europe, although the horrors of the French -Revolution and the wholesale executions by the guillotine had made the -world familiar with murder and bloodshed. This assassination was of a -political character, and private revenge or other considerations had -nothing whatever to do with it. But in order to understand fully the -causes leading up to the tragedy, it will be necessary to refer to the -condition of public affairs in Sweden during the period preceding the -reign of Gustavus. - -The continuous and costly wars of Charles the Twelfth had left Sweden in -a terrible state of exhaustion and misery. A number of her most valuable -provinces had been taken by Russia, and the domestic affairs of the -country, its finances, industry and commerce were utterly ruined. -Charles died during his invasion of Norway; it would really be more -proper to say “was assassinated”; for, on the evening of the eleventh of -December, 1718, while leaning against a parapet and looking at the -soldiers throwing up the breastworks, he was struck down by a bullet, -which could not have come from the enemy, in front of the fortress of -Frederickshall. In spite of the very severe winter weather, Charles had -insisted on laying siege to the strong fortress, and he paid for his -obstinacy with his life. - -When the news of his death reached Sweden, the nobility took advantage -of it and of the unsettled question of the succession to the throne in -order to recover those privileges and rights which it had lost through -the genius and statesmanship of Charles the Eleventh, and which had not -been restored to it during the reign of Charles the Twelfth. The -Reichsrath was immediately reinstated in its old rights, and arrogated -to itself the power of deciding the succession according to its own will -and advantage. It coolly passed by the lawful heir, Charles Frederick of -Holstein-Gottorp, the son of Charles the Twelfth’s elder sister, and -elected Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, who had married Charles the Twelfth’s -younger sister; not, however, without having compelled the royal couple -to renounce, both for themselves and for their heirs, all absolute -power, and also to make a solemn promise that the Reichsrath should be -reinstated in all its former rights and prerogatives, which made that -Assembly actually co-regent of the kingdom. The Reichsrath was declared -sovereign; it had seventeen members, and each member had, in the -decision of public questions, one vote, and the King only two. It -decided all questions of domestic and foreign policy arbitrarily, and -controlled not only the legislative, but also the executive action of -the government. The King was a mere figure-head, poorly salaried and of -little influence. But this degradation of the crown was only one feature -of the oligarchy established by the Reichsrath. It restored to the -nobility all the domains and landed estates which had been appropriated -by the crown during the preceding century, exempted them from taxation, -conferred upon them the exclusive right of holding all the higher -offices in the army, navy and civil service, and heaped all public -burdens upon the lower classes of the people. The King, shorn of all -power, was utterly helpless to prevent these wrongs. His timid protests -were always met with a reminder that he had been elected to the throne -only after having promised to reinstate and not to disturb the nobility -in the enjoyment of their ancient rights. The Reichsrath also concluded -treaties of peace with the powers upon which Charles the Twelfth had -made war, and as the members negotiating these treaties looked out much -more for their own advantage than for that of their country, Sweden was -so badly crippled that it ceased being a great European power. That -honor passed from Sweden to two other countries which up to that time -had been considered Sweden’s inferiors in power and influence,--Russia -and Prussia. - -It was not long before the Reichsrath, whose members sold themselves to -foreign rulers, was split up into different factions which fought -bitterly for supremacy. One of these factions favored France and was -regularly subsidized with French money, while the other faction was -equally well subsidized with Russian money and followed blindly the -dictates of the Czar and Czarina of Russia. The French faction was -called “the party of the hats,” and the Russian faction was known as -“the party of the caps.” These two factions fought each other most -bitterly, each charging the other with almost any crime committed -against divine and human law; and both were right in the charge, because -both were equally guilty. At the beginning of the war of the Austrian -succession, France wanted to prevent Russia from siding with Austria, -and thought a war between Sweden and Russia would be the right thing to -accomplish that object. The French Ambassador at Stockholm therefore -ordered the “party of the hats” in the Reichsrath to declare war upon -Russia, and a resolution to that effect prevailed against the violent -and menacing protests of the “party of the caps.” In great haste a -Swedish army was recruited to take the field against the Russians in -Finland; but since all the money sent by the French government for the -proper equipment of that army had disappeared in the pockets of the -members of the Reichsrath, the army was so poorly equipped and its -war-material was of such inferior quality that it could not hold the -field against the well-armed and well-equipped Russians, and suffered -defeat after defeat at their hands. The “caps” were jubilant over this -discomfiture and humiliation of the “hats” and forced them into a treaty -of peace with Russia, which was disgraceful to Sweden, but which would -have been even more hurtful if the Russian Empress had not for personal -reasons offered very mild terms of peace. But one of these terms was -that Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, whose father had been so -shamefully cheated out of the Swedish succession in 1718, should be -declared heir to the Swedish throne. The Reichsrath cheerfully accepted -this condition, made all other concessions which the Russian Empress -demanded, and ceded a part of Finland to the Russian crown. Peace -between the two countries was restored by the treaty of Abo in 1743. - -Conditions were not improved under the rule of the next King,--the said -Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who ascended the throne in 1751. -The new King had married the younger sister of Frederick the Great of -Prussia, but he had so little influence on the direction of the public -policy of Sweden, both at home and abroad, that in the great European -war which Frederick had to wage against the other powers, Sweden took -sides against him by the dictation of the Reichsrath. In fact, the -Reichsrath became more aggressive and arrogant from year to year. It -interfered in the education of the royal princes. It presumed to attach -the King’s signature to public documents after he had refused twice to -sign them. The “caps” made an effort to strengthen the King’s authority -by amending the constitution, but it failed, and resulted in a complete -victory for the “hats.” The “hats” had it all their own way for a while. -Under orders from the French government, and also out of hatred and -contempt for the King, they declared war on the King of Prussia, and -Sweden was, without any cause or provocation, drawn into the terrible -Seven Years’ War, which resulted in the victory of Frederick the Great -over all his enemies. - -This disastrous result of the war caused the temporary overthrow of the -“hats.” But the Russian faction, as soon as they had got control of the -government, established a tyranny worse than that of their predecessors, -so that the King, provoked to the utmost, threatened to resign and -appeal to the people, unless a popular Diet should be called to -establish the rights of the crown on a firm and more dignified basis. -Under the strong pressure of public indignation the Diet was called; it -restored to the crown part of the rights and prerogatives annulled by -the Reichsrath and dismissed a number of those officials most hostile -and objectionable to the King; but a proposition of the young, ingenious -and ambitious Crown Prince--to change the constitution thoroughly, to -reëstablish autocratic government in Sweden in order to renew an era of -glory and prosperity for the unfortunate country--failed through the -irresoluteness of the King. In 1771 the King died, and the Crown Prince -ascended the throne under the name of Gustavus the Third. - -The Crown Prince was at Paris, where he was paying the court a visit, -when his father died. His presence in the French capital and his -conversations with Choiseul, the able prime minister of Louis the -Fifteenth, had strengthened and confirmed his own personal views about -the necessity for a change in the government of Sweden and for a return -to an absolutistic régime. He formally renewed the secret alliance -between Sweden and France, receiving the promise of liberal subsidies -from the French treasury in order to enable him to carry out his plans. -He took with him to Sweden a large sum of money, which was, so to speak, -the first instalment of the new subsidy. Moreover, Choiseul gave the -young King, on his return trip to Sweden, an experienced and sagacious -companion and adviser in the person of Count de Vergennes, who nominally -was to take charge of the French embassy at Stockholm, but who in -reality was to guide and assist Gustavus in his attempt to overthrow the -constitution of the monarchy and to restore the absolute _régime_ of -former days. The personality of Gustavus the Third was peculiarly fitted -for the _rôle_ which he was to play in the great drama of a political -revolution. He was young, enthusiastic, talented, eloquent, bold and -chivalrous; he was a poet of considerable ability, and his political -ideal was Louis the Fourteenth of France, whose majestic declaration: -“The state? I am the state!” struck a sympathetic chord in his heart. -Choiseul had found it an easy task to change the vague aspirations and -dreams in the young King’s mind into a fixed determination to put an end -to the oligarchic _régime_ of the nobility and to reëstablish absolute -monarchy in its pristine glory. The art of dissimulation, of which he -was a consummate master, and which he had practised with great success -as Crown Prince in order to throw his instructors, who were mere tools -of the Reichsrath, off their guard, served him admirably in perfecting -the initiatory steps, and finally, when the proper time had come, for -the successful execution of his _coup d’état_. - -When Gustavus arrived at Stockholm, he found the Swedish Reichstag (the -Diet) in session. It had recognized him, during his absence, as King, -but the members were busily engaged in the discussion of a new -constitution, which they insisted would be necessary for protecting the -rights of the nobility against the usurpation of the King. The rights of -the people and the prerogatives of the King were hardly thought of in -this discussion, and the people were disgusted with the whole -proceeding. So was the King, but he had shrewdness and self-control -enough not to interfere with the work of the Diet; and when, after a -hard-fought battle of eight months’ duration between the contending -factions of the “hats” and the “caps,” the new constitution was finally -completed and submitted to him for his signature, he readily signed it, -without reading it, explaining his extraordinary readiness with the -words “I have confidence enough in the patriotism and wisdom of the -Reichstag to believe that they all have worked for the welfare of the -state, and that my own rights were safe in their hands.” - -In order to make this rather strange indifference on his part appear -quite natural, he had lived most of the time at his country-seat, at -some distance from Stockholm, surrounded by a few literary friends and -writing comedies and poems, without paying the least attention to the -political work going on at the capital. He came but rarely to Stockholm, -but whenever he went, he took good care to insinuate himself into the -good graces of the people. His natural eloquence and the fact that he -was born in Sweden and spoke the Swedish language correctly, as well as -his pleasant and affable manners, made him immensely popular with the -common people, while at the same time his friends lost no opportunity to -incite the people, and also the soldiery, against the nobility, whom -they charged with having caused all the miseries from which the State, -and especially the rural population, were suffering. Poor crops and -great financial distress added to the popular dissatisfaction, and the -royalist party did not fail to attribute these public calamities to the -aristocracy’s injudicious administration; thus the people were -thoroughly aroused for the impending battle between King and nobility. - -In the Reichsrath the faction of the “caps” had succeeded in utterly -defeating the faction of the “hats,” and driving all their adherents out -of the public offices. The official slaughter and persecution of the -“hats” was carried on so recklessly and injudiciously by the “caps” that -even the Russian ambassador protested against their imprudence, which, -he was afraid, might lead to a revolution that would overthrow both -factions and place absolute power in the hands of the monarch. But the -“caps,” in the intoxication of their victory, were too blind to see the -danger; moreover, they felt absolutely safe because the King had sworn -to obey and uphold the constitution, and the constitution deprived him -of all power of action. Gustavus had so fully duped them that not even a -suspicion of foul play arose in their minds. With masterly dissimulation -and with marvellous strength of mind he waited in apparent indifference -until the proper moment for action had come. His friends, however, had -been very busy. They had won one hundred and fifty of the higher -officers of the Stockholm garrison over to the King’s cause, and this -acquisition placed practically the entire military power of the capital -under his orders. - -It had been arranged, however, that the first outbreak should not occur -at Stockholm, but in another city. In compliance with this programme -Captain Hellichius, a devoted friend of the King, and Commandant of the -garrison of Christianstadt, on the twelfth of August, 1772, issued a -manifesto, in which he fiercely denounced the pernicious administration -of the Reichsrath, and called upon the inhabitants of Sweden to shake -off the tyranny of the oligarchy which held both the King and the people -in bondage. It had also been arranged that Prince Charles, the King’s -brother, Commander of the troops in Scania, should immediately march, -with the army under his command, toward Christianstadt, ostensibly for -the purpose of suppressing the revolt, but really for the purpose of -swelling the ranks of the malcontents. When this news reached Stockholm, -some of the members of the Reichsrath suspected that the King was -implicated, but he feigned absolute ignorance of the matter, and -deceived his enemies so well that they left him alone. Prompt action on -their part, in arresting and guarding the person of the King, would very -likely have quelled the revolt at the very outset. But the King was so -powerless that he preferred to wait for news from Christianstadt -announcing the success of the movement before resorting to active -measures which might have caused the failure of the whole plan. - -Only when the Reichsrath ordered the troops of the whole country to be -concentrated at the capital, and also ordered Prince Charles to turn -over his command to a general who was strictly in sympathy with the -existing condition of things, the King thought the time for him to act -had come, and he hesitated no longer. It was the nineteenth of August, -1772, and Gustavus knew that that day was to decide not only the success -or failure of his intended _coup d’état_, but very likely also his life -or death, his honor or disgrace. In taking the offensive so promptly, -the King showed great personal bravery and courage, and made good his -claim to be a God-given leader of men. At an early hour he went to the -Assembly Room, where the Reichsrath was already in session. At a glance -he saw that the prevailing sentiment was hostile to him. No sooner had -he taken his seat than one of the members in a rather insolent tone -asked him whether he had not received a letter during the night from -Christianstadt, and on receiving an affirmative answer, demanded that -the King should communicate the letter to the Reichsrath. The King -refused to deliver the letter, stating that it was private, and -expressed indignation at the disrespectful request. A general murmur -arose among the members, and voices were heard saying that it might be -advisable to arrest the King. He hurriedly arose from his seat, and -placing his hand on the hilt of his sword, as if ready to kill the first -one who should stand in his way, he passed through the seats of the -Senators with head erect and haughty mien. - -None dared oppose him, and he proceeded directly to the armory, where -two regiments of the Royal Guard were drawn up in line under the command -of officers devoted to him. He addressed them in an eloquent speech, -promising to restore the kingdom to its previous proud position among -the nations and make the army again a source of honor to the Swedes and -of terror to its enemies, such as it had been in the great days of -Gustavus Adolphus. The officers and the men cheered him -enthusiastically, and declared they would follow him to death or -wherever he would lead them. Not only the soldiers in the city, but -thousands of armed citizens gathered around him shouting, “Down with the -nobility! Down with the Reichsrath! Long live the King!” He mounted his -horse and at the head of this enthusiastic army proceeded to the State -House, where the Reichsrath was still in session, devising means to -bring the King to terms. The troops were so placed as to make it -impossible for the members of the Reichsrath to leave the building. The -King, flushed with the excitement of victory, with his flashing sword -drawn, and surrounded by a few of the most popular officers and -citizens, rode through the streets, harangued the people on the public -squares, and carried them away by his eloquence and chivalrous -appearance. It was a personal triumph, which he relished to its fullest -extent, and which gave assurance of the complete success of his plans -for constitutional reform. - -The revolution which Gustavus the Third had inaugurated so boldly at -Stockholm proved a complete success. The common people flocked to him in -great numbers; the women and girls offered him flowers and bouquets, and -threw kisses to him; the men knelt down and, with tears of joy in their -eyes, kissed his boots or his hands, blessing him as the savior of his -country, and calling the blessings of Heaven down upon his head. -Surrounded by thousands of enthusiastic adherents, he rode to the City -Hall, where the municipal authorities were already assembled, and -received from them the assurance of their unconditional allegiance and -loyalty. The same ovation and enthusiastic demonstration greeted him at -the palace of the Board of Admiralty. Not a shot was fired, not a sword -was drawn, not a drop of human blood was shed to overcome opposition to -the royal plan of changing the government and to end the rule of the -nobility. Never before in history had a revolution been so quickly, so -successfully accomplished; never before had a government in the full -possession of all public powers been so suddenly and so successfully -overthrown as in this instance. The _coup d’état_ was a masterstroke of -public policy which gave Gustavus a wonderful prestige throughout -Europe. Even the English and Russian ambassadors, who were most -interested in the contemplated change of government, and who might have -raised obstacles to the King’s autocratic action, were disarmed entirely -by a courteous invitation to the royal palace, where they were -entertained in the most pleasant manner until the whole excitement was -over and Gustavus the Third in complete possession of the government. On -the day following, the war department and all the high state officials -made haste to swear obedience to the King. The citizens of the capital -were called together on the public square and the King addressed them -again, this time in the full splendor of triumphant royalty and -surrounded by all the high dignitaries of the kingdom, telling them, -amid their enthusiastic shouts and applause, that he considered it his -greatest glory to be the first citizen of a free nation. He then took -out of his pocket the new constitution prepared by him and read it to -them in his clear and melodious voice. Renewed shouts and boisterous -applause rewarded him when he had concluded. - -But the part most difficult for him remained to be done,--to get the -assent of the States. They were convened for the next day, August 21, -and in ordering them to appear, the King had added that any member not -appearing in his seat on that day would be treated as a traitor. During -the night preceding the meeting of the States a strong detachment of -soldiers and artillery was placed in a position commanding the State -House. When the King appeared and sat down on the throne his eye looked -upon a hall well filled. The most profound silence reigned when he got -up and read the constitution in a clear and firm voice. He supplemented -the reading with a very eloquent and patriotic speech, in which he -referred to the degradation and contempt to which the monarchy had been -reduced by the incapacity, venality and corruption of the government and -of the nobility. He painted this government and the disgrace it had -brought upon Sweden in the darkest colors, and then added, in a voice -trembling with emotion: “If there is any one among you who thinks that I -am misstating facts or exaggerating the disgraceful condition of our -public affairs, I challenge him to contradict me, and to state here in -the presence of all in what respect I have misrepresented the -administration of the Reichsrath. I vow to God Almighty that I shall -devote all my energy to the task of restoring the welfare of my beloved -country and the happiness of its inhabitants, and I know of no other way -to accomplish these results than by the change of the constitution as I -have read it to you.” Then turning to the members individually, he asked -whether they were in favor of sanctioning the proposed change. They all -answered in the affirmative and swore the oath of allegiance. Thereupon -the King drew from his pocket a hymn-book, and removing the crown from -his head, he began to sing the “Te Deum Laudamus,” in which they all -joined him. Gustavus had won again in the most perilous stage of the -dangerous game he was playing. - -The new constitution which had been adopted reinstated the King in all -those rights and prerogatives which his ancestors had possessed up to -the death of Charles the Twelfth. He was the commander of the army and -navy; the revenues of the state were to be under his exclusive care; he -disposed arbitrarily of all offices, civil and military; he alone had -the right to negotiate treaties and alliances; he had unlimited power to -conduct a war of defence, but for foreign wars he needed the consent of -the States; he alone had the right to convene the Congress, and the -Congress was not to transact other business than was submitted to it by -the crown; the Reichsrath was subordinate to the King; it became merely -an advisory board, and its decisions were not of binding force. It was a -constitution which the Emperor of Russia might have subscribed to. - -While Gustavus had, by his boldness and eloquence, secured the success -of his _coup d’état_ at Stockholm, his brothers travelled through the -different provinces, promulgated the new constitution, and were -everywhere welcomed enthusiastically. Gustavus himself made during the -winter months of the same year the traditional tour of the old kings -through the kingdom even to the farthest borders of Norway--the old -riksgata--and exactly in the same manner as the old kings had done--on -horseback. Wherever he went he was only escorted by the inhabitants of -the neighborhood, whom he delighted by his affability, his nobility of -soul and his eloquence. He seemed to have no enemies and needed no -soldiers to protect him. These were the golden days of his reign. The -two parties which had so bitterly fought for supremacy had been wiped -out by his victory. The “hats” and the “caps” were heard of no more, and -Sweden seemed to be in a fair way of entering upon a new era of -greatness and prosperity. - -Tempting as the task may be for the historian to go into the details of -the life of the extraordinary man who, endowed by nature with talents of -a high order, rose to the heights of human glory and then abruptly fell -by reason of his own folly, we must forego this pleasure and confine -ourselves to a rapid sketch of the events which led Gustavus the Third -slowly to the terrible tragedy of his assassination. It would seem -almost incredible that a prince so popular and so idolized by his people -as Gustavus was on the morning of his _coup d’état_ could in the course -of a few years so utterly lose the confidence of his people and forfeit -their love as to make the execution of the conspiracy against his life -even possible. But it must be admitted that this loss of popularity and -esteem was, in part at least, caused by grave faults of the King, which, -with reckless audacity, he committed again and again, while the general -loss of royal prestige and authority throughout Europe as a consequence -of the French Revolution of 1789 had also a great deal to do with it. - -During the first years after the _coup d’état_ general satisfaction -seemed to prevail throughout the country; the common people felt -relieved of many unnecessary burdens, while the nobility, who had been -so utterly routed, kept silent in the consciousness of their weakness. -Many measures of reform, calculated to promote the national prosperity, -were initiated by the personal agency of the King. The currency, which -was in a deplorable condition, was put on a sounder basis; many -benevolent institutions--hospitals, orphan asylums, poor-houses, -etc.--were established; the public highways were improved; large canals -connecting with the seacoast the mines of the kingdom (which were among -its most important industries) were constructed; trade and industry were -assisted according to the prevailing theories of those times; free -trade, both at home and with foreign countries, was established; -privileges and franchises which oppressed the people at large for the -benefit of the few were abolished; both the criminal and the civil code -of laws were revised and improved; strict impartiality in the -application of laws and in the punishment of criminals was insisted -upon; the torture, which up to that time had played an important part in -criminal trials, was done away with, and a more humane treatment of -convicts was introduced in prisons and penitentiaries. Gustavus was in -this respect a disciple of Montesquieu and Beccaria. His great ambition -was also to renew the ties of friendship and brotherhood between Finland -and Sweden, and in order to do so, he personally visited Finland, and -established there a number of valuable reforms which are gratefully -remembered by that unfortunate country to the present day. - -But highly commendable and worthy of admiration as the young King’s -action was in these and many other respects, the defects of his -character soon appeared, and gave his enemies an opportunity to -undermine his work and his popularity. He lacked steadiness and firmness -of purpose. He wanted to see and enjoy immediately the beneficent -results of his reforms. Many of them were therefore abandoned before -they had had time for full development; many very costly undertakings -were discontinued because the King had either changed his mind or was -tired of waiting. And then, he was extravagant in his personal expenses -and in arranging grand court entertainments fashioned on the brilliant -festivities of the French court at Versailles, which remained his model -in all matters of court etiquette and royal display. Like Frederick the -Great, to whom Gustavus the Third bears in many respects a striking -resemblance, although he lacked the great Prussian’s military genius and -wise frugality, he was fond of French literature and art, and made -strenuous efforts to give them a supreme place in the educational -institutions of the kingdom. The national genius of the Swedish people -and language were consequently relegated to a secondary place. To make -up for the unpopularity and protests which these efforts caused among -the people, he devised a national costume for all the inhabitants; but -in this attempt he failed entirely. The costume he had devised was -copied from an ancient Spanish one, and utterly unsuitable for a -northern country of short summers and severe winters. The King’s -ordinances introducing these Spanish garments were openly disobeyed and -laughed at. People began to look on him as a dreamer, and lost their -respect for him. - -But that which more than anything else hurt his popularity was the way -in which he treated the liquor question. The mass of the Swedish people -were strongly addicted to the excessive use of intoxicating liquors. The -vice had assumed such proportions that measures of reform were urgently -called for. But, with the usual impracticability of temperance -reformers, Gustavus managed the matter so unskilfully that, instead of -correcting the abuse, he made himself highly unpopular and aroused the -most stubborn resistance to his reform policy. He had issued an edict -prohibiting the manufacture and use of distilled liquors, but he found -it impossible to enforce the edict: the peasants and farmers, who had -been distilling their own whiskey, simply ignored it, while in a number -of cities where distilleries were maintained for the manufacture and -sale of the liquor, regular battles were fought between the police -trying to suppress them, and the inhabitants enraged at the attempt to -close them. Gustavus then repealed the edict and introduced a new -system, which he hoped would at once diminish the vice of drunkenness -and replenish his treasury, which was in a chronic state of exhaustion. -He made the right of manufacturing and selling alcoholic liquors a crown -monopoly, and established agencies for the sale of these liquors in all -large and small cities and towns of the kingdom. But the peasants were -not satisfied with this arrangement either. The whiskey they were to buy -at the agencies was much dearer than their own home-distilled beverage; -moreover, the towns and cities, at that time only thinly scattered over -Sweden, were often so remote from the farms, and the roads leading to -them were often in such an impassable condition that the purchase of -whiskey was a difficult matter for the rural population. The clandestine -and illicit manufacture of the beverage was carried on therefore as it -had been before. But the very name of the King became odious to the -people. They contemptuously called him “a crank, a visionary and a -poet.” Writing poetry, in which Gustavus excelled, was in their eyes a -symptom of folly and madness. - -The hostility of the nobles and their rebellious spirit, which had been -overawed and silenced for some years by the great personal popularity of -the King, reappeared and gained ground with the disaffection of the -people, and especially of the rural population. For a King like Gustavus -the Third, ambitious and high-spirited, military glory had a tempting -attraction, and he had commenced soon after his successful _coup d’état_ -to prepare for winning it. The army was in a really deplorable condition -at the time of his accession to the throne, being entirely without -artillery and deficient in equipment. Gustavus lost no time in remedying -these defects. He modelled the Swedish army after the Prussian army as -reorganized by Frederick the Great, which was then considered the finest -and best equipped in Europe, and within two years he had made it, with -its splendid personnel and its modern material, a formidable machine of -war, which, under the leadership of a military genius, might have -renewed the great days of Gustavus Adolphus or Charles the Twelfth. But -it was the ambition of Gustavus the Third to command the army himself, -and he was not a military genius. He declared war upon Russia, with the -intention of recovering the lost provinces of Finland, and proceeded to -Finland himself in order to take command of the invading army. - -It was there that the first misfortune overtook him. After a few -engagements,--rather skirmishes than battles,--in which the Swedes were -victorious, the King decided to invest or take by assault the small -fortress of Frederickshamm. It would have been better for him if he had -marched directly upon Petersburg, which was not in a condition to resist -an immediate attack of a superior army. If he had done so, very likely -the Esths, first cousins of the Finns, and anxious to shake off the yoke -of Russia, would have joined him and would have placed him in possession -of the Russian borderland; but Gustavus frittered away the time and by -his inactivity enabled the commanders of his own regiments (generally -appointed from the ranks of the high nobility) to organize a conspiracy -against him and virtually drive him from the field. Very likely bribed -with Russian gold, they jointly issued a manifesto that Gustavus had -violated the constitution of Sweden by declaring war upon Russia -without the consent of the Reichsrath, and they were therefore not bound -to obey him in this criminal undertaking. They also used their influence -on the other officers and on the soldiers of their regiments, and made -them rebellious against the King’s commands. In vain Gustavus implored -them not to abandon him and the cause of their country; but they were -deaf to his prayers and to his threats, and he left the army as a -humiliated and disgraced commander. - -Upon his return to Stockholm, he made a journey through Dalecarlia, the -province in which his ancestor Gustavus Vasa had found the followers who -raised him to the throne; he used his extraordinary eloquence so -successfully that the people again rallied round him. They swore to -stand by him in his struggle against Russia, and not to lay down arms -until a peace honorable to Sweden could be secured. Gustavus then -convened the Reichstag for the twenty-sixth of January, 1789, in order -to get authority to continue the war and restore his kingly -prerogatives, which by the revolt of the army had been so signally -impaired. The nobility at last openly threw off the mask; but they were -overpowered by the three other estates, who would rather strengthen the -King’s authority than return to their former condition of bondage under -the _régime_ of a corrupt and arrogant nobility. The Reichstag therefore -fully sustained the King’s action, taking the view that the offensive -war against Russia was really a war of defence. - -Sufficient appropriations were made to carry on the war to a successful -end, and thirty prominent members of the nobility were indicted for -treason and _lèse majesté_, and punished severely. At the same time an -important revision of the constitution was made in the interest of the -King, and, in spite of the violent protests of the nobility, his -prerogatives were largely extended. The Reichsrath was entirely -abolished, and the King authorized to declare war on other countries -whenever war was deemed advisable to protect the interests of the -country. He also obtained the absolute right to appoint all military and -civil officers, while formerly many of these appointments had to be -confirmed by the Reichsrath. After having thus secured the rights of the -crown at home, Gustavus departed again for the seat of war, with new -regiments and new commanders. Russia had also strengthened herself, and -what might at first have been an easy undertaking, and might have led to -a brilliant success, was now a very serious one, and one of very -uncertain chances of success. It soon became evident that the results of -the war would depend on the naval supremacy of either of the two powers, -and all efforts were therefore directed on both sides toward -strengthening their navies. - -Several big naval battles were fought, and in all of them the King, who -personally commanded his fleet, performed wonders of valor. The last of -these battles was that of Swenskasund on the ninth of July, 1790; and -the King, who fought with the bravery of despair because the fleet of -the Russians was considerably superior in numbers to his own, won a -brilliant victory. No less than fifty-nine Russian warships, carrying -altogether six hundred and forty-three guns, fell into the hands of the -Swedes. But even more than this great material success was the prestige -which Gustavus derived from the victory. He was tired of the war, and -he could now as a victorious hero offer terms of peace, honorable and -advantageous to his country, instead of humbly accepting terms from -Russia. On the fourteenth of August, 1790, a treaty of peace was -concluded by which, while Sweden did not receive any territorial -indemnity, she secured rights and trade privileges in the Baltic Sea -which Russia until then had denied her. The honors of the war were -therefore on Sweden’s side, and the King personally, for his -unquestioned heroism, was entitled to a liberal share of them. - -On the other hand, the results of the war were disastrous for the -country, and the King was by his enemies, the nobility (who were more -bitterly opposed to him than ever), held responsible for these -disasters. The heavy expenditures for the war had necessitated -extraordinary tax levies which were burdensome to the whole people, rich -as well as poor, and these could not be abolished immediately on the -termination of the war. The brilliant festivities, balls and -entertainments, which greeted the King on his return to his capital, -could not fully conceal the great distress and poverty of the people; -but with that levity which was a conspicuous feature of his character -and which gave him such a mental resemblance to Marie Antoinette, whom -he greatly admired, he tried to forget in the intoxication of incessant -amusements and pleasures the personal privations he had suffered during -the war and the sorrows and wants of the nation. That this conduct, -which he did not care to conceal from the public eye, irritated the -people and filled many of those who had been his admirers with disgust -and hatred may easily be imagined. But that by which he gave the -greatest blow to his popularity was his active and over-zealous -sympathy in the misfortunes of Louis the Sixteenth and his Queen, Marie -Antoinette, and his efforts to release them from captivity and save them -from death. - -Gustavus showed his lack of political sagacity in estranging the very -element upon which he had founded his autocratic power,--the great mass -of the people. Their devotion had made it possible for him, not only to -continue the war against Russia, but also to be more than a mere -figure-head in the government of his kingdom. The support of the -nobility he had lost beyond redemption. They hated him, and only hoped -for opportunities to humiliate him. All efforts on his part to reconcile -them failed. His true policy should have been to ingratiate himself -still more with the people, relieve their burdens, make the laws and -institutions more liberal, and carry out the promise he had made to -them, that he wanted to be clothed with supreme power in order to make -the nation more happy and the country more prosperous. But his character -did not permit him to pursue this policy dictated by common-sense. The -French Revolution had broken out, and the misfortunes of the French King -and Queen enlisted his profound sympathy. He watched the progress of the -revolution with eager interest, and when it became apparent that Louis -could not master it, he formed the adventurous and fantastic plan of -placing himself at the head of a large army, composed of contingents of -all the European powers, and restoring absolute monarchy in France, as -he had restored absolute monarchy in Sweden. In order to realize that -dream which corresponded so well to his visionary, chivalrous, poetical -temperament, he opened negotiations with Russia, Prussia, Austria, and -especially with the French _émigrés_. These men had assembled in Germany -and other countries waiting for an opportunity to return to France under -the standards of some friendly power coming to the rescue of Louis the -Sixteenth and monarchical institutions. Gustavus had tried his best to -assist the French King in his flight from Paris. It was a Swedish -carriage, with Swedish attendants, which was to convey Louis the -Sixteenth and the royal family beyond the borders of France, and which -was so abruptly stopped at Varennes. After this attempt at flight had -failed, Gustavus saw no other means of saving the monarchy--not only in -France, but throughout Europe--than by making war upon the Jacobins, -stamping out the Revolution in the blood of its adherents, and seating -Louis the Sixteenth in the full glory of absolutism once more on the -throne. The execution of this plan, he imagined, would immortalize him, -and would make him in effect the dictator of Europe. - -The Reichstag of Gefle, which was opened January 25, 1792, had already -greatly disappointed and incensed him, because it had unanimously -rejected his demand for an appropriation of ten million dollars which he -needed for his new undertaking. The utter disregard of his wishes and -the contempt with which his urgent appeals were ignored by the lower -order, which had so firmly stood by him in the Reichstag of 1789, showed -also his great unpopularity; and the nobility thought that the time had -come for striking a bold blow not only to get rid of him, but also to -reinstate themselves in power. As we have seen, the moment was very -opportune. The public debt was enormous; the distress was general; vague -rumors of another war, not against an enemy, but against the rights of -the people, were in the air. Then the conspiracy was formed. There were -five principal conspirators; and they all belonged to the highest -nobility. While some of them had personal grievances, not one of them -would have thought of raising his hand against the King, unless a much -more important object had been in view. These five were Ankarström, who -had already been among the rebellious officers in Finland, Count -Ribbing, Count Horn, Count Liliehorn and Baron Pechlin. - -The mainspring of the conspiracy was the hope of overthrowing the -autocratic system of government, and reinstating the nobility in all its -prerogatives. At first the conspirators did not want to resort to -murder, but they hoped to be able to abduct the King, compel him to -resign, and then to extort from his successor the recognition of those -rights and privileges of which Gustavus the Third had deprived them. -Having made two or three attempts in that direction, they changed their -plan, and concluded that the easiest and safest way to accomplish their -aim would be to assassinate the King. - -Ankarström volunteered to shoot the King at one of the popular masked -balls, which he was in the habit of visiting, and at which he freely -mingled with the other visitors. Twice he failed to recognize Gustavus. -But the last masquerade of the season at Stockholm was to come off on -Friday, March 16, 1792, and Ankarström resolved to make a last effort to -strike his victim. And he did, although Gustavus was warned that very -evening by one of the conspirators (Count Liliehorn) that it would be -dangerous for him to go to the ball, for an attempt would be made on his -life. The ball was to come off at the Grand Opera House, and an immense -crowd was expected. Four of the conspirators--Pechlin, Ankarström, Horn -and Ribbing--took supper together, and afterwards went to the theatre. -They wore black dominoes of a uniform pattern, to be able to recognize -each other easily. On the other hand, Gustavus had taken supper with one -of his closest friends, Count Essen, in a little private room arranged -for his use at the theatre itself. During this supper, at ten o’clock in -the evening, an anonymous letter was handed to him, written in French -and with a lead pencil. The author revealed the whole plot, which, as he -asserted, he had learned only during the afternoon. He implored the King -not to go to the ball, and to change his conduct and his policy if he -wanted to escape assassination. He confessed having opposed the King’s -autocratic measures and his _coup d’état_, which he considered illegal -and unconstitutional. But, being a man of honor, as he said, the very -idea of murder was horrid to him, and he therefore again implored the -King to keep away from the ball. This note came from Count Liliehorn. -Gustavus read it twice very attentively; but he did not say a word about -its contents. He quietly completed his supper and then, accompanied by -Count Essen, he proceeded to his box, where he was plainly to be seen by -all. It was then only that he showed the note to his companion, who also -implored him not to go on the floor among the dancers. Gustavus said he -would hereafter put on a coat of mail before going to such places of -amusement, but he insisted on going on the floor. They thereupon left -the box, put on light dominoes and descended to the floor, which was -crowded with a throng of brilliant, gay and grotesque masks. - -The King had taken Essen’s arm, and while passing through the stage -scenery said to him: “Now let us see whether they’ll dare attack me!” -Although he wore a face-mask, the dancers whispered to each other: -“There is the King!” Gustavus made the tour of the ball-room without -stopping; then he stepped into the green-room in order to rest a moment; -but on leaving, he found himself surrounded by a group of black -dominoes, one of whom (it was Count Horn) laid his hand on the King’s -shoulder, saying: “Good-evening, my beautiful masquerader!” These words -were the signal. At the same moment Ankarström fired a shot from his -pistol, which had been wrapped up in raw wool in order to weaken the -detonation, and the shot was heard by but a few persons. Gustavus -exclaimed in a loud voice: “I am wounded! Arrest the assassin!” At the -same time loud cries: “Fire! Fire! Leave the hall!” resounded from -different parts of the building, and a great confusion followed. In the -panic there was a general rush toward the doors, and all the -conspirators would have escaped, but for the presence of mind of Count -Armfeld, who ordered the doors to be closed, and assuring the tumultuous -crowd that there was no fire, but that a great crime had been committed, -ordered all the dancers and visitors to take off their masks. The -conspirators nevertheless managed to escape immediate discovery by their -very audacity, although they attracted attention and suspicion. As he -passed through the door, Ankarström with a haughty smile said to the -officer: “I hope you do not suspect me?” “On the contrary,” replied the -officer, “I am sure you are the assassin!” but before he could stop him, -Ankarström had passed out. He was, however, arrested the next morning, -and also Liliehorn, who had sent the anonymous note to the King. Counts -Horn and Ribbing were arrested a few days later, and Baron Pechlin some -time afterwards. - -Gustavus the Third was the only one who had kept his presence of mind -during the tremendous confusion. Essen, covered with the King’s blood, -had rather carried than conducted him first to one of the private boxes -and thence to a small adjoining parlor with a sofa, where he could lie -down. The King was the one who directed what measures were to be taken -in the grave situation. He ordered the gates of the city to be closed -and the Duke of Sodermanland to be sent for. As soon as the surgeons had -applied the necessary bandages, he was conveyed to the royal palace, and -issued, with perfect self-command, orders for the appointment of those -officials who during his illness should conduct the affairs of the -kingdom. The King himself ascribed the assault to the influence of the -Jacobins of Paris, and the murderers eagerly circulated this rumor, in -order to mislead public opinion. However, after Ankarström had been -arrested and made a confession, there could no longer be any doubt as to -the motives which were at the bottom of the conspiracy. Public opinion -took the cue immediately. - -From the very moment of the assassination the people of Stockholm seemed -to be delirious with grief. During the thirteen days of his agony all -the King’s mistakes and faults, which quite recently had been magnified -into crimes and atrocities, were forgotten; there was but one voice of -sympathy and affection for him and of condemnation for his assassins. -All the good and chivalrous qualities of Gustavus reappeared during the -illness preceding his death. When the public indignation threatened the -families of the conspirators, he immediately began to plead eloquently -for them and wished them to be protected. When delegations of the -municipalities of Stockholm and other cities were admitted to his -presence to assure him of the unfaltering loyalty of their cities to him -and the royal family, he shed tears of gratitude, and told them that -such proofs of loyalty were not too dearly purchased at the price of a -serious and possibly fatal wound. When old Count Brahe, one of the -leaders of the opposition in the Reichstag, knelt down at his bedside -and swore to him that he was a stranger to the conspiracy and condemned -it with horror, Gustavus raised him to his feet and embraced him, weak -as he was, and told him with tearful eyes that he blessed his wound, -because it had reconciled him with a friend so valued and noble-hearted. -When his brother showed him a list of all those who had been ferreted -out as accessories to the crime, he refused to look at it, and implored -his brother to destroy it so that no further bloodshed might result. -When some one in his presence swore bloody vengeance on the -conspirators, he interfered in their behalf, adding: “If Ankarström is -to die, then let there be mercy at least for the others! One victim is -enough!” At first it looked as though he would get well. His -conversation, fluent and logical, at times even brilliant and eloquent, -was taken as proof that his vitality had not been exhausted, and that -his excellent constitution would carry him safely through this terrible -ordeal. But late on the twelfth day after the assault, he grew worse, -and began to sink rapidly. The change came so suddenly that even the -physicians were surprised, and suspected foul play. But nothing has -ever come to light to give confirmation to that suspicion. - -Thus ended, most sadly and prematurely, one of the most brilliant -careers of the eighteenth century,--that of a man of splendid -attainments, who lacked perhaps depth, and certainly application, to -become one of the greatest men of his age and century; a man of noble, -chivalrous character, who had placed his ideals of human greatness -unfortunately in the splendid and brilliant outside of things instead of -their solid, substantial and imperishable worth. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -JEAN PAUL MARAT - -[Illustration: JEAN PAUL MARAT] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -ASSASSINATION OF JEAN PAUL MARAT - -(July 13, 1793) - - -IN the letter of farewell which Charlotte Corday, from her prison cell -as a doomed murderess, addressed to her father, she used the phrase (the -French words are a well-known verse from a famous tragedy): - - “’Tis not the scaffold, but the crime, that brings disgrace”; - -for she still adhered to the belief that in killing Marat she had not -committed a crime, but an act of patriotic devotion for which posterity -would honor her, and history would place her name among the benefactors -of mankind. In this belief she was more than half right, for in the long -list of political crimes and assassinations there is not one which has -been so willingly condoned by the world, so eloquently defended by -historians, so enthusiastically immortalized by poets, and so leniently -criticised even by moralists as that of Charlotte Corday. In her defence -the law of heredity has been invoked, for it has been maintained that -Charlotte Corday, who was a great-grandniece of the great Corneille, had -inherited those sublime patriotic and republican sentiments which the -great tragic poet so often and so eloquently expresses in his dramatic -poems. In fact everything has been done to surround her crime with the -halo of martyrdom, and to secure for her the glory of a national -heroine. - -It was in the middle of the year 1793. The French Revolution had reached -that turning-point when the Revolutionists had almost exhausted their -fury against the Royalists, and engaged in factional fights among -themselves, always ending in the execution of the members of the -vanquished party. The National Assembly--transformed into the National -Convention--was under the absolute control of the Jacobins, and Marat, -Danton and Robespierre were the absolute rulers of Paris and -consequently of France. The King had been guillotined, the Queen and the -other members of the royal family were imprisoned, and their execution -was only a question of time. An insane craving for blood seemed to have -taken possession of the men who were guiding the destinies of France. -Danton, by far the most gifted of these Jacobins, had forever sullied -his name as the author of the “September Massacres”; but far more odious -was Marat, “the friend of the people,” the blood-thirsty demon of the -Revolution, who quite seriously demanded, in the paper of which he was -the editor and publisher, that two hundred thousand persons should be -guillotined to purify the aristocratic atmosphere of France. - -The powerful party of the Girondists, who were distinguished by a -certain degree of moderation and had been a sort of counterpoise in the -Convention to the Jacobins, had not only been defeated, but had been -actually driven out of the Convention and been branded as traitors and -enemies to the Republic. With Marat, Robespierre and Danton in the -absolute and unrestrained possession of power, the destruction and -execution of the Girondists was therefore only a question of time,--of -months, weeks, perhaps only of days,--and most of them fled from Paris, -seeking refuge in those parts of France which were known to be strongly -attached to the moderate views of the defeated party. Normandy was one -of these provinces, and in its ancient towns and villages quite a number -of the proscribed leaders of the Girondist party--Buzot, Pétion, -Barbaroux, Louvet and others--appeared with the outspoken intention of -arousing the population and inducing them to march against Paris. There -had been great excitement before their arrival. The enemies of the -Terrorists were in a large majority, and had been active in organizing, -equipping, and drilling an army, and General Wimpfen, the commandant at -Cherbourg, was bold and imprudent enough to announce that he would march -upon Paris with an army of sixty thousand men. - -At that time there lived at Caen in Normandy a young girl of noble -descent, very beautiful and ingenious, but poor. Her name was Charlotte -Corday, or rather Marie Anna Charlotte Corday; she lived at Caen in the -house of her aunt, Madame de Bretteville. Charlotte was the daughter of -Monsieur de Corday d’Armans, and a great-grandniece of Pierre Corneille, -the greatest of the tragic poets of France. The statement that she was -the great-granddaughter of the poet is erroneous. She was the -great-granddaughter of Marie Corneille, the only sister of Pierre -Corneille, whose daughter married Adrian Corday, Baron of Cauvigny. This -lineage makes the claim of heredity for Charlotte’s sublime character, -which is so often insisted on, rather fanciful, especially since no -other members of the great poet’s family have manifested these -characteristics. Charlotte had a sister and two brothers, who had left -their father’s house after he married his second wife. Her two brothers -went to Germany to take service in the army of the Prince of Condé in -his campaign against the French Revolutionists. - -Charlotte had been placed in a convent at Caen when only twelve years of -age, and being naturally contemplative, the retirement and silence of -the convent made her even more so. She abandoned herself entirely to -those vague dreams and exaltations which so often fill the minds and -souls of young girls on the threshold of womanhood. Especially the -proud, exalted, grandiose heroines, whom her great-granduncle had -immortalized in his tragedies, Cinna, Horace, Polyeucte, Le Cid, made a -profound impression upon her, and she learned the most beautiful -passages by heart. Her very education seemed to prepare her for the -great historic _rôle_ which she was to play some ten or twelve years -later. At the age of seventeen or eighteen she left the convent and was -kindly received in the house of Madame de Bretteville. Her mind was -filled with the exalted sentiments of Corneille and Plutarch, whom she -read and reread with great delight. Her soul was restless at the sight -of the increasing agitation against the corruption of the aristocratic -classes and of the profound misery and degradation of the poor. The -house of Madame de Bretteville was one of those sombre, sad-looking, -narrow residences which are still found occasionally in the silent and -sleepy streets of old Norman towns, and well adapted to the stern and -dreamy character of Charlotte. In the rear of the house there was a -garden, surrounded by high walls, and this garden became the favorite -spot of Charlotte in her readings and studies. Her extraordinary beauty, -which consisted as much in the classical cast of her features, her -dazzling complexion, her magnificent eyes, as in the intellectual -expression of her countenance and her queenlike bearing, had fully -unfolded itself in the quietude of her home. - -Those who have found in books the greatest joys and pleasures of their -lives know what an immense enthusiasm, what an ardent and insatiable -curiosity fills the soul when circumstances permit them to explore the -vast field of human thought and inspiration and to dive into its -treasury. Madame de Bretteville’s library was well filled with -translations of the great classics of Greece and Rome, and also with the -works of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and other modern writers. These -became the favorite study of Charlotte. One of her greatest favorites -was Raynal, whose famous History of the two Indies had just appeared and -filled Europe with admiration. Very likely that which appealed so -strongly to Charlotte’s heart was the sympathy which the author felt for -the oppressed races, and especially for the black slaves. With untiring -zeal and passion she devoured everything in her aunt’s library,--novels, -history, philosophy,--and these studies finally led her to politics, -which engaged at that time the minds of the foremost writers of France -and became the favorite subject of public and private discussion. In -this way two parallel currents of ideas had formed themselves in -Charlotte’s mind,--on the one hand, a powerful desire for greater -liberty and the elevation of the oppressed and degraded; on the other -hand, a profound admiration for those who devote and sacrifice -themselves to the great cause of humanity, and a vague but ardent desire -to adorn her name with the halo of heroism and immortality. Left -entirely to the instincts and aspirations of her own nature, the young -royalist (for her entire family was strictly royalistic) had become a -republican, but a republican in the sense of Plutarch and Tacitus, -nourished by the sentiments of Corneille and Rousseau. Nothing in her -appearance indicated her enthusiastic and soul-devouring ambition to -make herself the deliverer of her country from the terrible calamities -which had recently befallen it. Her political studies had filled her, -republican though she was, with extreme disgust and hatred for the -Terrorists, and especially for Marat, who seemed to be their inspiring -genius. This was the general situation and also the personal frame of -mind of Charlotte Corday at the time the Girondists who had escaped from -Paris came to Caen to organize armed resistance to the terrorism of the -“Mountain.” - -Charlotte Corday had zealously followed the reports in the newspapers -she could get hold of concerning the situation at Paris, and her heart -beat warmly for the cause of the Girondists. Like all others in the city -she lived in, she believed that Marat was the secret spring that kept -the entire machinery of the Revolution in motion, that he was the head -and soul of the anarchists and murderers, that he was the centre of all -conspiracies, the originator of all crimes, and that, with him out of -the way, peace and liberty would soon regain the ascendency, and a -freer, nobler, greater France would arise from the ruins. With such -convictions in her mind she attended the meetings of the Girondists, -where appeals were made to the citizens of Caen and all Normandy to -enroll themselves in the service of their country, of liberty, of -humanity, against the tyrants at Paris. The impression which these -meetings made upon her soul can hardly be described. For the first time -she saw and heard the men she had read so much about, and whose -patriotic utterances had so often found a loud echo in her own heart; -they were there, young, beautiful, enthusiastic, made doubly interesting -by the ban of proscription which had exiled them from Paris; they were -there with their inspiring eloquence and patriotic appeals, and in the -tumultuous audience there was no one more fully enchanted and carried -away than the young girl, the disciple of Plutarch and Rousseau. The -words: “Country!” “Duty!” “Public Welfare!” repeated again and again by -the orators, were deeply engraved upon her impressionable heart. An -extraordinary exaltation took possession of Charlotte’s soul; she -aspired to a part as grand as that of these orators; she longed for a -chance to devote herself to the holy cause of liberty and to suffer for -it. - -These projects and aspirations remained mere vague dreams, until an -event occurred which gave them definite shape. On the seventh of July -the volunteers who were to march on Paris assembled on a large plain in -the immediate vicinity of Caen. The plain was large enough to hold one -hundred thousand men; but only thirty volunteers appeared. General -disappointment was visible among the spectators; but no one was more -deeply affected than Charlotte Corday, who was also present. It seems -that from that very sorrow there sprang up within her mind a project -both heroic and terrible,--to assassinate Marat, whose words had been -most influential in expelling and proscribing the Girondists. To -Charlotte’s mind the cause of the Girondists was identical with that of -liberty, country, and justice. And how often in the past had a pure and -blameless life sacrificed for a great cause appeased the wrath of -Destiny! She went home and requested an interview with the Girondist -deputies. - -Charlotte Corday was then twenty-four years old, but looked much -younger. She was tall, and of beautiful proportions; her complexion was -of dazzling whiteness, her hair was blond, her luminous eyes of charming -sweetness, her nose finely cut, and her chin indicated firmness and -determination. Her face was a perfect oval, and the total impression was -that of perfect beauty. Both her smile and her voice were of angelic -sweetness. Charlotte made a profound impression upon the deputies; but -they were not inclined to take her seriously. One day Pétion came in -while she was in conversation with Barbaroux. “Ah, ah,” said he, “there -is the beautiful young aristocrat paying a visit to the Republicans.” -“You judge me wrongly,” she replied, “but some day you will know who I -am.” - -The question has often been asked whether the Girondists put the dagger -in Charlotte Corday’s hand to assassinate Marat. The enemies of the -Girondists persistently asserted this, but there is no evidence to that -effect. Possibly in her two conversations with Barbaroux her -determination to assassinate Marat, and not Danton or Robespierre, -became confirmed by the intensity of hatred and contempt manifested for -him by the famous Girondist leader. At all events, after these -interviews she made her preparations to go to Paris with great -circumspection, and great tranquillity of mind. A little dressing-case, -a night-gown and a volume of Plutarch’s Lives, with some money, was all -her baggage. But before going to Paris she proceeded to Argentan to bid -her family farewell. Her father and her sister were living there, and -she told them that she intended to go to England, and would remain there -until the storm of the Revolution had blown over. She bade them farewell -without showing an excess of emotion, but also without faintness, and -then departed for Paris in the public stage-coach. - - * * * * * - -During the journey, which at that period lasted two days, she appeared -serene and happy; no preoccupation seemed to disturb the tranquillity of -her mind. Her fellow-travellers all fell in love with her and treated -her with distinguished courtesy. One of them offered to marry her. -Charlotte smiled, but refused politely. Moreover they were all radical -revolutionists, and swore by Danton, Robespierre and Marat. - -At Caen nobody had any idea of her plan. She had told her aunt she would -go to Argentan and thence to England. She had always concealed her -political views so carefully that nobody could have suspected her. - -She arrived at Paris on the forenoon of the eleventh of July, and put up -at the Providence Hotel. Tired out by the long and tedious journey, she -went to bed early in the afternoon and slept well till the next morning. -No conscientious scruples disturbed her. Her mind was fully made up, and -she did not for a minute hesitate to execute her project. The next -morning she went to the Palais Royal, purchased a strong and sharp steel -knife, and carefully hid it in her bosom. She then asked herself when -and where she was to use her weapon. She would have preferred to give -her act a certain solemnity. At Caen, while brooding over her purpose, -she had conceived the plan to assassinate Marat on the Champ de Mars, on -the fourteenth of July, during the celebration of the anniversary of the -destruction of the Bastile and the overthrow of the monarchy. She hoped -to slay this king of anarchy, surrounded as he would then be by -thousands of his murderous followers; but when the celebration was -postponed, she planned to assassinate him at one of the sessions of the -Convention, the scene of his crimes and proscriptions. When she learned -that Marat was ill and did not attend the sessions of the Convention, -there seemed no way left for her except to go to his residence and meet -him there. She addressed a letter to him asking for a private interview. -The letter remained unanswered. She sent a second letter, more urgent -than the first, in which she requested an immediate interview for the -purpose of communicating to him a secret of great importance. Moreover -she represented herself as unhappy, as a victim of political persecution -and appealed to his protection. After this appeal she hoped to be -admitted. - -At about seven o’clock in the evening of July 13 she left her hotel, -took a cab and proceeded to the residence of Marat, a dismal old -building, No. 20 in the Rue des Cordeliers. There Marat lived, and there -also he had the office and the press and composing-rooms of his -newspaper, “The Friend of the People.” Marat’s living apartments, which -were furnished with a certain elegance strangely contrasting with the -general appearance of the building, were situated on the second floor -and were shared by his mistress, or rather his wife, who loved him -passionately, and who watched over him with the fidelity of a dog. -Knowing the great peril to which the idol of her heart might be exposed -from foreign visitors, she subjected each of them, before admitting him, -to a careful scrutiny and painstaking examination. - -When Charlotte Corday had ascended the stairway leading to Marat’s -office, she suddenly found herself in the presence of Catherine -Evrard--she continued to call herself by that name, although afterwards -it appeared that she had been married to Marat. Catherine was surprised -at the strange visitor, who, with a firm and melodious voice, inquired -for the citizen Marat and desired to see him. With great attention -Catherine scanned the young woman, who was dressed with great modesty -and looked like a lady from the provinces, and demanded the object of -her visit, and as Charlotte either refused to give her that information -or failed to impress her favorably, she declined to admit her to Marat’s -room, who, she said, was just taking a bath and could not be seen. At -this moment Marat’s voice was heard from a room whose door was not -tightly closed, and he told Catherine to admit the young stranger. He -thought it was the young woman who had written to him, and who had -announced her visit for that evening. Thus invited, Charlotte entered -the room, much against the wish of Catherine. It was a small and dark -room. A bath-tub stood in the centre, and Marat was taking a bath, -covered up to the neck, except his right arm and shoulder, for he was in -the act of writing an editorial for his newspaper. A board had been -placed across the tub, and in this way a table had been formed to hold -his manuscript. As she stepped up to him he began to ask her concerning -the important news from Normandy she had promised in her letter. He also -inquired about the Girondists who had gone there, and wanted to know -what they were doing. She told him. “It is all right,” he said, while -marking down their names. “Within a week they will all be guillotined.” -If anything had been needed to confirm her resolution and to stir her up -to speedy action, it was this announcement. She quickly drew the dagger -from her bosom and plunged it into Marat’s breast up to the handle. This -thrust, aimed from above, and executed with wonderful force and -firmness, pierced the lungs, and severed the main arteries, from which a -stream of blood rushed forth. - -“Ah, this to me, my dear friend?” exclaimed the wounded man. It was all -he could say. A moment later he was dead. - -The assassination of Marat created a rage, a frenzy among the lowest -classes of the population of Paris which it is impossible to describe. -That the courageous young woman who had slain the demon of blood was not -torn to pieces is a wonder. Charlotte, in thinking of the fate which -might befall her after her task was performed, had not forgotten the -possibility or even probability of falling a victim to the fury of the -people, but even this terrible prospect did not deter her. She received -what may be called a fair trial and she had the benefit of an official -defender. Since she did not deny the act of assassination and readily -admitted that it was an act of premeditation and careful preparation, -any painstaking investigation might have been deemed unnecessary but -for the hope which the Terrorists entertained, of connecting the -Girondist party, and especially the Girondists assembled at Caen, with -her crime,--a hope in which they were utterly disappointed. She was -therefore arraigned before the Revolutionary Tribunal and subjected to a -rigorous examination as to her accomplices. - -“Who filled your mind with so much hatred for Marat?” asked the judge. - -“I did not need the hatred of others,” she replied; “my own was -sufficient.” - -“But somebody must have instigated you to commit this deed?” - -“We do but poorly what others tell us to do.” - -“What did you hate him for?” - -“For the enormity of his crimes.” - -“What do you mean by his crimes?” - -“His crimes against France and humanity.” - -“Why did you kill him?” - -“In order to give back peace to my country.” - -“Do you believe you have killed all the Marats of France?” - -“His death may frighten the others.” - -“Do you regret and repent your deed?” - -“I rejoice that it was successful.” - -Only once during this trial her heart failed her. It was when Catherine -Evrard, Marat’s mistress, took the stand to testify against her, and in -a voice choked with tears told the story of her visit to Marat’s house. -Looking at the woman who through her deed had lost him whom she loved, -the tears burst from her own eyes, and she exclaimed: “No more! No more! -I implore you. It is I who killed him; I do not deny it!” - -Again she was deeply moved when the dagger with which she killed Marat -was presented to her. “Do you recognize this instrument?” She turned -away her face and exclaimed: “I do! I do!” The public prosecutor called -attention to the fact that she had plunged the dagger into the breast of -her victim from above, that it was a difficult thrust, and that she must -have practised it before she acquired so much skill. - -She listened attentively to what he said, and exclaimed with unfeigned -indignation, “Shame! Shame! The wretch wants to brand me as an -assassin!” - -Her words caused a sensation. The audience and even the judges were -struck with admiration, so much energy and patriotic devotion were -expressed in her answers. She stood before them like an antique heroine, -not trembling for her life, but provoking death and inviting it by her -justification of the crime she had committed to save her country. The -trial resulted in her conviction. She received her sentence of death -without showing any emotion; was it not the crown of immortality to -which she had aspired? Her official defender, Chauveau Lagarde,--the -same who three months later so nobly defended Marie Antoinette,--might -have saved her by pleading insanity, but he comprehended her nobility of -soul and would not offend her by such a plea. “She refuses to be -defended,” he said; “she pleads guilty and is beyond the fear of death!” -After the death sentence had been pronounced, she stepped up to her -defender, and with a smile of angelic sweetness thanked him for his -noble-minded, graceful and kind defence. “You understood me,” she said, -“and your esteem consoles me for the contempt of the ignorant masses.” - -One thing remarkable about this trial was the respect, not to say the -admiration, with which this young woman, who had killed their idol, was -looked upon by the spectators. They seemed to feel instinctively that a -divine inspiration, a heaven-born principle of humanity and patriotism, -had prompted her to commit an act which human law condemned and -punished, but which posterity would forgive, if not glorify. - -From the very hour of her conviction, she became a national heroine. The -wild Maratists clamored against her, but there were thousands and -thousands even among the Revolutionists who sympathized with her and -admired her. Brutus ceased to be the patron saint of patriotic -assassins; his place in the hearts of enemies of tyranny and despotism -was taken by the young girl who had so heroically thrown life and beauty -away to redeem her country. Poets and authors immediately celebrated her -in song and prose; it may be said that her immortality commenced even -before her beautiful head fell under the knife of the guillotine. She -died on the evening of the nineteenth of July. - -When she was taken to the place of execution in the costume of the -condemned victims--a scarlet shirt--the sun was setting. His last rays -sent a farewell greeting to the young heroine, who seemed to be bathed -in a halo of glory, as she ascended the steps of the scaffold with firm -step and serene countenance. A shudder passed through the multitude as -her head fell into the basket. - -She was not insane; she was an exalted, enthusiastic dreamer, who looked -upon her crime as an act of justice demanded by the necessities of the -times,--an act inspired by a higher Power which had guided her in her -design and helped her in its execution. Thinking of Jeanne d’Arc, who -had saved France and immortalized herself by her self-sacrificing -devotion, she felt convinced that God often chooses woman as his -instrument for interposition in the history of nations. If she deceived -herself in the nature of the act by which she hoped to restore the -happiness of France and to terminate the era of bloody hecatombs -sacrificed to the fury of sanguinary monsters, is it the duty of the -historian to judge her severely? Should he not rather, while pointing -out the error of her judgment, be willing to bestow on her the -laurel-wreath of a patriotic heroine, which has been accorded to her by -poets, by her grateful countrymen, and by the whole world? - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -PAUL THE FIRST OF RUSSIA - -[Illustration: PAUL I.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -ASSASSINATION OF PAUL THE FIRST OF RUSSIA - -(March 24, 1801) - - -Those who have followed the preceding chapters will remember that -Catherine the Second of Russia got possession of the throne by the -murder of her husband, fortified that possession by the murder of -another Czar imprisoned in the fortress of Schlüsselburg (the -weak-minded Ivan the Sixth), and finally, haunted by the constant fear -of being dethroned by some new pretender, sacrificed all those whose -claims might become dangerous to her security. History, which is filled -with the crimes of remorseless rulers, furnishes, however, abundant -proof that such crimes, although successful at first, are frequently -visited upon their authors or their authors’ children, and that blood -cruelly and unjustly shed will blossom forth in a new crop of crime and -bloodshed. It was so in the case of the murders committed by Catherine -the Second; and while she, very likely, personally suffered from a -mental agony which made her life on the throne miserable in the extreme, -it was her son who finally paid the penalty. - -The life of this unfortunate son had been full of disappointment and -sorrow, almost from the moment of his birth. Born as the son of Peter -the Third, he was almost openly repudiated by his reputed father as a -bastard. Quite often Peter the Third had declared in the presence of -gentlemen and ladies of the court that the little Grand-Duke Paul was -not his son, but either Alexis or Gregor Orloff’s, and that he had no -right to the succession. Catherine, however, insisted that Paul was -Peter’s son, and as the boy grew up, his many peculiarities of mind -showed such a remarkable similarity to those of Peter the Third, that -the legitimacy of his birth could hardly be doubted. It was really the -manifestation of these peculiarities that filled the mind of the mother -with that insuperable aversion, not to say hatred, for the son, which -would have been incomprehensible but for the remorseful recollections -which the traits of the father necessarily awakened in her mind. The boy -could not fail to notice this aversion and hostility on the part of his -mother, especially since the courtiers, modelling their conduct toward -him on the sentiments of the Czarina, treated him with the same coldness -and contempt. His whole education was carefully arranged on a -premeditated plan to keep him as much as possible in ignorance of those -very things which might be useful to him as a ruler, while his character -was rendered distrustful and suspicious to such a degree that he became -a misanthropist of the blackest hue. Not a day passed but he discovered -espionage, treachery, ingratitude and intentional hostility among those -whom the Empress had placed near his person as his tutors, teachers and -confidants. They shamelessly deceived him, betrayed him, and lied about -him. They cautiously instilled into his mind the story of the -assassination of his father and of his mother’s knowledge of the crime, -and when the young man, horror-struck at this disclosure, clenched his -fists and gnashed his teeth, they reported to their imperial mistress -that the young Grand Duke had manifested dangerous symptoms of -impatience and independence, which would require even greater care and -watchfulness on the part of his tutors and a more severe isolation of -the young prince. Their only intention was, of course, to show their -indefatigable zeal in the task entrusted to them and to make themselves -absolutely indispensable to their imperial employer or her favorites; -but the effect on his mind was most disastrous. Burdened with the -suspicion that his own mother was a murderess, and with the evidence -afforded by thousands of little occurrences of her hatred toward -himself, and of the treachery of his attendants, in constant fear of -impending assassination,--is it not almost wonderful that his mind, not -naturally strong, did not absolutely give way? - -When Paul had grown up to manhood, he was married to a lovely young -German princess; but since his mother had selected this wife for him, he -regarded her with constant suspicion. She died without having succeeded -in overcoming his distrust. A second marriage, which he was compelled to -contract, had no happier results, although his wife bore him four sons. -By special order of the Empress these sons were taken away from him and -educated under the special supervision of Catherine herself, while Paul -was ordered to proceed to Gatschina, a country-seat near St. Petersburg, -where he amused himself with drilling a battalion of soldiers and -arranging sham battles, just as Peter the Third, his father, had done -before his elevation to the throne. But rarely was he permitted to -receive his children, and when they came to see him, he was always -afraid that some secret danger might surprise him. - -In this manner thirty-five years had elapsed since the death of Peter -the Third. During these thirty-five years the name of Peter had hardly -ever been heard at the court, or at least not in the presence of the -Empress. Then Catherine herself falls a prey to the grim destroyer; and -Paul inherits the crown. His mother’s body is laid out in state on a -catafalque, by whose side stands another coffin, magnificently -ornamented and with an imperial crown on its top. It is the coffin of -Peter the Third, whose remains had been deposited in a vault of the -Alexander Nevski Monastery. It was one of Paul’s first official acts to -proceed to this convent, to open the vault and the coffin containing his -father’s mortal remains. One of the gloves of Peter the Third was still -well preserved. Paul took it out of the coffin, knelt down in the -presence of the whole court and reverently kissed it. Then he ordered -the coffin to be carried to the imperial palace where the body of his -mother lay in state, and an imperial crown to be placed on it. It was, -perhaps, the most unique coronation which ever took place in history. -But Paul wanted not only to honor his father’s memory; he wanted also to -punish and to hand over to public contempt his murderer. He therefore -ordered Alexis Orloff, who had planned the assassination of Peter the -Third, to act as chief mourner at the funeral. Orloff obeyed: but -immediately after the obsequies, during which he was the target of the -contemptuous eyes of the whole people, he was thrown into a kibitka and -sent into exile. Such was the opening of Paul’s reign. - -In his physical make-up Paul bore not the slightest resemblance to -Peter the Third, and this circumstance seemed to give confirmation to -the circulating rumors that he was not Peter’s son. But if, as a great -historian has pointed out, Catherine’s intense hatred of her son could -have left any doubt in that respect, Paul’s personal acts of government, -almost from the very first day after the funeral of his mother, -absolutely removed it. For, intellectually and morally, never a son bore -a greater resemblance to his father than Paul the First did to Peter the -Third. Paul had good qualities, and with proper education and -assistance, he would very likely have made a good ruler; but without -both, his well-meant but ill-timed plans of reform failed to do the -people any good, while they created untold enemies for him. Exactly like -Peter the Third, he had prepared a number of plans of reform, which he -immediately promulgated without consulting with any one about their -opportuneness or advisability. Like Peter’s reform plans, Paul’s turned -mostly on trivialities,--on the style of hats or coats or military -uniforms,--and by strenuously trying to enforce these edicts he made -himself odious. He hated anything that might remind him of the French -Revolution, and would not permit a Frenchman to enter the Russian Empire -without a passport signed by one of the French Bourbon princes (then -living in exile); like his father he idolized the Prussians and wanted -Prussian military regulations, uniforms and equipment introduced into -the Russian army; in these efforts he was strongly opposed by the -Russian officers and soldiers. They made fun of the imperial ordinances -and (admitting then that he was Peter’s son) said that he had inherited -Peter’s Prussomania and insanity. Citizens and peasants were equally -indignant at Paul’s arbitrary interference with their personal rights -and liberties. He also tried to introduce church reforms, which -irritated the clergy and caused angry protests throughout the Empire. In -attempting to introduce these “reforms” he sometimes manifested symptoms -of real insanity. He declared war upon round hats, which he considered -revolutionary and hostile to the government. He carried this war to such -an extent that he ordered the police and even the soldiery to confiscate -the obnoxious hats and arrest the owners, even while the latter were -promenading in the streets, and without any regard to the weather. In -this manner it was not long before he had estranged the good feelings of -the aristocracy, the army, the clergy and the people at large. They -began to regard him as a trifler and maniac, who was imbued with an -excessive idea of his own authority, who defied national sentiment and -prejudice, and who would not counsel with anybody because he distrusted -everybody. - -In his foreign policy he was selfish and vacillating. He subordinated -the national interests of Russia entirely to his own personal whims and -prejudices. He formed alliances and cancelled them without cause, and -thus made enemies of all foreign powers. The most prominent statesmen -and generals became convinced that Russia, which under Catherine’s rule -had won a commanding position among the powers of Europe, would lose all -prestige if forced into a state of political isolation by the foolish -policy of Paul the First. - -Plots and conspiracies were formed, of which the most prominent court -officials in immediate attendance on the Emperor became members. Some of -these men he hated because they had been favorites and counsellors of -his mother; others he had in his sudden fits of passion abused and -insulted. Most prominent among these were Count Pahlen, the brothers -Zubow, and Count Talizin, commander of the Imperial Guards. They added -their personal grievances to the public dissatisfaction, and joined -hands in bringing about Paul’s dethronement. They commenced working on -the Grand Dukes, Paul’s sons, and especially upon the oldest of them, -Alexander, whom Count Pahlen convinced that the Emperor held in -readiness an order for the arrest of the Grand Dukes, with the exception -of Nicholas, his third son, whom he had designated for the succession to -the crown. Alexander was of a sentimental turn of mind. For a while he -resisted the tempting offers of the conspirators, but when the reports -of his impending arrest and transfer to Schlüsselburg were confirmed by -others, he finally consented to the arrest of the Emperor and to the -demand for his forced abdication. This he did with tears and -heart-rending supplications not to harm his father and to treat him with -becoming respect. Having received this consent, the conspirators -proceeded to work with great promptness and energy. The time was -propitious for the immediate execution of their conspiracy; for they -knew very well that what originally had been planned only as -dethronement by abdication might easily lead to the assassination of the -Czar, and they had taken precautions and measures tending towards such a -result. - -It was during the Masnaliza, the Russian Carnival, that the conspirators -resolved to carry their plot into execution. The whole population was in -a state of frenzy, drunkenness, and wild excesses. The conspirators -knew that during these days they could meet and make all necessary -arrangements without attracting the least attention. Paul the First -resided in the palace of St. Michael, which he claimed to have built on -a direct order of St. Michael himself. He had entirely isolated himself; -his most faithful servant, Count Rostopchin, and his wife, whom he had -really loved, had been banished from his apartments. It was this -Rostopchin who twelve years afterwards burned the city of Moscow. He -distrusted them as well as all others. His only confidante (and, as is -asserted, his mistress at the same time) was an ugly old cook, who -prepared his meals in a kitchen adjoining his bedroom, that he might be -secure against poison. The Empress Maria, distinguished by the -gentleness and tenderness of her sentiments, who had given him -innumerable proofs of her affection and devotion, was in his eyes a -traitress who he supposed was plotting with his enemies against his -life. He had therefore ordered the doors leading from his own apartments -to hers to be walled up. - -The assassination itself presents some points of resemblance to that of -Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland. On the evening of March 23, 1801, -General Talizin, chief of the Imperial Guards, gave a brilliant party, -to which only gentlemen of great intrepidity and resoluteness, all of -whom were known to be personal enemies of the Emperor, had been invited. -When the guests were heated with wine and in a condition of -semi-intoxication, Count Pahlen entered the _salon_ in which the guests -were assembled; he referred in a few impressive words to the despotism -and tyranny of the Emperor, to the widespread spirit of rebellion, to -the dissatisfaction prevailing among officers, people, and clergy, to -the public disorders and disturbances breaking out on all sides, and -closed his inflammatory harangue by appealing to his hearers to make an -end of these intolerable conditions. He knew his speech would be -enthusiastically received, and for several minutes there was perfect -bedlam among the guests. Some of them hurled chairs above their heads, -others grasped their knives or swords, and swore that they would kill -the insane fool who had already too long disgraced the imperial throne. - -The plan according to which the conspirators proceeded had been -carefully projected. Pahlen, who was Governor-General of St. Petersburg, -left the palace in the general confusion, but returned soon with a -detachment of cavalry and guarded the one side of the Winter Palace. -Talizin marched up from the other side with a regiment of grenadiers. -When these soldiers marched through the botanical garden of the palace, -their loud and heavy steps frightened away many thousand crows, which -were sleeping upon the high lime-trees of the garden. The loud croaking -of this immense army of black birds ought to have aroused Paul from his -sleep and warned him of his impending danger. But he slept on. - -After the palace was fully surrounded, the conspirators crossed the -ditch on the ice. A battalion of soldiers, who were not in the secret, -and who were on guard on the outposts, offered some resistance, but were -easily overpowered and disarmed. Not a shot had been fired. After having -passed the gates of the palace, the conspirators were joined by Colonel -Marin, the Commandant of the palace, who conducted the riotous throng, -among whom were hardly any sober persons, over winding-stairs up to the -door of the Emperor’s bedroom. On the threshold of the door the guard -was asleep, and when aroused and trying to resist, was very rudely -handled and barely escaped alive. He ran down the stairs and called the -guards to arms. They demanded to be taken to the Emperor’s rooms, but -Marin interfered. He made them present arms, and in this position no -Russian soldier dares move a limb or speak a word. - -The crowd entered the bedroom. Prince Zubow and General Benningsen--the -latter a Hanoverian by birth, but of great authority in the army on -account of his energy and reckless audacity--stepped up to the bed of -the Czar, brandishing their swords. “Sire,” said Benningsen, “you are my -prisoner!” The Emperor stared at them in speechless surprise. “Sire,” -continued Benningsen, “it is a question of life or death for you! Yield -to circumstances and sign this act of abdication!” The room was becoming -filled up with drunken conspirators, all of whom wanted to see what was -going on, and tried to get in. In a moment of confusion caused by this -pushing and crowding in, which others tried to prevent, the Emperor -sprang from his bed and took refuge behind the screen of a stove, where -he staggered over some obstacle and fell to the ground. “Sire,” -exclaimed Benningsen once more, “submit to the inevitable! Your life is -at stake!” At this moment a new noise was heard from the anteroom, and -Benningsen, who so far had been the only protector of Paul’s life, -turned to the door, to see whether the new-comers were friends or -enemies. Paul was, for the moment, alone with his assailants. His -courage returned. He ran up to a table upon which lay several pistols. -He reached for them, but some of the conspirators had watched the -motion of his hand; one of them almost severed it from his arm by a -stroke of his sword. Agonized with pain the Czar rushed upon his -enemies. A short struggle, a heavy fall, and it was all over. - -The murder of Peter the Third was brought about by the use of a napkin; -his son, Paul the First, was strangled with an officer’s sash. There is -another point of resemblance in the assassination of the two Czars, -father and son. Alexis Orloff and Nicholas Zubow, the murderers of the -two Czars, had both taken dinner with their victims on the day of the -murder. - -When the death of their father was reported to the Grand Dukes, -Alexander especially, the heir to the crown, was almost overcome with -emotion and terror. The details of the murder were carefully concealed -from him; on the contrary, he was made to believe that a fit of apoplexy -brought on by the excitement of the scene had caused the Czar’s death. -After much lamentation he was finally persuaded to address a -proclamation to the Russian people in which apoplexy was given as the -cause of the sudden and unexpected death of Czar Paul the First during -the night of the twenty-third of March. Quite early next day this -proclamation was promulgated throughout the city of Petersburg by -military heralds. But the people were not deceived by these official -lies. Everybody knew in what manner Paul the First had died. The news of -the murder in all its details had spread with lightning-like rapidity -through the streets and alleys to the remotest corners of the city. - -The conspirators, far from denying their guilt, boasted of the crime as -of an act of heroism and patriotism. Many officers who were at the time -miles away from the palace of St. Michael claimed to have been witnesses -of the tragedy and to have lent a helping hand in slaying “the tyrant.” -It is recorded that Count Münster, the Prussian ambassador at the court -of St. Petersburg, a short time after Paul’s assassination, spoke with -horror and indignation of the catastrophe at a dinner party at which a -number of the most prominent army officers and state officials were -present; one of these officers quite unconcernedly defended the crime, -saying: “Count, you should not blame us for defending ourselves! Our -Magna Charta is tyranny, or if you prefer to call it so, absolutism, -tempered by assassination, and our rulers should regulate their conduct -accordingly!” And this state of affairs has existed in Russia to the -present day. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE - -[Illustration: AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE] - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -ASSASSINATION OF AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE - -(March 23, 1819) - - -After the downfall of Napoleon the monarchs of Europe had a very -difficult task to perform. Not only were the domestic institutions of -their states, which had been overthrown by the French conquest and in -many cases altered by French decrees, to be regulated anew or reinstated -on a firm footing, but the relations between governments and subjects -were to be reorganized on a new basis, in conformity with the liberal -principles which had spread from France and been adopted readily by the -intelligent and educated classes in Germany. Solemn promises had been -made by the German princes to their peoples in order to enlist their -sympathies in their final efforts against Napoleon, and after the -Corsican had been dethroned, they were expected to carry out these -promises. Especially was this true of Prussia and the smaller German -states, whose inhabitants had been promised a system of representative -government and a constitution limiting the powers of the executive. Such -promises were very inconvenient to some of these governments, and they -were rather inclined to forget and abandon them than to carry them out -in good faith. Moreover Russia and Austria, the representatives of -autocratic power in Europe, exerted their influence on the German -governments in a direction opposite to the popular aspirations, and -encouraged them to ignore their pledges given under the stress of -invasion. It should be remembered that the Holy Alliance, of which -Metternich was the inspiring genius, had been formed not only against -Napoleon, but also against the freedom and the popular rights of the -nations of Europe. In spite of its high-sounding and sanctimonious -title, the Holy Alliance was the curse of nations, and it would have -extended its nefarious influence even beyond the Atlantic Ocean, and -would have crushed the national aspirations for independence and -self-government in the states of Central and South America but for the -timely issue of the Monroe Doctrine, which saved the Western hemisphere -from “Holy Alliance” interference. - -It was only after the united efforts of the nations culminated in the -final dethronement of Napoleon, and after the Vienna Congress had -apportioned the heritage of the Empire among the victorious monarchs -that the nations became aware that the liberal promises they had -received while these monarchs were in distress were either not to be -redeemed at all, or redeemed only in part. The sagacity of the statesmen -of continental Europe was bent on defrauding the people of those civil -and political rights which had been held out to them as part of the -reward to be won by repelling the attacks of Napoleon, and the -sovereigns were only too willing to assist them in carrying out this -deception. - -Unfortunately some of these sovereigns were of inferior mental calibre -and not at all fitted for the great work of reconstructing their -shattered monarchies after the tremendous convulsions of the preceding -twenty years, and they were perfectly dwarfed by a comparison with the -colossus who had moulded Europe so long solely according to the -inspirations of his genius or ambition. Alexander of Russia had the -reputation of being a man of ability; but this reputation was without -solid foundation. At the period immediately following the overthrow of -Napoleon he was entirely under the influence of Madame Krüdener, a -religious enthusiast and visionary, who skilfully concealed her -immorality under pietistic propagandism. She filled Alexander’s mind -with vague and mystic ideas of his divine mission as a ruler, in which -the human rights of his subjects had no place. Frederick William the -Third, King of Prussia, was a weakling of the worst sort. He had -actually been forced into the anti-Napoleonic movement by the enthusiasm -of his people, and after national independence had been accomplished he -trembled lest anything might occur to endanger the public order and -tranquillity so dearly purchased. It was therefore comparatively easy -for the reactionary elements to get full control of the Prussian -government and to prevent any bold reform in a democratic direction. All -they had to do was to fill the mind of the timid King with a vague fear -that the scenes of the French Revolution might be renewed by inviting -the people to coöperation in the government. Even less reliable was the -Emperor of Austria, Francis the First, a man naturally distrustful and -suspicious, who knew how to conceal his cunning and his antagonism to -liberal ideas under the appearance of great personal kindness and -_bonhomie_. These were the three men of whom Europe expected a great -political reform, and never perhaps, in political history, were hopes -and expectations so woefully misplaced and doomed to more cruel -disappointment than in this case. - -It would be unjust to assert that the great mass of the German people -felt a deep interest in the introduction of those measures of political -reform which the sovereigns had promised when they appealed to the -patriotism of their subjects. Most of the Germans, even those belonging -to the educated classes, had up to that time paid but little attention -to politics, and their political indifference had survived the war for -national independence. The nobility, with a few noble exceptions, were -not at all anxious to see measures of political reform introduced, -because they knew that such measures would curtail their aristocratic -privileges and prerogatives. - -But there was one class of citizens which had hailed the promises of the -sovereigns with unbounded enthusiasm, for they had hoped from their -realization a political renaissance for the whole Fatherland and a new -era of greatness and world-wide influence recalling the days of the -Hohenstaufen,--the glorious days when the German Empire was the first -power in the world, and when all civilized nations from the Baltic Sea -to the southern shores of the Mediterranean bowed their necks in -obedience to the demands of its rulers. This class was the students of -the many German universities, scattered over Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, -and the smaller German states. Inspired by Schiller, Körner, Arndt, and -other poets, these young men had flocked to the standards of Blücher, -Scharnhorst, York, and Bülow, and had fought with the courage of lions -on the battle-fields of Germany and France for the holy cause of German -independence. The hope and dream of another Germany, greater, nobler, -more progressive and worthier of being the leader of nations than they -had known it before the war, had fanned their enthusiasm into a flame -which nothing could extinguish, and which after their return from the -war burst forth, here and there, in great patriotic demonstrations. - -Dreamers and idealists though they were, they began to transform some of -their dreams into reality. They formed a great association embracing the -students of all the German universities, north and south,--the German -Burschenschaft, in whose organization they embodied the noblest -principles of manhood, patriotism, and civic devotion. The ancient -German colors, black, red and gold, were revived to adorn their banners, -their caps, their sashes and badges. Quite a literature of patriotic and -students’ songs suddenly sprang into existence, in which the dream of a -great united Germany appeared in the mind’s eye as a living reality. -Many of the professors of the universities, who had also been volunteers -in the war and had shared the enthusiasm of the students, joined them in -their patriotic devotion and lent the authority of their names and -writings to their aspirations of national political revival. Arndt’s -famous national song, “Where is the German’s Fatherland?” with the -reply, that the German fatherland embraces all the countries in which -the German tongue is heard and in which German song rises heavenward, is -the typical expression of that most enthusiastic period of German -student-life. - -The Burschenschaft became an organization of national importance. It had -its admirers, but it had also its enemies; and unfortunately the latter -were mostly to be found among the nobility. The feeling prevailing -against the Burschenschaft in the government circles of the different -German states was therefore decidedly hostile, and waited only for an -opportunity to show that hostility. This opportunity soon presented -itself and, it must be admitted, was brought about by the reckless -audacity of the members of the association. In the year 1817 the -tercentenary of the great German Reformation was to be celebrated with -unusual splendor, and the Burschenschaft profited by this occasion to -make a public demonstration in behalf of its patriotic principles. It -selected as the place of its convention the Wartburg, where Martin -Luther resided upon his return from the Diet of Worms and, to make the -convention especially noteworthy and solemn, had chosen the eighteenth -of October, the anniversary of the battle of Leipsic, as the principal -day for the celebration. - -An immense number of visitors from all parts of Germany came to -Eisenach, situated at the foot of the Wartburg, and delegations of -students from all German universities, adorned with their German colors -and carrying black, red and gold banners with patriotic inscriptions, -assembled on the historic ground and participated in the festivities, -for which an elaborate programme had been arranged. The greatest -enthusiasm prevailed, and for the time being all those petty jealousies -which had so often disturbed the cordial fellowship of the inhabitants -of different German states had disappeared, and all those present -revelled in the exuberance of patriotic sentiment; they were all the -children of one great fatherland, a great united nation! The songs and -the speeches repeated and echoed this one thought. It lived uppermost in -the hearts of those young enthusiasts, but presented itself to their -minds rather as a vague poetic ideal than as a stern political reality. -Among the thousands of visitors there was, perhaps, not one who had -seriously thought of the political realization of the dream. Imprudent -as these too boisterous demonstrations had been during the day, there -was enacted late in the evening, when most of the guests had already -left the famous castle, a sort of theatrical performance, which -irritated the conservative and reactionary classes exceedingly and -resulted disastrously for the Burschenschaft. This performance was -gotten up in imitation of a famous scene in Luther’s life--the burning -of the papal bull. Massmann, a student of the university of Jena, -represented the Luther of the nineteenth century. A large bonfire was -built, and amidst boundless enthusiasm a number of books and other -materials, odious to the students, were thrown into the flames and -destroyed. Among the books was Kotzebue’s “History of the German -Empire,” Haller’s “Restoration of Political Science,” Section 13 of the -Federal Constitution, etc. Besides the books, a corset such as used to -be worn by the officers of the Prussian guards, a Hessian queue, and an -Austrian corporal’s mace were also thrown into the fire. - -The Wartburg celebration produced tremendous excitement throughout -Germany. The reactionary elements were wild with indignation. They -accused not only the managers of the festivity and the Burschenschaft of -revolutionary tendencies, but they included in this charge all the young -men of the Empire, averring that they had grown up under the influence -of the pernicious doctrines of the French Revolution and French armies -of occupation, and wanted now to apply those doctrines to the -reorganization of German institutions. They also demanded that the -organizers of the Wartburg celebration should be prosecuted and punished -as traitors. All the conservative and government papers opened a regular -war upon the seditious and revolutionary tendencies of the universities, -and the agitation reached its climax by the publication of a memorandum -addressed by Baron Stourdza, a Russian councillor of state, to the -Emperor Alexander, in which he predicted that a bloody revolution would -result unless these seditious tendencies were speedily repressed. The -Stourdza memorandum had originally been intended for the use of the -governments only. The Czar had sent a copy to each European government, -but one copy of it had found its way to the office of a Paris newspaper -and had been published. The excitement among the German students rose to -the boiling-point, and their wrath was concentrated against Russia. It -was only too well known that Russia had in her employ a number of spies -scattered throughout the German states, who kept her government well -posted on the political and social currents. The most prominent of these -spies was August von Kotzebue, a man of great literary talent and -distinguished as the author of many comedies and dramas, but politically -of extreme conservative views. The attacks of the liberal press were -therefore mainly directed against Kotzebue, whose reports to the Russian -government were supposed to have inspired Stourdza’s memorandum. - -At that time there was at Jena a student of the University, of -irreproachable character, excellent conduct, not especially -distinguished by eminent ability or talent, but inclined to religious -and patriotic exaltation. His name was Carl Ludwig Sand; he came from -Wunsiedel, the birthplace of the famous German humorist, Jean Paul -Friedrich Richter. He had been a volunteer in the war against France and -had embraced the doctrines of the Burschenschaft with the greatest -enthusiasm. The denunciations of the German students in Stourdza’s -memorandum filled him with profound indignation, especially against -Kotzebue, whom he blamed as the principal sinner. Moreover the -frivolous, half indecent character of many of Kotzebue’s plays had often -revolted Sand’s moral sentiment. He considered him a source of -corruption for the young men and women of the nation, and when to this -wrong the charge of political treason and espionage was added, Sand -thought that nothing but death was an adequate punishment for Kotzebue. -He considered also that it was not only a moral, but a patriotic duty to -inflict upon him that punishment. He knew that the act would cost him -his life, but that consideration did not for a moment deter him from -undertaking it. He did not consult with anybody about it, but he -conceived, planned, and executed it all alone. - -On the ninth of March, 1819, Sand left Jena and proceeded to Mannheim, -where Kotzebue lived. Two weeks later, on the twenty-third of March, -1819, a young stranger appeared at the Kotzebue residence, and said that -he wished to see the councillor in order to hand him personally a letter -of introduction. The servant delivered the message, and after a few -minutes Kotzebue himself appeared in the hall and invited Sand--for it -was he--to come in. Sand handed him the letter; but no sooner had -Kotzebue opened it and begun to read it than Sand plunged a long -dirk-knife into his breast with the words, “Take this as your reward, -traitor to your country!” And he stabbed him again and again with fatal -effect. Thereupon he thrust the knife into his own breast, but had -strength enough to run out into the hall, where he handed the astounded -servant a sealed document containing a well-written justification of his -murderous act, and inscribed: “Death Punishment for August von Kotzebue -in the name of virtue.” Running out into the street, where a crowd of -people assembled, attracted by the screams of the servant, he called out -in a loud voice: “Long live my German fatherland!” and kneeling down he -forcibly plunged the knife into his breast once more, exclaiming: “Great -God, I thank thee for this victory.” - -Sand’s wound was serious, but a skilful operation saved his life. On the -twentieth of May, 1820, he was executed at Mannheim, after a lengthy -trial and a painstaking investigation, in the course of which the German -and the Russian police made great efforts to discover accessories to his -crime. All these efforts failed, however, and the murder of Kotzebue -could be accounted only an individual act of patriotic exaltation. The -result of Sand’s self-sacrifice was very different from what he had -expected. In fact, Kotzebue’s assassination proved disastrous to the -liberal movement throughout Germany; it furnished a welcome pretext for -the most repressive measures against the press, against the -universities, against the Burschenschaft, against liberty in whatever -shape or form it might manifest itself. That long era of political -reaction was inaugurated against which the German people rebelled with -only partial success in 1848 and 1849, and from which only the ejection -of Austria and the reorganization of a new German Empire on a more -liberal basis in 1871 gave them permanent relief. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -DUC DE BERRY - -[Illustration: DUC DE BERRY] - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -ASSASSINATION OF THE DUC DE BERRY - -(February 13, 1820) - - -The political situation in France, after the overthrow of Napoleon and -the restoration of the Bourbons, was even more difficult and more -precarious for the governing classes than it was in Germany. The French -nation, proud in the consciousness of having occupied the first place in -Europe for twenty years, chafed at the idea of living under a king whom -foreign rulers and foreign armies had imposed on France, and who, in -consequence, had to act in blind obedience to the dictates of these -foreigners. The danger of a new violent outbreak against the Bourbon -government was therefore ever present not only to the French mind, but -to the mind of Europe, and to guard against it the foreign powers had -made it one of the terms of peace with France that a foreign army of -occupation should hold possession of the northern and northeastern -provinces of France until the entire war indemnity exacted from the -vanquished country had been paid. While the foreign occupation was -ostensibly a financial measure, it was in reality a military measure -giving to the foreign powers the keys to the interior of France and to -Paris, in case a new invasion should become necessary. Not only was the -position of the King rendered difficult by his political opponents, the -Imperialists and the Republicans, but its hardships and difficulties -were materially aggravated by the senseless and extravagant demands of -the Royalists, who had in large number returned to France with the -foreign armies. These Royalists, many of whom had been absent from -France for twenty years or more, on their return from their voluntary -exile, found their estates and manors, which had been confiscated under -the Revolution, in the possession of strangers; all the superior offices -in the civil service and the higher positions in the army, which they -claimed as their own by right of birth, were filled by men of low -extraction. They therefore turned to the King and demanded of him the -restoration of their lost estates of their aristocratic privileges. - -The King, Louis the Eighteenth, was perhaps the most intelligent of all -the monarchs of Europe, but he lacked force of character, and, moreover, -his long life in exile, with its pleasures and enjoyments as a sybarite -and epicurean, had but poorly qualified him for his suddenly imposed -tasks. He was expected by Europe to hold his own in a population the -majority of whom were opposed to him, and who had learned that a king -could be easily got rid of, if the people did not want him. Although -Louis the Eighteenth, with his penetrating sagacity, clearly saw the -instability of his throne, he honestly wished to make the best of the -chance the fortune of war had given him. He was willing to give the -French people a liberal government, provided it could be done without -endangering the throne, and without violating the pledges given to the -monarchs who had reinstated him. He might have even more energetically -opposed the reactionary demands of the ultra-Royalists, who recognized -his younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, as their leader, if his -experiences, especially during the “Hundred Days,” had not filled him -with disgust and suspicion toward the Imperialists. While Napoleon was -in Elba, Louis the Eighteenth kept all the Bonapartist generals and high -officials in office, relying on their promises and assurances of -fidelity; but on Napoleon’s return they all betrayed him, and either -flocked to the standards of the Emperor or declared their adhesion to -his cause as soon as he had set foot on French soil. - -Perhaps the man who had sinned most in this respect was Marshal Ney, who -in a personal interview asked of the King as a personal favor to be -placed in command of an army corps and to be sent against the Emperor, -pledging himself to bring Napoleon in chains before his throne. Louis -granted the Marshal’s request, but instead of capturing the Emperor, Ney -went over to him with his entire army corps and fought at Waterloo again -as the “bravest of the brave” in the imperial army. In vain he sought -death on the field, when he saw that the battle was lost; it was -reserved for him to die by French bullets in the Luxembourg garden of -Paris, fired by royalist officers, disguised as common soldiers. From -party hatred, these men had volunteered to act as executioners of one of -the greatest military heroes of revolutionary France. Labédoyère and -other famous generals who were traitors to Louis were executed; others -saved their lives by flight. The great Carnot and other Imperialists -were banished from France. - -The impression made upon the ultra-Royalists by these severe measures -against men who had shed lustre upon France, was in the highest degree -deplorable. These fanatics supposed that the Bonapartists and -Republicans of the whole kingdom were utterly at their mercy. They -secretly organized a special government, under the presidency of the -Comte d’Artois, at the Pavilion Marsan for the purpose of bringing to -justice all those who had participated in the Napoleonic _coup d’état_ -or in the Revolution of 1789. A new era of terrorism was organized by -these “white Jacobins,” as they were significantly called, and the most -cruel excesses were committed in the provinces. La Vendée, which had -fought so heroically for the Bourbon dynasty, treated the Imperialists -and Republicans generously; but in the South, where religious fanaticism -added fuel to the flame of political hatred, the most atrocious excesses -and murders were committed. Avignon, Nîmes, Montpellier, Toulouse and -other cities of the South were disgraced by the butchery of hundreds of -Protestants; in some of them the victims of religious and political -persecution died at the stake. At Avignon the famous Marshal Brune was -assassinated; at Toulouse, General Ramel; at Nîmes, Count de la Garde. -Wholesale assassinations and butcheries were organized; armed bands, -fanaticized by the priests, roamed through the country, and butchered -the Protestants _en masse_. Ten thousand of the unfortunates fled to the -mountain recesses of the Cevennes, choosing rather to die from hunger -and cold than to be tortured to death. Juries composed of the most -intolerant Royalists lent their aid to these outrages, by condemning the -Protestants to death and acquitting the assassins. The veterans of -Napoleon’s army and forty thousand officers, many of whom had served -with distinction under the imperial eagles, were driven from their homes -and wandered from village to village begging for bread and shelter. The -northern provinces were spared these outrages, but the one hundred and -fifty thousand foreign soldiers stationed in their towns and fortresses -were terrible reminders of the humiliation and shame which the -restoration of the Bourbons had brought upon France. - -The French Chambers were entirely under the control of the extreme -Royalists. They enacted laws which reduced the political conditions of -France to those which had existed prior to 1789. They looked upon the -Revolutionary era and the Empire as upon a lawless interregnum which -should be ignored by the government, and they demanded that all the old -institutions of the kingdom should be revived. They were so bold and so -insolent that they overawed the government for a while. Very reluctantly -the King consented to several tyrannical laws,--for instance, the law -referring all political crimes to special courts, composed of one -officer and four judges, from whose decision no appeal could be taken. -But the King saw to his regret that his acquiescence in these immoderate -demands had no other effect than to make the ultra-Royalists bolder and -more arrogant. They demanded a curtailment of the right of suffrage, a -reënactment of the right of primogeniture and other feudal measures. - -The King’s patience was exhausted; he refused to sanction any of these -laws and dissolved the Chambers. In their impotent rage the disappointed -ultra-Royalists applied to the foreign powers, asking their intervention -in behalf of absolute royalty, and imploring them to compel the King to -desist from his pernicious protection of Jacobins and regicides. -Metternich sent this strange petition to the French government. But -neither the King nor his favorite minister, M. Decazes, was scared by -such foolhardy steps. They coolly ignored them and courageously -inaugurated a series of political reforms in order to reassure public -opinion. Instead of reducing the number of electors (as the ultras -demanded), they largely increased it. To the periodical press and the -daily newspapers was given greater liberty; the censorship, which had -been exceedingly annoying, was abolished. At the same time, by the able -financial management of the Duc de Richelieu, the 1,600,000,000 francs -war indemnity was reduced to 502,000,000 francs and a large number of -the foreign troops were withdrawn from the northern provinces. These -liberal and patriotic measures followed one another in quick succession -and made a very favorable impression upon the people. The liberal -parties were willing to coöperate with the government in its endeavor to -restore the prosperity of the country, to relieve the distress of the -masses, and to free France from foreign occupation. The Chambers of 1818 -and 1819 also coöperated with the government, and the liberal party was -represented in them by a small number of illustrious men,--such men as -Lafayette, General Foy, Benjamin Constant,--men who were more patriots -than partisans. In fact, everything indicated a return of speedy -prosperity, when an event occurred which at one blow crushed the hopes -of the patriots, paralyzed the hand of the government, and reinstated -the extremists in power. This event was the assassination of the Duc de -Berry, the hope of the Bourbon dynasty. - -On its return from exile the royal family of France consisted of: - -The King, formerly Comte de Provence. - -The King’s brother, the Comte d’Artois, and his two sons: - -The Duc d’Angoulême, and - -The Duc de Berry. - -The Comte d’Artois, the presumptive heir to the throne, was born in -1757, and was consequently fifty-seven years old on his return to Paris. -He was ultra-Royalistic in his political views and was considered the -head of the extremists. His eldest son, the Duc d’Angoulême, was born in -1775, and had retired from France with his father at the commencement of -the Revolution. He was a man of very mediocre ability, but of exemplary -character. In 1799 he was married to his cousin Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, -daughter of Louis the Sixteenth, who had passed her unhappy childhood in -prison, which she had left only in 1795. She was worshipped by the -entire royal family as an angel of kindness and mercy. They had no -children. - -The younger son, the Duc de Berry, was born in 1778, and had passed his -youth and early manhood in exile. He had a more manly character than his -brother, and the French nobility of the old _régime_ looked upon him as -the hope of the Bourbon dynasty. Far from being a genius, the Duc de -Berry was a man of good intelligence, brave, dashing, and the very type -of a French officer, prior to the Revolution. He had many of the -generous traits, but also some of the vices of that elegant and -high-spirited class of young men. While living in exile, in England, he -formed a liaison with a young Englishwoman, who bore him two daughters, -to whom he was greatly attached and whom he took to Paris and placed in -a young ladies’ academy. In 1816 the King married him to a Neapolitan -princess, Caroline, daughter of the Crown Prince of that kingdom, a -handsome, high-spirited, healthy young woman, who gave promise of giving -the dynasty direct heirs. The newly married couple lived very happily -together, and enjoyed life in the French capital to its fullest extent. -They were really the official representatives of royalty and its -splendors,--neither the King nor the Duc d’Angoulême caring much for the -entertainments, balls, and receptions of court life. The prominence thus -given to the Duc de Berry, and the expectation that through him the -elder line of the Bourbons would be continued explain fully why he was -singled out as the victim of assassination. He was not only identified -with the extreme Royalists, so odious to the people, but, with him out -of the way, it was only a question of time when the elder branch of the -dynasty would die out entirely, no more issue being expected from the -Duc d’Angoulême, who had been married already twenty years without -having children. Such were at least the considerations of the young man -who undertook the perilous task of killing the Duc de Berry, and who -fully accomplished his purpose. - -This young man was Jean Pierre Louvel, a resident of Versailles, an -enthusiastic admirer of Napoleon, whom he considered the living -embodiment of the greatness and honor of France. Napoleon’s dethronement -he wanted to revenge on the Bourbons, in whose interest it had taken -place, and who, in his opinion, were utterly unworthy to rule over the -French nation. Louvel was a saddler, thirty-two years of age, -debilitated in appearance, and considered a political fanatic by all who -knew him. He had no family or relations except one sister, considerably -older than himself, who had brought him up, and with whom he lived. He -hated the Bourbons so intensely that in 1814, when the royal family -landed at Calais on their return from exile, he intended to make an -attempt on the life of Louis the Eighteenth; but the great enthusiasm of -the people discouraged him. During all these years his wrath against the -Bourbons had steadily grown, and he had never for a moment abandoned his -plan of killing the whole family,--first the Duc de Berry, then the Duc -d’Angoulême, then the Comte d’Artois, and finally the King. He -considered De Berry the most important and the most dangerous man of the -whole family because in him were centred the hopes of continuing the -dynasty. - -He had been very persistent; he had found employment in the royal -stables at Versailles, and whenever the Duc de Berry was out hunting, he -tried to find an opportunity to get near him; he frequently went to -Paris and studied the advertisements of new plays or operas, expecting -that the Duke would attend a first performance. Twenty times he had been -close to him on such occasions, but had always been prevented by the -number of friends or attendants surrounding him from getting near enough -to stab him, and stab him so well that he could not escape; for -everything depended on making a success of the attempt. - -After long and patient waiting he found his opportunity. It was during -the last days of the carnival preceding the season of Lent, in February, -1820. The grand masquerade ball at the opera was to take place on the -thirteenth, and it was a matter of absolute certainty that both the Duc -and the Duchesse de Berry, who were very fond of dancing, would attend -it. When Louvel got up and dressed, he had a joyful presentiment that -that day would bring him the realization of his long-cherished plan. He -had in his possession two daggers of very superior quality, both sharp -as razors and strong enough to penetrate flesh and sinew to the handle. -He had studied the human anatomy well enough to know exactly where to -strike his victim. He chose the smaller dagger of the two because he -could more easily conceal it; took his supper with good appetite and -without betraying unusual agitation; and then he started on his mission -of death. He was promptly at his post at eight o’clock when the carriage -of the Duc de Berry drove up to the private entrance reserved for the -members of the royal family. The Duke was not expected so early in the -evening, and consequently there were not so many attendants gathered -near the entrance. The Duke jumped out of the carriage, and held out his -arm to help the Duchess to alight. This was the proper moment for -Louvel, if he wanted to commit the crime. He was on the point of rushing -toward the Duke, when the smiling and lovely face of the Duchess -appeared in the light of the lantern, and this sight paralyzed the arm -of the murderer. He hesitated at the thought that his crime would plunge -these two happy persons into nameless misery, and before he had -recovered his equanimity, the Duke and his wife had disappeared behind -the entrance door of the theatre. - -Louvel blamed himself for his faintness of heart and wanted to postpone -the deed to some later day; but the thought that he would have to go -back to Versailles in a few days and that no such opportunity might -offer itself for a long time, caused him to change his mind. That very -night his plan must be executed, and either the Duke or himself should -perish. For several hours he strolled through the streets in the -neighborhood of the Opera House, went to the garden of the Palais Royal -and back again, always keeping a watchful eye on the carriages that -stood waiting for the call of their owners. At twenty minutes past -eleven the carriage of the Duc de Berry drove up to the entrance door. -Louvel stood near by, almost hidden in the shadow of the wall, and -entirely unnoticed by the attendants of the royal equipage. He was not -kept waiting for a long time; for a little accident had occurred which -induced the Duchess to return much sooner than they had anticipated. -Their box at the Opera House was near that of the Duc and Duchesse -d’Orléans, who were also at the theatre that evening; the two families -were on terms of great intimacy, especially the two duchesses, both -being Neapolitan princesses. At one of the intermissions of the -performance De Berry and his wife went to the box of the Duc d’Orléans -for a friendly chat, but on their return to their own box, a door -opposite was quickly opened and struck the Duchess with such violence -that she felt very unwell. In her delicate condition (she was enceinte -at the time) she thought it would be better for her to return home than -to wait for the close of the performance and the masquerade ball. The -Duke therefore conducts his wife back to the carriage and lifts her into -it; the Comtesse de Bétysi, her lady of honor, takes her seat by her -side; the duke shakes hands with both ladies and with a smiling “_au -revoir_, I’ll be home soon,” steps back from the carriage. At this -moment Louvel rushes forward, lays his left hand on the duke’s right -shoulder and plunges his dagger with so much force into the Duke’s right -side that the weapon remains in the wound. The Duke, mortally wounded, -sinks to his knees, and utters a slight scream, more of surprise than of -pain. As is usually the case in such assaults, the victim had rather -felt the shock than the wound, and only when he reached out with his -hand to the spot where he had been hurt, he found the handle of the -dagger, and comprehended the meaning of the attack. He then cried out: -“I am struck to death, I have been assassinated!” and as he pulled the -dagger from the wound, a stream of blood gushed forth. The Duke fainted -in consequence of the loss of blood, and was carried back into the Opera -House, where the Duchess followed him with loud screams. In the first -confusion Louvel made his escape, but he was soon overtaken and brought -back to the scene of the murder. The excitement and the indignation of -the people were so great that he would have been torn to pieces but for -the active protection of the police and of the servants of the Duc de -Berry who were afraid that by his death his accomplices and accessories -to the crime might be shielded. - -The most eminent surgeons of Paris were immediately summoned to the -assistance of the Prince. But the wound was fatal, and all their efforts -were in vain. In the presence of death the Duc de Berry showed a very -generous and magnanimous heart. He implored his wife, his brother, and -all others surrounding his bed to use their influence with the King to -get his murderer pardoned, and expressed his profound sorrow that he had -been stabbed by a Frenchman. Up to his last moment the thought that his -murderer would be executed in a cruel manner disturbed him, and when -toward morning the King came to bid him farewell, he repeated his -request that the murderer should be forgiven and not be executed; but -without eliciting the promise from his uncle. With this dying request -for the life of his murderer on his lips, he expired very early in the -morning. - -The sensation which the assassination of the Duc de Berry created not -only in Paris, but throughout France and Europe, was enormous. All -parties equally condemned and lamented the crime. While the -ultra-Royalists deplored in the murder the extinction of all their hopes -for the establishment of the old Bourbon dynasty on a sure foundation, -the liberal parties foresaw that it would put an end to the liberal -tendencies of the government of Louis the Eighteenth. The sinister -forebodings of the liberals were only too well founded. The Royalists -tried at first to create the impression that the murder was but the -symptom of a widespread conspiracy organized by the revolutionary -elements of the kingdom against the royal family and the entire -nobility, and boldly charged the liberal policy of the government as -being the cause of it. In a session of the Chambers one of the deputies -went even so far as to move the impeachment of M. Decazes, Minister of -the Interior, as an accessory to the crime committed by Louvel. While -the Chambers refused to act upon this infamous motion, the entire -Royalistic press demanded the dismissal of Decazes, and the King -reluctantly yielded to the universal demand. “M. Decazes has slipped in -the blood shed by Louvel’s dagger,” wrote Chateaubriand in commenting on -the dismissal of the liberal minister. And that era of reaction and -repression commenced which ten years later ended in the dethronement of -the elder branch of the Bourbon dynasty and in the flight and exile of -Charles the Tenth. The entire liberal party was punished for the crime -of one fanatic. - -Louvel was tried before the Chamber of Peers. He pleaded guilty. He -denied having any accomplices. He had conferred with nobody. He -recognized the dagger as his own; he gave his hatred and abhorrence of -the Bourbon family as his only motive for the crime. He was convicted -unanimously. He expressed no regret for what he had done, and died with -stoical indifference. He was guillotined June 7, 1820. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -ABRAHAM LINCOLN - -[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN] - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -ASSASSINATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN - -(April 14, 1865) - - -In the annals of this nation no tragedy more pathetic has been recorded -than the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, President of the United -States. - -The Civil War which had divided the country into two hostile camps for -four years and had laid waste the Southern States of the Union--or the -Confederate States of America, to designate them by the name they -adopted--was at an end. General Lee had surrendered the army of -Virginia, the flower of the Confederate fighting forces, to General -Grant at Appomattox Court House, and while General Johnston’s army in -North Carolina, and a few separate minor corps, still remained in the -field, Lee’s surrender was generally construed as the termination of the -long and cruel war, and joy ruled supreme throughout the North. Liberty -had triumphed, and four million slaves had been emancipated! - -The surrender of Lee took place on the eighth of April, 1865. On the -following day President Lincoln visited the late capital of the -Confederacy. He traversed the city in all directions, and everywhere he -manifested the kindest disposition towards the South, and expressed the -wish that all traces of the unfortunate war should disappear as soon as -possible and that cordial relations between the two sections of the -country should be reëstablished at once. Very likely there was not a man -in all the Northern States happier at the prospect of a lasting peace -than Abraham Lincoln. His great and noble heart, sensitive as a woman’s, -had been bleeding for years at the sight of the gigantic fratricidal -war, of which Providence had made him the most conspicuous figure. But -five weeks before, he had entered upon his second presidential term, and -in his inaugural address he had foreshadowed the policy of leniency and -moderation which he intended to show to the “rebels” in case of the -final victory of the Union armies. That address revealed the true -inwardness of the great man; it was spoken with an eloquence peculiarly -his own; it was full of thought, sweetness, firmness, unswerving -fidelity to duty, high morality made more impressive even by the -simplicity and originality of language. At the same time it breathed a -tenderness for the vanquished which made it almost an olive-branch -tendered to those who were still in arms against the government and -inviting them to return to the hearthstones of the nation of which they -had been the favored sons and daughters for nearly a century. Although -the triumph of the Union and its armies was already in sight as an event -of the near future, nothing in that address indicated boastfulness and -supercilious pride. No arrogance, no pompous reference to the -superiority of the North in heroism or exploits! On the contrary, the -President humbles himself before the decrees of the Almighty, he -confesses the great national crime and the justice of the immense -punishment. - -In the tone of sadness pervading the beautiful oration there is almost -the presentiment of death and that supreme resignation which sometimes -takes possession of the soul on the verge of the grave. Already he had -planned a proclamation of pardon,--a general amnesty, excluding none, a -full and complete restoration of concord and brotherhood between the -North and the South, when all at once the terrible news “Lincoln has -been assassinated! Lincoln is dead!” flashed over the telegraph wires -and filled the whole North with terror. As if nothing was to be wanting -to make this gigantic Civil War a tragedy to both sides, the man whose -very name was the embodiment of liberty and the symbol of emancipation, -and who more than any other man had contributed to the great triumph, -had to succumb at the moment of victory. The election of Abraham Lincoln -had given the signal for the organization and outbreak of the -slaveholders’ rebellion, and it was certainly a remarkable coincidence -that the tolling of the church-bells in towns and cities through which -Lincoln’s funeral train slowly wended its way from the capital to his -Western home was heard simultaneously with the news of the collapse of -that rebellion and of the final extinction of human slavery on American -soil. This coincidence was almost providential, and if the great -Emancipator could have chosen his own time for his death, he certainly -could not have made a more appropriate and glorious choice. He became, -so to speak, the hero of the great epic of the Civil War--one of the -greatest the world had seen,--and his tragical death marked the -conclusion of the strife. In the eyes of the fanatical advocates of the -Southern cause Abraham Lincoln had always held this prominent position -as the principal author of the feud dividing the North and the South, -and it is therefore not surprising that some of these fanatics had -formed a conspiracy to assassinate him and some of his most intimate -advisers. About a week after Mr. Lincoln’s visit at Richmond this plot -was to be executed. - -On the fourteenth of April, 1865, an especially brilliant performance -was to be given at Ford’s Theatre, Washington, and Mr. Lincoln, General -Grant, and Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, were expected to be present; -in fact, the Washington newspapers of that date had announced that they -would be present. But at the very last moment General Grant was -compelled to leave Washington and go North. Mr. Stanton, being -overburdened with business and unable to find time to go to the theatre, -remained at his office, and only Mr. Lincoln went, accompanied by Mrs. -Lincoln and a few friends. His appearance was the signal for a grand -ovation. He seemed to follow the presentation of the play with close -attention and great interest. The third act had just commenced, when the -audience was startled by the sound of a pistol-shot proceeding from the -President’s box. At the same moment a man appeared in the foreground of -that box, jumped upon the balustrade, and thence down to the stage, -shouting, “_Sic semper tyrannis!_” In leaping from the box, one of the -man’s spurs got entangled with the flag with which Mr. Lincoln’s box was -decorated. He fell and broke a leg, but immediately recovering himself -and getting on his feet he had sufficient presence of mind and power of -will to make his escape. He knocked down those who tried to stop him, -ran through the aisles of the scenery, jumped upon a horse which was -kept in readiness for him by an accomplice, and disappeared in the -darkness of the night. - -This man, who with lightning-like rapidity had appeared on the stage and -disappeared from it, was the murderer of Abraham Lincoln; and the murder -had been committed so suddenly that the great majority of the audience, -even after his flight, were in profound ignorance of what had happened. -It was then only that the cries of horror, the loud lamentations of Mrs. -Lincoln and of the other persons in the President’s box conveyed to the -awe-stricken audience the news of the tragedy which had occurred in -their midst. The President, shot through the head from behind, had lost -consciousness immediately, and the blood oozed slowly from the wound. -However, life was not extinct, and immediately the hope arose that Mr. -Lincoln’s life might be saved. He was carried into a neighboring house, -and the best surgeons were called to his assistance. But alas! the -murderer’s ball having passed through the cerebellum had pierced the -cerebrum, and the wound was fatal beyond all hope. Mr. Lincoln died -early in the morning without having regained consciousness. The North -had lost its greatest citizen and the South its best friend. - - * * * * * - -While this murder was being committed at Ford’s Theatre, another -assassin entered the residence of Secretary of State William H. Seward, -who had been seriously injured by an accident a few days before. The -assassin pretended to be the bearer of a medical prescription, and -demanded to be admitted to the room of the patient. The servant refused -to admit him, but was rudely pushed aside, whereupon the visitor, who -evidently was familiar with the location of the rooms, burst into the -one where Mr. Seward was lying ill in bed, rushed toward him, seriously -wounded Mr. Seward’s son, who threw himself in his way, and thereupon -engaged the invalid in a furious combat, stabbing him several times. In -spite of his disability, the Secretary defended himself bravely and -fought with the courage of despair, until at last the assassin, after -having badly cut and disfigured his face, made his escape. - -As has been stated already, the plan of the conspirators was to kill not -only President Lincoln, but other prominent men, such as Andrew Johnson, -the new Vice-President, Secretary Seward, Secretary Stanton, and General -Grant. On several occasions the assassins had been on the point of -perpetrating these murders, but always unforeseen circumstances had -occurred and prevented them. At last this gala performance at Ford’s -Theatre seemed to invite them to execute their plot, and they resolved -to assassinate Lincoln, Grant, and Stanton at the theatre, and Seward -and Johnson at their private residences. By removing these five men the -assassins hoped to decapitate the republic itself and imagined that very -likely during the terror and confusion which these assassinations would -cause, the Southern rebels would take up arms again and capture -Washington city. But only one of the five victims designated was -killed--alas! it was the most illustrious one of the five--while the -others escaped owing to fortuitous circumstances. - -As to the murderer of Lincoln, who was identified as John Wilkes Booth, -it was ascertained that he had been inspired by an implacable and -sincere fanaticism. Son of a celebrated English tragedian who had lived -several years in the United States, John Wilkes Booth was himself an -actor of considerable ability, who had frequently played on the very -stage which he was to desecrate by one of the most infamous -assassinations of modern times. Young, handsome, eloquent, and audacious -as he was, Booth had a certain prestige among his companions and great -success with the ladies of his profession. He was an enthusiastic -Democrat, became a prominent member of the “Knights of the Golden -Circle,” and believed in the divine origin of the institution of -slavery. He had been among the lynchers of John Brown and frequently -boasted of his participation in that crime. He often expressed the wish -that all such abolitionists should die on the gallows. He and some -others, equally extreme in their views on the slavery question, met -frequently at the house of a Mrs. Surratt, who was also fanatically -devoted to the Southern cause, and concocted there the plot to murder -the President and his associates. - -After having performed that part of the plot which he had reserved for -himself--the assassination of the President--with almost incredible -boldness, Booth fled to Virginia. He had intended to continue his flight -until he had reached the extreme South, and possibly Mexico, but his -injury prevented him from carrying out this plan. In company with one of -his accomplices he hid himself in an isolated barn on the banks of the -Rappahannock, hoping that as soon as the first storm of indignation had -blown over, the search for the murderer would gradually relax, if not -cease altogether, and that he would then have an opportunity to escape. -But in this calculation he was mistaken. A roving detachment of federal -soldiers discovered him in his hiding-place, during the night of the -twenty-sixth of April. His companion, realizing that all resistance -would be useless, surrendered immediately. But Booth wanted to sell his -life as dearly as possible. He tried to break out and escape from his -pursuers, but a pistol-shot brought him down with a fatal wound in his -head, from which he soon afterwards died. The assassin who had assaulted -and seriously wounded Secretary Seward had, a few days before, been -captured at Mrs. Surratt’s house. - -The effect of Mr. Lincoln’s assassination on the people of the North was -indescribable. It filled their hearts with bitterness and their minds -with thoughts of revenge. It was averred that the murderer in crossing -the stage of the theatre and defiantly brandishing a long knife had -exclaimed: “The South is avenged!” This exclamation seemed to implicate -the whole South, or at least its government, in the murderous act of -Booth. The natural consequence was that the people of the North, who -immediately after the surrender of Lee’s army were inclined to great -leniency toward the vanquished and willing to receive them back into the -Union with open arms, suddenly turned against them. The army and the -government circles, and in fact the entire population of the national -capital, who had learned to love Mr. Lincoln, demanded the most severe -punishment for the rebels. Then began the long and tedious work of -reconstruction, retarded by party spirit and retaliatory measures on -both sides. It was terminated to the satisfaction of both only during -the last few years, when the sons of the South fought shoulder to -shoulder with the sons of the North for the deliverance of Cuba from -Spanish oppression under the glorious banner of the Union. But how -often during these years of contention, was the great man missed whose -truly humane spirit would have contributed so much to bring the -discordant elements of both sections together in fraternal harmony and -mutual respect, and whose hands had penned the noblest document of the -nineteenth century--the proclamation of emancipation--setting free four -million slaves. Such deeds as his can never be forgotten. - -The assassination did a great deal for Mr. Lincoln’s standing in -history. It added the halo of martyrdom to his renown as a statesman, -and it has made him a national hero, who, next to Washington--or with -Washington--holds the highest place in the estimation of the American -people. It is doubtful whether Abraham Lincoln, if he had not crowned -his career with a martyr’s death, would have held this place. It had -especially the effect of wiping out an impression which many had formed -of Mr. Lincoln’s character, and which, during the first years of his -presidential term, lowered him considerably in the eyes of the people. -His Southern enemies and detractors made a great deal of Mr. Lincoln’s -“undignified bearing,” his “lack of tact,” “his mania for telling funny -stories, in and out of season,” and the Northern Democrats were only too -busy repeating and circulating these stories, because they could not -forgive Lincoln for having beaten their idol, Stephen Arnold Douglas. - -Mr. Lincoln’s distinction was his strong originality and self-reliance. -As a young man, with no adviser to guide him through the hardships and -embarrassments of life, he took counsel with his own mind, which -fortunately was of peculiar depth, rich in resources,--and the advice he -received from this consultation, the instruction he gained by this -appeal to the fund of his own knowledge and experience served him -splendidly as schooling for the task which was in store for him. And -joined to this self-education nature had bestowed on him some of her -rarest gifts,--humor, kind, genial, and peculiarly humane, blending -tears with laughter, and a mother-wit always ready to make fun of his -own misfortunes and shortcomings, and to joke away any embarrassing -situation in which either untoward circumstances or his own mistakes -might have placed him. In addition to all this he possessed that truly -American characteristic--shrewdness, which far from being an -objectionable quality with him, was modified by his kindness of heart -and his moral uprightness. - -In that great and distinctly English book, Robinson Crusoe, we find a -young Englishman in consequence of a shipwreck thrown upon a deserted -island in midocean. He is cut off from civilization and its resources -and thrown upon his own ingenuity to carve out a living for himself -which, to a degree at least, comes up to the experience which he has had -while living in civilized society. A few tools and instruments which he -saves from the wrecked ship are the only things to assist him in the -building up of his future life, yet by industry, shrewdness, and -perseverance he really succeeds in making that life not only tolerable, -but to a degree comfortable. Possibly the trying circumstances in which -young Robinson was placed whetted and sharpened his wits, strengthened -his nerve, and inspired him with enough confidence to become equal to -his difficult task; at all events, he succeeded, and the book narrating -his experience, his trials, and his sufferings forms one of the most -delightful and at the same time one of the most instructive books for -young and old ever written. Its educational value can hardly be -overestimated. It may be said that Robinson Crusoe is but a novel, and -that his adventures and achievements all originated in the fertile mind -of Daniel Defoe. But even if it was so, which is by no means proven, the -feat of Defoe’s genius shows that a young man of strong character and -full of resources, with an ideal placed before his mental eye, can find -the means to raise himself to a higher level than he could have reached -under ordinary circumstances and without the stimulating influence of -personal hardships and pressing necessity. - -It was so with Abraham Lincoln. The means of education which the wild -West offered to him were of the most elementary kind, but his innate -genius and energy knew how to make them serviceable to the high aim and -to the ideals which he had proposed to himself. The loneliness of the -primeval forests in which his childhood was passed fostered the tendency -to reverie and thoughtfulness which formed one of the principal traits -of his character. An American boy in the full meaning of the word he -learned to love and appreciate that Union from which the West expected -its development, and on which it depended as on the natural source of -its future greatness. As if to prepare him for the great part he was to -act in American history, he was made to see at an early day the wrongs -and cruelties of slavery. His pure mind, which had been strengthened and -refined by immediate contact with nature, felt the stain which soiled -the American name and flag. As he went down the Mississippi river on a -flatboat and became witness of a slave-auction, where family ties were -brutally torn asunder, he vowed to himself to do his share as a man and -citizen to wipe out that wrong against humanity. How nobly he redeemed -that vow and how cruelly he suffered for redeeming it, we have told in -the preceding pages, and the crown of immortality is his just reward. - -If we should wish to compare the great martyr-president with any -historical personage of preceding ages, it would be Henry the Fourth of -France. While unquestionably there are many differences in their traits -of character, they have nevertheless so many traits in common that the -comparison is, in our opinion, a decidedly just one. Both were placed in -leading positions at a time when their country was torn up by civil war. -In the case of Henry the Fourth religion, or rather Protestantism, was -the cause of the fratricidal strife; in the case of Abraham Lincoln it -was negro slavery. Both were enlisted in the cause of humanity and -progress. It is true, Henry the Fourth renounced Protestantism to win a -crown, in the possession of which he alone could hope to render immortal -service to the Protestant Church and the principle upon which it is -founded, religious toleration; and by the promulgation of the Edict of -Nantes he gloriously performed the historical task which Providence had -allotted to him. Abraham Lincoln was willing to make any sacrifice for -the maintenance of the American Union, for only as President of the -United States and as conqueror of the rebellious South, could he hope to -become the champion of the abolition of negro slavery. He was fortunate -enough to live through the gigantic Civil War, and Clio, the Muse, of -History, has entered in imperishable letters on the asbestos leaves of -our national annals his immortal declaration of the emancipation of the -black race. As two great reformers they will both live in -history,--Henry the Fourth, as the embodiment of the principle of -religious toleration, Lincoln as the evangelist of negro emancipation. -It is a strange coincidence that these two great men were endowed by -nature with so many analogous traits, but rarely found in other great -men. Both had a keen relish for humor, fun, and wit, and indulged this -taste under the most trying circumstances; both were lenient and -forgiving to a fault; both displayed statesmanship and executive ability -of a high order; and if Henry the Fourth has won greater laurels as a -warrior, Lincoln has crowned his great life with the glory of being a -great orator. Mankind has grown better by having produced these two -men. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -ALEXANDER THE SECOND OF RUSSIA - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER II.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER THE SECOND OF RUSSIA - -(March 13, 1881) - - -The assassination of Abraham Lincoln leads up to that of the other great -emancipator of the nineteenth century, Alexander the Second of Russia, -which occurred on the thirteenth of March, 1881, and which filled the -world with horror. - -In one of Goethe’s most famous poems a magician’s apprentice, in the -absence of his learned master, sets free the secret powers of nature -which his master can control by a magical formula. The apprentice has -overheard the formula, and has appropriated it to his own use; but lo! -when the apprentice wants to get rid of the powers he has let loose, he -has forgotten the magic words by which to banish them, and miserably -perishes in the attempt. The poem is symbolical of the life and -experience of Czar Alexander the Second of Russia. As a young man, -enthusiastic and desirous to promote his country’s welfare, he set loose -the turbulent and revolutionary powers slumbering in his gigantic -empire, and they grew to such enormous proportions that even his power, -great though it was, was insufficient to curb them; finally he paid with -his life for his attempt to confer blessings upon his subjects. In -order to comprehend the difficulties which confronted Alexander the -Second on his accession, it is necessary to take a retrospect of the -preceding reign. - -The Emperor Nicholas the First died on the second of March, 1855. He had -reigned twenty-nine years and nine months. During all these years he had -ruled his gigantic empire with an iron hand and had stood before the -world as the most brilliant as well as the most imperious ruler who had -sat upon the throne of the Czars since the death of Peter the Great. He -was the model for the other sovereigns of Europe, and his policy was -adopted with almost servile humility by the monarchs of Austria and -Prussia, the former of whom he reinstated on his throne by overthrowing -the Hungarian revolution, while the latter was allied to him by ties of -marriage. His dislike for reform and “the modern spirit” was caused, it -is said, by the sad experience he had made but a few weeks after his -accession, when a rebellion of the Imperial Guards in his own capital -compelled him to throw shot and shell into his own regiments, and to -quell a widespread conspiracy by the severest measures. At that time -cheers coming from the ranks for “Constantine and the Constitution” had -made the very name of a constitution odious to him. He might not have -taken the demonstration so seriously if he had known that the soldiers, -on being asked by their officers to cheer for Constantine and the -Constitution had asked: “Who is the Constitution?” and were told that -she was Constantine’s wife, whereupon the soldiers cheered lustily. At -all events, Nicholas, who had intended to introduce a number of Western -reforms, took suddenly a great aversion to anything which deviated in -the least from the most autocratic form of government; he punished the -slightest disagreement in political opinion or the most timid opposition -to his imperial will as an act of rebellion. The whole system of -government had been fashioned upon a half Asiatic, half European model; -it combined the absolute--almost divine--power of the Oriental ruler -with a formidable and well-drilled bureaucracy blindly obedient to the -Czar and knowing no other law than his will. - -Nicholas the First was a man of superior intelligence, of indomitable -will, and of great vigor of mind, which enabled him to pay strict -attention to the different departments of the public service. His most -effective instrument was the third section of the Czar’s personal -bureau,--a secret political police by which he overawed the empire and -whose very name caused terror in the heart and home of every Russian -family. Whosoever was unfortunate enough to fall under the suspicion of -this terrible Hermandad--more cruel and more vindictive than the Spanish -Inquisition--might just as well resign himself at once to his -fate,--life-long exile to Siberia or a secret execution, most probably -by strangulation, in one of the prisons of Russia. It was the office of -this secret police, which reported directly to the Emperor, not only to -ferret out crime and bring criminals to justice, but to protect the -subjects of the Czar from contact with hurtful foreign influences, to -confiscate books and newspapers from abroad, to open and read letters, -and to learn family secrets which might be used against the -correspondents or their friends. Everything, in fact, which the imperial -government could think of to cut off Russia from the current of -European ideas, to prevent its subjects from receiving a liberal -education at the universities, to expand their minds by travelling -abroad, to become familiar with the great political and philosophical -questions of the day by a study of literature and newspapers, was done -with rigorous care by the police and approved by the Czar. - -Occasionally the Emperor became indignant at the venality and corruption -of high public officials; but he did not see that this venality and -corruption were but the logical consequence of the system of despotism -and Byzantinism which his will imposed even on the highest members of -the aristocracy. His smile, his praise, was the highest distinction, the -highest aim of the ambition of the aristocracy, and for this servile -subjection to the imperial will they compensated themselves by unbridled -licentiousness and beastly excesses, and by robbing the public treasury. -Because it was well known that the Emperor looked with suspicion on the -universities as nurseries of liberal or revolutionary ideas, the -nobility did not send their sons thither, for fear that the young men -might become infected with these ideas, and that transportation to -Siberia might suddenly interrupt their studies. The nobility, therefore, -deemed it more prudent to send the lads to court or to the military -schools, where they were safe at least from the contagion of European -liberalism. It is really a wonder that, with such an organization of -society and with a system of police surveillance perhaps never equalled -in the world, with a Damocles’ sword always suspended over their heads, -there still remained a number of liberal-minded men, who never abandoned -the hope of better days, never renounced their dream that the time would -come for Russia, as it had come for western Europe, to enter socially -and politically the family of enlightened nations, blessed with liberal -institutions and freed from the despotism of semi-Oriental rulers. These -liberal-minded men and true patriots--professors of the universities, -literary men, and a very small number of young noblemen--lived mostly at -Moscow, where the distance from the observing eye of the ruler and his -court saved them from detection, although their secret influence -pervaded the whole empire, and kept the flame of liberalism burning in -the hearts of the intellectual élite. While Nicholas had thus succeeded -in building up an Eastern despotism on the banks of the Neva, he -endeavored at the same time to impress Europe with the idea of his -unrivalled power. His army was considered one of the best in Europe, and -the immense population of his empire--larger than that of any two of the -other great powers--gave him almost unlimited material for recruits. The -generals commanding these armies were also renowned throughout Europe. -They had won their laurels in the battles against the revolutionary -armies of Poland and Hungary, in conquering the warlike population of -the Caucasus, and subjecting large territories in western Asia to the -white eagle of the Czar. The Russian diplomats had the reputation of -being the shrewdest in Europe, and had either by secret treaties or by -matrimonial alliances succeeded in making Russian influence preponderant -on the continent of Europe. The Emperor Nicholas stood, therefore, on a -commanding height when he provoked the great western powers of Europe, -together with Turkey, to mortal combat. It was a challenge born in -arrogance and political short-sightedness, and it found its deserved -rebuke in a total defeat of the Russian armies and a thorough -humiliation of the Russian Emperor. Nicholas ought to have known that, -in engaging in war with the western powers, he not only endangered his -military prestige, but put to the test also his system of domestic -administration, based entirely on his autocratic will, and silently, -although reluctantly, submitted to by his subjects, as a tribute to his -dominant position in Europe. When by the disasters of the Crimean War -that position was lost, when it became clear to the Russian people that -the Emperor was not absolutely the universal dictator of Europe, not -only his military prestige was destroyed, but his system of domestic -government lost immensely in public estimation. Nicholas felt this -double humiliation so keenly that it was just as much personal chagrin -as physical disease which caused his death even before the war was over. - -It was therefore a heavy burden which his successor, Alexander the -Second, assumed when he ascended the throne on the second of March, -1855. His first duty--and it was a painful and humiliating duty--was to -terminate the Crimean War by accepting the unfavorable terms demanded by -the western powers. In the exhausted condition of the Russian treasury, -and after the disorganization of the Russian armies by a series of -disastrous defeats, nothing was left to the young Czar but to submit to -the inevitable. In doing so he also signed the sentence of death of the -autocratic rule established by his father. A general clamor for reform, -for greater freedom and more liberal laws arose, and Alexander the -Second was only too willing to grant them. He was liberal-minded himself -and kind-hearted, and he was anxious to let the Russian nation partake -of the progress of European civilization. He opened the Russian -universities to all who desired a higher education. He reduced to a -reasonable rate the price for passports, which had been enormous under -Nicholas, he rescinded the burdensome press laws, and modified the law -subjecting all publications to a most rigorous government supervision; -he issued an amnesty to Siberian exiles, including many who had been -banished for political crimes; and he finally crowned this system of -liberal measures by the emancipation of many million serfs, freeing them -from their previous condition of territorial bondage and placing them -directly under government authority. Important changes were also made in -the personnel of the different departments of the public service; a -thorough investigation of these departments proved that the grossest -abuses existed throughout the empire. The army magazines were filled -with chalk instead of flour, and officers who had been dead for twenty -years still remained on the pension lists. Numerous other frauds and -depredations were disclosed, which were eating up the public revenues, -and which had been practised for years by high officials who had enjoyed -the protection of the late Czar. The reforms which Alexander the Second -introduced did not find favor with the officials, and the emancipation -of the serfs fully estranged the nobility, whose interests were damaged -by the loss of their slaves. The Czar therefore soon found himself -between two fires: the Liberals were immoderate in their demands for -still greater liberty, and the nobility attacked the government for -having granted those liberal measures, predicting that the new policy -would terminate in disaster, revolution, and assassination. - -It should not be supposed, however, that Alexander was liberal-minded -in the American sense of the word; he was not,--not even as liberalism -is understood in the western states of Europe. What he tried to be -during the first years of his reign was a liberal-minded autocrat like -Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph the Second of Austria; but the -slightest attempt to limit his authority by any constitution he resented -as a personal insult. When the landed proprietors of the province of -Tver sent him a petition worded in the most humble language, in which -their desire for a constitution was expressed, he flew into a rage, and -sent the two leaders of the meeting to Siberia. But he was inclined to -grant as a personal favor what some of his subjects demanded as their -right, which they wanted guaranteed by law. The system of police -espionage and persecution ceased, because Alexander hated police -denunciations. This change had almost immediately its marked effect on -public life; the people commenced breathing easier. The nightmare of -Siberian exile or perpetual imprisonment ceased haunting their minds. - -After a few years Russian society seemed to have changed its character, -its ideas, its manners; it showed its independence openly, and acted as -though its liberties and rights were safely secured by a magna charta or -constitution. Many thousands of Russian noblemen went to France and -England, no longer simply to amuse themselves and to live well, but to -study western institutions or to place their sons in the colleges; and -no nationality has a greater faculty of assimilation than the Russian. -The ideas of central and western Europe found ready and intelligent -reception in their minds. Hundreds of newspapers, periodicals, and -magazines were founded, and most of them found numerous and eager -readers. Some of these papers became a real power and shaped public -opinion to a remarkable degree. While direct criticism of Russian -affairs and Russian institutions was prohibited, the newspapers -nevertheless found a way to keep their readers posted on all public -events and public men. They published sketches of every-day life in -which every particular was true except the names, and in this human -comedy, scarcely veiled by the transparent fiction, the governors of -provinces, the generals of the army, and especially the directors of the -police, and all the high government officials were exhibited in their -true character; their frauds were exposed, their arbitrary actions, -their abuses of power, and their excesses were denounced. The reading -public were in the secret, and the daily and weekly newspapers became a -regular _chronique scandaleuse_ without subjecting the editors or -publishers to prosecution. - -While these periodicals, published in Russia under the very eyes of the -Czar and of Russian censors, did their share in undermining the -authority of the government, there was another class of Russian -periodicals, published at Paris, London, and Leipsic, which were free -from the embarrassing observation of Russian censors, and which -consequently could speak openly, mention names, attack high officials -and the imperial family. The most famous of the editors of these -periodicals (which were printed abroad, but had nearly their entire -reading public in Russia) was Alexander Herzen, the famous editor and -publisher of “The Bell” (Kolokos). Mr. Herzen was a man of great talent, -and his newspaper soon gained an influence in Russia which became a real -danger to the government. “The Bell” did more for the spread of -socialism in Russia than all other publications combined. It was more -active and more successful than all other newspapers in showing up the -official wrong-doers of the empire and breeding among the masses -contempt for the government and its officers, because every Russian who -could read, read “The Bell,” and got his information about Russian -affairs from Alexander Herzen. The mystery always was: How did “The -Bell” get into Russia? since the government made a most relentless war -on the paper. Nobody could ever tell; the most searching investigations -of the secret police failed to discover the mysterious channel through -which the dangerous paper found its way into Russia. As soon as it had -crossed the frontier, secret printing establishments, unknown to the -police, struck off many thousand copies and circulated them gratuitously -throughout the empire. It was evident that a socialistic or -revolutionary committee was identified with its circulation in Russia. - -But the most notable result brought about by “The Bell” was the change -of attitude in which the Russian government was placed, and (since the -government was the Czar) the attitude in which the Czar suddenly found -himself toward his subjects. The imperial government, under Nicholas, -has been bold and aggressive; under Alexander the Second it was placed -on the defensive; it was compelled to plead with public opinion in order -to clear itself of the attacks made against it, and when these pleas -failed to convince, it resorted again to the old repressive and despotic -measures which were even more odious from having become obsolete for a -number of years. Autocracy, which in the hands of a strong man like -Nicholas the First had been a source of strength and protection, became -in the hands of a weak and vacillating man a source of weakness and -danger. Public opinion, which under Nicholas had been silent, because it -dared not assert itself, turned openly against Alexander, who had -removed the bars which kept it in check and the fear which repressed its -utterances. - - * * * * * - -It is time here to refer shortly to the origin and growth of a political -doctrine which at this time appeared in Russia and which has had a great -and pernicious influence on Russian history,--Nihilism. The name appears -for the first time in the famous novel of Ivan Turgenieff, “Fathers and -Sons,” and designates a political programme which has found its most -numerous and most enthusiastic adherents among the young men and women -of Russia, especially of the educated and professional classes, the -students and professors of the universities. It first manifested its -existence shortly after the death of the Emperor Nicholas, when, through -the liberal measures of his successor, the high schools and academies of -the empire were opened to the people, when the universities were filled -with thousands of young students, eager to learn and imbibe -philosophical and political principles which until then had been unknown -to them. The Nihilistic party aimed at a total regeneration of society -and at the destruction of its present organization in state, church, and -social institutions, and it found its explanation and excuse in the -widespread corruption, brutality, and despotism of the officials. It is -a mistake to confound the Nihilists with the Liberals or even with the -Socialists who are advocating reforms or the abolition of certain -political or social abuses. The Nihilists are not aiming at reforms; -they simply demand the overthrow and complete annihilation of the -existing social system with all its institutions, until nothing (nihil) -remains standing. The reconstruction of society, based upon principles -of reason and justice, is their ideal; but they leave the realization of -this ideal to future generations, and advocate for the present the -employment of all means, even the most reprehensible, for the attainment -of their immediate aim. The originators and great apostles of the new -party were Alexander Herzen and Bakúnin, who imbued the young persons of -both sexes with an implacable hatred for the present system of -government and social organization. They made not only despotism but all -authority odious. - -The first public manifestation of Nihilism was Karakasow’s attempt on -the life of Alexander the Second in 1866. It failed, and at the trial it -appeared that the attempt was not founded on individual hostility, but -on abhorrence of authority in general. The attempt on the life of -General Trepow, minister of police, in 1878, showed the dangerous and -rapid progress which the party had made. The assailant was an educated -young woman, Vera Sassoulitch, who wanted to revenge official injustice -by punishing one of its most prominent representatives. She was -acquitted by a jury at St. Petersburg on February 5, 1878; and this -acquittal, brought about by the ostentatious manifestation of the -sympathy of the higher classes during her trial, caused a sensation -throughout Europe. The Czar himself was enraged at the result of the -trial, and devoted himself to the extermination of Nihilism by all means -in his power. The issue had then been dearly made. Nihilism had by that -time become very aggressive. It was no longer satisfied with preaching a -philosophical doctrine, but it openly advocated a policy of murder and -incendiarism, in order to frighten and disorganize society, and -especially public officials. On the other hand, the government resorted -to the most rigorous measures to exterminate the Nihilists wherever they -could be found. - -Alexander the Second suffered terribly when he became aware, too late -for him to master it, of the new intellectual movement and its political -results in his empire. The situation was the more painful to him, -because his own conscience as well as the old Russian party held him -principally responsible for it. It was he who had set free that liberal -propagandism which had culminated in this terrible agitation for the -destruction of society, and which had entirely outgrown his control. -Alexander’s mental condition, on this discovery, would form an -interesting subject for the psychologist. From the day when he began to -reign as an enthusiastic, well-intentioned man of thirty-seven, to the -days of his disappointments as a ruler and reformer, ending with one of -the most terrible catastrophes of modern times, his career challenges, -for adequate treatment, the genius of a Shakespeare. No wonder that he -became despondent and thought of abdication,--a thought which reappeared -with ever increasing force to the end of his reign. - -Nor was this feeling of discouragement and weariness of life caused -exclusively by the fear of personal danger; on the contrary, Alexander -knew only too well that he was not the only object of Nihilistic -persecution, but that all those dear to his heart and also those whom he -honored with his confidence and friendship were equally exposed. - -The attempt on the life of General Trepow had still another effect on -the Czar. It effectually eradicated from his mind his previous -predilection for liberal reforms and a paternal government; it stirred -up a feeling of resentment and hatred against revolutionists, reformers, -and liberals which had never been noticed in him before, and which -manifested itself in the most severe measures of repression. To his -great chagrin he saw soon that these measures were utterly unavailing to -repress the spirit of rebellion in the empire and in his own capital. -Nihilism spread with the unconquerable fury of a contagious epidemic and -defied all measures of the authorities to check it. On the twenty-first -of February, 1879, Prince Krapotkine, Governor of Charkow, was -assassinated; and shortly after, attempts were made on the lives of -General Drentelen, a great favorite at court, and of Count Lewis -Melikow, Secretary of the Interior. - - * * * * * - -Alexander himself was exposed to a number of murderous attempts. His -escape from the one made by Alexander Sokoloff, a school-teacher of -Toropetz, in the district of Pskoff, is almost miraculous. On the -fourteenth of April, 1879, at nine o’clock in the morning, the Emperor, -seated in an open carriage, was waiting in front of the palace of Prince -Gortschakoff, his Secretary of State. Sokoloff approached the carriage -without having been noticed by the attendants. He was well dressed, wore -a military cap, and looked like a retired officer. Standing within a few -feet of Alexander, he suddenly pulled forth from under his coat a -revolver, and, in rapid succession, fired four shots at him, all of -which, however, missed their aim. The would-be murderer was immediately -overpowered by the Emperor’s attendants; but during the struggle he -fired a fifth shot which severely wounded one of the servants. Sokoloff -had two capsules containing poison, fastened with wax under his armpits. -He succeeded in swallowing one of them before he could be prevented, but -an antidote was immediately administered and saved his life. He was -sentenced to death and executed without having confessed the motive of -his assault or given the names of any accomplices. - -After this attempt the most vigorous and ingenious measures were taken -for the Emperor’s protection. When, in the summer of the same year, -Alexander travelled from St. Petersburg to Livadia, he was taken to the -depot in an iron carriage and escorted by four companies of cavalry. -Moreover the depot was surrounded by several regiments of infantry and -cavalry, and nobody was permitted to approach it. Similar measures of -precaution had been taken at all railway stations along the route where -the imperial train was expected to stop. At all railroad crossings -police officers and detectives had been stationed to prevent even the -possibility of a collision with the imperial train. Another train filled -entirely with the body-guards and high police officials preceded, at a -short distance, the Emperor and his family. A large detective force was -stationed along the whole route, and scoured the country for miles on -both sides of the railroad, making it impossible for anybody to approach -the track without being closely observed. At night, the entire route was -lit up on either side with immense bonfires built at short distances in -order to make the surveillance of the road as complete during the night -as during the day. In order not to delay the imperial train on the road, -all other trains were stopped for days, and the most stringent orders -were issued that no persons should approach either the depots or any -part of the railroad. - -That travelling under such circumstances was not a pleasure, and would -make a man exceedingly nervous, if not absolutely ill, may well be -imagined. But in spite of these and other precautions almost passing -human belief, a new attempt on the Emperor’s life was made during his -return trip from Livadia to Moscow. On the first of December, 1879, -Alexander had arrived at Moscow safely; but about ten or fifteen minutes -later a mine exploded, which had been established under the railroad -track in the immediate vicinity of the depot. The explosion occurred at -the moment when the second imperial train was passing. It demolished the -baggage car and threw seven or eight passenger cars off the track. -Fortunately nobody was seriously hurt. The Emperor and his suite were on -the first train this time, while the Nihilists had supposed they would -be on the second. - -Less than three months later, on the seventeenth of February, 1880, the -Czar was in much greater danger at St. Petersburg. At about seven -o’clock P.M., on that day, as he was on the point of entering the -dining-room of his palace, suddenly a terrible dynamite explosion -occurred underneath the hall occupied by the Imperial Guards. The -explosion was so violent that all the windows in that wing of the palace -were shattered, the ceilings of the rooms in the lower story and of the -hall of the guards were full of holes, and the floors torn to pieces, -while the tables and the dishes in the imperial dining-room were hurled -in all directions. Eight soldiers and two servants of the imperial -household were killed, while forty-five were more or less seriously -wounded. - -This new attempt on his life, with the attending number of victims, -impressed the Czar’s mind so deeply that it brought on a new attack of -melancholy which his physicians were powerless to subdue. Domestic -troubles added to his mental depression, and caused apprehensions of a -total collapse of his mental faculties. His general health had also -greatly suffered from the long continued strain of his nervous system. -In June, 1880, his wife died after a lingering illness. She was a -princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, very handsome and highly accomplished when -he married her, in 1841. But the marriage was not a happy one. For quite -a number of years the Czar carried on a liaison with the beautiful -Princess Dolgorouki, and shortly after the death of the Empress he -contracted a morganatic marriage with her, in spite of the energetic -protests of the Czarowitz and his other children. The Princess had great -influence over Alexander’s decisions as a ruler; and when he seemed to -have made up his mind to abdicate and retire to private life, she -prevented the consummation of this design by her emphatic protests. -Alexander had formed the plan to transfer the crown to his son, but only -on one condition: that the Princess, his wife, should always be treated -by the imperial family with the same consideration as the deceased -Empress, and that her children should also be treated as brothers and -sisters by the Czar. But when he informed the Princess of this plan, she -flew into a passion, rejected the proposition most angrily, saying that -she knew the feelings of the Czarowitz toward her too well to place any -confidence in his promises, and demanded, as a proof of his affection -for her, that Alexander should forever renounce his plan of abdication. -Alexander therefore remained, much against his own inclination, on the -throne until the day of his death, the thirteenth of March, 1881. - -On the forenoon of that day he returned from the residence of the -Princess to the Winter Palace, driving along the St. Michael’s Canal. He -was escorted by a small detachment of cavalry and an adjutant of the -Director of Police. About midway between the residence of the Princess -and the Winter Palace a man ran up to the imperial carriage throwing a -bomb charged with dynamite under the horses. It killed two men of the -Czar’s escort and wounded three others. In spite of the protests of the -police officer and the driver, who insisted on taking the Czar as -rapidly as possible to the Winter Palace, he alighted, unhurt as he was, -to look after the victims of the attack. In doing so, he exclaimed: -“Thank God, I was not hurt!” But the man who had thrown the bomb and -been seized by the escort, hearing the Czar’s exclamation, replied: -“Perhaps it is not time yet to thank God!” At the same time another -person hurled a bomb at the feet of the Emperor. His legs were broken by -the explosion, his abdomen was torn open so that the intestines -protruded, and his face was badly disfigured. The Emperor fell to the -ground, exclaiming: “Help me! Quick to the Palace! I am dying!” The -explosion was so violent that the windows of a church and of the -imperial stables situated on the opposite side of the Canal were -shattered. Many persons were killed or wounded. The imperial carriage -was also considerably damaged. The Emperor was therefore lifted into a -sleigh, which returned to the Winter Palace at a gallop. The blood -flowed in great quantity from his wounds, and as he was carried up the -large stairway of the Palace he fainted. The surgeons found it -impossible to stop the hemorrhage, and at thirty-five minutes past three -o’clock in the afternoon he breathed his last without having recovered -consciousness for a moment. - -The assassination caused the most intense excitement in the capital. A -shout of triumph went up from the Executive Committee of the Nihilists, -and a few days afterward the people of St. Petersburg could read the -following manifesto, which, in spite of the care of the police, had been -posted in several conspicuous places: - - “The Executive Committee consider it necessary once more to - announce to all the world that it repeatedly warned the tyrant now - assassinated, repeatedly advised him to put an end to his homicidal - obstinacy, and to restore to Russia its natural rights. Every one - knows that the tyrant paid no attention to these warnings and - pursued his former policy. Reprisals continued. The Executive - Committee never drop their weapons. They resolved to execute the - despot at whatever cost. On the thirteenth of March this was done. - - “We address ourselves to the newly crowned Alexander the Third, - reminding him that he must be just. Russia, exhausted by famine, - worn out by the arbitrary proceedings of the administration, - continually losing its sons on the gallows, in the mines, in exile, - or in wearisome inactivity caused by the present _régime_,--Russia - cannot longer live thus. She demands liberty. She must live in - conformity with her demands, her wishes, and her will. We remind - Alexander the Third that every violator of the will of the people - is the nation’s enemy and tyrant. The death of Alexander the Second - shows the vengeance which follows such acts.” - -These accusations were only partly true. Alexander, on ascending the -throne, had honestly tried to introduce reforms, abolish abuses and pave -the way for a progressive, liberal government. But his liberal policy -did not satisfy the Nihilists. And when in self-protection he fell back -on the former policy of repression, the Nihilists began a war of -reprisals, and finally murdered the Czar. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -WILLIAM McKINLEY - -[Illustration: WILLIAM McKINLEY] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM McKINLEY - -PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES - -(September 6, 1901) - - -The North-American Republic had lived eighty-nine years before political -assassination made its entrance into its domain. From 1776 to 1865, a -period occasionally as turbulent, excited and torn by political discord -and strife as any other period in history, political assassinations kept -away from its shores, and appeared only at the close of the great Civil -War between the North and the South, selecting for its victim the -noblest, gentlest, most kind-hearted of Americans who had filled the -Presidential chair. - -Sixteen years later, on July 2, 1881, the second political assassination -took place in the United States, resulting in the death of President -James A. Garfield, after months of intense suffering from a wound -inflicted by a bullet fired by Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed -office-seeker. By removing the President this man hoped to restore -harmony in the Republican party, which, in the state of New York at -least, had been disturbed by the feud between James G. Blaine and Roscoe -Conkling. Guiteau imagined that President Garfield had become an -interested party in this feud by appointing Mr. Blaine his Secretary of -State. His was the act of a vindictive madman. - -Twenty years had elapsed since Guiteau’s horrible crime, and again a -President of the United States was prostrated by the bullet of an -assassin, who, at the moment of committing the crime, proclaimed himself -an Anarchist. When William McKinley was reëlected President in November, -1900, a successful and perhaps glorious second term seemed to be in -store for him. During his first term the policy of the Republican party -had earned great triumphs, and the President, who was in full accord -with his party on all economical questions, and was even its most -prominent leader on the tariff question, had justly shared these -triumphs. - -Quite unexpectedly the question of armed intervention in Cuba had been -sprung in the middle of Mr. McKinley’s first term of office, and after -having exhausted all diplomatic means to prevent war and to induce Spain -to grant satisfactory terms to the Cubans, the President was forced into -a declaration of war by the enthusiasm of the Senators and -Representatives assembled at Washington. But, as if everything -undertaken by Mr. McKinley was to be blessed with phenomenal success, -the war with Spain was not only instrumental in securing the thing for -which it had been undertaken,--the liberty and independence of the -island of Cuba,--but it had also an entirely unexpected effect on the -international standing of the United States. Up to the time of the -Spanish-American War the United States had always been considered an -exclusively American power, and while the European powers seemed to be -willing to concede to it a leading position--a sort of hegemony--in all -American affairs (including Central and South America), which the -United States had assumed by the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine in -1823, they had never invited the American government to their councils -treating of European or other non-American affairs. The Spanish-American -War was a revelation to Europe. It opened its eyes to the fact that over -night, while Europe had been sleeping and dreaming only of its own -greatness, a young giant had grown up on the other side of the Atlantic -who was just beginning to feel his own strength and who seemed to make -very light of time-honored sovereignty rights and inherited titles of -possession. As the Atlantic cable flashed over its wires the reports of -American victories and achievements of astounding magnitude,--the -destruction of two powerful Spanish fleets, followed by the surrender of -the large Spanish armies in the Philippine islands and Cuba,--Europe -stood aghast at this superb display of power and naval superiority, and -European statesmen reluctantly admitted that a new world-power of the -first order had been born, and that it might be prudent to invite it to -a seat among the great powers. History is often a great satirist; it was -so in this case. Spain had for a long time made application for -admission to a seat among the great powers of the world and had pointed -to her great colonies and to her splendid navy as her credentials -entitling her to membership in the illustrious company. But England and -Germany, fearing that Spain would strengthen France and Russia by her -influence and navy, kept her out of it. And now comes a young American -nation which nobody had thought of as a great military and naval power, -makes very short work of Spain’s navy, robs her of all her colonies, and -coolly, without having asked for it, takes the seat which Spain had -vainly sighed for. - -In a monarchy a large part if not the whole of the glory of these -achievements on land and sea would have been ascribed to the ruler under -whose reign they occurred. It was so with Louis the Fourteenth and Queen -Elizabeth, but William McKinley was entirely too modest to claim for -himself honors which did not exclusively belong to him. Nevertheless a -great deal was said about imperialism and militarism during the -campaign, and these charges were even made a strong issue against Mr. -McKinley’s reëlection. However, the good judgment of the American people -disregarded them and reëlected Mr. McKinley by a considerably larger -majority than he had received four years before. - -It might have been supposed that this flattering endorsement of Mr. -McKinley’s first administration would have allayed all opposition to him -personally, because certainly his experience, his conceded integrity and -ability, his great influence in the councils of his party, and his -immense popularity would have been of inestimable value in adjusting and -solving the new problems of administration arising from the acquisition -of our new insular possessions in the Pacific and the West Indies. While -the two great political parties, and in fact all other parties, had -bowed to this decision of the people at the ballot-box, there was, -unfortunately, a class of men in the United States as well as in Europe -who made war upon the present organization of society as unjust to the -poor man, and upon all government, which they declared hostile and -detrimental to the rights of individuals, and which they considered the -source of all wrongs and miseries. This doctrine was originated by a -French philosopher, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, in his famous pamphlet -published in 1850 and entitled: “What is Property?” He denounces the -unequal division and distribution of property among men and the unjust -accumulation of capital in the hands of the few as the source of all -social evils, and, concluding with the emphatic declaration that all -property is theft, demands its readjustment and re-apportionment on a -basis of strict justice as the sole hope for happiness. Proudhon’s ideas -and arguments found an echo throughout Europe. He had considered the -question only in its economical bearings; but some of his disciples -extended the inquiry in all other directions, and showed the hurtful -influence of accumulated power and property on all other social -conditions, especially on politics and the government of nations. They -demanded the reinstatement of the individual in all his natural rights, -and a destruction of all those powers and laws which stood in the way of -the free and unobstructed exercise of those rights. This meant a -declaration of war on all established authority and government. It meant -anarchy in the literal sense of the word, and the men who had adopted -this doctrine as their political platform called themselves Anarchists. - -On the twenty-ninth of September, 1872, a violent schism occurred at the -congress of the International Association of Laborers, held at the -Hague, between the partisans of Carl Marx and those of Bakúnin, and from -this date we must count the origin of the anarchistic party. In the -United States the first symptoms of an anarchistic movement appeared in -1878. At the Socialist congress held at Albany, N. Y., the majority of -delegates, who were advocates of peaceable methods of propagandism, -were opposed by a minority of revolutionists preaching the most extreme -measures. The leader of this minority was Justus Schwab, who was then -publishing a socialistic newspaper, “The Voice of the People,” at St. -Louis. He was a friend and admirer of John Most, who had been imprisoned -in England for his revolutionary and seditious articles, and who was, -unquestionably, the intellectual leader of the radical minority at -Albany. The final rupture between the two factions occurred a year -later, at the congress at Alleghany, Pa., in 1879, when the radical -revolutionists, who were in a majority, expelled the moderate faction -from the convention. The radical wing has grown rapidly in numbers and -power, and its influence has made itself felt repeatedly on lamentable -occasions, the last of which was the assassination of William McKinley, -President of the United States, during the Pan-American Exposition at -Buffalo, on September 6, 1901. - -The great American cities, from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific, are -hot-beds of extreme political radicalism; Italian Carbonarism and -Russian Nihilism are represented in those cities by some of their most -daring representatives, whose official programme is destruction of -authority by the assassination of its most exalted heads, and subversion -of law. By placing William McKinley in line with the monarchs who were -the special targets of their inflammatory harangues and writings, danger -and death were attracted to his person with magnetic power: and what in -the intention of party opponents was but a forcible means of attacking -Mr. McKinley’s and his party’s colonial policy (to disappear again with -his election) may have lingered in the heated imaginations of these -avowed regicides, and may have intensified their feelings against him, -as the most exalted representative of law and order (with alleged -imperial designs) in this country. Several months before the -assassination took place it was reported that detectives had ferreted -out at Paterson, N. J., which is known as a gathering-place of Italian -anarchists and assassins, a conspiracy which had for its object the -assassination of all European monarchs and of President McKinley. This -report, when published in the newspapers, was received with laughter and -contempt by the reading public. The mere idea appeared too absurd to -deserve even a moment’s attention, and the result was that to the recent -assassinations of the Empress of Austria and King Humbert of Italy was -added the tragedy of Buffalo. - -Only a few months after Mr. McKinley was inaugurated for his second term -of office, the Pan-American Exposition was held at Buffalo. Mr. McKinley -had, from the very inception of the great undertaking which was to shed -new lustre upon his administration, given to it great attention and -cordial encouragement. For the first time, such an exposition was to -exhibit all the products, natural and artificial, of the two Americas in -one common presentation, challenging the admiration or the criticism of -the world on the intellectual and industrial standing which this display -manifested. The result was grand, and in many respects surpassed -expectation. It emphasized the impression already created by the Chicago -World’s Fair of 1893, that America would within a short time become a -dangerous rival for Europe in many departments of industry, not only at -home, but even in foreign countries which up to that time had almost -held a monopoly for supplying certain articles of manufacture. The -departments in which articles of steel and iron manufacture, electrical -machines, etc., were exhibited showed such superiority over what old -Europe could show that even the most prejudiced visitors from abroad had -to concede it. - -It had been expected that President McKinley, by his presence on several -days in some official capacity, would heighten the interest and -emphasize the importance of the Exposition. He had promised and planned -to do so. In the summer of 1901 he made a trip to the Pacific coast, and -was everywhere welcomed with boisterous enthusiasm. Mrs. McKinley -accompanied him, sharing his popularity and triumphs. Perhaps no -President since George Washington had to a higher degree possessed the -confidence and love of the whole people than Mr. McKinley did at the -time of his second inauguration. Even his political opponents conceded -his eminent worth, his integrity, his loyalty to duty, and his sincere -desire to promote the general welfare of the country. The short -addresses which he made during his trip to California found an -enthusiastic echo in the hearts of his fellow-citizens, East and West; -the ovations he received and which he accepted with becoming modesty and -tact, were heartily endorsed by the nation as symptomatic of the -universal feeling of harmony and of good-will toward the administration. -The ante-election charges of imperialism were laughed at, and both -parties seemed to be willing to make the best of the results of the war. -Moreover the great urbanity of manners, and the personal amiability -which distinguished Mr. McKinley were the strongest refutations of these -ridiculous imperialistic charges and of Mr. McKinley’s ambition to be -clothed with royal honors. He showed equal courtesy to rich and poor, -and his grasp of the laborer’s hand was just as cordial as of the rich -merchant’s. - -The Presidential party had reached San Francisco, and its reception -there was fully as enthusiastic as it had been in the cities along the -route to the Pacific. It had been the President’s intention to stop at -Buffalo on his return from his trip to California, to be the guest of -the managers of the Exposition for a few days, and to perform those -duties and ceremonies which were expected of him as head of the nation. -Unfortunately this programme could not be carried out. Mrs. McKinley, -always in very delicate health, fell seriously ill at San Francisco, and -for several days her life was despaired of. She recovered; but as soon -as she was able to bear the discomforts of transportation, without -inviting the danger of a relapse, the President’s return to the East was -decided on, and all his previous appointments were cancelled. His -intention to visit Buffalo, during the continuance of the Exposition, -was, however, not abandoned, but simply postponed to a more opportune -time, after Mrs. McKinley should have recovered her usual strength. - -Mr. McKinley came to Buffalo in the first week of September. The -Exposition had attracted many thousands of visitors who were anxious to -greet the President. On the fifth--which had been made President’s -Day--he delivered an address to a very large audience, in which he spoke -feelingly of the blessings bestowed by Providence on this country, and -in eloquent terms referred to the unexampled prosperity enjoyed by its -citizens. That secret and unaccountable influence which frequently -inspires men on the verge of the grave and endows them with almost -prophetic foresight seemed to have taken possession of Mr. McKinley on -this occasion. The speech was, perhaps, the best he had ever made. It -was the speech of a statesman and patriot, full of wisdom and love of -country. He did not know, when he made it, that it would be his farewell -address to the American people; but if he had known it and written it -for that purpose, he could not have made it loftier in spirit, more -patriotic in sentiment, and more convincing in argument. - -On the afternoon of the next day a grand reception had been arranged for -the President at the Temple of Music. An immense multitude had -assembled, eager to shake hands with Mr. McKinley and to have the honor -of exchanging a few words with him. He was in the very best of spirits -and performed the ceremony of handshaking with that amiable and cordial -expression on his features which won him so many hearts. It had been -arranged that only one person at a time should pass by him, and that -after a rapid salutation his place should be taken by the next comer. -Hundreds had already exchanged greetings with the President, when a -young man with smooth face and dark hair stepped up to him. Mr. McKinley -noticed that the right hand of the young man was bandaged, as though it -had been wounded, and he therefore made a move to grasp his left hand; -but at that moment the young man raised his right hand, and in quick -succession fired two shots at the President, which both wounded -him,--the one aimed at his chest, lightly, because the bullet deflected -from the breastbone; the other, which had penetrated the abdomen, very -seriously. The assassin had carried a revolver in his right hand and -had covered it with a handkerchief in order to avoid detection. Mr. -McKinley did not realize immediately that he was wounded, although from -the effects of the shot he staggered and fell into the arms of a -detective who was standing near him. - -“Am I shot?” asked the President. The officer opened the President’s -vest, and seeing the blood, answered: “Yes, I am afraid you are, Mr. -President.” - -The assassin was immediately thrown to the ground. Twenty men were upon -him, and it was with some difficulty that he was rescued from their -grasp. At first he gave a fictitious name, and, when asked for his -motive, replied: “I am an Anarchist, and have done my duty.” His -statements shortly after his arrest seemed to implicate a number of more -or less prominent Anarchists in the crime and to make it appear as the -result of a widespread conspiracy. In consequence a number of the -recognized leaders of the party--especially Emma Goldmann, whom the -assailant named as the person whose teachings had inspired him with the -idea of committing the crime--were arrested and held for a preliminary -examination; but nothing could be proven against them, and they were -discharged. - -After a few days the assailant made a full confession. His name was Leon -Czolgosz; he was a Pole by birth, and his family lived at Detroit. He -was a believer in Anarchism and had murdered the President because he -considered him the chief representative of that authority which, in his -opinion, was hurtful to the development of a society founded on the -equal rights of all its members. He had had no accomplices: he had not -consulted with anybody concerning the plan, time, or execution of the -crime, but he had resolved upon and executed it on his own -responsibility. While his confession fully exonerated both the Anarchist -party at large and all its members individually, it nevertheless showed -what terrible consequences may arise from the propagandism of a party -which has declared war on the existing organization of society, when its -doctrines inflame the mind of a fanatic or of an unthinking proselyte. -Public opinion in the United States was stirred to its very depths, all -parties vying with one another in showing not only their abhorrence of -the crime, but also their love and admiration for the illustrious -victim. - -Unfortunately the hopes of the American people that Mr. McKinley would -survive the foul and senseless attempt on his life were disappointed. -For about a week his condition seemed to improve, and his strong -vitality seemed to rise superior to the weakening effects of a dangerous -surgical operation which failed to produce the second bullet, deeply -seated as it was in the spine. At first he rallied from the severe -shock, and his physicians were hopeful of saving his life, but in the -afternoon of September 12, a sudden change for the worse occurred which, -it was soon noticed, indicated the approach of dissolution. He remained -conscious till about seven o’clock in the evening of September 13, and -faced death in the same spirit of calmness and submission to the will of -God which had characterized his whole career. “Good-bye, all; good-bye. -It is God’s way. His will be done!” were his last conscious words to the -members of his cabinet and other friends who, overcome with emotion, -were at his bedside. The end came shortly after two o’clock in the -morning, on September 14, apparently without pain. - -President McKinley’s death made a profound impression on the American -people. The rage of the people of Buffalo against the assassin was -boundless, and but for the efficient measures for protecting him at the -station-house in which he was imprisoned, he very likely would have -fallen a victim to the fury of the thousands who surrounded it. The -entire police force and several companies of soldiers were kept under -arms to be ready for any emergency. - -The body of the dead President was first taken to Washington, and thence -to its final resting-place at Canton, Ohio. The obsequies were of -imposing grandeur and magnificence; but even more impressive than these, -and more honorable to his memory, was the sorrow of a whole nation in -tears over his untimely and cruel death. - -President McKinley’s death is typical of the modern attempts on the -lives of sovereigns and prominent men. These attempts have lost much of -the personal character which in former times made them so interesting. -They are much more the results of a wholesale conspiracy against the -organization of society than against great individuals. Unfortunately -political assassinations have not become of rarer occurrence during the -last fifty years, as might have been hoped from the progress of -education and civilization. On the contrary, they have multiplied with -the spread and development of Anarchism. The Anarchist makes no -distinction between the bad ruler and the good ruler. The fact that the -ruler occupies an exalted station above his fellow-men makes him an -object of hatred for the Anarchist, and justifies his removal from an -elevation which is a danger to all. At the present time men very high in -authority, whether in a monarchy or in a republic, are always exposed -to the daggers or pistols or--what is much worse--to the dynamite or -other explosives of assassins. - -The field of operation of these murderers--who are generally the deluded -agents of a central organization of Anarchists, and who have frequently -no personal grievance against their victims--extends not only all over -Europe, from Russia to Spain, but also to the western hemisphere. - -While these murders fall with the same crushing effect upon the nations -immediately stricken in the persons of their rulers or intellectual -leaders, the interest in the causes leading to them is essentially -diminished since they are all inspired by the same general -motive,--destruction of authority,--and since the hand armed with the -fatal weapon strikes with blind fanaticism, sparing neither age nor sex -nor merit; in fact, quite often slaying those who deserve to live, and -sparing those whose death might be a benefit to their country and the -world. In this way we have seen the Czar Alexander the Second of Russia, -the emancipator of the Russian serfs; General Prim, who, if he had lived -longer, might have secured a constitutional government for Spain and her -political regeneration; the Empress Elizabeth of Austria, a faultless -and much betrayed wife as well as a bereaved mother; King Humbert, whose -best endeavors were made in behalf of a reunited Italy; President Sadi -Carnot, one of the purest and most patriotic statesmen the French -Republic has had; and last, though not least, our genial and -noble-hearted President, William McKinley,--all falling victims to the -senseless vindictiveness of men who do not persecute wrong and -oppression, but power and authority in whatever form they may present -themselves. We have selected the assassination of President McKinley as -representative of this class of political murders, because he was -dearest to the American heart, and also because, in our opinion, he was -the most illustrious of the many victims of anarchistic vengeance. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -ALEXANDER I AND DRAGA - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER I. OF SERVIA] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER I AND DRAGA, KING AND QUEEN OF SERVIA - -(June 11, 1903) - - -The Balkan countries--Servia, Bulgaria, Roumania, Bosnia, and -Herzegovina--are generally considered the political centre from which -will spread, sooner or later, the conflagration of a gigantic war, which -will eventually place Russia in possession of Constantinople and -European Turkey. Some of these Balkan countries are nominally -independent, others are still under the suzerainty of the Sultan, who -holds on to them with the energy of despair. He watches every change in -the political situation with the carefulness of a physician who knows -that his patient is doomed, but who hopes that he may for a while -prolong his life. The half Oriental, half European character of the -populations of these Balkan states, their unquenchable thirst for -national independence, their defiance and hatred of their oppressors, -their contempt for the impotent Turkish administration, and their hope -of improving their condition by some political change,--are singularly -favorable to insurrections and revolutions. Russia is nursing this -revolutionary spirit with great skill and prudence, trusting to the -proper moment for harvesting the fruit of the seed which she has been -sowing for upwards of a century. Ever since the days of Catherine the -Second Russia has stood, so to speak, like a sentinel on the lookout for -the favorable moment to pounce down on Turkey, to plant the White Eagle -on the peaks of Macedonia and Roumelia, and to take possession of the -Dardanelles as a Russian ship-canal between the Black Sea and the -Mediterranean. Every commotion and revolution in any of the Balkan -states helps her in her far-seeing ambition, especially now since France -will stand by her as an ally. It is in this sense and for this reason -that the terrible tragedy which occurred at Belgrade, Servia, on the -eleventh of June, 1903, may claim a place in this gallery of historical -assassinations. From it sooner or later events of the first magnitude -may develop, and while at present comparative quiet has been restored at -the Servian capital, the change of dynasty may lead to the most serious -international complications. - -The reign of Alexander the First of Servia was ushered into existence by -means of a _coup d’état_ at midnight on the sixth of March, 1889; it -terminated after midnight on the eleventh day of June, 1903, by -assassination. - -The manner in which King Milan forfeited his throne, and again the -manner in which King Alexander lost both his throne and his life, as -well as the many tragedies and comedies which occurred in the royal -family of Servia between these two events,--all these details seem to be -rather detached chapters of a highly sensational novel than the sober -and truthful records of recent history. - -At the age of twenty-one, on the seventeenth of October, 1875, King -Milan of Servia married Princess Natalia Keschko, the daughter of a -colonel in the Russian army; Natalia’s mother, however, was the daughter -of a Roumanian prince. Natalia was seventeen years old at the time, and -of marvellous beauty. She was one of the most admirable beauties of the -Russian capital, and King Milan, who fell desperately in love with her -at first sight, found but little encouragement from her, in spite of his -exalted rank, because the young lady herself was in love with a Russian -officer and was loved in return. But Colonel Keschko, who was ambitious -and prized very highly the honor of a family alliance with a reigning -King, by his paternal veto put an end to his daughter’s sentimental -love-affair and compelled her to accept King Milan’s hand. - -It is but just to say that Princess Natalia proved herself in every -respect worthy of the honor conferred upon her. As Queen of Servia she -was not only the most beautiful woman of the kingdom, but she was a -model wife, and opened her heart and mind to all the patriotic -aspirations of the Servian people. When shortly afterwards a war broke -out between Servia and Turkey, she personally appealed to the Czar for -assistance, went to the hospitals to nurse the wounded, cared for the -widows and orphans, and became not only a popular favorite, but -deservedly won the esteem of the Servian nation. - -It was a day of public rejoicing, when on August 14, 1876, she bore the -King a son, who was named Alexander after his godfather, Alexander the -Second of Russia. Another son, born two years later, died a few days -after his birth. Soon after the birth of his son Alexander, King Milan -commenced neglecting his wife and bestowed his favor on other women of -the court. The Queen felt the King’s neglect very keenly, and became -often an indignant witness to his liaisons, which he did not think it -worth while to conceal from her. The anger and contempt she felt for the -indelicate voluptuary gave her strength to overcome the love which had -gradually grown up in her heart for the father of her son, and to this -son she transferred all the tenderness her heart was capable of. The -Servian people soon saw and learned what was going on at court, and -while they condemned and despised the King, they praised and idolized -the Queen. - -Under such lamentable conditions young Alexander grew up to adolescence. -He was greatly attached to his mother, and applied to her as his adviser -and friend in all questions, while he could hardly conceal his profound -aversion for his father. The King noticed this growing hostility in his -son and heir, and blamed the Queen for having incited it. He saw in it a -deep-laid plot on her part to secure a controlling position which would -enable her, at any given opportunity, to place her son on the throne and -to assume the reins of government under his name. The breach thus -created between the father and the mother, and every day widened by the -excesses and orgies of the King, reached its climax when the question -arose who should be appointed instructors to prepare the prince for his -future duties as the head of the Servian nation. Milan wanted Austrian -instructors for his son, because he had been leaning on Austrian -influence; the Queen, in sympathy with the national demands as well as -prompted by her own impulses, insisted on Russian preceptors, to -initiate him into the maze of European politics and to open his mind to -the aspirations of Servian genius. It is said that one day when the -discussion had grown very warm between husband and wife, and when he -accused the Queen of purposely estranging his son’s heart from him, she -reproached him with the indignities he had heaped upon her, with his -many acts of infidelity, and with his low and vulgar excesses, which, -she said, imperilled the dynasty. The King was dumfounded by this -torrent of invectives, which he could neither stop nor contradict, but -which left in his heart a wound which his pride would not permit to heal -up. It seems certain that from that day his resolution was taken to -obtain a divorce from his wife for a double purpose: first, that he -might not be hindered by her from following his low inclinations; -second, that he might withdraw his son from the Queen’s influence and -surround him with his own creatures. The question was, how could he -obtain this divorce from a wife whose conduct was exemplary, and who was -almost worshipped by the whole people for her private and public -virtues? It was clear to him that to succeed in his design he had to -ruin her character, and on this conviction he built a plot of diabolical -malice. Under a plausible pretext he arranged a private meeting in the -Queen’s apartments between her and the Metropolitan of Servia. This -bishop was known to have an almost worshipful admiration for the Queen; -upon him, therefore, it was supposed, the suspicion of illicit relations -with her could be fastened easily. No sooner had the Metropolitan -entered the Queen’s apartments than the King, accompanied by some of his -intimates, appeared on the scene and “surprised the guilty couple.” The -plot failed miserably; the King’s hand appeared too visibly in the -arrangement and execution to leave any doubt in the public mind as to -the Queen’s innocence. His evident intention to brand an innocent and -much wronged wife as an adulteress lowered Milan even more in the -estimation of the people, and they commenced talking openly of the -necessity for his abdication. - -The Queen thereafter refused to live with the King, and this refusal -gave him the desired pretext to obtain a divorce. They separated in -1888. Alexander was then twelve years old. The Queen went to Wiesbaden, -and took her boy with her; but on the application of King Milan to the -German authorities, the boy was taken away from her and sent to -Belgrade. The King’s scandalous conduct had now exhausted the patience -of the Servian people. They insisted on his dethronement, either by -voluntary abdication or by forced removal. A delegation of notables -placed before him the alternative of either abdicating in favor of his -son, or of sharing the fate of his uncle, Michael Obrenovitch, who just -twenty years before was assassinated in a park near Belgrade. Milan did -not hesitate long. He declared his willingness to abdicate, but he -demanded two million dollars as the price of this abdication, and the -Servian people, only too glad to get rid of him at any price, paid the -sum demanded. - -On the sixth of March, 1889, Alexander, who was then thirteen years old, -ascended the throne of Servia. A regency of three prominent men--General -Bolimarcovitch, M. Ristitch, and General Protitch--was appointed to -conduct the public affairs of the kingdom. Everything promised a -prosperous reign. There was absolute order and tranquillity in the -country; the people seemed to be satisfied. The Queen returned to -Servia, and the government designated one of the royal palaces of -Belgrade for her residence. She was then at the height of her -popularity, and the young King shared in that popularity because it was -generally supposed that he had great respect and love for his mother. - -These happy and peaceful conditions, however, soon underwent a change. -Ex-King Milan, who could not forget the days of luxury he had enjoyed at -Belgrade, was busy stirring up intrigues and conspiracies which might -lead to his restoration; and on the other hand, Queen Natalia, to -counteract his manœuvres, built up a party of her own, and took an -active interest in politics. This became embarrassing to the government, -since it continued to inflame the minds of the people. Through these -conflicting parties the country was actually brought to the verge of -civil war, which very likely would have broken out had not the -government taken energetic measures to put a stop to the strife. The -regents first applied to Milan, and bought him off. They restored to him -the property which had been confiscated when he went into exile, and -paid him one million dollars besides. Milan on his part solemnly -promised never to set foot on Servian soil again, and even renounced his -right of citizenship. The contract between the ex-King and the council -of regency was made on April 14, 1891. Thereupon the regents addressed a -request to the Queen, asking her, in the interest of peace and order, to -leave the country. She refused to comply with the request, and a week -afterwards an attempt was made to remove her by force. She was arrested -in her palace, and rapidly driven in a coach to the quay, where a -steamer was waiting to convey her across the frontier. But a number of -young students delivered her from the hands of the officers who had -charge of her person, conducted her back in triumph to her palace, and -constituted themselves her guard of honor. Quite a bloody conflict -occurred between the students and the police, in the course of which a -number of persons were killed, and many more wounded. However, a second -attempt made by the police authorities a day or two later was more -successful. She was conveyed by railroad to Hungary. The young King -showed that he was a true Obrenovitch by the fact that he never -interfered or even uttered a kind word in behalf of his mother. He -showed the same ingratitude to the three regents in 1893 when he -dismissed them unceremoniously like body-servants for whom he had no -further use. The first _coup d’état_ which Alexander made occurred on -April 14, 1893. It would seem that the radicals had in some way secured -an influence over his mind, for it was to their advantage that the _coup -d’état_ principally turned out. But Alexander showed considerable -self-assurance on that occasion. - -On the evening of the day mentioned Alexander had invited the three -regents and the members of the cabinet to take supper with him. -Altogether eight persons sat down at the supper-table. The very best of -humor prevailed among the guests. After the third course had been served -the King rose from his seat, and addressed his guests as follows: - -“Gentlemen, for the last four years you have exercised royal authority -in my name, and I sincerely thank you for what you have done. I feel -now, however, that I am able to exercise that power myself, and will do -so from this moment. I therefore request you to hand me your -resignations forthwith.” - -Mr. Ristitch was the first to recover his presence of mind. He told the -King that it would be impossible to comply with his request, because by -doing so they would violate the constitution. The King thereupon left -the table without saying another word; but soon afterwards an officer -appeared renewing the King’s demand for the resignation of the members -of the Council of Regency and of the Cabinet. - -During that very night the young King, who was then only seventeen years -old, went to the different barracks and armories where the troops were -under arms, proclaimed his accession to the throne, received the -enthusiastic homage of the regiments, and returned to the palace. The -_coup d’état_ was a complete success. Alexander the First was King, not -only in name, but also in fact. He dismissed the old cabinet, and -appointed a new one, composed exclusively of moderate radicals. - -A few years afterwards Alexander visited the different courts of Europe, -in the hope, it was commonly reported at the time, of finding a young -princess willing to accept his hand; but in this hope he was either -disappointed, or the report of his intentions was unfounded. At all -events he returned to Belgrade without a bride. It was soon after this -that the eyes of the young King were for the first time directed toward -the woman whose striking beauty and sensual charms inflamed him with a -passion to which he blindly yielded. He elevated her to the throne, and -for this act he paid the penalty with his life. For it is absolutely -certain that the King’s marriage with Draga Maschin, and his blind -subordination to her domineering spirit in private and public affairs, -had much more to do with his tragic downfall than all his political -mistakes. - -_Draga_ Lunyewitza, better known as Draga Maschin, was the widow of a -Servian nobleman who had occupied a prominent position at the court of -King Milan. Even more prominent than her husband had been Madame Draga, -not only on account of her beauty, which was of a pronounced sensual -type, but also on account of her brilliant conversational powers. Her -most conspicuous feature was her wonderful eyes, large, lustrous, and -beaming with an intensity of feeling and intelligence so penetrating -that it was said that no man whose conquest she had resolved upon would -be able to resist them if properly brought under their influence. That -Madame Draga Maschin’s eyes had often proved victorious was well known -from the long list of her favored lovers,--a list which included -statesmen, high military officers, bankers, and noblemen, and lastly, -King Milan himself. In the eyes of the people of Belgrade Madame Draga -Maschin was not only a coquette, but a courtesan. By means of her -brilliant mental powers, her wit, her interesting conversation, her -suavity of manners, and her diplomatic skill, she still maintained her -position in society, although shunned by the most exclusive circles. - -It was principally on account of those brilliant qualities of mind, and -on account of Madame Draga’s intimate acquaintance with a number of the -leading politicians at Belgrade that the ex-Queen made her one of her -attendants in her exile. - -It was in this capacity that King Alexander met Madame Draga Maschin at -Biarritz in the Pyrenees, - -[Illustration: QUEEN DRAGA] - -where his mother spent the summer of 1900. The experienced coquette -tried the power of her eyes on the young man, who had inherited the -sensual temperament of his father. Alexander was by no means a novice in -love-affairs, but he had never come in contact with so consummate a -mistress of the arts of seduction as Draga Maschin. When he left -Biarritz he was passionately in love with her, and those who had -observed her game predicted that something serious would come of it. His -mother was either too deeply engaged in politics to pay much attention -to the flirtation, or she secretly favored it in the hope of securing a -new and reliable ally. - -Some time afterwards Draga Maschin returned to Belgrade, and the game of -love-making was immediately renewed. Their intimacy became a matter of -public notoriety. It also reached the ears of ex-King Milan, who was -overjoyed at hearing it; he hoped that his former “good friend” Draga -would use her influence for his benefit. But Draga Maschin worked -neither for the Queen, nor for the King; she worked for herself only, -and very successfully too. - -Almost maddened by passion the King one day called a cabinet meeting and -informed his ministers that he had made up his mind to make Draga -Maschin his wife, and that a proclamation to that effect would appear in -the official newspaper of the kingdom. The members of the cabinet were -struck with amazement, and implored him to desist from his project, -which they said would be fatal to the Obrenovitch dynasty. They employed -every argument they could think of to change the King’s resolution; but -in vain. With his usual stubbornness, he declared: “I am the King, and -can wed whomsoever I please.” As a last protest they all tendered their -resignations. The King coolly accepted them, and the royal proclamation -was published. - -When on a July morning of 1900 the people of Belgrade were surprised by -the announcement that the widow Draga Maschin was to be Queen of Servia, -and when she was held up to their wives and daughters as a model of all -womanly virtues, their disappointment and their protests against this -“insane” act of the King were so general and so loud that serious -apprehensions of an insurrection were entertained. These fears were not -realized; but the people of Belgrade remained in a state of sullen -discontent. They knew that a speedy and terrible punishment would -overtake the guilty youth. It was reported that on reading his son’s -proclamation, ex-King Milan, who was then a patient at Carlsbad in -Bohemia, left his sick-room and rushed to the depot to take the train -for Belgrade. He declared that this outrage should never be committed, -and that if the King should persist in accomplishing it, he would kill -him with his own hands. But Milan’s wrath had been telegraphed to -Belgrade, and he was not permitted to enter Servian territory. - -No less great was the shame of Queen Natalia. She implored her son to -desist from his pernicious intention, laying stress on the disparity of -the ages,--he being twenty-four and Draga thirty-six, and on the -scandalous reputation of the woman whose beauty had for the moment -infatuated him. - -But neither the father’s threats nor the mother’s tears made the least -impression on Alexander, who once more realized the often-quoted Latin -saying: - - “Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat.” - -The Skuptshina (the Servian Parliament) was amazed at the proclamation, -and its president as well as the Metropolitan of Servia implored the -King on their knees to revoke it. He had only deaf ears for them. - -On the fifth of August, 1900, the wedding was solemnized, and Draga -Maschin took her place on the throne of Servia. - -If the King had hoped that the irritation of the public would die out -after the wedding, he must have been a badly disappointed man; for the -scandals about Draga continued. Not only was her past life with its many -stains and blemishes laid bare unsparingly, but her life as queen -consort was also unmercifully exposed. Every word and every act of her -married life were carefully weighed in the scales of public opinion, and -hardly ever was a word of praise accorded to her, while vituperation, -insinuations, and direct accusations abounded. The Belgrade -correspondents of foreign newspapers knew that anything they might have -to report of King Alexander, Queen Draga, or any member of her family -would be read with interest. If they could not pick up anything of -interest they invented some unfavorable story. Unquestionably many of -the stories circulated about Draga, and also of Alexander are utterly -untrue. It should also be remembered that the elevation of Draga to a -station which none of her rivals could hope to attain made her an object -of envy, and that they resented this elevation by telling about her all -the bad things they knew. But after making all these allowances, we -still find enough to justify us in saying that the two were an -exceedingly ill-matched couple,--he a voluptuous, ungrateful, -good-for-nothing simpleton, and she a designing, ambitious, unscrupulous -woman of powerful mind. - -The scandal which has been most widely circulated referred to the -fictitious pregnancy of the Queen. Unquestionably the young King was -anxious to have a son. Alexander was the last Obrenovitch, and it was -natural for him to desire to have a son so that his dynasty might -continue to rule over Servia. It was equally natural for Draga to desire -to become the mother of an heir, because as such she would have had an -additional claim on the affection of her husband,--a claim which might -have outlasted her physical beauty. This desire was certainly not -unreasonable in a wife twelve years older than her husband. This -pregnancy was officially announced by the court physician, but it was -afterwards stated that the announcement had been premature. These are -the facts in the case; and on these slim facts a superstructure of -rumors and fables has been erected. Very likely the great anxiety of the -couple to have an heir was the real cause of the announcement. The -rumors so widely circulated in the kingdom did certainly not contribute -to improve the reputation of the Queen, or to give the people the -impression of a happy domestic life. - -The generally recognized mental superiority of Queen Draga over her -husband had still another unfavorable consequence,--one of a political -character. While Alexander was unmarried, his political mistakes, his -autocratic interference with the work of the Skuptschina, his violation -of the constitution, were charged to himself; but after his marriage all -the political sins of the government were ascribed to Draga’s -instigation. - -The political conditions of the Balkan countries are of the most -unsettled kind. They resemble very much the political conditions in the -South American and Central American states, and while nominally they are -regulated by constitutions and by a parliamentary system of government, -they are really controlled by the principle that “might constitutes -right.” It has been so in Servia from the day of the establishment of -its national independence: continuous party strife, revolutions, -assassinations--frequently winked at, if not directly instigated and -supported, by foreign powers. In 1903 the Radicals had been several -years in full control of the government. They had filled all lucrative -offices with their party friends, many of whom belonged to the rural -population, and had so apportioned the public taxes as to place the -principal burden upon the city populations, where the Liberals had their -voting strength. The misgovernment under the Radicals was so great that -it became a national scandal. The public debt had been nearly doubled, -the annual deficit was enormous, the most flagrant corruption and -extravagance existed in all branches of the public service; but the -Servian Congress refused to correct these abuses, and it remained for -the King to interfere personally. He did so by a new _coup d’état_ in -March, 1903; the old Constitution was abrogated, a new Constitution was -promulgated, and new general elections were ordered. - -One of the most alarming features of the political situation in Servia -was the dissatisfaction of the army, and especially of its officers. -This dissatisfaction was not, as has been asserted frequently, caused by -patriotic considerations or by disapproval of the King’s personal -conduct, but simply by the unpardonable neglect of the army on the part -of the government. While in the royal palace at Belgrade an -uninterrupted series of festivities, all arranged in the most sumptuous -and expensive style, kept the gay capital on the tiptoe of excitement, -the army was reduced nearly to a state of starvation, because neither -officers nor men had been paid for months, “for want of funds in the -public treasury.” Instead of being a firm support of the government, the -army therefore turned against it. It easily lent itself to propositions -for a change, especially if that change would come in with the payment -of their arrears of wages. - -There was another cause of dissatisfaction, which evoked a direct and -strong protest against the Queen and her influence. Disappointed in her -hope of giving the King a son and heir, Draga devised another plan to -perpetuate her own power,--namely, to select an heir to the throne. Her -choice fell upon her own brother, Nicodemus Lunyevitch, a young -lieutenant in the Servian army, and she succeeded in winning the consent -of the King. It is even stated that Alexander intended to adopt this -brother-in-law, who was twenty-four years old, and formally proclaim him -his heir. No sooner had the plan been mentioned than a very loud, and -almost general, opposition to it manifested itself. The cabinet -ministers heard of it, and waited on the King in a body to enter their -protest. When their arrival at the palace was announced to him, the King -knew what they wanted, and kept them waiting for a long time. He finally -received them in the large assembly hall. He was dressed in full -uniform; the Queen was by his side and leaning upon his arm. He turned -to the prime minister and requested him to state the object of the -visit, whereupon the prime minister asked the Queen in a very courteous -manner to withdraw for a short time from the conference. She haughtily -refused, and the King coolly informed the ministers that he had no -secrets either private or public which he wished to conceal from his -wife. - -The ministers then presented their complaints. They stated that public -opinion was excited to such a degree that there was imminent danger of a -revolution if the King should persist in carrying out this new plan. -“Moreover,” added the prime minister, “the Skuptschina should be -consulted in a matter of such great importance--a matter in which the -state and the people are principally interested. In default of direct -heirs, the representatives have the right to say who shall succeed to -the throne.” - -The King interrupted him angrily, and said brusquely: “I am the King, -and can do as I please.” - -“But the will of the people should also be consulted!” repeated the -prime minister. - -“The King’s will is supreme!” interposed Draga, and suddenly taking the -King’s arm, she dragged him from the room, leaving the ministers -confused and almost stupefied. - -It may be said that this was the beginning of the end. Both Alexander -and Draga were blinded to such a degree by passion and by the idea of -their own infallibility that they could not see what everybody else did -see--that the measure of their follies was full to overflowing, and that -the day of reckoning was approaching very fast. Anonymous letters came -to the King and to the Queen informing them of plots and conspiracies -against their lives; they disregarded and laughed at them. They openly -showed their contempt for the will of the people and of the Cabinet by -installing Lieutenant Nicodemus Lunyevitch as the heir apparent, in a -brilliant suite of rooms of the royal palace, and abandoned themselves -to an incessant whirl of pleasures and extravagant follies. Concerning -this matter, a guest, the correspondent of a paper in Paris, wrote: “The -King and the Queen do not seem to realize that they are dancing on a -volcano!” - -In the newspapers of the different capitals of Europe dark and ominous -predictions were published about a conspiracy which was being formed at -Belgrade, and of which persons of the highest station would be the -victims. - -Then came the elections of the first of June, and they resulted in such -an overwhelming victory for the government that the predictions of -conspiracy and death were momentarily silenced and a feeling of greater -security was established in the royal palace. It was, however, only the -calm before the storm. - -Evidently the conspiracy which foreign papers had so often hinted at not -only existed, but was well organized. The officers of the Sixth Regiment -stationed at Belgrade were the leaders of it. Another leader was Colonel -Maschin, the cousin (not, as is often stated, the brother-in-law) of the -Queen, who for some personal reason had become her bitter enemy, and who -was the very soul of the conspiracy. - -It is of course impossible, so soon (two months) after the terrible -tragedy, when absolutely reliable data are still lacking, to give with -historic accuracy the details of the plot which culminated in the -assassination of the King, the Queen, two of her brothers, and some of -their most prominent adherents; but from the best and most authentic -information obtainable at present it appears that the events of the -night of June 10-11 were as follows: - -Ninety army officers, representing nearly every garrison and military -organization in Servia, had planned to overthrow the government. On -Wednesday, June 10, Colonel Mitshitch, lieutenant-colonel of the Sixth -Regiment, invited his fellow officers belonging to the conspiracy to a -conference at the Helimagdan Garden at 11 P.M. At that conference, which -was largely attended, the immediate execution of the plot was agreed -upon. - -At 1:40 after midnight these officers proceeded in eight groups to the -Konac, the royal residence, which had been closed for the night. But the -conspirators had accessories on the inside. They were Colonel Maschin, -mentioned above, commanding the King’s body-guard, and Colonel -Maumovitch, personal aid of the King. The conspirators were in -possession of the keys of the garden gate of the Konac which had been -handed to them by Captain Panapotovitch, the King’s adjutant. The first -bloody encounter occurred when the conspirators reached the guardhouse -near the gate. On their approach some soldiers rushed out. “Throw down -your arms!” commanded one of the officers. The soldiers fired, but were -shot by the conspirators, who entered the gate and passed through the -garden, without encountering any obstacle until they reached the -courtyard of the old Konac, where Colonel Maumovitch was waiting for -them. He opened the iron door that gave access to the front room of the -first floor. The officers ascended and, by the noise of their steps, -attracted the attention of the royal couple and some of the officers of -the palace. Lieutenant Lavar Petrovitch, who had been alarmed by the -unusual noise, ran to meet them, holding his revolver in one hand, and -his drawn sword in the other. - -“What do you want?” he asked. - -“Show us where to find the King and the Queen!” was the reply. - -“Back, back!” shouted the Lieutenant; but he fell instantly, killed by -three or four bullets. - -The conspirators advanced, but suddenly the electric lights went out, -and all were enveloped in profound darkness. Utterly confounded and -slowly feeling their way up the stairs, the revolutionists reached the -antechamber of the King’s apartment. It was dark, but one of the -officers discovered a wax candle in a chandelier. He lighted it, and -they could see their way. This trifling little circumstance, entirely -accidental, decided the success of the plot. Without light it would have -been impossible for them to find the victims, who might have made their -escape through the long corridors and numerous apartments of the palace, -with which they were familiar while the conspirators were not, and could -not have followed them. - -Some of the officers now carried lights, while the others followed them -with revolvers in their hands. In breathless haste they hurried through -the rooms in search of the royal couple. They opened the closets and -raised the curtains, but no trace either of the King or of the Queen. At -last Queen Draga’s servant was found. He dangerously wounded Captain -Dimitrevitch, who discovered him, but his life was spared for a little, -because he was needed. It was in fact this servant who indicated to the -officers the place where the King and the Queen had gone to hide -themselves. Thereupon he was shot. At this moment Colonel Maschin joined -the conspirators and took them to the King’s bedroom, where the King’s -adjutant tried to prevent their search, but was shot by the Colonel’s -companions. - -After a long search a small door was discovered leading to an alcove. -The door was locked and had to be burst open with an axe. In this alcove -the royal couple had taken refuge. Both were in their night robes. The -King was standing in the centre, holding the Queen in his arms, as if to -protect her. Colonel Maumovitch commenced reading to the King a document -which demanded that he should abdicate the throne because he had -dishonored Servia by wedding “a public prostitute.” The King answered by -shooting Maumovitch through the heart. Another officer renewed the -demand for the King’s abdication; but the younger officers had become -impatient and now fired their revolvers at the royal couple until both -expired. The body of the King showed thirty wounds, while the body of -the Queen was so terribly lacerated by pistol-shot and sword wounds that -her features could not be recognized, and the wounds could not be -counted. Both died heroically, trying to protect each other with their -own bodies. - -Together with the King and the Queen, two brothers of the latter, and a -number of their most prominent adherents were murdered in cold blood. -This terrible butchery reveals the semi-savage ferocity of the Balkan -population. - -When the people of Belgrade awoke from their sleep early in the morning -of June 11, there was not, as might have been expected, a manifestation -of horror, pity, and sorrow, among them, but, on the contrary, -rejoicing and exultation on all sides. Flags were raised, houses were -decorated, salutes were fired; a stranger entering the city might have -supposed that a great national festival was being commemorated by the -enthusiastic crowds of men, women, and children. - -It may be taken as a convincing proof of the sincerity of the wrath and -the depth of the contempt which the people of Servia felt for Alexander -I and Draga, that of the immense multitude which came to inspect the -lacerated bodies of those who but the day before had been their King and -their Queen, not one expressed a word of regret, or shed a tear of -sorrow. Many, on the contrary, spat on the mangled remains, or mumbled -words of execration as they passed by the plain coffins. Death itself -had not been able to wipe out the misdeeds of these two persons. - -History, the terrible but just avenger, will preserve for many ages the -memory of Alexander the First of Servia, not so much for any single -crime, as for having persistently insulted the national pride and the -moral sentiment of the people over whom Providence had placed him as -ruler and protector. - - - - -INDEX - - -Abo, Treaty of, 253 - -Adolphus Frederick, 252-254 - -Æmilianus, Scipio, 13 - -Africa, 27, 41 - -Agrarian law, 11, 17 - -Agrippina, 36, 37 - -Alba, kings of, 29 - -Albany, N. Y., 385, 386 - -Albrecht, of Germany, 68, 70 - -Albret, Jeanne d’, 150 - -Alcobaza, 86 - -Alexander, of Epirus, 5 - -Alexander I., of Russia, 307, 311, 317, 322 - -Alexander II., of Russia, 357-378, 394, 401 - -Alexander III., of Russia, 377 - -Alexander I., of Servia, 397-420 - -Alexander III., the Great, 3, 4, 5, 41 - -Alexander Nevski Monastery, 304 - -Alexandria, 41-45 - -Alexandria, Library of, 41, 43 - -Alexandrian age, 42 - -Alexandrian war, 42 - -Alexandrowna Convent, 136 - -Alexis, son of Peter the Great, 209-217 - -Alfonso IV., of Portugal, 77-85 - -Alleghany, Pa., 386 - -Altorf, 70 - -Alva, Duke of, 117-121, 123 - -America, 387 - -America, Central, see Central America - -America, South, see South America - -American Union, 354 - -Amphictyon League, 3 - -Amsterdam, 202, 215 - -Anarchism, 391, 393 - -Anarchists, 382, 385, 391-394 - -Angoulême, Duc d’, 333, 334, 335 - -Anjou, Duke of, 152 - -Ankarström, 249, 274-278 - -Anna, daughter of Peter the Great, 222 - -Anne, Princess of Saxony, 116 - -Antony, Mark, 42 - -Antwerp, 124 - -Appomattox Court House, 343 - -Aragon, 85 - -Arc, Jeanne d’, 298 - -Argentan, 291 - -Argyle, Countess of, 97 - -Aristotle, 42, 45 - -Armfeld, Count, 276 - -Arndt, E. M., 318, 319 - -Artois, Comte d’, 329, 330, 333, 335 - -Asia, 4, 6, 41, 229, 363 - -Athens, 45 - -Atlantic Ocean, 316, 383, 386 - -Attalus, General, 4, 5 - -Augustus, Octavianus, 36, 37 - -Austria, 68, 154, 175, 177, 273, 316, 318, 360, 394 - -Austria, Ducal hat of, 70 - -Austria, Duke of, 70 - -Austrian Governors, 68, 70 - -Austrian succession, War of, 252 - -Avignon, 330 - - -Bakúnin, Michael, 370, 385 - -Baltic Sea, 170, 271, 318 - -Barbaroux, 285, 290 - -Barnevelt, Olden, 111 - -Bastile, 292 - -Bavaria, 178, 318 - -Bayard, Chevalier, 92 - -Beccaria, 265 - -Becket, Thomas à, 51-63 - -Belgrade, Servia, 400, 404, 405, 407, 408, 410, 414, 416, 419 - -Bell, The, 367, 368 - -Benningsen, General, 310 - -Bernard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, 181 - -Berry, Duc de, 155, 325-340 - -Berry, Duchesse de, 334, 336, 338 - -Bétysi, Comtesse de, 337 - -Biarritz, 408, 409 - -Biron, Marshal, 228 - -Black Sea, 400 - -Blaine, James G., 381 - -Bloedraad, see Blood, Council of - -Blood, Council of, 119 - -Blücher, Marshal, 318 - -Blücher monument, 123 - -Boer Republics, 68 - -Bohemia, 165, 167, 171, 173, 174, 177, 181, 182 - -Bohemian wars, 169 - -Bolimarcovitch, General, 404 - -Bologna, 54 - -Bonapartist generals, 329 - -Bonapartists, 330 - -Booth, John Wilkes, 125, 348-350 - -Borgia, Cæsar, 143 - -Bosnia, 399 - -Bothwell, Earl of, 101-108 - -Bourbon, Antony of, 150 - -Bourbon, Cardinal de, 153 - -Bourbon dynasty, 330, 332, 333, 340 - -Bourbons, 327, 331, 335 - -Brabant, 120 - -Braga, Archbishop of, 84 - -Brahe, Count, 278 - -Bretteville, Madame de, 285-287 - -Brown, John, 349 - -Brune, Marshal, 330 - -Brunswick, Duke of, 166, 167 - -Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Princess of, 213 - -Brussels, 113-115, 117-119 - -Brutus, 29, 297 - -Brutus, Decimus, 30 - -Buffalo, N. Y., 386, 387, 389, 393 - -Buitenhof, 207 - -Bulgaria, 399 - -Bülow, General, 318 - -Burgundy, 125 - -Burschenschaft, 319-321, 324 - -Butler, Walter, 186 - -Buturlin, Count, 233 - -Buzot, ----, 285 - -Byzantinism, 362 - - -Caen, 285, 286, 288, 289, 291, 292, 295 - -Cæsar, 23-31, 35, 36, 42, 67, 187 - -Cæsarium, 48 - -Cæsars, City of, 41 - -Cæsars, Palace of the, 156 - -Calais, 335 - -California, 388, 389 - -Caligula, 33-38, 156 - -Calvarez, Alvaro, 78 - -Calvin, John, 147, 148 - -Calvinistic church, 120, 151 - -Cantaneda, 85 - -Canterbury, 61 - -Canton, Ohio, 393 - -Caps, Party of the, 251-253, 256, 257, 263 - -Caracalla, 156 - -Carbonarism, 386 - -Carlos, Don, 124 - -Carlsbad, Bohemia, 410 - -Carnot, Sadi, President of France, 329, 394 - -Casan church, 234, 237 - -Cassius, 29, 30 - -Castile, 84, 85 - -Castro, Iñez de, 75-86 - -Catherine I., Empress of Russia, 214, 215 - -Catherine II., Empress of Russia, 89, 222, - 224-227, 229-237, 239-246, 301, 304-306, 400 - -Catherine de Médicis, 149, 151, 152 - -Catholic church, 114, 116, 117, 153, 165, 172, 175 - -Catholic League, 166, 168, 170 - -Caucasus, 363 - -Central America, 316, 382, 413 - -Cevennes, 330 - -Chæronea, Battle of, 3 - -Champ-de-Mars, 292 - -Charkow, Governor of, 372 - -Charleroi, 194 - -Charles V., Emperor, 112, 113, 116, 122, 148 - -Charles II., of England, 196 - -Charles IX., of France, 90, 149, 152 - -Charles X., of France, 155, 340 - -Charles XI., of Sweden, 250 - -Charles XII., of Sweden, 249, 250, 251, 262, 268 - -Charles, Prince, of Sweden, 257 - -Chateaubriand, 339 - -Chatelard, Pierre de, 91-93 - -Cherbourg, 285 - -Chicago, 387 - -Choiseul, Duc de, 254, 255 - -Christian IV., of Denmark, 168, 171 - -Christianstadt, 257, 258, 259 - -Cicero, 20 - -Cid, Le, 286 - -Cinna, 286 - -Civil War, 345, 354, 381 - -Clarendon, Constitution of, 58, 59 - -Claudius, 33-38, 156 - -Clément, Jacques, 149 - -Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, 42 - -Cleopatra, Queen of Macedon, 4, 5 - -Clio, 354 - -Coello, Pedro, 78, 84, 85 - -Coimbra, 80, 81, 82, 86 - -Coligny, Admiral, 151, 155 - -Condé, Prince of, 200, 201, 286 - -Confederacy, 343 - -Confederate States of America, 343 - -Conkling, Roscoe, 381 - -Constancia, wife of Pedro I., 77, 85 - -Constant, Benjamin, 332 - -Constantinople, 399 - -Corday, Adrian, 285 - -Corday, Charlotte, 283, 285-298 - -Corday d’Armans, Monsieur de, 285 - -Corneille, Marie, 285 - -Corneille, Pierre, 283, 285, 286, 288 - -Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, 12 - -Crimean War, 364 - -Croatian horsemen, 167 - -Cromwell, Oliver, 193 - -Crusoe, Robinson, 352, 353 - -Cuba, 350, 382, 383 - -Cuma, 18 - -Cyril, Saint, 44, 46, 50 - -“Czar of all the Russias,” 134 - -Czolgosz, Leon, 157, 390, 391 - - -Dalecarlia, 269 - -Damiens, R. F., 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161 - -Damocles, Sword of, 362 - -Danton, G. J., 284, 290, 291 - -Dardanelles, 400 - -Darius, 6 - -Darnley, Lord, 87-108 - -Dashkow, Princess, 230, 234 - -Decazes, M., 332, 339 - -Defoe, Daniel, 353 - -Delft, 125 - -Demaratus, the Corinthian, 5 - -Denmark, 102, 215, 222 - -De Ruyter, Admiral, 202, 203 - -Detroit, 391 - -Deveroux, ----, 186, 187 - -De Witt, Cornelius, 111, 189-208 - -De Witt, John, 111, 189-208 - -Diana of Poitiers, 91 - -Dimitrevitch, Captain, 418 - -Dolgorouki, Princess, 375, 376 - -Dominican monk, 124 - -Domitia, 36 - -Dordrecht, City of, 191, 192, 206 - -Douai, 194 - -Douglas, Stephen A., 351 - -Draga, Queen of Servia, 397-420 - -Drentelen, General, 372 - -Dunbar, 102 - -Dunbar castle, 100 - -Dutch Republic, 111, 126, 128, 191, 193, 195, 197-202, 208 - - -Edinburgh, 91, 100, 102, 105 - -Eger, Bohemia, 165, 184, 185, 186 - -Egmont, Count, 115, 116, 118, 119 - -Egypt, 27, 41, 42 - -Eisenach, 320 - -Elba, 329 - -Elizabeth, Empress of Austria, 387, 394 - -Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 222-228, 244 - -Elizabeth, Queen of England, 89, 94, 229, 384 - -England, 59, 60, 62, 68, 167, 193-195, 197, 202, 215, 291, 333, 366, 383, 386 - -Epirus, 4, 5 - -Essen, Count, 275, 276, 277 - -Esths, 268 - -Eumenes, King of Pergamus, 42 - -Europe, 101, 120, 127, 155, 176, 195, - 198, 211, 223, 264, 273, 287, 306, 315-317, - 327, 328, 339, 363, 364, 366, 370, - 383-385, 387, 388, 394, 416 - -Evrard, Catherine, 293, 295 - - -Fehrbellin, 199 - -Ferdinand II., of Germany, 165-167, 169, 173-175, 179, 180, 185, 188 - -Ferdinand, son of Pedro I., 77, 78, 80 - -Finland, 214, 252, 253, 265, 268, 274 - -Finns, 268 - -Flaccus, Lucius, 18, 19 - -Ford’s Theatre, 346, 347, 348 - -Forum, 15, 16 - -Foy, General, 332 - -France, 59, 60, 62, 91, 93, 103, 112, 147, 152, 154, 155, 160, 161, 194, - 195, 202, 215, 251, 252, 254, 272, 273, - 284, 285, 287, 288, 295, 298, 315, 318, - 323, 327-329, 331, 333, 334, 339, 366, 383, 400 - -Franche-Comté, 125, 194 - -Francis I., of Austria, 317 - -Francis I., of France, 147, 148 - -Francis II., of France, 90, 93, 149 - -Franco-Austrian alliance, 226 - -Franconia, 177 - -Frederick II., King of Prussia, 223, 226, 227, 229, 253, 265, 268, 366 - -Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, 198 - -Frederick William I., King of Prussia, 223 - -Frederick William III., King of Prussia, 317 - -Frederickshall, Fortress of, 250 - -Frederickshamm, Fortress of, 268 - -French chambers, 331 - -French Empire, 331 - -French Republic, 394 - -French Revolution, 50, 111, 156, 249, 264, - 272, 273, 284, 288, 291, 305, 317, - 321, 328, 330, 331, 333 - -French Revolutionists, 286 - -Friedlanders, 170, 181 - -“Friend of the People,” 292 - -Friesland, 191 - -Frisia, 120 - -Fuerst, Walter, 69, 70 - - -Galitzin, Count, 235, 237 - -Gallas, General, 184, 186 - -Garde, Count de la, 330 - -Garfield, James A., 381 - -Gatschina, 303 - -Gaul, 26, 27 - -Gérard, Balthasar, 125, 126 - -German Empire, 67, 198, 318, 324 - -German Reformation, 320 - -German Universities, 318-320 - -Germany, 112, 118, 120, 121, 147, 148, 167-169, - 171, 174, 175, 195, 222, 273, 286, - 315, 318-321, 324, 327, 383 - -Gessler, Hermann, 65-73 - -Gil Blas, 158 - -Girondists, 284, 285, 288, 290, 294, 295 - -Glasgow, 104, 105 - -Goethe, 122, 123, 359 - -Golden Fleece, Knight of the, 120 - -Goldmann, Emma, 391 - -Gonsalvez, ----, 84, 85 - -Gordon, General, 184, 186 - -Gortschakoff, Prince, 372 - -Gracchus, Caius, 11, 12, 13, 20, 21, 191 - -Gracchus, Sempronius, 12 - -Gracchus, Tiberius, 9-21, 191 - -Grammaticus, Saxo, 73 - -Grant, General, 343, 346, 348 - -Granvella, Cardinal, 114-116, 123 - -Greece, 3, 6, 45, 287 - -Greek church, 227 - -Guise, Duke of, 90, 149 - -Guise, Henry of, 155 - -Guiteau, Charles J., 381, 382 - -Gustavus I., 269 - -Gustavus II., 175-182, 188, 259, 268 - -Gustavus III., 247-279 - - -Hague, The, 191, 205, 207, 385 - -Haller, Albrecht von, 321 - -Hannibal, 12 - -Hanseatic League, 102 - -Hapsburg, House of, 119, 154 - -Harrach, Count, 169 - -Hats, Party of the, 251-253, 256, 257, 263 - -Helimagdan Garden, 417 - -Heliogabalus, 156 - -Hellichius, Captain, 257 - -Henrietta, Princess of France, 196 - -Henry II., of England, 53-63 - -Henry VIII., of England, 94 - -Henry II., of France, 148-150 - -Henry III., of France, 149, 152, 155 - -Henry IV., of France, 145-161, 354, 355 - -“Heptameron,” 150 - -Hermandad, 361 - -Herzegovina, 399 - -Herzen, Alexander, 367, 368, 370 - -Hesse-Cassel, Frederick of, 250 - -Hesse-Darmstadt, Princess of, 375 - -Hessian queue, 321 - -Höchst, 167 - -Hohenstaufen, 318 - -Holland, 115, 125, 191, 193, 202, 204-206, 215 - -Holstein, 239, 241 - -Holstein-Gottorp, Charles Frederick of, 222, 250 - -Holstein-Gottorp, Duke of, 229 - -Holstein Guards, 236 - -Holsteiners, 224 - -Holy Alliance, 316 - -Holy Sepulchre, 63 - -Holyrood Palace, 92, 97, 99-102, 105, 106, 108 - -Horace, 286 - -Hoorn, Count, 115, 118, 119 - -Horn, Count, 274-277 - -Horn, General, 177 - -Humbert, King of Italy, 387, 394 - -“Hundred Days,” 329 - -Hungarian Revolution, 360 - -Hungary, 170, 363, 406 - -Hungary, King of, 173 - -Hypatia, 39-50 - - -Ides of March, 30 - -Illo, General, 182-184, 186, 187 - -Illyria, 5 - -Imperial Guards, 307, 308, 360, 374 - -Imperialists, 166, 168, 178, 328, 330 - -Ireland, 102 - -Ismailoff, General, 239, 240 - -Italy, 27, 54, 93, 394 - -Ivan IV., 129-143, 221, 222 - -Ivan VI., 230, 244, 245, 301 - - -Jacobins, 273, 277, 284, 332 - -Jacobins, White, 330 - -James I., of England, 101 - -James V., of Scotland, 90 - -James VI., of Scotland, 101 - -Jaureguy, Juan, 124, 125 - -Jena, 322, 323 - -Jena, University of, 321 - -Jerusalem, 142 - -Jesuits, 125 - -Jews, 118 - -John of Austria, 123, 124 - -Johnson, Andrew, 348 - -Johnston, General, 343 - -Joseph II., of Austria, 366 - -Julia, daughter of Augustus, 37 - -Juliers-Cleves, 154 - -Jupiter, 29 - -Jupiter, Statue of, 27 - - -Karakasow, ----, 370 - -Karamsin, N. M., 221 - -Kasan, 133 - -Keschko, Colonel, 401 - -Kingsley, Charles, 49 - -Kinsky, General, 182, 186 - -Knox, John, 93 - -Kolokos (“The Bell”), 367, 368 - -Konac, 417 - -Körner, K. T., 318 - -Kotzebue, August von, 313-324 - -Krapotkine, Prince, 372 - -Kraskazelo, 241 - -Kreuger, Oom, 70 - -Kronstadt, 235, 237 - -Krüdener, Madame, 317 - -Kuessnacht, 71, 72 - -Kuessnacht, Castle of, 67 - -Kyrillos, see Cyril, St. - - -Labédoyère, General, 329 - -Laborers, International Association of, 385 - -Lafayette, 332 - -Lagarde, Chauveau, 296 - -La Guarda, Archbishop, 85 - -“La Henriade,” 155 - -Lamballe, Princess de, 50 - -Laputkin, Eudoxia, 211-215 - -Laputkin family, 212, 214 - -La Rochelle, 151 - -La Vendée, 330 - -League, The, 150, 152, 153 - -Lee, General, 343, 350 - -Leipsic, 367 - -Leipsic, Battle of, 320 - -Lennox, Earl of, 104, 108 - -Leslie, ----, 186 - -Liberals, 365, 369 - -Licinian law, 14 - -Liliehorn, Count, 274, 275, 277 - -Lille, 194 - -Lincoln, Abraham, 7, 26, 125, 341-355 - -Lincoln, Mrs., 346, 347 - -Livadia, 373, 374 - -Livia, Drusilla, 36 - -Lobkowitz, Prime Minister, 198 - -London, 367 - -Lorraine, Cardinal de, 90, 149 - -Louis, XIV., 194, 196, 198, 200, 203, 255, 384 - -Louis XV., 156-161, 254 - -Louis XVI., 272, 273, 333 - -Louis XVIII., 328, 329, 335, 339 - -Louvel, J. P., 334-340 - -Louvet de Couvray, J. B., 285 - -Lunyevitch, Nicodemus, 414, 416 - -Luther, Martin, 147, 320, 321 - -Lutheran church, 120 - -Lutheran faith, 116 - -Lützen, 181 - -Luxembourg, 200 - -Luxembourg Garden, 329 - - -Macedonia, 400 - -McKinley, William, 157, 379-395 - -McKinley, Mrs., 388, 389 - -Madrid, 116 - -Magdeburg, 166 - -Mannheim, 323 - -Mansfeld, General, 166, 167 - -Marat, 281-298 - -Maratists, 297 - -Marcellus, 36 - -Margaret, Duchess of Parma, 114, 115, 117, 122, 123 - -Margaret, Queen of Navarre, 150 - -Margrave, The, of Baden, 167 - -Maria, Empress of Russia, 308 - -Marie Antoinette, 50, 271, 272, 296 - -Marie de Lorraine, 90 - -Marie Thérèse Charlotte, 333 - -Marin, Colonel, 309, 310 - -Marx, Carl, 385 - -Mary de Médicis, 154 - -Mary, Queen of England, 113 - -Mary, Queen of Scots, 89-108, 149 - -Maschin, Colonel, 416, 417, 419 - -Masnaliza (Russian Carnival), 307 - -Massmann, 321 - -Maumovitch, Colonel, 417, 419 - -Maurice, Elector of Saxony, 116 - -Maximilian of Bavaria, 166, 168 - -Mayenne, Duke of, 150 - -Mecklenburg, 171, 172 - -Mecklenburg, Duke of, 171, 178 - -Médicis, Catherine de, see Catherine de Médicis - -Médicis, Mary de, see Mary de Médicis - -Mediterranean, 318, 400 - -Melchthal, Arnold, 69 - -Melikow, Count, 372 - -Messalina, wife of Claudius, 36, 37 - -Metternich, 316, 332 - -Mexico, 349 - -Milan, King of Servia, 400-405, 409, 410 - -Milton, John, 155 - -Mirowitch, Lieutenant, 244, 245 - -Mississippi River, 353 - -Mitshitch, Colonel, 417 - -Monroe Doctrine, 316, 383 - -Montesquieu, 265, 287 - -Montpellier, 330 - -Moravia, 167, 177 - -Moriscoes, 118 - -Moscow, 136, 137, 308, 363, 374 - -Most, John, 386 - -Mueller, Johannes von, 73 - -Munda, Battle of, 28 - -Münnich, Marshal, 228, 236, 238 - -Münster, Count, 312 - -Murray, Lord, 94, 99 - - -Nantes, Edict of, 147, 153, 354 - -Naples, 215 - -Napoleon I., 25, 31, 73, 315-317, 327, 329, 330, 334 - -Nasica, Scipio, 19 - -Nassau, Lewis, Count of, 120 - -Natalie, Queen of Servia, 401-406, 410 - -National Assembly, 284 - -National Convention, 284 - -Neoptolemus, 6 - -Nero, 33-38, 67 - -Netherlands, 112-114, 116-121, 126, 167, 192, 194, 195, 197, 198 - -Neva river, 363 - -Newman, ----, 186 - -Ney, Marshal, 329 - -Nicholas I., 360, 361, 363-365, 368, 369 - -Nicholas, son of Paul I., 307 - -Nihilism, 369-372, 386 - -Nihilists, 369, 370, 371, 374, 377, 378 - -Nîmes, 330 - -Nitria, 43, 44 - -Normandy, 61, 62, 285, 289, 294 - -North Carolina, 343 - -Northampton, England, 59 - -Norway, 249, 263 - -Novgorod, 140, 142 - -Novgorod, Archbishop of, 140, 141, 234 - -Nuremberg, 178 - - -Obrenovitch, Michael, 404 - -Octavius, 15, 16, 17 - -Olympian games, 6 - -Olympias, Queen of Macedon, 4, 5, 6 - -Orange, House of, 191, 193 - -Orange Free State, 70 - -Oranienbaum, 236, 238, 240, 241 - -Orestes, 44-47 - -Orléans, Duc d’, 196, 337 - -Orléans, Duchesse d’, 337 - -Orloff, Alexis, 232, 234, 241, 242, 245, 302, 304, 311 - -Orloff, Feodor, 232 - -Orloff, Gregor, 232, 233, 239, 302 - -Orloff, Ivan, 232 - -Ostia, 38 - -Oudenarde, 194 - -Oxford, 54 - - -Pacheco, 78, 84, 85 - -Pacific Ocean, 384, 386, 388, 389 - -Pahlen, Count, 307, 308, 309 - -Palais Royal, 291 - -Palais Royal, Garden of the, 337 - -Pan-American Exposition, 386, 387, 389 - -Panapotovitch, Captain, 417 - -Panin, Count, 230, 231 - -Pappenheim, General, 181 - -Paris, 54, 55, 149, 154, 157, 254, - 273, 277, 284, 285, 288, 289, - 291, 294, 322, 327, 333-335, 338, 339, 367 - -Paris, University of, 54 - -Parma, Duke of, 125 - -Paterson, N. J., 387 - -Paul I., of Russia, 231, 244, 299-312 - -Pausanias, 5 - -Pavia, Battle of, 147 - -Pavilion Marsan, 330 - -Pechlin, Baron, 274, 277 - -Pedro I., of Portugal, 77-85 - -Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, 84, 85 - -Peers, Chamber of, 340 - -Perpetual Edict, 200, 206, 207 - -Persia, 4 - -Peter, a priest, 47, 48, 50 - -Peter I. (the Great), of Russia, 211-215, 222, 227, 229, 232, 233, 360 - -Peter II., of Russia, 214 - -Peter III., of Russia, 219-246, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 311 - -Peterhof, 227, 233, 238, 239, 240, 241 - -Pétion, 285, 290 - -Petrovitch, Lavar, 418 - -Pharsalus, Battle of, 27, 31 - -Philip II., of Macedon, 1-7 - -Philip II., of Spain, 112, 113-117, 121-124, 126, 127, 151 - -Philip IV., of Spain, 194 - -Philip, the Metropolitan, 139 - -Philippine Islands, 383 - -Piccolomini, Octavio, 186 - -Piedmont, 93 - -Pilsen, 184 - -Plato, 45 - -Plutarch, 16, 286, 288, 289 - -Plutarch’s Lives, 291 - -Poitiers, Diana of, see Diana of Poitiers - -Poland, 225, 363 - -Poland, King of, 140 - -Polyeucte, 286 - -Pomerania, 171, 176, 238 - -Pompadour, Madame de, 156, 158 - -Pompey, 26, 27, 28 - -Pompey, Statue of, 31 - -Poniatowski, Prince, 225 - -Pontus, 27 - -Pope of Rome, 55, 58, 59, 62, 63, 77, 83, 85, 112 - -Poppæa, wife of Nero, 37 - -Portugal, 81, 84, 85, 112 - -Potemkin, General, 231 - -Prague, 173, 174 - -Preobrajenski guards, 233 - -Prim, General, 394 - -Protestant church, 120, 149, 165, 354 - -Protestant reformation, 112, 117 - -Protestant Union, 166, 167, 170 - -Protestantism, 354 - -Protitch, General, 404 - -Provence, 148 - -Provence, Comte de, 333 - -Providence Hotel, 291 - -Provinces, United, 126 - -Proudhon, P. J., 385 - -Prussia, 215, 251, 273, 315, 318, 360 - -Pskoff, 372 - -Ptolemies, 41, 42 - -Ptolemy Philadelphus, 42 - -Ptolemy Physcon, 42 - -Pyrenean peninsula, 112 - -Pyrenees, 408 - - -Querouet, Mademoiselle de, 196 - - -Ramel, General, 330 - -Rappahannock River, 349 - -Ravaillac, François, 154, 155, 157, 160 - -Raynal, Abbé, 287 - -Regensburg, Diet of, 172 - -Reichsrath, 250-259, 262, 263, 269, 270 - -Reichstag of Gefle, 273 - -Reichstag, Swedish, 255, 256, 269, 273, 278 - -Repnin, General, 231 - -Republicans, 328, 330 - -Restitution edict, 172, 175 - -Reutli, 69 - -Reutli conspiracy, 70 - -Reval, 238 - -Revolutionists, 284, 297 - -Rheims, 90 - -Rhine, 177, 198 - -Ribbing, Count, 274, 275, 277 - -Richelieu, Cardinal, 175 - -Richelieu, Duc de, 332 - -Richmond, 346 - -Richter, 323 - -Ristitch, M., 404, 407 - -Rizzio, David, 87-108 - -Robespierre, 284, 290, 291 - -Robzak, 241 - -Romanowna, Anastasia, 132, 133 - -Rome, 11-14, 25-27, 41, 156, 287 - -Rome, Ancient kings of, 29 - -Roman Campagna, 13 - -Roman Empire, 27, 43 - -Roman Republic, 27, 28, 36 - -Rostock, 123, 172 - -Rostopchin, Count, 308 - -Roumania, 399 - -Roumelia, 400 - -Rousseau, 287-289 - -Royalists, 284, 328-331, 334, 339 - -Rudolph of Hapsburg, 68 - -Rue des Cordeliers, 292 - -Russia, 131, 215, 216, 221-223, 226-230, 234, 237, 249, 251, 252, 268, 271, -273, 306, 312, 315, 322, 361, 362, 367-369, 377, 383, 394, 399, 400 - -Russian Carnival, 307 - -Russian Church, 227 - -Russian Empire, 305 - -Russian serfs, 394 - -Russian universities, 365 - -Ruthven, ----, 97, 99 - - -St. Angelo, Castle of, 215 - -St. Bartholomew, Eve of, 111, 140, 149, 152 - -St. Louis, 386 - -St. Michael, Palace of, 308, 312 - -St. Michael’s Canal, 376 - -St. Petersburg, 215, 222, 225, 233-236, - 238, 241, 243, 268, 303, 311, 370, 373, 374, 377 - -St. Petersburg, Governor-General of, 309 - -San Francisco, 389 - -Sand, C. L., 322, 323, 324 - -Sassoulitch, Vera, 370 - -Savoy, 148 - -Saxony, 180, 181 - -Saxony, Elector of, 181 - -Scandinavia, 73 - -Scania, 257 - -Scharnhorst, General, 318 - -Schiller, Frederick, 73, 318 - -Schüsselburg, 230, 244, 301 - -Schwab, Justus, 386 - -Schwyz, 67, 69 - -Scipio Africanus, Cornelius, 12 - -Scotland, 91, 93, 100-102 - -Sempronian law, 11 - -Seni, the astrologer, 173 - -Serapeum, 42, 43 - -Servia, 399, 400, 401, 404, 405, 411, 413, 417, 419 - -Servia, Metropolitan of, 403, 411 - -Servian Parliament, see Skuptshina - -Seven Years’ War, 253 - -Seward, William II., 347, 348, 350 - -Shakespeare, William, 25, 371 - -Siberia, 228, 361, 362, 366 - -Siberian exiles, 365, 366 - -Silesia, 177 - -Silius, Caius, 37 - -Skuptshina, 411, 412 - -Socialism, 368 - -Socialist congress, 385 - -Socialists, 369 - -Sodermanland, Duke of, 277 - -Sokoloff, Alexander, 372, 373 - -Solbay, Battle of, 203, 206 - -Soltikoff, Count, 225 - -Soothsayer, 18 - -South African War, 68 - -South America, 316, 383, 413 - -Spain, 13, 81, 103, 111, 112, 126, 127, 153, 154, 177, 194, 202, 382, 383, 394 - -Spanish-American War, 382, 383 - -Spanish Inquisition, 112, 115, 121, 361 - -Spanish Netherlands, 194, 197 - -Stanton, E. M., 346, 348 - -Stauffacher, Werner, of Schwyz, 69 - -Stockholm, 252, 254-257, 260, 263, 269, 274, 277, 278 - -Stourdza, Baron, 322, 323 - -Stralsund, Fortress of, 171 - -Sulla, General, 29 - -Sully, Duke of, 153, 154 - -Surratt, Mrs., 349, 350 - -Suwarow, General, 231 - -Sweden, 175, 194, 195, 197, 222, - 249, 251, 254, 256, 257, 262, - 263, 265, 267, 269, 271 - -Swenskasund, Battle of, 270 - -Swiss Cantons, 67, 68 - -Switzerland, 68, 71, 73 - -Switzerland Republic, 73 - -Synesius, 46 - - -Tacitus, 38, 288 - -Talizin, General, 307, 309 - -Tasso, 155 - -Tell, William, 67, 70, 72 - -Tepelof, ----, 241 - -Terrorists, 285, 288, 295 - -Terzky, General, 182, 186 - -Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, 54, 55 - -Theocritus, 42 - -Theodosius the Great, 42 - -Theon, father of Hypatia, 45 - -Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria, 43, 44 - -Thirty Years’ War, 176, 188 - -Thuringia, 180 - -Thurn, Count, 180 - -Tiberius, 33-38 - -Tichelaar, ----, 205, 206 - -Tilly, General, 166-168, 176 - -Toropetz, 372 - -Toulouse, 55, 330 - -Tournay, 194 - -Transvaal, 70 - -Transylvania, 170 - -Trent, Court of, 116 - -Trepow, General, 370, 372 - -Trèves, College of, 125 - -Trianon, 156 - -Tribunal, Revolutionary, 295 - -Tribunes, Ten, 15 - -Triple Alliance, 194, 195, 197 - -Tromp, Admiral, 193 - -Troubles, Court of, 119 - -Trubetzkoi, Prince, 243, 244 - -Turenne, Marshal, 200 - -Turgenieff, Ivan, 369 - -Turkey, 225, 363, 400, 401 - -Turkey, European, 399 - -Tuscany, 13 - -Tver, 366 - -Twer, 138 - - -United Netherlands, 195, 196 - -United Provinces, 192 - -United States, 343, 354, 381-385, 392 - -United States Territories, 68 - -Unterwalden, 67, 69 - -Uri, 67, 69 - -Uri, Lake of, 69 - - -Varennes, 273 - -Vauban, Marshal, 195, 200 - -Venus, Temple of, 29 - -Vergennes, Count de, 254 - -Versailles, 156, 157, 265, 334-336 - -Vienna, 176, 178, 180, 195, 215 - -Vienna congress, 316 - -Virgil, 155 - -Virginia, 343, 349 - -“Voice of the People,” 386 - -Voltaire, 155, 287 - -Vorwärts, Marshal, 123 - - -Waldstädte, Three (Forest Cantons), 67 - -Wallenstein, General, 163-188, 308 - -Wartburg, 320 - -Wartburg celebration, 321, 322 - -Washington, D. C., 346, 348, 393 - -Washington, George, 126, 127, 351, 388 - -Waterloo, 329 - -West Indies, 384 - -Western Hemisphere, 316 - -Westminster, 193 - -White Mountain, Battle of, 167 - -Wiesbaden, 404 - -Wiesloch, 167 - -William I., Prince of Orange, 109-128 - -William II., Prince of Orange, 192 - -William III., Prince of Orange, King of England, 199, 200, 203, 204, 207, 208 - -Wimpfen, 167 - -Wimpfen, General, 285 - -Winter Palace, 309, 376, 377 - -Wladimir, Grand Duchess, 135 - -Wladimir, Grand Duke, 135 - -Worcestershire, England, 57 - -World’s Fair, 387 - -Worms, Diet of, 320 - -Woronzow, Elizabeth, Countess, 226, 227, 230, 236-239 - -Wunsiedel, 322 - -Würtemberg, 177 - - -York, ----, 318 - -Yssel, 201 - - -Zealand, 115, 192, 195, 204 - -Zubow, Nicholas, 310, 311 - -Zubow Brothers, 307 - - -Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: - -and with mighty leap=> and with a mighty leap {pg 72} - -Protestanism, 354=> Protestantism, 354 {pg 431} - - - - - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Famous Assassinations of History, by -Francis Johnson - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAMOUS ASSASSINATIONS OF HISTORY *** - -***** This file should be named 53273-0.txt or 53273-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/2/7/53273/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/53273-0.zip b/old/53273-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 278f506..0000000 --- a/old/53273-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h.zip b/old/53273-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bda9259..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/53273-h.htm b/old/53273-h/53273-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 24635ce..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/53273-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12294 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" -"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> - -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> - <head> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> -<title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Famous -Assassinations of History, by Francis Johnson. -</title> -<style type="text/css"> - p {margin-top:.2em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.2em;text-indent:4%;} - -.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -.letra {font-size:250%;float:left;margin-top:-1%;} - @media print, handheld - { .letra - {font-size:150%;} - } - -.nind {text-indent:0%;} - -.nonvis {display:inline;} - @media print, handheld - {.nonvis - {display: none;} - } - -.r {text-align:right;margin-right: 5%;} - -.rt {text-align:right;} - -small {font-size: 70%;} - -big {font-size: 130%;} - - h1 {margin-top:5%;text-align:center;clear:both;} - - h2 {margin-top:4%;margin-bottom:2%;text-align:center;clear:both; - font-size:120%;} - -h2.smlr {font-size:90%;} - - hr {width:90%;margin:2em auto 2em auto;clear:both;color:black;} - - hr.full {width: 60%;margin:2% auto 2% auto;border-top:1px solid black; -padding:.1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;border-left:none;border-right:none;} - - table {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;} - -th {padding-top:1em;} - -.lftspc {padding-left:.15em;} - - body{margin-left:4%;margin-right:6%;background:#ffffff;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;} - -a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - - link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - -a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;} - -a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;} - -.smcap {font-variant:small-caps;font-size:100%;} - - img {border:none;} - -.blockquot {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;font-size:90%;} - -.caption {font-weight:bold;font-size:75%;} - -.figcenter {margin-top:3%;margin-bottom:3%;clear:both; -margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - @media print, handheld - {.figcenter - {page-break-before: avoid;} - } - -div.poetry {text-align:center;} -div.poem {font-size:90%;margin:auto auto;text-indent:0%; -display: inline-block; text-align: left;} -.poem .stanza {margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom:1em;} -.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: .45em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -.pagenum {font-style:normal;position:absolute; -left:95%;font-size:55%;text-align:right;color:gray; -background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;} -@media print, handheld -{.pagenum - {display: none;} - } - -</style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Famous Assassinations of History, by Francis Johnson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Famous Assassinations of History - -Author: Francis Johnson - -Release Date: October 13, 2016 [EBook #53273] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAMOUS ASSASSINATIONS OF HISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/cover_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="image unavailable: cover" /></a> -</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; -padding:1%;"> -<tr><td> - -<p class="c"><a href="#Contents">Contents.</a><br /> -<a href="#INDEX">Index</a>:<small> -<a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Y">Y</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></small></p> -<p class="c">Some typographical errors have been corrected; -<a href="#transcrib">a list follows the text</a>.</p> - -<p class="c"><a href="#Illustrations">List of Illustrations</a><br /> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] -clicking on the image -will bring up a larger version.)</span></p> - -<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_i" id="page_i"></a>{i}</span></p> - -<p class="c"> -Famous Assassinations<br /> -of History<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii"></a>{ii}</span></p> - -<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p> - -<p><a name="JULIUS_CAESAR" id="JULIUS_CAESAR"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_f02b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_f02b_sml.jpg" width="454" height="615" alt="image unavailable: JULIUS CÆSAR" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">JULIUS CÆSAR</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii"></a>{iii}</span></p> - -<h1> -Famous Assassinations<br /> -of History</h1> -<p class="c">From Philip of Macedon, 336 B.C., to<br /> -Alexander of Servia, A.D. 1903<br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">By Francis Johnson</span><br /> -<br /> -<i>WITH TWENTY-NINE PORTRAITS</i><br /> -<br /> - <img src="images/colophon.jpg" -width="75" -alt="[image of the colophon unavailable.]" -/><br /> -<br /> -Chicago<br /> -<span class="smcap">A. C. McClurg & Co.</span><br /> -1903<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv"></a>{iv}</span> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Copyright<br /> -A. C. McClurg & Co.</span><br /> -1903<br /> -<br /> -Published September 19, 1903<br /> -<br /> -<small>UNIVERSITY PRESS · JOHN WILSON<br /> -AND SON · CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A.</small><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v"></a>{v}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Preface" id="Preface"></a>Preface</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE thirty-one assassinations, famous in history, which are narrated in -this volume, have never before had their stories told in a collected -form in any language. The accounts of them were scattered through the -historical works of all nations, and through many volumes of private -memoirs, which had to be scanned for proper and trustworthy material. It -is hoped that their presentation in this form will make an interesting -volume, not only for the student of history, but also for the general -reader, on account of the historical and psychological interest which -attaches to them.</p> - -<p>These assassinations embrace a period of nearly twenty-five -centuries,—that of Philip of Macedon, in 336 <small>B.C.</small>, being the first, and -that of Alexander and Draga, in the present year, being the last. Only -those assassinations have been included which either had an important -and political bearing on the world, or on the nation immediately -affected, or which left a profound, and, it would seem, indelible -impression on the imagination of contemporaries and posterity. All those -which were not distinguished by one of these features were excluded from -this series.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi"></a>{vi}</span></p> - -<p>It will undoubtedly occur to some who read this volume that it should -have included the assassination of President Garfield. It was omitted, -not from any want of respect or sympathy for the memory of our -illustrious martyr-President, but simply for the reason that his -assassination rather grew out of the morbid aberration of one diseased -mind than out of the general spirit of the epoch in which he lived.</p> - -<p>Others may think that the assassinations of Henry the Third of France, -of Henry of Guise, and of Marshal Coligny, which are certainly famous in -history, should have found a place here. But they all grew out of the -same spirit of religious hatred and conflict in France during the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and Henry the Fourth was selected -as its most illustrious victim.</p> - -<p>It has been the object of the writer to make each of these “famous -assassinations” the central scene of a picture in which the political, -religious, or national features of the epoch in which the assassination -occurred are portrayed with historical fidelity and strict impartiality.</p> - -<p class="r"> -F. J.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="nind"> -<span class="smcap">Lafayette, Ind.</span>, August 1, 1903.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii"></a>{vii}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td> </td><td class="rt"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Philip of Macedon</span> (336 B.C.)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Tiberius Gracchus</span> (133 B.C.)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_011">11</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Julius Cæsar</span> (44 B.C.)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassinations of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero</span> (A.D. 37-68)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Hypatia</span> (A.D. 415)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Thomas À Becket</span> (December 29, 1170)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_053">53</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Gessler</span> (A.D. 1307)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Iñez de Castro</span> (A.D. 1355)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii"></a>{viii}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassinations of Rizzio and Darnley</span> (March 9, 1566; February 9, 1567)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of William of Orange</span> (July 10, 1584)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassinations by Ivan the Terrible</span> (1560-1584)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Henry the Fourth of France</span> (May 14, 1610)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Wallenstein</span> (February 24, 1634)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of the Brothers John and Cornelius De Witt</span> (August 20, 1672)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_191">191</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Alexis, Son of Peter the Great</span> (June 26, 1718)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Peter the Third of Russia</span> (July 17, 1762)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Gustavus the Third of Sweden</span> (March 17, 1792)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix"></a>{ix}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Jean Paul Marat</span> (July 13, 1793)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_283">283</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Paul the First of Russia</span> (March 24, 1801)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_301">301</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of August von Kotzebue</span> (March 23, 1819)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of the Duc de Berry</span> (February 13, 1820)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_327">327</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</span> (April 14, 1865)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_343">343</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of Alexander the Second of Russia</span> (March 13, 1881)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_359">359</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassination of William McKinley, President of the United States</span> (September 6, 1901)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_381">381</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Assassinations of Alexander I. and Draga, King and Queen of Servia</span> (June 10-11, 1903)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_399">399</a></td></tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x"></a>{x}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xi" id="page_xi"></a>{xi}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="Illustrations" id="Illustrations"></a>Illustrations</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#JULIUS_CAESAR">Julius Cæsar</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td> </td><td class="rt"><small><i>To face page</i></small></td></tr> -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#PHILIP_OF_MACEDON">Philip of Macedon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#TIBERIUS_GRACCHUS">Tiberius Gracchus</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_011">11</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CALIGULA">Caligula</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CLAUDIUS">Claudius</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_037">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THOMAS_A_BECKET">Thomas á Becket</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_053">53</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#GESSLER">Gessler</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#INEZ_DE_CASTRO">Iñez de Castro</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#DAVID_RIZZIO">David Rizzo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#LORD_DARNLEY">Lord Darnley</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_094">94</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#WILLIAM_OF_ORANGE">William of Orange</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#IVAN_THE_TERRIBLE">Ivan the Terrible</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#HENRY_IV">Henry IV.</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#WALLENSTEIN">Wallenstein</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#JOHN_DE_WITT">John de Witt</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_191">191</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CORNELIUS_DE_WITT">Cornelius de Witt</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_205">205</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#ALEXIS">Alexis</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#PETER_III">Peter III.</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#GUSTAVUS_III">Gustavus III.</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#JEAN_PAUL_MARAT">Jean Paul Marat</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_283">283</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#PAUL_I">Paul I.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xii" id="page_xii"></a>{xii}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_301">301</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AUGUST_VON_KOTZEBUE">August von Kotzebue</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#DUC_DE_BERRY">Duc de Berry</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_327">327</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#ABRAHAM_LINCOLN">Abraham Lincoln</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_343">343</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#ALEXANDER_II">Alexander</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_359">359</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#WILLIAM_MCKINLEY">William McKinley</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_381">381</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#ALEXANDER_I_OF_SERVIA">Alexander I. of Servia</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_399">399</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#QUEEN_DRAGA">Queen Draga</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_409">409</a></td></tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a>{1}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /><br /> -PHILIP OF MACEDON</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span></p> - -<p><a name="PHILIP_OF_MACEDON" id="PHILIP_OF_MACEDON"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p02b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p02b_sml.jpg" width="429" height="550" alt="image unavailable: PHILIP OF MACEDON" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">PHILIP OF MACEDON</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span></p> - -<h1>Famous Assassinations</h1> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER I<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF PHILIP OF MACEDON<br /><br /> -(336 B. C.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE assassination of Philip of Macedon, which occurred in the year 336 -<small>B.C.</small>, was one of the most important in ancient history, not only because -it terminated the glorious career of one of the most remarkable men of -his times, but also because it led immediately to the accession of -Alexander, one of the supremely great men of history,—an event which -would very likely not have taken place at all if Philip had continued to -live for a number of years and had himself selected the successor to his -throne. Philip of Macedon was then at the height of his power. The -battle of Chæronea, in 338 <small>B.C.</small>, had made him the master of Greece; and -by his tactful and generous treatment of the vanquished he had even been -appointed by the Amphictyon League commander-in-chief of all the Greek -forces, which he intended to lead, at the head of his Macedonian army, -against the Persians, and to conquer their mighty empire. This -stupendous plan, by whose accomplishment Philip would have anticipated -the glorious achievements of Alexander, his son, was frustrated by his -assassination.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span></p> - -<p>While Philip had arranged everything for his descent upon Persia, and -had been frequently absent from home, his domestic affairs in his own -capital, which had never been of a very satisfactory character, took -such an unfavorable turn as to require his personal attention. As a -husband, Philip had often given just cause of complaint to Olympias, his -royal spouse. Wherever he went he formed liaisons, and several -illegitimate children were openly recognized by him as his own. But when -Olympias, the Queen, laid herself open to a suspicion of having violated -her marriage vows in his absence, he repudiated her, charging her with -gross infidelity, and intimating that he had very strong doubts of being -the father of Alexander. Olympias thereupon went back to her native -state, Epirus, accompanied by Alexander, who was highly incensed at the -treatment shown to his mother and himself.</p> - -<p>Philip contracted a second marriage with Cleopatra, a niece of Attalus, -one of his generals; and it is said that at the wedding feast Attalus, -half intoxicated, expressed the wish and hope that Cleopatra might give -the Macedonians a lawful heir to the kingdom. This remark, overheard by -Alexander, so enraged him that, throwing a full cup at Attalus’s head, -he shouted to him: “What, you scoundrel! am I then a bastard?” Whereupon -Philip, taking Attalus’s part, rose from his seat, and rushing with his -drawn sword upon Alexander would have run his son through, if he had -not, being himself more than half drunk with wine, slipped and fallen on -the floor; at which sight Alexander scornfully said: “See there the man -who is making great preparations to invade Asia at the head of a -powerful army, and who falls to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span> ground like a helpless child in -going from one seat to another.”</p> - -<p>It is said that after this debauch both Olympias and Alexander retired -from Philip’s capital, the one going to Epirus, and the other to -Illyria. By the counsels and efforts of Demaratus, the Corinthian, an -old friend of the royal family, Philip was, however, induced to send for -Alexander, and the son returned to his father’s court. Soon afterwards, -Cleopatra gave birth to a son; and the fears of Alexander, who remained -in communication with his mother and was filled with jealous rage by -her, revived.</p> - -<p>It is more than likely—although absolute proof of it has never been -furnished—that Olympias, in her revengeful jealousy, planned the -assassination of the King who had so cruelly offended her pride as a -woman, and who, she supposed, was also plotting to exclude her own son -from the throne and place upon it the son of her young rival. An -opportunity for this act of revenge soon presented itself. A young -Macedonian, named Pausanias, had been mortally offended by Attalus and -Queen Cleopatra. He appealed to the King for reparation of the wrong -done to him; but this being refused, he resolved to revenge himself by -taking the King’s life. All historians seem to agree that Pausanias was -encouraged and incited to this act of revenge by Olympias; but whether -or not Alexander was cognizant of the murderous plot, and approved it, -has never been satisfactorily explained, and remains one of the unsolved -problems of history.</p> - -<p>The occasion for the murderous act of Pausanias was the wedding of -Alexander’s sister with her uncle Alexander,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span> King of Epirus. Philip -considered this marriage between his daughter and the brother of his -first wife, Olympias, an act of consummate statesmanship, inasmuch as it -transferred an enemy and an ally of Olympias to his own side and made a -friend of him. He therefore resolved to make the nuptials of this -ill-matched couple as brilliant as possible. Grand Olympian games and -spectacular festivities were arranged, and an incredible display of -luxury and pomp, unheard of in those days, was planned to show to the -wondering eyes of Greece the court of the new master of the civilized -world in matchless splendor and grandeur. All the cities of Greece had -sent delegations to these brilliant festivities; most of them came with -costly wedding presents, among which golden crowns were conspicuous. -Poets sent nuptial hymns and poems celebrating the beauty of the bride -and the genius of the father in the most extravagant terms; and a noted -dramatist of that age, Neoptolemus, composed a tragedy for the occasion, -in which Philip, under a fictitious name, was represented as the -conqueror of Asia and the triumphant vanquisher of the great Darius.</p> - -<p>It was at the theatre, in which this tragedy was to be performed, that -Philip met his doom. Accompanied by a brilliant cortège of all that were -renowned at his court for birth, talent, and wealth, he proceeded to the -theatre. On approaching the entrance, he bade the noblemen surrounding -him to advance, and his body-guard to fall back, so that he might be -personally more conspicuous before the enraptured eyes of his subjects. -The procession was led by priests in white robes, each carrying a statue -of one of the twelve principal gods; and a thirteenth statue, even more -richly draped and ornamented than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span> others, with the insignia of -divinity upon it, was that of Philip himself.</p> - -<p>It was the supreme moment of his pride and happiness; but it was also -his last. The noblemen and courtiers had already disappeared in the -building. The body-guard, obedient to the King’s orders, remained -behind. Just at the moment when the King stepped forward, alone, under -the gateway of the theatre, a man sprang from a side corridor, thrust a -sharp short sword into his side, and hurried off as the royal victim -reeled and fell. In the tremendous confusion which arose, the assassin -came very near making his escape. He ran toward a swift horse which was -kept in readiness for him by friends who evidently knew of the murder -and were in the plot; and, dazed as the people were who witnessed the -assassination, he would probably have escaped, had not his sandal caught -in a vine-stock and caused him to fall, which gave some of his pursuers -time to lay their hands on him before he could get up. In their rage, -they killed him with their spears and tore him to pieces.</p> - -<p>The surroundings and execution of this plot bear a strong resemblance to -the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. In both cases there was an -individual murderer, the scene was a theatre, the act was done with -incredible audacity in the presence of a large concourse of people, and -the murderer was crippled by a misstep after the fatal blow.</p> - -<p>The assassination of Philip of Macedon was not only one of the boldest -and most dramatic in history, but it was also one of the earliest in -point of time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br /> -TIBERIUS GRACCHUS</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span></p> - -<p><a name="TIBERIUS_GRACCHUS" id="TIBERIUS_GRACCHUS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p010b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p010b_sml.jpg" width="247" height="360" alt="image unavailable: TIBERIUS GRACCHUS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">TIBERIUS GRACCHUS</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER II<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS<br /><br /> -(133 B. C.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N the history of ancient Rome there occurs one political assassination -which stands out as an event of special significance, not only on -account of the great celebrity of the victim, but also owing to the fact -that it is the first occasion on record in which the conflicting -economical interests of different classes in a republic were settled by -a resort to arms, instead of being adjudicated on principles of equity -and justice, or simply by public authority.</p> - -<p>This great historical event was the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, which -was soon followed by the forced suicide of his brother, Caius -Gracchus,—the immediate result of their attempt to enforce an agrarian -law passed as an act of justice to the poorer classes of Roman citizens. -The law was violently opposed by the rich, who organized an armed -revolution against its originators and were powerful enough to do away -with them.</p> - -<p>There is in the whole conflict about that agrarian law (the so-called -Sempronian law) a modern feature which makes it especially interesting -to Americans at a time when party issues turn largely on economical -questions, and when the antagonism between capital and labor (or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span> the -rich and the poor) threatens to enter the acute stage. It will be -noticed that at that early age (more than two thousand years ago) -capital already had a power and commanded a political influence against -which right and justice, allied to poverty, battled in vain. History, -both ancient and modern, has been written largely in conformity with the -ideas and prejudices of the ruling classes, and in praise of them, while -their enemies and opponents have generally been unjustly criticised and -denounced as disturbers of public order and peace, or even as anarchists -and rebels against public authority. The two illustrious brothers, the -Gracchi, have shared this unjust treatment of historians, and in the -estimation of many, pass to-day as dangerous and seditious characters -whose death alone could have saved Rome from greater calamities. An -impartial investigation of their case will, in our opinion, furnish -sufficient proof to reverse this historical judgment.</p> - -<p>The two Gracchi were the sons of Sempronius Gracchus, the famous Roman -tribune, who won distinction by his great independence and ability in -the administration of his office, and of the equally famous Cornelia, -daughter of Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the renowned vanquisher of -Hannibal. The brothers, so closely united and so much alike in political -sentiments, designs, and efforts, were of different character, -temperament, and appearance. Tiberius, who was nine years older than his -brother, was gentle and mild in conduct; and his countenance, his eyes, -and his gestures were of peculiar and winning gentleness. His brother -Caius was animated, vehement, and high-tempered. His eloquence was -distinguished by the same characteristics, while that of Tiberius was -tactful, persuasive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span> and conciliatory. Tiberius would have made an -ideal preacher; Caius seemed to be predestined for the part of a popular -advocate and orator.</p> - -<p>Tiberius had seen military service and won distinction both by his -bravery and prudence in Spain as aid to his brother-in-law, Scipio -Æmilianus, who was the commander-in-chief. It was, therefore, not his -illustrious birth alone, but individual merit also, which caused him to -be elected tribune of the people in the year 133 <small>B.C.</small> As such he -introduced a bill for the re-apportionment of the public lands and their -distribution among the poorer citizens of Rome. Various explanations -have been given for this action of Tiberius Gracchus. It has been said -that he was instigated by others to introduce a measure which could not -fail to arouse against him the strongest hostility of the rich -proprietors of some of these lands. But from a statement in writing left -by his brother Caius, it appears that the idea of the bill originated -with Tiberius himself, and that its introduction sprang much more from a -noble and generous impulse than from political ambition.</p> - -<p>Even to-day the traveller who traverses the silent and depopulated -desert of the Roman Campagna, which is owned by a limited number of -large proprietors and is left in an almost uncultivated state, is struck -forcibly with the thought that the unwise and unjust distribution of the -land has had much to do with the desolate and unproductive aspect of -this district, which under judicious and scientific cultivation might -yield rich harvests and contribute materially to the welfare of the -inhabitants of Tuscany. The same thought struck Tiberius Gracchus as, on -his departure for Spain, he travelled through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span> Tuscany and found it -almost a desert, or, at best, only rudely cultivated in some parts by -barbarian and imported slaves. It was at that time that he first -conceived the idea of bringing about a change—an idea which continued -to haunt his mind until he was in a position to realize it. And in doing -so he found a precedent for legislative action.</p> - -<p>There already existed a law at Rome—the so-called Licinian law—which -limited the number of acres to be possessed by any one citizen to five -hundred. But this Licinian law had been a dead letter for many years, -and there were many rich citizens in Rome who counted the number of -their acres by the thousand or even ten thousand. It was this violation -of the Licinian law, and the open injustice done to the poor by this -violation, which Tiberius Gracchus wanted to correct. He therefore -introduced a new agrarian law which aimed to revive the Licinian law, -but at the same time greatly modified and attenuated its provisions. The -change in the law which Tiberius Gracchus proposed was in one respect an -act of injustice, because it put a premium on the violation of the law -as it had existed, instead of punishing that violation by imposing an -adequate fine. Under the new law a citizen might hold 500 acres of the -public lands in his own name, and in addition, 250 acres for each son -still under the paternal roof and authority. Moreover, the new law -provided that, whenever a citizen should be compelled to give up land -which he held in excess of the share which the law allowed him, he -should be reimbursed for this loss, at the appraised value, from the -public treasury. Tiberius Gracchus also favored the immediate -distribution of the confiscated lands among the poor as their absolute<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span> -property, and proposed that, whenever a Roman colony was founded on -conquered territory, a similar distribution of the newly acquired land -should be made.</p> - -<p>The new law was enthusiastically applauded by the Roman people, even -before it had been legally adopted; but the Senate most violently -opposed it, because many Senators would have been deprived by its -passage of most valuable lands. In order to defeat it they prevailed -upon one of the ten tribunes to object to the third reading of the law. -The unanimous support of the tribunes was necessary for its passage. -When the day for the public vote on the law had come, an immense -multitude of people was assembled at the Forum. The ten tribunes entered -and took their seats on the platform. Tiberius Gracchus arose and -ordered the clerk to read his law, but was immediately interrupted by -Octavius, who ordered him to stop. The interruption caused an immense -sensation and commotion among the spectators. Tiberius, after having -vainly tried to persuade Octavius to withdraw his objection, adjourned -the meeting to a later day. During this interval he used all his power -of persuasion to overcome the resistance of Octavius, but in vain. It -was then that Tiberius Gracchus, in his intense desire to pass a public -measure which he considered highly beneficial to the people and almost -indispensable to the public welfare, resolved to resort to an expedient -which was really unconstitutional and which is the only public act of -his that gives the least foundation to the charge of sedition so -generally preferred against him. He came to the conclusion that the only -way to overcome the veto of Octavius was to depose him from his office -by a popular vote. This was a clear violation of the Constitution, and -he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span> carried out his intention in spite of the loud protests of the -Senate.</p> - -<p>The scene on the Forum in which Octavius was deposed must have been very -pathetic and impressive; and while it signified an immediate victory for -Tiberius Gracchus, it nevertheless incensed a great many Roman citizens -and turned them against him. It is safe to say that this scene sealed -his doom and furnished the principal reason for his assassination. -Plutarch, a reliable and impartial authority, describes the scene as -follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“When the people were met together again, Tiberius placed himself -in the rostra and endeavored a second time to persuade Octavius. -But all being to no purpose, he referred the whole matter to the -people, calling on them to vote at once whether Octavius should be -deposed or not; and when seventeen of the thirty-five tribes had -already voted against him, and there wanted only the vote of one -tribe more for his final deprivation, Tiberius put a short stop to -the proceedings, and once more renewed his importunities; he -embraced and kissed him before all the assembly, begging with all -the earnestness imaginable that he would neither suffer himself to -incur the dishonor, nor him to be reputed the author and promoter -of so odious a measure. Octavius did seem a little softened and -moved with these entreaties; his eyes filled with tears and he -continued silent for a considerable time. But presently looking -toward the rich men and proprietors of estates, who stood gathered -in a body together, partly for shame, and partly for fear of -disgracing himself with them, he boldly bade Tiberius use any -severity he pleased. The law for his deposition being thus voted, -Tiberius ordered one of his servants, whom he had made a freeman, -to remove Octavius from the rostra, employing his own domestic -freed servants instead of the public officers. And it made the -action seem all the sadder that Octavius was dragged out in such an -ignominious manner. The people immediately assaulted him, while the -rich men ran in to his assistance. Octavius, with some difficulty, -was snatched away, and safely conveyed out of the crowd; though a -trusty servant of his, who had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span> placed himself in front of his -master that he might assist his escape, in keeping off the -multitude, had his eyes struck out, much to the displeasure of -Tiberius, who ran with all haste, when he perceived the -disturbance, to appease the rioters.”</p></div> - -<p>The law was then passed, and commissioners were immediately appointed to -make a survey of the lands and see that they were equally divided.</p> - -<p>The forcible ejection of Octavius and the subsequent passage of the new -agrarian law opened a chasm between Tiberius Gracchus and the -patricians, which nothing but his death could close up. He had made -himself immensely popular with the poor, and other laws which he -introduced increased that popularity. But the more the poor idolized -him, the more the rich hated and abhorred him; and a large number of the -better and more thoughtful class of plebeians resented his bold -violation of the Constitution in removing Octavius from office.</p> - -<p>Such were the conditions when the time for the expiration of his -official term as tribune approached, and he as well as his friends saw -the necessity for his reëlection as a measure for protecting his life. -He therefore appeared as a candidate for reëlection; and when on the -first day of the election no choice had resulted from the vote, the next -day was appointed for the final decision. Tiberius knew that not only -his political career, but his very life depended on the result, and he -therefore left no stone unturned to rally his friends to the rescue. But -unfortunately, it being harvest time, many of his adherents were absent -from the city, and could not be reached in time for the struggle.</p> - -<p>On the day following, the Senate convened at an early hour, while the -people assembled at the Capitol to proceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span> with the vote. However, -great confusion prevailed, and a large number of outsiders tried to -force their way in and establish themselves among the voters. And even -the appearance of Tiberius Gracchus, although he was received with loud -acclamations, failed to restore order in the assemblage. Moreover, he -showed by the depression in his countenance and conduct that he had lost -confidence in the success of his cause. Several evil omens which he had -encountered on his way to the Capitol disturbed his mind. At daybreak a -soothsayer, who prognosticated good or bad success by the pecking of -fowls, informed him that all his efforts to induce the fowls to eat had -failed. Tiberius then remembered that, a short time before, two serpents -had been found in his helmet. On stepping out of the house he stumbled -on the threshold and hurt his great toe so badly that it bled profusely. -As he walked through the streets he saw on his left hand two ravens -fighting on the roof of a house, and suddenly a stone, detached from the -roof, fell at his feet. The friends of Gracchus, who surrounded him, all -stopped, and he himself hesitated as to whether he should proceed or -return to his house. However, a philosopher from Cuma, one of his -intimates, who was credited with inspiring Gracchus with his democratic -ideas and who was free from the superstition of the Romans, persuaded -him to continue on his way to the Capitol.</p> - -<p>There the voting of the tribes was proceeding with great noise and -confusion. All at once Gracchus noticed that one of his friends, Lucius -Flaccus, a Senator, had mounted an elevation from which he could be -easily seen, but where he was too far off to be heard, and was -indicating by motions of his hand that he wished to communicate some -important<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span> news. Tiberius told the crowd to let Flaccus pass. With great -difficulty the Senator reached Tiberius and informed him that at the -session of the Senate, after the Consul had refused to have him -arrested, a resolution had been passed to kill him, and that the -Senators had armed a large number of their clients and slaves to carry -out this purpose. Tiberius immediately informed the friends who -surrounded him of the action of the Senate, and signified to those at a -greater distance the danger in which he was placed, by raising his hands -to his head,—and it was this motion, entirely innocent in itself, which -hastened his ruin. His enemies construed it as a desire on his part to -wear a crown, and carried this ridiculous news to the Senate chamber. It -caused a perfect explosion of maledictions and threats among the -Senators; and Scipio Nasica, the most violent of all, immediately made a -motion that the Consul be instructed to save the Republic and to -exterminate the would-be tyrant. The Consul replied that he would resist -any factious and criminal attempt against the Republic, but that he -would not put to death a Roman citizen without trial. On this Scipio -Nasica turned to the Senators, exclaiming: “Since the Consul betrays the -city, let those who want to defend the laws follow me!” and followed by -a large number of Senators and their clients, he rushed toward the place -where Tiberius Gracchus, surrounded by his friends, was observing the -progress of the election. Immediately a riot and fight ensued. The -Senators, who were armed with clubs, canes, stones, or whatever weapon -they could lay their hands on, rushed upon the crowd of voters, -overthrew, beat, and killed them, stamping them under their feet and -quickly and irresistibly advancing toward<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span> the spot where they beheld -the man who was the object of their rage and bloodthirstiness. Tiberius, -unarmed and forsaken by his friends, turned round to seek safety in -flight, but, stumbling over those who had been knocked down, fell to the -ground. It was at that moment, while Tiberius was trying to get on his -feet again, that one of his own colleagues, a tribune of the people, -dealt him a powerful and fatal blow, striking him on the head with the -leg of a stool. Others rushed up and struck him again and again, but it -was only a lifeless corpse which suffered from their abuse. Three -hundred of his friends had fallen with him. It was the first Roman blood -which had been shed in civil war, and this first conflict deprived Rome -of one of its most illustrious citizens.</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary to go into any details regarding the death of Caius -Gracchus, who took up and continued the work of his brother. To the -measures in favor of the poor which had been advocated by Tiberius, he -added others,—for instance, regular distributions of corn among the -poor at half price, the imposition of new taxes upon articles of luxury -imported from foreign countries, and employment on public works for -mechanics and laborers who could not find employment on private -contract. It will be seen that these measures, as well as some other -projects of minor importance which Caius Gracchus advocated and caused -to be enacted as laws, form part of the platform of modern labor -parties, and that the Gracchi can fitly be designated as the founders of -these parties. They both fell victims to the attempt to carry out their -theories. At first, it would seem, Caius Gracchus at the request of his -mother, was inclined to abandon the projects of Tiberius; but one night, -says Cicero in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span> his book <i>De Divinatione</i>, he heard Tiberius saying to -him: “Why hesitate, Caius? Thy destiny shall be the same as mine—to -fight for the people, and to die for them.” It is said that this -prophecy determined him in his course, and that his death was the -consequence. In 121 <small>B.C.</small>, during a public riot and conflict organized by -his enemies for his destruction, he committed suicide, dying not by his -own hand, but by commanding his slave to stab him,—an order which was -promptly obeyed. The assassination of the one and the forced suicide of -the other immortalized the two brothers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /><br /> -JULIUS CÆSAR</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER III<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF JULIUS CÆSAR<br /><br /> -(44 B. C.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>MERICANS are not great students of history, especially ancient history. -Very likely the assassination of Julius Cæsar, one of the most important -events in the history of ancient Rome, would also be among the “things -not generally known” among Americans, had not Shakespeare’s great -tragedy made them familiar with it. It is true, the aims of the -dramatist and of the historian are wide-apart. The dramatist places the -hero in the centre of the plot, and causes every part of it to -contribute to the catastrophe which overwhelms him under the decree of -fate. He is the victim of his own guilt. The historian makes the great -man but one of the principal factors in the evolution of events, and if -a Cæsar or a Napoleon succumbs in the struggle, it is by force of -external circumstances against which his genius is powerless to contend, -although his ambition or his passion may have been the dominant cause of -arraying those circumstances against him. By his matchless genius and -incomparable art, Shakespeare has, to a certain degree, in his “Julius -Cæsar,” solved the difficult problem of combining the task of the -dramatic poet with that of the historian, and has placed before the -spectator<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> not only Cæsar himself with his world-wide and imperialistic -ambition as the central figure of the play, but also Rome with its -republican recollections and aspirations in antagonism to Cæsar’s -ambition. The delineation of the character of the foremost man of the -ancient world by the greatest dramatist of modern times, and his skilful -grouping of the great republicans struggling for the maintenance of -republican institutions, have been so indelibly engraved upon the minds -of modern readers that the assassination of Julius Cæsar, which took -place at Rome 44 <small>B.C.</small>, is nearly as familiar to them as the -assassination of Abraham Lincoln. And if we, in this series of Famous -Assassinations in History, devote a chapter to it, it is simply for the -reason that the series would be incomplete without it. Moreover, it may -be both interesting and useful to call to the mind of the reader the -circumstances and surroundings which led to the downfall of Cæsar. The -conspiracy and assassination removed from the scene of action the -master-mind of the age, without saving the republican institutions; and -it is only by explaining the causes that we can do justice to the noble -intentions of the conspirators, while lamenting the assassination of -Cæsar as a public misfortune for Rome, inasmuch as it removed the strong -hand that could have prevented the anarchy and civil war which broke out -among his successors, immediately after his disappearance from the -public stage.</p> - -<p>Cæsar was at the height of his power. His achievements had eclipsed the -military glory of Pompey, and by his wonderful career he might truly be -looked upon as the “man of destiny.” On his return from Gaul, when the -Senate had rejected his request for a prolongation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span> his command, and -had ordered him to disband his army and to give up the administration of -his province, his popularity was so great that his homeward journey, -escorted as he was by his victorious army, was but a continuous -triumphal march. Not only Rome, but all Italy welcomed him home as its -greatest man, and was ready to heap its greatest, nay even divine honors -upon him.</p> - -<p>The Senate and its chosen commander-in-chief, Pompey, had fled on the -approach of Cæsar. In the decisive battle of Pharsalus Cæsar defeated -Pompey, and by this victory became the sole ruler of the Roman Republic. -Pompey was assassinated on landing in Egypt, as a fugitive, and Cæsar -returned to Rome, where he was received with the tumultuous acclamations -of the people, and conducted to the Capitol as the savior of the -country. The Senate, which had just made war upon him and outlawed him -as an enemy of the fatherland, appointed him dictator for ten years with -absolute and supreme power, gave him a body-guard of seventy-two lictors -to proclaim his majesty and inviolability, and ordered his statue to be -placed beside that of Jupiter on the Capitol. A public thanksgiving -festival, continuing for forty days, was proclaimed, and four brilliant -triumphs for his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, were -accorded to him.</p> - -<p>Never before in the history of Rome had such honors, which seemed to -pass the human limit, been conferred on any Roman citizen. It was -evident that of the Republic nothing but the name remained, and that -Cæsar, the dictator, was in fact the absolute monarch of the immense -Empire. Once more the friends of liberty made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span> an effort to shake off -the yoke which Cæsar had imposed on the Republic. They flocked to the -standards of the sons of Pompey, but the bloody and hard-fought battle -of Munda sealed their fate; and Cæsar, again victorious, remained the -absolute master of the civilized world,—not without an enemy, but -certainly without a rival.</p> - -<p>On his return to Rome new honors and new ovations awaited him. The -dignity and pride of Roman citizenship seemed to have been lost entirely -in the crouching servility with which the most distinguished and most -highly stationed citizens prostrated themselves at the feet of the -all-powerful ruler. Resistance to Cæsar had apparently disappeared. All -bowed to his surpassing genius and ability, and to these qualities he -added acts of clemency, kindness, and gentleness, which won him the -hearts even of those who, from political principle, had opposed him. But -while thus openly the more than imperial power of Cæsar was generally -recognized, and while the Senate and the tribunes had been degraded to -the position of mere tools to his autocratic will, there still remained -in the hearts of a number of high-minded patriots the hope and anxious -desire to save the republican form of government from the grasping -ambition of the conqueror, who was evidently not satisfied with being -Imperator in fact, but wanted to be also Imperator in name. At least the -repeated attempts of the most intimate friends and most trusted -lieutenants of Cæsar to induce him to accept the crown at the hands of a -subservient people, and his rather hesitating conduct in refusing these -proposals, seemed to confirm this suspicion.</p> - -<p>These enthusiastic Republicans cautiously disguised their hostility to -the Imperator under the mask of devoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span> friendship. Their hope was, -perhaps, that Cæsar’s imperial régime would be but temporary and that, -like Sulla, he would sooner or later get tired of his dictatorship, and -resign his imperial honors. But Cæsar did not think of abdicating the -honors he had won; on the contrary, every act and every public utterance -of his indicated that he wished to prolong and augment them rather than -to abandon them. In public he was anxious to show his preëminence. He -appeared dressed in the costume of the kings of Alba, and with royal -insignia. One day, when the entire Senate waited upon him in front of -the temple of Venus, he remained seated while he was addressed, during -the entire ceremony. His statue at the Capitol was placed beside those -of the ancient kings of Rome, as though he were to continue their line. -New titles of honor, not to say worship, were added to those which had -been conferred upon him at the first moment of his brilliant victories, -and his lieutenants and followers welcomed and adopted them as something -that was due to his superhuman wisdom and greatness. He was called not -only “Father of the Country,” but “Demi-God,” the “Invincible God,” -“Jupiter Julius,”—as though Jupiter himself had taken mortal form and -shape in him.</p> - -<p>This public adoration irritated the Republicans we have mentioned, to -the highest degree. They secretly charged Cæsar with encouraging or -instigating this worship of himself, because they knew that his friends -would not have proposed it unless confident that he would be pleased by -it. Brutus and Cassius were at the head of these Republicans. Brutus, a -stern Republican, a Roman in the noblest acceptation of the word, was -reputed to be Cæsar’s son, the offspring of an adulterous love-affair, -and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span> openly favored and distinguished by him. Cassius, a -distinguished general, was much more prompted by jealousy and envy than -by civic virtue and republican principle. When these two men and their -friends became thoroughly convinced that Cæsar’s ambition would stop at -nothing, and that the new imperialistic régime was to be permanent, they -came to the conclusion that nothing but Cæsar’s death could prevent -these calamities. They therefore resolved to assassinate him.</p> - -<p>The ides of March (the fifteenth day of the month) in the year 44 <small>B.C.</small>, -was selected as the day of the assassination. The conspiracy had been -formed with the greatest secrecy, but it came near failing at the -eleventh hour. Cæsar’s wife had had dreams and presentiments of bad -omen, and she persuaded him not to go to the Senate on that day. Very -reluctantly he consented to remain at home. But Decimus Brutus, one of -the conspirators, who was afraid that the postponement of the -assassination might lead to its discovery, went to Cæsar’s residence, -ridiculed the dreams of a timid woman, and said he could not believe -that they would influence the mind of the great Cæsar. Then Cæsar, half -ashamed at having yielded to his wife’s entreaties, accompanied him. On -his way to the Senate a paper was handed to Cæsar, which gave all the -particulars of the conspiracy, and warned him not to go to the Senate -session on the fifteenth of March, because it was the day set for his -assassination. But Cæsar kept the paper in his hand without reading it. -Under various pretexts, all the particular friends of Cæsar had been -kept from attending the session of the Senate, so that when he arrived, -he was surrounded only by enemies or by those who were not considered -his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span> friends. The conspirators acted promptly. Cæsar was defenceless, -and in a few minutes he lay prostrate,—a lifeless corpse, showing -thirty-five wounds, many of which were absolutely fatal. The most -celebrated of all political assassinations had been successful; and by a -peculiar irony of fate, the dying Cæsar fell at the feet of the statue -of Pompey, his great rival, whom he had vanquished at Pharsalus. His -death did not, as the conspirators had hoped, prevent the establishment -of the Empire; it but delayed it for a few years.</p> - -<p>Cæsar has had many worshippers and admirers, and comparatively few -calumniators and belittlers. Unquestionably he was one of the most -extraordinary geniuses that ever lived, equally great as a general and -as a statesman, as an orator and as a historian. In the whole range of -history there is but one man—Napoleon—who, in the vastness of his -conceptions and the masterly perfection of their execution, can be -justly compared with him. All other men whom national vanity has -occasionally placed by Cæsar’s side only suffer from the comparison; -their immense inferiority appears on even superficial investigation. He -was in fact the foremost man the world had seen to his day, and, but for -his equally great rival in modern times, would still occupy the pinnacle -of human greatness alone. Very likely, if he had lived, Rome would have -been the happier.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /><br /> -TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS, NERO</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span></p> - -<p><a name="CALIGULA" id="CALIGULA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p034b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p034b_sml.jpg" width="425" height="527" alt="image unavailable: CALIGULA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CALIGULA</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER IV<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATIONS OF TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS, NERO<br /><br /> -(A. D. 37-68.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>T the time of the assassination of Julius Cæsar, the Roman people, and -especially the higher classes, had reached a degree of perversity and -degeneracy which appears to the modern reader almost incredible. They -had become utterly unfit for self-government. The most atrocious public -and private vices in both sexes had taken the place of the civic virtues -and the private honor for which the ancient Roman had been famous the -world over. In public life, corruption, venality, and bribery were -general; a public office-holder was synonymous with a robber of the -public treasury. Nepotism prevailed to an alarming degree, and the -ablest men were unceremoniously pushed aside for the incapable -descendants of the nobility. In times like those, only the very -strongest hand and the sternest character and mind can restrain the -masses from falling into anarchy and civil war, and impose on society -moderation and the rule of law.</p> - -<p>The assassination of Cæsar had a most demoralizing effect on the Roman -people. The hand of the master who might have controlled the unruly -masses and restrained the degenerate nobility lay palsied in death; the -giant<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span> intellect, which had embraced the civilized world in its dream of -establishing a universal monarchy, thought no more; and the results were -chaos, anarchy, and civil war. The absence of the master mind was -lamentably felt; his heirs were unable to control the wild elements -which the assassins had set free; and for many years, rapine, bloodshed, -murder, and spoliation ruled supreme throughout the vast extent of the -Roman Republic, until finally, in the year 30 <small>B.C.</small>, Octavianus Augustus, -Cæsar’s nephew, succeeded in establishing that imperium of which Cæsar -had dreamed, and for which his genius and his victories had paved the -way.</p> - -<p>The imperial era, beginning with a display of magnificence and splendor, -both in military achievements and literary production, soon degenerated -into an era of crime, which, at least in the highest classes of society, -has never been equalled in history. Its worst feature was, perhaps, the -utter degradation and depravity of the women even of the highest -classes, and their readiness to sacrifice everything—chastity, shame, -name, and reputation—to the gratification of their passions. Soon the -women excelled the men in assassinating, by poison or dagger, their -victims or rivals. Augustus, the first Emperor, showed on the throne -much less cruelty than he had manifested as a triumvir; but Livia -Drusilla, his third wife, was the first of those female monsters on the -throne of the Cæsars—Livia, Agrippina, Messalina, Domitia—who never -shrank from murder, if by blood or poison they could rid themselves of a -rival or of an obstacle to their criminal ambition. Livia, who wished -Tiberius, her son by a former marriage, to be the successor of Augustus -on the imperial throne, caused Marcellus (the</p> - -<p><a name="CLAUDIUS" id="CLAUDIUS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p036b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p036b_sml.jpg" width="412" height="524" alt="image unavailable: CLAUDIUS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CLAUDIUS</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">husband of Julia, daughter of Augustus), and also Julia’s two sons, to -be poisoned; and by these crimes secured the succession for Tiberius. -She is also suspected of having poisoned Augustus himself.</p> - -<p>Tiberius, the second of the Roman Emperors, lives immortal in history -rather by his crimes than by his valorous deeds. So does Caligula, the -third, and Claudius, the fourth, and Nero, the fifth Emperor,—who were -all assassinated after comparatively short reigns, but who had exhausted -all forms of cruelty and crime; while their wives, Messalina, Agrippina, -and Poppæa will live in history forever as the unrivalled types of -female depravity. Above all, Messalina, the wife of Claudius, who ruled -from the year 41 to the year 54 of the Christian era, became notorious -for every species of vice. In her libidinous and voluptuous excesses, as -well as in the demoniacal conception of her murderous plots against her -enemies, she was easily first and foremost,—the real empress of the -vicious and fallen women of Rome: she became their open rival in the -houses of ill-fame in her capital, she contended with them for the palm -of obscenity and prostitution, and vanquished them all.</p> - -<p>Unless the great historians of Rome had recorded these excesses as facts -abundantly substantiated by irrefutable testimony, the reports would -have been relegated to the domain of fable, because they are too -revolting to be believed without sufficient authority. Can the human -mind conceive, for instance, an act of greater criminal insolence than -that which the Empress Messalina committed by marrying, publicly and -under the very eyes of the capital, a young Roman aristocrat, Caius -Silius, for whom she was inflamed with an adulterous passion, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span> her -husband, the Emperor, was but a few miles away at Ostia? And yet -Tacitus, a stern and truthful historian, records this as an undeniable -fact, adding that future generations will be loath to believe it.</p> - -<p>When, in the year 68 <small>A.D.</small>, Nero expired by the dagger of a freedman, -courage having failed him to commit suicide, the family of Cæsar the -Great became extinct, even in its adopted members. Only one hundred and -twelve years had elapsed since the greatest of the Romans had fallen by -the daggers of the Republican conspirators; but that short period had -sufficed to subvert the Republic and to erect a despotic Empire on its -ruins, to flood the vast territory of Rome, which embraced the entire -civilized world, with streams of blood, to place imbeciles and assassins -on the throne of the Cæsars, and to adorn the brows of courtesans and -prostitutes, their partners in crime and depravity, with the imperial -diadem. Never before in human history had human depravity and human lust -displayed themselves more shamelessly; never before had the beast in man -shown its innate cruelty so boldly and so openly as during the reigns of -these five Roman Emperors. It is almost a consolation for the sorrowing -mind to read that Tiberius was choked to death; that Caligula was beaten -down and stabbed; that Claudius was killed by a dish of poisonous -mushrooms; and that Nero, the last of Cæsar’s dynasty, was helped to his -untimely death by the poniard of a freedman. Quick assassination was all -too light a punishment for these monsters of iniquity who had so often -feasted their eyes on the tortures of their innocent victims.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /><br /> -HYPATIA</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER V<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF HYPATIA<br /><br /> -(A. D. 415.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">N</span>EVER, perhaps, did the wonderful genius of Alexander the Great appear -to better advantage than when he selected Alexandria as a commercial -centre and distributing point for the products of three continents, and -as an intellectual focus from which Hellenic culture should be -transmitted to those countries of Asia and Africa which his victories -had opened to Greek civilization. The rapidity with which the city—to -which Alexander had given his own name—grew to the dimensions of a -great capital and a world-emporium, proved the sagacity and ingenious -foresight of its founder, and was unrivalled among all the cities of the -ancient world. It became the greatest seaport of the world, surpassing -in the grandeur and magnificence of its buildings every other city -except Rome itself; and when, through the genius of the Ptolemies, the -successors of Alexander as rulers of Egypt, the great library was added -to its monuments and treasures of art, it became also the intellectual -capital of the world, rivalling and in some respects eclipsing the city -of the Cæsars. It is true, long before Alexandria had reached its -greatest prosperity, the creative power of Hellenic genius in the higher -spheres of poetry<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span> and philosophy had passed its zenith. In the -so-called Alexandrian age of literature the most beautiful and most -poetical inspirations were the idyls of Theocritus. But Alexandria was -the first city in the ancient world which became the seat of a -many-sided, methodical scholarship, and of systematic, zealous studies -of the exact sciences,—a university in the modern sense. It also became -the great library city of the world.</p> - -<p>It is true, the great library of inestimable value collected by Ptolemy -Philadelphus (who also purchased the large library of Aristoteles) had -been ruthlessly destroyed in the Alexandrian war of Julius Cæsar. But -Ptolemy Physcon collected a second valuable library, which was augmented -by the splendid library of King Eumenes of Pergamus, and formed by far -the grandest collection of books to be found in the world. Mark Antony -gave this splendid library to Queen Cleopatra. It comprised the -intellectual treasures of the ancient world, and was placed in a wing of -the Serapeum,—in that gigantic and magnificent building which was the -grandest temple of ancient Egypt and the pride of Alexandria. The great -city of the Ptolemies, with a population of nearly a million souls, had -also become a sort of neutral territory upon which all religions could -meet on equal terms. The cosmopolitan character of this great commercial -centre, in which Christians, Jews, and pagans of all countries competed -for the acquisition of wealth, made it natural for all these different -citizens to live in harmony and mutual toleration. The time came, -however, when Christianity was proclaimed the official state religion -under Theodosius the Great, upon whose instigation or order the Roman -Senate (not by a unanimous, but by a simple majority vote)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span> passed a -resolution declaring that the Christian religion should be the only true -religion for the Roman Empire. This official declaration became the -signal for a brutal persecution of the old religion throughout the -Empire, and especially in its eastern provinces. Very prominent in this -work of persecution and destruction was Theophilus, Archbishop of -Alexandria, who was famous far and wide as one of the great lights of -the Church and as a man of exceptional piety, although many of his -actions are utterly inexcusable from a moral point of view. Theophilus -was in constant warfare with the pagans and Jews of Alexandria, who -quite often joined hands in fighting him. But, as a rule, they were -defeated by the pugnacious prelate, who, on such occasions, always found -at his command a formidable army composed of the mob of the city and of -the monks of the desert of Nitria, which was near the city. The main -object of Theophilus’s attacks was the great Serapeum, in which immense -treasures of gold, silver, and sacred vessels were stored away, and -which contained also the great collection of books,—a perfect armory of -pagan philosophy, religion, and poetry,—which was especially obnoxious -to him. By shrewdly misrepresenting the spirit of revolt among the Jews -and pagans of the city, he succeeded in getting an edict from the -Emperor authorizing him to destroy this temple of ancient wisdom and -culture,—and, for the second time, the magnificent library of -Alexandria was partly destroyed, partly scattered to the winds.</p> - -<p>The audacity of Theophilus had inflicted terrible defeats on the -non-Christian population of Alexandria, and had utterly disheartened it. -On the other hand, the Christian inhabitants showed by their increasing -arrogance<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span> that they were conscious of the supremacy of their church and -of the exclusive protection to which their religion entitled them. -However, in spite of this cruel discrimination there still remained at -Alexandria a large and intelligent element true to the old religion, or -rather to the old philosophy.</p> - -<p>Theophilus died in the year 412 <small>A.D.</small>, and was succeeded by his nephew -Kyrillos, better known as St. Cyril, who continued the vindictive policy -against the Jews and pagans which his uncle had inaugurated. It was not -long before Cyril had fanaticized the mob against the Jews to such an -extent that the latter, driven to despair, took up arms against their -aggressors, who had undertaken a regular crusade against their lives and -property. Pitched battles and massacres took place in the streets of -Alexandria. Hundreds of the unfortunate Jews were slain, and very likely -the Jewish population would have been entirely exterminated or expelled -from the city, had not Orestes, the imperial governor, interfered in -their behalf, and defeated the infuriated mob and the monks of Nitria, -who as usual had taken a hand in the fight. But it was a long and -stubbornly contested battle. Although Cyril personally did not show -himself, it was nevertheless well known that he directed the attacks -against the Jews from his hiding-place. Moreover all his most intimate -friends actively participated in the riot and strenuously resisted the -efforts of the governor to restore peace.</p> - -<p>One of these friends personally assaulted and seriously wounded the -governor. After the revolt had been quelled, this man was put on trial -and sentenced to death. In vain Cyril appealed for mercy and tried to -save the life<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span> of the accused man. Orestes was implacable, and the -condemned man was executed. The disdain with which he had been treated -by the governor, enraged the prelate and stimulated him to revenge. A -large procession of priests and citizens took the body of the criminal -from the gibbet and carried it to the principal church of Alexandria, -where the Archbishop read high mass and delivered a sermon full of -admiration and eulogy for the victim, filling the hearts of the -congregation with hatred and contempt for the authorities, and invoking -the punishment of Heaven upon their heads. But even this public -demonstration did not satisfy the Archbishop; and with consummate -cruelty he hit upon a plan for deeply wounding the governor without -attacking him personally.</p> - -<p>At that time there lived at Alexandria a young lady of great talent and -renown. Her name was Hypatia. She was the daughter of Theon, a -celebrated mathematician who lived at Alexandria, and whose genius for -mathematics she seemed to have inherited. She first became his pupil, -but soon surpassed him in ability and reputation. She also applied -herself with great zeal and rare penetration to the study of the -philosophy of Plato, whom she greatly admired and much preferred to -Aristotle. Since Alexandria had no professors superior to herself in -attainments and learning, Hypatia went to Greece and for several years -attended the lectures of the most famous professors of Athens. She then -returned to Alexandria, and was immediately invited by the authorities -to the chair of philosophy in the University. Hypatia accepted this -honor and filled the position with brilliant success. It was not only -her profound and extensive learning, embracing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span> the entire compass of -the exact sciences, but also the charm of her persuasive and mellifluous -eloquence which filled her hearers with admiration.</p> - -<p>Her reputation as a public lecturer soon equalled her renown as a -mathematician and philosopher, and a number of the most distinguished -men of Alexandria and other cities were among her regular disciples, -listening with delight to her dissertations. One of her most -enthusiastic students was Synesius, afterwards Bishop of Ptolemais, who -always held her in affectionate reverence, although she had steadily -refused to profess the Christian religion. Orestes, the governor, was -also among the number of her admirers and was frequently seen at her -lectures, which were attended by Christians as well as by pagans. To the -great qualities of her mind were added rare physical beauty and a -suavity of manners which won the hearts of all those who became -acquainted with her. Several of Alexandria’s most prominent citizens -desired to marry her, but she refused all proposals because she wanted -to live only for the sciences to which she had devoted her life. In -spite of her great popularity and the steadily increasing number of -admirers, Hypatia’s reputation was spotless; she had many friends, but -never had a lover. While this eminent woman’s celebrity as a -thinker—which entirely eclipsed his own—would have been sufficient to -fill the heart of Cyril with envy and jealousy, there was an additional -reason for his hatred and hostility. Orestes, the governor, was a -frequent visitor at her house and was known to consult her frequently on -important public questions. The Archbishop, perhaps justly, attributed -to Hypatia’s influence the governor’s evident leaning toward paganism -and his open admiration<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span> for the philosophical doctrines of the Greek -philosophers. Seeking for a victim on whom to vent his spite against -Orestes, he therefore selected Hypatia as the one whose destruction -would hurt him most deeply, while at the same time it would deliver -himself and the church from their most dangerous opponent. It was -comparatively easy for him to inflame the minds of the ignorant masses -with rage against the woman who was represented to them as the -implacable enemy of their religion, and whose pernicious teachings had -led so many others from the path of virtue and salvation.</p> - -<p>Everything was carefully but secretly prepared for the fatal blow, which -was struck in the month of March, 415. It was a beautiful sunny day, and -Hypatia got ready to proceed to the University, where she was to lecture -that forenoon. A carriage was waiting for her at the door of her -residence. When she entered the carriage she was surprised at the -unusual number of people filling the street, and at the great number of -monks passing through their ranks and apparently haranguing them. She -could not account for this strange gathering, for it was not a Christian -holiday, nor was any civil procession to come off that morning.</p> - -<p>All at once she noticed that this great assemblage of people began to -move in the direction of her own house. As it came nearer she heard wild -exclamations and threats, without comprehending, however, that she was -the object of this hostile demonstration. At the head of the procession -marched Peter, the reader, one of the most fanatical of the priests of -the city; he had played a very prominent part in the previous riots, and -was evidently the leader in this new movement. With growing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span> -astonishment Hypatia saw them coming, but in the consciousness of her -innocence she had no fear. She was soon to be cruelly disabused.</p> - -<p>As soon as the rioters were within a few hundred feet of her residence -and saw her seated in her carriage ready to start, the leaders and those -in the front rank rushed toward her. Peter, the reader, was the first to -reach her and to lay hands on her. As she recoiled from his touch in -terror, others climbed upon the wheels of the carriage and dragged her -down into the street. She resisted and called for help, but her cries -died away unheard in the tumult of the roaring and jeering multitude who -surrounded the carriage and with ever-increasing violence uttered -threats against her.</p> - -<p>Popular excitement is a flame which feeds itself by the electric current -emanating from thousands of impassioned and excited minds. It is ready -on slight provocation to burst forth in all-devouring violence. But a -few minutes had passed from the moment the procession reached Hypatia’s -carriage until the infuriated mob, holding the victim firmly in their -grasp, had torn the garments from her body and hurried her with wild -cheers and laughter to the Cæsarium, the great Christian church. -Paralyzed with fear, unable to utter anything but screams and cries for -help, she was dragged, in a state of perfect nudity, through the -streets, and neither her helplessness nor her beauty softened the hearts -of her tormentors and murderers. She was doomed to die, to be sacrificed -at a Christian altar, atoning for her unbelief and her pernicious -teachings with her life. One of her own friends, like herself adhering -to the ancient cult and to Platonic philosophy, fitly compared Hypatia’s -murder to the sacrifice<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span> of a Greek goddess by drunken and infuriated -barbarians. But the crowning infamy of this assassination, as brutal as -any that history has recorded, was that the victim was dragged to the -church of Christ,—Christ, the incarnation of love and mercy,—and -slaughtered there amidst the yells and curses of the so-called -believers.</p> - -<p>Hundreds of women had swelled the mob, and like the men they were -brandishing flints, shells, and broken pottery, with which to cut and -lacerate their victim that they might feast their eyes on her agony.</p> - -<p>Charles Kingsley has given in his famous novel, “Hypatia,” a -heart-rending description of the last moments of the illustrious -woman-philosopher. The description may not be accurate in every little -detail, but Mr. Kingsley sees the scene with the eye and with the -imagination of a poet, and his description is poetically true. Our -readers will thank us for quoting his words in rendering this final -scene:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“Whither were they dragging her?... On into the church itself! Into -the cool dim shadow, with its fretted pillars, and lowering domes, -and candles, and incense, and blazing altar, and great pictures -looking from the walls athwart the gorgeous gloom; and right in -front, above the altar, the colossal Christ watching unmoved from -off the wall, his right hand raised to give a blessing—or a curse?</p> - -<p>“On, up the nave, fresh shreds of her dress strewing the holy -pavement—up the chancel steps themselves—right underneath the -great, still Christ: and there even those hell-hounds paused.... -She shook herself free from her tormentors, and springing back, -rose for one moment to her full height, naked, snow-white against -the dusky mass around—shame and indignation in those wide, clear -eyes, but not a stain of fear. With one hand she clasped her golden -locks around her; the other long white arm was stretched upward -toward the great still Christ, appealing—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span>and who dare say in -vain?—from man to God. Her lips were open to speak; but the words -that should have come from them reached God’s ear alone; for in an -instant Peter struck her down, the dark mass closed over her again -... and then wail on wail, long, wild, ear-piercing, ran along the -vaulted roofs.... What in the name of the God of mercy were they -doing? Tearing her piece-meal? Yes, and worse than that!... It was -over. The shrieks had died away into moans, the moans to -silence.... A new cry rose through the dome: ‘To the Cinaron! Burn -the bones to ashes! Scatter them into the sea!’<span class="lftspc">”</span></p></div> - -<p>In the whole annals of crime not a more heart-rending and more brutal -scene can be found than the murder of Hypatia. The assassination of the -beautiful young Princess de Lamballe, the friend of Marie Antoinette, -during the worst days of the French Revolution, bears some resemblance -to it; but, after all, political fanaticism is never equal in its -intensity and cruelty to religious fanaticism. Moreover, the fate of -Hypatia shows that not all the martyrs were on the side of Christianity -in the early ages of the Christian church. It should be stated, however, -that a general cry of horror resounded through the world when the -terrible news of Hypatia’s death crossed the seas and was echoed from -land to land, and that the Christian Church, by its most illustrious -representatives, was loud in its denunciation of the murder.</p> - -<p>Upon the fame and name of St. Cyril the murder of Hypatia has left a -lasting stain; for the plan and execution were generally attributed to -him. Even Catholic Church historians, both ancient and modern, criticise -him severely for his imprudent and ill-advised instigations against -Hypatia and her followers, although they try to protect his memory -against the reproach of having intentionally caused her death.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br /> -THOMAS À BECKET</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a>{52}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THOMAS_A_BECKET" id="THOMAS_A_BECKET"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p052b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p052b_sml.jpg" width="296" height="470" alt="image unavailable: THOMAS À BECKET" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THOMAS À BECKET</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a>{53}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER VI<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF THOMAS À BECKET<br /><br /> -(December 29, 1170)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">O</span>NE of the most remarkable careers and one of the most famous -assassinations in the middle ages were the career and the assassination -of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. His life (at least after -he had been elevated to the Primacy of England) and his death show him -as the great representative of the Church of Rome, standing up for the -defence of its rights and dying in their defence; and they show also how -necessary, in those dark ages, was a superhuman power, to hold the -arrogance and brute force of warriors and princes in check, and bring -into subjection their unbridled passions and their insolent usurpations. -Even if Thomas à Becket miserably perished in his bold resistance to -kingly assumption, his death was a wholesome lesson to the tyrants on -European thrones, and raised him higher in the estimation of the world -than a victory over King Henry the Second would have done.</p> - -<p>Thomas Becket, or, as he is oftener called, Thomas à Becket, rose to his -eminent station in State and Church from comparatively low birth. He was -born in 1119, the son of a London merchant and an Oriental mother. This -lady had followed the merchant to England after his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>{54}</span> return from the -Holy Land, where he had been a crusader. The merchant rapidly acquired -wealth, and was able to give his son, who was distinguished by brilliant -talents, a splendid education. After having studied for some time at -Oxford, the young man was permitted to complete his studies at the -University of Paris, which at that time attracted students from all -parts of Europe by the reputation of its professors and the superiority -of its methods of instruction. From Paris Thomas went to Bologna, in -order to study theology; by his travels and the application and zeal -with which he pursued his studies, he acquired an exceptional reputation -for the extent, variety, and depth of his knowledge. On his return from -Italy Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was charmed with the attainments -and learning of the young man, and recommended him to the King for the -appointment of Chancellor. The King appointed him and made him also the -tutor of his son. In the position of Chancellor he ingratiated himself -with the King, and his counsels in matters of State and of importance to -the crown proved so valuable that the King soon distinguished him above -all other courtiers and officials, and treated him more as a friend than -as a subject.</p> - -<p>Having inherited immense wealth from his father, and having, moreover, -been endowed by the munificence of the King with a number of offices and -benefices from which he derived large revenues, the Chancellor made a -great display of splendor and wealth. His household eclipsed almost that -of the King himself, and looked more like the court of a prince than the -household of a citizen. However, he neglected no opportunity to show his -loyalty and devotion to the King. In 1159 he accompanied the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a>{55}</span> King to -Toulouse, with a retinue of seven hundred knights and twelve hundred -mounted men, all of whom he had equipped at his own expense. The King -also intrusted him with a confidential mission to Paris, where he was to -negotiate the marriage of the King’s eldest son with the eldest daughter -of the King of France. The Chancellor succeeded in concluding a family -alliance between the two courts, and conducted the young princess -personally to England.</p> - -<p>In 1162 Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, died, and King Henry the -Second immediately declared that Thomas à Becket should be his -successor. When the King’s plan to make him Archbishop was mentioned to -Becket, he protested against it, and it would seem, sincerely. He even -went so far as to tell the King, when the latter urged him to work for -his election, that he was making a mistake in advocating his elevation -to the See of Canterbury, using these words: “If I should be raised to -that office, you would soon hate me as much as you now love me; for you -will meddle in the affairs of the Church more than I can consent to, and -people will not be wanting to embroil us.” But the King laughed at these -warnings. He supposed that Becket, as Archbishop, would be as -complaisant and willing a tool to assist him in curtailing the -prerogatives of the Church and transferring them to the crown, as he had -been on a former occasion. He therefore continued to use his influence -in favor of Becket’s election, and succeeded in placing him in the -Archbishop’s See. At first the Pope objected to his election, but he -finally ratified it in order to please the kings of England and France, -who had both appealed to him in Becket’s behalf.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>{56}</span></p> - -<p>No sooner had Becket been installed as Archbishop of Canterbury—which -dignity carried with it that of Primate of England—than he entirely -changed his mode of living. No more luxury, no more display of wealth, -no more horses or magnificent costumes for him! On the contrary, the new -Archbishop ostentatiously chose the coarsest and plainest garments. -Instead of the fine lace shirt of former days he wore a coarse -haircloth, dirty in the extreme, and his outer garments were frequently -ragged. His food was of the plainest quality, consisting of bread, -water, and skimmed milk. He affected austerity in every way, frequently -flogged himself for impure thoughts or nominal sins which he might have -committed, and every day he knelt and washed the feet of thirteen -beggars. He resigned his office as Chancellor in order to devote all his -time and zeal to his new office and the affairs of the Church.</p> - -<p>The King did not like the change in the Archbishop’s ways, and protested -against his resignation, but Becket would not reconsider it. The King -rightly guessed that there might be a hidden meaning and a secret -ambition in the Archbishop’s sudden conversion to Christian humility, -which so strangely contrasted with his past conduct. The storm between -the two mighty men, each self-willed and irascible, was brewing, and -when it finally broke out, it was fierce and relentless. It never ended -until the prelate lay prostrate as a victim of assassins before the -altar of the church which he tried to protect from the King’s -usurpation.</p> - -<p>It was not long before the conflict broke out. It then appeared that the -change which had taken place in Becket was not confined to the outer man -only, but had also<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a>{57}</span> affected his relation to the Church and the State. -From a King’s counsellor and servant he had suddenly turned to be the -counsellor and servant of the Church, and he carried over into his new -station the impulsiveness and stubbornness which had always -distinguished him in the service of the King. It is difficult to say -which of the two, in this struggle for ascendency, was right, or rather -which of the two was the more to blame. For while the King was -aggressive, arrogant, domineering, in the consciousness of his power, -the Archbishop was imperious, insolent, and inconsistent, inasmuch as he -now boldly condemned what he had formerly counselled. But it seemed to -be a trait of Becket’s character, that he always devoted himself -unconditionally to the master he served at the time, and that from the -moment he abandoned the service of the King for that of the Church it -was quite natural for him to defend the interests and rights of the -latter against the usurpations of the former.</p> - -<p>At that time a priest who had committed any crime could be tried by an -ecclesiastical court only; consequently very few criminals of this class -were convicted and adequately punished; in most cases the accused, even -if found guilty, were only reprimanded and degraded. This abuse was -carried to such excess that during the first years of the reign of Henry -the Second no less than one hundred murders committed by priests had not -been punished. A priest had seduced the daughter of a gentleman living -in Worcestershire, and, confronted by the angry father of the girl, -assassinated him. Public indignation was aroused by this atrocity to -such an extent that the King ordered the arrest of the guilty priest and -his trial before a civil tribunal. Becket protested against<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a>{58}</span> this order, -claiming that it was an infringement of the prerogatives of the Church. -He ordered an ecclesiastical court to investigate the charges, and the -result was as usual, that the punishment awarded was only degradation. -The King was furious. He made up his mind to beat the Archbishop at his -own game and to punish him for his presumption. He therefore submitted -the question of ecclesiastical immunities and of church prerogatives to -a council of jurists and ordered them to investigate whether these -prerogatives were founded on a solid historical basis. The jurists knew -what sort of decision the King wanted, and they gave it. Thereupon the -King convened a general council of the high nobility and also of the -Church at Clarendon, and there, among other restrictions placed upon the -Church, it was enacted that members of the clergy indicted for a crime -should be tried by civil tribunals, exactly like other subjects.</p> - -<p>Becket, seeing that all the barons and many prelates had submitted to -the decree of the council, was compelled to yield, and swore to obey it; -but his submission was caused only by his powerlessness. But when this -so-called Constitution of Clarendon was sent to the Pope for -ratification, he rejected it haughtily and condemned it in the most -energetic manner. Thereupon Becket, basing his action on the -condemnation of the Pope, openly retracted the consent which he had -given to the Clarendon decree, and subjected himself to great -austerities and macerations proportionate to the greatness of the sin he -had committed in yielding to the royal demands. He even refused to -perform any functions connected with his episcopal rank until the Pope -had acquitted him of his great wrong against the Church. This action -made the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>{59}</span> rupture between the King and the Archbishop irreparable. Henry -swore to have his revenge on a priest who was not only an ingrate but a -perjurer. He arraigned him before a parliament convened at Northampton -in 1165 as a rebel, as having violated his oath of allegiance. Becket -was convicted, his personal estate was confiscated, the revenues of his -archbishopric were seized, and Becket himself, abandoned even by his -clergy, fled to France, whose King, in spite of the protests of Henry, -offered him a refuge.</p> - -<p>Becket’s spirit was far from being broken. From his retreat in France he -wrote to the bishops of England that the Pope had annulled the -Constitution of Clarendon, and at the same time he excommunicated a -number of those, bishops as well as other high officials, who had -assisted in violating the sacred rights of the Church. The King answered -by exiling all his relatives from England, and forbidding his subjects -to correspond with him, or to send him money; he even forbade prayers in -behalf of the Archbishop to be offered in church.</p> - -<p>But the conditions between the Church and the court created by this -conflict were such that the King found it expedient to make overtures of -reconciliation to Becket, first through the bishops and church officials -of England, and afterwards personally. In a conference which he held for -that purpose with the King of France, he said to the latter: “There have -been several kings of England, some more and others less powerful than -myself; there have been also several Archbishops of Canterbury, in my -opinion as respectable and as sainted as Thomas à Becket; let him show -to me the same deference which the greatest of his predecessors have -shown to the least powerful of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a>{60}</span> my predecessors, and there will be no -controversy between us.” King Henry also offered to take the clergy of -France as umpires in the questions at issue; but when Becket stubbornly -refused to be reconciled to the King of England, the King of France lost -his patience and withdrew the protection which up to that day he had -accorded to him.</p> - -<p>These and other changes unfavorable to him finally induced Becket to -lend to the King’s proposals of reconciliation a more willing ear, and -at last an interview took place between them which resulted in their -reconciliation—apparently at least. The interview was much more cordial -than might have been supposed from the exceedingly strained relations -that had existed between them for years. The Archbishop approached the -King as became a subject, and the King met him with the humility shown -at that time to princes of the Church; when they parted, Becket bent his -knee to the King, who held the stirrup of his horse as the Archbishop -mounted. The interview had resulted in settling their differences. Both -had made concessions, but the larger part of these had been made by the -King. All the Archbishop’s personal property had also been restored to -him; he thereupon agreed to return to England and resume the functions -of his office. He had been absent seven years.</p> - -<p>The people at large, and especially the poor, greeted him with -enthusiasm; but the barons kept away, and some of them showed open -hostility to the Archbishop, or mysteriously hinted at a speedy ending -of his newly regained honors. His arrival in England had been preceded -by a messenger from the Pope carrying writs of excommunication for three -English bishops who had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>{61}</span> especially hostile to Becket. These -bishops immediately went to Normandy, where Henry the Second had -remained, and laid their complaints before him, laying all the blame on -Becket, whom they charged with inflaming the people of England against -their King and sowing discord in their hearts. When these matters were -laid before him, and also a statement that Becket had excommunicated two -barons whom he considered his special enemies, the King got into a rage -and exclaimed: “What? Is there among the cowards whom I feed at my table -not one brave enough to deliver me from this firebrand of a priest?” -These words could have but one meaning. Four of the barons took it upon -themselves to deliver the King from the obnoxious priest. The King -afterwards declared that he had never intended to suggest the -assassination of Becket; but what other construction could be given to -his words? The assassination itself was one of the most dramatic in -history. The would-be murderers travelled in such haste that a messenger -whom the King sent after them to warn them not to kill Becket could not -overtake them. Arriving at Canterbury on December 29, 1170, they, with -twelve other noblemen, went to the Archbishop’s residence, and -expostulated with him concerning the excommunication of certain priests -and barons, and when he refused to revoke the excommunications, the -barons left him with threats. They returned toward evening. The bell of -the church was ringing for vespers, and the Archbishop had gone there. -The priests wanted to close and barricade the doors, but he objected. -“The doors of the house of God should not be barricaded like a -fortress!” said he. Just then the assassins came in, brandishing their -swords and calling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a>{62}</span> for the traitor. The priests surrounding the -Archbishop fled in terror; only his cross-bearer stayed with him. It was -so dark that neither the intruders nor the priest could be seen -distinctly. Another voice called: “Where is the Archbishop?” “I am -here,” answered Becket. “I am no traitor, but only a priest of the -Lord!” They were afraid to kill him in the holy precincts. Once more -they asked him to absolve those he had excommunicated. He refused, -because they had not repented. “Then you shall die!” they cried. “I am -ready, in the name of the Saviour,” he answered; “but I forbid you, by -the Lord Almighty, to touch any of these present, priests or laymen.” -They heeded him not, but rushed upon him, and with three or four thrusts -from their swords, one of them splitting his skull, laid him prostrate -at the foot of the altar.</p> - -<p>The murderers hurried back to Normandy to get their reward. The news of -the murder, when it reached the ears of the King, struck terror into his -heart. He knew he was, and would be held, responsible for Becket’s -death. Fear seized him, that he would feel the Pope’s wrath, that he -would be excommunicated, that England and his possessions in France -would be placed under an interdict, that the Saxon population of -England, which already revered Becket as a saint, might rise in open -rebellion against him. He therefore made haste to disclaim publicly any -complicity in the murder, and sent an ambassador to the Pope to assure -him of his entire innocence and of his profound grief at the bloody -deed. The Pope at first refused to receive the ambassador, and it was -only by means of many prayers, promises, and humble supplications that -he finally absolved the King of intentional<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>{63}</span> complicity in the heinous -crime. The King actually purchased this absolution by pledging himself -to support, during three years, two hundred well-equipped horsemen for -the protection of the Holy Sepulchre.</p> - -<p>But even this act of papal absolution was not deemed sufficient by the -King to protect him from the evil consequences of the assassination. To -remove this danger the King two years afterwards undertook a pilgrimage -to the tomb of Becket, who had in the meantime been buried in the -Cathedral with royal honors. As soon as the steeple of the Cathedral -appeared on the horizon, the King dismounted, and proceeded on his way -barefooted, his bleeding feet leaving a spot of blood at every step. On -his arrival at the tomb he prostrated himself, and subjected himself to -the humiliation of a severe flagellation at the hands of the monks, each -of whom applied to his bare back three strokes from a knotted rope.</p> - -<p>Having undergone this public chastisement, the King remained praying and -fasting the following night, prostrated on the tombstone. Next morning -he returned to London, where, immediately after his arrival, he fell -seriously ill from the effects of his pilgrimage.</p> - -<p>The Pope canonized the martyr who had so heroically died in the defence -of the prerogatives of the Church.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a>{64}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>{65}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /><br /> -GESSLER</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a>{66}</span></p> - -<p><a name="GESSLER" id="GESSLER"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p066b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p066b_sml.jpg" width="472" height="543" alt="image unavailable: GESSLER" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">GESSLER</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>{67}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER VII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF GESSLER<br /><br /> -(A.D. 1307.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE assassination of Julius Cæsar and of the first Roman Emperors led to -greater demoralization of the people, and thereafter to anarchy, -bloodshed, civil war, and ultimately to an atrocious despotism; but at -an interval of twelve hundred and forty years after the death of Nero -there occurred a political assassination, growing out of personal -revenge, which freed a whole people from oppression and placed the -murderer among the heroes of mankind and the liberators of nations. We -speak of William Tell, the national hero of Switzerland, who in 1307 -deliberately murdered Gessler, the Austrian governor.</p> - -<p>This governor, who resided at the castle of Kuessnacht, had committed -the greatest outrages and acts of despotism against the inhabitants of -his gubernatorial district, embracing the so-called three Waldstädte -(Forest Cantons),—Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. Until then these Forest -Cantons had enjoyed a republican government, and had given to the German -Empire a merely nominal recognition, by acknowledging the German Emperor -as their suzerain. There is a great resemblance in the relations between -these Swiss Cantons and the German Empire to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a>{68}</span> the relations which -existed, before the South African war, between the two Boer Republics -and the crown of England. Rudolph of Hapsburg, himself a Swiss by birth, -who had been elected German Emperor, had pursued a liberal policy toward -the Cantons and in special charters had guaranteed to them their -inherited rights and liberties. But his son Albrecht the First, who -succeeded Rudolph on the imperial throne, resolved to do away with these -prerogatives, deprive the Swiss Cantons of their independence, and make -them subject to the crown of Austria. Theretofore the German Emperors -had been represented in a few cities of Switzerland by bailiffs, who -exerted the same authority in the Cantons as our federal judges in -United States Territories; but Albrecht changed their duties and -authority entirely, investing them with many additional powers, so that -they became practically governors of their districts, appointed by the -Emperor and administering their office as imperial officials.</p> - -<p>Against this change the inhabitants of the Cantons entered their solemn -protests; they sent delegations to Albrecht to remonstrate with him; but -he gave evasive answers, increased the soldiery protecting the -governors, shut his ears to all complaints about their arrogance and -growing usurpation, and secretly encouraged them “to do all in their -power to break the stubborn resistance of these uncouth mountaineers and -boors, and make them obedient subjects of the Austrian crown.” To the -strong men of the Cantons, who had never bowed their necks under the -yoke of a foreign despot, the tyranny of these Austrian governors became -intolerable; their leading men made up their minds to throw it off by -all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a>{69}</span> means, and to maintain their independence at any cost. Even the -members of the nobility scattered through the Cantons were indignant at -the arbitrary and haughty ways of the imperial bailiffs, who treated -them with the same arrogance as they treated the common people; they -therefore made common cause with the latter, so that practically the -imperial officials were isolated in a hostile country, without friends -or party.</p> - -<p>The public discontent culminated in a secret conspiracy, of which Walter -Fuerst of Uri, Werner Stauffacher of Schwyz, and Arnold Melchthal of -Unterwalden, were the originators. These three men, each a -representative and influential citizen of his own Canton, met at the -house of Walter Fuerst and agreed to meet for further consultation on -the Ruetli, an elevated plateau, hidden in the woods, near the lake of -Uri, on certain nights, each undertaking to bring along ten men tried -and true, who had promised to act with them, for life and death, for the -deliverance of their country. They also pledged themselves by oath to -keep this league a secret from all but the initiated, who like -themselves had sworn to coöperate for the deliverance of the country, -until the time had come for united action on one and the same day. This -was done in the fall of 1307. A later consultation of the conspirators -on the Ruetli took place some weeks afterwards, and was attended by the -three leaders and thirty others. They were all full of enthusiasm and -hope of victory. They all pledged the almost unanimous support of the -inhabitants of the three Cantons, and finally agreed that the people -should rise in rebellion on New Year’s Day, 1308. The humane feature of -this proposed revolution appears from their joint agreement, affirmed -under oath,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a>{70}</span> that, in expelling the Austrian governors and their -followers from their castles and their country, they would not kill them -except in self-defence, but would treat them with leniency and charity. -Is it not as if we heard Oom Krueger and his friends of the Transvaal -and Orange Free State counsel on measures for their independence? They -placed their full confidence in the justice of their cause, the -assistance of God, and their own bravery.</p> - -<p>The day for the execution of their plot was anticipated by an unforeseen -event. Gessler, the Governor of Uri and Schwyz, had made himself -especially odious by all sorts of petty acts of tyranny. Among these was -an order that the ducal hat of Austria was to be placed on the top of a -long pole to be erected on the market space of Altorf and that nobody -should pass by it without uncovering his head and showing it respect as -if the Duke of Austria (Albrecht, Emperor of Germany) himself were -there. The citizens generally complied with the order. But one day -William Tell and his little son passed by the hat without minding -Gessler’s order. William Tell was the son-in-law of Walter Fuerst, one -of the three leaders of the Ruetli conspiracy, and, like Walter Fuerst -himself, he was looked upon with suspicion by the Austrian authorities. -The openness with which he ignored Gessler’s order was immediately -construed as an act of defiance and rebellion. He was taken before -Gessler, and the cruel bailiff imposed upon him a punishment which, he -thought, would wound him to the heart.</p> - -<p>“Tell,” said he to him, “by your act of disobedience you have forfeited -your life. But I will be merciful to you,” and pointing to Tell’s -crossbow, he continued: “You have the reputation of being the best -archer of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a>{71}</span> our Canton, if not of all Switzerland. I have never seen a -test of your skill yet; very well, let your skill be tried now, and if -it is as great as your reputation it will save your life. There is an -apple. Place it upon your boy’s head, and at a distance of thirty steps -shoot it with an arrow. But take good aim! For, if you hit the boy, your -life will pay for it!”</p> - -<p>William Tell complied with the cruel order, and with his usual masterly -skill brought down the apple from the boy’s head. Gessler was enraged at -the result, and, before dismissing Tell, he asked him with an insidious -smile: “Now tell me, William Tell, why did you take two arrows from your -quiver before you took aim at the apple on your boy’s head? Tell me -sincerely, and whatever your answer may be, your life shall not be -imperilled.”</p> - -<p>Carried away by his wrath, Tell contemptuously replied: “If I had missed -my aim and hit my boy, the second arrow was for you, and, by God -Almighty, it would not have gone astray!”</p> - -<p>“That’s what I thought,” cried Gessler, and turning to his escort he -ordered them to put Tell in chains and take him to the boat on the lake. -“Your life,” said he to Tell, “is not in peril; but I will take you to -my castle in Kuessnacht; there in one of the darkest dungeons -underground you shall be imprisoned, and may find time to repent the -rebellious words which you have uttered!”</p> - -<p>In the immediate neighborhood of Kuessnacht, on a mountain top -overlooking the town, was the fortified castle where Gessler resided. It -was on the way to that residence that Tell did the act by which he -satisfied<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a>{72}</span> his personal revenge and also freed his country from the -bloody tyranny of the despot. While Gessler and his prisoner were -crossing the lake, a storm arose, which endangered the boat. The fury of -the tempest filled the hearts of the boatmen with dismay and terror, and -tremblingly they turned to Gessler, saying: “The boldest and most -skilful boatman in the Canton is Tell. He may be able to save the boat, -but we cannot! Set him free and he may bring us safe to port.”</p> - -<p>Gessler ordered the chains to be removed from Tell’s limbs and ordered -him to take the helm, promising him life, liberty, and a full pardon if -he should bring them safe into port. Tell took the helm, and the boat, -obedient to its master’s hand, sped through the storm-tossed waves like -a seabird dancing on the surface. But turning round a rock-bound bluff -close to the shore, Tell suddenly took up his cross-bow lying on the -bench near by, and with a mighty leap jumped on the rock, hurling the -boat far back into the hissing and tempestuous flood.</p> - -<p>Gessler also escaped from the watery grave, but only to meet his doom on -land even before he had reached his home. Tell was lying in ambush on -the road from the lake to Kuessnacht. It was the road which Gessler and -his party had to take on their return to the castle, if they should -succeed in effecting a landing on the shore. After some time Gessler, -accompanied by a few friends, came in sight. No sooner had the party -entered the defile than Gessler, shot through the heart by Tell’s -unerring arrow, fell from his horse.</p> - -<p>Tell’s shot was the signal for the general uprising of the people of -Switzerland. Years of struggle and warfare against Austria’s nobility -and armed forces followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a>{73}</span> Tell’s heroic act, but the entire -independence of Switzerland was finally secured. Switzerland is to this -day a free and independent republic, and Tell’s name shines with -imperishable lustre not only as its great national hero, but also among -the immortal patriots and liberators of mankind.</p> - -<p>We are well aware that recent historical criticism has expressed doubt -as to Tell’s great act of deliverance, and even as to his existence, and -that in some histories the tale is simply relegated to the domain of -legend and tradition. But there is no real justification for this -decision. It is founded only on a statement in the chronicle of Saxo -Grammaticus recording a feat of archery in Scandinavia similar to that -of William Tell, and performed hundreds of years before Tell’s day.</p> - -<p>As Johannes von Mueller, the great historian, judiciously says: “It -shows but scanty knowledge of history to deny the truth of a historical -event simply because another similar event occurred in another century -and country.” But truth or fiction, history or legend, the heroic act -and name of Tell will live on, immortal and inspiring, as they have -lived during the last six hundred years. Poets and novelists have -immortalized the great national hero of Switzerland in song and story. -Frederick Schiller, Germany’s greatest dramatist, has made him the -central hero of his greatest drama, and has given his name to that great -hymn of liberty and patriotism, which stirred up the German nation to -its glorious struggle against Napoleon the First. It is one of the few -truly patriotic assassinations recorded in history.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a>{74}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a>{75}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br /> -IÑEZ DE CASTRO</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>{76}</span></p> - -<p><a name="INEZ_DE_CASTRO" id="INEZ_DE_CASTRO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p076b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p076b_sml.jpg" width="390" height="486" alt="image unavailable: IÑEZ DE CASTRO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">IÑEZ DE CASTRO</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>{77}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER VIII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF IÑEZ DE CASTRO<br /><br /> -(A.D. 1355.)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>S one of the most cruel and heart-rending tragedies of the middle ages, -the love-story and the assassination of Iñez de Castro has lived in song -and story for five hundred and fifty years, and still awakens echoes of -pity and sorrow whenever read or heard.</p> - -<p>Constancia, the wife of Pedro, son of Alfonso the Fourth of Portugal, -and heir-presumptive to the crown of that kingdom, died in 1344, and -left to her husband a son of tender age, named Ferdinand. Pedro -thereupon desired to marry the countess Iñez de Castro, a young lady of -great beauty and loveliness, and, like himself, sprung in direct -lineage, but on her mother’s side, from the royal house of Castile. Iñez -de Castro was of an illustrious family, it is true, but her rank was not -deemed sufficient to entitle her to become the wife of the Crown Prince; -therefore when Dom Pedro mentioned to his father his intention to marry -her, the King positively refused his consent. Dom Pedro, however, -instead of obeying his father, secured permission from the Pope, and -secretly married her, bestowing upon her the full rank and all the -rights of a legitimate wife.</p> - -<p>In the meantime the King and his advisers urged Dom<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a>{78}</span> Pedro to get -married again, and proposed a number of young princesses of renowned -beauty and ancestry for his choice. But Pedro, without disclosing the -secret of his marriage with Iñez de Castro (rumors of which were -nevertheless whispered and busily circulated at the court of the King), -persistently rejected all these proposals, giving no other reason for -his refusal than his personal disinclination to marry. While Pedro’s -father reluctantly accepted his son’s emphatic declaration, the most -trusted advisers and counsellors of the King, Diego Lopez Pacheco, Pedro -Coello, and Alvaro Calvarez, did not, because they were afraid lest the -influence of the beautiful and accomplished Iñez de Castro—no matter -whether she was legally married to Pedro or not—would be dangerous and -possibly fatal to their own preëminence at the court, as soon as Pedro -should succeed his father on the throne. They shrewdly worked upon the -King’s mind by insinuating that if the rumor of Pedro’s secret marriage -should prove to be true, the ultimate succession of Ferdinand, Pedro’s -son by his first wife, to whom the King was very much attached, might be -endangered, and that possibly the son of Iñez de Castro would become -Pedro’s successor on the throne.</p> - -<p>The King summoned Pedro to a private interview, and asked him concerning -his relations with Iñez de Castro, informing him at the same time of the -rumor of his secret marriage. Pedro denied the truth of this rumor, -admitting, however, that Iñez de Castro, while not his wedded wife, was -so dear to his heart that on her account he would not consent to form a -new matrimonial alliance, no matter how illustrious by birth or beauty -the princess proposed to him might be. The emphasis with which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a>{79}</span> Pedro -made this assertion satisfied his father that the rumor of a secret -marriage was true; and when the King, at the next cabinet council, -repeated to his confidants the result of his interview with the Crown -Prince, they predicted that the greatest calamities would arise, after -the King’s death, from the Crown Prince’s infatuation for Iñez, which -they ascribed rather to unnatural evil influences than to the surpassing -beauty and loveliness of the young woman. The King, a man of very -irascible temperament, became excited and indignant; he declared again -and again that, if there were no other means of separating Pedro and -Iñez, the young woman would have to die. The council then broke up.</p> - -<p>It was but a short time afterwards that Dom Pedro left the court for a -few days to go out hunting with some friends. But warned by his mother, -who had heard of the King’s evil designs upon Iñez de Castro, he had -taken her and her two children to Coimbra, where he left them in a -convent to await his return. On the day after his departure, King -Alfonso suddenly appeared at the convent and demanded to see Iñez de -Castro. Pedro’s wife immediately made her appearance, accompanied by her -two children. As she looked upon the King, whose mien was grim and -menacing, and who was surrounded by a number of his knights in full -armor, a presentiment of some terrible calamity which was to befall her -and her two children entered her breast, and from an impulse of both -fear, and of hope to save her children, she threw herself at the King’s -feet, imploring him to forgive her and to take pity on her innocent -children. Alfonso’s heart melted with pity at the sight of so much -beauty and innocence. He raised her from her kneeling position and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a>{80}</span> told -her to be of good cheer, and that no harm would befall her. And then -turning round, he left the convent, followed by his attendants, who were -not a little surprised at this peaceful ending of a visit which had -promised to be a tragedy.</p> - -<p>But while Iñez already congratulated herself on her lucky escape from a -terrible death, and even on her good fortune in having softened the -King’s heart toward herself and her two children, she was nevertheless -doomed to ruin. The three counsellors so hostile to her had not -accompanied the King on his visit to the convent; they were waiting for -the return of their sovereign at some distance from Coimbra, and were -greatly disappointed when they learned from his own lips that, instead -of having slain with his own hands, as he had promised to do, the woman -who had seduced his son and enthralled him either by her beauty or by -the employment of supernatural means, he had changed his mind concerning -her, and now spoke feelingly and affectionately of her and her sweet -children. The counsellors concealed with great difficulty the irritation -and disgust with which the King’s weakness filled them; they immediately -proceeded to counteract the favorable impression which Iñez had made, -uttering the foulest insinuations and aspersions upon her character. The -very change which she had succeeded in effecting in the King’s -sentiments toward her was made the means of renewing and corroborating -the charge that evil spirits were assisting her in bewitching the royal -family for her own selfish purposes. “Since she has so easily captured -your majesty,” said one of them cunningly, “who can hope to resist her -and her ambitious designs? Poor Ferdinand!”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a>{81}</span></p> - -<p>The artful mention of the name of the young prince, whose right of -succession was endangered by the recognition of Iñez de Castro, was -sufficient to elicit from the King the promise that his son’s mistress -should never be received at the court. Having obtained this concession, -the three counsellors found it comparatively easy to persuade him that -the original purpose for which they had come to Coimbra—the death of -Iñez—was the only salvation for the throne and the dynasty, and that it -was his duty as a monarch to remove her as soon as possible in order to -avert greater calamities. They told him that it was perhaps right that -he had not soiled his royal hands with the blood of one who was unworthy -of the high distinction of dying by his sword, but that it was a duty he -owed to the state and to the legitimate heir to the throne to order her -death at the earliest moment. Alfonso was weak and foolish enough to -believe them and to sanction the murder of the fair and innocent wife of -his son. That very night Iñez de Castro fell a victim to the daggers of -two assassins.</p> - -<p>The assassination provoked terror throughout Portugal and Spain, and -general were the denunciations of the King and the counsellors who had -advised him to commit the crime. But in this case what followed the -murder has, even more than the atrocity of the crime itself, made it -famous in song and story. The murder of Iñez de Castro occurred in 1355.</p> - -<p>A rumor of the tragedy reached Dom Pedro while he was taking dinner at -the small tavern of a village, some thirty leagues from Coimbra. The -Crown Prince was travelling incognito, and neither the host nor the -guests of the tavern, except his own companions, knew him and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a>{82}</span> how -deeply he was interested in the terrible news which a cattle dealer had -just reported as the latest sensation in the city. Dom Pedro hurried -back to Coimbra and to the convent. The rumor was only too true. His -idolized wife was dead. Three horrible wounds, each of which would have -been sufficient to cause death, disfigured her beautiful corpse; but her -countenance shone with angelic radiance and sweetness, and the agony of -death seemed to have left no trace on it. When Dom Pedro learned from -the nuns how the assassins had demanded entrance in the name of the King -and had burst open the bedroom of Iñez and butchered her without mercy, -he knelt down by the coffin and swore bloody vengeance against all those -who had taken a hand in this inhuman and atrocious crime. He called upon -Heaven to assist him in bringing the assassins and their instigators to -justice, and laying his hands upon the breast of his murdered wife, he -swore that he would not desist from the pursuit of the guilty persons, -even if he had to seek them on the throne. The meaning of these words -could not be misconstrued, for it was generally understood that, while -the three counsellors had proposed the murder, the King had given his -consent to it. When Dom Pedro’s threat was repeated to him, the King, -highly incensed, loudly proclaimed that Iñez de Castro’s death was a -just punishment for her criminal liaison with the Crown Prince, in open -violation of the King’s order, and assumed the full responsibility for -the murder. The Crown Prince, so rudely repelled by his father and -deeply wounded by the disgrace heaped upon his virtuous wife, refused to -return to the court; on the contrary, he called his friends, and the -friends of Iñez de Castro, her brothers and cousins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a>{83}</span> to arms. The cruel -and unjustifiable homicide he justly ascribed to the calumnies and -intrigues of a set of rapacious cut-throats who were ready to sacrifice -everything to their own personal interests, and who had deceived the -King. In a very short time Dom Pedro found himself at the head of an -army, with which he invaded those provinces in which the castles and -mansions of the counsellors were situated. With merciless severity their -lands were laid waste, their castles razed to the ground, their families -and friends killed, and everything was done to make their very names and -memories odious to their fellow-men.</p> - -<p>By that time the King had also been informed by high dignitaries of the -Church that the union between his son and Iñez de Castro had been -consecrated, that the Pope himself had granted them permission to get -married, and that strict secrecy had been observed simply out of high -regard for the King, in the hope that he would never hear of it and -would consequently not feel irritated by it. This information had a -powerful effect on the King’s mind. He began to see what a great crime -he had committed in sanctioning the murder of a virtuous and innocent -young wife, whose only fault had possibly been her yielding, against the -King’s outspoken wishes, to the Prince’s ardent wooing. And when the -Queen, Dom Pedro’s mother, added her supplications and tears in behalf -of her son, whom the murder of his wife had made nearly insane from -grief, the King became more and more willing to be reconciled to him. He -not only forgave his acts of rebellion, but even made amends, as much as -he could, for the cruel wrong he had done him.</p> - -<p>Under such circumstances it was comparatively easy<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a>{84}</span> for the Archbishop -of Braga, whom the Pope had authorized to impart to the King the -information concerning Dom Pedro’s marriage, to effect a reconciliation -between father and son. Thereupon the son returned to the court, where -he was received with the highest honors, after he had solemnly promised -not to take revenge on the counsellors who had been instrumental in -causing the death of his wife, and who had already been so severely -punished by the devastation of their lands and the destruction of their -castles. To consent to this condition was the cruelest sacrifice on the -part of Dom Pedro, but he finally yielded to the tears and prayers of -his mother—very likely, however, as we shall see, with a mental -reservation.</p> - -<p>Two years later, King Alfonso the Fourth died, and Dom Pedro ascended -the throne of Portugal. The old King’s death was also the signal for the -flight of his three counsellors, Pacheco, Coello, and Gonsalvez, whose -absence was first noticed at the King’s obsequies. They had sought -refuge in Castile, because they felt instinctively that it would not be -safe for them to remain in Portugal, and that the ill-concealed hatred -of Dom Pedro might break forth at any moment and punish them terribly -for the part they had taken in Iñez de Castro’s death. In fact Pedro had -never forgiven the assassins of his wife. On the contrary, his heart had -never ceased to yearn for the day when he could not only take full and -bloody revenge on her persecutors and murderers, but also restore the -honor of her name and memory, which had been sullied by the calumnies of -those scoundrels.</p> - -<p>Castile was at that time ruled by Pedro the Cruel, one of the worst and -most bloodthirsty tyrants that ever sat upon a Spanish throne. Some of -his victims<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a>{85}</span> had made their escape into Portugal and had found -protection at the court of Alfonso, Dom Pedro’s father. But when the -counsellors of Alfonso arrived at his court, Pedro the Cruel formed the -diabolical plan of delivering them up to Pedro of Portugal, provided the -latter would deliver, in exchange for them, the Castilians who had found -an asylum in his kingdom. No more agreeable proposition could have been -made to the King of Portugal, and the exchange was readily made. Two of -the counsellors, Coello and Gonsalvez, were transported in chains to -Portugal, and executed with inhuman cruelty. They were put to the -torture in the hope of extorting from them the names of other -accessories to the crime; thereupon they were burned at the stake, and -their hearts were torn out; and thereafter their ashes were scattered to -the winds. Pacheco, however, escaped this terrible fate. Being absent -from the court of Castile when his two colleagues were arrested, he fled -to Aragon.</p> - -<p>After having in this manner satisfied his vengeance on the assassins, -King Pedro assembled the high nobility and the great dignitaries of his -kingdom at Cataneda, and in their presence swore that, after the death -of his first wife, Constancia, he had legally married Iñez de Castro; -that the Pope of Rome had given him special permission to do so, and -that the marriage ceremony had been performed by the Archbishop La -Guarda, in the presence of two witnesses, whom he mentioned by name. He -ordered these facts to be entered upon the archives of the state and to -be proclaimed publicly in every city, town, and village of the kingdom. -The children of Iñez de Castro were declared legitimate and entitled to -all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a>{86}</span> rights and prerogatives of princes of the blood, including -succession to the throne of Portugal. Proceeding thence to Coimbra, the -King ordered the vault in which the remains of Iñez had been deposited -to be opened, her corpse, which had been embalmed, to be dressed in a -royal robe and placed upon a throne, and her head to be adorned with a -royal crown. He compelled his attendants, composed of the highest men of -the monarchy, to pass by the throne and bow their knees and kiss the -edge of the Queen’s robe,—in fact, to show the same reverence and -respect to the dead Queen as they might have shown to the living Queen -on the day of her coronation. As soon as this ghastly ceremony was over, -the corpse was placed in a magnificent metal coffin and escorted by the -King and a most brilliant cortège of knights and noblemen to Alcobaza, a -royal residence about seventeen miles from Coimbra, and placed in a -royal vault. A magnificent monument, which represented Iñez de Castro in -her incomparable beauty and loveliness, was shortly after erected near -the vault. It was the last tribute which the love and admiration of her -husband could render to her memory.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a>{87}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /><br /> -RIZZIO AND DARNLEY</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a>{88}</span></p> - -<p><a name="DAVID_RIZZIO" id="DAVID_RIZZIO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p088b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p088b_sml.jpg" width="442" height="467" alt="image unavailable: DAVID RIZZIO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">DAVID RIZZIO</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>{89}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER IX<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATIONS OF RIZZIO AND DARNLEY<br /><br /> -(March 9, 1566; February 9, 1567)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>MONG the female rulers of Europe there is one who on account of her -matchless beauty, her genius, her adventurous life, but especially her -tragic death, has enlisted the attention and admiration of authors and -poets even to a higher degree than Catherine the Second of Russia or -Elizabeth of England, who perhaps surpassed her in political genius. -More regretted and admired for her misfortunes and accomplishments than -condemned for her sins and crimes, Mary Stuart, the beautiful Queen of -Scots, lives in the recollections of posterity as a vision of -incomparable grace, beauty, and loveliness, hallowed by the genius of -great poets and redeemed by a tragic and cruel death. To no historical -memory poetry and tradition have been more kind and more idealizing than -to Mary Stuart; and yet she deserves a place in this gallery of -assassinations not as a victim, but as a murderess.</p> - -<p>After reading the descriptions in prose and verse of her personal -charms, of her matchless beauty and grace, of her elegance and wit, of -her poetical inspiration and musical accomplishments, it is almost -impossible for the stern historian to maintain the self-possession of an -impartial<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a>{90}</span> judge and record the misdeeds of which this bewitching -creature was unquestionably guilty. She seemed to combine in her -incomparable personality all the physical and mental perfections woman -is capable of. We will say, however, that the crimes which have justly -been laid to her charge were, in part at least, excusable either on the -ground of the surrounding circumstances or of great provocations. Murder -itself, in the rude country and in the equally rude and violent times in -which it was committed, had not that horrid significance which -stigmatizes it in a more refined and cultured state of civilization.</p> - -<p>Mary Stuart was the only daughter of King James the Fifth of Scotland by -his second wife, Marie de Lorraine. She was the niece of the famous -princes of the house of Guise—Duke Francis of Guise and the Cardinal de -Lorraine—who were rivals in authority and power with the kings of -France, and who on several occasions rose superior to them. James the -Fifth died young, with his daughter yet in her cradle. Quite young she -was betrothed to the Dauphin of France, who became afterwards King -Francis the Second, and she was married to him when a mere child. Her -renown for beauty and genius resounded from one end of Europe to the -other. With remarkable facility she learned French, Italian, Greek, -Latin, history, theology, music, painting, dancing, and she excelled in -writing poetry. Some of her short poems are still famous in French -literature. But her life as Queen of France was but a short dream of -splendor and delight. The weak and emaciated Francis the Second died -after a reign of eleven months, and the crown went to his young brother, -Charles the Ninth.</p> - -<p>Mary Stuart retired for a while to a convent at Rheims,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a>{91}</span> but soon, upon -the death of her mother at Edinburgh, she proceeded to Scotland, where a -throne awaited her. Quite a number of enthusiastic adorers among the -high nobility of France followed her to her new home, because they could -not bear the thought of separating from a princess so charming and -beautiful,—a princess who kindled in the hearts of all men who were -brought into contact with her, desires and frequently a passion which -became fatal to them. Unquestionably Mary Stuart was one of the most -dangerous coquettes who ever lived, and at the brilliant and voluptuous -court of the Valois in France, almost under the personal direction of -the famous Diana de Poitiers, she had cultivated the art of using her -extraordinary charms and accomplishments for the seduction of men to her -best advantage. One of the most conspicuous of these followers from -France was Du Chatelard, the scion of one of the noblest houses of the -French monarchy. He bears the sad distinction of having been the first -victim to Mary Stuart’s intrigues, and of having paid for the mad and -uncontrollable passion which he had conceived for her with his life. -Chatelard himself was a young man of high accomplishments. He was a poet -and musician, and by his sweet voice he easily won the favor of the -young Queen. She imprudently gave him so many proofs of her favor and -openly admitted him to such a close intimacy that young Chatelard not -without reason believed that she returned the love which he had -conceived for her. And Mary was not in the least afraid to show her -fondness for him. It is authentically reported, for instance, that in -bidding him goodnight in the presence of the court “she kissed him below -the chin, looking at him in a way that set his whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>{92}</span> soul afire.” No -wonder that the young man in the transport of his passion committed acts -of indiscretion and madness, which in a short time led to his execution, -without visibly affecting the beautiful coquette who had encouraged his -passion. One night the ladies of the palace discovered him hidden behind -the curtains of the Queen’s bed, but his audacity was ascribed to his -thoughtlessness and vanity. He was expelled from the palace for a while, -but was soon afterwards forgiven and received again into the Queen’s -intimacy. This act of pardon turned the young man’s head again. He made -no secret of his glowing admiration for the Queen, and addressed amorous -verses to her, which were repeated by her attendants. One evening he was -again discovered in the Queen’s bedroom, where he had secreted himself -under the Queen’s bed. This second time he was put on trial, and was -condemned to death for having conspired against the Queen’s life. In -vain he protested his undying love for Mary Stuart, but the judges were -inexorable, and Mary herself, who had been trifling with his heart so -long, and who with a single stroke of the pen could have pardoned and -saved him, coolly handed him over to the executioner. A scaffold was -erected before the windows of Holyrood Palace, where Mary resided, and -Du Chatelard, the grand-nephew of the famous Chevalier Bayard, suffered -death with a heroism worthy of his great ancestor. His last words were, -as he cast a sorrowful look upon the windows behind which the Queen -stood with her attendants: “Farewell, thou who art so beautiful and so -cruel, who killest me, and whom I cannot cease to love!”</p> - -<p>The death of Chatelard was the first of a series caused<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a>{93}</span> by the mad -passion which Mary Stuart kindled in the hearts of her adorers. Another -attendant who had followed Queen Mary from France to Scotland, and whose -tragic fate is even more generally known than that of Du Chatelard, was -David Rizzio, an Italian musician, who for some time had been attached -to the court of Francis the Second of France. Rizzio was of low birth, -but had some talent as a composer of songs and as a singer, and had been -brought from Italy by the French Ambassador at Piedmont, from whose -service he passed into that of one of the enthusiastic noblemen who had -escorted the young Queen to Scotland. The Queen’s attention was soon -attracted to the Italian composer and singer, and she begged Rizzio of -the nobleman, so that he might enter her own service and by his art make -her forget the lonesome hours and the homesickness for France which she -felt would be the inevitable result of her residence in Scotland. By a -congeniality of taste the poor and lowborn Italian artist and the -beautiful young Queen were thrown together a great deal, and gradually -the love for the art ripened into a preference for the artist. He soon -became the declared favorite and private secretary of the Queen, who -made him practically the omnipotent counsellor and minister of her -policy.</p> - -<p>The scandal of this singular preference, which was at once announced as -a vulgar love affair, spread rapidly over all Scotland, and gave rise to -loud complaints by the Protestants, headed by John Knox, who preached -against the “woman of Babylon” and her low-bred paramour. The Queen was -blind to the consequences of her infatuation for this lute player, a -mere servant, who moreover, by his Italian nationality and Catholic -religion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a>{94}</span> defied the narrow prejudices of the Scotch people. In spite -of her beauty, youth, and loveliness the Queen became very unpopular, -not only with the nobility, but with the great mass of the people.</p> - -<p>At that very time Mary Stuart was induced, mainly through the influence -of Queen Elizabeth of England, to contract a marriage with Henry -Darnley, a young Scot of the almost royal house of Lennox, of great -physical, although somewhat effeminate, beauty, but of very inferior -mind. On seeing this young Adonis, Mary Stuart fell immediately and very -desperately in love with him, while it was noticed that Darnley showed -much greater coldness than men generally manifested in their gallantry -toward her. Darnley, descending from a daughter of Henry the Eighth, had -perhaps as good a title to the crown of England as Mary Stuart, and by a -marriage of these two claimants, it was expected that their interests -would be consolidated and consequently strengthened. The interest which -Queen Elizabeth of England had to promote this marriage was her hope of -lowering Queen Mary’s standing and authority in the eyes of her many -Catholic adherents in England by this marriage with an English -subject,—an intention in which Elizabeth was largely successful. In -spite of the strong opposition of a number of the most prominent Scotch -nobles and most notably of Lord Murray, Mary’s half-brother, the -marriage was consummated on the twenty-ninth of July, 1565. On the other -hand. David Rizzio, Mary’s Italian secretary and confidant, had very -warmly advocated and promoted the marriage, and Darnley openly paid -court to him, expecting great results from his influence over the Queen. -Why Rizzio should have so eagerly encouraged the</p> - -<p><a name="LORD_DARNLEY" id="LORD_DARNLEY"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p094a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p094a_sml.jpg" width="464" height="429" alt="image unavailable: LORD DARNLEY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">LORD DARNLEY</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a>{95}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">marriage is involved in doubt. Very likely the scandalous stories -circulated about the Queen’s relations to Rizzio were mere inventions; -and Rizzio, who moreover was deformed and ugly, far from being the -Queen’s lover, was only ambitious; he hoped to have even a greater share -of political authority under a nominal king, whom he recognized as an -intellectual nonentity, but whose personal beauty diverted the young -Queen’s thoughts from the cares of government.</p> - -<p>During the first months after the wedding Rizzio’s expectations were -fully realized. The young Queen in the transport of her passion for -Darnley paid no attention to government affairs; her whole mind and soul -seemed to be enwrapped in her love for her young husband; apparently she -cared for nothing else but to caress him and to shower her favors upon -him. She conferred upon him the title of king, without, however, giving -him the attributes of royal power, which she reserved for herself. If -Darnley had been a man of greater mental calibre he could very easily -have made himself king in fact as well as in name; but he was a weakling -in every respect. After the first few weeks had passed away in the -closest intimacy with her consort, Mary’s extreme fondness, not to say -idolatry, of him, entirely disappeared, and in a very short time her -conduct toward him assumed a degree of estrangement and coldness which -contrasted strangely with the cordiality which had preceded them. Mary’s -full confidence and intimacy turned once more toward Rizzio, whose -ascendency over her mind seemed to be greater than ever before. More -than anybody else Darnley was dissatisfied with this turn of affairs. He -saw that the chance of empire had slipped away from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a>{96}</span> him, and he found -that it was impossible for him to recover his former standing with the -Queen. In vain he tried to be admitted to a direction of the government -affairs and to perform some of the duties which seemed to pertain to his -exalted station in the state; but Queen Mary obstinately refused to -accede to these demands. Darnley, who ascribed this refusal, in part at -least, to Rizzio’s influence, then joined the party of political -malcontents who, either from motives of personal ambition or of -religious antipathy, were anxious to bring about the overthrow of the -Italian favorite and place a national and, if possible, a Protestant -ministry in power. To carry out this plan they won Darnley over to their -side, and filled his mind with dark insinuations and jealousy against -Rizzio. It seems they also promised him a co-regency with the Queen, and -full royal authority equal to hers in case the much-hated Italian should -be removed.</p> - -<p>These prospects were sufficient to inflame Darnley’s ambition and make -him a willing tool in the hands of Rizzio’s enemies. He did not shrink -even from murder, and committed it openly and defiantly. As soon as the -conviction had been established in his mind that Rizzio stood in the way -of his ambition, he resolved upon his assassination, which was not only -to lead to his own aggrandizement, but also to punish Mary for having -preferred the Italian to him. He did not wait long to carry his plan -into execution; and the brutality and reckless ferocity with which the -murder was committed were even more atrocious and repulsive than the -crime itself. Only a brute and cowardly knave could have planned it.</p> - -<p>The murder was committed on the evening of Sunday, the ninth of March, -1566, in the Queen’s private dining-room<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a>{97}</span> in the palace of Holyrood, -adjoining her bedroom. The Queen was there with the Countess of Argyle, -one or two other ladies, and Rizzio, her secretary. The best of feeling -and humor prevailed in the little party. There was not the least -indication or suspicion of impending trouble or danger. Nevertheless an -armed force of five hundred adherents of the conspirators, under the -lead of one of Darnley’s lieutenants, had been posted on the outside so -as to surround the palace entirely. The greatest caution had been -observed to avoid all noise, and the first intimation that something was -wrong was conveyed to the little party in the dining-room by the sudden -appearance of Darnley. With great familiarity he throws his arm around -the Queen’s waist. He is almost immediately followed by Ruthven, one of -his friends, who is clad in full armor and is ghastly pale from -excitement and fear. The Queen haughtily commands him to leave the room; -but before he can answer, her bedroom is filled with men bearing torches -and brandishing their swords, nearly all under the influence of liquor, -and calling with loud and threatening voices for Rizzio. The Italian -knows immediately what this scene means. He jumps from his seat and -takes refuge behind the Queen, clutching her gown with the grasp of -despair and imploring her to save his life. Mary Stuart at this moment -stands erect in the consciousness of her outraged dignity, her eyes -sparkling with indignation and wrath, and trying to protect Rizzio -against the crowd of aggressors who are pushing up to her, upsetting the -table on which she leans her hand, and trying to push her aside in order -to get at Rizzio. For a few moments she succeeds in keeping them at bay; -but then it is Darnley who comes to their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a>{98}</span> rescue. He seizes the Queen, -tries to push her away, and takes hold of Rizzio’s hand in order to make -him loose his grasp of Mary’s gown. In this struggle Mary has partly -uncovered the Italian, and one of the conspirators, espying the -opportunity, plunges a dagger over Mary’s shoulder into Rizzio’s breast. -It is a signal for a general assault on the unfortunate victim. Like -madmen they rush upon him from all sides; they drag him from behind the -Queen, who is herself in danger of being slain; they beat him, they kick -him, they plunge their swords, their knives, their daggers into his -bleeding and mutilated body, they pull him by the hair, lifeless and -maimed as he is, through the dining-room, through the bedroom, to the -outer door of the antechamber, and only desist when they see that it is -nothing but a corpse which they are maltreating.</p> - -<p>The dead silence which suddenly follows gives notice to Mary that the -horrid crime has been fully committed, that her favorite lies prostrate -and silenced forever at the threshold of her bedroom. What wonder that -in that terrible hour thoughts of revenge and hatred against Darnley, -the leader of this gang of savages and murderers, arise in her brain, -never to leave it again?</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>The assassination of Rizzio had opened a chasm between Mary Stuart and -Darnley which nothing but his own blood could fill up. From the very -first moment it became evident—and the Queen made no secret of it—that -Mary Stuart intended to resent the foul murder of one who, if he had not -been her lover, had enjoyed her confidence and her friendship, and whom -not even her personal intercession had been able to save from a most<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a>{99}</span> -cruel and entirely undeserved death. Immediately after the murder, when -Ruthven came back to her presence, with the blood-stained dagger still -in his hand, and demanded wine, she answered: “It shall be dear blood to -some of you!” Nor would she permit the blood of Rizzio to be washed off -the floor; she wished that it should forever remain as a mark of the -murder which had been committed there, and she ordered a partition to be -built between the grand staircase and the door of the antechamber -leading to her bedroom, in order to protect the blood-stained floor from -being desecrated by the feet of visitors. In this condition the Palace -has remained for centuries and the stains caused by Rizzio’s blood have -withstood the lapse of hundreds of years.</p> - -<p>The halcyon days which Mary had tried to create for herself at -Holyrood—the days and hours which she had hoped would console her by -poetry, music, and song for her absence from France—had come to a -sudden and cruel end. The conspirators were not satisfied with having -slain Rizzio; his murder was only the unavoidable means to accomplish a -certain purpose,—to get control of the government. They kept the Queen -in close captivity and would not permit any of her friends, not even her -ladies, to see or confer with her. It was then that Mary resorted to her -great power of duplicity. Carefully concealing the profound horror and -disgust with which the sight of Darnley filled her, she convinced him -easily that her interests and his were identical, that his strength lay -in his exalted station as consort of the Queen, and that their continued -estrangement and enmity would only lead to the elevation of her -half-brother, Lord Murray, or some other great nobleman. Darnley was -only too<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> easily persuaded; he fell readily into the trap which the -deceitful Queen had set for him. In his overweening vanity, and -convinced of his own invincibility, he ascribed the passionate appeals -and the affectionate solicitations of the Queen for his support to a -renewal of her former love and passion for him. Carried away by her -tenderness and loveliness, he promised to release her from her captivity -and to abduct her to Dunbar castle, where she would be secure from any -plots of her enemies. Darnley induced a number of his personal friends -and adherents to join him in this undertaking, and a few nights later -the flight from Holyrood to Dunbar was effected with complete success.</p> - -<p>Darnley, after having thus separated his cause from that of the enemies -of the Queen,—who were seriously debating whether she should be -imprisoned for life, exiled from the country, or put to death,—went a -step further. He openly denounced the assassination of Rizzio as an -inexcusable crime, and disclaimed all previous knowledge of and -complicity in it. Nobody believed him,—neither the Queen, who had seen -his active participation in the murder when he could easily have -prevented it; nor the conspirators, who knew that he had planned all the -details, had helped in its execution, and had promised to protect those -who would take a hand in it. But Darnley’s lying declaration served the -political aims of the Queen well. From Dunbar she issued an appeal to -the loyal people and nobles of Scotland, imploring their assistance -against the rebels who had driven her from Edinburgh and had insulted -and threatened her in her own palace, and using the presence and the -declaration of the King to contradict the stories and accusations -circulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span> by the conspirators and “rebels” against her scandalous -private life. Eight thousand loyal Scots responded to this appeal of -their Queen, and at the head of this enthusiastic army Queen Mary and -her husband returned to Edinburgh and once more took possession of -Holyrood.</p> - -<p>It was not long before the Queen threw off the mask of affection for -Darnley, which she had assumed for political purposes, and openly again -showed that aversion which she really felt for him. Not even the birth -of her son, who afterwards as James the Sixth ruled over Scotland and as -James the First over England, changed the strained relations between -husband and wife. There seems to be no doubt that the new cause of these -strained relations, which grew more apparent from day to day, was a -criminal and adulterous love affair which had quite suddenly sprung up -between the Queen and one of the noblemen of her court, the Earl of -Bothwell.</p> - -<p>The new favorite was a scion of one of the noblest and most renowned -families of Scotland, but his personal history was far from being -honorable. The mere fact that a man with such antecedents could appear -at court and be received in the very highest society is a sad comment on -the moral tone prevailing at that court and in that society. Bothwell -was at that time no longer a young man. When quite young he had one day -disappeared from the castle of his fathers and, on reaching the coast of -the North Sea, had joined a gang of adventurers who, as pirates, -infested those waters and were a terror to the merchant vessels of all -the nations of Europe. By natural ability, unbounded courage and daring -the young Scotchman had rapidly risen to a commanding position among the -wild corsairs; his name was repeated with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span> fear and awe from the coasts -of Denmark to the west coast of Ireland. In one of the desperate -engagements with warships of the Hanseatic League he had lost one eye, -but had saved his life and his freedom. Many years of his life he had -passed in this wild and adventurous career. Then the news of the death -of his father reached him, and one morning he reappeared in his -ancestral home to take possession of his vast domain. The turbulent -condition of Scotland, the civil war between Protestants and Catholics, -the struggles for supremacy between the crown and the nobility, were -congenial to his adventurous and reckless spirit. He had been among the -first to greet Mary Stuart on her arrival from France and had shown her, -from the first day he saw her, an enthusiastic, almost worshipful -devotion. He was a passionate adorer of female beauty, and the romantic -halo of his past life which surrounded his brow had secured for him -triumphs in love-affairs with some of the fairest women of the court. He -was among those who escorted Mary from Holyrood to Dunbar, and again he -was one of those who led her back in triumph from Dunbar to Edinburgh. -During this return march Bothwell distinguished himself by the skill of -his military dispositions, by his boldness and intrepidity, and -attracted the personal notice of the Queen.</p> - -<p>At Holyrood the acquaintance between the Queen and the daring general -quickly ripened into love and intimacy, although the Queen took great -care at first to conceal the new passion which had taken possession of -her inflammable heart, even from her closest friends. But while these -efforts on the part of the Queen may have been successful in deceiving -her intimate friends, there were always eyes turned upon her which were -not so easily deceived,—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span>and these eyes were those of the ambassadors -of England, France, and Spain accredited at her court. They watched her -conduct very attentively, and almost simultaneously reported to their -sovereigns the nascent favor with which the Queen looked upon Bothwell, -and the growing coldness which became noticeable between her and -Darnley. It was only a serious accident, which befell Bothwell soon -afterwards and which imperilled his life for several days, that revealed -the new passion of the Queen to the whole court and placed the new -favorite at the head of the government, with similar honors and similar -powers to those previously showered on Rizzio.</p> - -<p>We are neither writing a personal history of Queen Mary, nor a political -history of her reign; we are merely writing a history of the -assassinations of which she was, so to speak, the central figure that -gave them world-wide celebrity. We have therefore carefully excluded -from our narration all political and biographical facts which were -either not directly connected with these assassinations or had not a -psychological bearing upon them.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>We have reached the period when Mary—blinded by passion and infatuated -with love for a man utterly unworthy of her, or to speak more correctly, -of the exalted position she occupied in the world—surrendered not only -herself, but also the dignity of the crown and the honor and the -interests of the realm to the Earl of Bothwell, known to the entire -court as a profligate and libertine of the worst sort and as a most -unscrupulous and reckless adventurer. It was this infatuation for -Bothwell and the shameless liaison she formed with him from which all of -Queen Mary’s sufferings and disasters<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span> now flowed in rapid succession. -Not even her incomparable beauty and loveliness could save her from the -contempt attached to this disgraceful liaison, of which she made soon no -more a secret than she had formerly made of her preference for Rizzio. -But while in her infatuation for the Italian singer the artistic taste -of the Queen was rather successfully used by her admirers as an excuse -for her enthusiastic preference for him, there was absolutely no excuse -for her liaison with Bothwell. And Bothwell did all he could do to -strengthen the unfavorable impression of Mary’s conduct by the haughty -and overbearing rudeness with which he treated the greatest lords and -the highest dignitaries of the kingdom, including the King himself, for -whom he openly showed the greatest contempt.</p> - -<p>Outraged by the insults which he had to endure day after day and from -which the Queen herself did not seem to be willing to protect him, -Darnley suddenly left the court and went to Glasgow, where he took up -his residence in the house of his father, the Earl of Lennox. The King’s -sudden departure caused more unfavorable comment than the Queen had -anticipated. It greatly disconcerted her, because she was afraid that -from Glasgow Darnley might issue an appeal to the Scotch people, and -especially to the dissatisfied nobility, laying before them his -complaints and calling upon them to overthrow the disgraceful rule of an -adulterous wife and her paramour.</p> - -<p>Soon the news came from Glasgow that Darnley had fallen seriously ill, -that he was suffering from the small-pox and was expected to die. The -Queen took advantage of this serious illness and once more resorted to -her power of dissimulation, which had served her so well after<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> Rizzio’s -death. She intended now to employ it not only to temporarily deceive and -beguile her husband, but to decoy him into an ambush and put him to -death. Incredible as the enormity and ferocity of the crime may appear, -especially on the part of a young and beautiful woman distinguished by -so many mental advantages, there seems not to be the least doubt that -Mary, in going to Glasgow and appearing at the bedside of her sick -husband as a loving wife, had this horrid crime in view and successfully -paved the way for its execution. She again played with consummate art -the part of a loving and trembling wife, and deceived Darnley so fully -that he promised to follow her to Edinburgh as soon as the progress of -his convalescence would make it possible for him to undertake the -journey. Thus fully assured of Darnley’s forgiveness, she returned to -Holyrood and perfected there, together with Bothwell, the arrangements -for his murder.</p> - -<p>When Darnley arrived at Edinburgh, a short time afterwards, he was not, -as he ought to have been, taken to the royal palace, where he could have -been cared for better than anywhere else, but to a private residence in -an isolated location in one of the suburbs of the city, whose salubrious -location, it was alleged, would facilitate the King’s rapid recovery. -Darnley himself was greatly surprised at these arrangements, especially -when he learned that the Queen would not take up her residence with him, -but would remain at the Palace. Apprehensions of some impending danger -haunted his mind, and he became melancholy and despondent. However, the -Queen by her appearance and the excess of her tenderness soon dispelled -his vague fears and convinced him<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> that only care for his enfeebled -condition and the hope of quickening his convalescence had prompted her -to select his residence, from which he would be promptly removed after -his complete recovery. In order to reassure him fully, she remained -several nights with him, occupying a room immediately beneath his own, -and manifesting toward him the greatest affection and solicitude. One of -her pages slept in the same room with him, and five or six servants, -whom Bothwell had appointed, formed the entire household.</p> - -<p>Late in the evening of February 9, 1567, the Queen left the house and -went back to Holyrood to pass the night there, because one of the -musicians attached to the royal chapel was to be married that night, and -she had promised to be at the wedding. It was while the -wedding-festivities were going on at Holyrood and while the Queen was -dancing with some of the courtiers in the most careless and unaffected -manner possible, that a terrific explosion took place which was heard -and felt in all parts of the city and at Holyrood. Soon the rumor spread -that the house of the King had been blown to atoms and that all the -inmates were buried under the ruins. This rumor was only partly true. -The morning light of the tenth of February revealed the fact that the -house had been blown up by means of an underground mine; but the corpse -of the King was not found among the ruins. On the contrary, it was -found, together with the corpse of the page, in an orchard adjoining the -house, and neither the King nor the page showed any marks of gunpowder; -but the bloated condition of their faces and the marks of finger-nails -on their necks showed that both had been choked to death and had been -left lying on the ground where the assassins<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> had killed them. It was -then surmised that both the King and the page, having been disturbed in -their sleep by the approach of the assassins, had tried to make their -escape through the orchard, but had been overtaken in their flight and -slain. The explosion had unquestionably been intended to destroy all -vestiges of the crime by burying both the assassins and their victims -under the ruins, but it had either taken place too soon, before the -murderers could have carried the King and the page back to the house, or -the assassins had hurried away immediately after committing the deed. At -all events, Darnley was dead.</p> - -<p>The evidences of premeditated murder were so plain that from the very -first not the least doubt was manifested as to the character of the -calamity. Neither was there the least uncertainty in the public mind as -to the author or authors of the terrible catastrophe and the -assassinations attending it. The public voice immediately named Bothwell -as the murderer and added, in a whisper, the name of the Queen as his -accomplice. In those times murders were committed so often that the -murderers in a majority of cases escaped unpunished. But in this case -the rank of the victim was so exalted, and moreover the circumstances -surrounding the crime were so damaging to the authority of the crown, -that public opinion demanding an investigation of the death of the King -could not be disregarded. The Queen, who, if innocent, should have been -the first to insist on a thorough investigation of the crime by which -her husband was killed, affected an absolute indifference in the matter. -She utterly disregarded the damaging rumors which openly charged -Bothwell with the murder, and by this indifference confirmed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span> -suspicion of her silent active (or at best, passive) participation in -the crime. The Queen even openly defied public opinion by leaving -Bothwell in the undisturbed possession of the honors and dignities she -had conferred upon him, and by adding new ones, showing the continued -favor the Earl enjoyed, in spite of the public clamor raised against -him. “But Banquo’s ghost would not go down!” The excitement and the -indignation of the people rose to the highest point. On her appearance -in the streets, the Queen was insulted by the women. She found it -necessary for her safety to leave Holyrood and seek refuge in the -fortified castle. Bothwell had the audacity to demand a public trial, -because the Earl of Lennox, Darnley’s father, had openly accused him of -the murder; and the cowardly judges, overawed by the power of the -accused, by the royal troops, by the authority of the Queen, acquitted -him, while the whole people considered and declared him guilty.</p> - -<p>We have reached the end of this atrocious murder. Posterity holds Queen -Mary guilty of the crime of having murdered her young husband. Her -abduction by Bothwell and her marriage to him, although apparently -forced upon her, had been planned by the two murderers even before the -assassination. Mary’s long imprisonment and final execution at the -bidding of a cruel and jealous rival has often been deplored by -biographer, historian, and dramatist,—but were they more than a just -atonement for crimes as atrocious as they were unprecedented?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br /><br /> -WILLIAM OF ORANGE</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span></p> - -<p><a name="WILLIAM_OF_ORANGE" id="WILLIAM_OF_ORANGE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p110b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p110b_sml.jpg" width="353" height="420" alt="image unavailable: WILLIAM OF ORANGE" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">WILLIAM OF ORANGE</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER X<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE<br /><br /> -(July 10, 1584)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T was said by one of the wild revolutionists of France, in extenuation -of his incessant demands for the execution of a larger number of the -nobility, that the tree of liberty, to grow vigorously, should be -watered with plenty of blood. Alas! The history of the republics of the -world, not only since the great French Revolution of 1789, but at all -times, both ancient and modern, proves the justice of this assertion, -but none furnishes a more convincing proof of it than the history of the -Dutch Republic in its heroic struggle against the gigantic power of -Spain and other monarchical nations. At the very threshold of that -history stands the luminous figure of the great Prince of Orange, -William the Silent,—warrior, statesman, orator, and patriot; whose -assassination, closely following upon the murders of the night of St. -Bartholomew, is but the first of the crimes committed against the -illustrious men of the Dutch Republic—Olden Barnevelt, the brothers De -Witt, and others.</p> - -<p>The assassination of William of Orange is of a semi-political and -semi-religious character. The revolt of the Netherlands against Spanish -rule, of which the Prince of Orange was the principal figure, originated -in religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span> conflicts between the Netherlanders—most of whom were -Calvinists or Lutherans—and the bigoted King of Spain, Philip the -Second, who was more Catholic than the Pope himself. It was one of the -fixed ideas of Philip the Second, a perfect monomania, that in the -immense empire over which he ruled, none but faithful believers in the -Catholic faith should be tolerated, and that all heretics or dissidents -should be exterminated with fire and sword. In the Pyrenean -peninsula—for Portugal was at this time annexed to Spain—this idea was -most radically carried out, and year after year the Inquisition, which -flourished there as the first institution of the state, handed over -thousands of victims, convicted or suspected of heresy, to a most cruel -death at the stake for the purpose of purifying the spiritual atmosphere -of the country. But when an effort was being made on the part of the -King to introduce the same system of spiritual purification into the -Netherlands, which he had inherited from his father, the Emperor Charles -the Fifth, and whose population was mostly of Germanic race, that effort -met with a most stubborn and almost insuperable resistance.</p> - -<p>Already, under Charles the Fifth, all attempts to smother the Protestant -Reformation—which had entered the Netherlands both from Germany and -France and which had immediately found many adherents—had failed. The -Emperor, himself a Netherlander and familiar with the character of the -people, had deemed it prudent to abolish the Inquisition (at least in -name) and not to interfere too strongly with those personal rights of -the inhabitants which their municipal or provincial statutes guaranteed -to them. Moreover the Emperor had a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span> affable and popular way of -dealing with the people, and he could do a great many things which no -other ruler might have presumed to do. When Charles the Fifth abdicated -in 1555, the grief of the people of the Netherlands was not only -general, but sincere; they seemed to feel instinctively that the change -which was to occur in the government was full of impending dangers and -calamities for them. The personality of the new ruler fully justified -these apprehensions. Philip the Second came to the Netherlands from -England, where he had resided a short time as consort of Queen Mary, and -his reputation for bigotry, fanaticism, and cruelty had preceded his -arrival. Many of the acts of bloodshed and cruelty which were committed -under that reign were more or less justly imputed to his influence, and -his new subjects trembled at the prospects of similar scenes of -persecution and despotism. No wonder that on the twenty-fifth of -October, 1555, when the act of abdication was consummated at Brussels, -and when the infirm Emperor, leaning upon the shoulder of Prince William -of Orange, appeared before the representatives and high dignitaries of -all the provinces constituting the Netherlands, and ceded the government -to his son, who stood on his right side, a shudder passed through the -high assembly. Many eyes passed apprehensively from the open and kindly -countenance of the Emperor, then bathed in tears, to the sinister and -cruel features of King Philip. What a contrast also between the majestic -form and noble countenance of William of Orange and the small, feeble, -narrow-chested son of Charles, who with distrustful eyes looked down -upon this assemblage of nobles as if they were strangers or enemies, and -whom not even<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span> the glitter of royalty could invest with dignity, -although his features showed uncommon pride and haughtiness! The hopes -of the people of the Low Countries rested upon the one; their fears were -centred on the other.</p> - -<p>Unquestionably it had been the Emperor’s intention to place William of -Orange by the side of his son as chief adviser and protector; but the -characters of the two were so different—the one broad, humane, manly; -the other narrow, bigoted, timid—that it soon became manifest that a -hearty coöperation of the two men for the welfare of the state was -impossible. Moreover the aspirations and tendencies in regard to the -government of the provinces which the two men entertained were -absolutely conflicting, the Prince being in favor of liberal -institutions and scrupulous observance of the guaranteed rights of the -provinces, while the King was illiberal and despotic, without regard for -the local customs and rights of the Netherlanders, anxious to -concentrate all powers in his hands and to subordinate the whole -government to his autocratic will.</p> - -<p>These conflicting tendencies and these antipathies grew and became -intensified as the months and years passed by; consequently, when Philip -in 1559 left Brussels for Spain, he did not appoint the Prince of Orange -Governor-General of the Netherlands, to which position he was clearly -entitled, but conferred that honor with the title of regent upon his -half-sister, Margaret, Duchess of Parma, who shared his own fanatical -ideas. As her chief adviser he appointed Cardinal Granvella, a man of -great sagacity and talent, but filled with animosity against the enemies -of the Catholic Church, and in full though secret accord with the King -concerning the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span> necessity of wiping out the privileges of the “arrogant -burghers of the Low Countries.” William of Orange was appointed -Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand, and a member of the Council of -State, a sort of cabinet for the Regent Duchess in which Cardinal -Granvella was the leading spirit. Several other prominent noblemen of -the Dutch provinces, Count Egmont, the conqueror of Gravelines, and -Count Hoorn, were also members of the Council of State; but they were in -a minority, and the Spanish or Cardinalistic party ruled its decisions -absolutely. All of these decisions were hostile to the guaranteed rights -of the Provinces; they interfered with freedom of conscience; they -reintroduced the Spanish Inquisition under the disguise of creating new -episcopal sees and attaching two inquisitors to each; and by -establishing Spanish garrisons in the fortified towns they violated the -constitutional right of the provinces that no foreign troops should be -stationed there. The protests of the Prince of Orange and of Counts -Egmont and Hoorn were of no avail, so these three distinguished members -refused to attend the sessions of the Council of State.</p> - -<p>In the meantime a spirit of public dissatisfaction and disorder -manifested itself which showed to the sagacious Regent that the measures -enacted and enforced by Cardinal Granvella would lead to a revolt -against the Spanish régime. The people of Brussels showed their hatred -and contempt for the Cardinal in many ways. In public processions they -carried banners with insulting inscriptions or offensive caricatures and -cartoons exhibiting him in ridiculous positions. Alarmed at these -manifestations of public hostility, the Duchess Regent applied to the -King,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span> imploring him to remove Granvella from his post as President of -the Council of State. The King reluctantly complied with the request, -but Granvella’s removal did not change the spirit of the Council; and it -was only too evident that its decisions were emanations from the King’s -own mind. When Count Egmont, who had gone to Madrid on a special mission -to plead for the personal and political rights of the Netherlanders, -urged upon the King to give them greater religious liberty and to annul -some of the stringent laws of the Council of State, Philip got into a -rage and exclaimed: “No, no, I would rather die a thousand deaths and -lose every square foot of my empire than permit the least change in our -religion!” And he added that the decrees of the Council of Trent, which -had recently been held, and which had affirmed anew the immutable -doctrines of the Catholic Church, should be rigidly enforced in all his -states. New instructions to that effect were sent to the Netherlands, -followed by new convictions and new executions.</p> - -<p>It was at this perilous and critical time that William of Orange openly -accepted the Lutheran faith. Shortly before, he had been married to -Princess Anne of Saxony, a daughter of the famous Maurice, Elector of -Saxony, and a fervent Lutheran. William’s conversion to Protestantism -has been often ascribed to the influence of his wife, but it should be -remembered that William was born a prince of Nassau in Germany and the -son of Lutheran parents, and that his Catholicism dated only from the -time of his later education at the court of Charles the Fifth, where he -was placed as a page at the early age of nine years. William had never -forgotten the lessons of Protestantism which he had imbibed in his early -childhood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span> and while professing the Catholic faith in later years, he -had retained that respect and that affection for the principles of the -Reformation which so peculiarly qualified him to act as umpire and -leader in a contest in which religion played so conspicuous a part.</p> - -<p>Up to that time the nobility had taken much less interest in the -religious quarrels than the lower classes of the people; but the -steadily increasing number of convictions and executions for heresy -aroused their fears that the Spanish monarch intended to abolish their -time-honored privileges and wished to substitute a Spanish autocracy for -their liberal self-government. Against this intention they loudly -protested, Catholics as well as Protestants, and bound themselves to -stand together in their resistance to further acts of aggression. They -presented petitions and protests to the Duchess Regent who received them -in a conciliatory spirit, and forwarded them to the King, recommending -at the same time greater leniency and moderation. But Philip the Second, -getting tired of the many complaints and remonstrances reaching him from -Brussels, and determined to stamp out heresy at whatever cost, sent the -Duke of Alva, the sternest and most cruel of all his commanders, at the -head of a considerable army to the Netherlands, with full powers to -restore order and to reëstablish the authority of the Catholic Church. -From the well-known character of the commander-in-chief it could not be -doubted that the King’s severe orders would be carried out in the most -cruel and unrelenting spirit, and that neither age nor sex nor rank -would be spared. That Alva’s mission would be successful, the King did -not doubt for a minute. But it was on his part a case of misplaced -judgment, because his narrow mind could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span> measure the difference -between the Jews and Moriscoes, and the Netherlanders: against the -former the policy of violence and compulsion had been successful; -against the latter that same policy was doomed to ignominious failure. -The rumor that he would come as a bloody avenger preceded Alva’s -arrival, and filled the hearts of the Netherlanders with terror. A -regular panic ensued, and an emigration <i>en masse</i> was organized; it -looked as though the northern provinces were to be depopulated entirely -by this exodus of men, women and children, mostly belonging to the -mercantile and working classes, and taking their merchandise and their -household goods with them.</p> - -<p>The sending of an army composed entirely of Spaniards and Italians into -the Netherlands was so flagrant a violation of the constitutional rights -of the provinces, which the King had sworn to maintain, that the Prince -of Orange thought the time for open resistance had come, and he -conferred with Egmont, Hoorn, and other prominent men concerning its -organization. But finding it impossible to organize united resistance -against Alva’s army, William of Orange, with his profound insight and -with his distrust in the Spanish King’s intentions, deemed it prudent to -leave the Netherlands and withdraw to his estates in Germany instead of -imperilling his head by remaining at Brussels. It was in vain that he -tried to persuade Egmont, to whom he was greatly attached, to accompany -him and to place his valuable life beyond the reach of the Spanish -“avenger.” Egmont’s openhearted and confiding character refused to -believe the sinister forebodings of the penetrating genius of his -friend; he relied on his immense popularity among the Netherlanders and -on the great services he had rendered, on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span> battle-field, to the -House of Hapsburg. He therefore remained at Brussels, and even welcomed -Alva on his arrival at the capital. The Spanish commander conducted -himself as the regent <i>de facto</i> without paying much attention to the -Duchess, who still held that position nominally. One of his first -official acts was the appointment of a special tribunal, which he named -the Council of Troubles, composed exclusively of Spaniards, to try -charges of heresy and treason. The people, however, found another, and -more appropriate name for it. On account of the indecent haste and -rapidity with which persons were tried, convicted, and executed by this -Council, they named it “The Bloedraad” (The Council of Blood). The -number of victims was so great that gallows and scaffolds had to be -erected in all the cities and towns of the Netherlands, and that the -executioners were kept busy in beheading and quartering the heretics and -“traitors.” Counts Egmont and Hoorn had been arrested, soon after Alva’s -arrival, on the charge of treason; they were also tried before the Court -of Troubles and convicted on trumped-up charges. They were beheaded, -together with eighteen members of the nobility, at the public square of -Brussels.</p> - -<p>This infamous act stirred up William of Orange to immediate action. What -he had foreseen and predicted had come to pass. Evidently it was Alva’s -intention to kill off the leaders in order to get control of the great -mass of the people without much difficulty or resistance. William of -Orange himself was charged with treason and summoned to appear before -the judges of the Court of Troubles. But since his appearance at -Brussels would have been equivalent to his conviction, he refused to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span> -recognize the jurisdiction of the court, claiming that as a knight of -the Golden Fleece he had the right to be tried by the King personally -and by no other judges than his peers. At the same time he published an -address to the King in which he defended his public actions in a -masterly manner, convincing every unbiased mind not only of his -patriotic devotion to his country, but also of his loyalty to his -sovereign in all his legitimate and constitutional acts of government. -The Duke of Alva took no further notice of this defence; but when the -day for William’s appearance at court had passed, he was sentenced to -death, and his property, personal and real, was confiscated as that of a -rebel and traitor.</p> - -<p>In the meantime the Prince of Orange had not been idle in Germany. He -had appealed to his co-religionists for assistance, pointing out to the -Protestant princes that the cause of Protestantism itself was the issue -of the war in the Netherlands, and that the complete victory of the -Spanish army over the Netherlanders would be followed by an overthrow of -the Protestant churches, both Lutheran and Calvinistic, in Europe. He -succeeded in collecting a considerable army, which he divided into two -corps, placing the one under the command of his brother Lewis, Count of -Nassau, and invading Brabant with the other. The Count of Nassau was -defeated in battle and driven out of Frisia with heavy loss, while Alva -avoided giving battle to the Prince of Orange. By skilful manœuvres -the Spanish general tired out the patience of the German troops, and -when the severe cold of winter set in, the Prince, finding himself -without means of paying his soldiers and getting no support from the -inhabitants (who were overawed by the Spanish authorities), had to -disband<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span> his army and to return, temporarily, to Germany. Alva triumphed -and pompously reported to the Spanish King that both the rebellion and -heresy had been stamped out in the Netherlands, and that his presence -was hardly required there any longer. In his overweening vanity he went -even so far as to order a bronze monument to be erected in his own -honor, in which he was represented as a conqueror, standing with one -foot on a Dutch nobleman in full armor and with the other on a man of -the people, kneeling and with a Lutheran prayer-book in his hands.</p> - -<p>It is not my intention to go into the details of the cruel war in the -Netherlands,—cruel even beyond human imagination,—to recount the -sufferings, the tortures, the atrocities, the martyrdom imposed upon the -unfortunate victims of political and religious persecution, conceived by -human fiends educated in the school of the Spanish Inquisition and -warmly applauded by him whom both his cotemporaries and posterity have -justly named “the demon of the South.” Such a war had never been seen -between nations claiming to be civilized; and never has patriotic -devotion in defence of home and country, of liberty and creed, been -carried to a higher degree than by those brave Netherlanders in the -sixteenth century. The world should never forget the immense service -which they rendered to mankind by victoriously maintaining the -principles of religious liberty, which, without their heroic -perseverance, would very likely have perished under the incubus of -Spanish despotism and the Spanish Inquisition. That they did not succumb -and perish must be considered one of the marvellous enigmas of history, -in which the finger of God is plainly visible. Immortal<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span> glory and -renown should be accorded to the gallant leader who, under the most -discouraging and desperate circumstances, never lost hope and confidence -in the righteousness and final triumph of his cause, and who, undaunted -by personal danger and persecution, never wavered in his loyalty to -principle, and held high the banner of popular sovereignty and -individual liberty, until the pistol shot of a hired assassin -interrupted his glorious career.</p> - -<p>If to-day, after the lapse of three centuries, we look back upon that -career, our admiration for William of Orange grows steadily. We follow -him from his first appearance on the public stage of the Netherlands, as -a friend and confidant of Charles the Fifth, as a loyal adviser of the -Duchess Regent, as a loyal subject pleading with Philip the Second and -warning him to respect the rights of citizenship and religion of the -Netherlanders,—pleading and warning in vain; we behold him unsheathing -his sword for the defence and, when they appeared to be lost, for the -recovery of those rights, toiling, struggling, fighting for the people, -always subordinating his own interests to those of the nation and to the -sublime cause of which he was the acknowledged champion; we recognize -him as the first in the field, the first in the council-room, filling -his countrymen with an enthusiasm and a confidence which alone could -sustain them in undergoing sufferings and hardships unequalled in -history. Thus he stands before us fully realizing and even surpassing -the eulogy which Goethe wrote for the monument of another national hero, -perhaps worthy, but certainly not so worthy of it as William the -Silent:—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span></p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“In advance or retreat,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">In success or defeat,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Ever conscious and great,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Ever watchful to see,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">From foreign dominion he made us free!”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>In translating Goethe’s inscription on the famous Blücher monument at -Rostock we were strongly impressed with the fact that it was even better -adapted for a monument of the great Prince of Orange than for that of -the indomitable, but rather reckless, “Marshal Vorwärts.”</p> - -<p>The King of Spain had from the first day of his accession known the -powerful influence which the Prince of Orange exerted in the -Netherlands. The Prince stood without a rival at the head of the -nobility, and his eminent talents enhanced the authority which his -illustrious birth had secured for him. The King was also informed by his -special representatives—the Duchess Regent, Granvella, the Duke of -Alva, Don John of Austria, and others—that this authority was steadily -increasing, that the great mass of the people idolized the Prince, that -his wish was a law for the burghers, and that practically the revolt, -its failure or success, depended on him. The exalted character of the -Prince precluded the very idea of winning him over to the other side by -means of high distinctions or honors, much less by pecuniary bribes or -corruption, and nothing remained therefore for the King to do, if he -wanted to get rid of the dangerous popular leader, who held a number of -the provinces entirely under his sway, than to place him beyond the pale -of the law and to offer a high reward for his head. This method of -removing rivals or enemies was not unusual in those days; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span> it should -cause no surprise that the monarch who is, and very likely justly, -suspected of having ordered the murder of his half-brother, Don Juan -d’Austria, and also that of his own son, Don Carlos, was perfectly -willing to adopt this method of getting rid of the Prince of Orange, who -in his eyes was not only a rebel, but also a heretic, and as such -deserved death a hundredfold. The price he put on the Prince’s -head—twenty-five thousand ducats—showed sufficiently the importance he -attached to his life, and how willing he was to tempt assassins by the -enormous sum of the reward.</p> - -<p>The King, who evidently had experience in such matters, had not -miscalculated the temptation, for several attempts were made on the -Prince’s life in consequence; but they always failed, and it would -almost seem as if that life was under the special protection of -Providence that it might carry out the plans predestined for it. In -1582, Juan Jaureguy, a young man in the employ of a Spanish merchant of -Antwerp, and a religious fanatic, fired a pistol shot at the Prince -which came very near killing him. The ball entered the head under the -right ear, passed through the roof of the mouth, breaking several teeth, -and came out under the left jaw-bone. For a while the Prince’s life was -despaired of, but he finally rallied and recovered. His would-be -assassin was immediately killed, and his accomplices, of whom there were -several, were publicly strangled and quartered. In order to deter others -from making attempts on the Prince’s life, the ghastly remains of these -accomplices, one of them a Dominican monk, were nailed to the gates of -Antwerp. The joy at the Prince’s recovery was general, and thanksgiving -days, with divine service in the churches and public<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span> halls, were held -in a number of the provinces. Unfortunately neither these public -demonstrations of gratitude and delight, nor the terrible warnings -addressed to assassins were sufficient to protect a life so valuable to -his country and to the world.</p> - -<p>Another assassin was more successful than Jaureguy. The scene of the -murder, which took place on the tenth day of July, 1584, was the city of -Delft in Holland. Shortly after the noon hour of that day a -common-looking man, who had found access to the Prince’s residence for -the purpose of securing a passport, approached the Prince as he came -from the dining-hall and fired three shots at him, one passing through -the stomach and causing his death after a very short while. The assassin -was a man still young, less than thirty years of age. He was a -Frenchman, Balthasar Gérard by name, who had come from his home in -Franche-Comté or Burgundy to carry out his hellish design, which was -inspired by religious fanaticism and encouraged by Jesuits of the -College of Trèves. Through these he was introduced to the Duke of Parma, -then Governor-General of the Netherlands, who promised him the royal -reward in case of success, and other royal favors besides. Gérard had -made his preparations for the murder with considerable circumspection; -these preparations were very similar to those which Booth made for his -escape after the murder of Abraham Lincoln, and just like Booth, Gérard -stumbled and fell in making his escape and hurt himself, and this led to -his arrest.</p> - -<p>After having undergone the most terrible tortures, his joints having -been wrenched and his body nearly roasted alive, he was executed in the -most cruel manner imaginable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span> His right hand was burnt off with red-hot -irons; the flesh was torn from half a dozen different parts of his body, -which was then broken on the wheel. Gérard was still alive; his vitality -was wonderful. The executioners then disembowelled and quartered him; -tore out his heart and flung it in his face. It was then only that the -unfortunate man breathed his last. His head was then cut off and placed -on a pike of a gate in the rear of the Prince’s residence, and the four -parts of his body were fastened to the four gates of the city. This -cruel mutilation and dismemberment of the assassin’s body was hardly -sufficient to satisfy the vengeance of the people; the certainty that -the King of Spain stooped even to murder of the basest sort to recover -his sovereignty over the Netherlands exalted their desire for absolute -and lasting national independence to a sort of religious dogma which -made all hope of peace illusory.</p> - -<p>When the assassin’s hand cut short the life of the Prince of Orange, he -had not completed the great work for which he had toiled, fought, -suffered and died. But part of that work had been done, and it had been -done so well and so thoroughly that the Republic stood on a firm -foundation ready to receive the other provinces which were still in the -power of Spain as a fitting superstructure. For this reason history -recognizes William the Silent as the founder of the Dutch Republic and -of the independence of the United Provinces.</p> - -<p>To Americans the character of William the Silent is of special interest -because it bears, in many respects, a striking resemblance to that of -George Washington. Both were the principal figures in wars for the -independence of their countries; both were soldiers and statesmen of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span> -high order. If Washington was very likely the greater general, William -the Silent was very likely the greater statesman, and the success of the -American cause would have been as impossible without Washington as the -failure of the Dutch struggle would have been certain without William of -Orange. Both were sterling patriots and subordinated their own interests -to those of the nations they represented; but in this respect Washington -was, perhaps, superior to William, who had an eye on the possibilities -which might arise after a successful issue of the war. It should be -remembered, however, that William of Orange was a prince and sovereign -before he was made the head of the Netherlanders rising in revolt -against Spain, and that, as a sovereign, it was natural for him to look -after the interests of his family and dynasty. As far as mental and -moral qualifications are concerned, both men were distinguished by that -perfect equilibrium of powers of the mind and powers of the soul, which -is but rarely found in men of the highest rank. Neither of these -statesmen had the capacity of immediately conceiving and executing plans -of a decisive character. Their minds, although full of resources, worked -slowly in elaborating such plans; they weighed and hesitated before -taking action; but as soon as their minds had been made up and a plan -had been resolved upon, they acted without wavering, and held on to it -until success or failure resulted from it. The great respect in which -Washington has been always held by British historians and statesmen is, -perhaps, the noblest tribute that can be paid to his character and -abilities. The fact that Philip the Second relied less on his splendid -armies, led by some of the ablest generals of Europe, and on his -powerful navy, than<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span> on the death of William the Silent is, perhaps, the -greatest eulogy which can be given to the great founder of the Dutch -Republic. Unquestionably the Spanish monarch considered the twenty-five -thousand gold pieces which he offered for the assassination of William -of Orange, although an enormous sum for those times, but a very cheap -equivalent for the life of a man who had been the very life and soul, -the inspiring genius of the rebellious Dutch provinces. If monuments of -foreign statesmen and rulers are to be erected on American soil, no -fitter and no worthier man can be found for that honor than William the -Silent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<br /><br /> -IVAN THE TERRIBLE</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span></p> - -<p><a name="IVAN_THE_TERRIBLE" id="IVAN_THE_TERRIBLE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p130b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p130b_sml.jpg" width="412" height="500" alt="image unavailable: IVAN THE TERRIBLE" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">IVAN THE TERRIBLE</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XI<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATIONS BY IVAN THE TERRIBLE<br /><br /> -(1560-1584)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">R</span>USSIAN history abounds in instances of famous assassinations. Sometimes -these murders were committed by the rulers of Russia, at other times -these rulers themselves were the victims. Ivan the Fourth, whose very -surname, “the Terrible,” sufficiently indicates his character, was one -of the most cruel and inhuman monarchs who ever ruled over a nation, -either in ancient or modern times. It is therefore not one famous -assassination which we wish to describe, but a series of monstrous -crimes, unparalleled in history as the acts of one individual.</p> - -<p>Ivan was only three years old when his father died. A regency was -formed, composed of his mother and a council of boyars, belonging to -different factions, who were constantly at war with one another. At no -time had Russia been more poorly governed. As Ivan grew up, he was -despised and maltreated by the haughty nobility; his favorites were -abused. In order to divert his mind from nobler occupations and keep him -in profound ignorance of public affairs, he was amused and entertained -with coarse and brutal games which developed his innate cruelty and -ferocity, and made him, at an early<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span> age, the terror of those who were -subordinated to him. He delighted in torturing and slowly killing -domestic animals, and also in crippling and killing old men and old -women whom he encountered in the streets while riding fast horses or -driving a carriage like a madman, without looking either right or left. -He was a mere boy yet—hardly fourteen—when the boyars began to fear -him and predicted a reign of terror when he should assume the reins of -government.</p> - -<p>At seventeen, he dissolved the regency and declared his intention to -reign for himself. He also wanted to get married, and sent out -messengers to the different provinces of the Empire to pick out the most -beautiful young girls and send them to the capital, that he might choose -a wife from among their number. Many noblemen hid their handsome -daughters, or sent them far away from home on hearing of the Czar’s -intention. His reputation for excessive cruelty had reached already the -remotest parts of the Empire, and nearly every boyar trembled at the -mere idea of becoming his father-in-law. But the messenger succeeded -nevertheless in bringing together several hundred young girls of -extraordinary beauty, and sent them to the capital. Ivan then chose from -their number Anastasia Romanowna, a young girl of great beauty and great -brilliancy of mind. He fell desperately in love with her, and through -the superiority of her mind she gained a great influence over him, and -succeeded even in keeping his cruelty in check.</p> - -<p>Ivan was a man of natural ability. He had some striking qualities, and -might have been a great ruler if his education had been entrusted to -competent and wise teachers. At an early age he learned the art of -dissembling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span> to perfection, and possessed the rare faculty of keeping -his plans and intentions secret even from his closest friends. It was -only after the conquest of Kasan that he threw off the mask. Until then -he had been exceedingly friendly and kind to a number of the powerful -noblemen, who considered themselves almost his peers in rank and birth. -But when that conquest had added to his power and authority, he suddenly -said to his boyars: “At last I am free! God has made me the master over -all. Beware!” Again it was his wife, Anastasia Romanowna, who with rare -political sagacity prevented him from too openly showing hostility and -impatience at their pretentious conduct. He was very young, and could -afford to wait. But in 1560, when Ivan was only twenty-nine years old, -Anastasia, his best friend and his ablest counsellor, died, and he found -no loving hand to restrain his passions and keep his cruelty and -ferocity in check. Nevertheless, for some time after her death the -softening influence of his wife (whom he had really loved) over his -cruel nature made itself felt, and for the next four years he proceeded -rather cautiously. He considered all the boyars his enemies and -traitors; and he commenced murdering them, one at a time.</p> - -<p>In 1564 he threw off all restraint. He suddenly disappeared with all his -soldiers and servants, and rumors were circulated that he intended to -abdicate the crown and to retire from public life. The abject fear in -which the people had lived for thirty years had fully demoralized them. -Boyars, clergymen, and the great mass of the people went nearly crazy at -the idea that their “dear little father” would no longer rule over them. -At last<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> they discovered his place of retirement, and the manifestations -of public delight at this discovery were almost boundless. Delegation -after delegation waited upon him and implored him on their knees that he -might return to his capital and continue to govern them. At last Ivan -consented to return, but he consented conditionally. He demanded—and -they all cheerfully agreed to the demand—that he should have full and -absolute power to punish all his enemies and all traitors by banishment -or death and confiscation of their property, without being interfered -with, even by the clergy. It was a regular <i>coup d’état</i>. From this act -dates the absolute rule of the emperors of Russia, and Ivan the Fourth -thenceforth took the official title of “Czar of all the Russias,” which -his successors have retained to the present day.</p> - -<p>Ivan had carefully matured his plan. He took possession of a certain -number of cities and country districts, expelled the proprietors from -them, declared them territory forfeited to the government, and -distributed them among certain of his own adherents upon whose fidelity -he could count. These adherents generally were taken from the lowest -classes of the people, knew no other law than the will of their master, -and obeyed him blindly. While confiscating all these estates without -mercy or hesitation, on the most trivial or far-fetched pretexts, he was -shrewd enough to respect constitutional rights in other parts of the -Empire. His plan was to increase the imperial private domains gradually -to enormous proportions by dispossessing year after year the legitimate -proprietors of the soil, and by this method to destroy the power of the -nobility. In order to accomplish this purpose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span> he did not hesitate to -employ the most cruel and disreputable means for the conviction and -punishment of his intended victims.</p> - -<p>One of his favorite ways for entrapping and punishing a rich boyar was -to order one of the servants employed in the imperial household to steal -jewelry or other valuables, and then to seek refuge in the boyar’s -residence. Of course, the fugitive was closely pursued by the Czar’s -guards, drawn from his hiding-place, and then massacred together with -the boyar and his family, who, the Czar pretended to believe, were the -thief’s accomplices and deserved death as well as the offender. But much -oftener the terrible Czar rushed down, with a numerous suite of his -followers, upon the residence of a wealthy boyar, put all the men, the -children and the old women of the domain to the sword, carried off the -young women and girls, and abandoned them on the highways after he and -his gang had satisfied their desires on them. On the trumped up charge -that Grand Duke Wladimir, his own cousin, as well as the Grand Duke’s -wife and grown daughters had participated in a conspiracy against the -Czar’s life, he forced him to commit suicide by drinking poison, while -the Grand Duchess and her beautiful young daughters, and all their -ladies of honor and female servants, were divested of their garments, -exposed in a state of complete nudity on the market space of the town -adjacent to their domain, and afterwards butchered in cold blood. -Wladimir’s immense wealth and all his real estate were confiscated by -the crown. In this manner Ivan succeeded in overpowering the boyars, one -after another, in a very short time, and acquiring immense wealth. He -visited the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span> different provinces and departments in succession, and -wherever he appeared he left a track of desolation, rapine, and murder. -From the capital of each province he organized marauding tours in all -directions, placing each under the command of an officer on whose -devotion to himself and ferocity to others he could count. But the most -terrible expeditions were those which he commanded himself. It can -truthfully be said that wherever Ivan “visited,” he destroyed everything -in sight,—not only the human inhabitants, but also the farm and -domestic animals, even dogs and cats. He took also a pleasure in -draining ponds and creeks, so as to cause the fish to die, and after -having killed or mutilated all things living, he ordered the buildings -to be set on fire, and left the scene of his cruelty and lust amidst the -wild huzzas of his comrades. No civilized, or half-civilized country had -ever witnessed such atrocities on the part of its own ruler.</p> - -<p>If Ivan was not travelling and marauding he resided generally in the -Alexandrowna Convent, which he had strongly fortified. This convent, -situated in the neighborhood of Moscow, and surrounded by dense forests, -was not only the scene of his bestial orgies and excesses, and of his -more than beastly cruelty, but also of his hypocritical zeal for -religion and divine service. The convent, although transformed into a -palace, remained still a convent. Ivan’s most abject and infamous -favorites were acting as monks, while Ivan himself performed the -functions of the pontiff. He also acted as a bell-ringer for the church. -Quite early in the morning, at four o’clock, mass was read and public -service was held in the church, lasting till seven o’clock. Regularly -every<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span> evening, from seven to eight o’clock, there was again divine -service. The time intervening between the dinner and the last church -service was employed by him in going to the torture rooms of the palace -where his victims—and there was always a number of them—were subjected -to the most excruciating pain, and in many cases tortured to death. To -be invited to these scenes of horror was a mark of imperial favor.</p> - -<p>Ivan was never in better humor or happier than after having witnessed -the tortures or the execution of a man whom he had sacrificed to his -greed for wealth or to his vindictiveness. It is reported that one day -when one hundred and twenty persons were to be executed—either -strangled, hung, beheaded, or quartered—at Moscow, and when the -inhabitants of the streets near the place of the execution had fled in -horror from the neighborhood, the Czar sent out his soldiery and -compelled thousands of citizens to be spectators of the wholesale -butchery. He sat there himself on an elevated stage applauding the -torturers and executioners when, in his opinion, they had done their -task well and had prolonged the agony of the victim as much as possible. -When the cruel spectacle was over, he rose to his feet and addressed the -spectators as follows: “My loyal subjects! You have seen torture and -death! Some of you are horror-struck at what you have witnessed! My -punishment is severe, but it is just. All these men and women were -traitors to their Czar, and deserved to die. Answer me, was I right in -punishing them?” And the tremendous audience, almost frightened to -death, as with one voice replied: “Glory and long life to the Czar! -Death to the traitors!” The sight of blood, of suffering and of death -seemed to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span> an intoxicating effect on this unparalleled monster, and -he never tired of it to the day of his death.</p> - -<p>The high dignitaries of the Church fared no better at Ivan’s hands. -Whenever they stood in the way of his ambition, or whenever they -presumed to criticise him for his crimes, he treated them with the same -cruelty and inflicted the same punishments upon them as upon the boyars. -In that way he imposed silence on the clergy, and caused them even to -sanction his worst misdeeds. But one day, after an especially atrocious -marauding expedition of the Czar, the Metropolitan of Moscow mustered -sufficient courage to reprimand him publicly. On the twenty-second of -March, 1568, Ivan entered the cathedral, expecting the blessing of the -high-priest. The latter did not stir, but kept his eyes fixed upon a -picture representing Christ in all his glory. “Holy Father,” said one of -the boyars to the Metropolitan, “the Czar is here; bless him!” “I do not -recognize the Czar!” replied the Metropolitan. “Since this world was -created and the sun was placed in the skies, it has never been known -that a Czar has committed such atrocities and crimes in his own state as -ours has. Here in this church we offer our prayers to God, and beyond -its walls the blood of innocent Christians is shed in torrents.” Then -turning to Ivan, he said in a loud voice: “The very stones under thy -feet will rise against thee and cry out against thy crimes and -atrocities! God has bidden me tell you and warn you, even if I should -suffer death for my boldness!” And death was his punishment, although -not at the very moment. As a rebel, he was sentenced to imprisonment for -life at Twer. But it happened so that Ivan, the year after, passed -through Twer on one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span> of his marauding expeditions. It was then that he -remembered Philip, the Metropolitan, who had accosted him so boldly. He -sent half a dozen of his soldiers to the prison, and they strangled the -Metropolitan without previous notice. This assassination paved the way -for many others among the clergy, until Ivan had so intimidated them -that thenceforth not even a whisper was heard among them against his -cruelties.</p> - -<p>It then became apparent how readily the example of an infamous ruler is -followed by his courtiers and attendants. The boyars and officers -accompanying him on his expeditions of murder and pillage tried to -surpass him in iniquity; in their very appearance they showed their true -character, adorning themselves with symbols of their ferocity. When they -started on their marauding tour, they attached a bleeding dog’s-head and -a broom to the neck and saddle of each horse, signifying by these -decorations that they would bite like savage dogs and sweep off the -ground all they could find. Whomsoever they found on the highways they -would arrest and hang as traitors to the Czar, and in the villages and -towns on their route they would commit the most horrid excesses, sparing -neither sex nor age. If the inhabitants had fled at their approach, they -reported them to the Czar as his enemies who were plotting against his -life, and he issued decrees of vengeance declaring their property -confiscated and their lives forfeited. In this way they kept the -inhabitants at home waiting in terror for the arrival of their -tormentors.</p> - -<p>After having decimated and terrorized the nobility and the clergy, Ivan -turned his attention principally to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span> merchants and wealthy citizens. -The commercial centres, in which a great amount of capital had -accumulated, were the special objects of his greed, especially if they -showed a spirit of independence. Prominent among these was Novgorod, the -ancient and wealthy city, proud of her free institutions and her honored -name. It was this pride and her great wealth which pointed out Novgorod -as a victim for Ivan’s wrath and cupidity, and the manner in which he -planned and executed his evil designs on the city shows his diabolical -genius at its height. Never has tyrant or despot conceived a more -sinister and treacherous plot for the ruin of a great city and for the -assassination of its inhabitants. The horrors of St. Bartholomew’s night -pale in comparison.</p> - -<p>A Polish vagabond, on the personal command of Ivan, wrote a petition, -with the forged signatures of the Archbishop of Novgorod and a large -number of leading and wealthy citizens and addressed to the King of -Poland, in which the latter was supplicated to assume the sovereignty -over Novgorod and the province in which it was situated, and to assist -the citizens in their desire of shaking off the yoke of Ivan. By Ivan’s -direction this petition was concealed in the great cathedral, behind a -picture of the Holy Virgin. The Polish vagabond, after having executed -the task dictated to him, came to Moscow and charged the city of -Novgorod with treasonable designs against the Czar. Upon this -information the Czar immediately sent messengers with the Polish -vagabond to Novgorod, where, as a matter of course, the forged petition -was found hidden behind the picture of the Holy Virgin in the cathedral. -This was considered proof sufficient to condemn the whole city. No -further<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> investigation was deemed necessary. Ivan kept quiet, but the -inhabitants knew what was in store for them. They trembled and waited. -They had not to wait a long time. Two weeks after the discovery, on the -twenty-first day of January, 1570, the first detachments of an imperial -army, commanded by some of Ivan’s most trusted and most cruel -lieutenants, entered the city. They immediately proceeded to seal the -doors of all the churches and chapels, and took possession of the -residences of the wealthy inhabitants, where they established their -headquarters. All traffic was suspended. No citizen was permitted to -leave the city, nor could goods of any kind be shipped from it. A dead -silence and fear hung over the city. Nobody knew what the Czar intended -to do, but that he would do something horrible, everybody felt, and also -that there was no escape from him.</p> - -<p>At last he came. He took up his residence in the Archbishop’s palace. He -treated the priests and the Archbishop himself like servants; he drank -and feasted with his boyars, while the priests had to wait upon him at -table. And then suddenly, when he rose, he uttered a loud shout of -triumph, and this was the signal for his lieutenants to order a general -pillage throughout the city. Without any control by their superiors, the -soldiers committed plunder, murder, violence, and outrages of all kinds. -The treasures accumulated in the churches and large business houses Ivan -had reserved for himself, and his orders were strictly observed; nobody -touched what he had designated for his share. The palace of the -Archbishop became the scene of the most beastly orgies and excesses. The -wives and daughters of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span> noblest families were dragged before Ivan, -and after having picked out the most beautiful for his own use, he -turned the others over to his lieutenants and companions. Many of the -unfortunate women committed suicide, many others died from the effects -of the terrible abuse to which they had been subjected. The Czar knew no -pity. “Such scenes of horror, iniquity, and inhumanity,” says a foreign -eye-witness, “had not been seen in the world since the destruction of -Jerusalem.”</p> - -<p>The work of devastation, pillage, murder, violence, and incendiarism -lasted five weeks. At last the Czar thought it was time to stop the -bloody carnival. The measure was full to overflowing,—not only the -measure of misery, affliction, distress, and death for the unfortunate -and innocent inhabitants of Novgorod, but also the measure of lust and -cruelty for himself. The constant indulgence in voluptuous excesses told -upon his constitution; he was worn out and surfeited with animal -gratification; his eyes had a vague, almost lifeless expression; his -herculean frame commenced to tremble, his legs to totter. No less than -twenty-seven thousand persons, men, women, and children, had perished; -there was not a family which did not lament one or more dead among its -members. The corpses were thrown into the river, and at some points they -had been thrown in in such numbers that the river was impeded in its -current. On the first day of the sixth week, Ivan called citizens living -in all the different streets of the city together and addressed them as -follows: “Men of Novgorod, and all of you who are still alive, pray to -God and thank him for your escape from peril; thank your Czar too, for -it is to his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span> mercy and his fear of God that you owe your safety; and -thank also his soldiers, whose humane treatment saved you from death. -Pray to God that he may give us power and strength to vanquish all our -enemies! Much blood has been shed for the punishment of traitors. These -traitors are responsible to God for all that has happened here during -the last five weeks. May God have mercy on them. And now stop your -crying and weeping! Live and be happy, and may your city grow and -prosper!”</p> - -<p>Cæsar Borgia could not have done better than this brutal monster of the -North. He was the genius of cruelty and hypocrisy personified in one -man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<br /><br /> -HENRY THE FOURTH OF FRANCE</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span></p> - -<p><a name="HENRY_IV" id="HENRY_IV"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p146b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p146b_sml.jpg" width="311" height="408" alt="image unavailable: HENRY IV." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">HENRY IV.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF HENRY THE FOURTH OF FRANCE<br /><br /> -(May 14, 1610)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">R</span>ELIGIOUS wars—that is to say, civil wars for religious causes—had -desolated France for half a century, and tranquillity and apparent -harmony had finally been restored only by the genius of one man—Henry -the Fourth. He it was who issued the Edict of Nantes, conferring equal -religious and political rights upon the professors of both religions, -the Protestant and the Catholic.</p> - -<p>A short time after Martin Luther had inaugurated the great movement of -religious reform in Germany, a similar movement had also been organized -in France; but it was only since 1536 and through the influential and -energetic agitation of John Calvin that it had assumed large dimensions -and acquired a really national importance. After the disastrous battle -of Pavia and after his release from Spanish captivity, King Francis the -First had ordered a cruel persecution against the Protestants for -political reasons, but it had utterly failed to put a stop to this -movement. On the contrary, a great many noblemen had joined the new -church and the originally purely religious movement had gradually -assumed a pronounced political character. But this change of tendency -only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span> added fuel to the flame of intolerance and persecution. Not only -were hundreds of professors of the new church most cruelly executed on -the gallows or burnt alive for heresy, but among the Waldenses in -Provence and in the valleys bordering on Savoy a wholesale massacre was -inaugurated, which aimed at nothing less than their entire extirpation. -On account of their peaceful and industrial habits, these people had for -a long time enjoyed toleration in spite of their dissenting religious -opinions. No less than twenty flourishing villages were destroyed and -burned to the ground, and their entire population, men, women and -children, were butchered in the most barbarous manner. But it seemed as -if the very horror which such acts of inhumanity inspired, and the -heroic constancy and bravery with which these unfortunate victims of -religious fanaticism had sealed their convictions with their blood, had -rather increased than diminished the ranks of the Protestants. The -French translation of the Bible, which was secretly circulated -throughout the kingdom, proved also a powerful means of propagandism for -the principles of reform among the better educated and thinking classes.</p> - -<p>Francis the First died in 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Henry the -Second, who considered the Protestant movement merely a political -question, and treated it as such. In Germany he supported the Protestant -princes in their fight against Charles the Fifth, but at home, in -France, he persecuted the adherents of Calvin even more persistently and -cruelly than his father had done. Hundreds of excellent citizens were -sent to the gallows or to the stake for heresy, and even the possession -or sale of a French Bible was deemed a sufficient crime to warrant<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span> the -death punishment. Henry the Second died after a reign of twelve years, -in 1559, from a wound received in a tournament and inflicted -accidentally by the captain of his own body-guard. His successor, -Francis the Second, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scotland, was entirely -under the control of his wife’s uncles, the Duke of Guise and the -Cardinal of Lorraine. For the Protestants matters grew worse and worse. -Francis the Second, who was merely a boy, died after a reign of less -than two years, and was succeeded by his brother Charles the Ninth, of -bloody St. Bartholomew Night’s memory. He was succeeded by Henry the -Third, who after an inglorious reign, in which torrents of blood had -flowed without quenching the fire of religious fanaticism, was -assassinated in 1589 by Jacques Clément, a young Dominican monk, who had -become exasperated at the concessions which the King had made to the -Protestant Church. Before expiring, King Henry the Third recognized the -young King of Navarre as his successor, who then ascended the throne of -France under the name of Henry the Fourth.</p> - -<p>The wars which devastated France during the preceding three reigns were -waged almost without interruption; they were of a semi-religious and -semi-political character. These wars must be largely ascribed to the -pernicious influence of Catherine de Médicis, the wife of Henry the -Second, and the mother of his three sons, Francis the Second, Charles -the Ninth and Henry the Third. Her name stands in history as a synonym -for an astute, unscrupulous, cruel, and intriguing ruler and politician. -At the time of Henry the Third’s assassination, he was investing the -city of Paris, which was in the hands of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span> enemies, the League, under -the command of the Duke of Mayenne, who himself was aspiring to the -throne. It was therefore not an easy matter for the new King to assume -the reins of government, the half of his kingdom being in arms against -him, and the royal army itself, in whose ranks he was fighting, being -hostile to the religion he (as a Protestant) professed.</p> - -<p>But Henry the Fourth was equal to the difficult task. In fact, he was -one of the most remarkable men who ever sat on a European throne. His -career up to that day had been extremely stormy; his escape from death -and perils innumerable was wonderful and stamped him as a man of -destiny. It is reported of him that when he was present one day as a -very young man at a brilliant reception at the French court, where -nearly all the prominent men of the French capital were assembled, he -strongly impressed the foreign ambassadors with the brilliancy of his -wit and the sagacity of his observations. One of them said: “In this -whole assemblage of dukes, princes and great dignitaries, I see but one -man fit to rule either as king or emperor,” and pointing to Henry of -Navarre he continued: “It is that young man with the eye of an eagle!”</p> - -<p>Henry the Fourth was born in 1553, the son of Antony of Bourbon. His -mother was Jeanne d’Albret, only child of Henry the Second, King of -Navarre, and of his wife, Queen Margaret of Navarre, who has won a -lasting place in literature by her famous collection of novels, known as -the “Heptameron.” Much of the genius and <i>esprit</i> which distinguished -the grandmother was inherited both by her daughter and her grandson. -Jeanne d’Albret was not only an excellent woman and mother, but she was -also an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span> enthusiastic admirer and supporter of the Calvinistic doctrine, -and brought up her son in that faith. On account of her religion both -Philip the Second of Spain and Catherine de Médicis, Queen of France, -hated her intensely, and it seems that at an early day a sort of rivalry -arose between Catherine and the mother of the boy concerning his -education. Catherine maintained that, inasmuch as Henry was a royal -prince and might be called upon some day to ascend the throne of France, -it was absolutely necessary to educate him in the Catholic faith in -order to make him worthy to rule over a Catholic country and occupy a -throne whose occupant had for centuries been honored with the noble -title of the “eldest son of the Church.”</p> - -<p>In this contest over the boy the mother remained victorious, and, true -to her religious convictions, she surrounded him with Protestant -professors. But Catherine de Médicis was not a woman to abandon a scheme -which she had formed and in which politics played a large part. She -therefore concocted a plan for the abduction of young Henry, which would -have succeeded and would have placed him under the immediate control of -Philip the Second of Spain, had it not been betrayed to Henry’s mother, -the Queen of Navarre. Henry was thereupon hurried off to La Rochelle, -the headquarters of the Protestant army, where he was soon placed in -nominal command of all the Protestant forces, although the famous -Admiral Coligny was its real leader.</p> - -<p>We may fitly pass without comment the stormy years preceding Henry’s -elevation to the throne of France. In order to reconcile the Protestant -and the Catholic branches of the reigning dynasty, Catherine de Médicis -was successful<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span> in her plan of a marriage between Henry of Navarre and -her own daughter Marguerite, although the Pope hesitated a long time in -giving his permission to this family alliance, which was in every -respect a very unfortunate one. As far as Catherine de Médicis was -concerned, her principal intention in planning it was the hope of -continuing under Henry the Fourth’s reign (if he ever should become -king) the absolute rule which she had so successfully maintained under -the reign of her sons. Far from using her influence and authority to -secure, if possible, the happiness of the young couple, she held out to -both all possible temptations to lead them astray, and openly advanced -Henry’s liaisons with other beautiful ladies of the court. It is also -pretty well established by historical evidence that Catherine, in order -to withdraw Henry from the beneficial influence of his mother, caused -her death by poison in the very year of his marriage. At the massacre of -St. Bartholomew’s night, Henry escaped death by abjuring Protestantism, -King Charles the Ninth having left him the choice between going to mass -and suffering death. Henry preferred the former and professed -Catholicism as his religion until 1576, when he suddenly and secretly -left the court, and, retracting his forced abjuration, placed himself -once more at the head of the Protestant party.</p> - -<p>In 1584 the death of the Duke of Anjou made Henry the legitimate heir to -the crown of France, and five years later, the death of Henry the Third -made him King. But only the southern provinces and the Protestants -recognized him as their king. The Catholics vehemently protested against -this heretical king, and refused obedience to him. The League, which -kept an army of 30,000 men<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> in the field against him, and which was -supported by the King of Spain, not only refused to recognize him, but -proclaimed an aged uncle of his, the Cardinal de Bourbon, King of -France, and Spain adhered to this decision. The civil war between the -contending factions continued with greater fury and obstinacy than ever, -and it was in this campaign, in which Henry always fought against -tremendous odds, that he displayed his wonderful ability and tact as a -political and military leader. Finally his second conversion to -Catholicism on the twenty-third of July, 1593, which was simply a -political measure and not at all dictated by religious motives, decided -the succession to the throne in his favor, although it took years of -warfare and diplomatic negotiation to secure his recognition by Spain -and the leaders of the League.</p> - -<p>Henry the Fourth’s greatest political achievement, by which he -manifested his far-seeing ability as a statesman, was the Edict of -Nantes, promulgated on the thirteenth of April, 1598. It guaranteed -freedom of conscience and equality before the law to Catholics and -Protestants; and it was the first great manifesto of religious -toleration issued by any ruler. But noble and high-minded as it was, -even if inspired only by political motives, the fanatics of the Catholic -Church would not forgive him. Unquestionably it was the Edict of Nantes -which caused his assassination,—an act of revenge with which the Church -paid back the injury it supposed it had received at his hands.</p> - -<p>Henry, with the assistance of his great minister, the Duke of Sully, -devoted the first few years, after peace had been restored, to building -up the prosperity of the country, which had been distracted by war for -nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span> forty years. In this he admirably succeeded. With wonderful -rapidity the monarchy recovered from the disasters and calamities of the -religious and civil wars. Without Henry’s success, late as it came, this -national improvement would have been impossible, and France would have -sunk into the same condition of intellectual lethargy and material decay -from which Spain has suffered for three centuries. But Henry’s ambition -went much beyond the borders of his kingdom. The house of Hapsburg, a -branch of which ruled Spain, appeared to him too dangerous for the -security and greatness of France. He supported the German Protestant -princes in their opposition to Austria, which wanted to take possession -of Juliers-Cleves, two German principalities, and sent an army of ten -thousand men to their assistance. Henry wanted to join personally this -army on the nineteenth of May, 1610. On the thirteenth of May he -published a decree appointing the Queen, Mary de Médicis, Regent of the -kingdom, and her coronation was celebrated on the same day with great -pomp.</p> - -<p>On the fourteenth of May, the day after the coronation, the King was -assassinated by Francis Ravaillac in the Ferronière Street at Paris, -where his carriage had stopped a few minutes. It was this short delay -which gave Ravaillac a chance: he climbed upon the hind-wheel of the -carriage and stabbed the King twice with a long poniard, with deadly -effect. It was thus that the greatest King France has produced died at -the hands of a miserable fanatic, at a moment too when, according to the -statement of Sully, who knew him better than any other man, he had -formed a plan of establishing a great European confederation, founded on -the civil equality of Catholics<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span> and Protestants and on an equilibrium -of power among the great nations of Europe. Ravaillac was executed with -revolting barbarity on the twenty-seventh of May, but not even the -repeated application of the torture elicited the least information as to -the motives or the accomplices which he may have had in his crime. -Henry’s death was a cruel loss not only for France, but for the whole -world.</p> - -<p>The assassination of Henry the Fourth ended in France the era of famous -political murders, which during the religious wars had taken off -Coligny, Henry of Guise, and the two kings, Henry the Third and Henry -the Fourth, all during one generation. But of these only the -assassination of Henry the Fourth has made a lasting and profound -impression on his contemporaries as well as on posterity. It has -enhanced his reputation and glory by enshrining his name among the great -martyrs of history. It was one of the most patriotic and high-minded -thoughts of Voltaire to make Henry the Fourth the hero of his epic poem -“La Henriade,” which although not ranking with the great poems of -Milton, Tasso, and Virgil, in poetic merit, is still a noble hymn of -liberty and a glorification of religious toleration, as well as of -Henry, its representative. It is uncertain whether the profound horror -which the assassination of Henry caused throughout the world, or the -terrible punishment inflicted on Ravaillac, caused assassins to desist -from their nefarious work, but certain it is that no new assassination -of a king or any member of the royal family of France took place from -the death of Henry the Fourth to the assassination of the Duc de Berry, -the presumptive heir of Charles the Tenth, in 1820. Not that no -attempts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span> on the life of any or all of the French monarchs since the -days of Henry the Fourth were made; but all such attempts had failed, -and instead of killing the rulers, had only led to the cruel and -horrible execution of the conspirators.</p> - -<p>Most remarkable among these was the assault of Damiens on King Louis the -Fifteenth, one of the most dissolute and worthless monarchs,—one who in -the gratification of his lusts was utterly oblivious of common decency -and shame. Louis the Fifteenth came nearer reviving the atrocious -immorality of Claudius, Caligula, Caracalla, Heliogabalus in the palace -of the Cæsars of ancient Rome, than any other modern monarch had done. -It was the age of Madame de Pompadour and the monstrosities of the “deer -park.” The French nation blushed at the excesses of the court, which -paved the way for the great Revolution, already dimly foreseen by some -ingenious observers, as one of the necessities of the future. It was at -this time, when public indignation, not to say public disgust, had -reached its culminating point, that an attempt on the life of the King -was made.</p> - -<p>It was on the fifth of January, 1757, at six o’clock in the evening, on -a cold and dark day, that he stepped out of the doorway of the palace of -Versailles and went up to a carriage waiting for him to take him to -Trianon. All at once he felt that somebody had run against him, and at -the same time that he was bleeding from a wound in the side. He uttered -a cry of pain and alarm, and when the torch-bearers drew near and -surrounded him, the King noticed a man who alone among all those present -had kept his hat on. “This man has assaulted and wounded me!” exclaimed -the King, pointing to the man whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span> head remained covered. “Arrest him, -but do not harm him!” It makes almost a painful impression to find that -an embodiment of vice and debauchery like Louis the Fifteenth should at -such a moment have been inspired with feelings of mercy toward his -assassin, and should have used almost the identical words which fell -from the lips of the pure and high-minded President McKinley after -Czolgosz had fatally wounded him! But history records them, and we must -give even the devil his due.</p> - -<p>The attempt on the King’s life caused a tremendous sensation in Paris, -where immediately the most exaggerated reports concerning the fatal -wounding of the King and the discovery of a widespread conspiracy to -assassinate him were circulated. Damiens was treated with the greatest -severity. As though the crime which he had tried to commit had been -really committed, and as though the stab he had given to the King had -had fatal effect, the criminal was treated as a regicide, and the -terrible machinery of the law provided for in such cases, and in France -not employed since the trial of Ravaillac, was put in operation. Even -during his transportation from Versailles to Paris measures of -precaution were used, as if a state prisoner of the most dangerous -character and of the greatest importance were to be guarded. Regiments -of soldiers surrounded his carriage, and six sergeants with drawn swords -marched on each side. Strict orders had been issued to the citizens of -Paris not to go out on the streets or appear at the front windows of -their houses. Everything had been done to create the impression of a -conspiracy against the government which counted many influential men -among its members<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span> and of which the assassin was merely the tool, while -those who were directing him and using his arm against the King, had to -be sought in the highest classes of the aristocracy, and especially -among the enemies of Madame de Pompadour. Great efforts were made to get -a full confession from Damiens. Who was he? How had he formed the plan -to assassinate the King? Who had instigated him to commit the act? Who -were his accomplices? These were the questions to be solved by the -French police authorities, and for whose solution they did not hesitate -to apply the most cruel measures known to them. But the result of their -painstaking investigation was far from realizing their expectations. It -was found that Damiens belonged to the lower classes of the people. He -had learned the trade of a locksmith, but had preferred to enter the -service of rich lords and ladies as a domestic. Being of a very restless -and quarrelsome disposition, he had changed his positions as often as -Gil Blas had changed his masters. He had been in the houses of -parliamentarians, clergymen, noblemen, orthodox Catholics, Jansenists, -Molinists, Protestants, free thinkers. Often he had served at the table -of the great lords and ladies of the kingdom and had listened to the -conversation of the guests; and invariably the subject of the -conversation had turned on the disgraceful conduct of the King, on his -excesses, on the shameful orgies of the court, on the mysteries of the -“deer park,” where not only the virtue of young girls of the people was -ruthlessly sacrificed, but also the money extorted from the sweat of the -people criminally squandered. Wherever he had gone he had heard the same -story, and it had made a deep impression upon him. Damiens had always -been of an eccentric<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span> turn of mind; he had even had spells of religious -exaltation, and for three years he had seriously meditated on the -possibility of rescuing the King from his sinful excesses and debauches.</p> - -<p>He finally had come to the conclusion that the only possibility of -turning the King’s mind away from his vicious habits and arousing his -soul to sentiments of honor and duty might come through fear, by placing -him in the immediate presence of death. This thought preyed so -incessantly and so strongly on his mind that he resolved to become the -instrument of the King’s redemption, by attacking and wounding, but not -killing him. The attempt on the King’s life was therefore the result of -a psychological process which was, perhaps, based on wrong and -extravagant premises, but which, if all the circumstances are taken into -consideration, was rather meritorious than criminal in its aim. The -assassin had acted strictly in accord with his preconceived theory. He -had in his possession a knife with two blades, one of which was very -long, sharp and pointed like a dagger, while the other was quite short -and sharp. It seemed to be impossible to inflict a mortal wound with the -short blade, and Damiens had used it in wounding the King. He had no -accomplices. At first, very likely to mitigate his punishment, he had -hinted at the existence of a widespread conspiracy, contemplating the -assassination of the King, the Dauphin, and others, but he soon -retracted these statements, and even the most severe application of the -torture could not elicit from him any other declaration than this: that -he had no accomplices, that nobody, not even his wife and his young -daughter, had known anything of his intention; that he did not intend to -kill the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span> King, though he could easily have done so; that he had only -intended to wound him for the purpose of frightening and warning him; -that his act had been inspired by the wish of saving France and the -dynasty.</p> - -<p>But all these statements, which could not be controverted by conflicting -evidence, made no impression upon judges who had fully made up their -minds beforehand, and who looked upon the man that wanted to touch even -the King’s finger with the same horror as upon a regicide who might have -stabbed him through the heart and killed him. The sentence passed upon -Damiens was therefore in conformity with their preconceived opinion, and -cruel in the extreme. It was based upon the sentence carried out against -Ravaillac for having killed the greatest of kings and one of the -benefactors of mankind. Though Damiens was an eccentric ponderer, a -foolish dreamer, who had but slightly wounded a heartless voluptuary -that had deserved death a hundred times, his sentence was terrible -beyond description, and was actually carried out in the presence of an -immense multitude. At first his right hand, in which was placed the -knife with which he had struck the King, was burned to the bone. -Thereupon his arms, his legs, his breast, his back and his feet were -lacerated with burning tongs; molten lead, boiling oil, burning sulphur, -rosin, and wax were poured into the open wounds; and finally, while he -was still suffering unimaginable pain, four strong horses, hitched to -his arms and legs, tried for half an hour with all their might to tear -out his limbs. After that time only one arm remained in the body, and it -took another five minutes’ work to pull it out of its socket. The body -of the unfortunate man had been pulled to almost double its<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span> length and -width, and its power of resistance amazed all the spectators. When at -last the cruel execution was over, the bleeding trunk and the arms and -legs were thrown upon a pile of wood near the scaffold and destroyed by -fire. The spectacle had struck terror into the hearts of the beholders.</p> - -<p>But even with this terrible act of revenge the criminal justice of -France was not satisfied; it reached out for the innocent family of the -criminal. His father, his wife, and his daughter were banished from -France for life, not to return there on penalty of death, while his -brothers, sisters, and other relatives had to change their names. The -house in which he was born was burned to the ground, and any other trace -which he might have left was carefully obliterated. The crime of Damiens -was not one of the famous assassinations in history, but it caused such -a sensation in Europe, and it was punished so cruelly, that we thought -his attempt on the life of Louis the Fifteenth might very properly be -recorded in this book.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br /><br /> -WALLENSTEIN</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span></p> - -<p><a name="WALLENSTEIN" id="WALLENSTEIN"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p164b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p164b_sml.jpg" width="427" height="406" alt="image unavailable: WALLENSTEIN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">WALLENSTEIN</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XIII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF WALLENSTEIN<br /><br /> -(February 24, 1634)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N a previous chapter we have seen how a King of England got rid of a -contentious Archbishop of the Church of Rome by assassination when the -latter stood in the way of his usurpation. In a similar manner, also by -assassination, an Emperor of Germany freed himself from a general who -had twice saved him from ruin, but who had grown too powerful for his -security, and whose loyalty he (perhaps justly) mistrusted. Although -nearly three hundred years have passed away since Wallenstein’s -assassination at Eger, Bohemia, the most searching investigations of -historians have been unable to establish beyond a reasonable doubt the -certainty or extent of his treasonable intentions, although there are -strong indications that they existed, and that the crown of Bohemia, as -a sovereign state, was to be the price which he exacted for his treason.</p> - -<p>The religious war, which had broken out between the Emperor of Germany, -as representative of the Catholic Church, and the Protestant princes of -North Germany in 1618, had been waged with great cruelty and varying -success for several years. Neither party had won such decisive -advantages that the end of the terrible struggle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> which partook as much -of the character of a civil war as of a religious war, could be -predicted with any degree of certainty. The most unfortunate feature of -this strife was that not only the different German princes were fighting -against each other, but that also foreign princes, upon the invitation -of the Germans, participated in the struggle and gave their support to -either the Catholic or the Protestant side. The German princes -themselves had formed two different alliances: the Catholics had formed -the League, while the Protestants were members of the Protestant Union; -and both parties had powerful armies in the field commanded by -experienced and able generals, the Catholics by Tilly, the Protestants -by Mansfeld and the Duke of Brunswick. The greatest of these generals -was perhaps Tilly, but he was extremely cruel and vindictive, fully as -much from religious hatred for the enemies of his church as from natural -disposition. His conquest and pillage of Magdeburg has given to his name -a deplorable immortality. The Emperor of Germany, Ferdinand the Second, -was rather nominally than actually the war-lord of the Catholic party; -for the Catholic League, which had placed the army in the field, had -elected Maximilian of Bavaria as its supreme chief. Thus, while the -Catholic armies were called the Imperialists, and while the victories -which they achieved were supposed to redound to the Emperor’s glory, -Ferdinand could not repress a feeling of humiliation at the thought that -he owed these victories and the advantages which resulted from them more -to the generosity and loyalty of the Catholic League than to his own -power and resources. Once or twice Protestant soldiers had even -threatened him in his own imperial<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span> palace, and he had owed his safety -from capture or death only to the timely intervention of some Spanish -and Croatian horsemen who dispersed the aggressors.</p> - -<p>In November, 1620, Tilly had, at the head of a powerful army, won a -decisive victory over the army of the Protestant Union by the battle of -White Mountain; then, having restored Bohemia and Moravia to the rule of -the Emperor, the victorious general quickly marched to the Palatinate, -where the cause of the Protestants was at that time supreme. But he was -defeated there by the Protestant army under Mansfeld and the Margrave of -Baden; and at that time Protestantism might have been triumphantly -established in western and northern Germany at least, had not the two -victorious Protestant generals made the mistake of separating their -armies,—a mistake which proved fatal to both of them. Tilly was not -slow to see the advantage which he gained by this dismemberment of the -army which had so signally defeated him at Wiesloch; he rallied his -forces and defeated first the Margrave of Baden at Wimpfen, and shortly -afterwards Mansfeld and the Duke of Brunswick at Höchst. Then the -Protestant armies crossed the frontier of the Netherlands in the hope of -receiving assistance from England.</p> - -<p>In the meantime the German Emperor, emboldened by the successes of -Tilly, strained every nerve to reëstablish Catholicism and stamp out -Protestantism in the Empire. The excessive zeal which he displayed in -accomplishing this purpose, and the terrible work of destruction which -Tilly and his lieutenants were carrying on in all those districts of the -Empire which were unfortunate enough to fall under their sway, were, -however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span> the means of setting Protestantism on its feet again, of -reviving the waning hopes of the German Protestant princes, and of -arousing a powerful interest in their behalf among their neighbors. The -most important accession which the cause of Protestantism had at that -time was that of King Christian the Fourth of Denmark, who joined the -Protestants with a large army and took supreme command in northern -Germany.</p> - -<p>Such were the conditions in Germany at the moment when the man who is -the subject of this chapter appeared on the stage as principal actor in -the terrible war of thirty years. This man, one of the most remarkable -men of the seventeenth century, and one of the most eminent generals in -German history was Wallenstein. For seven years he was the greatest man -of the war, eclipsing the fame of Tilly himself, filling the minds of -enemies and friends, and finally that of the Emperor himself, with vague -fears and apprehensions of his treason and unbridled ambition. But in -the flower of his age his life was cut short by the hands of assassins.</p> - -<p>The Empire seemed to be hopelessly divided between Catholicism and -Protestantism, and civil war with all its terrors and horrors laid waste -its fairest provinces. The Emperor had lost much of his authority, while -Maximilian of Bavaria, commander-in-chief of the armies of the Catholic -League, wielded a power which was supreme wherever the so-called -Imperialists held possession of country or town. It was a humiliating -position for the Emperor, but he was utterly powerless to extricate -himself from it. Suddenly a deliverer came to him in the person of -Albert, Lord Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman, who had married the -daughter of Count Harrach,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span> the Emperor’s special favorite. He was -immensely rich, and had won great military distinction in the Bohemian -wars. It was this Lord Wallenstein who on a morning in June, 1625, -presented himself before the Emperor Ferdinand of Germany with a -proposition which, at first, appeared so extravagant and incredible to -the Emperor himself and to his counsellors that they doubted the sanity -or sincerity of the man who made it. But he insisted on the feasibility -of his plan with so much eloquence and enthusiasm that they finally -consented to it. Wallenstein proposed to the Emperor to enroll, entirely -at his own personal expense, an army to fight for the cause of the -Emperor and to protect his hereditary states, provided he should have -the power to make that army at least fifty thousand strong, to appoint -all the officers, and take supreme command himself, without being -interfered with by other generals, no matter how highly stationed they -might be. The immense wealth of Wallenstein guaranteed the financial -success of the plan; moreover he received permission to make his army -self-sustaining by pillage, marauding, and forced contributions in all -those districts which it might temporarily occupy.</p> - -<p>When the new plan and the appointment of Wallenstein to the command of a -large army—larger than any other in the field—became known, the world, -and especially Germany, was struck with amazement, and there were but -few who believed that it could be carried out. But those who doubted did -not know the tremendous energy, the boundless resources, and the -towering ambition of the man. The plan was carried out to its fullest -extent: within a few months a large and well-equipped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span> army was ready to -take the field, and Wallenstein, whose name was comparatively unknown in -the history of war, suddenly assumed an importance which eclipsed that -of the renowned generals of the Catholic League and of the Protestant -Union. The suddenness of his elevation, the apparent mystery surrounding -him, and the rumors of the royal rewards in store for him, made the -imperialistic generals very jealous. It may be truthfully said that from -the very moment Wallenstein took command of his army, he had not only to -face the Protestant armies in the field, but also to guard against his -Catholic rivals, who used their high connections at the imperial court -to undermine his position and blacken his character in a most -unscrupulous manner. The achievements of Wallenstein fully realized the -high expectations of the Emperor. He displayed consummate generalship in -the field, and had a magnetic power of attraction which caused his whole -army, both officers and men, to idolize him. At the same time his army -increased rapidly and wonderfully. It soon reached the one hundred -thousand mark and still they were coming, while the armies of the League -were decreasing at a fearful rate from camp diseases and the ravages of -war. The Emperor made him Duke of Friedland, and “the Friedlanders” -became soon a terror to friend and foe. In his march of victory, which -extended from Hungary and Transylvania to the Baltic Sea, he swept the -Protestant armies from the face of the earth. Where the Friedlanders had -passed, no human dwelling, no human being remained to tell of the -cruelty and devastation which had struck the country, and which fell -with the same crushing weight on Catholics and Protestants. The army was -to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span> be self-sustaining and was therefore given full liberty of pillage -and marauding wherever it went. Coming to the extreme north of Germany, -he invaded Mecklenburg, whose dukes had furnished men and money to the -King of Denmark in his campaign against the imperialists. The King of -Denmark had after a decisive defeat left Germany and returned to his own -kingdom, and on Wallenstein’s approach the Duke of Mecklenburg also -hastily decamped and left his country to the mercy of the conqueror. -Wallenstein took possession of it and was rewarded with the title of -Duke of Mecklenburg and the rank of a sovereign prince of the Empire. -The royal crown of Bohemia, which rumor and secret whisperings -designated as the reward in store for him after the conclusion of peace, -was now not so far off as on the day he took the command of his army. -But the higher he rose, the greater became the envy and hatred of his -rivals, especially of the sovereign princes whose countries and cities -had suffered from the passing of his army.</p> - -<p>From Mecklenburg Wallenstein turned to Pomerania, where Stralsund, one -of the greatest fortresses of the Empire, impeded his further progress. -Wallenstein invested it with his army, and made several assaults, which -were successfully repulsed. The brave inhabitants had sworn to hold out -to the last and rather perish in the defence of their hearths and homes -and families than surrender their city to a conqueror who showed no -mercy to the vanquished. Wallenstein, on the other hand, was determined -to enter the city as a conqueror. Hearing that the inhabitants would -defend the city unto death, he swore that he would take it, even if it -were bound<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> with chains to Heaven, and he laid a regular siege to it. -But all his efforts were in vain. The Swedes succeeded in giving succor -to the beleaguered city from the seaward side, reinforcing it with -troops, ammunition, and provisions. Finally, after a delay of two months -and a loss of twelve thousand men, Wallenstein abandoned the project of -taking the city, raised the siege, and returned to Mecklenburg. There -the conquest of the strongly fortified city of Rostock consoled him to a -certain extent for his failure at Stralsund.</p> - -<p>Emboldened by the great successes of Wallenstein and the almost complete -overthrow of the Protestant armies, the Emperor rather rashly undertook -to reinstate the Catholic Church in all its former privileges and to -compel the Protestant states to restore all the property and real estate -which had been confiscated and estranged from that church during the -preceding eighty years. To carry out this imperial plan the so-called -Restitution Edict was promulgated,—a very unwise measure, which spread -consternation and alarm throughout the Empire, and fanned the dying -embers of the religious war into a new flame. Not only Protestants, but -many Catholics protested against the edict, and Wallenstein himself -criticised it sharply. But the Emperor would not recede from the -resolution he had taken.</p> - -<p>Wallenstein’s influence was already rapidly declining; his overthrow was -near at hand. In 1630 the imperial diet of Regensburg was held. All the -sovereign princes of Germany, and especially all the Electors of the -Empire were present, and they made jointly a terrible onslaught on -Wallenstein, whom they all hated or envied. They united their complaints -against him and demanded his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span> immediate and peremptory dismissal from -the service, as a punishment for the outrages committed by his army and -for the extortions and exorbitant levies which he had made from friend -and foe for his own self-aggrandizement. For a long time the Emperor -resisted these demands and stood up for the great general to whom he -owed so much; but he was anxious to secure the votes of the Electors for -his son, the King of Hungary, as heir to the imperial crown, and the -dismissal of Wallenstein was to be the price for these votes. He -therefore issued the decree, deposing Wallenstein from his office of -generalissimo of the army. It is said that he trembled in affixing his -signature to the document, and that for weeks afterwards he lived in -extreme fear of the wrath of the powerful chieftain. But Wallenstein -took his disgrace very coolly. The news came to him at a moment when he -was with Seni, a famous astrologer, in whom he placed implicit -confidence. Seni had just predicted to him, from a configuration of the -stars, that he would experience a tremendous disappointment, but that -this disappointment would be followed soon by his complete reinstatement -in all the honors which he might be deprived of. Wallenstein took the -decree of deposition as the confirmation of Seni’s prediction. Without -showing much irritation, and only with an expression of regret that the -Emperor had been ill-advised and had yielded to bad counsels, he left -the army and withdrew to Prague, the capital of Bohemia, to live there -in royal splendor and luxury.</p> - -<p>When Wallenstein’s soldiers were informed of the dismissal of their -chief, whom they idolized and regarded with an affection mingled with -awe and terror, there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span> was danger of an open revolt against the -Emperor’s decree; but Wallenstein himself and some of his generals -quieted their rage and suppressed all manifestations of rebellion. -Thousands of soldiers and a great number of officers refused to remain -in the Emperor’s service, declaring that they had enlisted only in order -to serve under Wallenstein and under no other commander. More than one -half of the entire army left the service, and most of the officers, at -their own request, accompanied the deposed general to his new place of -residence, Prague. The disgrace of the general, or rather the act of -removal which, in the eyes of the German princes, was intended to -disgrace him, turned out to be a triumph, greater than a victory in the -field, and made his position in Germany even more conspicuous. Moreover, -everybody seemed to feel that the hour of his reinstatement would soon -come. And Wallenstein, on his part, neglected nothing to confirm this -opinion, which flattered his vanity, and which he firmly believed would -be realized, because “it was written in the stars.”</p> - -<p>It was perhaps as a challenge to his princely enemies at the imperial -court and in defiance of the Emperor himself that he established his -household on a footing more becoming a reigning monarch than a private -citizen. He had a secret desire to accustom the people of Bohemia to -look upon him as the man who might, within a short time, be called upon -to rule over them as king. Otherwise it is hardly reasonable to suppose -that he would have paraded such wealth and magnificence as could not but -confirm the charges preferred against him by his influential -enemies,—namely, gigantic extortions and robberies of public and -private moneys, and plans to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span> satisfy an insatiable ambition. His palace -had six public entrances, and he caused a hundred houses to be torn down -to enlarge the vacant place surrounding it. By day and by night it was -guarded by sentinels, and during the night the public streets leading to -it were barred with chains, that the rest of the Duke might not be -disturbed. In the hall leading to the antechamber of his private -apartments fifty halberdiers were constantly on guard, while sixty -pages, all from the best families of Germany, four chamberlains, six -barons, and a master of ceremonies belonging to one of the most -illustrious houses of the Empire, were always ready to receive the -orders of the great man. Whenever he travelled, his own carriage was -drawn by eight full-blooded horses; his attendants followed in fifty -carriages, each drawn by six horses, while as many baggage wagons, each -drawn by four horses, transported the baggage for the ducal procession, -and sixty richly mounted cavaliers formed the regular escort of “His -Highness.”</p> - -<p>As if Providence wished to advance the pretensions of Wallenstein, the -Emperor’s affairs took a turn for the worse soon after his removal from -the command of the army. Incensed at the intolerance of the German -Emperor and his Restitution Edict, which was to be enforced in its full -severity, Gustavus Adolphus, the great and high-minded King of Sweden, -came to the assistance of the Protestant princes of northern Germany. He -came not unsupported; behind him, and as his secret ally, stood the King -of France, or rather Richelieu. This great French statesman, although a -cardinal of the Catholic Church, saw the time had come to curtail the -power of Austria, and therefore utilized the military genius of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> -Gustavus Adolphus to effectually cripple the Emperor’s power, and to -raise France to a predominant position in Europe. Richelieu equipped and -subsidized the Swedish armies and, by doing so, enabled the Swedish -King, whose country was comparatively poor and whose resources were -consequently limited, to take the field in Germany with a strong force.</p> - -<p>On the twenty-fourth of June, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed his army in -Pomerania. That date marks the turning-point in the fortunes of the -Thirty Years’ War. The Swedish King’s piety, and the strict discipline -which he maintained in his army, stood in such glaring contrast to the -excesses and outrages committed by the armies of Tilly and Wallenstein -that the King was welcomed by the sovereigns of northern Germany as a -savior and liberator. It is not our purpose to describe the glorious and -victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus in the Empire. Suffice it to say -that the conditions of victory and defeat, of triumph and despondency, -were entirely reversed, that the imperial armies were unable to stem the -tide of victory which had set in for the Protestant cause since the -Swedish King’s appearance on German soil, that his progress southward -was rapid and incessant, that the Catholic princes were either -vanquished or fugitives from their states, and that the Emperor himself -was trembling in his palace at Vienna, as report after report informed -him of the uninterrupted onward march of the royal hero. Who can help? -Who can oppose and prevent this steady march of conquest? To the -terrified mind of the Emperor only one man presents himself. It is -Wallenstein. But Wallenstein has been mortally offended by him. How can -the Emperor humiliate himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span> before a subject and assuage his wrath? -The danger is increasing.</p> - -<p>Gustavus is still on the Rhine, but he prepares an invasion of -Würtemberg, many of whose inhabitants will gladly welcome him. The -advance of his army, under General Horn, is in Franconia and driving the -Imperialists before him. No time is to be lost. The Emperor sends a -friendly message to Wallenstein; but the message is haughtily rejected, -and the messengers are treated with arrogance, not to say contempt. He -sends back word to the Emperor that he does not care to repair the -faults of others; that he is not on friendly terms with the allies of -the Emperor; that he is tired and sick of war; that he is in need of -rest, etc. The Emperor sends new messengers, holds out new rewards. He -insists and appeals. At last, in December, 1631, Wallenstein promises to -raise a new army, equip it and place it in the field by the first of -March, 1632; but he positively refuses to command it. The magic power of -his name renews the prodigy of six years before. On the first of March -the hereditary states of Austria—Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia—had -furnished him a splendid army of forty thousand men. But it was a body -without a soul; it lacked a leader able to command it and lead it to -victory. The most urgent demands, prayers, supplications of the Emperor -at last decide Wallenstein to take the command of this army, which is -crazed with enthusiasm when he finally accepts. But he accepts only on -conditions most humiliating to the Emperor. He will be generalissimo of -the armies of Austria and Spain; he will appoint all his subordinate -officers; the Emperor will not be permitted to join the army, and will -in no way interfere with its direction or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span> movements; Wallenstein will -receive one of the hereditary states of Austria as a reward; he will be -war-governor of all the territory occupied by his army; he will have the -right to levy contributions, and all confiscated property will belong to -him; he alone can grant amnesty; he will remain Duke of Mecklenburg, -even if another crown be given to him; all his expenditures will be paid -back to him at the conclusion of peace; and in case of defeat, he will -have the right to retire upon Vienna, and remain there. These -conditions, readily granted by the Emperor, made Wallenstein practically -the Dictator of the Empire.</p> - -<p>It was at Nuremberg, one of the most ancient and prosperous cities of -Bavaria, that the two great captains met face to face for the first -time. Gustavus Adolphus had many friends in the city, which he wanted to -protect against the Imperialists and from which he had received many -reinforcements and supplies. His army had taken quarters in the -immediate neighborhood. When Wallenstein approached, the King expected -an immediate attack, but in this expectation he was disappointed. -Whether he was afraid to endanger his party and his own reputation by -the chances of a battle, or whether he thought that to check the -victorious progress of the King was equivalent to a victory and would -dishearten his allies, or whether the hope of starving the army of the -King by cutting off his communications and supplies prompted his action, -Wallenstein massed his army in front of Nuremberg, erected breastworks -and strongly fortified them, and observed every movement of his great -antagonist. It was evident that he wished to avoid giving battle. In -this way they remained for eleven weeks<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span> opposed to one another, neither -daring to become the aggressor or to leave his fortified position. It -was the King who moved first. Provisions both in his camp and in the -city were getting very scarce, and a contagious camp disease had broken -out among his troops and spread to the city, decimating the ranks of his -army. He therefore resolved to attack the position of Wallenstein and -take it by storm. A terrible battle ensued. The Swedes and the -Protestant army showed wonderful bravery, but the heavy artillery of -Wallenstein mowed them down in long lines, and they were unable to stand -the incessant volleys of shot and shell which poured into their ranks -all day long. The assault was repulsed with terrible loss to the Swedish -army, and Wallenstein had the glory of having inflicted the first defeat -on Gustavus Adolphus. This defeat was the more painful to the King -because he had lost from ten to twelve thousand of his best soldiers and -some of his ablest commanders in the vain attempt to take Wallenstein’s -position. But the defeat had no other bad results for Gustavus Adolphus, -for Wallenstein permitted him to retreat from Nuremberg without -molesting, attacking or pursuing him, although his army was greatly -superior in numbers to the King’s army, and although his loss during the -battle of the preceding day was much smaller; in fact Wallenstein’s loss -in killed and wounded was estimated at no more than one thousand.</p> - -<p>This neglect of Wallenstein to annihilate the King’s army, when -everything seemed to favor such an attempt, is among the strongest -evidences of his treacherous sentiments. It caused consternation at -Vienna, and his enemies charged him openly with treason. But the -Emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span> had no right to interfere! Finally Wallenstein also left his -fortified camp, but instead of following Gustavus Adolphus to Thuringia, -he went in an easterly direction and invaded Saxony, where he captured a -detachment of two thousand five hundred Swedes and with them Count -Thurn, a German nobleman, who for some reason or other had left the -Emperor’s service and had entered the Swedish King’s. This Count Thurn -was especially odious to the Emperor, and when the news of his capture -reached Vienna, there was general rejoicing. The Count would -unquestionably have been executed, but to the utter dismay of the court -Wallenstein set him free and permitted him to return to the King,—as -his enemies asserted, with secret overtures from the Imperialist -commander. It is possible, although by no means certain, that -Wallenstein, remembering how ungratefully he had been treated before, -and thinking that the same ingratitude might be shown to him again as -soon as his services were no longer needed, may have tried to open -negotiations with the Swedish King to secure from him personal -recognition and advantages which he was afraid would be withheld from -him after the King’s final overthrow. His fears were certainly not -unreasonable, for the Emperor was surrounded by, and lent a willing ear -to, the bitter enemies of Wallenstein, and to the very men who had -brought about his first disgrace and dismissal. The King, on the other -hand, if he received such overtures from Wallenstein, either distrusted -him or did not see fit to act upon them favorably, possibly because -Wallenstein’s terms were too extravagant.</p> - -<p>As soon as Gustavus Adolphus had learned of Wallenstein’s invasion of -Saxony he turned round, and in forced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> marches hurried also to Saxony in -order to protect that unfortunate country from the ravages of the -Friedlanders. The Elector of Saxony, while secretly favoring the German -Emperor, had appealed to the King of Sweden for protection, and Gustavus -Adolphus had granted his request. He marched so rapidly that -Wallenstein, when informed of his approach, at first refused to believe -the truth of the report, but nevertheless prepared to give him a warm -reception. Having sent, a few days before, his most renowned cavalry -general, Pappenheim, in another direction, he now sent messengers after -him to recall him. The two great captains met at Lützen on the sixth of -November. A terrible battle ensued, in which Gustavus Adolphus was -killed. But Wallenstein was defeated; at least he left the battle-field -in the possession of the enemy and retreated to Bohemia.</p> - -<p>This retrograde movement and his retreat from the battle-field were -unfavorably commented on at Vienna and declared unnecessary. -Insinuations of treason were again whispered into the Emperor’s ear, and -his suspicion was aroused to such a degree that Wallenstein’s removal -from the army was resolved upon, although this intention was kept secret -for a while. The Emperor surrounded himself with Spanish soldiers to be -safe from an attack of the Friedlanders. He also succeeded by bribes and -promises in estranging a number of Wallenstein’s prominent lieutenants -from him and in securing them for his own service. To some extent -Wallenstein was kept informed of these secret steps of the Emperor, and -he tried to counteract them and to protect himself. He renewed his -negotiations with the Swedes and the Protestant princes, who had found -in Bernard, Duke of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span> Saxe-Weimar, a worthy successor of King Gustavus -Adolphus as a military leader; and it is said that an agreement had been -made by the two leaders of the opposing armies that Wallenstein’s forces -should join the Protestant army, and that they jointly should impose -conditions of peace upon the Emperor. It goes without saying that a -sovereignty for Wallenstein—most likely that of Bohemia—was included -in the terms of peace.</p> - -<p>Before this agreement could be carried out, events occurred which not -only precipitated the downfall, but cut short the life of the -over-ambitious military chieftain. It was of the greatest importance to -Wallenstein to find out how far he would be able to rely on his army -commanders and on their regiments in carrying out his treasonable -projects. He first revealed these to three of them,—Terzky, Kinsky, and -Illo,—the first two related to him by marriage, and the last an avowed -and bitter enemy of the Emperor, who had refused to raise him to the -rank of count. It was Illo who undertook to find out how the generals -and colonels would feel and act; he called them together one evening and -very cautiously proceeded to inflame their minds against the Emperor and -glorify the services of Wallenstein, who, he said, was the only one who -could have saved the Emperor from ruin, and who was now to be sacrificed -again to the envy and jealousy of his enemies. This announcement caused -loud protests and great indignation among those present. “But,” -concluded Illo, “the Duke is not willing to undergo this new -humiliation, which is a shameful reward for his long and glorious -services; no, he will not wait until it pleases the Emperor to kick him -out, but he will go voluntarily and resign his command;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> but what pains -him deeply is the thought that, in doing so, he must leave his devoted -friends and comrades, and cannot reward them as he intended.” It may -well be thought that these remarks kindled revolt in the hearts of the -soldiers, and that they swore they would not let the Duke leave the -army. The next morning they sent a delegation to their -commander-in-chief, imploring him to desist from his intention of -leaving the army, and assuring him that they would stand by him, no -matter what might happen. It was only when a second delegation of the -highest and most popular officers waited upon him, that the Duke gave -way to their entreaties and promised to remain at the head of the army. -But he attached one condition to this promise: he exacted from all the -commanders a written pledge that they would all, jointly and singly, -stand by him as their chief, and would consider his removal from the -command of the army a public calamity. They all agreed to this -condition, and a paper embodying this declaration was gotten up to be -signed by all of them.</p> - -<p>Illo took it upon himself to secure all the signatures, and in order to -make short work of it, invited the commanders to an evening party at his -headquarters, where he read the paper to them; but, in order to preclude -all suspicion in the minds of the signers, Wallenstein had inserted a -clause which bound the signers to the agreement only as long as -Wallenstein used the army in the service of the Emperor. After Illo had -read the paper containing the saving clause, he dexterously withdrew it -and substituted for it another copy without the clause, and unknowingly -the commanders signed it. Moreover, most of them were half or entirely -intoxicated and could<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span> not have discovered the deception; but one or two -had remained sober, and when they read the paper again before signing -it, they found that it was different from the one which had been read to -them. They indignantly charged Illo with having practised a fraud on -them, and the company broke up in confusion and anger. This half-failure -seems to have opened Wallenstein’s eyes to the real situation in which -he found himself. Many of his commanders were too devoted Catholics to -make common cause with the enemies of their Church, and while they were -willing to stand by Wallenstein to the last as the defender of their -faith, they refused to follow him into the Protestant camp and as a -deserter from the Emperor’s service. It also opened the Emperor’s eyes -to the necessity of prompt action, unless he would permit Wallenstein to -concoct some plan by which he might lead the whole army into the camp of -the Protestants. He therefore secretly commissioned General Gallas, one -of Wallenstein’s subordinates, to take command of the army as soon as -the time had come for openly deposing the Duke of Friedland. It was a -game of duplicity and deception on both sides. The Emperor tried to -cheat Wallenstein out of his command and reward, and Wallenstein tried -to cheat the Emperor out of the army.</p> - -<p>Until then Wallenstein had been at Pilsen; but after the demonstration -of the commanders, he deemed it advisable for his own plans and -interests to transfer his headquarters to the strongly fortified city of -Eger, which was commanded by Gordon, whom he considered one of his most -reliable friends. The larger part of the army remained at Pilsen, while -Wallenstein himself, escorted by a number of picked regiments under the -command of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> his most trusted lieutenants, went to Eger. But there he was -to meet his doom. The thunderclouds of imperial wrath had been gathering -more and more threateningly above his head. Wallenstein saw them not and -feared them not. Had not the stars prophesied his coming elevation? Even -when the Emperor published a proclamation, which was secretly -distributed in the army, declaring him a rebel and offering a reward for -his surrender, dead or alive, he would not believe it; he laughed at it -when it was shown him. Under ordinary circumstances he would have had -the courage to treat any imperial edict with contempt, for with his army -his name was a much greater power and authority than that of the -Emperor; but a complication had arisen which in the minds of his -soldiers paralyzed his efforts and reëstablished the Emperor’s -supremacy. This complication was the increasing strength of the -Protestant armies. The Duke’s army, lawless, cruel, and violating every -rule of morality, was nevertheless composed of men who stood in slavish -fear of the Church and of the priest, and as soon as Wallenstein turned -against these two, the soldiers turned against him. They were willing to -follow him to death in a Catholic cause, when death would open to them -the gates of Paradise, but they refused to follow him to death when -death would deliver them to the everlasting torments of hell.</p> - -<p>With this invisible moral power the great commander had not reckoned. -Among the very men whom he had picked out as his escort to Eger were his -murderers. And they did not wait long, for fear that others might -anticipate them in their bloody work, and capture not only the imperial -reward, but also the benedictions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span> Church. These men were Gordon, -the commander of the Eger garrison, and Leslie (both Scotchmen), -Deveroux and Butler (both Irishmen). They had always been enthusiastic -friends and admirers of Wallenstein, but they were also fanatical -Catholics, and when they had to choose between their commander and the -Church, their devotion to the latter prevailed. Deveroux was the leading -spirit in the plot. He had received private instructions from Gallas and -Piccolomini and won over the others. They also secured the assistance of -a number of soldiers in their regiments, and solemnly pledged themselves -to surrender Wallenstein’s person, dead or alive, to Gallas, who was to -take command of the imperial army. But in order to prevent interference -with their dark design, Gordon, the commander of the garrison, invited -them all to the citadel for an evening entertainment. At this -entertainment, while eating supper, Illo, Terzky, Kinsky and Newman, -were murdered. It was on a Saturday evening, February 25, 1634, the day -after they had arrived with Wallenstein at Eger. Wallenstein himself was -not present. He had retired early that night, after having once more -consulted the stars with his Italian astrologer, who discovered -unfavorable signs in the constellations. But it seems Wallenstein paid -no attention to these warnings, and fell soundly asleep soon afterwards. -Toward midnight, or perhaps shortly after midnight, he was aroused from -his sleep by a loud noise. Coming from the citadel, where Wallenstein’s -lieutenants had been slain, Butler, with a number of his dragoons, and -Deveroux, with a number of his halberdiers, marched up to Wallenstein’s -residence. Since both Butler and Deveroux were well known to the guards -in the hall,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span> they were immediately admitted, but when they reached the -anteroom to the Duke’s apartments, the sentinel wanted to stop them. He -was cut down, not, however, before he had called for help, and cried -out: “Murderers! Rebels!” It was this tumult that aroused Wallenstein. -He jumped out of bed and hurried to the window to ask the sentinel -posted at the entrance what was the matter. At that moment the door -leading to the anteroom was burst open, and Deveroux, a halberd in his -hands, and followed by half a dozen of his men, entered the bedroom, -where he found himself face to face with Wallenstein. “Are you the -scoundrel,” said he, “who wants to rob his Imperial Majesty of his -crown? You must die now!” And without having given any answer, -Wallenstein received a stab of the halberd which lacerated the -intestines and caused almost immediate death. Like Cæsar, he might have -exclaimed, “Et tu, Brute!” for he had always especially befriended and -distinguished this man Deveroux, who had come to him poor and -friendless, and who owed to him everything. One of the halberdiers -wished to throw Wallenstein’s corpse out of the window, but Deveroux -would not permit it; he rolled the body up in a table cover and had it -transported to the citadel, where the Duke’s murdered friends were lying -in the yard, waiting for their burial. Wallenstein’s body was placed by -their side. It was then resolved to send the bodies of the dead generals -to one of Illo’s country-seats, which was in the neighborhood. In -placing them in their coffins, it was found that Wallenstein’s coffin -was too small, and in order to force him into it his legs had to be -broken.</p> - -<p>Thus died one of the most remarkable men of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> seventeenth -century,—the greatest of the German generals of the terrible Thirty -Years’ War. As a strategist, he may not have been fully the equal of -Gustavus Adolphus, but he had a magnetic power over his men which even -that great commander did not possess, and which would have made him -invincible, had not superstition and religious awe counteracted it. The -German Emperor, hearing of his assassination, appeared to be overwhelmed -with grief, and ordered three thousand masses to be read for the -salvation of his soul; but he tried in vain to deceive the world by this -hypocritical sorrow for a murder which he had planned and for which he -rewarded the assassins. To this very day the treason of Wallenstein -remains shrouded in doubt; and very likely it will remain forever an -unsolved problem.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br /><br /> -JOHN AND CORNELIUS DE WITT</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span></p> - -<p><a name="JOHN_DE_WITT" id="JOHN_DE_WITT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p190b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p190b_sml.jpg" width="443" height="522" alt="image unavailable: JOHN DE WITT" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">JOHN DE WITT</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XIV<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF THE BROTHERS JOHN AND CORNELIUS DE WITT<br /><br /> -(August 20, 1672)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">N</span>EVER, perhaps, was the old saying, “Republics are ungrateful,” more -strikingly verified than in the case of the two brothers De Witt, who, -after having rendered many great services to the Dutch Republic, were -foully murdered by an infuriated mob in the streets of the Hague, August -20, 1672. John and Cornelius de Witt were the sons of a distinguished -citizen of the city of Dordrecht, who had represented that city in the -general assemblies of Holland and Friesland and was known as an eloquent -and incorruptible defender of popular rights. He had placed himself at -the head of the anti-Orange party because he considered the ambition and -power of the princes of Orange a standing danger to the Republic. Grown -up under the direction of such a father, the two sons had naturally -imbibed his strong democratic principles, and their undoubted patriotism -was strongly tinged with hostility to the house of Orange. The two De -Witts have often been compared to the Gracchi, and, like those -illustrious Romans, they worked and died for their democratic -principles. Both were highly talented and, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span> quite young, rose to -the highest honors and dignities among their countrymen,—Cornelius, the -elder of the two, by his eminent legal ability and his skill as a -military and naval director and commissary, and John, by his eminence as -an administrator and statesman. It is difficult to decide which of the -two was intellectually the superior. A medal struck in their honor bore -the inscription, “Hic armis maximus, ille toga.” It should not be -inferred, however, from this inscription, that Cornelius, to whom the -word “armis” applied, was at any time commander-in-chief of the Dutch -army and navy, since he held only the office of government inspector of -the navy, in which capacity he greatly distinguished himself.</p> - -<p>John was, at the age of twenty-five, elected pensionary of the city of -Dordrecht, and two years later, in 1652, Grand Pensionary of Holland, -one of the highest offices in the United Provinces. His political -influence was very great, and he used it to the best of his ability -against the house of Orange. William the Second, Prince of Orange, had -died on the second of October, 1650, leaving only a widow and a -posthumous son as his heirs. On these circumstances, so unfavorable to -the illustrious house which had played for so many years a conspicuous -part in the history of the Netherlands, John de Witt built his hopes of -dealing a deathblow to its political pretensions and of abolishing -forever the office of stadtholder. It was, however, no easy task to -accomplish this object. The province of Zealand was full of friends and -partisans of the late stadtholder, who vigorously opposed any attempt in -the direction contemplated by De Witt; and the other provinces, either -from loyalty to the house of Orange, or from a secret jealousy of the -supremacy of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span> the states of Holland, which always wanted to control the -policy of the Republic, either openly rejected the plans of De Witt or -modified and attenuated them as exaggerated.</p> - -<p>At the moment when John de Witt took the reins of government, the states -were at war with England, and the war had taken a very unfavorable turn -for them. The Dutch admirals had suffered several terrible defeats. -Tromp, one of their most celebrated naval heroes, had been killed in -battle, and an English fleet was cruising along the coast of Holland, -blockading its ports, and paralyzing its commerce. But De Witt repaired -these disasters with such rapidity, and restored to the Dutch navy such -a formidable strength by his administrative genius, that Cromwell was -willing to enter into negotiations for peace, which he had haughtily -rejected before. A treaty of peace, submitted by the Grand Pensionary of -Holland and signed at Westminster on the fifteenth of April, 1654, -reëstablished virtually the conditions which had existed between the two -nations before the war. However, the Dutch Republic was compelled to -recognize the superiority of the English flag in the channel, and bound -itself to give the Stuart dynasty no support, and that no Prince of -Orange should be elected again either Stadtholder or Captain-General. -This last section of the treaty was signed, at first by the province of -Holland only, and was kept secret for a long time. In getting this -provision of exclusion of the house of Orange passed (which, by the way, -was as welcome to De Witt as to Cromwell) by the other provinces also, -the Grand Pensionary practised a good deal of duplicity, and laid -himself open to serious charges of official deception which later on -contributed to his downfall.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span></p> - -<p>In the meantime another complication had arisen and taxed the -statesmanship of the Dutch government and the patriotism of the -Netherlanders to the utmost. In France Louis the Fourteenth had taken -the reins of government into his own hands, and manifested an ambition -for conquest which endangered the security of all his neighbors. -Although the wife of Louis, at the time of her marriage, had solemnly -renounced all her rights of succession to the Spanish throne and any -Spanish provinces, the King nevertheless after the death of his wife’s -father, Philip the Fourth, claimed the Spanish Netherlands as justly -belonging to his wife, and defended this claim not so much by argument -as by an invasion and armed occupation of the disputed territory. No -state was more deeply interested in the outcome of this dispute than the -Netherlands. With growing fear they beheld the rapid progress which the -armies of the French King under the command of great generals were -making, and they thought that their own independence might suffer from -the immediate neighborhood of so powerful and aggressive a monarch. With -great skill the Dutch government secretly formed an alliance with Sweden -and England by which these three powers agreed that the Spanish -Netherlands should remain under Spanish dominion and that Louis the -Fourteenth should be prevented from annexing them to the French -monarchy. This Triple Alliance was too powerful to be defied by the -French King, and he made peace with Spain, evacuating Franche-Comté, -which he had already conquered, but retaining possession of a number of -important cities in the Netherlands,—such as Charleroi, Douai, Lille, -Tournay and Oudenarde, which by the genius of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span> Vauban were converted -into almost impregnable fortresses. Dutch statesmanship was the obstacle -which had placed itself in the King’s way and frustrated his ambitious -designs. Personal irritation and offended vanity were added to his -chagrin at the failure of his plans.</p> - -<p>A boastful medal was struck in the Netherlands commemorating the -diplomatic victory which their government had achieved over the power of -France. On this medal a Dutch statesman was represented as Joshua -bidding the sun (the symbol of Louis the Fourteenth) to stand still. For -this arrogance the Republic was to be punished, and with matchless skill -and cunning the French government went to work to prepare for its -overthrow. The general political situation of Europe was highly -favorable to the consummation of the French designs. The Emperor of -Germany, a weak and pusillanimous sovereign, had his hands full in the -eastern provinces of the Empire, in which the Turks had advanced -victorious up to the very gates of Vienna; he was therefore powerless to -oppose French aggression in the Netherlands. Moreover special -negotiations had been opened with some of the sovereign princes of -northern Germany by which the French monarch secured the right to march -his armies through their territory on their way to the United -Netherlands without touching Spanish territory. With equal success the -French diplomats dissolved the Triple Alliance, and made both Sweden and -England, former allies of the Dutch Republic, subservient to the French -monarch. Sweden received an annual subsidy of 600,000 dollars from the -French treasury, and England a subsidy of 350,000 pounds sterling and -also the promise of the province of Zealand as its share of the -dismemberment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span> the United Netherlands. Princess Henrietta of France, -wife of the Duke of Orleans and sister of Charles the Second of England, -was sent by the wily French King to England to negotiate this infamous -treaty. She succeeded in accomplishing her object mainly through the -influence which one of the ladies of her suite, Mademoiselle de -Querouet, gained over the mind of the English King, who made her his -mistress and bestowed on her the title of Duchess of Portsmouth.</p> - -<p>Having thus fortified himself on all sides and deprived the United -Netherlands of the possibility of taking the field against him with any -chance of success, Louis declared war upon them. The result could not be -doubtful. Moreover the domestic discord and the active struggle between -the political factions added much to the gravity of the situation, and -partly paralyzed the efforts of the government to arouse the provinces -to a full comprehension of the danger. John de Witt was the chief -executive of the government, and upon him rested largely the -responsibility of the situation. The Orangist party turned its main -attacks against him, and spared neither criticism nor calumny to -undermine his standing and authority. It charged him directly with -having, either through incompetency or something worse, neglected to -place the country in a suitable state of defence, and then having -provoked a war with a powerful enemy. These charges against De Witt were -largely unjust, and were preferred only to punish him for his opposition -to reinstating the house of Orange in the stadtholdership and in the -chief command of all the military forces of the Republic.</p> - -<p>John de Witt had made two radical errors in his estimate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span> of the -political situation. He knew that Louis the Fourteenth felt irritated at -the Dutch Republic’s action in preventing his acquisition of the Spanish -Netherlands; but he did not know that the French King would resent that -action, and make gigantic preparations for crushing the Dutch Republic. -Never before had such tremendous efforts been made by a great nation to -destroy a weak neighbor. The war was to be short and decisive, and the -insolent “traders”—that was the name the haughty French King gave to -the citizens of the Netherlands—were to be punished radically. The -second error which De Witt committed was his underestimation of the -venality and corruption existing in the government circles of his former -allies, England and Sweden. He learned at an early day that French -diplomacy had induced them to recede from the Triple Alliance; but he -did not realize at the time that French gold and French promises had -persuaded these two powers to make common cause with him for the -dismemberment of the Republic, and to furnish troops for that purpose. -When finally the full reality of the King’s revengeful plan was revealed -to him, he not only aroused the people of the Netherlands to a -realization of the terrible danger which threatened them, but he also, -with his usual energy, went to work to find assistance against the -overwhelming odds among the other European powers, and his experienced -statesmanship served him well in bringing into play all the different -motives, both personal and political, by which he could hope to -influence their decisions.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately the allies he could enlist in his cause were too weak to -constitute an adequate counterpoise to the enormous power of his -opponent. In stating the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span> general political situation of Europe -preceding the attack of Louis the Fourteenth on the Dutch Republic, we -have already mentioned the causes which prevented the other powers from -active interference in behalf of the Netherlands. The aggressive Turk, -also influenced by French money, kept the Emperor of Germany busy in his -eastern provinces, and left him little time to care for other things -than his own protection. Moreover Louis the Fourteenth had, by -munificent presents and liberal payments, won the secret support of the -Emperor’s prime minister, Lobkowitz, who did all in his power to -overcome his master’s fears concerning the intentions of the French -King, and frustrated the efforts of the King’s enemies to draw him over -to their side. De Witt had to contend with these difficulties in -securing little more than the moral support of the Emperor; but when the -rapid progress of the French arms had revealed to him the danger which -threatened the Empire, he consented reluctantly and hesitatingly to a -sort of active intervention for the protection of the German territory.</p> - -<p>One ally of the Dutch Republic should not be forgotten here—Frederick -William, the great Elector of Brandenburg, whose political genius -enabled him to see the disastrous consequences which the growing power -of the King of France would have not only for the German Empire, but -also for his own possessions on the Rhine. He, therefore, concluded an -alliance with the Dutch Republic, promising an army of twenty thousand -men in defence of German soil against the aggression of the French King, -and used besides his influence over the German Emperor in persuading him -to join the alliance. The Elector of Brandenburg was for one reason a -particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span> valuable ally, because his army was needed to keep in -check the Swedes, who were to take the field in northern Germany as soon -as the German Emperor would show a disposition to coöperate with the -Dutch Republic. The decisive victory of Fehrbellin, in which the great -Elector routed a Swedish army much superior in numbers to his own, -showed how gloriously he performed his part of the programme.</p> - -<p>It was at this time that the Prince of Orange, although only twenty -years old, appeared to the Dutch people as a savior from these -threatened calamities. The young Prince, after the death of his mother, -in 1661, passed under the guardianship of John de Witt, who had him -instructed in political science and in the study of modern languages. It -would seem that, with the foresight of genius, he foresaw the prominent -part which Prince William would sooner or later play in the history of -the Republic, and that, in spite of his personal antipathy to the house -of Orange, he was patriotic enough to educate him well for his coming -career. The precarious condition of his health, which seemed to -disqualify the Prince for the hardships and exposures of military life, -had no influence whatever on his ambition to equal the great -achievements of his ancestors. An opportunity for reaching the goal of -his ambition was given him when the States-General, in obedience to the -urgent demand of the people, appointed him Captain-General of the -Republic. Although the powers of the new commander-in-chief were limited -by several provisions, yet the Republican party, under the leadership of -De Witt, demanded more and better guarantees for curbing the ambition of -the Prince. It demanded and obtained from the States-General<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> an order -that the Captain-General should be obliged to swear to maintain the -Perpetual Edict suppressing the stadtholdership and prohibiting its -reëstablishment. John de Witt also strongly opposed the life-appointment -of the Prince of Orange until he should have completed his twenty-second -year, while the Orangists and the Prince himself made his -life-appointment a condition for his acceptance. A compromise was -finally reached, and Prince William of Orange, known in history as -William the Third, was solemnly inaugurated in his new office of -commander-in-chief. On him was imposed the difficult task to oppose the -armies of Louis the Fourteenth, commanded by Condé, Turenne, Luxembourg -and Vauban. Entire harmony and good-will seemed to exist between the -Grand Pensionary and the Prince after the latter’s appointment to the -command of the army. They corresponded in a very cordial tone, and De -Witt showed the greatest eagerness to satisfy the wishes of the Prince -for the thorough defence of the country. It is not our purpose to -mention in detail the indefatigable exertions of John de Witt to place -the country in a suitable state of defence. But these exertions and the -measures they resulted in were not sufficient to avert the calamities of -the war and to prevent a conquest which everybody had foreseen. The -Netherlanders had enjoyed peace for twenty-four years, and this long -rest had unaccustomed the country to war. The constant quarrels between -the different parties had weakened the unity of the Republic, and when -the time for united and patriotic action came, the nation was but ill -prepared for it.</p> - -<p>On the sixth of April, 1672, France issued a declaration<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span> of war which -had been long expected. Louis the Fourteenth celebrated beforehand the -conquest he was about to undertake, although some of his most -experienced generals, Condé for instance, did not share his confidence. -However, the rapidity with which the French, after having crossed the -Yssel, took cities and fortresses almost without firing a gun, seemed -fully to justify Louis the Fourteenth in his anticipation of an easy and -brilliant victory. One short month had sufficed to place at the mercy of -the French monarch the flourishing and prosperous Republic, which four -years before had interrupted him in his march of victory. No man -suffered more both as a patriot and as a public official, from the -disastrous turn in public affairs than John de Witt. He had done all -that a sagacious statesman and a noble-minded patriot could do to -prevent, and failing in this attempt, sought to repair the disasters -which overwhelmed the Republic. But the ungrateful people failed to -stand by him and reward his exertions for the public welfare. And not -only the honor of having saved the independence of his country in this -unequal conflict was denied to him, but his life itself was lost, as a -sacrifice to popular hatred and fanaticism.</p> - -<p>Under these exasperating circumstances—each new day bringing -information of a new calamity, of the surrender of a fortress, of the -capitulation of a garrison, of the precipitate retreat of the army—it -was not only natural, it was a matter of duty and patriotism for John de -Witt, the head of the government, to enter into negotiations with the -conqueror in order to check his rapid advance and get from him better -terms of peace than might be expected after he had captured the last -bulwarks<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span> of Dutch independence. It was by no means De Witt’s plan to -open negotiations for the surrender of Dutch independence; but he hoped -that the French King would consent to suspend hostilities during the -progress of the negotiations, and that this intermission would give the -Republic time to strengthen its bulwarks. In case of an unfavorable -result, he would resume armed resistance with greater chances of success -than before. John de Witt had frequently, during the months preceding -the outbreak of the war, insisted on making adequate preparations to -meet an attack of the French King, whose restless ambition for military -glory and territorial expansion was well known. He had also pointed out -(if all other means should fail) the necessity of again, as in the war -with Spain, resorting to those means of defence which nature had placed -in the possession of the Dutch, by opening the sluices and cutting the -dykes, in order to let the sea overflow the bottom lands of the country, -and thus protecting Holland, and above all Amsterdam, from foreign -occupation. This last measure of defence, terrible and destructive as it -was necessarily, was really the anchor of hope upon which the minds of -Dutch patriots rested their expectations of final triumph.</p> - -<p>The Dutch navy was in excellent condition. It was still mistress of the -seas, and it had lately, under the able command of De Ruyter one of the -greatest naval heroes that ever lived, won two great victories over the -fleets of France and England, which secured the Republic against the -landing of foreign troops from the sea side. The Republic had spared no -efforts to keep the navy in splendid condition, and more than any other -man Cornelius de Witt had contributed to its efficiency. He was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span> an -intimate friend of Admiral de Ruyter, and during the naval battle of -Solbay, although seriously ill, he sat by his side, as the official -delegate of the States-General, assisting him with his counsels, and by -his very presence inspiring sailors and commanders with patriotic -devotion. The greatness of his services to the Republic had been -formally recognized after that battle by a unanimous vote of thanks of -the States-General.</p> - -<p>It would seem almost a matter of impossibility that with such a record -of patriotism, integrity and devotion to the public welfare, the voice -of calumny should have been successfully raised against the two -illustrious brothers; but it was done nevertheless by the Orange party, -which did not forgive their opposition to the elevation of Prince -William. The young Prince had, during the short campaign, won no martial -laurels by victories in battles or by the capture of fortresses; but he -had shown eminent qualities which promised glorious results if an -opportunity were given for unfolding them. He was wise and circumspect -beyond his years, self-collected and cool amid the most pressing -dangers, inexhaustible in resources, and while thoroughly loyal to the -Republic, yet proud of his ancestors and the preëminent part they had -played in the history of their country.</p> - -<p>As soon as the report became public that the Grand Pensionary had taken -steps for negotiations with the French King, the Orange party denounced -them as acts of treason, and loudly demanded that Prince William should -be placed in supreme authority. It also asserted that the failure of the -campaign so far was due to the restrictions foolishly and criminally -imposed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span> the Prince, who might have saved the Republic if he had been -permitted to follow the inspirations of his own genius and had not been -fettered by instructions from men that had been his life-long enemies -and who preferred the rule of a foreign monarch to the stadtholdership -of a Prince of Orange. In this manner the public mind was filled with -hatred toward the De Witts, while gradually the young Prince of Orange -became the idol of the nation. Recollections of the glorious -achievements of his forefathers, of their perseverance and patience, of -their intrepidity and resoluteness, and of their final triumphs in -situations as perilous as theirs, were awakened in the hearts of the -burghers, and made them inclined to a restoration of the stadtholdership -in behalf of the Prince. It was to be expected that sooner or later -public excitement, aggravated from hour to hour by the unfavorable -reports from the seat of war, would manifest itself in a violent -explosion and fall with destructive force upon the very heads which were -most entitled to public gratitude and veneration.</p> - -<p>Two attempts on the lives of the two brothers in the summer of 1672—an -attack on John de Witt which came very near killing him and prostrated -him for weeks on a sick bed, and the other on Cornelius, who escaped -from it almost unhurt—were the first serious manifestations of the -public ill-will. It was only too evident that the Orange party was at -the bottom of these outbursts of hostility, and that Prince William -himself was not a stranger to the intrigues. On the second of July, -1672, the Prince of Orange was elected Stadtholder of Holland and -Zealand for life. These were the only two provinces not occupied by the -French armies, and the Prince’s</p> - -<p><a name="CORNELIUS_DE_WITT" id="CORNELIUS_DE_WITT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p204b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p204b_sml.jpg" width="345" height="473" alt="image unavailable: CORNELIUS DE WITT" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CORNELIUS DE WITT</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">election was therefore equivalent to his appointment as Stadtholder of -the Republic. In effect it placed the De Witts at his mercy.</p> - -<p>In vain the Grand Pensionary handed in his resignation on the fourth of -August. The Orange party was not satisfied with permitting him to retire -from the public service; it formed a sinister conspiracy which engulfed -the two illustrious men in ruin and death. A worthless scoundrel, a -certain Tichelaar who on several occasions had been accused of felonies, -openly charged Cornelius de Witt with having tried to bribe him to -assassinate the Prince Stadtholder,—a proposition which he had -indignantly rejected in spite of the tempting rewards offered to him. -Incredible as it may appear, the accusation, contradicted both by the -noble character of Cornelius de Witt and by the bad reputation of the -informer, was eagerly acted upon by the authorities of Holland. -Cornelius was arrested and imprisoned at the Hague, where for four days -he was subjected to the infamy of the torture. It was hoped that in his -agony he would make a confession of guilt which, true or not, would -justify his partisan judges in passing a sentence of death on him. But -Cornelius remained firm in his disdainful denial of the odious -accusation, and the repetition of the torture on four different days did -not change his testimony. Under these circumstances his base judges, -instruments of the Stadtholder and his party, did not dare to pronounce -the death sentence against him; but they found him guilty nevertheless, -deprived him of all his public dignities, and exiled him for life from -the territory of the Republic.</p> - -<p>It may appear strange that the Orange party persecuted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span> Cornelius de -Witt, who was the brother of the Grand Pensionary, with such venomous -hatred; but an occurrence which had shortly preceded his arrest will -explain the ill-will of the leaders of the Orange party. Like the other -cities of Holland, the city of Dordrecht had, by a vote of its Common -Council, revoked the Perpetual Edict. Cornelius de Witt had but a few -weeks before returned from the battle of Solbay, where he had so greatly -distinguished himself, and was confined to his bed by serious illness. -Being one of the highest city officials, his signature was required on -the act of revocation, and the Orange leaders demanded that the document -should be forthwith presented to him. City officials, followed by an -excited and hostile mob, took it to his residence and requested him to -sign it. He refused. In vain his family, his friends, and his servants -implored him to affix his signature, telling him that a mob of thousands -of excited people surrounded the house and threatened to demolish it and -kill the inhabitants if his name should not appear on the paper. Finally -the supplications and tears of his wife and children, imploring him not -to sacrifice their lives by his obstinacy, induced him to affix his -signature, but he added the two initials V. C. to it; and when the -officials asked him what those two letters meant, he answered, “They -stand for the words ‘Vi coactus’<span class="lftspc">”</span> (yielding to violence). This -declaration caused an outburst of indignation in the crowd, and but for -the speedy erasure of the obnoxious initials by his wife, and the -energetic efforts of his friends to protect him, Cornelius de Witt would -very likely on that day have paid for his boldness with his life. It was -ascertained that Tichelaar, who shortly afterwards accused<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span> him of -having planned the assassination of the Prince of Orange, had been one -of the mob surrounding the house and vociferously demanding the -punishment of the rebellious magistrate. The infamous charge of -Tichelaar against the great patriot had unquestionably sprung from the -scene at Cornelius de Witt’s residence. The Orange leaders saw that it -would not be safe for them or their master to let republicans like the -two De Witts remain among them, and their death was resolved upon.</p> - -<p>The twentieth of August, 1672, was the fatal day which was to seal the -doom of the two illustrious brothers. Cornelius, crushed by the sentence -of perpetual banishment pronounced against him, remained in his cell at -the Buitenhof, the terrible prison of the Hague. On the morning of that -day John de Witt was called to the Buitenhof, where his brother wished -to see him. Although warned by his friends not to go, the brave -ex-Pensionary did not hesitate to comply with the summons. It was a -false message. Reaching the prison, he found himself entrapped and at -the mercy of the mob, which had assembled before the prison howling and -shouting, “Hurrah for Orange! Death to the traitors!” It was but a short -time after his arrival, and after a hurried and pathetic interview with -his brother, that the rabble, instigated by the calumnies of the Orange -men, burst open the doors of the prison, and with axes and -sledge-hammers and clubs forced their way up to the cell where Cornelius -was imprisoned. At the sight of the two brothers the fury of the mob -knew no bounds. Like tigers they jumped upon them, threw them down, -clubbed and slew them amid cries of beastly exultation. “There goes the -Perpetual Edict!” one of the butchers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span> is said to have exclaimed as a -powerful blow with the butt-end of his musket prostrated John de Witt -senseless at his feet. Another murderer came up, and noticing symptoms -of returning consciousness in the countenance of the Pensionary, he -fired his pistol at him, blowing out his brains. Cornelius was killed by -a tremendous blow with an iron bar which fractured his skull; he died -instantly. But death alone did not satisfy the slayers. With unheard-of -brutality they kicked, beat and abused, in every possible manner, the -lifeless bodies, and finally, after having stripped off their clothes, -dragged the mangled and disfigured remains from the jail to a gibbet -which had been erected by volunteer executioners, and hung them by the -feet. The popular frenzy went so far that the murderers cut and tore the -flesh in pieces from the bodies of “the great traitors, John and -Cornelius de Witt,” and sold them in the streets of the city for a few -cents each.</p> - -<p>Thus suffered and died, on the twentieth of August, 1672, two of the -purest and most high-minded patriots that any nation has -produced,—murdered by their own people, whom they had served faithfully -and successfully for many years. Their death is a dark blot on the -annals of the Dutch Republic: and it is an indelible stain on the -otherwise great and fair name of William the Third of Orange, -Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and afterwards King of England. -History has forgotten many crimes, but it will not forget the -assassination of the brothers De Witt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV<br /><br /> -ALEXIS, SON OF PETER THE GREAT</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span></p> - -<p><a name="ALEXIS" id="ALEXIS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p210b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p210b_sml.jpg" width="374" height="443" alt="image unavailable: ALEXIS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ALEXIS</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XV<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXIS, SON OF PETER THE GREAT<br /><br /> -(June 26, 1718)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE sudden death of Alexis, son of Peter the Great by his first wife -Eudoxia, has always been and is still shrouded in mystery; but the -prevailing opinion of historians is that the unfortunate young man was -assassinated by direct order of his father, and all the surrounding -circumstances point to this conclusion. We think we are therefore -justified in placing it here among the famous assassinations in history. -It is the darkest chapter in the history of Peter the Great, a monarch -whose achievements as a civil administrator, reformer, and general -entitle him to a high rank among the really great rulers of Europe; but -these achievements should not be made a cloak or excuse for a crime from -which not only modern civilization, but human nature itself, shrinks -back in horror.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary here to go into the details of the marvellous -activity and energy of Peter’s life. More than any other ruler of -ancient or modern times he stands before the world as a model national -reformer, introducing, by the force of an indomitable will, the most -sweeping changes and reforms into the social,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span> economical, political, -industrial, and commercial life of the nation over which he rules, -breaking with all the traditions of the past, and lifting his nation by -a supreme effort from comparative barbarism into semi-culture, and -starting it on the road to political greatness and commercial -importance, on which it has made such astounding progress during the -last two hundred years. The personal genius and initiative of Peter the -Great have contributed more to the development of Russia’s resources, -and he has done more to raise her to her present position in Europe than -all other causes combined. It is sad for the philanthropist and -historian to admit that these great qualities were obscured by vices and -habits that were, perhaps, the tribute which even the greatest of -mortals has to pay to his age and to his nation.</p> - -<p>As a very young man Peter had married Eudoxia Laputkin, the daughter of -a powerful and influential family. It was not a love marriage, but he -had hoped to gain from this alliance a strengthening of his pretensions -to the throne. Eudoxia was very handsome, but, while she pleased Peter, -she had not the power to win his exclusive affection. She bore him a -son, Alexis, but even the birth of an heir—generally so anxiously -expected by autocrats—could not firmly establish intimate relations -between Peter and Eudoxia while he permitted the boy to remain entirely -under the care of the mother and her relatives. Unfortunately the -Laputkin family was strongly attached to ancient Russian traditions and -usages. It was entirely under the influence of the priests and clung to -the prejudices and prerogatives of the Russian aristocracy. Alexis was -brought up in these<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span> opinions and absorbed them from his infancy. In -fact no two minds, and no two temperaments could have been more at -variance than those of the father and of the son; and, as the boy grew -up, the antagonism between Peter and Alexis became greater and more -pronounced.</p> - -<p>Whether from incompatibility of temper or some other cause, Peter -discarded Eudoxia and had her shut up in a convent in 1698; he then took -the boy out of her hands and entrusted his education to teachers in -sympathy with his own ideas. But they found it impossible—and even -Peter himself, in spite of rigorous measures and cruelty—to eradicate -from the mind of the boy the conservative and old-Russian principles -which his mother and the Laputkins had, as it would seem, planted deep -within it. When Peter divorced Eudoxia and shut her up in a convent, the -antipathy of the boy turned into hatred, and he clung only the more -stubbornly to his mother and her family. As he grew older, he became -intemperate and dissipated; but, more than these vices, the sluggishness -of his mind and the open hostility with which he looked upon the great -reforms in which Peter was engaged and in which he took great pride, -irritated his father to such a degree that the Czar formed the plan of -excluding him from the succession.</p> - -<p>In order to break his bad habits and possibly to bring about a salutary -change in his rude and uncouth conduct, Alexis was married quite young -to a Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, a lovely and refined young -woman of great personal beauty; but Alexis treated her very coldly and -cruelly. The fact that his father had selected his bride was sufficient -cause for him to treat<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span> her with contempt and aversion. She bore her -misfortune with great resignation; but died of a broken heart, after -having given her husband two children, a daughter and a son. The latter -afterwards ascended the throne as Peter the Second.</p> - -<p>The death of his wife made but little impression on Alexis, who had been -living for a long time in open adultery with his mistress, an illiterate -serf from Finland. When this matrimonial attempt to reform Alexis had -failed, the Czar, more than ever incensed at his obstinacy, gave him the -choice between changing his ways and being sent to a convent. The Czar -was the more inclined to shut him up in a solitary place of confinement -because Catherine, his second wife, had just given birth to a son, and -Peter might hope to have a male heir, even with Alexis out of the way. -The birth of this half-brother filled the mind of Alexis with vague -fears. But being assured by his friends, and especially by the Laputkins -and the priests, that he might easily, at the proper time, get out of -the convent, since the cowl would not be nailed to his head, he -hypocritically declared in favor of the convent, and told his father -that he had a greater vocation for spiritual things than for the -government of an empire. The confinement was, however, not so very -solitary as it might have appeared to the Czar; on the contrary, both -Alexis and Eudoxia were the chief personages around whom the malcontents -and all the opponents of reform clustered with hopeful expectation. -Alexis treated his imprisonment so lightly that he imprudently spoke of -what he was going to do as soon as he had ascended the throne. “I shall -be the Czar,” said he; “they cannot keep me out of the succession.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span> Let -his foreigners intrigue against me; I shall beat them all, for the -people are for me, and I’ll set all things right again. We shall then be -Russians once more!”</p> - -<p>In the meantime Peter the Great had started on a new European tour. -Catherine, his wife, accompanied him. He went to Prussia, Denmark, -Holland, England and France, and was received everywhere with the -greatest honors and distinctions. At Amsterdam the unwelcome news -reached him that Alexis had left his convent under a false pretence, -saying that he would join the Czar on his travels; but he had proceeded -to Vienna and placed himself under the protection of the German Emperor. -The Czar immediately despatched two of his most intimate friends with -instructions to bring him back, alive or dead. But when the two -messengers reached Vienna, the Czarowitz had left that city already, and -his whereabouts was unknown. But after a diligent search, it was -discovered that he had gone to Naples and had found an asylum at the -Castle of St. Angelo. The messengers hurried to Naples and succeeded in -getting an interview with the Prince, in which they exhausted their -eloquence to induce him to return with them to Russia. They read to him -also a letter written by his father, who promised him that, upon his -immediate return, his escapade would be forgiven and forgotten. The -Prince was not willing to go, and consented only when the Viceroy of -Naples joined his own request with the entreaties of the messengers. The -Czar had returned already to St. Petersburg when Alexis arrived.</p> - -<p>The Prince hoped to be kindly received and to be treated like a -repentant son; but in this expectation he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span> found himself badly deceived. -He was immediately arrested and subjected to a very severe -interrogatory, in the course of which he implicated a number of -prominent persons in having planned and assisted him in his flight from -Russia. And then a mock trial of the most infamous character was -enacted. The young Prince had already renounced all his rights to the -crown; but this renunciation did not assuage the vindictive spirit of -his father. Those whom Alexis, in his confusion and in the agony of the -torture, had implicated in the crime of which he was accused, were tried -for high treason, convicted, and beheaded or broken on the wheel. The -ex-Empress Eudoxia was transferred to a dungeon in another prison, after -having been cruelly chastised by two nuns. Alexis himself, from whom the -cruel application of the torture (during which the Czar was present) had -extorted the confession of crimes which he had never committed, was -convicted of high treason and sentenced to be beheaded. The Czar -insisted on a verdict of capital punishment, and the one hundred and -eighty-one judges composing the court obeyed the imperial brute; they -rendered a unanimous verdict. Peter hypocritically said that he would -pardon him. When the decision of the judges and his father’s promise of -clemency were communicated to Alexis, he was overcome with terror and -excitement, and led back to prison. The next day it was reported that he -had died of apoplexy, but that in his last moments an affectionate -interview had taken place between him and his father. Another report -stated that the Czar had withdrawn his pardon and ordered his son to be -beheaded without delay. And still another report, almost too horrid to -be true, says that Peter, with his own hands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span> cut off the head of his -son. There is no doubt that the young man was foully murdered. The story -of his death by apoplexy was merely invented to whitewash the memory of -one of the greatest, but also of one of the most brutal and cruel rulers -that ever lived.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<br /><br /> -PETER THE THIRD OF RUSSIA</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span></p> - -<p><a name="PETER_III" id="PETER_III"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p220b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p220b_sml.jpg" width="387" height="496" alt="image unavailable: PETER III." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">PETER III.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XVI<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF PETER THE THIRD OF RUSSIA<br /><br /> -(July 17, 1762)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N a previous chapter we have told the story, full of horror and crime, -of the life of Ivan the Terrible of Russia. It was not one famous -assassination which placed that life-story in this series of historical -murders; it was an uninterrupted, long-continued succession of -butcheries and assassinations which entitled it to this place. In the -long line of historical characters extending through the ages there is -not one who so fully deserves the designation of a wholesale assassin as -Ivan the Terrible, the demon of the North. But strange to say, the -Russians, who during his lifetime execrated him and fled from him as -from contagion, to-day seem to have forgotten his iniquities, and place -him among their great rulers. Let Karamsin, one of the few great -historians Russia has produced, explain this seeming anomaly: “Such was -the Czar! Such were his subjects! Their patience was boundless, for they -regarded the commands of the Czar as the commands of God, and they -considered every act of disobedience to the Czar’s will as a rebellion -against the will of God. They perished, but they saved for us, the -Russians of the nineteenth century, the greatness and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span> power of -Russia, for the strength of an empire rests in the willingness of an -empire to obey.” Words like these make us comprehend—what otherwise -would be utterly incomprehensible to us—that a monster like Ivan the -Terrible was permitted to continue his career of crime and murder until -it was terminated by death brought on by disease and not by violence.</p> - -<p>The history of Russia, after the death of Ivan the Terrible, is full of -crimes and assassinations. Czars and heirs to the crown were ruthlessly -murdered in order to make way for usurpers and pretenders, until these -again fell victims to conspiracies. The most famous of these -assassinations is that of Peter the Third, not only because it was -carried out in the interest of his own wife, the Empress Catherine, but -mainly perhaps because Russia, at that time,—1762—had already entered -the list of great European powers. Peter the Third was the son of -Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and of the Grand-Duchess -Anna of Russia, oldest daughter of Peter the Great. As such, young Peter -had even a better right to the crown of Russia than the Empress -Elizabeth, who was a younger daughter of Peter the Great; and it was -Elizabeth herself who, in 1742, sent for Peter—then a boy at school in -Germany—and declared him her heir and successor to the crown.</p> - -<p>Peter was then only fifteen years of age. His education until then had -been designed to fit him for the throne of Denmark and Sweden, upon -which his father had a just claim; but preferring the prospect of -sitting on the throne of the Czars, he went to St. Petersburg. The -Empress spared no pains to educate her nephew for the high and difficult -task which was in store for him as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span> the future ruler of Russia. But it -was in vain that she tried to make a Russian of him; he remained not -only at heart, but also in his tastes, his manners, his conduct, his -amusements and occupations a German; and what was worse, he liked to -show publicly and privately how strongly attached he was to the land of -his birth, and how profoundly he despised the people of Russia, over -whom he was to rule. In a foreign-born crown-prince such a disposition -would have been a serious political mistake under all circumstances, but -it was especially so in this case, since Russia had been engaged, for -years, in war with Frederick the Great of Prussia, and had made great -sacrifices in men and treasures to conquer him and to cripple his -growing power and influence in Europe.</p> - -<p>Elizabeth hated Frederick the Great with the passion of a woman offended -in her vanity. He had said of her: “She is as ugly as a cat and as -treacherous; the very thought of her makes me sick.” The hatred of the -Empress did not prevent the Crown Prince from openly expressing his -unbounded admiration for the Prussian King. True, Peter was mentally too -insignificant to comprehend the real greatness and genius of Frederick; -but he admired the strict discipline, the rigid training, the incessant -military exercises, the severe punishments for the slightest infraction -of the rules and the least symptom of insubordination,—in short, all -the outward and visible work in the preparation of a model army; and the -Prussian army had become the model of Europe since the days of King -Frederick William the First. He was anxious to introduce these Prussian -features into the Russian army, expecting very likely that such -externals<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span> would be the principal means of making an army invincible. -That it took the genius and the untiring energy of a Frederick to bring -about this invincibility he failed to see. When Peter had grown up to -manhood his military zeal increased and became a perfect passion. But he -felt no desire to join the Russian army in the field and earn military -distinction and honors; no, he preferred to stay at home and act the -drillmaster of a regiment of Holsteiners, which the Empress had -organized for his especial pleasure, and to whose equipment, drill and -exercises the young Grand Duke devoted most of his leisure hours. The -men were uniformed and armed exactly like Prussian grenadiers, and all -the officers belonged to prominent German families. The organization of -this regiment made the Grand Duke very unpopular among the members of -the Russian nobility, and they lost no opportunity in blackening his -character and belittling his mental qualifications.</p> - -<p>In 1745 Peter married the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, the daughter of a -Prussian field-marshal. She was distinguished by great beauty and high -mental attainments, and afterwards won world-wide renown under the name -of Catherine the Second. She was originally named Sophia Augusta, but -when the Empress Elizabeth selected her for the wife of her successor, -she adopted the name of Catherine. Before his marriage, Peter had led a -rather dissolute life, but for a couple of years after the wedding the -young couple seemed to be quite happy. Peter himself was very -good-looking and, although not a man of brilliant mind, was of average -intelligence and culture. An attack of small-pox destroyed his good -looks; and this circumstance combined with the volatile<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span> character of -his wife caused an estrangement, which seemed to grow from year to year, -and finally degenerated into absolute hatred. From that time on husband -and wife, although not formally divorced or even separated, lived each a -life of unrestrained vice.</p> - -<p>No sooner had the courtiers noticed the growing coldness between them -than they tried to ingratiate themselves with the young and beautiful -but profligate Catherine, and some of them succeeded only too well. The -first of her lovers was Count Soltikoff, one of the handsomest men of -the Russian court, and first chamberlain of the Grand Duke. In his -privileged position in the service of the Grand Duke he had so many -opportunities of meeting the Grand Duchess, that soon the closest -intimacy was established between them. But somehow or other a report of -the liaison reached the ears of the Empress, and she sent Soltikoff on a -diplomatic mission to Turkey in the hope of putting a stop to it. But -the Grand Duchess easily consoled herself. No sooner had Soltikoff left -the capital than Catherine formed a new liaison. Her next lover was the -beautiful and chivalrous Prince Poniatowski, of the renowned Polish -family; the scandal became so notorious and excited so much envy and -jealousy among the Russian courtiers that it reached the ears of the -Grand Duke, who applied to the Empress and demanded that his wife be -punished for her shameful conduct. The Empress, who was guilty herself -of many scandalous love affairs, did not reprimand the Grand Duchess, -but sent Poniatowski back to Poland. A short time afterwards he -returned, however, having been appointed Polish Ambassador at the court -of St. Petersburg. The Grand Duke was indignant at his unlooked-for -return,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span> and having one day surprised him in a very intimate -<i>tête-à-tête</i> with Catherine, upbraided him and her in the presence of -the whole court, threatening at the time to drive him like a dog from -the palace, and to imprison her in a convent. At the same time the Grand -Duke himself was very far from leading an exemplary life. He had picked -out among the ladies of the court a young and beautiful girl, Countess -Woronzow, and made her his mistress.</p> - -<p>The time came when the Empress Elizabeth was on her deathbed. She made -then a last attempt to reconcile the Grand Duke and the Grand Duchess, -in order to secure peace for Russia; but the estrangement and repugnance -which they felt for each other was so great that this attempt failed -utterly. In fact, the chasm widened immensely after the death of -Elizabeth, and neither the husband nor the wife took care to conceal it. -Moreover, immediately after Peter’s accession to the throne, a radical -change occurred in the policy of the government,—a change that was -warmly approved by some, but most bitterly opposed by others. Two great -political parties were formed, and although the opponents of the -government were compelled to practise their agitation in secret, they -nevertheless counted a number of the most influential men among their -leaders. The new Emperor broke loose entirely from the traditional -policy of Russia; he not only withdrew from the Franco-Austrian -alliance, but he sent orders to the Russian generals in the field -against Frederick the Great of Prussia to coöperate with him. Peter -himself donned the uniform of a Prussian general, which grade Frederick -the Great had conferred upon him at his special request; all exercises<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span> -and manœuvres of the Russian army were, by direction of the Czar, -fashioned after those of the Prussian army, and Russian traditions and -customs were disregarded.</p> - -<p>The indignation and discontent among the high nobility of Russia at -these “reforms”—which they ridiculed and despised—knew no bounds. In -these sentiments they were encouraged by the Czar’s wife, who both from -personal hostility and from the intuition of her far-sighted political -genius, opposed them as anti-Russian and as the manifestations of a -Teuto-maniac unfit to rule over the great Russian nation. Her husband -became more and more aggressive in his threats. He spoke openly, among -his intimates, of his intention to imprison Catherine in a convent and -to marry his mistress, Elizabeth Woronzow, and branded the son whom -Catherine had borne to him, as a bastard, who would be excluded from the -succession. It was therefore in self-defence that Catherine surrounded -herself with men of power and influence. She entered into close -relations with high officers of the Russian army, who still adhered with -loyal devotion to the traditions of Peter the Great and Elizabeth; and -although far from being pious and religious herself, she surrounded -herself with the high dignitaries of the Russian Church, whom Peter -insulted by neglect. Catherine, on the other hand, manifested a great -interest in religious ceremonies and a strict observance of the Greek -Church service; and at all times prominent clergymen were guests at -Peterhof, her residence.</p> - -<p>Peter the Third wished to realize on the throne of Russia the ideal of -enlightened despotism, of which his idol, King Frederick the Second of -Prussia, was so illustrious a model. One of his first acts was to recall -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span> political exiles from Siberia—among them the two fieldmarshals -Münnich and Biron, who had been exiled by Elizabeth. It is assuredly one -of the most lamentable spectacles to behold on the throne of a great -Empire an ignorant, narrow-minded, whimsical, and fanatical ruler, -introducing, under the name of “reforms,” vital and extraordinary -changes in the administration and government, utterly unsuited to the -character and culture of his nation. Even with the best intentions he -will fail and pass for a fool.</p> - -<p>Many of Peter’s measures were humane and just, and might have been -considered judicious if he had not, by the manner in which he introduced -them, provoked a resistance which proved fatal to them. He had no -knowledge of Russian character, and looked down upon public sentiment. -Even as Czar he gave public expression of his contempt for Russia, and -placed it in every respect below Germany. With incredible -self-sufficiency he disregarded all counsels to be more prudent in his -public utterances and to proceed more slowly in his efforts to -Prussianize Russia’s methods of administration and her system of civil -and criminal jurisprudence. He abolished time-honored institutions; he -attacked the privileges of the Church and the clergy; he ordered the -churches and chapels to be deprived of their wealth and golden ornaments -and images; he confiscated real estate belonging to the government, but -occupied and taken possession of by the clergy; he reduced the -exorbitant salaries of great noblemen in the provinces. By such acts he -engendered protests, dissatisfaction, and threats in the very classes -upon which the throne has to lean in despotic countries. To cap the -climax, he dismissed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span> the Russian body-guards and surrounded himself -exclusively with German troops. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, his own -cousin, was placed in command of these German regiments, under whose -protection the Emperor considered himself absolutely safe. The King of -Prussia, who was well informed on all matters going on at the Russian -court, and who more than anybody else in Europe had an interest at stake -to prolong the reign of his admirer, warned him again and again against -the intrigues of his wife and the “old-Russian party,” but Peter was -blinded by his prejudices and paid no attention to the warnings. He -underrated his wife’s talent for political combinations and intrigue, -and was far from suspecting that from the very first day of his reign -his fate was sealed and his days numbered.</p> - -<p>A great historian has called Catherine of Russia “the -Messalina-Richelieu” of history, indicating by that combination that she -was a monster of voluptuousness, insatiable in lust, and a prodigy of -statecraft and political shrewdness. The name is wonderfully -appropriate, for hardly ever has any female ruler, with the exception of -the infamous Roman Empress, so shamelessly prostituted herself as -Catherine the Second of Russia, and never has any woman, not even -Elizabeth of England, possessed political genius to a higher degree. It -was Peter the Great who introduced Russia into the list of European -states, but it was Catherine the Second whose genius breathed into the -gigantic empire its policy of grasping and ambitious expansion, which -has placed her standards as tutelary guards already over the northern -half of Asia, and which is yet far from being satisfied.</p> - -<p>While the Czar was amusing himself with new reforms<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span> which were at best -dead letters and created new enemies for him, his wife was untiring in -her efforts to win new friends and new supporters for the great <i>coup -d’état</i> which she was preparing as the crowning act of her ambition. She -wanted to be Empress in her own name, in order that she might make -Russia great and not be molested and embarrassed by a husband whom she -hated and despised. Her own personal memoirs, written in French and -published in London in 1858, whose authenticity has never been seriously -doubted, shows that when only fifteen years old, she was possessed by -this ambition, which she afterwards so fully realized. Among the -influential persons whose active coöperation Catherine had secured for -her ambitious plans was Princess Dashkow, a young woman of excellent -education and great ability, and sister of Elizabeth Woronzow. Princess -Dashkow, who, on account of the superiority of her mind had great -influence over her sister, proved a powerful auxiliary to Catherine in -this most critical period of her married life. Through her, Catherine -gained Count Panin, one of the ablest men of Russia and governor of the -young Grand-Duke Paul, Catherine’s son, as her ally. She told Panin that -she knew from her sister (the Czar’s mistress) that Peter the Third was -on the point of repudiating his wife, that he denied the legitimacy of -the young Grand Duke, that he intended to exclude him from the -succession, and to declare Ivan the Sixth his successor. This Prince had -been dethroned by Elizabeth and was retained as a prisoner in the -fortress of Schlüsselburg, but had fallen into idiocy. These -confidential communications induced Panin, who trembled for his own -position and possibly for his head, secretly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span> to join the army of -malcontents, whose programme it was to dethrone Peter the Third, -proclaim his son, Paul, Emperor, and Catherine Regent of the Empire -during Paul’s minority. This programme was not exactly that of -Catherine, who aspired to be the sovereign Empress of Russia, and not -merely the Regent during her son’s minority, but with consummate ability -she welcomed Panin’s overtures as steps leading to her own elevation.</p> - -<p>Whether Catherine had fully weighed and approved all the possibilities -which might result from the revolution which she had planned and for -which she had found so many instruments willing to help her, will very -likely remain forever an unsolved problem. Was she willing to sanction -the murder of her husband in order to step over his corpse to the -throne? This has been an open question with native and foreign -historians. Perhaps she honestly believed with Panin that she might get -rid of Peter in some way without either killing him or imprisoning him -for life. But it is absolutely certain that Catherine, in the summer of -1762, came to the conclusion that the time had come for striking a -decisive blow; and it is equally certain that, although not cruel by -nature, she never shrank back from any means to remove obstacles -standing in the way of her ambition. By the agency of her generals, -Suwarow, Potemkin, and Repnin, she sacrificed whole nations to her -ambition, and swept them off the face of the earth without feeling any -compunction at the barbarities committed. Does it look improbable -therefore that she may have consented to the assassination of her -husband, whom she detested, when all other means of silencing his claims -to the throne appeared unsafe?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span></p> - -<p>A very important part, in fact the most important of all, in the -conspiracy against the Czar, was taken by the Orloffs, and especially by -Count Gregor Orloff, the favored lover of Catherine, who had the -reputation of being the handsomest officer of the Russian army. The -Empress was passionately in love with him, although pretty well founded -rumors asserted that she bestowed her secret favors also on Gregor’s -brother, Alexis, a perfect giant in stature and of herculean strength. -All the Orloffs—Gregor, Alexis, Ivan, and Feodor—held positions as -officers in the imperial guards or in the artillery, and were among the -warmest adherents of Catherine, whose elevation would raise them, as -they well knew, to the highest position in the Empire, immediately by -the side of the throne. They became active agitators for her in the -army, and were really the principal actors in the terrible drama of -Peter’s assassination. Quite a bloody tradition attached to the Orloff -family, and the part which they were to play in the revolution against -Peter the Third lent new confirmation to it and recalled it to the minds -of the Russian people. At the time when Peter the Great abolished the -strelitzi, attended their horrid executions, even helped in them, one -day the block of the executioner was so crowded with the heads of the -victims that there was no room for others. Then one of the condemned -coolly stepped forward and pushed several of the heads off the bench, as -if it had been his business to do so. The Czar looked on in astonishment -and turning to the man, who had already attracted his attention by his -herculean frame and the classic beauty of his features, asked him: “What -are you doing that for?” “To make room for my own<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span> head!” was the cool -reply. Peter the Great, who admired personal courage above everything -else, was so well pleased with the reply, that he immediately pardoned -the condemned and set him free. This pardoned officer was a young -nobleman, named Orloff—the grandfather of the five Orloffs who played -such a conspicuous part in the revolution of 1762, and one of whom -murdered Peter the Third with his own hands.</p> - -<p>The outbreak of the revolution, as is usual in such cases, was caused by -an unexpected and trifling occurrence. A young officer of the imperial -guards, who had been won over to the party of Catherine, one evening -while under the influence of liquor, talked about the impending -revolution and was arrested by other officers who were not in the -conspiracy. Gregor Orloff heard of the arrest and immediately hurried to -Catherine, who was at Peterhof and had already retired for the night. -But Orloff went directly to her bedroom, aroused her from sleep and told -her that immediate action on her part was necessary, unless she wanted -to imperil and very likely lose the game for whose success they had been -working so patiently.</p> - -<p>Catherine’s resolution was quickly taken. She immediately got up, -dressed rapidly, and half an hour afterwards the carriage which had -carried Orloff from St. Petersburg, returned thither with the Empress -and her attendant. It was five o’clock in the morning of the -twenty-ninth of June when they arrived at the capital. Two hours later -Catherine was on horseback, dressed in the uniform of a general of the -imperial guards, which Count Buturlin had furnished, on her way to the -armory of the Preobrajenski guards, accompanied by Gregor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span> and Alexis -Orloff, and an escort of high officers who were in the conspiracy. -Princess Dashkow, also in an officer’s uniform, had preceded her, and -had announced to the officers of the guards that the Emperor, Peter the -Third, had died suddenly, that the Empress would shortly appear among -them in order to receive their homage and their oath of obedience as -heiress to the throne and Regent of the Empire during the minority of -her son. The officers consented immediately and influenced their -soldiers without difficulty when they were reminded of the late Czar’s -unjust partiality for the German regiments, and of Catherine’s -unwavering kindness to them. Both officers and soldiers greeted -Catherine, therefore, very enthusiastically when she arrived an hour -later, and both swore allegiance and devotion to her. Catherine’s -bearing on this trying occasion, was full of courage and dash. She had -never looked more beautiful, and the three regiments were perfectly -charmed with their new ruler. She then proceeded with her escort to the -Casan Church, where, in the meantime, the Archbishop of Novgorod and the -entire clergy of the capital had been assembled and were waiting for -her. The Archbishop administered the oath of office to her, and -Catherine swore to respect the laws and institutions of the Empire and -to protect the religion of the people, whereupon the entire clergy swore -allegiance to her. A solemn Te Deum, sung by thousands of voices, -terminated the grand ceremony, while the roar of artillery announced to -the inhabitants of St. Petersburg the accession of a new ruler. -Catherine had reached the goal of her ambition; she was now the -sovereign ruler of Russia, not merely in name, but in fact. She returned -to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> imperial palace, where an immense multitude greeted her with -enthusiastic cheers. Many thousand roubles were scattered among the -populace, which was moreover treated liberally with whiskey and other -intoxicants, and cheered vociferously, until Catherine, who looked -charmingly beautiful in her gaudy uniform, showed herself again and -again on the balcony. Count Galitzin, vice-admiral of the Russian fleet, -was on a visit at St. Petersburg on that day. Catherine sent for him, -won him over to her side by amiability and promises, and sent him back -to Kronstadt, the Russian naval port, to inspire the garrison and -sailors of that stronghold with enthusiasm for the Empress,—so that the -capital was protected on the seaward side against a possible attack by -Peter the Third.</p> - -<p>But even after having acted so promptly and so energetically, and after -having got possession of the capital and the principal part of the army -and the navy, Catherine had still a great deal to do, and her -penetrating genius did not underrate the danger of the situation in -which she found herself. All her successes in the capital among officers -had been secured by the fraudulent assertion that the Czar had died -suddenly, and there was no certainty whether Peter’s sudden appearance -at the capital, or a well-authenticated report that he was still among -the living and was hastening toward the capital, might cause a sudden -change in public sentiment. Undaunted by these secret apprehensions, and -impelled by the restless energy of her devouring ambition, she never -wavered in her resolution, but pressed onward toward the consummation of -her dangerous but tempting project, which seemed to be almost within her -grasp. Through the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span> active agitation of her friends, and the strong and -widespread hostility of the people and the army against Peter’s -ill-advised measures of “reform,” she could, almost from the first -announcement of her accession to the throne, command an army of fifteen -thousand well-equipped men, who were ready to die for her against any -pretender, Peter the Third included.</p> - -<p>The outbreak of the revolution was so sudden that Peter was taken -entirely by surprise, and would not listen to the first reports when -they reached him. He had gone on that very day to Oranienbaum, an -imperial summer resort, about twenty miles from St. Petersburg, where he -enjoyed himself with his Holstein guards, his favorites, and his -mistress, Elizabeth Woronzow. There were altogether about two thousand -soldiers with him; but there was also Field-marshal Münnich, Russia’s -most renowned soldier, and a man of great authority in the army. -Moreover Münnich was a man of great personal courage, and if Peter had -followed his counsels, he might have saved his crown and his life. -Münnich’s advice was to take immediate and bold measures, to meet -aggression by aggression, and to oppose the immense prestige of the -legitimate ruler to the revolutionary usurpation of an ambitious and -adulterous wife. But neither Peter’s personal character, nor his -immediate surroundings would admit of the acceptance of such bold and -aggressive action. He was like a helpless child, hesitating and -vacillating, sending out orders, and revoking them the next hour; asking -everybody’s advice, and following nobody’s. His mistress was bewailing -his misfortune, cursing Catherine and her treachery, and falling into -hysterics at the mere thought of a bloody struggle for supremacy -between<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span> Peter and his wife. It was easy to foresee the outcome of so -much indecision, vacillation and cowardice on one side, and of so much -determination, firmness and courage on the other.</p> - -<p>After nearly the whole day had been spent in fruitless attempts to come -to a decision, Münnich finally, at about eight o’clock in the evening, -succeeded in persuading Peter to go on board of a yacht and proceed to -Kronstadt, where, he expected, the Emperor would be warmly welcomed. If -this step had been taken earlier in the day, it would very likely have -been successful. But it will be remembered that Catherine, after her -return from the Casan church, had an interview with Count Galitzin, -commander-in-chief of the naval forces at Kronstadt, and had secured his -coöperation. The Emperor was therefore not permitted to enter the -harbor, and when he himself appeared in the fore-part of the yacht and -proclaimed his identity, he was simply told to return to where he came -from, and that Russia had no longer an emperor, but an empress. Münnich -then appealed to Peter not to be deterred by such words, but to get into -one of the boats, in which he would accompany him, and to effect a -landing. “They will not shoot you,” the old field-marshal said, “this -whole affair is a bold game some of the high officers are playing, but -the soldiers are kept in ignorance, and when they meet their Emperor -face to face they will throw down their arms.” But when the women heard -from Peter that he would undertake to effect a landing on the coast, -they burst into tears and filled the ship with loud lamentations and -cries, and the Czar’s mistress threw herself at his feet imploring him -not to expose his precious life to the bullets of the rebels,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> and not -to abandon her, helpless and heartbroken, to the revenge of his enemies. -Peter was only too glad to take her despair as a pretext to recede from -Münnich’s proposition.</p> - -<p>Münnich was disgusted and wished the women were a thousand miles off; -but he made still another proposition. He wanted to turn the imperial -yacht toward Reval, where quite a number of Russian warships were -assembled. Peter was to take command of this fleet, sail to Pomerania, -land on Prussian soil, proceed as rapidly as possible to the large -Russian army concentrated there, and return at the head of that army to -St. Petersburg, which, as the old and bold field-marshal believed, would -not even attempt to make resistance. “Within sixty days,” said he to -Peter, “your Empire will be at your feet again, your wife will be at -your mercy, and your whole people will hail you as a conqueror and -savior!” The plan was good and would very likely have succeeded if it -had been promptly acted upon. There were nearly eighty thousand Russian -soldiers—and they were the <i>élite</i> of the Russian army—in Pomerania, -and if Peter had been supported by them, he could easily have quelled -the rebellion and recovered the throne.</p> - -<p>But Peter was not the master of his own decisions. He obediently bowed -to the will of his mistress and her lady friends, and they strongly -protested against this new plan of the old fighter and “war-horse,” who, -they declared, had no heart and did not know what love meant. Countess -Woronzow persuaded Peter that the proper thing for him to do was to -return to Oranienbaum or Peterhof and make his peace with the Empress, -who would be only too glad to make an arrangement with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span> him satisfactory -to both. This suggestion corresponded too well with the pusillanimous -and vacillating character of Peter to be rejected by him. So the whole -party returned to Peterhof, and negotiations were at once opened with -Catherine tending towards a reconciliation of the husband and wife. -Peter addressed a letter to his wife in which he offered her the -co-regency of the Empire, assuring her at the same time that the -occurrences of the past week should be entirely forgotten and that love -and harmony should in the future prevail in the imperial household. The -letter was haughtily rejected by the Empress; no answer came to it but a -verbal message that it was too late, and that no further communication -from him would be received except an act of entire abdication. Peter -thereupon surrendered unconditionally. He wrote a second letter to his -wife, in which he very humbly asked permission both for himself and his -mistress, Countess Woronzow, and a number of his attendants to return to -Holstein, where they would live quietly in retirement from all public -affairs. In order to carry out this wish, he asked for a pension -enabling him to live in becoming style, and in exchange for these favors -he recognized Catherine as Regent of the Empire during his son’s -minority.</p> - -<p>Major-General Michael Ismailoff, one of Peter’s most intimate and most -trusted friends, was the bearer of this valuable document, which seemed -to satisfy Catherine, but was not equally satisfactory to Count Gregor -Orloff, who hoped to secure the hand of the Empress when Peter had been -put out of the way. Orloff’s secret design was to assassinate Peter and -then take his place by Catherine’s side. The Orloffs therefore took hold -of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span> General Ismailoff, after he had handed the Czar’s letter to the -Empress, and induced him by supplications and brilliant promises to come -over to their side, and to assist them in making Peter a prisoner as the -only means of restoring peace and avoiding civil war. At first Ismailoff -resisted their offers, but at last he yielded. He returned to Peterhof -and played the part of a traitor to perfection. He told Peter that he -had delivered his letter to the Empress, and that she would, as a matter -of course, grant the request he had made, but that she was overcome with -sorrow at the turn things had taken, that she was perfectly willing to -admit him to a co-regency and to be reconciled to him, and that she was -anxious to meet him in a private interview at Oranienbaum in order to -arrange matters to their mutual satisfaction.</p> - -<p>Peter fell easily into the trap. He immediately accepted the invitation -and got ready to go to Oranienbaum. At first he proposed to go there -under the escort of his Holsteiners, but Ismailoff persuaded him to let -them stay at Peterhof, because it might look as though he distrusted the -Empress and might offend her. Peter therefore went to Oranienbaum, -accompanied only by Ismailoff, who encouraged him in his most -extravagant expectations of a brilliant career still in store for him. -But there was a sad and sudden awakening from this dream of greatness. -On his arrival at Oranienbaum he found the courtyard filled with forty -or fifty kibitkas; and Ismailoff, changing his conduct and tone -suddenly, told him that he was a prisoner. Peter, without arms and -without friends, resigned himself to his fate almost without a word of -protest. He was led to one of the kibitkas, already occupied by two -strong officers armed to the teeth, and then all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span> the kibitkas started -at once in as many different directions as there were roads leading to -Oranienbaum. This was done in order to deceive the spectators as to the -direction which Peter’s kibitka had taken. He was conveyed to Robzak, a -country villa near the village of Kraskazelo, a short distance from -Petersburg, but rather isolated and out of the way of the regular -traffic. Moreover precautions were taken to surround the villa with -soldiers. Peter was treated almost with cruelty in his solitary -confinement. He was not permitted to communicate with anybody, and his -friends were kept in profound ignorance as to his whereabouts. Many of -them believed that he was either at Peterhof or at Petersburg. He -addressed a pitiable letter to the Empress in which he humbly petitioned -her to send him his negro servant, with whom he liked to play, his -favorite dog, his violin, his Bible and a few novels. But the letter -remained unanswered, and none of the things asked for were sent.</p> - -<p>In the forenoon of July seventeenth, Alexis Orloff, accompanied by -several officers, arrived at Robzak. They had an order from the Empress -admitting them to Peter’s presence. Orloff and an officer named -Tepelof—both men of herculean strength—entered the deposed Emperor’s -room, and found him in a despondent mood. They carried some -delicacies,—among them bottles of old Burgundy wine, which was -poisoned. They announced to Peter that his term of imprisonment would -soon be ended, and that he would then be permitted to return to -Holstein, his native country. Peter was overjoyed at this announcement, -and invited the officers, whom he treated as his guests, to take dinner -with him; they readily consented and produced the delicacies and the -wine they had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span> brought. At the dinner-table Orloff presented a glass of -Burgundy to Peter, who swallowed it rapidly; but the wine was so -strongly poisoned that he felt the effect almost instantly. He jumped -from his chair, screaming and howling with pain. “I am poisoned! I am -poisoned!” he cried, “give me milk, give me oil!” The two assassins -terrified with what they had done sent for milk and oil, which he -swallowed eagerly. But after a few minutes they took courage again and -resolved to complete their murderous work. Peter’s cries had attracted -two or three officers, who entered the room; but instead of protecting -him, they assisted the conspirators. All at once Alexis Orloff rushed -upon Peter, who had thrown himself upon his bed, writhing in pain, and -tried to choke him. Peter himself was a man of herculean strength, and -defended himself with the courage of despair. The iron grasp of Orloff’s -fingers did not release his throat, and the Czar’s face became as black -as a negro’s. At last, by a terrible blow, he freed himself from Orloff, -but while he tried to take breath, the four or five assassins rushed -upon him all at the same time; they dragged him from the bed, and when -he fell into an arm-chair, they threw a large napkin round his neck and -strangled him until he was dead. He fell from the chair to the floor and -expired in a few minutes. A number of officers had witnessed the -terrible scene from a terrace which afforded a full view of the -prisoner’s room.</p> - -<p>The admirers of Catherine have often denied her active participation in -the crime of Peter’s assassination; but they have never succeeded in -making the world believe in her innocence. In fact, how could she be -innocent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span> since the assassins were admitted to Peter’s presence upon a -direct order issued by her, with no other business for them to do than -to kill him? And then her conduct after the horrible crime had been -perpetrated is sufficient evidence of her guilt. She did not regret the -murder, and she rewarded the murderers. Even in the announcement of -Peter’s sudden death she manifested a brutality which defied decency and -common-sense. In a few words, without adding one word of sorrow at the -death of one who, as she asserted, was the father of her son, she -announced to the Russian people and to the foreign ambassadors at St. -Petersburg that the dethroned Czar Peter the Third, had suddenly died -from the effects of a hæmorrhoidal colic, to which he was subject, and -which had caused a stroke of apoplexy. This cool declaration was to -account for the horrible appearance of Peter’s countenance, which looked -almost black even in death, and which could not be concealed from the -people. It had always been customary to exhibit to the public the corpse -of a deceased Czar and to place him on a catafalque where the people -could see him and pay their respect to him. This public exhibition could -not be avoided without immensely strengthening the suspicion of foul -play; and Catherine boldly underwent the ordeal. The black hue of the -countenance could not be changed, but Peter’s neck was entirely covered -up with a very high and stiff stock, which concealed the finger-marks of -his assassins. Among the spectators was the old field-marshal, Prince -Trubetzkoi, well known for his rudeness and sincerity. He rapidly -stepped up to the bier, where Peter lay in state, and exclaimed in a -loud tone of voice: “Why, why, Peter Fedorowitch, what ridiculous kind -of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span> necktie have they bundled around your neck? You never wore such a -thing in your life; why should you wear it now when you are dead?” And -he began to open the stock, and would have exposed Peter’s throat to -public view, if the guards, in spite of the high rank of the Prince, had -not forcibly dragged him away.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately for the memory of Catherine the Second the assassination -of her husband was not the only assassination caused by her usurpation -of the Russian throne. It will be remembered that Peter had repeatedly -threatened to disown, and consequently to exclude from the succession, -Paul, the son whom Catherine had borne to him, and whom he openly -branded as a bastard, and to this threat he added the declaration that -he would name as his successor the young ex-Emperor Ivan the Sixth, who -had been dethroned by the Empress Elizabeth, and who was still -imprisoned at Schlüsselburg. This threat was fatal to the poor young -Prince, who during his long seclusion had become half-idiotic and had -lost the knowledge of his identity. But nevertheless the fear that he -might be used by her enemies as a legitimate pretender, with better -rights to the crown than her own, haunted Catherine’s mind, and she did -not rest until he had fallen a victim to the assassin’s dagger.</p> - -<p>Strict orders had been issued to the commandant of the fortress of -Schlüsselburg that on the first attempt to liberate Ivan he should be -immediately put to death. And then a new infamy was committed which very -likely sprang from Catherine’s own diabolical genius. There was a young -and poor lieutenant named Mirowitch, in the garrison of Schlüsselburg -who was infatuated with admiration for the Empress and anxious to render -her a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span> service. He was approached by one of his superior officers -(probably an Orloff) and his attention was directed to Ivan. “If he were -out of the way,” he was told, “the Empress would never forget it, and -would reward the service in an imperial manner.” Mirowitch took the hint -and resolved to merit the Empress’s gratitude by assassinating Ivan. -Under some pretext he really came to the door of the room in which Ivan -was kept a prisoner. Two officers were on guard there, but when they -heard Mirowitch’s voice demanding admittance and threatening to break -open the door, they rushed upon Ivan and put him to death. Then they -opened the door, and finding Mirowitch before them, they showed him -Ivan’s corpse and arrested him. Mirowitch was put on trial. The crime he -was charged with was an attempt to abduct the imprisoned Ivan and to -proclaim him Emperor of Russia. Mirowitch did not defend himself. He -only smiled. He knew who stood behind him and would protect him from -injury. He was found guilty and sentenced to be beheaded. He laughed at -the sentence and never lost courage. With a smile he ascended the -scaffold and looked around, wondering why the imperial messenger with -the pardon and the reward was not coming. The priest approached him and -prayed for him. He listened with little attention, and still a smile -hovered on his features. But suddenly the executioner took hold of him, -held him in his iron grasp, and threw him down. It was the last moment -and no messenger appeared yet; and then only Mirowitch realized his -terrible fate. With a scream of mad rage he commenced wrestling with the -executioner, and while uttering a cry of execration against Catherine, -his severed head rolled upon the scaffold. The assassination<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> of two -czars—one of them her own husband—was the bloody price which Catherine -paid for the throne which she was to make great and renowned by a long -and glorious reign. How easily great crimes are forgotten if committed -by sovereigns of genius!<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<br /><br /> -GUSTAVUS THE THIRD OF SWEDEN</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span></p> - -<p><a name="GUSTAVUS_III" id="GUSTAVUS_III"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p248b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p248b_sml.jpg" width="401" height="500" alt="image unavailable: GUSTAVUS III." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">GUSTAVUS III.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XVII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF GUSTAVUS THE THIRD OF SWEDEN<br /><br /> -(March 17, 1792)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">O</span>N the seventeenth of March, 1792, Gustavus the Third, King of Sweden, -was assassinated by Ankarström, a Swedish nobleman, and this crime -caused a sensation throughout Europe, although the horrors of the French -Revolution and the wholesale executions by the guillotine had made the -world familiar with murder and bloodshed. This assassination was of a -political character, and private revenge or other considerations had -nothing whatever to do with it. But in order to understand fully the -causes leading up to the tragedy, it will be necessary to refer to the -condition of public affairs in Sweden during the period preceding the -reign of Gustavus.</p> - -<p>The continuous and costly wars of Charles the Twelfth had left Sweden in -a terrible state of exhaustion and misery. A number of her most valuable -provinces had been taken by Russia, and the domestic affairs of the -country, its finances, industry and commerce were utterly ruined. -Charles died during his invasion of Norway; it would really be more -proper to say “was assassinated”; for, on the evening of the eleventh of -December,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> 1718, while leaning against a parapet and looking at the -soldiers throwing up the breastworks, he was struck down by a bullet, -which could not have come from the enemy, in front of the fortress of -Frederickshall. In spite of the very severe winter weather, Charles had -insisted on laying siege to the strong fortress, and he paid for his -obstinacy with his life.</p> - -<p>When the news of his death reached Sweden, the nobility took advantage -of it and of the unsettled question of the succession to the throne in -order to recover those privileges and rights which it had lost through -the genius and statesmanship of Charles the Eleventh, and which had not -been restored to it during the reign of Charles the Twelfth. The -Reichsrath was immediately reinstated in its old rights, and arrogated -to itself the power of deciding the succession according to its own will -and advantage. It coolly passed by the lawful heir, Charles Frederick of -Holstein-Gottorp, the son of Charles the Twelfth’s elder sister, and -elected Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, who had married Charles the Twelfth’s -younger sister; not, however, without having compelled the royal couple -to renounce, both for themselves and for their heirs, all absolute -power, and also to make a solemn promise that the Reichsrath should be -reinstated in all its former rights and prerogatives, which made that -Assembly actually co-regent of the kingdom. The Reichsrath was declared -sovereign; it had seventeen members, and each member had, in the -decision of public questions, one vote, and the King only two. It -decided all questions of domestic and foreign policy arbitrarily, and -controlled not only the legislative, but also the executive action of -the government. The King was a mere figure-head,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span> poorly salaried and of -little influence. But this degradation of the crown was only one feature -of the oligarchy established by the Reichsrath. It restored to the -nobility all the domains and landed estates which had been appropriated -by the crown during the preceding century, exempted them from taxation, -conferred upon them the exclusive right of holding all the higher -offices in the army, navy and civil service, and heaped all public -burdens upon the lower classes of the people. The King, shorn of all -power, was utterly helpless to prevent these wrongs. His timid protests -were always met with a reminder that he had been elected to the throne -only after having promised to reinstate and not to disturb the nobility -in the enjoyment of their ancient rights. The Reichsrath also concluded -treaties of peace with the powers upon which Charles the Twelfth had -made war, and as the members negotiating these treaties looked out much -more for their own advantage than for that of their country, Sweden was -so badly crippled that it ceased being a great European power. That -honor passed from Sweden to two other countries which up to that time -had been considered Sweden’s inferiors in power and influence,—Russia -and Prussia.</p> - -<p>It was not long before the Reichsrath, whose members sold themselves to -foreign rulers, was split up into different factions which fought -bitterly for supremacy. One of these factions favored France and was -regularly subsidized with French money, while the other faction was -equally well subsidized with Russian money and followed blindly the -dictates of the Czar and Czarina of Russia. The French faction was -called “the party of the hats,” and the Russian faction was known as -“the party of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span> caps.” These two factions fought each other most -bitterly, each charging the other with almost any crime committed -against divine and human law; and both were right in the charge, because -both were equally guilty. At the beginning of the war of the Austrian -succession, France wanted to prevent Russia from siding with Austria, -and thought a war between Sweden and Russia would be the right thing to -accomplish that object. The French Ambassador at Stockholm therefore -ordered the “party of the hats” in the Reichsrath to declare war upon -Russia, and a resolution to that effect prevailed against the violent -and menacing protests of the “party of the caps.” In great haste a -Swedish army was recruited to take the field against the Russians in -Finland; but since all the money sent by the French government for the -proper equipment of that army had disappeared in the pockets of the -members of the Reichsrath, the army was so poorly equipped and its -war-material was of such inferior quality that it could not hold the -field against the well-armed and well-equipped Russians, and suffered -defeat after defeat at their hands. The “caps” were jubilant over this -discomfiture and humiliation of the “hats” and forced them into a treaty -of peace with Russia, which was disgraceful to Sweden, but which would -have been even more hurtful if the Russian Empress had not for personal -reasons offered very mild terms of peace. But one of these terms was -that Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, whose father had been so -shamefully cheated out of the Swedish succession in 1718, should be -declared heir to the Swedish throne. The Reichsrath cheerfully accepted -this condition, made all other concessions which the Russian Empress -demanded, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> ceded a part of Finland to the Russian crown. Peace -between the two countries was restored by the treaty of Abo in 1743.</p> - -<p>Conditions were not improved under the rule of the next King,—the said -Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who ascended the throne in 1751. -The new King had married the younger sister of Frederick the Great of -Prussia, but he had so little influence on the direction of the public -policy of Sweden, both at home and abroad, that in the great European -war which Frederick had to wage against the other powers, Sweden took -sides against him by the dictation of the Reichsrath. In fact, the -Reichsrath became more aggressive and arrogant from year to year. It -interfered in the education of the royal princes. It presumed to attach -the King’s signature to public documents after he had refused twice to -sign them. The “caps” made an effort to strengthen the King’s authority -by amending the constitution, but it failed, and resulted in a complete -victory for the “hats.” The “hats” had it all their own way for a while. -Under orders from the French government, and also out of hatred and -contempt for the King, they declared war on the King of Prussia, and -Sweden was, without any cause or provocation, drawn into the terrible -Seven Years’ War, which resulted in the victory of Frederick the Great -over all his enemies.</p> - -<p>This disastrous result of the war caused the temporary overthrow of the -“hats.” But the Russian faction, as soon as they had got control of the -government, established a tyranny worse than that of their predecessors, -so that the King, provoked to the utmost, threatened to resign and -appeal to the people, unless a popular Diet<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span> should be called to -establish the rights of the crown on a firm and more dignified basis. -Under the strong pressure of public indignation the Diet was called; it -restored to the crown part of the rights and prerogatives annulled by -the Reichsrath and dismissed a number of those officials most hostile -and objectionable to the King; but a proposition of the young, ingenious -and ambitious Crown Prince—to change the constitution thoroughly, to -reëstablish autocratic government in Sweden in order to renew an era of -glory and prosperity for the unfortunate country—failed through the -irresoluteness of the King. In 1771 the King died, and the Crown Prince -ascended the throne under the name of Gustavus the Third.</p> - -<p>The Crown Prince was at Paris, where he was paying the court a visit, -when his father died. His presence in the French capital and his -conversations with Choiseul, the able prime minister of Louis the -Fifteenth, had strengthened and confirmed his own personal views about -the necessity for a change in the government of Sweden and for a return -to an absolutistic régime. He formally renewed the secret alliance -between Sweden and France, receiving the promise of liberal subsidies -from the French treasury in order to enable him to carry out his plans. -He took with him to Sweden a large sum of money, which was, so to speak, -the first instalment of the new subsidy. Moreover, Choiseul gave the -young King, on his return trip to Sweden, an experienced and sagacious -companion and adviser in the person of Count de Vergennes, who nominally -was to take charge of the French embassy at Stockholm, but who in -reality was to guide and assist Gustavus in his attempt to overthrow the -constitution of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span> monarchy and to restore the absolute <i>régime</i> of -former days. The personality of Gustavus the Third was peculiarly fitted -for the <i>rôle</i> which he was to play in the great drama of a political -revolution. He was young, enthusiastic, talented, eloquent, bold and -chivalrous; he was a poet of considerable ability, and his political -ideal was Louis the Fourteenth of France, whose majestic declaration: -“The state? I am the state!” struck a sympathetic chord in his heart. -Choiseul had found it an easy task to change the vague aspirations and -dreams in the young King’s mind into a fixed determination to put an end -to the oligarchic <i>régime</i> of the nobility and to reëstablish absolute -monarchy in its pristine glory. The art of dissimulation, of which he -was a consummate master, and which he had practised with great success -as Crown Prince in order to throw his instructors, who were mere tools -of the Reichsrath, off their guard, served him admirably in perfecting -the initiatory steps, and finally, when the proper time had come, for -the successful execution of his <i>coup d’état</i>.</p> - -<p>When Gustavus arrived at Stockholm, he found the Swedish Reichstag (the -Diet) in session. It had recognized him, during his absence, as King, -but the members were busily engaged in the discussion of a new -constitution, which they insisted would be necessary for protecting the -rights of the nobility against the usurpation of the King. The rights of -the people and the prerogatives of the King were hardly thought of in -this discussion, and the people were disgusted with the whole -proceeding. So was the King, but he had shrewdness and self-control -enough not to interfere with the work of the Diet; and when, after a -hard-fought battle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> eight months’ duration between the contending -factions of the “hats” and the “caps,” the new constitution was finally -completed and submitted to him for his signature, he readily signed it, -without reading it, explaining his extraordinary readiness with the -words “I have confidence enough in the patriotism and wisdom of the -Reichstag to believe that they all have worked for the welfare of the -state, and that my own rights were safe in their hands.”</p> - -<p>In order to make this rather strange indifference on his part appear -quite natural, he had lived most of the time at his country-seat, at -some distance from Stockholm, surrounded by a few literary friends and -writing comedies and poems, without paying the least attention to the -political work going on at the capital. He came but rarely to Stockholm, -but whenever he went, he took good care to insinuate himself into the -good graces of the people. His natural eloquence and the fact that he -was born in Sweden and spoke the Swedish language correctly, as well as -his pleasant and affable manners, made him immensely popular with the -common people, while at the same time his friends lost no opportunity to -incite the people, and also the soldiery, against the nobility, whom -they charged with having caused all the miseries from which the State, -and especially the rural population, were suffering. Poor crops and -great financial distress added to the popular dissatisfaction, and the -royalist party did not fail to attribute these public calamities to the -aristocracy’s injudicious administration; thus the people were -thoroughly aroused for the impending battle between King and nobility.</p> - -<p>In the Reichsrath the faction of the “caps” had succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span> in utterly -defeating the faction of the “hats,” and driving all their adherents out -of the public offices. The official slaughter and persecution of the -“hats” was carried on so recklessly and injudiciously by the “caps” that -even the Russian ambassador protested against their imprudence, which, -he was afraid, might lead to a revolution that would overthrow both -factions and place absolute power in the hands of the monarch. But the -“caps,” in the intoxication of their victory, were too blind to see the -danger; moreover, they felt absolutely safe because the King had sworn -to obey and uphold the constitution, and the constitution deprived him -of all power of action. Gustavus had so fully duped them that not even a -suspicion of foul play arose in their minds. With masterly dissimulation -and with marvellous strength of mind he waited in apparent indifference -until the proper moment for action had come. His friends, however, had -been very busy. They had won one hundred and fifty of the higher -officers of the Stockholm garrison over to the King’s cause, and this -acquisition placed practically the entire military power of the capital -under his orders.</p> - -<p>It had been arranged, however, that the first outbreak should not occur -at Stockholm, but in another city. In compliance with this programme -Captain Hellichius, a devoted friend of the King, and Commandant of the -garrison of Christianstadt, on the twelfth of August, 1772, issued a -manifesto, in which he fiercely denounced the pernicious administration -of the Reichsrath, and called upon the inhabitants of Sweden to shake -off the tyranny of the oligarchy which held both the King and the people -in bondage. It had also been arranged that Prince Charles, the King’s -brother, Commander of the troops in Scania,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span> should immediately march, -with the army under his command, toward Christianstadt, ostensibly for -the purpose of suppressing the revolt, but really for the purpose of -swelling the ranks of the malcontents. When this news reached Stockholm, -some of the members of the Reichsrath suspected that the King was -implicated, but he feigned absolute ignorance of the matter, and -deceived his enemies so well that they left him alone. Prompt action on -their part, in arresting and guarding the person of the King, would very -likely have quelled the revolt at the very outset. But the King was so -powerless that he preferred to wait for news from Christianstadt -announcing the success of the movement before resorting to active -measures which might have caused the failure of the whole plan.</p> - -<p>Only when the Reichsrath ordered the troops of the whole country to be -concentrated at the capital, and also ordered Prince Charles to turn -over his command to a general who was strictly in sympathy with the -existing condition of things, the King thought the time for him to act -had come, and he hesitated no longer. It was the nineteenth of August, -1772, and Gustavus knew that that day was to decide not only the success -or failure of his intended <i>coup d’état</i>, but very likely also his life -or death, his honor or disgrace. In taking the offensive so promptly, -the King showed great personal bravery and courage, and made good his -claim to be a God-given leader of men. At an early hour he went to the -Assembly Room, where the Reichsrath was already in session. At a glance -he saw that the prevailing sentiment was hostile to him. No sooner had -he taken his seat than one of the members in a rather insolent tone -asked<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span> him whether he had not received a letter during the night from -Christianstadt, and on receiving an affirmative answer, demanded that -the King should communicate the letter to the Reichsrath. The King -refused to deliver the letter, stating that it was private, and -expressed indignation at the disrespectful request. A general murmur -arose among the members, and voices were heard saying that it might be -advisable to arrest the King. He hurriedly arose from his seat, and -placing his hand on the hilt of his sword, as if ready to kill the first -one who should stand in his way, he passed through the seats of the -Senators with head erect and haughty mien.</p> - -<p>None dared oppose him, and he proceeded directly to the armory, where -two regiments of the Royal Guard were drawn up in line under the command -of officers devoted to him. He addressed them in an eloquent speech, -promising to restore the kingdom to its previous proud position among -the nations and make the army again a source of honor to the Swedes and -of terror to its enemies, such as it had been in the great days of -Gustavus Adolphus. The officers and the men cheered him -enthusiastically, and declared they would follow him to death or -wherever he would lead them. Not only the soldiers in the city, but -thousands of armed citizens gathered around him shouting, “Down with the -nobility! Down with the Reichsrath! Long live the King!” He mounted his -horse and at the head of this enthusiastic army proceeded to the State -House, where the Reichsrath was still in session, devising means to -bring the King to terms. The troops were so placed as to make it -impossible for the members of the Reichsrath to leave the building. The -King, flushed with the excitement of victory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span> with his flashing sword -drawn, and surrounded by a few of the most popular officers and -citizens, rode through the streets, harangued the people on the public -squares, and carried them away by his eloquence and chivalrous -appearance. It was a personal triumph, which he relished to its fullest -extent, and which gave assurance of the complete success of his plans -for constitutional reform.</p> - -<p>The revolution which Gustavus the Third had inaugurated so boldly at -Stockholm proved a complete success. The common people flocked to him in -great numbers; the women and girls offered him flowers and bouquets, and -threw kisses to him; the men knelt down and, with tears of joy in their -eyes, kissed his boots or his hands, blessing him as the savior of his -country, and calling the blessings of Heaven down upon his head. -Surrounded by thousands of enthusiastic adherents, he rode to the City -Hall, where the municipal authorities were already assembled, and -received from them the assurance of their unconditional allegiance and -loyalty. The same ovation and enthusiastic demonstration greeted him at -the palace of the Board of Admiralty. Not a shot was fired, not a sword -was drawn, not a drop of human blood was shed to overcome opposition to -the royal plan of changing the government and to end the rule of the -nobility. Never before in history had a revolution been so quickly, so -successfully accomplished; never before had a government in the full -possession of all public powers been so suddenly and so successfully -overthrown as in this instance. The <i>coup d’état</i> was a masterstroke of -public policy which gave Gustavus a wonderful prestige throughout -Europe. Even the English and Russian ambassadors, who were most -interested in the contemplated change of government,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span> and who might have -raised obstacles to the King’s autocratic action, were disarmed entirely -by a courteous invitation to the royal palace, where they were -entertained in the most pleasant manner until the whole excitement was -over and Gustavus the Third in complete possession of the government. On -the day following, the war department and all the high state officials -made haste to swear obedience to the King. The citizens of the capital -were called together on the public square and the King addressed them -again, this time in the full splendor of triumphant royalty and -surrounded by all the high dignitaries of the kingdom, telling them, -amid their enthusiastic shouts and applause, that he considered it his -greatest glory to be the first citizen of a free nation. He then took -out of his pocket the new constitution prepared by him and read it to -them in his clear and melodious voice. Renewed shouts and boisterous -applause rewarded him when he had concluded.</p> - -<p>But the part most difficult for him remained to be done,—to get the -assent of the States. They were convened for the next day, August 21, -and in ordering them to appear, the King had added that any member not -appearing in his seat on that day would be treated as a traitor. During -the night preceding the meeting of the States a strong detachment of -soldiers and artillery was placed in a position commanding the State -House. When the King appeared and sat down on the throne his eye looked -upon a hall well filled. The most profound silence reigned when he got -up and read the constitution in a clear and firm voice. He supplemented -the reading with a very eloquent and patriotic speech, in which he -referred to the degradation and contempt to which the monarchy had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span> been -reduced by the incapacity, venality and corruption of the government and -of the nobility. He painted this government and the disgrace it had -brought upon Sweden in the darkest colors, and then added, in a voice -trembling with emotion: “If there is any one among you who thinks that I -am misstating facts or exaggerating the disgraceful condition of our -public affairs, I challenge him to contradict me, and to state here in -the presence of all in what respect I have misrepresented the -administration of the Reichsrath. I vow to God Almighty that I shall -devote all my energy to the task of restoring the welfare of my beloved -country and the happiness of its inhabitants, and I know of no other way -to accomplish these results than by the change of the constitution as I -have read it to you.” Then turning to the members individually, he asked -whether they were in favor of sanctioning the proposed change. They all -answered in the affirmative and swore the oath of allegiance. Thereupon -the King drew from his pocket a hymn-book, and removing the crown from -his head, he began to sing the “Te Deum Laudamus,” in which they all -joined him. Gustavus had won again in the most perilous stage of the -dangerous game he was playing.</p> - -<p>The new constitution which had been adopted reinstated the King in all -those rights and prerogatives which his ancestors had possessed up to -the death of Charles the Twelfth. He was the commander of the army and -navy; the revenues of the state were to be under his exclusive care; he -disposed arbitrarily of all offices, civil and military; he alone had -the right to negotiate treaties and alliances; he had unlimited power to -conduct a war of defence, but for foreign wars he needed the consent of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span> -the States; he alone had the right to convene the Congress, and the -Congress was not to transact other business than was submitted to it by -the crown; the Reichsrath was subordinate to the King; it became merely -an advisory board, and its decisions were not of binding force. It was a -constitution which the Emperor of Russia might have subscribed to.</p> - -<p>While Gustavus had, by his boldness and eloquence, secured the success -of his <i>coup d’état</i> at Stockholm, his brothers travelled through the -different provinces, promulgated the new constitution, and were -everywhere welcomed enthusiastically. Gustavus himself made during the -winter months of the same year the traditional tour of the old kings -through the kingdom even to the farthest borders of Norway—the old -riksgata—and exactly in the same manner as the old kings had done—on -horseback. Wherever he went he was only escorted by the inhabitants of -the neighborhood, whom he delighted by his affability, his nobility of -soul and his eloquence. He seemed to have no enemies and needed no -soldiers to protect him. These were the golden days of his reign. The -two parties which had so bitterly fought for supremacy had been wiped -out by his victory. The “hats” and the “caps” were heard of no more, and -Sweden seemed to be in a fair way of entering upon a new era of -greatness and prosperity.</p> - -<p>Tempting as the task may be for the historian to go into the details of -the life of the extraordinary man who, endowed by nature with talents of -a high order, rose to the heights of human glory and then abruptly fell -by reason of his own folly, we must forego this pleasure and confine -ourselves to a rapid sketch of the events<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span> which led Gustavus the Third -slowly to the terrible tragedy of his assassination. It would seem -almost incredible that a prince so popular and so idolized by his people -as Gustavus was on the morning of his <i>coup d’état</i> could in the course -of a few years so utterly lose the confidence of his people and forfeit -their love as to make the execution of the conspiracy against his life -even possible. But it must be admitted that this loss of popularity and -esteem was, in part at least, caused by grave faults of the King, which, -with reckless audacity, he committed again and again, while the general -loss of royal prestige and authority throughout Europe as a consequence -of the French Revolution of 1789 had also a great deal to do with it.</p> - -<p>During the first years after the <i>coup d’état</i> general satisfaction -seemed to prevail throughout the country; the common people felt -relieved of many unnecessary burdens, while the nobility, who had been -so utterly routed, kept silent in the consciousness of their weakness. -Many measures of reform, calculated to promote the national prosperity, -were initiated by the personal agency of the King. The currency, which -was in a deplorable condition, was put on a sounder basis; many -benevolent institutions—hospitals, orphan asylums, poor-houses, -etc.—were established; the public highways were improved; large canals -connecting with the seacoast the mines of the kingdom (which were among -its most important industries) were constructed; trade and industry were -assisted according to the prevailing theories of those times; free -trade, both at home and with foreign countries, was established; -privileges and franchises which oppressed the people at large for the -benefit of the few were abolished;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> both the criminal and the civil code -of laws were revised and improved; strict impartiality in the -application of laws and in the punishment of criminals was insisted -upon; the torture, which up to that time had played an important part in -criminal trials, was done away with, and a more humane treatment of -convicts was introduced in prisons and penitentiaries. Gustavus was in -this respect a disciple of Montesquieu and Beccaria. His great ambition -was also to renew the ties of friendship and brotherhood between Finland -and Sweden, and in order to do so, he personally visited Finland, and -established there a number of valuable reforms which are gratefully -remembered by that unfortunate country to the present day.</p> - -<p>But highly commendable and worthy of admiration as the young King’s -action was in these and many other respects, the defects of his -character soon appeared, and gave his enemies an opportunity to -undermine his work and his popularity. He lacked steadiness and firmness -of purpose. He wanted to see and enjoy immediately the beneficent -results of his reforms. Many of them were therefore abandoned before -they had had time for full development; many very costly undertakings -were discontinued because the King had either changed his mind or was -tired of waiting. And then, he was extravagant in his personal expenses -and in arranging grand court entertainments fashioned on the brilliant -festivities of the French court at Versailles, which remained his model -in all matters of court etiquette and royal display. Like Frederick the -Great, to whom Gustavus the Third bears in many respects a striking -resemblance, although he lacked the great Prussian’s military genius and -wise<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span> frugality, he was fond of French literature and art, and made -strenuous efforts to give them a supreme place in the educational -institutions of the kingdom. The national genius of the Swedish people -and language were consequently relegated to a secondary place. To make -up for the unpopularity and protests which these efforts caused among -the people, he devised a national costume for all the inhabitants; but -in this attempt he failed entirely. The costume he had devised was -copied from an ancient Spanish one, and utterly unsuitable for a -northern country of short summers and severe winters. The King’s -ordinances introducing these Spanish garments were openly disobeyed and -laughed at. People began to look on him as a dreamer, and lost their -respect for him.</p> - -<p>But that which more than anything else hurt his popularity was the way -in which he treated the liquor question. The mass of the Swedish people -were strongly addicted to the excessive use of intoxicating liquors. The -vice had assumed such proportions that measures of reform were urgently -called for. But, with the usual impracticability of temperance -reformers, Gustavus managed the matter so unskilfully that, instead of -correcting the abuse, he made himself highly unpopular and aroused the -most stubborn resistance to his reform policy. He had issued an edict -prohibiting the manufacture and use of distilled liquors, but he found -it impossible to enforce the edict: the peasants and farmers, who had -been distilling their own whiskey, simply ignored it, while in a number -of cities where distilleries were maintained for the manufacture and -sale of the liquor, regular battles were fought between the police -trying to suppress them, and the inhabitants enraged at the attempt to -close them. Gustavus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span> then repealed the edict and introduced a new -system, which he hoped would at once diminish the vice of drunkenness -and replenish his treasury, which was in a chronic state of exhaustion. -He made the right of manufacturing and selling alcoholic liquors a crown -monopoly, and established agencies for the sale of these liquors in all -large and small cities and towns of the kingdom. But the peasants were -not satisfied with this arrangement either. The whiskey they were to buy -at the agencies was much dearer than their own home-distilled beverage; -moreover, the towns and cities, at that time only thinly scattered over -Sweden, were often so remote from the farms, and the roads leading to -them were often in such an impassable condition that the purchase of -whiskey was a difficult matter for the rural population. The clandestine -and illicit manufacture of the beverage was carried on therefore as it -had been before. But the very name of the King became odious to the -people. They contemptuously called him “a crank, a visionary and a -poet.” Writing poetry, in which Gustavus excelled, was in their eyes a -symptom of folly and madness.</p> - -<p>The hostility of the nobles and their rebellious spirit, which had been -overawed and silenced for some years by the great personal popularity of -the King, reappeared and gained ground with the disaffection of the -people, and especially of the rural population. For a King like Gustavus -the Third, ambitious and high-spirited, military glory had a tempting -attraction, and he had commenced soon after his successful <i>coup d’état</i> -to prepare for winning it. The army was in a really deplorable condition -at the time of his accession to the throne, being entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span> without -artillery and deficient in equipment. Gustavus lost no time in remedying -these defects. He modelled the Swedish army after the Prussian army as -reorganized by Frederick the Great, which was then considered the finest -and best equipped in Europe, and within two years he had made it, with -its splendid personnel and its modern material, a formidable machine of -war, which, under the leadership of a military genius, might have -renewed the great days of Gustavus Adolphus or Charles the Twelfth. But -it was the ambition of Gustavus the Third to command the army himself, -and he was not a military genius. He declared war upon Russia, with the -intention of recovering the lost provinces of Finland, and proceeded to -Finland himself in order to take command of the invading army.</p> - -<p>It was there that the first misfortune overtook him. After a few -engagements,—rather skirmishes than battles,—in which the Swedes were -victorious, the King decided to invest or take by assault the small -fortress of Frederickshamm. It would have been better for him if he had -marched directly upon Petersburg, which was not in a condition to resist -an immediate attack of a superior army. If he had done so, very likely -the Esths, first cousins of the Finns, and anxious to shake off the yoke -of Russia, would have joined him and would have placed him in possession -of the Russian borderland; but Gustavus frittered away the time and by -his inactivity enabled the commanders of his own regiments (generally -appointed from the ranks of the high nobility) to organize a conspiracy -against him and virtually drive him from the field. Very likely bribed -with Russian gold, they jointly issued a manifesto that Gustavus had -violated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span> the constitution of Sweden by declaring war upon Russia -without the consent of the Reichsrath, and they were therefore not bound -to obey him in this criminal undertaking. They also used their influence -on the other officers and on the soldiers of their regiments, and made -them rebellious against the King’s commands. In vain Gustavus implored -them not to abandon him and the cause of their country; but they were -deaf to his prayers and to his threats, and he left the army as a -humiliated and disgraced commander.</p> - -<p>Upon his return to Stockholm, he made a journey through Dalecarlia, the -province in which his ancestor Gustavus Vasa had found the followers who -raised him to the throne; he used his extraordinary eloquence so -successfully that the people again rallied round him. They swore to -stand by him in his struggle against Russia, and not to lay down arms -until a peace honorable to Sweden could be secured. Gustavus then -convened the Reichstag for the twenty-sixth of January, 1789, in order -to get authority to continue the war and restore his kingly -prerogatives, which by the revolt of the army had been so signally -impaired. The nobility at last openly threw off the mask; but they were -overpowered by the three other estates, who would rather strengthen the -King’s authority than return to their former condition of bondage under -the <i>régime</i> of a corrupt and arrogant nobility. The Reichstag therefore -fully sustained the King’s action, taking the view that the offensive -war against Russia was really a war of defence.</p> - -<p>Sufficient appropriations were made to carry on the war to a successful -end, and thirty prominent members of the nobility were indicted for -treason and <i>lèse majesté</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span> and punished severely. At the same time an -important revision of the constitution was made in the interest of the -King, and, in spite of the violent protests of the nobility, his -prerogatives were largely extended. The Reichsrath was entirely -abolished, and the King authorized to declare war on other countries -whenever war was deemed advisable to protect the interests of the -country. He also obtained the absolute right to appoint all military and -civil officers, while formerly many of these appointments had to be -confirmed by the Reichsrath. After having thus secured the rights of the -crown at home, Gustavus departed again for the seat of war, with new -regiments and new commanders. Russia had also strengthened herself, and -what might at first have been an easy undertaking, and might have led to -a brilliant success, was now a very serious one, and one of very -uncertain chances of success. It soon became evident that the results of -the war would depend on the naval supremacy of either of the two powers, -and all efforts were therefore directed on both sides toward -strengthening their navies.</p> - -<p>Several big naval battles were fought, and in all of them the King, who -personally commanded his fleet, performed wonders of valor. The last of -these battles was that of Swenskasund on the ninth of July, 1790; and -the King, who fought with the bravery of despair because the fleet of -the Russians was considerably superior in numbers to his own, won a -brilliant victory. No less than fifty-nine Russian warships, carrying -altogether six hundred and forty-three guns, fell into the hands of the -Swedes. But even more than this great material success was the prestige -which Gustavus derived from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> victory. He was tired of the war, and -he could now as a victorious hero offer terms of peace, honorable and -advantageous to his country, instead of humbly accepting terms from -Russia. On the fourteenth of August, 1790, a treaty of peace was -concluded by which, while Sweden did not receive any territorial -indemnity, she secured rights and trade privileges in the Baltic Sea -which Russia until then had denied her. The honors of the war were -therefore on Sweden’s side, and the King personally, for his -unquestioned heroism, was entitled to a liberal share of them.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the results of the war were disastrous for the -country, and the King was by his enemies, the nobility (who were more -bitterly opposed to him than ever), held responsible for these -disasters. The heavy expenditures for the war had necessitated -extraordinary tax levies which were burdensome to the whole people, rich -as well as poor, and these could not be abolished immediately on the -termination of the war. The brilliant festivities, balls and -entertainments, which greeted the King on his return to his capital, -could not fully conceal the great distress and poverty of the people; -but with that levity which was a conspicuous feature of his character -and which gave him such a mental resemblance to Marie Antoinette, whom -he greatly admired, he tried to forget in the intoxication of incessant -amusements and pleasures the personal privations he had suffered during -the war and the sorrows and wants of the nation. That this conduct, -which he did not care to conceal from the public eye, irritated the -people and filled many of those who had been his admirers with disgust -and hatred may easily be imagined. But that by which he gave the -greatest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span> blow to his popularity was his active and over-zealous -sympathy in the misfortunes of Louis the Sixteenth and his Queen, Marie -Antoinette, and his efforts to release them from captivity and save them -from death.</p> - -<p>Gustavus showed his lack of political sagacity in estranging the very -element upon which he had founded his autocratic power,—the great mass -of the people. Their devotion had made it possible for him, not only to -continue the war against Russia, but also to be more than a mere -figure-head in the government of his kingdom. The support of the -nobility he had lost beyond redemption. They hated him, and only hoped -for opportunities to humiliate him. All efforts on his part to reconcile -them failed. His true policy should have been to ingratiate himself -still more with the people, relieve their burdens, make the laws and -institutions more liberal, and carry out the promise he had made to -them, that he wanted to be clothed with supreme power in order to make -the nation more happy and the country more prosperous. But his character -did not permit him to pursue this policy dictated by common-sense. The -French Revolution had broken out, and the misfortunes of the French King -and Queen enlisted his profound sympathy. He watched the progress of the -revolution with eager interest, and when it became apparent that Louis -could not master it, he formed the adventurous and fantastic plan of -placing himself at the head of a large army, composed of contingents of -all the European powers, and restoring absolute monarchy in France, as -he had restored absolute monarchy in Sweden. In order to realize that -dream which corresponded so well to his visionary, chivalrous, poetical -temperament, he opened negotiations with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span> Russia, Prussia, Austria, and -especially with the French <i>émigrés</i>. These men had assembled in Germany -and other countries waiting for an opportunity to return to France under -the standards of some friendly power coming to the rescue of Louis the -Sixteenth and monarchical institutions. Gustavus had tried his best to -assist the French King in his flight from Paris. It was a Swedish -carriage, with Swedish attendants, which was to convey Louis the -Sixteenth and the royal family beyond the borders of France, and which -was so abruptly stopped at Varennes. After this attempt at flight had -failed, Gustavus saw no other means of saving the monarchy—not only in -France, but throughout Europe—than by making war upon the Jacobins, -stamping out the Revolution in the blood of its adherents, and seating -Louis the Sixteenth in the full glory of absolutism once more on the -throne. The execution of this plan, he imagined, would immortalize him, -and would make him in effect the dictator of Europe.</p> - -<p>The Reichstag of Gefle, which was opened January 25, 1792, had already -greatly disappointed and incensed him, because it had unanimously -rejected his demand for an appropriation of ten million dollars which he -needed for his new undertaking. The utter disregard of his wishes and -the contempt with which his urgent appeals were ignored by the lower -order, which had so firmly stood by him in the Reichstag of 1789, showed -also his great unpopularity; and the nobility thought that the time had -come for striking a bold blow not only to get rid of him, but also to -reinstate themselves in power. As we have seen, the moment was very -opportune. The public debt was enormous; the distress was general; vague -rumors<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> of another war, not against an enemy, but against the rights of -the people, were in the air. Then the conspiracy was formed. There were -five principal conspirators; and they all belonged to the highest -nobility. While some of them had personal grievances, not one of them -would have thought of raising his hand against the King, unless a much -more important object had been in view. These five were Ankarström, who -had already been among the rebellious officers in Finland, Count -Ribbing, Count Horn, Count Liliehorn and Baron Pechlin.</p> - -<p>The mainspring of the conspiracy was the hope of overthrowing the -autocratic system of government, and reinstating the nobility in all its -prerogatives. At first the conspirators did not want to resort to -murder, but they hoped to be able to abduct the King, compel him to -resign, and then to extort from his successor the recognition of those -rights and privileges of which Gustavus the Third had deprived them. -Having made two or three attempts in that direction, they changed their -plan, and concluded that the easiest and safest way to accomplish their -aim would be to assassinate the King.</p> - -<p>Ankarström volunteered to shoot the King at one of the popular masked -balls, which he was in the habit of visiting, and at which he freely -mingled with the other visitors. Twice he failed to recognize Gustavus. -But the last masquerade of the season at Stockholm was to come off on -Friday, March 16, 1792, and Ankarström resolved to make a last effort to -strike his victim. And he did, although Gustavus was warned that very -evening by one of the conspirators (Count Liliehorn) that it would be -dangerous for him to go to the ball, for an attempt would be made on his -life. The ball was to come<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span> off at the Grand Opera House, and an immense -crowd was expected. Four of the conspirators—Pechlin, Ankarström, Horn -and Ribbing—took supper together, and afterwards went to the theatre. -They wore black dominoes of a uniform pattern, to be able to recognize -each other easily. On the other hand, Gustavus had taken supper with one -of his closest friends, Count Essen, in a little private room arranged -for his use at the theatre itself. During this supper, at ten o’clock in -the evening, an anonymous letter was handed to him, written in French -and with a lead pencil. The author revealed the whole plot, which, as he -asserted, he had learned only during the afternoon. He implored the King -not to go to the ball, and to change his conduct and his policy if he -wanted to escape assassination. He confessed having opposed the King’s -autocratic measures and his <i>coup d’état</i>, which he considered illegal -and unconstitutional. But, being a man of honor, as he said, the very -idea of murder was horrid to him, and he therefore again implored the -King to keep away from the ball. This note came from Count Liliehorn. -Gustavus read it twice very attentively; but he did not say a word about -its contents. He quietly completed his supper and then, accompanied by -Count Essen, he proceeded to his box, where he was plainly to be seen by -all. It was then only that he showed the note to his companion, who also -implored him not to go on the floor among the dancers. Gustavus said he -would hereafter put on a coat of mail before going to such places of -amusement, but he insisted on going on the floor. They thereupon left -the box, put on light dominoes and descended to the floor, which was -crowded with a throng of brilliant, gay and grotesque masks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span></p> - -<p>The King had taken Essen’s arm, and while passing through the stage -scenery said to him: “Now let us see whether they’ll dare attack me!” -Although he wore a face-mask, the dancers whispered to each other: -“There is the King!” Gustavus made the tour of the ball-room without -stopping; then he stepped into the green-room in order to rest a moment; -but on leaving, he found himself surrounded by a group of black -dominoes, one of whom (it was Count Horn) laid his hand on the King’s -shoulder, saying: “Good-evening, my beautiful masquerader!” These words -were the signal. At the same moment Ankarström fired a shot from his -pistol, which had been wrapped up in raw wool in order to weaken the -detonation, and the shot was heard by but a few persons. Gustavus -exclaimed in a loud voice: “I am wounded! Arrest the assassin!” At the -same time loud cries: “Fire! Fire! Leave the hall!” resounded from -different parts of the building, and a great confusion followed. In the -panic there was a general rush toward the doors, and all the -conspirators would have escaped, but for the presence of mind of Count -Armfeld, who ordered the doors to be closed, and assuring the tumultuous -crowd that there was no fire, but that a great crime had been committed, -ordered all the dancers and visitors to take off their masks. The -conspirators nevertheless managed to escape immediate discovery by their -very audacity, although they attracted attention and suspicion. As he -passed through the door, Ankarström with a haughty smile said to the -officer: “I hope you do not suspect me?” “On the contrary,” replied the -officer, “I am sure you are the assassin!” but before he could stop him, -Ankarström had passed out. He was, however, arrested<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> the next morning, -and also Liliehorn, who had sent the anonymous note to the King. Counts -Horn and Ribbing were arrested a few days later, and Baron Pechlin some -time afterwards.</p> - -<p>Gustavus the Third was the only one who had kept his presence of mind -during the tremendous confusion. Essen, covered with the King’s blood, -had rather carried than conducted him first to one of the private boxes -and thence to a small adjoining parlor with a sofa, where he could lie -down. The King was the one who directed what measures were to be taken -in the grave situation. He ordered the gates of the city to be closed -and the Duke of Sodermanland to be sent for. As soon as the surgeons had -applied the necessary bandages, he was conveyed to the royal palace, and -issued, with perfect self-command, orders for the appointment of those -officials who during his illness should conduct the affairs of the -kingdom. The King himself ascribed the assault to the influence of the -Jacobins of Paris, and the murderers eagerly circulated this rumor, in -order to mislead public opinion. However, after Ankarström had been -arrested and made a confession, there could no longer be any doubt as to -the motives which were at the bottom of the conspiracy. Public opinion -took the cue immediately.</p> - -<p>From the very moment of the assassination the people of Stockholm seemed -to be delirious with grief. During the thirteen days of his agony all -the King’s mistakes and faults, which quite recently had been magnified -into crimes and atrocities, were forgotten; there was but one voice of -sympathy and affection for him and of condemnation for his assassins. -All the good and chivalrous qualities of Gustavus reappeared during the -illness preceding<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span> his death. When the public indignation threatened the -families of the conspirators, he immediately began to plead eloquently -for them and wished them to be protected. When delegations of the -municipalities of Stockholm and other cities were admitted to his -presence to assure him of the unfaltering loyalty of their cities to him -and the royal family, he shed tears of gratitude, and told them that -such proofs of loyalty were not too dearly purchased at the price of a -serious and possibly fatal wound. When old Count Brahe, one of the -leaders of the opposition in the Reichstag, knelt down at his bedside -and swore to him that he was a stranger to the conspiracy and condemned -it with horror, Gustavus raised him to his feet and embraced him, weak -as he was, and told him with tearful eyes that he blessed his wound, -because it had reconciled him with a friend so valued and noble-hearted. -When his brother showed him a list of all those who had been ferreted -out as accessories to the crime, he refused to look at it, and implored -his brother to destroy it so that no further bloodshed might result. -When some one in his presence swore bloody vengeance on the -conspirators, he interfered in their behalf, adding: “If Ankarström is -to die, then let there be mercy at least for the others! One victim is -enough!” At first it looked as though he would get well. His -conversation, fluent and logical, at times even brilliant and eloquent, -was taken as proof that his vitality had not been exhausted, and that -his excellent constitution would carry him safely through this terrible -ordeal. But late on the twelfth day after the assault, he grew worse, -and began to sink rapidly. The change came so suddenly that even the -physicians were surprised, and suspected foul play.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span> But nothing has -ever come to light to give confirmation to that suspicion.</p> - -<p>Thus ended, most sadly and prematurely, one of the most brilliant -careers of the eighteenth century,—that of a man of splendid -attainments, who lacked perhaps depth, and certainly application, to -become one of the greatest men of his age and century; a man of noble, -chivalrous character, who had placed his ideals of human greatness -unfortunately in the splendid and brilliant outside of things instead of -their solid, substantial and imperishable worth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII<br /><br /> -JEAN PAUL MARAT</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span></p> - -<p><a name="JEAN_PAUL_MARAT" id="JEAN_PAUL_MARAT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p282b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p282b_sml.jpg" width="396" height="419" alt="image unavailable: JEAN PAUL MARAT" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">JEAN PAUL MARAT</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XVIII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF JEAN PAUL MARAT<br /><br /> -(July 13, 1793)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N the letter of farewell which Charlotte Corday, from her prison cell -as a doomed murderess, addressed to her father, she used the phrase (the -French words are a well-known verse from a famous tragedy):</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“<span class="lftspc">’</span>Tis not the scaffold, but the crime, that brings disgrace”;<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">for she still adhered to the belief that in killing Marat she had not -committed a crime, but an act of patriotic devotion for which posterity -would honor her, and history would place her name among the benefactors -of mankind. In this belief she was more than half right, for in the long -list of political crimes and assassinations there is not one which has -been so willingly condoned by the world, so eloquently defended by -historians, so enthusiastically immortalized by poets, and so leniently -criticised even by moralists as that of Charlotte Corday. In her defence -the law of heredity has been invoked, for it has been maintained that -Charlotte Corday, who was a great-grandniece of the great Corneille, had -inherited those sublime patriotic and republican sentiments which the -great tragic poet so often and so eloquently expresses in his dramatic -poems. In fact everything has been done<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span> to surround her crime with the -halo of martyrdom, and to secure for her the glory of a national -heroine.</p> - -<p>It was in the middle of the year 1793. The French Revolution had reached -that turning-point when the Revolutionists had almost exhausted their -fury against the Royalists, and engaged in factional fights among -themselves, always ending in the execution of the members of the -vanquished party. The National Assembly—transformed into the National -Convention—was under the absolute control of the Jacobins, and Marat, -Danton and Robespierre were the absolute rulers of Paris and -consequently of France. The King had been guillotined, the Queen and the -other members of the royal family were imprisoned, and their execution -was only a question of time. An insane craving for blood seemed to have -taken possession of the men who were guiding the destinies of France. -Danton, by far the most gifted of these Jacobins, had forever sullied -his name as the author of the “September Massacres”; but far more odious -was Marat, “the friend of the people,” the blood-thirsty demon of the -Revolution, who quite seriously demanded, in the paper of which he was -the editor and publisher, that two hundred thousand persons should be -guillotined to purify the aristocratic atmosphere of France.</p> - -<p>The powerful party of the Girondists, who were distinguished by a -certain degree of moderation and had been a sort of counterpoise in the -Convention to the Jacobins, had not only been defeated, but had been -actually driven out of the Convention and been branded as traitors and -enemies to the Republic. With Marat, Robespierre and Danton in the -absolute and unrestrained<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span> possession of power, the destruction and -execution of the Girondists was therefore only a question of time,—of -months, weeks, perhaps only of days,—and most of them fled from Paris, -seeking refuge in those parts of France which were known to be strongly -attached to the moderate views of the defeated party. Normandy was one -of these provinces, and in its ancient towns and villages quite a number -of the proscribed leaders of the Girondist party—Buzot, Pétion, -Barbaroux, Louvet and others—appeared with the outspoken intention of -arousing the population and inducing them to march against Paris. There -had been great excitement before their arrival. The enemies of the -Terrorists were in a large majority, and had been active in organizing, -equipping, and drilling an army, and General Wimpfen, the commandant at -Cherbourg, was bold and imprudent enough to announce that he would march -upon Paris with an army of sixty thousand men.</p> - -<p>At that time there lived at Caen in Normandy a young girl of noble -descent, very beautiful and ingenious, but poor. Her name was Charlotte -Corday, or rather Marie Anna Charlotte Corday; she lived at Caen in the -house of her aunt, Madame de Bretteville. Charlotte was the daughter of -Monsieur de Corday d’Armans, and a great-grandniece of Pierre Corneille, -the greatest of the tragic poets of France. The statement that she was -the great-granddaughter of the poet is erroneous. She was the -great-granddaughter of Marie Corneille, the only sister of Pierre -Corneille, whose daughter married Adrian Corday, Baron of Cauvigny. This -lineage makes the claim of heredity for Charlotte’s sublime character, -which is so often insisted on, rather fanciful, especially since no -other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span> members of the great poet’s family have manifested these -characteristics. Charlotte had a sister and two brothers, who had left -their father’s house after he married his second wife. Her two brothers -went to Germany to take service in the army of the Prince of Condé in -his campaign against the French Revolutionists.</p> - -<p>Charlotte had been placed in a convent at Caen when only twelve years of -age, and being naturally contemplative, the retirement and silence of -the convent made her even more so. She abandoned herself entirely to -those vague dreams and exaltations which so often fill the minds and -souls of young girls on the threshold of womanhood. Especially the -proud, exalted, grandiose heroines, whom her great-granduncle had -immortalized in his tragedies, Cinna, Horace, Polyeucte, Le Cid, made a -profound impression upon her, and she learned the most beautiful -passages by heart. Her very education seemed to prepare her for the -great historic <i>rôle</i> which she was to play some ten or twelve years -later. At the age of seventeen or eighteen she left the convent and was -kindly received in the house of Madame de Bretteville. Her mind was -filled with the exalted sentiments of Corneille and Plutarch, whom she -read and reread with great delight. Her soul was restless at the sight -of the increasing agitation against the corruption of the aristocratic -classes and of the profound misery and degradation of the poor. The -house of Madame de Bretteville was one of those sombre, sad-looking, -narrow residences which are still found occasionally in the silent and -sleepy streets of old Norman towns, and well adapted to the stern and -dreamy character of Charlotte. In the rear of the house there was a -garden, surrounded by high walls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span> and this garden became the favorite -spot of Charlotte in her readings and studies. Her extraordinary beauty, -which consisted as much in the classical cast of her features, her -dazzling complexion, her magnificent eyes, as in the intellectual -expression of her countenance and her queenlike bearing, had fully -unfolded itself in the quietude of her home.</p> - -<p>Those who have found in books the greatest joys and pleasures of their -lives know what an immense enthusiasm, what an ardent and insatiable -curiosity fills the soul when circumstances permit them to explore the -vast field of human thought and inspiration and to dive into its -treasury. Madame de Bretteville’s library was well filled with -translations of the great classics of Greece and Rome, and also with the -works of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and other modern writers. These -became the favorite study of Charlotte. One of her greatest favorites -was Raynal, whose famous History of the two Indies had just appeared and -filled Europe with admiration. Very likely that which appealed so -strongly to Charlotte’s heart was the sympathy which the author felt for -the oppressed races, and especially for the black slaves. With untiring -zeal and passion she devoured everything in her aunt’s library,—novels, -history, philosophy,—and these studies finally led her to politics, -which engaged at that time the minds of the foremost writers of France -and became the favorite subject of public and private discussion. In -this way two parallel currents of ideas had formed themselves in -Charlotte’s mind,—on the one hand, a powerful desire for greater -liberty and the elevation of the oppressed and degraded; on the other -hand, a profound admiration for those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span> devote and sacrifice -themselves to the great cause of humanity, and a vague but ardent desire -to adorn her name with the halo of heroism and immortality. Left -entirely to the instincts and aspirations of her own nature, the young -royalist (for her entire family was strictly royalistic) had become a -republican, but a republican in the sense of Plutarch and Tacitus, -nourished by the sentiments of Corneille and Rousseau. Nothing in her -appearance indicated her enthusiastic and soul-devouring ambition to -make herself the deliverer of her country from the terrible calamities -which had recently befallen it. Her political studies had filled her, -republican though she was, with extreme disgust and hatred for the -Terrorists, and especially for Marat, who seemed to be their inspiring -genius. This was the general situation and also the personal frame of -mind of Charlotte Corday at the time the Girondists who had escaped from -Paris came to Caen to organize armed resistance to the terrorism of the -“Mountain.”</p> - -<p>Charlotte Corday had zealously followed the reports in the newspapers -she could get hold of concerning the situation at Paris, and her heart -beat warmly for the cause of the Girondists. Like all others in the city -she lived in, she believed that Marat was the secret spring that kept -the entire machinery of the Revolution in motion, that he was the head -and soul of the anarchists and murderers, that he was the centre of all -conspiracies, the originator of all crimes, and that, with him out of -the way, peace and liberty would soon regain the ascendency, and a -freer, nobler, greater France would arise from the ruins. With such -convictions in her mind she attended the meetings of the Girondists, -where appeals were made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span> to the citizens of Caen and all Normandy to -enroll themselves in the service of their country, of liberty, of -humanity, against the tyrants at Paris. The impression which these -meetings made upon her soul can hardly be described. For the first time -she saw and heard the men she had read so much about, and whose -patriotic utterances had so often found a loud echo in her own heart; -they were there, young, beautiful, enthusiastic, made doubly interesting -by the ban of proscription which had exiled them from Paris; they were -there with their inspiring eloquence and patriotic appeals, and in the -tumultuous audience there was no one more fully enchanted and carried -away than the young girl, the disciple of Plutarch and Rousseau. The -words: “Country!” “Duty!” “Public Welfare!” repeated again and again by -the orators, were deeply engraved upon her impressionable heart. An -extraordinary exaltation took possession of Charlotte’s soul; she -aspired to a part as grand as that of these orators; she longed for a -chance to devote herself to the holy cause of liberty and to suffer for -it.</p> - -<p>These projects and aspirations remained mere vague dreams, until an -event occurred which gave them definite shape. On the seventh of July -the volunteers who were to march on Paris assembled on a large plain in -the immediate vicinity of Caen. The plain was large enough to hold one -hundred thousand men; but only thirty volunteers appeared. General -disappointment was visible among the spectators; but no one was more -deeply affected than Charlotte Corday, who was also present. It seems -that from that very sorrow there sprang up within her mind a project -both heroic and terrible,—to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> assassinate Marat, whose words had been -most influential in expelling and proscribing the Girondists. To -Charlotte’s mind the cause of the Girondists was identical with that of -liberty, country, and justice. And how often in the past had a pure and -blameless life sacrificed for a great cause appeased the wrath of -Destiny! She went home and requested an interview with the Girondist -deputies.</p> - -<p>Charlotte Corday was then twenty-four years old, but looked much -younger. She was tall, and of beautiful proportions; her complexion was -of dazzling whiteness, her hair was blond, her luminous eyes of charming -sweetness, her nose finely cut, and her chin indicated firmness and -determination. Her face was a perfect oval, and the total impression was -that of perfect beauty. Both her smile and her voice were of angelic -sweetness. Charlotte made a profound impression upon the deputies; but -they were not inclined to take her seriously. One day Pétion came in -while she was in conversation with Barbaroux. “Ah, ah,” said he, “there -is the beautiful young aristocrat paying a visit to the Republicans.” -“You judge me wrongly,” she replied, “but some day you will know who I -am.”</p> - -<p>The question has often been asked whether the Girondists put the dagger -in Charlotte Corday’s hand to assassinate Marat. The enemies of the -Girondists persistently asserted this, but there is no evidence to that -effect. Possibly in her two conversations with Barbaroux her -determination to assassinate Marat, and not Danton or Robespierre, -became confirmed by the intensity of hatred and contempt manifested for -him by the famous Girondist leader. At all events, after these -interviews she made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span> her preparations to go to Paris with great -circumspection, and great tranquillity of mind. A little dressing-case, -a night-gown and a volume of Plutarch’s Lives, with some money, was all -her baggage. But before going to Paris she proceeded to Argentan to bid -her family farewell. Her father and her sister were living there, and -she told them that she intended to go to England, and would remain there -until the storm of the Revolution had blown over. She bade them farewell -without showing an excess of emotion, but also without faintness, and -then departed for Paris in the public stage-coach.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>During the journey, which at that period lasted two days, she appeared -serene and happy; no preoccupation seemed to disturb the tranquillity of -her mind. Her fellow-travellers all fell in love with her and treated -her with distinguished courtesy. One of them offered to marry her. -Charlotte smiled, but refused politely. Moreover they were all radical -revolutionists, and swore by Danton, Robespierre and Marat.</p> - -<p>At Caen nobody had any idea of her plan. She had told her aunt she would -go to Argentan and thence to England. She had always concealed her -political views so carefully that nobody could have suspected her.</p> - -<p>She arrived at Paris on the forenoon of the eleventh of July, and put up -at the Providence Hotel. Tired out by the long and tedious journey, she -went to bed early in the afternoon and slept well till the next morning. -No conscientious scruples disturbed her. Her mind was fully made up, and -she did not for a minute hesitate to execute her project. The next -morning she went to the Palais Royal, purchased a strong and sharp steel -knife,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> and carefully hid it in her bosom. She then asked herself when -and where she was to use her weapon. She would have preferred to give -her act a certain solemnity. At Caen, while brooding over her purpose, -she had conceived the plan to assassinate Marat on the Champ de Mars, on -the fourteenth of July, during the celebration of the anniversary of the -destruction of the Bastile and the overthrow of the monarchy. She hoped -to slay this king of anarchy, surrounded as he would then be by -thousands of his murderous followers; but when the celebration was -postponed, she planned to assassinate him at one of the sessions of the -Convention, the scene of his crimes and proscriptions. When she learned -that Marat was ill and did not attend the sessions of the Convention, -there seemed no way left for her except to go to his residence and meet -him there. She addressed a letter to him asking for a private interview. -The letter remained unanswered. She sent a second letter, more urgent -than the first, in which she requested an immediate interview for the -purpose of communicating to him a secret of great importance. Moreover -she represented herself as unhappy, as a victim of political persecution -and appealed to his protection. After this appeal she hoped to be -admitted.</p> - -<p>At about seven o’clock in the evening of July 13 she left her hotel, -took a cab and proceeded to the residence of Marat, a dismal old -building, No. 20 in the Rue des Cordeliers. There Marat lived, and there -also he had the office and the press and composing-rooms of his -newspaper, “The Friend of the People.” Marat’s living apartments, which -were furnished with a certain elegance strangely contrasting with the -general appearance<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span> of the building, were situated on the second floor -and were shared by his mistress, or rather his wife, who loved him -passionately, and who watched over him with the fidelity of a dog. -Knowing the great peril to which the idol of her heart might be exposed -from foreign visitors, she subjected each of them, before admitting him, -to a careful scrutiny and painstaking examination.</p> - -<p>When Charlotte Corday had ascended the stairway leading to Marat’s -office, she suddenly found herself in the presence of Catherine -Evrard—she continued to call herself by that name, although afterwards -it appeared that she had been married to Marat. Catherine was surprised -at the strange visitor, who, with a firm and melodious voice, inquired -for the citizen Marat and desired to see him. With great attention -Catherine scanned the young woman, who was dressed with great modesty -and looked like a lady from the provinces, and demanded the object of -her visit, and as Charlotte either refused to give her that information -or failed to impress her favorably, she declined to admit her to Marat’s -room, who, she said, was just taking a bath and could not be seen. At -this moment Marat’s voice was heard from a room whose door was not -tightly closed, and he told Catherine to admit the young stranger. He -thought it was the young woman who had written to him, and who had -announced her visit for that evening. Thus invited, Charlotte entered -the room, much against the wish of Catherine. It was a small and dark -room. A bath-tub stood in the centre, and Marat was taking a bath, -covered up to the neck, except his right arm and shoulder, for he was in -the act of writing an editorial for his newspaper. A board had been -placed across the tub,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span> and in this way a table had been formed to hold -his manuscript. As she stepped up to him he began to ask her concerning -the important news from Normandy she had promised in her letter. He also -inquired about the Girondists who had gone there, and wanted to know -what they were doing. She told him. “It is all right,” he said, while -marking down their names. “Within a week they will all be guillotined.” -If anything had been needed to confirm her resolution and to stir her up -to speedy action, it was this announcement. She quickly drew the dagger -from her bosom and plunged it into Marat’s breast up to the handle. This -thrust, aimed from above, and executed with wonderful force and -firmness, pierced the lungs, and severed the main arteries, from which a -stream of blood rushed forth.</p> - -<p>“Ah, this to me, my dear friend?” exclaimed the wounded man. It was all -he could say. A moment later he was dead.</p> - -<p>The assassination of Marat created a rage, a frenzy among the lowest -classes of the population of Paris which it is impossible to describe. -That the courageous young woman who had slain the demon of blood was not -torn to pieces is a wonder. Charlotte, in thinking of the fate which -might befall her after her task was performed, had not forgotten the -possibility or even probability of falling a victim to the fury of the -people, but even this terrible prospect did not deter her. She received -what may be called a fair trial and she had the benefit of an official -defender. Since she did not deny the act of assassination and readily -admitted that it was an act of premeditation and careful preparation, -any painstaking investigation might have been deemed unnecessary but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span> -for the hope which the Terrorists entertained, of connecting the -Girondist party, and especially the Girondists assembled at Caen, with -her crime,—a hope in which they were utterly disappointed. She was -therefore arraigned before the Revolutionary Tribunal and subjected to a -rigorous examination as to her accomplices.</p> - -<p>“Who filled your mind with so much hatred for Marat?” asked the judge.</p> - -<p>“I did not need the hatred of others,” she replied; “my own was -sufficient.”</p> - -<p>“But somebody must have instigated you to commit this deed?”</p> - -<p>“We do but poorly what others tell us to do.”</p> - -<p>“What did you hate him for?”</p> - -<p>“For the enormity of his crimes.”</p> - -<p>“What do you mean by his crimes?”</p> - -<p>“His crimes against France and humanity.”</p> - -<p>“Why did you kill him?”</p> - -<p>“In order to give back peace to my country.”</p> - -<p>“Do you believe you have killed all the Marats of France?”</p> - -<p>“His death may frighten the others.”</p> - -<p>“Do you regret and repent your deed?”</p> - -<p>“I rejoice that it was successful.”</p> - -<p>Only once during this trial her heart failed her. It was when Catherine -Evrard, Marat’s mistress, took the stand to testify against her, and in -a voice choked with tears told the story of her visit to Marat’s house. -Looking at the woman who through her deed had lost him whom she loved, -the tears burst from her own eyes, and she exclaimed: “No more! No more! -I implore you. It is I who killed him; I do not deny it!”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span></p> - -<p>Again she was deeply moved when the dagger with which she killed Marat -was presented to her. “Do you recognize this instrument?” She turned -away her face and exclaimed: “I do! I do!” The public prosecutor called -attention to the fact that she had plunged the dagger into the breast of -her victim from above, that it was a difficult thrust, and that she must -have practised it before she acquired so much skill.</p> - -<p>She listened attentively to what he said, and exclaimed with unfeigned -indignation, “Shame! Shame! The wretch wants to brand me as an -assassin!”</p> - -<p>Her words caused a sensation. The audience and even the judges were -struck with admiration, so much energy and patriotic devotion were -expressed in her answers. She stood before them like an antique heroine, -not trembling for her life, but provoking death and inviting it by her -justification of the crime she had committed to save her country. The -trial resulted in her conviction. She received her sentence of death -without showing any emotion; was it not the crown of immortality to -which she had aspired? Her official defender, Chauveau Lagarde,—the -same who three months later so nobly defended Marie Antoinette,—might -have saved her by pleading insanity, but he comprehended her nobility of -soul and would not offend her by such a plea. “She refuses to be -defended,” he said; “she pleads guilty and is beyond the fear of death!” -After the death sentence had been pronounced, she stepped up to her -defender, and with a smile of angelic sweetness thanked him for his -noble-minded, graceful and kind defence. “You understood me,” she said, -“and your esteem consoles me for the contempt of the ignorant masses.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span></p> - -<p>One thing remarkable about this trial was the respect, not to say the -admiration, with which this young woman, who had killed their idol, was -looked upon by the spectators. They seemed to feel instinctively that a -divine inspiration, a heaven-born principle of humanity and patriotism, -had prompted her to commit an act which human law condemned and -punished, but which posterity would forgive, if not glorify.</p> - -<p>From the very hour of her conviction, she became a national heroine. The -wild Maratists clamored against her, but there were thousands and -thousands even among the Revolutionists who sympathized with her and -admired her. Brutus ceased to be the patron saint of patriotic -assassins; his place in the hearts of enemies of tyranny and despotism -was taken by the young girl who had so heroically thrown life and beauty -away to redeem her country. Poets and authors immediately celebrated her -in song and prose; it may be said that her immortality commenced even -before her beautiful head fell under the knife of the guillotine. She -died on the evening of the nineteenth of July.</p> - -<p>When she was taken to the place of execution in the costume of the -condemned victims—a scarlet shirt—the sun was setting. His last rays -sent a farewell greeting to the young heroine, who seemed to be bathed -in a halo of glory, as she ascended the steps of the scaffold with firm -step and serene countenance. A shudder passed through the multitude as -her head fell into the basket.</p> - -<p>She was not insane; she was an exalted, enthusiastic dreamer, who looked -upon her crime as an act of justice demanded by the necessities of the -times,—an act inspired<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span> by a higher Power which had guided her in her -design and helped her in its execution. Thinking of Jeanne d’Arc, who -had saved France and immortalized herself by her self-sacrificing -devotion, she felt convinced that God often chooses woman as his -instrument for interposition in the history of nations. If she deceived -herself in the nature of the act by which she hoped to restore the -happiness of France and to terminate the era of bloody hecatombs -sacrificed to the fury of sanguinary monsters, is it the duty of the -historian to judge her severely? Should he not rather, while pointing -out the error of her judgment, be willing to bestow on her the -laurel-wreath of a patriotic heroine, which has been accorded to her by -poets, by her grateful countrymen, and by the whole world?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX<br /><br /> -PAUL THE FIRST OF RUSSIA</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span></p> - -<p><a name="PAUL_I" id="PAUL_I"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p300b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p300b_sml.jpg" width="374" height="451" alt="image unavailable: PAUL I." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">PAUL I.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XIX<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF PAUL THE FIRST OF RUSSIA<br /><br /> -(March 24, 1801)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HOSE who have followed the preceding chapters will remember that -Catherine the Second of Russia got possession of the throne by the -murder of her husband, fortified that possession by the murder of -another Czar imprisoned in the fortress of Schlüsselburg (the -weak-minded Ivan the Sixth), and finally, haunted by the constant fear -of being dethroned by some new pretender, sacrificed all those whose -claims might become dangerous to her security. History, which is filled -with the crimes of remorseless rulers, furnishes, however, abundant -proof that such crimes, although successful at first, are frequently -visited upon their authors or their authors’ children, and that blood -cruelly and unjustly shed will blossom forth in a new crop of crime and -bloodshed. It was so in the case of the murders committed by Catherine -the Second; and while she, very likely, personally suffered from a -mental agony which made her life on the throne miserable in the extreme, -it was her son who finally paid the penalty.</p> - -<p>The life of this unfortunate son had been full of disappointment and -sorrow, almost from the moment of his birth. Born as the son of Peter -the Third, he was almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span> openly repudiated by his reputed father as a -bastard. Quite often Peter the Third had declared in the presence of -gentlemen and ladies of the court that the little Grand-Duke Paul was -not his son, but either Alexis or Gregor Orloff’s, and that he had no -right to the succession. Catherine, however, insisted that Paul was -Peter’s son, and as the boy grew up, his many peculiarities of mind -showed such a remarkable similarity to those of Peter the Third, that -the legitimacy of his birth could hardly be doubted. It was really the -manifestation of these peculiarities that filled the mind of the mother -with that insuperable aversion, not to say hatred, for the son, which -would have been incomprehensible but for the remorseful recollections -which the traits of the father necessarily awakened in her mind. The boy -could not fail to notice this aversion and hostility on the part of his -mother, especially since the courtiers, modelling their conduct toward -him on the sentiments of the Czarina, treated him with the same coldness -and contempt. His whole education was carefully arranged on a -premeditated plan to keep him as much as possible in ignorance of those -very things which might be useful to him as a ruler, while his character -was rendered distrustful and suspicious to such a degree that he became -a misanthropist of the blackest hue. Not a day passed but he discovered -espionage, treachery, ingratitude and intentional hostility among those -whom the Empress had placed near his person as his tutors, teachers and -confidants. They shamelessly deceived him, betrayed him, and lied about -him. They cautiously instilled into his mind the story of the -assassination of his father and of his mother’s knowledge of the crime, -and when the young man, horror-struck<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span> at this disclosure, clenched his -fists and gnashed his teeth, they reported to their imperial mistress -that the young Grand Duke had manifested dangerous symptoms of -impatience and independence, which would require even greater care and -watchfulness on the part of his tutors and a more severe isolation of -the young prince. Their only intention was, of course, to show their -indefatigable zeal in the task entrusted to them and to make themselves -absolutely indispensable to their imperial employer or her favorites; -but the effect on his mind was most disastrous. Burdened with the -suspicion that his own mother was a murderess, and with the evidence -afforded by thousands of little occurrences of her hatred toward -himself, and of the treachery of his attendants, in constant fear of -impending assassination,—is it not almost wonderful that his mind, not -naturally strong, did not absolutely give way?</p> - -<p>When Paul had grown up to manhood, he was married to a lovely young -German princess; but since his mother had selected this wife for him, he -regarded her with constant suspicion. She died without having succeeded -in overcoming his distrust. A second marriage, which he was compelled to -contract, had no happier results, although his wife bore him four sons. -By special order of the Empress these sons were taken away from him and -educated under the special supervision of Catherine herself, while Paul -was ordered to proceed to Gatschina, a country-seat near St. Petersburg, -where he amused himself with drilling a battalion of soldiers and -arranging sham battles, just as Peter the Third, his father, had done -before his elevation to the throne. But rarely was he permitted to -receive his children, and when they came<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span> to see him, he was always -afraid that some secret danger might surprise him.</p> - -<p>In this manner thirty-five years had elapsed since the death of Peter -the Third. During these thirty-five years the name of Peter had hardly -ever been heard at the court, or at least not in the presence of the -Empress. Then Catherine herself falls a prey to the grim destroyer; and -Paul inherits the crown. His mother’s body is laid out in state on a -catafalque, by whose side stands another coffin, magnificently -ornamented and with an imperial crown on its top. It is the coffin of -Peter the Third, whose remains had been deposited in a vault of the -Alexander Nevski Monastery. It was one of Paul’s first official acts to -proceed to this convent, to open the vault and the coffin containing his -father’s mortal remains. One of the gloves of Peter the Third was still -well preserved. Paul took it out of the coffin, knelt down in the -presence of the whole court and reverently kissed it. Then he ordered -the coffin to be carried to the imperial palace where the body of his -mother lay in state, and an imperial crown to be placed on it. It was, -perhaps, the most unique coronation which ever took place in history. -But Paul wanted not only to honor his father’s memory; he wanted also to -punish and to hand over to public contempt his murderer. He therefore -ordered Alexis Orloff, who had planned the assassination of Peter the -Third, to act as chief mourner at the funeral. Orloff obeyed: but -immediately after the obsequies, during which he was the target of the -contemptuous eyes of the whole people, he was thrown into a kibitka and -sent into exile. Such was the opening of Paul’s reign.</p> - -<p>In his physical make-up Paul bore not the slightest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span> resemblance to -Peter the Third, and this circumstance seemed to give confirmation to -the circulating rumors that he was not Peter’s son. But if, as a great -historian has pointed out, Catherine’s intense hatred of her son could -have left any doubt in that respect, Paul’s personal acts of government, -almost from the very first day after the funeral of his mother, -absolutely removed it. For, intellectually and morally, never a son bore -a greater resemblance to his father than Paul the First did to Peter the -Third. Paul had good qualities, and with proper education and -assistance, he would very likely have made a good ruler; but without -both, his well-meant but ill-timed plans of reform failed to do the -people any good, while they created untold enemies for him. Exactly like -Peter the Third, he had prepared a number of plans of reform, which he -immediately promulgated without consulting with any one about their -opportuneness or advisability. Like Peter’s reform plans, Paul’s turned -mostly on trivialities,—on the style of hats or coats or military -uniforms,—and by strenuously trying to enforce these edicts he made -himself odious. He hated anything that might remind him of the French -Revolution, and would not permit a Frenchman to enter the Russian Empire -without a passport signed by one of the French Bourbon princes (then -living in exile); like his father he idolized the Prussians and wanted -Prussian military regulations, uniforms and equipment introduced into -the Russian army; in these efforts he was strongly opposed by the -Russian officers and soldiers. They made fun of the imperial ordinances -and (admitting then that he was Peter’s son) said that he had inherited -Peter’s Prussomania and insanity. Citizens and peasants were equally -indignant at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span> Paul’s arbitrary interference with their personal rights -and liberties. He also tried to introduce church reforms, which -irritated the clergy and caused angry protests throughout the Empire. In -attempting to introduce these “reforms” he sometimes manifested symptoms -of real insanity. He declared war upon round hats, which he considered -revolutionary and hostile to the government. He carried this war to such -an extent that he ordered the police and even the soldiery to confiscate -the obnoxious hats and arrest the owners, even while the latter were -promenading in the streets, and without any regard to the weather. In -this manner it was not long before he had estranged the good feelings of -the aristocracy, the army, the clergy and the people at large. They -began to regard him as a trifler and maniac, who was imbued with an -excessive idea of his own authority, who defied national sentiment and -prejudice, and who would not counsel with anybody because he distrusted -everybody.</p> - -<p>In his foreign policy he was selfish and vacillating. He subordinated -the national interests of Russia entirely to his own personal whims and -prejudices. He formed alliances and cancelled them without cause, and -thus made enemies of all foreign powers. The most prominent statesmen -and generals became convinced that Russia, which under Catherine’s rule -had won a commanding position among the powers of Europe, would lose all -prestige if forced into a state of political isolation by the foolish -policy of Paul the First.</p> - -<p>Plots and conspiracies were formed, of which the most prominent court -officials in immediate attendance on the Emperor became members. Some of -these men he hated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span> because they had been favorites and counsellors of -his mother; others he had in his sudden fits of passion abused and -insulted. Most prominent among these were Count Pahlen, the brothers -Zubow, and Count Talizin, commander of the Imperial Guards. They added -their personal grievances to the public dissatisfaction, and joined -hands in bringing about Paul’s dethronement. They commenced working on -the Grand Dukes, Paul’s sons, and especially upon the oldest of them, -Alexander, whom Count Pahlen convinced that the Emperor held in -readiness an order for the arrest of the Grand Dukes, with the exception -of Nicholas, his third son, whom he had designated for the succession to -the crown. Alexander was of a sentimental turn of mind. For a while he -resisted the tempting offers of the conspirators, but when the reports -of his impending arrest and transfer to Schlüsselburg were confirmed by -others, he finally consented to the arrest of the Emperor and to the -demand for his forced abdication. This he did with tears and -heart-rending supplications not to harm his father and to treat him with -becoming respect. Having received this consent, the conspirators -proceeded to work with great promptness and energy. The time was -propitious for the immediate execution of their conspiracy; for they -knew very well that what originally had been planned only as -dethronement by abdication might easily lead to the assassination of the -Czar, and they had taken precautions and measures tending towards such a -result.</p> - -<p>It was during the Masnaliza, the Russian Carnival, that the conspirators -resolved to carry their plot into execution. The whole population was in -a state of frenzy, drunkenness, and wild excesses. The conspirators<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span> -knew that during these days they could meet and make all necessary -arrangements without attracting the least attention. Paul the First -resided in the palace of St. Michael, which he claimed to have built on -a direct order of St. Michael himself. He had entirely isolated himself; -his most faithful servant, Count Rostopchin, and his wife, whom he had -really loved, had been banished from his apartments. It was this -Rostopchin who twelve years afterwards burned the city of Moscow. He -distrusted them as well as all others. His only confidante (and, as is -asserted, his mistress at the same time) was an ugly old cook, who -prepared his meals in a kitchen adjoining his bedroom, that he might be -secure against poison. The Empress Maria, distinguished by the -gentleness and tenderness of her sentiments, who had given him -innumerable proofs of her affection and devotion, was in his eyes a -traitress who he supposed was plotting with his enemies against his -life. He had therefore ordered the doors leading from his own apartments -to hers to be walled up.</p> - -<p>The assassination itself presents some points of resemblance to that of -Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland. On the evening of March 23, 1801, -General Talizin, chief of the Imperial Guards, gave a brilliant party, -to which only gentlemen of great intrepidity and resoluteness, all of -whom were known to be personal enemies of the Emperor, had been invited. -When the guests were heated with wine and in a condition of -semi-intoxication, Count Pahlen entered the <i>salon</i> in which the guests -were assembled; he referred in a few impressive words to the despotism -and tyranny of the Emperor, to the widespread spirit of rebellion, to -the dissatisfaction prevailing among<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span> officers, people, and clergy, to -the public disorders and disturbances breaking out on all sides, and -closed his inflammatory harangue by appealing to his hearers to make an -end of these intolerable conditions. He knew his speech would be -enthusiastically received, and for several minutes there was perfect -bedlam among the guests. Some of them hurled chairs above their heads, -others grasped their knives or swords, and swore that they would kill -the insane fool who had already too long disgraced the imperial throne.</p> - -<p>The plan according to which the conspirators proceeded had been -carefully projected. Pahlen, who was Governor-General of St. Petersburg, -left the palace in the general confusion, but returned soon with a -detachment of cavalry and guarded the one side of the Winter Palace. -Talizin marched up from the other side with a regiment of grenadiers. -When these soldiers marched through the botanical garden of the palace, -their loud and heavy steps frightened away many thousand crows, which -were sleeping upon the high lime-trees of the garden. The loud croaking -of this immense army of black birds ought to have aroused Paul from his -sleep and warned him of his impending danger. But he slept on.</p> - -<p>After the palace was fully surrounded, the conspirators crossed the -ditch on the ice. A battalion of soldiers, who were not in the secret, -and who were on guard on the outposts, offered some resistance, but were -easily overpowered and disarmed. Not a shot had been fired. After having -passed the gates of the palace, the conspirators were joined by Colonel -Marin, the Commandant of the palace, who conducted the riotous throng, -among whom were hardly any sober persons, over winding-stairs up to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span> the -door of the Emperor’s bedroom. On the threshold of the door the guard -was asleep, and when aroused and trying to resist, was very rudely -handled and barely escaped alive. He ran down the stairs and called the -guards to arms. They demanded to be taken to the Emperor’s rooms, but -Marin interfered. He made them present arms, and in this position no -Russian soldier dares move a limb or speak a word.</p> - -<p>The crowd entered the bedroom. Prince Zubow and General Benningsen—the -latter a Hanoverian by birth, but of great authority in the army on -account of his energy and reckless audacity—stepped up to the bed of -the Czar, brandishing their swords. “Sire,” said Benningsen, “you are my -prisoner!” The Emperor stared at them in speechless surprise. “Sire,” -continued Benningsen, “it is a question of life or death for you! Yield -to circumstances and sign this act of abdication!” The room was becoming -filled up with drunken conspirators, all of whom wanted to see what was -going on, and tried to get in. In a moment of confusion caused by this -pushing and crowding in, which others tried to prevent, the Emperor -sprang from his bed and took refuge behind the screen of a stove, where -he staggered over some obstacle and fell to the ground. “Sire,” -exclaimed Benningsen once more, “submit to the inevitable! Your life is -at stake!” At this moment a new noise was heard from the anteroom, and -Benningsen, who so far had been the only protector of Paul’s life, -turned to the door, to see whether the new-comers were friends or -enemies. Paul was, for the moment, alone with his assailants. His -courage returned. He ran up to a table upon which lay several pistols. -He reached for them, but some of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span> conspirators had watched the -motion of his hand; one of them almost severed it from his arm by a -stroke of his sword. Agonized with pain the Czar rushed upon his -enemies. A short struggle, a heavy fall, and it was all over.</p> - -<p>The murder of Peter the Third was brought about by the use of a napkin; -his son, Paul the First, was strangled with an officer’s sash. There is -another point of resemblance in the assassination of the two Czars, -father and son. Alexis Orloff and Nicholas Zubow, the murderers of the -two Czars, had both taken dinner with their victims on the day of the -murder.</p> - -<p>When the death of their father was reported to the Grand Dukes, -Alexander especially, the heir to the crown, was almost overcome with -emotion and terror. The details of the murder were carefully concealed -from him; on the contrary, he was made to believe that a fit of apoplexy -brought on by the excitement of the scene had caused the Czar’s death. -After much lamentation he was finally persuaded to address a -proclamation to the Russian people in which apoplexy was given as the -cause of the sudden and unexpected death of Czar Paul the First during -the night of the twenty-third of March. Quite early next day this -proclamation was promulgated throughout the city of Petersburg by -military heralds. But the people were not deceived by these official -lies. Everybody knew in what manner Paul the First had died. The news of -the murder in all its details had spread with lightning-like rapidity -through the streets and alleys to the remotest corners of the city.</p> - -<p>The conspirators, far from denying their guilt, boasted of the crime as -of an act of heroism and patriotism.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span> Many officers who were at the time -miles away from the palace of St. Michael claimed to have been witnesses -of the tragedy and to have lent a helping hand in slaying “the tyrant.” -It is recorded that Count Münster, the Prussian ambassador at the court -of St. Petersburg, a short time after Paul’s assassination, spoke with -horror and indignation of the catastrophe at a dinner party at which a -number of the most prominent army officers and state officials were -present; one of these officers quite unconcernedly defended the crime, -saying: “Count, you should not blame us for defending ourselves! Our -Magna Charta is tyranny, or if you prefer to call it so, absolutism, -tempered by assassination, and our rulers should regulate their conduct -accordingly!” And this state of affairs has existed in Russia to the -present day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX<br /><br /> -AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span></p> - -<p><a name="AUGUST_VON_KOTZEBUE" id="AUGUST_VON_KOTZEBUE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p314b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p314b_sml.jpg" width="356" height="434" alt="image unavailable: AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XX<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF AUGUST VON KOTZEBUE<br /><br /> -(March 23, 1819)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>FTER the downfall of Napoleon the monarchs of Europe had a very -difficult task to perform. Not only were the domestic institutions of -their states, which had been overthrown by the French conquest and in -many cases altered by French decrees, to be regulated anew or reinstated -on a firm footing, but the relations between governments and subjects -were to be reorganized on a new basis, in conformity with the liberal -principles which had spread from France and been adopted readily by the -intelligent and educated classes in Germany. Solemn promises had been -made by the German princes to their peoples in order to enlist their -sympathies in their final efforts against Napoleon, and after the -Corsican had been dethroned, they were expected to carry out these -promises. Especially was this true of Prussia and the smaller German -states, whose inhabitants had been promised a system of representative -government and a constitution limiting the powers of the executive. Such -promises were very inconvenient to some of these governments, and they -were rather inclined to forget and abandon them than to carry them out -in good faith. Moreover Russia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span> and Austria, the representatives of -autocratic power in Europe, exerted their influence on the German -governments in a direction opposite to the popular aspirations, and -encouraged them to ignore their pledges given under the stress of -invasion. It should be remembered that the Holy Alliance, of which -Metternich was the inspiring genius, had been formed not only against -Napoleon, but also against the freedom and the popular rights of the -nations of Europe. In spite of its high-sounding and sanctimonious -title, the Holy Alliance was the curse of nations, and it would have -extended its nefarious influence even beyond the Atlantic Ocean, and -would have crushed the national aspirations for independence and -self-government in the states of Central and South America but for the -timely issue of the Monroe Doctrine, which saved the Western hemisphere -from “Holy Alliance” interference.</p> - -<p>It was only after the united efforts of the nations culminated in the -final dethronement of Napoleon, and after the Vienna Congress had -apportioned the heritage of the Empire among the victorious monarchs -that the nations became aware that the liberal promises they had -received while these monarchs were in distress were either not to be -redeemed at all, or redeemed only in part. The sagacity of the statesmen -of continental Europe was bent on defrauding the people of those civil -and political rights which had been held out to them as part of the -reward to be won by repelling the attacks of Napoleon, and the -sovereigns were only too willing to assist them in carrying out this -deception.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately some of these sovereigns were of inferior mental calibre -and not at all fitted for the great<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span> work of reconstructing their -shattered monarchies after the tremendous convulsions of the preceding -twenty years, and they were perfectly dwarfed by a comparison with the -colossus who had moulded Europe so long solely according to the -inspirations of his genius or ambition. Alexander of Russia had the -reputation of being a man of ability; but this reputation was without -solid foundation. At the period immediately following the overthrow of -Napoleon he was entirely under the influence of Madame Krüdener, a -religious enthusiast and visionary, who skilfully concealed her -immorality under pietistic propagandism. She filled Alexander’s mind -with vague and mystic ideas of his divine mission as a ruler, in which -the human rights of his subjects had no place. Frederick William the -Third, King of Prussia, was a weakling of the worst sort. He had -actually been forced into the anti-Napoleonic movement by the enthusiasm -of his people, and after national independence had been accomplished he -trembled lest anything might occur to endanger the public order and -tranquillity so dearly purchased. It was therefore comparatively easy -for the reactionary elements to get full control of the Prussian -government and to prevent any bold reform in a democratic direction. All -they had to do was to fill the mind of the timid King with a vague fear -that the scenes of the French Revolution might be renewed by inviting -the people to coöperation in the government. Even less reliable was the -Emperor of Austria, Francis the First, a man naturally distrustful and -suspicious, who knew how to conceal his cunning and his antagonism to -liberal ideas under the appearance of great personal kindness and -<i>bonhomie</i>. These were the three men of whom Europe expected a great -political reform,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span> and never perhaps, in political history, were hopes -and expectations so woefully misplaced and doomed to more cruel -disappointment than in this case.</p> - -<p>It would be unjust to assert that the great mass of the German people -felt a deep interest in the introduction of those measures of political -reform which the sovereigns had promised when they appealed to the -patriotism of their subjects. Most of the Germans, even those belonging -to the educated classes, had up to that time paid but little attention -to politics, and their political indifference had survived the war for -national independence. The nobility, with a few noble exceptions, were -not at all anxious to see measures of political reform introduced, -because they knew that such measures would curtail their aristocratic -privileges and prerogatives.</p> - -<p>But there was one class of citizens which had hailed the promises of the -sovereigns with unbounded enthusiasm, for they had hoped from their -realization a political renaissance for the whole Fatherland and a new -era of greatness and world-wide influence recalling the days of the -Hohenstaufen,—the glorious days when the German Empire was the first -power in the world, and when all civilized nations from the Baltic Sea -to the southern shores of the Mediterranean bowed their necks in -obedience to the demands of its rulers. This class was the students of -the many German universities, scattered over Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, -and the smaller German states. Inspired by Schiller, Körner, Arndt, and -other poets, these young men had flocked to the standards of Blücher, -Scharnhorst, York, and Bülow, and had fought with the courage of lions -on the battle-fields of Germany and France for the holy cause of German -independence. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span> hope and dream of another Germany, greater, nobler, -more progressive and worthier of being the leader of nations than they -had known it before the war, had fanned their enthusiasm into a flame -which nothing could extinguish, and which after their return from the -war burst forth, here and there, in great patriotic demonstrations.</p> - -<p>Dreamers and idealists though they were, they began to transform some of -their dreams into reality. They formed a great association embracing the -students of all the German universities, north and south,—the German -Burschenschaft, in whose organization they embodied the noblest -principles of manhood, patriotism, and civic devotion. The ancient -German colors, black, red and gold, were revived to adorn their banners, -their caps, their sashes and badges. Quite a literature of patriotic and -students’ songs suddenly sprang into existence, in which the dream of a -great united Germany appeared in the mind’s eye as a living reality. -Many of the professors of the universities, who had also been volunteers -in the war and had shared the enthusiasm of the students, joined them in -their patriotic devotion and lent the authority of their names and -writings to their aspirations of national political revival. Arndt’s -famous national song, “Where is the German’s Fatherland?” with the -reply, that the German fatherland embraces all the countries in which -the German tongue is heard and in which German song rises heavenward, is -the typical expression of that most enthusiastic period of German -student-life.</p> - -<p>The Burschenschaft became an organization of national importance. It had -its admirers, but it had also its enemies; and unfortunately the latter -were mostly to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span> be found among the nobility. The feeling prevailing -against the Burschenschaft in the government circles of the different -German states was therefore decidedly hostile, and waited only for an -opportunity to show that hostility. This opportunity soon presented -itself and, it must be admitted, was brought about by the reckless -audacity of the members of the association. In the year 1817 the -tercentenary of the great German Reformation was to be celebrated with -unusual splendor, and the Burschenschaft profited by this occasion to -make a public demonstration in behalf of its patriotic principles. It -selected as the place of its convention the Wartburg, where Martin -Luther resided upon his return from the Diet of Worms and, to make the -convention especially noteworthy and solemn, had chosen the eighteenth -of October, the anniversary of the battle of Leipsic, as the principal -day for the celebration.</p> - -<p>An immense number of visitors from all parts of Germany came to -Eisenach, situated at the foot of the Wartburg, and delegations of -students from all German universities, adorned with their German colors -and carrying black, red and gold banners with patriotic inscriptions, -assembled on the historic ground and participated in the festivities, -for which an elaborate programme had been arranged. The greatest -enthusiasm prevailed, and for the time being all those petty jealousies -which had so often disturbed the cordial fellowship of the inhabitants -of different German states had disappeared, and all those present -revelled in the exuberance of patriotic sentiment; they were all the -children of one great fatherland, a great united nation! The songs and -the speeches repeated and echoed this one thought. It lived uppermost in -the hearts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span> of those young enthusiasts, but presented itself to their -minds rather as a vague poetic ideal than as a stern political reality. -Among the thousands of visitors there was, perhaps, not one who had -seriously thought of the political realization of the dream. Imprudent -as these too boisterous demonstrations had been during the day, there -was enacted late in the evening, when most of the guests had already -left the famous castle, a sort of theatrical performance, which -irritated the conservative and reactionary classes exceedingly and -resulted disastrously for the Burschenschaft. This performance was -gotten up in imitation of a famous scene in Luther’s life—the burning -of the papal bull. Massmann, a student of the university of Jena, -represented the Luther of the nineteenth century. A large bonfire was -built, and amidst boundless enthusiasm a number of books and other -materials, odious to the students, were thrown into the flames and -destroyed. Among the books was Kotzebue’s “History of the German -Empire,” Haller’s “Restoration of Political Science,” Section 13 of the -Federal Constitution, etc. Besides the books, a corset such as used to -be worn by the officers of the Prussian guards, a Hessian queue, and an -Austrian corporal’s mace were also thrown into the fire.</p> - -<p>The Wartburg celebration produced tremendous excitement throughout -Germany. The reactionary elements were wild with indignation. They -accused not only the managers of the festivity and the Burschenschaft of -revolutionary tendencies, but they included in this charge all the young -men of the Empire, averring that they had grown up under the influence -of the pernicious doctrines of the French Revolution and French armies -of occupation, and wanted now to apply those doctrines to the -reorganization<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span> of German institutions. They also demanded that the -organizers of the Wartburg celebration should be prosecuted and punished -as traitors. All the conservative and government papers opened a regular -war upon the seditious and revolutionary tendencies of the universities, -and the agitation reached its climax by the publication of a memorandum -addressed by Baron Stourdza, a Russian councillor of state, to the -Emperor Alexander, in which he predicted that a bloody revolution would -result unless these seditious tendencies were speedily repressed. The -Stourdza memorandum had originally been intended for the use of the -governments only. The Czar had sent a copy to each European government, -but one copy of it had found its way to the office of a Paris newspaper -and had been published. The excitement among the German students rose to -the boiling-point, and their wrath was concentrated against Russia. It -was only too well known that Russia had in her employ a number of spies -scattered throughout the German states, who kept her government well -posted on the political and social currents. The most prominent of these -spies was August von Kotzebue, a man of great literary talent and -distinguished as the author of many comedies and dramas, but politically -of extreme conservative views. The attacks of the liberal press were -therefore mainly directed against Kotzebue, whose reports to the Russian -government were supposed to have inspired Stourdza’s memorandum.</p> - -<p>At that time there was at Jena a student of the University, of -irreproachable character, excellent conduct, not especially -distinguished by eminent ability or talent, but inclined to religious -and patriotic exaltation. His name was Carl Ludwig Sand; he came from -Wunsiedel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span> the birthplace of the famous German humorist, Jean Paul -Friedrich Richter. He had been a volunteer in the war against France and -had embraced the doctrines of the Burschenschaft with the greatest -enthusiasm. The denunciations of the German students in Stourdza’s -memorandum filled him with profound indignation, especially against -Kotzebue, whom he blamed as the principal sinner. Moreover the -frivolous, half indecent character of many of Kotzebue’s plays had often -revolted Sand’s moral sentiment. He considered him a source of -corruption for the young men and women of the nation, and when to this -wrong the charge of political treason and espionage was added, Sand -thought that nothing but death was an adequate punishment for Kotzebue. -He considered also that it was not only a moral, but a patriotic duty to -inflict upon him that punishment. He knew that the act would cost him -his life, but that consideration did not for a moment deter him from -undertaking it. He did not consult with anybody about it, but he -conceived, planned, and executed it all alone.</p> - -<p>On the ninth of March, 1819, Sand left Jena and proceeded to Mannheim, -where Kotzebue lived. Two weeks later, on the twenty-third of March, -1819, a young stranger appeared at the Kotzebue residence, and said that -he wished to see the councillor in order to hand him personally a letter -of introduction. The servant delivered the message, and after a few -minutes Kotzebue himself appeared in the hall and invited Sand—for it -was he—to come in. Sand handed him the letter; but no sooner had -Kotzebue opened it and begun to read it than Sand plunged a long -dirk-knife into his breast with the words, “Take this as your reward, -traitor to your country!”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span> And he stabbed him again and again with fatal -effect. Thereupon he thrust the knife into his own breast, but had -strength enough to run out into the hall, where he handed the astounded -servant a sealed document containing a well-written justification of his -murderous act, and inscribed: “Death Punishment for August von Kotzebue -in the name of virtue.” Running out into the street, where a crowd of -people assembled, attracted by the screams of the servant, he called out -in a loud voice: “Long live my German fatherland!” and kneeling down he -forcibly plunged the knife into his breast once more, exclaiming: “Great -God, I thank thee for this victory.”</p> - -<p>Sand’s wound was serious, but a skilful operation saved his life. On the -twentieth of May, 1820, he was executed at Mannheim, after a lengthy -trial and a painstaking investigation, in the course of which the German -and the Russian police made great efforts to discover accessories to his -crime. All these efforts failed, however, and the murder of Kotzebue -could be accounted only an individual act of patriotic exaltation. The -result of Sand’s self-sacrifice was very different from what he had -expected. In fact, Kotzebue’s assassination proved disastrous to the -liberal movement throughout Germany; it furnished a welcome pretext for -the most repressive measures against the press, against the -universities, against the Burschenschaft, against liberty in whatever -shape or form it might manifest itself. That long era of political -reaction was inaugurated against which the German people rebelled with -only partial success in 1848 and 1849, and from which only the ejection -of Austria and the reorganization of a new German Empire on a more -liberal basis in 1871 gave them permanent relief.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI<br /><br /> -DUC DE BERRY</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a>{326}</span></p> - -<p><a name="DUC_DE_BERRY" id="DUC_DE_BERRY"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p326b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p326b_sml.jpg" width="367" height="450" alt="image unavailable: DUC DE BERRY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">DUC DE BERRY</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a>{327}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XXI<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF THE DUC DE BERRY<br /><br /> -(February 13, 1820)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE political situation in France, after the overthrow of Napoleon and -the restoration of the Bourbons, was even more difficult and more -precarious for the governing classes than it was in Germany. The French -nation, proud in the consciousness of having occupied the first place in -Europe for twenty years, chafed at the idea of living under a king whom -foreign rulers and foreign armies had imposed on France, and who, in -consequence, had to act in blind obedience to the dictates of these -foreigners. The danger of a new violent outbreak against the Bourbon -government was therefore ever present not only to the French mind, but -to the mind of Europe, and to guard against it the foreign powers had -made it one of the terms of peace with France that a foreign army of -occupation should hold possession of the northern and northeastern -provinces of France until the entire war indemnity exacted from the -vanquished country had been paid. While the foreign occupation was -ostensibly a financial measure, it was in reality a military measure -giving to the foreign powers the keys to the interior of France and to -Paris, in case a new invasion<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a>{328}</span> should become necessary. Not only was the -position of the King rendered difficult by his political opponents, the -Imperialists and the Republicans, but its hardships and difficulties -were materially aggravated by the senseless and extravagant demands of -the Royalists, who had in large number returned to France with the -foreign armies. These Royalists, many of whom had been absent from -France for twenty years or more, on their return from their voluntary -exile, found their estates and manors, which had been confiscated under -the Revolution, in the possession of strangers; all the superior offices -in the civil service and the higher positions in the army, which they -claimed as their own by right of birth, were filled by men of low -extraction. They therefore turned to the King and demanded of him the -restoration of their lost estates of their aristocratic privileges.</p> - -<p>The King, Louis the Eighteenth, was perhaps the most intelligent of all -the monarchs of Europe, but he lacked force of character, and, moreover, -his long life in exile, with its pleasures and enjoyments as a sybarite -and epicurean, had but poorly qualified him for his suddenly imposed -tasks. He was expected by Europe to hold his own in a population the -majority of whom were opposed to him, and who had learned that a king -could be easily got rid of, if the people did not want him. Although -Louis the Eighteenth, with his penetrating sagacity, clearly saw the -instability of his throne, he honestly wished to make the best of the -chance the fortune of war had given him. He was willing to give the -French people a liberal government, provided it could be done without -endangering the throne, and without violating the pledges given to the -monarchs who had reinstated him. He might have even<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a>{329}</span> more energetically -opposed the reactionary demands of the ultra-Royalists, who recognized -his younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, as their leader, if his -experiences, especially during the “Hundred Days,” had not filled him -with disgust and suspicion toward the Imperialists. While Napoleon was -in Elba, Louis the Eighteenth kept all the Bonapartist generals and high -officials in office, relying on their promises and assurances of -fidelity; but on Napoleon’s return they all betrayed him, and either -flocked to the standards of the Emperor or declared their adhesion to -his cause as soon as he had set foot on French soil.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the man who had sinned most in this respect was Marshal Ney, who -in a personal interview asked of the King as a personal favor to be -placed in command of an army corps and to be sent against the Emperor, -pledging himself to bring Napoleon in chains before his throne. Louis -granted the Marshal’s request, but instead of capturing the Emperor, Ney -went over to him with his entire army corps and fought at Waterloo again -as the “bravest of the brave” in the imperial army. In vain he sought -death on the field, when he saw that the battle was lost; it was -reserved for him to die by French bullets in the Luxembourg garden of -Paris, fired by royalist officers, disguised as common soldiers. From -party hatred, these men had volunteered to act as executioners of one of -the greatest military heroes of revolutionary France. Labédoyère and -other famous generals who were traitors to Louis were executed; others -saved their lives by flight. The great Carnot and other Imperialists -were banished from France.</p> - -<p>The impression made upon the ultra-Royalists by these<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a>{330}</span> severe measures -against men who had shed lustre upon France, was in the highest degree -deplorable. These fanatics supposed that the Bonapartists and -Republicans of the whole kingdom were utterly at their mercy. They -secretly organized a special government, under the presidency of the -Comte d’Artois, at the Pavilion Marsan for the purpose of bringing to -justice all those who had participated in the Napoleonic <i>coup d’état</i> -or in the Revolution of 1789. A new era of terrorism was organized by -these “white Jacobins,” as they were significantly called, and the most -cruel excesses were committed in the provinces. La Vendée, which had -fought so heroically for the Bourbon dynasty, treated the Imperialists -and Republicans generously; but in the South, where religious fanaticism -added fuel to the flame of political hatred, the most atrocious excesses -and murders were committed. Avignon, Nîmes, Montpellier, Toulouse and -other cities of the South were disgraced by the butchery of hundreds of -Protestants; in some of them the victims of religious and political -persecution died at the stake. At Avignon the famous Marshal Brune was -assassinated; at Toulouse, General Ramel; at Nîmes, Count de la Garde. -Wholesale assassinations and butcheries were organized; armed bands, -fanaticized by the priests, roamed through the country, and butchered -the Protestants <i>en masse</i>. Ten thousand of the unfortunates fled to the -mountain recesses of the Cevennes, choosing rather to die from hunger -and cold than to be tortured to death. Juries composed of the most -intolerant Royalists lent their aid to these outrages, by condemning the -Protestants to death and acquitting the assassins. The veterans of -Napoleon’s army and forty thousand officers, many of whom had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a>{331}</span> served -with distinction under the imperial eagles, were driven from their homes -and wandered from village to village begging for bread and shelter. The -northern provinces were spared these outrages, but the one hundred and -fifty thousand foreign soldiers stationed in their towns and fortresses -were terrible reminders of the humiliation and shame which the -restoration of the Bourbons had brought upon France.</p> - -<p>The French Chambers were entirely under the control of the extreme -Royalists. They enacted laws which reduced the political conditions of -France to those which had existed prior to 1789. They looked upon the -Revolutionary era and the Empire as upon a lawless interregnum which -should be ignored by the government, and they demanded that all the old -institutions of the kingdom should be revived. They were so bold and so -insolent that they overawed the government for a while. Very reluctantly -the King consented to several tyrannical laws,—for instance, the law -referring all political crimes to special courts, composed of one -officer and four judges, from whose decision no appeal could be taken. -But the King saw to his regret that his acquiescence in these immoderate -demands had no other effect than to make the ultra-Royalists bolder and -more arrogant. They demanded a curtailment of the right of suffrage, a -reënactment of the right of primogeniture and other feudal measures.</p> - -<p>The King’s patience was exhausted; he refused to sanction any of these -laws and dissolved the Chambers. In their impotent rage the disappointed -ultra-Royalists applied to the foreign powers, asking their intervention -in behalf of absolute royalty, and imploring them to compel<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a>{332}</span> the King to -desist from his pernicious protection of Jacobins and regicides. -Metternich sent this strange petition to the French government. But -neither the King nor his favorite minister, M. Decazes, was scared by -such foolhardy steps. They coolly ignored them and courageously -inaugurated a series of political reforms in order to reassure public -opinion. Instead of reducing the number of electors (as the ultras -demanded), they largely increased it. To the periodical press and the -daily newspapers was given greater liberty; the censorship, which had -been exceedingly annoying, was abolished. At the same time, by the able -financial management of the Duc de Richelieu, the 1,600,000,000 francs -war indemnity was reduced to 502,000,000 francs and a large number of -the foreign troops were withdrawn from the northern provinces. These -liberal and patriotic measures followed one another in quick succession -and made a very favorable impression upon the people. The liberal -parties were willing to coöperate with the government in its endeavor to -restore the prosperity of the country, to relieve the distress of the -masses, and to free France from foreign occupation. The Chambers of 1818 -and 1819 also coöperated with the government, and the liberal party was -represented in them by a small number of illustrious men,—such men as -Lafayette, General Foy, Benjamin Constant,—men who were more patriots -than partisans. In fact, everything indicated a return of speedy -prosperity, when an event occurred which at one blow crushed the hopes -of the patriots, paralyzed the hand of the government, and reinstated -the extremists in power. This event was the assassination of the Duc de -Berry, the hope of the Bourbon dynasty.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a>{333}</span></p> - -<p>On its return from exile the royal family of France consisted of:</p> - -<p>The King, formerly Comte de Provence.</p> - -<p>The King’s brother, the Comte d’Artois, and his two sons:</p> - -<p>The Duc d’Angoulême, and</p> - -<p>The Duc de Berry.</p> - -<p>The Comte d’Artois, the presumptive heir to the throne, was born in -1757, and was consequently fifty-seven years old on his return to Paris. -He was ultra-Royalistic in his political views and was considered the -head of the extremists. His eldest son, the Duc d’Angoulême, was born in -1775, and had retired from France with his father at the commencement of -the Revolution. He was a man of very mediocre ability, but of exemplary -character. In 1799 he was married to his cousin Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, -daughter of Louis the Sixteenth, who had passed her unhappy childhood in -prison, which she had left only in 1795. She was worshipped by the -entire royal family as an angel of kindness and mercy. They had no -children.</p> - -<p>The younger son, the Duc de Berry, was born in 1778, and had passed his -youth and early manhood in exile. He had a more manly character than his -brother, and the French nobility of the old <i>régime</i> looked upon him as -the hope of the Bourbon dynasty. Far from being a genius, the Duc de -Berry was a man of good intelligence, brave, dashing, and the very type -of a French officer, prior to the Revolution. He had many of the -generous traits, but also some of the vices of that elegant and -high-spirited class of young men. While living in exile, in England, he -formed a liaison with a young Englishwoman,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a>{334}</span> who bore him two daughters, -to whom he was greatly attached and whom he took to Paris and placed in -a young ladies’ academy. In 1816 the King married him to a Neapolitan -princess, Caroline, daughter of the Crown Prince of that kingdom, a -handsome, high-spirited, healthy young woman, who gave promise of giving -the dynasty direct heirs. The newly married couple lived very happily -together, and enjoyed life in the French capital to its fullest extent. -They were really the official representatives of royalty and its -splendors,—neither the King nor the Duc d’Angoulême caring much for the -entertainments, balls, and receptions of court life. The prominence thus -given to the Duc de Berry, and the expectation that through him the -elder line of the Bourbons would be continued explain fully why he was -singled out as the victim of assassination. He was not only identified -with the extreme Royalists, so odious to the people, but, with him out -of the way, it was only a question of time when the elder branch of the -dynasty would die out entirely, no more issue being expected from the -Duc d’Angoulême, who had been married already twenty years without -having children. Such were at least the considerations of the young man -who undertook the perilous task of killing the Duc de Berry, and who -fully accomplished his purpose.</p> - -<p>This young man was Jean Pierre Louvel, a resident of Versailles, an -enthusiastic admirer of Napoleon, whom he considered the living -embodiment of the greatness and honor of France. Napoleon’s dethronement -he wanted to revenge on the Bourbons, in whose interest it had taken -place, and who, in his opinion, were utterly unworthy to rule over the -French nation. Louvel was a saddler,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a>{335}</span> thirty-two years of age, -debilitated in appearance, and considered a political fanatic by all who -knew him. He had no family or relations except one sister, considerably -older than himself, who had brought him up, and with whom he lived. He -hated the Bourbons so intensely that in 1814, when the royal family -landed at Calais on their return from exile, he intended to make an -attempt on the life of Louis the Eighteenth; but the great enthusiasm of -the people discouraged him. During all these years his wrath against the -Bourbons had steadily grown, and he had never for a moment abandoned his -plan of killing the whole family,—first the Duc de Berry, then the Duc -d’Angoulême, then the Comte d’Artois, and finally the King. He -considered De Berry the most important and the most dangerous man of the -whole family because in him were centred the hopes of continuing the -dynasty.</p> - -<p>He had been very persistent; he had found employment in the royal -stables at Versailles, and whenever the Duc de Berry was out hunting, he -tried to find an opportunity to get near him; he frequently went to -Paris and studied the advertisements of new plays or operas, expecting -that the Duke would attend a first performance. Twenty times he had been -close to him on such occasions, but had always been prevented by the -number of friends or attendants surrounding him from getting near enough -to stab him, and stab him so well that he could not escape; for -everything depended on making a success of the attempt.</p> - -<p>After long and patient waiting he found his opportunity. It was during -the last days of the carnival preceding the season of Lent, in February, -1820. The grand masquerade ball at the opera was to take place on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a>{336}</span> -thirteenth, and it was a matter of absolute certainty that both the Duc -and the Duchesse de Berry, who were very fond of dancing, would attend -it. When Louvel got up and dressed, he had a joyful presentiment that -that day would bring him the realization of his long-cherished plan. He -had in his possession two daggers of very superior quality, both sharp -as razors and strong enough to penetrate flesh and sinew to the handle. -He had studied the human anatomy well enough to know exactly where to -strike his victim. He chose the smaller dagger of the two because he -could more easily conceal it; took his supper with good appetite and -without betraying unusual agitation; and then he started on his mission -of death. He was promptly at his post at eight o’clock when the carriage -of the Duc de Berry drove up to the private entrance reserved for the -members of the royal family. The Duke was not expected so early in the -evening, and consequently there were not so many attendants gathered -near the entrance. The Duke jumped out of the carriage, and held out his -arm to help the Duchess to alight. This was the proper moment for -Louvel, if he wanted to commit the crime. He was on the point of rushing -toward the Duke, when the smiling and lovely face of the Duchess -appeared in the light of the lantern, and this sight paralyzed the arm -of the murderer. He hesitated at the thought that his crime would plunge -these two happy persons into nameless misery, and before he had -recovered his equanimity, the Duke and his wife had disappeared behind -the entrance door of the theatre.</p> - -<p>Louvel blamed himself for his faintness of heart and wanted to postpone -the deed to some later day; but the thought that he would have to go -back to Versailles in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337"></a>{337}</span> a few days and that no such opportunity might -offer itself for a long time, caused him to change his mind. That very -night his plan must be executed, and either the Duke or himself should -perish. For several hours he strolled through the streets in the -neighborhood of the Opera House, went to the garden of the Palais Royal -and back again, always keeping a watchful eye on the carriages that -stood waiting for the call of their owners. At twenty minutes past -eleven the carriage of the Duc de Berry drove up to the entrance door. -Louvel stood near by, almost hidden in the shadow of the wall, and -entirely unnoticed by the attendants of the royal equipage. He was not -kept waiting for a long time; for a little accident had occurred which -induced the Duchess to return much sooner than they had anticipated. -Their box at the Opera House was near that of the Duc and Duchesse -d’Orléans, who were also at the theatre that evening; the two families -were on terms of great intimacy, especially the two duchesses, both -being Neapolitan princesses. At one of the intermissions of the -performance De Berry and his wife went to the box of the Duc d’Orléans -for a friendly chat, but on their return to their own box, a door -opposite was quickly opened and struck the Duchess with such violence -that she felt very unwell. In her delicate condition (she was enceinte -at the time) she thought it would be better for her to return home than -to wait for the close of the performance and the masquerade ball. The -Duke therefore conducts his wife back to the carriage and lifts her into -it; the Comtesse de Bétysi, her lady of honor, takes her seat by her -side; the duke shakes hands with both ladies and with a smiling “<i>au -revoir</i>, I’ll be home soon,” steps back from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338"></a>{338}</span> carriage. At this -moment Louvel rushes forward, lays his left hand on the duke’s right -shoulder and plunges his dagger with so much force into the Duke’s right -side that the weapon remains in the wound. The Duke, mortally wounded, -sinks to his knees, and utters a slight scream, more of surprise than of -pain. As is usually the case in such assaults, the victim had rather -felt the shock than the wound, and only when he reached out with his -hand to the spot where he had been hurt, he found the handle of the -dagger, and comprehended the meaning of the attack. He then cried out: -“I am struck to death, I have been assassinated!” and as he pulled the -dagger from the wound, a stream of blood gushed forth. The Duke fainted -in consequence of the loss of blood, and was carried back into the Opera -House, where the Duchess followed him with loud screams. In the first -confusion Louvel made his escape, but he was soon overtaken and brought -back to the scene of the murder. The excitement and the indignation of -the people were so great that he would have been torn to pieces but for -the active protection of the police and of the servants of the Duc de -Berry who were afraid that by his death his accomplices and accessories -to the crime might be shielded.</p> - -<p>The most eminent surgeons of Paris were immediately summoned to the -assistance of the Prince. But the wound was fatal, and all their efforts -were in vain. In the presence of death the Duc de Berry showed a very -generous and magnanimous heart. He implored his wife, his brother, and -all others surrounding his bed to use their influence with the King to -get his murderer pardoned, and expressed his profound sorrow that he had -been stabbed by a Frenchman. Up to his last moment<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339"></a>{339}</span> the thought that his -murderer would be executed in a cruel manner disturbed him, and when -toward morning the King came to bid him farewell, he repeated his -request that the murderer should be forgiven and not be executed; but -without eliciting the promise from his uncle. With this dying request -for the life of his murderer on his lips, he expired very early in the -morning.</p> - -<p>The sensation which the assassination of the Duc de Berry created not -only in Paris, but throughout France and Europe, was enormous. All -parties equally condemned and lamented the crime. While the -ultra-Royalists deplored in the murder the extinction of all their hopes -for the establishment of the old Bourbon dynasty on a sure foundation, -the liberal parties foresaw that it would put an end to the liberal -tendencies of the government of Louis the Eighteenth. The sinister -forebodings of the liberals were only too well founded. The Royalists -tried at first to create the impression that the murder was but the -symptom of a widespread conspiracy organized by the revolutionary -elements of the kingdom against the royal family and the entire -nobility, and boldly charged the liberal policy of the government as -being the cause of it. In a session of the Chambers one of the deputies -went even so far as to move the impeachment of M. Decazes, Minister of -the Interior, as an accessory to the crime committed by Louvel. While -the Chambers refused to act upon this infamous motion, the entire -Royalistic press demanded the dismissal of Decazes, and the King -reluctantly yielded to the universal demand. “M. Decazes has slipped in -the blood shed by Louvel’s dagger,” wrote Chateaubriand in commenting on -the dismissal of the liberal minister. And<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340"></a>{340}</span> that era of reaction and -repression commenced which ten years later ended in the dethronement of -the elder branch of the Bourbon dynasty and in the flight and exile of -Charles the Tenth. The entire liberal party was punished for the crime -of one fanatic.</p> - -<p>Louvel was tried before the Chamber of Peers. He pleaded guilty. He -denied having any accomplices. He had conferred with nobody. He -recognized the dagger as his own; he gave his hatred and abhorrence of -the Bourbon family as his only motive for the crime. He was convicted -unanimously. He expressed no regret for what he had done, and died with -stoical indifference. He was guillotined June 7, 1820.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341"></a>{341}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII<br /><br /> -ABRAHAM LINCOLN</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342"></a>{342}</span></p> - -<p><a name="ABRAHAM_LINCOLN" id="ABRAHAM_LINCOLN"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p342b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p342b_sml.jpg" width="363" height="501" alt="image unavailable: ABRAHAM LINCOLN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ABRAHAM LINCOLN</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343"></a>{343}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XXII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN<br /><br /> -(April 14, 1865)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N the annals of this nation no tragedy more pathetic has been recorded -than the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, President of the United -States.</p> - -<p>The Civil War which had divided the country into two hostile camps for -four years and had laid waste the Southern States of the Union—or the -Confederate States of America, to designate them by the name they -adopted—was at an end. General Lee had surrendered the army of -Virginia, the flower of the Confederate fighting forces, to General -Grant at Appomattox Court House, and while General Johnston’s army in -North Carolina, and a few separate minor corps, still remained in the -field, Lee’s surrender was generally construed as the termination of the -long and cruel war, and joy ruled supreme throughout the North. Liberty -had triumphed, and four million slaves had been emancipated!</p> - -<p>The surrender of Lee took place on the eighth of April, 1865. On the -following day President Lincoln visited the late capital of the -Confederacy. He traversed the city in all directions, and everywhere he -manifested the kindest disposition towards the South, and expressed the -wish that all traces of the unfortunate war should<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344"></a>{344}</span> disappear as soon as -possible and that cordial relations between the two sections of the -country should be reëstablished at once. Very likely there was not a man -in all the Northern States happier at the prospect of a lasting peace -than Abraham Lincoln. His great and noble heart, sensitive as a woman’s, -had been bleeding for years at the sight of the gigantic fratricidal -war, of which Providence had made him the most conspicuous figure. But -five weeks before, he had entered upon his second presidential term, and -in his inaugural address he had foreshadowed the policy of leniency and -moderation which he intended to show to the “rebels” in case of the -final victory of the Union armies. That address revealed the true -inwardness of the great man; it was spoken with an eloquence peculiarly -his own; it was full of thought, sweetness, firmness, unswerving -fidelity to duty, high morality made more impressive even by the -simplicity and originality of language. At the same time it breathed a -tenderness for the vanquished which made it almost an olive-branch -tendered to those who were still in arms against the government and -inviting them to return to the hearthstones of the nation of which they -had been the favored sons and daughters for nearly a century. Although -the triumph of the Union and its armies was already in sight as an event -of the near future, nothing in that address indicated boastfulness and -supercilious pride. No arrogance, no pompous reference to the -superiority of the North in heroism or exploits! On the contrary, the -President humbles himself before the decrees of the Almighty, he -confesses the great national crime and the justice of the immense -punishment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345"></a>{345}</span></p> - -<p>In the tone of sadness pervading the beautiful oration there is almost -the presentiment of death and that supreme resignation which sometimes -takes possession of the soul on the verge of the grave. Already he had -planned a proclamation of pardon,—a general amnesty, excluding none, a -full and complete restoration of concord and brotherhood between the -North and the South, when all at once the terrible news “Lincoln has -been assassinated! Lincoln is dead!” flashed over the telegraph wires -and filled the whole North with terror. As if nothing was to be wanting -to make this gigantic Civil War a tragedy to both sides, the man whose -very name was the embodiment of liberty and the symbol of emancipation, -and who more than any other man had contributed to the great triumph, -had to succumb at the moment of victory. The election of Abraham Lincoln -had given the signal for the organization and outbreak of the -slaveholders’ rebellion, and it was certainly a remarkable coincidence -that the tolling of the church-bells in towns and cities through which -Lincoln’s funeral train slowly wended its way from the capital to his -Western home was heard simultaneously with the news of the collapse of -that rebellion and of the final extinction of human slavery on American -soil. This coincidence was almost providential, and if the great -Emancipator could have chosen his own time for his death, he certainly -could not have made a more appropriate and glorious choice. He became, -so to speak, the hero of the great epic of the Civil War—one of the -greatest the world had seen,—and his tragical death marked the -conclusion of the strife. In the eyes of the fanatical advocates of the -Southern cause Abraham Lincoln had always held this prominent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346"></a>{346}</span> position -as the principal author of the feud dividing the North and the South, -and it is therefore not surprising that some of these fanatics had -formed a conspiracy to assassinate him and some of his most intimate -advisers. About a week after Mr. Lincoln’s visit at Richmond this plot -was to be executed.</p> - -<p>On the fourteenth of April, 1865, an especially brilliant performance -was to be given at Ford’s Theatre, Washington, and Mr. Lincoln, General -Grant, and Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, were expected to be present; -in fact, the Washington newspapers of that date had announced that they -would be present. But at the very last moment General Grant was -compelled to leave Washington and go North. Mr. Stanton, being -overburdened with business and unable to find time to go to the theatre, -remained at his office, and only Mr. Lincoln went, accompanied by Mrs. -Lincoln and a few friends. His appearance was the signal for a grand -ovation. He seemed to follow the presentation of the play with close -attention and great interest. The third act had just commenced, when the -audience was startled by the sound of a pistol-shot proceeding from the -President’s box. At the same moment a man appeared in the foreground of -that box, jumped upon the balustrade, and thence down to the stage, -shouting, “<i>Sic semper tyrannis!</i>” In leaping from the box, one of the -man’s spurs got entangled with the flag with which Mr. Lincoln’s box was -decorated. He fell and broke a leg, but immediately recovering himself -and getting on his feet he had sufficient presence of mind and power of -will to make his escape. He knocked down those who tried to stop him, -ran through the aisles of the scenery, jumped upon a horse which was -kept in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347"></a>{347}</span> readiness for him by an accomplice, and disappeared in the -darkness of the night.</p> - -<p>This man, who with lightning-like rapidity had appeared on the stage and -disappeared from it, was the murderer of Abraham Lincoln; and the murder -had been committed so suddenly that the great majority of the audience, -even after his flight, were in profound ignorance of what had happened. -It was then only that the cries of horror, the loud lamentations of Mrs. -Lincoln and of the other persons in the President’s box conveyed to the -awe-stricken audience the news of the tragedy which had occurred in -their midst. The President, shot through the head from behind, had lost -consciousness immediately, and the blood oozed slowly from the wound. -However, life was not extinct, and immediately the hope arose that Mr. -Lincoln’s life might be saved. He was carried into a neighboring house, -and the best surgeons were called to his assistance. But alas! the -murderer’s ball having passed through the cerebellum had pierced the -cerebrum, and the wound was fatal beyond all hope. Mr. Lincoln died -early in the morning without having regained consciousness. The North -had lost its greatest citizen and the South its best friend.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>While this murder was being committed at Ford’s Theatre, another -assassin entered the residence of Secretary of State William H. Seward, -who had been seriously injured by an accident a few days before. The -assassin pretended to be the bearer of a medical prescription, and -demanded to be admitted to the room of the patient. The servant refused -to admit him, but was rudely pushed aside, whereupon the visitor, who -evidently was familiar<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348"></a>{348}</span> with the location of the rooms, burst into the -one where Mr. Seward was lying ill in bed, rushed toward him, seriously -wounded Mr. Seward’s son, who threw himself in his way, and thereupon -engaged the invalid in a furious combat, stabbing him several times. In -spite of his disability, the Secretary defended himself bravely and -fought with the courage of despair, until at last the assassin, after -having badly cut and disfigured his face, made his escape.</p> - -<p>As has been stated already, the plan of the conspirators was to kill not -only President Lincoln, but other prominent men, such as Andrew Johnson, -the new Vice-President, Secretary Seward, Secretary Stanton, and General -Grant. On several occasions the assassins had been on the point of -perpetrating these murders, but always unforeseen circumstances had -occurred and prevented them. At last this gala performance at Ford’s -Theatre seemed to invite them to execute their plot, and they resolved -to assassinate Lincoln, Grant, and Stanton at the theatre, and Seward -and Johnson at their private residences. By removing these five men the -assassins hoped to decapitate the republic itself and imagined that very -likely during the terror and confusion which these assassinations would -cause, the Southern rebels would take up arms again and capture -Washington city. But only one of the five victims designated was -killed—alas! it was the most illustrious one of the five—while the -others escaped owing to fortuitous circumstances.</p> - -<p>As to the murderer of Lincoln, who was identified as John Wilkes Booth, -it was ascertained that he had been inspired by an implacable and -sincere fanaticism. Son of a celebrated English tragedian who had lived -several<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349"></a>{349}</span> years in the United States, John Wilkes Booth was himself an -actor of considerable ability, who had frequently played on the very -stage which he was to desecrate by one of the most infamous -assassinations of modern times. Young, handsome, eloquent, and audacious -as he was, Booth had a certain prestige among his companions and great -success with the ladies of his profession. He was an enthusiastic -Democrat, became a prominent member of the “Knights of the Golden -Circle,” and believed in the divine origin of the institution of -slavery. He had been among the lynchers of John Brown and frequently -boasted of his participation in that crime. He often expressed the wish -that all such abolitionists should die on the gallows. He and some -others, equally extreme in their views on the slavery question, met -frequently at the house of a Mrs. Surratt, who was also fanatically -devoted to the Southern cause, and concocted there the plot to murder -the President and his associates.</p> - -<p>After having performed that part of the plot which he had reserved for -himself—the assassination of the President—with almost incredible -boldness, Booth fled to Virginia. He had intended to continue his flight -until he had reached the extreme South, and possibly Mexico, but his -injury prevented him from carrying out this plan. In company with one of -his accomplices he hid himself in an isolated barn on the banks of the -Rappahannock, hoping that as soon as the first storm of indignation had -blown over, the search for the murderer would gradually relax, if not -cease altogether, and that he would then have an opportunity to escape. -But in this calculation he was mistaken. A roving detachment of federal -soldiers discovered him in his hiding-place, during the night of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350"></a>{350}</span> -twenty-sixth of April. His companion, realizing that all resistance -would be useless, surrendered immediately. But Booth wanted to sell his -life as dearly as possible. He tried to break out and escape from his -pursuers, but a pistol-shot brought him down with a fatal wound in his -head, from which he soon afterwards died. The assassin who had assaulted -and seriously wounded Secretary Seward had, a few days before, been -captured at Mrs. Surratt’s house.</p> - -<p>The effect of Mr. Lincoln’s assassination on the people of the North was -indescribable. It filled their hearts with bitterness and their minds -with thoughts of revenge. It was averred that the murderer in crossing -the stage of the theatre and defiantly brandishing a long knife had -exclaimed: “The South is avenged!” This exclamation seemed to implicate -the whole South, or at least its government, in the murderous act of -Booth. The natural consequence was that the people of the North, who -immediately after the surrender of Lee’s army were inclined to great -leniency toward the vanquished and willing to receive them back into the -Union with open arms, suddenly turned against them. The army and the -government circles, and in fact the entire population of the national -capital, who had learned to love Mr. Lincoln, demanded the most severe -punishment for the rebels. Then began the long and tedious work of -reconstruction, retarded by party spirit and retaliatory measures on -both sides. It was terminated to the satisfaction of both only during -the last few years, when the sons of the South fought shoulder to -shoulder with the sons of the North for the deliverance of Cuba from -Spanish oppression under the glorious banner of the Union. But how -often<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351"></a>{351}</span> during these years of contention, was the great man missed whose -truly humane spirit would have contributed so much to bring the -discordant elements of both sections together in fraternal harmony and -mutual respect, and whose hands had penned the noblest document of the -nineteenth century—the proclamation of emancipation—setting free four -million slaves. Such deeds as his can never be forgotten.</p> - -<p>The assassination did a great deal for Mr. Lincoln’s standing in -history. It added the halo of martyrdom to his renown as a statesman, -and it has made him a national hero, who, next to Washington—or with -Washington—holds the highest place in the estimation of the American -people. It is doubtful whether Abraham Lincoln, if he had not crowned -his career with a martyr’s death, would have held this place. It had -especially the effect of wiping out an impression which many had formed -of Mr. Lincoln’s character, and which, during the first years of his -presidential term, lowered him considerably in the eyes of the people. -His Southern enemies and detractors made a great deal of Mr. Lincoln’s -“undignified bearing,” his “lack of tact,” “his mania for telling funny -stories, in and out of season,” and the Northern Democrats were only too -busy repeating and circulating these stories, because they could not -forgive Lincoln for having beaten their idol, Stephen Arnold Douglas.</p> - -<p>Mr. Lincoln’s distinction was his strong originality and self-reliance. -As a young man, with no adviser to guide him through the hardships and -embarrassments of life, he took counsel with his own mind, which -fortunately was of peculiar depth, rich in resources,—and the advice he -received from this consultation, the instruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352"></a>{352}</span> he gained by this -appeal to the fund of his own knowledge and experience served him -splendidly as schooling for the task which was in store for him. And -joined to this self-education nature had bestowed on him some of her -rarest gifts,—humor, kind, genial, and peculiarly humane, blending -tears with laughter, and a mother-wit always ready to make fun of his -own misfortunes and shortcomings, and to joke away any embarrassing -situation in which either untoward circumstances or his own mistakes -might have placed him. In addition to all this he possessed that truly -American characteristic—shrewdness, which far from being an -objectionable quality with him, was modified by his kindness of heart -and his moral uprightness.</p> - -<p>In that great and distinctly English book, Robinson Crusoe, we find a -young Englishman in consequence of a shipwreck thrown upon a deserted -island in midocean. He is cut off from civilization and its resources -and thrown upon his own ingenuity to carve out a living for himself -which, to a degree at least, comes up to the experience which he has had -while living in civilized society. A few tools and instruments which he -saves from the wrecked ship are the only things to assist him in the -building up of his future life, yet by industry, shrewdness, and -perseverance he really succeeds in making that life not only tolerable, -but to a degree comfortable. Possibly the trying circumstances in which -young Robinson was placed whetted and sharpened his wits, strengthened -his nerve, and inspired him with enough confidence to become equal to -his difficult task; at all events, he succeeded, and the book narrating -his experience, his trials, and his sufferings forms one of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353"></a>{353}</span> the most -delightful and at the same time one of the most instructive books for -young and old ever written. Its educational value can hardly be -overestimated. It may be said that Robinson Crusoe is but a novel, and -that his adventures and achievements all originated in the fertile mind -of Daniel Defoe. But even if it was so, which is by no means proven, the -feat of Defoe’s genius shows that a young man of strong character and -full of resources, with an ideal placed before his mental eye, can find -the means to raise himself to a higher level than he could have reached -under ordinary circumstances and without the stimulating influence of -personal hardships and pressing necessity.</p> - -<p>It was so with Abraham Lincoln. The means of education which the wild -West offered to him were of the most elementary kind, but his innate -genius and energy knew how to make them serviceable to the high aim and -to the ideals which he had proposed to himself. The loneliness of the -primeval forests in which his childhood was passed fostered the tendency -to reverie and thoughtfulness which formed one of the principal traits -of his character. An American boy in the full meaning of the word he -learned to love and appreciate that Union from which the West expected -its development, and on which it depended as on the natural source of -its future greatness. As if to prepare him for the great part he was to -act in American history, he was made to see at an early day the wrongs -and cruelties of slavery. His pure mind, which had been strengthened and -refined by immediate contact with nature, felt the stain which soiled -the American name and flag. As he went down the Mississippi river on a -flatboat and became witness of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354"></a>{354}</span> a slave-auction, where family ties were -brutally torn asunder, he vowed to himself to do his share as a man and -citizen to wipe out that wrong against humanity. How nobly he redeemed -that vow and how cruelly he suffered for redeeming it, we have told in -the preceding pages, and the crown of immortality is his just reward.</p> - -<p>If we should wish to compare the great martyr-president with any -historical personage of preceding ages, it would be Henry the Fourth of -France. While unquestionably there are many differences in their traits -of character, they have nevertheless so many traits in common that the -comparison is, in our opinion, a decidedly just one. Both were placed in -leading positions at a time when their country was torn up by civil war. -In the case of Henry the Fourth religion, or rather Protestantism, was -the cause of the fratricidal strife; in the case of Abraham Lincoln it -was negro slavery. Both were enlisted in the cause of humanity and -progress. It is true, Henry the Fourth renounced Protestantism to win a -crown, in the possession of which he alone could hope to render immortal -service to the Protestant Church and the principle upon which it is -founded, religious toleration; and by the promulgation of the Edict of -Nantes he gloriously performed the historical task which Providence had -allotted to him. Abraham Lincoln was willing to make any sacrifice for -the maintenance of the American Union, for only as President of the -United States and as conqueror of the rebellious South, could he hope to -become the champion of the abolition of negro slavery. He was fortunate -enough to live through the gigantic Civil War, and Clio, the Muse, of -History, has entered in imperishable letters on the asbestos leaves of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355"></a>{355}</span> -our national annals his immortal declaration of the emancipation of the -black race. As two great reformers they will both live in -history,—Henry the Fourth, as the embodiment of the principle of -religious toleration, Lincoln as the evangelist of negro emancipation. -It is a strange coincidence that these two great men were endowed by -nature with so many analogous traits, but rarely found in other great -men. Both had a keen relish for humor, fun, and wit, and indulged this -taste under the most trying circumstances; both were lenient and -forgiving to a fault; both displayed statesmanship and executive ability -of a high order; and if Henry the Fourth has won greater laurels as a -warrior, Lincoln has crowned his great life with the glory of being a -great orator. Mankind has grown better by having produced these two -men.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356"></a>{356}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357"></a>{357}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII<br /><br /> -ALEXANDER THE SECOND OF RUSSIA</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358"></a>{358}</span></p> - -<p><a name="ALEXANDER_II" id="ALEXANDER_II"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p358b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p358b_sml.jpg" width="435" height="436" alt="image unavailable: ALEXANDER II." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ALEXANDER II.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359"></a>{359}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XXIII<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER THE SECOND OF RUSSIA<br /><br /> -(March 13, 1881)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE assassination of Abraham Lincoln leads up to that of the other great -emancipator of the nineteenth century, Alexander the Second of Russia, -which occurred on the thirteenth of March, 1881, and which filled the -world with horror.</p> - -<p>In one of Goethe’s most famous poems a magician’s apprentice, in the -absence of his learned master, sets free the secret powers of nature -which his master can control by a magical formula. The apprentice has -overheard the formula, and has appropriated it to his own use; but lo! -when the apprentice wants to get rid of the powers he has let loose, he -has forgotten the magic words by which to banish them, and miserably -perishes in the attempt. The poem is symbolical of the life and -experience of Czar Alexander the Second of Russia. As a young man, -enthusiastic and desirous to promote his country’s welfare, he set loose -the turbulent and revolutionary powers slumbering in his gigantic -empire, and they grew to such enormous proportions that even his power, -great though it was, was insufficient to curb them; finally he paid with -his life for his attempt<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360"></a>{360}</span> to confer blessings upon his subjects. In -order to comprehend the difficulties which confronted Alexander the -Second on his accession, it is necessary to take a retrospect of the -preceding reign.</p> - -<p>The Emperor Nicholas the First died on the second of March, 1855. He had -reigned twenty-nine years and nine months. During all these years he had -ruled his gigantic empire with an iron hand and had stood before the -world as the most brilliant as well as the most imperious ruler who had -sat upon the throne of the Czars since the death of Peter the Great. He -was the model for the other sovereigns of Europe, and his policy was -adopted with almost servile humility by the monarchs of Austria and -Prussia, the former of whom he reinstated on his throne by overthrowing -the Hungarian revolution, while the latter was allied to him by ties of -marriage. His dislike for reform and “the modern spirit” was caused, it -is said, by the sad experience he had made but a few weeks after his -accession, when a rebellion of the Imperial Guards in his own capital -compelled him to throw shot and shell into his own regiments, and to -quell a widespread conspiracy by the severest measures. At that time -cheers coming from the ranks for “Constantine and the Constitution” had -made the very name of a constitution odious to him. He might not have -taken the demonstration so seriously if he had known that the soldiers, -on being asked by their officers to cheer for Constantine and the -Constitution had asked: “Who is the Constitution?” and were told that -she was Constantine’s wife, whereupon the soldiers cheered lustily. At -all events, Nicholas, who had intended to introduce a number of Western -reforms, took suddenly a great aversion<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361"></a>{361}</span> to anything which deviated in -the least from the most autocratic form of government; he punished the -slightest disagreement in political opinion or the most timid opposition -to his imperial will as an act of rebellion. The whole system of -government had been fashioned upon a half Asiatic, half European model; -it combined the absolute—almost divine—power of the Oriental ruler -with a formidable and well-drilled bureaucracy blindly obedient to the -Czar and knowing no other law than his will.</p> - -<p>Nicholas the First was a man of superior intelligence, of indomitable -will, and of great vigor of mind, which enabled him to pay strict -attention to the different departments of the public service. His most -effective instrument was the third section of the Czar’s personal -bureau,—a secret political police by which he overawed the empire and -whose very name caused terror in the heart and home of every Russian -family. Whosoever was unfortunate enough to fall under the suspicion of -this terrible Hermandad—more cruel and more vindictive than the Spanish -Inquisition—might just as well resign himself at once to his -fate,—life-long exile to Siberia or a secret execution, most probably -by strangulation, in one of the prisons of Russia. It was the office of -this secret police, which reported directly to the Emperor, not only to -ferret out crime and bring criminals to justice, but to protect the -subjects of the Czar from contact with hurtful foreign influences, to -confiscate books and newspapers from abroad, to open and read letters, -and to learn family secrets which might be used against the -correspondents or their friends. Everything, in fact, which the imperial -government could think of to cut off Russia from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362"></a>{362}</span> current of -European ideas, to prevent its subjects from receiving a liberal -education at the universities, to expand their minds by travelling -abroad, to become familiar with the great political and philosophical -questions of the day by a study of literature and newspapers, was done -with rigorous care by the police and approved by the Czar.</p> - -<p>Occasionally the Emperor became indignant at the venality and corruption -of high public officials; but he did not see that this venality and -corruption were but the logical consequence of the system of despotism -and Byzantinism which his will imposed even on the highest members of -the aristocracy. His smile, his praise, was the highest distinction, the -highest aim of the ambition of the aristocracy, and for this servile -subjection to the imperial will they compensated themselves by unbridled -licentiousness and beastly excesses, and by robbing the public treasury. -Because it was well known that the Emperor looked with suspicion on the -universities as nurseries of liberal or revolutionary ideas, the -nobility did not send their sons thither, for fear that the young men -might become infected with these ideas, and that transportation to -Siberia might suddenly interrupt their studies. The nobility, therefore, -deemed it more prudent to send the lads to court or to the military -schools, where they were safe at least from the contagion of European -liberalism. It is really a wonder that, with such an organization of -society and with a system of police surveillance perhaps never equalled -in the world, with a Damocles’ sword always suspended over their heads, -there still remained a number of liberal-minded men, who never abandoned -the hope of better days, never renounced their dream that the time would -come for Russia, as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363"></a>{363}</span> had come for western Europe, to enter socially -and politically the family of enlightened nations, blessed with liberal -institutions and freed from the despotism of semi-Oriental rulers. These -liberal-minded men and true patriots—professors of the universities, -literary men, and a very small number of young noblemen—lived mostly at -Moscow, where the distance from the observing eye of the ruler and his -court saved them from detection, although their secret influence -pervaded the whole empire, and kept the flame of liberalism burning in -the hearts of the intellectual élite. While Nicholas had thus succeeded -in building up an Eastern despotism on the banks of the Neva, he -endeavored at the same time to impress Europe with the idea of his -unrivalled power. His army was considered one of the best in Europe, and -the immense population of his empire—larger than that of any two of the -other great powers—gave him almost unlimited material for recruits. The -generals commanding these armies were also renowned throughout Europe. -They had won their laurels in the battles against the revolutionary -armies of Poland and Hungary, in conquering the warlike population of -the Caucasus, and subjecting large territories in western Asia to the -white eagle of the Czar. The Russian diplomats had the reputation of -being the shrewdest in Europe, and had either by secret treaties or by -matrimonial alliances succeeded in making Russian influence preponderant -on the continent of Europe. The Emperor Nicholas stood, therefore, on a -commanding height when he provoked the great western powers of Europe, -together with Turkey, to mortal combat. It was a challenge born in -arrogance and political short-sightedness, and it found its deserved -rebuke in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364"></a>{364}</span> total defeat of the Russian armies and a thorough -humiliation of the Russian Emperor. Nicholas ought to have known that, -in engaging in war with the western powers, he not only endangered his -military prestige, but put to the test also his system of domestic -administration, based entirely on his autocratic will, and silently, -although reluctantly, submitted to by his subjects, as a tribute to his -dominant position in Europe. When by the disasters of the Crimean War -that position was lost, when it became clear to the Russian people that -the Emperor was not absolutely the universal dictator of Europe, not -only his military prestige was destroyed, but his system of domestic -government lost immensely in public estimation. Nicholas felt this -double humiliation so keenly that it was just as much personal chagrin -as physical disease which caused his death even before the war was over.</p> - -<p>It was therefore a heavy burden which his successor, Alexander the -Second, assumed when he ascended the throne on the second of March, -1855. His first duty—and it was a painful and humiliating duty—was to -terminate the Crimean War by accepting the unfavorable terms demanded by -the western powers. In the exhausted condition of the Russian treasury, -and after the disorganization of the Russian armies by a series of -disastrous defeats, nothing was left to the young Czar but to submit to -the inevitable. In doing so he also signed the sentence of death of the -autocratic rule established by his father. A general clamor for reform, -for greater freedom and more liberal laws arose, and Alexander the -Second was only too willing to grant them. He was liberal-minded himself -and kind-hearted, and he was anxious to let the Russian nation partake -of the progress of European civilization.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365"></a>{365}</span> He opened the Russian -universities to all who desired a higher education. He reduced to a -reasonable rate the price for passports, which had been enormous under -Nicholas, he rescinded the burdensome press laws, and modified the law -subjecting all publications to a most rigorous government supervision; -he issued an amnesty to Siberian exiles, including many who had been -banished for political crimes; and he finally crowned this system of -liberal measures by the emancipation of many million serfs, freeing them -from their previous condition of territorial bondage and placing them -directly under government authority. Important changes were also made in -the personnel of the different departments of the public service; a -thorough investigation of these departments proved that the grossest -abuses existed throughout the empire. The army magazines were filled -with chalk instead of flour, and officers who had been dead for twenty -years still remained on the pension lists. Numerous other frauds and -depredations were disclosed, which were eating up the public revenues, -and which had been practised for years by high officials who had enjoyed -the protection of the late Czar. The reforms which Alexander the Second -introduced did not find favor with the officials, and the emancipation -of the serfs fully estranged the nobility, whose interests were damaged -by the loss of their slaves. The Czar therefore soon found himself -between two fires: the Liberals were immoderate in their demands for -still greater liberty, and the nobility attacked the government for -having granted those liberal measures, predicting that the new policy -would terminate in disaster, revolution, and assassination.</p> - -<p>It should not be supposed, however, that Alexander<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366"></a>{366}</span> was liberal-minded -in the American sense of the word; he was not,—not even as liberalism -is understood in the western states of Europe. What he tried to be -during the first years of his reign was a liberal-minded autocrat like -Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph the Second of Austria; but the -slightest attempt to limit his authority by any constitution he resented -as a personal insult. When the landed proprietors of the province of -Tver sent him a petition worded in the most humble language, in which -their desire for a constitution was expressed, he flew into a rage, and -sent the two leaders of the meeting to Siberia. But he was inclined to -grant as a personal favor what some of his subjects demanded as their -right, which they wanted guaranteed by law. The system of police -espionage and persecution ceased, because Alexander hated police -denunciations. This change had almost immediately its marked effect on -public life; the people commenced breathing easier. The nightmare of -Siberian exile or perpetual imprisonment ceased haunting their minds.</p> - -<p>After a few years Russian society seemed to have changed its character, -its ideas, its manners; it showed its independence openly, and acted as -though its liberties and rights were safely secured by a magna charta or -constitution. Many thousands of Russian noblemen went to France and -England, no longer simply to amuse themselves and to live well, but to -study western institutions or to place their sons in the colleges; and -no nationality has a greater faculty of assimilation than the Russian. -The ideas of central and western Europe found ready and intelligent -reception in their minds. Hundreds of newspapers, periodicals, and -magazines were founded, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367"></a>{367}</span> most of them found numerous and eager -readers. Some of these papers became a real power and shaped public -opinion to a remarkable degree. While direct criticism of Russian -affairs and Russian institutions was prohibited, the newspapers -nevertheless found a way to keep their readers posted on all public -events and public men. They published sketches of every-day life in -which every particular was true except the names, and in this human -comedy, scarcely veiled by the transparent fiction, the governors of -provinces, the generals of the army, and especially the directors of the -police, and all the high government officials were exhibited in their -true character; their frauds were exposed, their arbitrary actions, -their abuses of power, and their excesses were denounced. The reading -public were in the secret, and the daily and weekly newspapers became a -regular <i>chronique scandaleuse</i> without subjecting the editors or -publishers to prosecution.</p> - -<p>While these periodicals, published in Russia under the very eyes of the -Czar and of Russian censors, did their share in undermining the -authority of the government, there was another class of Russian -periodicals, published at Paris, London, and Leipsic, which were free -from the embarrassing observation of Russian censors, and which -consequently could speak openly, mention names, attack high officials -and the imperial family. The most famous of the editors of these -periodicals (which were printed abroad, but had nearly their entire -reading public in Russia) was Alexander Herzen, the famous editor and -publisher of “The Bell” (Kolokos). Mr. Herzen was a man of great talent, -and his newspaper soon gained an influence in Russia which became a real -danger to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368"></a>{368}</span> government. “The Bell” did more for the spread of -socialism in Russia than all other publications combined. It was more -active and more successful than all other newspapers in showing up the -official wrong-doers of the empire and breeding among the masses -contempt for the government and its officers, because every Russian who -could read, read “The Bell,” and got his information about Russian -affairs from Alexander Herzen. The mystery always was: How did “The -Bell” get into Russia? since the government made a most relentless war -on the paper. Nobody could ever tell; the most searching investigations -of the secret police failed to discover the mysterious channel through -which the dangerous paper found its way into Russia. As soon as it had -crossed the frontier, secret printing establishments, unknown to the -police, struck off many thousand copies and circulated them gratuitously -throughout the empire. It was evident that a socialistic or -revolutionary committee was identified with its circulation in Russia.</p> - -<p>But the most notable result brought about by “The Bell” was the change -of attitude in which the Russian government was placed, and (since the -government was the Czar) the attitude in which the Czar suddenly found -himself toward his subjects. The imperial government, under Nicholas, -has been bold and aggressive; under Alexander the Second it was placed -on the defensive; it was compelled to plead with public opinion in order -to clear itself of the attacks made against it, and when these pleas -failed to convince, it resorted again to the old repressive and despotic -measures which were even more odious from having become obsolete for a -number of years. Autocracy, which in the hands of a strong man<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369"></a>{369}</span> like -Nicholas the First had been a source of strength and protection, became -in the hands of a weak and vacillating man a source of weakness and -danger. Public opinion, which under Nicholas had been silent, because it -dared not assert itself, turned openly against Alexander, who had -removed the bars which kept it in check and the fear which repressed its -utterances.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>It is time here to refer shortly to the origin and growth of a political -doctrine which at this time appeared in Russia and which has had a great -and pernicious influence on Russian history,—Nihilism. The name appears -for the first time in the famous novel of Ivan Turgenieff, “Fathers and -Sons,” and designates a political programme which has found its most -numerous and most enthusiastic adherents among the young men and women -of Russia, especially of the educated and professional classes, the -students and professors of the universities. It first manifested its -existence shortly after the death of the Emperor Nicholas, when, through -the liberal measures of his successor, the high schools and academies of -the empire were opened to the people, when the universities were filled -with thousands of young students, eager to learn and imbibe -philosophical and political principles which until then had been unknown -to them. The Nihilistic party aimed at a total regeneration of society -and at the destruction of its present organization in state, church, and -social institutions, and it found its explanation and excuse in the -widespread corruption, brutality, and despotism of the officials. It is -a mistake to confound the Nihilists with the Liberals or even with the -Socialists who are advocating reforms or the abolition of certain -political<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370"></a>{370}</span> or social abuses. The Nihilists are not aiming at reforms; -they simply demand the overthrow and complete annihilation of the -existing social system with all its institutions, until nothing (nihil) -remains standing. The reconstruction of society, based upon principles -of reason and justice, is their ideal; but they leave the realization of -this ideal to future generations, and advocate for the present the -employment of all means, even the most reprehensible, for the attainment -of their immediate aim. The originators and great apostles of the new -party were Alexander Herzen and Bakúnin, who imbued the young persons of -both sexes with an implacable hatred for the present system of -government and social organization. They made not only despotism but all -authority odious.</p> - -<p>The first public manifestation of Nihilism was Karakasow’s attempt on -the life of Alexander the Second in 1866. It failed, and at the trial it -appeared that the attempt was not founded on individual hostility, but -on abhorrence of authority in general. The attempt on the life of -General Trepow, minister of police, in 1878, showed the dangerous and -rapid progress which the party had made. The assailant was an educated -young woman, Vera Sassoulitch, who wanted to revenge official injustice -by punishing one of its most prominent representatives. She was -acquitted by a jury at St. Petersburg on February 5, 1878; and this -acquittal, brought about by the ostentatious manifestation of the -sympathy of the higher classes during her trial, caused a sensation -throughout Europe. The Czar himself was enraged at the result of the -trial, and devoted himself to the extermination of Nihilism by all means -in his power. The issue<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371"></a>{371}</span> had then been dearly made. Nihilism had by that -time become very aggressive. It was no longer satisfied with preaching a -philosophical doctrine, but it openly advocated a policy of murder and -incendiarism, in order to frighten and disorganize society, and -especially public officials. On the other hand, the government resorted -to the most rigorous measures to exterminate the Nihilists wherever they -could be found.</p> - -<p>Alexander the Second suffered terribly when he became aware, too late -for him to master it, of the new intellectual movement and its political -results in his empire. The situation was the more painful to him, -because his own conscience as well as the old Russian party held him -principally responsible for it. It was he who had set free that liberal -propagandism which had culminated in this terrible agitation for the -destruction of society, and which had entirely outgrown his control. -Alexander’s mental condition, on this discovery, would form an -interesting subject for the psychologist. From the day when he began to -reign as an enthusiastic, well-intentioned man of thirty-seven, to the -days of his disappointments as a ruler and reformer, ending with one of -the most terrible catastrophes of modern times, his career challenges, -for adequate treatment, the genius of a Shakespeare. No wonder that he -became despondent and thought of abdication,—a thought which reappeared -with ever increasing force to the end of his reign.</p> - -<p>Nor was this feeling of discouragement and weariness of life caused -exclusively by the fear of personal danger; on the contrary, Alexander -knew only too well that he was not the only object of Nihilistic -persecution, but that all those dear to his heart and also those whom he -honored<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372"></a>{372}</span> with his confidence and friendship were equally exposed.</p> - -<p>The attempt on the life of General Trepow had still another effect on -the Czar. It effectually eradicated from his mind his previous -predilection for liberal reforms and a paternal government; it stirred -up a feeling of resentment and hatred against revolutionists, reformers, -and liberals which had never been noticed in him before, and which -manifested itself in the most severe measures of repression. To his -great chagrin he saw soon that these measures were utterly unavailing to -repress the spirit of rebellion in the empire and in his own capital. -Nihilism spread with the unconquerable fury of a contagious epidemic and -defied all measures of the authorities to check it. On the twenty-first -of February, 1879, Prince Krapotkine, Governor of Charkow, was -assassinated; and shortly after, attempts were made on the lives of -General Drentelen, a great favorite at court, and of Count Lewis -Melikow, Secretary of the Interior.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>Alexander himself was exposed to a number of murderous attempts. His -escape from the one made by Alexander Sokoloff, a school-teacher of -Toropetz, in the district of Pskoff, is almost miraculous. On the -fourteenth of April, 1879, at nine o’clock in the morning, the Emperor, -seated in an open carriage, was waiting in front of the palace of Prince -Gortschakoff, his Secretary of State. Sokoloff approached the carriage -without having been noticed by the attendants. He was well dressed, wore -a military cap, and looked like a retired officer. Standing within a few -feet of Alexander, he suddenly pulled forth from under his coat a -revolver, and, in rapid succession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373"></a>{373}</span> fired four shots at him, all of -which, however, missed their aim. The would-be murderer was immediately -overpowered by the Emperor’s attendants; but during the struggle he -fired a fifth shot which severely wounded one of the servants. Sokoloff -had two capsules containing poison, fastened with wax under his armpits. -He succeeded in swallowing one of them before he could be prevented, but -an antidote was immediately administered and saved his life. He was -sentenced to death and executed without having confessed the motive of -his assault or given the names of any accomplices.</p> - -<p>After this attempt the most vigorous and ingenious measures were taken -for the Emperor’s protection. When, in the summer of the same year, -Alexander travelled from St. Petersburg to Livadia, he was taken to the -depot in an iron carriage and escorted by four companies of cavalry. -Moreover the depot was surrounded by several regiments of infantry and -cavalry, and nobody was permitted to approach it. Similar measures of -precaution had been taken at all railway stations along the route where -the imperial train was expected to stop. At all railroad crossings -police officers and detectives had been stationed to prevent even the -possibility of a collision with the imperial train. Another train filled -entirely with the body-guards and high police officials preceded, at a -short distance, the Emperor and his family. A large detective force was -stationed along the whole route, and scoured the country for miles on -both sides of the railroad, making it impossible for anybody to approach -the track without being closely observed. At night, the entire route was -lit up on either side with immense bonfires built at short distances in -order to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374"></a>{374}</span> the surveillance of the road as complete during the night -as during the day. In order not to delay the imperial train on the road, -all other trains were stopped for days, and the most stringent orders -were issued that no persons should approach either the depots or any -part of the railroad.</p> - -<p>That travelling under such circumstances was not a pleasure, and would -make a man exceedingly nervous, if not absolutely ill, may well be -imagined. But in spite of these and other precautions almost passing -human belief, a new attempt on the Emperor’s life was made during his -return trip from Livadia to Moscow. On the first of December, 1879, -Alexander had arrived at Moscow safely; but about ten or fifteen minutes -later a mine exploded, which had been established under the railroad -track in the immediate vicinity of the depot. The explosion occurred at -the moment when the second imperial train was passing. It demolished the -baggage car and threw seven or eight passenger cars off the track. -Fortunately nobody was seriously hurt. The Emperor and his suite were on -the first train this time, while the Nihilists had supposed they would -be on the second.</p> - -<p>Less than three months later, on the seventeenth of February, 1880, the -Czar was in much greater danger at St. Petersburg. At about seven -o’clock <small>P.M.</small>, on that day, as he was on the point of entering the -dining-room of his palace, suddenly a terrible dynamite explosion -occurred underneath the hall occupied by the Imperial Guards. The -explosion was so violent that all the windows in that wing of the palace -were shattered, the ceilings of the rooms in the lower story and of the -hall of the guards were full of holes, and the floors torn to pieces, -while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375"></a>{375}</span> tables and the dishes in the imperial dining-room were hurled -in all directions. Eight soldiers and two servants of the imperial -household were killed, while forty-five were more or less seriously -wounded.</p> - -<p>This new attempt on his life, with the attending number of victims, -impressed the Czar’s mind so deeply that it brought on a new attack of -melancholy which his physicians were powerless to subdue. Domestic -troubles added to his mental depression, and caused apprehensions of a -total collapse of his mental faculties. His general health had also -greatly suffered from the long continued strain of his nervous system. -In June, 1880, his wife died after a lingering illness. She was a -princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, very handsome and highly accomplished when -he married her, in 1841. But the marriage was not a happy one. For quite -a number of years the Czar carried on a liaison with the beautiful -Princess Dolgorouki, and shortly after the death of the Empress he -contracted a morganatic marriage with her, in spite of the energetic -protests of the Czarowitz and his other children. The Princess had great -influence over Alexander’s decisions as a ruler; and when he seemed to -have made up his mind to abdicate and retire to private life, she -prevented the consummation of this design by her emphatic protests. -Alexander had formed the plan to transfer the crown to his son, but only -on one condition: that the Princess, his wife, should always be treated -by the imperial family with the same consideration as the deceased -Empress, and that her children should also be treated as brothers and -sisters by the Czar. But when he informed the Princess of this plan, she -flew into a passion, rejected the proposition most angrily, saying that -she<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376"></a>{376}</span> knew the feelings of the Czarowitz toward her too well to place any -confidence in his promises, and demanded, as a proof of his affection -for her, that Alexander should forever renounce his plan of abdication. -Alexander therefore remained, much against his own inclination, on the -throne until the day of his death, the thirteenth of March, 1881.</p> - -<p>On the forenoon of that day he returned from the residence of the -Princess to the Winter Palace, driving along the St. Michael’s Canal. He -was escorted by a small detachment of cavalry and an adjutant of the -Director of Police. About midway between the residence of the Princess -and the Winter Palace a man ran up to the imperial carriage throwing a -bomb charged with dynamite under the horses. It killed two men of the -Czar’s escort and wounded three others. In spite of the protests of the -police officer and the driver, who insisted on taking the Czar as -rapidly as possible to the Winter Palace, he alighted, unhurt as he was, -to look after the victims of the attack. In doing so, he exclaimed: -“Thank God, I was not hurt!” But the man who had thrown the bomb and -been seized by the escort, hearing the Czar’s exclamation, replied: -“Perhaps it is not time yet to thank God!” At the same time another -person hurled a bomb at the feet of the Emperor. His legs were broken by -the explosion, his abdomen was torn open so that the intestines -protruded, and his face was badly disfigured. The Emperor fell to the -ground, exclaiming: “Help me! Quick to the Palace! I am dying!” The -explosion was so violent that the windows of a church and of the -imperial stables situated on the opposite side of the Canal were -shattered. Many persons were killed or wounded. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377"></a>{377}</span> imperial carriage -was also considerably damaged. The Emperor was therefore lifted into a -sleigh, which returned to the Winter Palace at a gallop. The blood -flowed in great quantity from his wounds, and as he was carried up the -large stairway of the Palace he fainted. The surgeons found it -impossible to stop the hemorrhage, and at thirty-five minutes past three -o’clock in the afternoon he breathed his last without having recovered -consciousness for a moment.</p> - -<p>The assassination caused the most intense excitement in the capital. A -shout of triumph went up from the Executive Committee of the Nihilists, -and a few days afterward the people of St. Petersburg could read the -following manifesto, which, in spite of the care of the police, had been -posted in several conspicuous places:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“The Executive Committee consider it necessary once more to -announce to all the world that it repeatedly warned the tyrant now -assassinated, repeatedly advised him to put an end to his homicidal -obstinacy, and to restore to Russia its natural rights. Every one -knows that the tyrant paid no attention to these warnings and -pursued his former policy. Reprisals continued. The Executive -Committee never drop their weapons. They resolved to execute the -despot at whatever cost. On the thirteenth of March this was done.</p> - -<p>“We address ourselves to the newly crowned Alexander the Third, -reminding him that he must be just. Russia, exhausted by famine, -worn out by the arbitrary proceedings of the administration, -continually losing its sons on the gallows, in the mines, in exile, -or in wearisome inactivity caused by the present <i>régime</i>,—Russia -cannot longer live thus. She demands liberty. She must live in -conformity with her demands, her wishes, and her will. We remind -Alexander the Third that every violator of the will of the people -is the nation’s enemy and tyrant. The death of Alexander the Second -shows the vengeance which follows such acts.”</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378"></a>{378}</span></p> - -<p>These accusations were only partly true. Alexander, on ascending the -throne, had honestly tried to introduce reforms, abolish abuses and pave -the way for a progressive, liberal government. But his liberal policy -did not satisfy the Nihilists. And when in self-protection he fell back -on the former policy of repression, the Nihilists began a war of -reprisals, and finally murdered the Czar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379"></a>{379}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV<br /><br /> -WILLIAM McKINLEY</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380"></a>{380}</span></p> - -<p><a name="WILLIAM_MCKINLEY" id="WILLIAM_MCKINLEY"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p380b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p380b_sml.jpg" width="437" height="419" alt="image unavailable: WILLIAM McKINLEY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">WILLIAM McKINLEY</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381"></a>{381}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XXIV<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM McKINLEY<br /><br /> -PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES<br /><br /> -(September 6, 1901)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE North-American Republic had lived eighty-nine years before political -assassination made its entrance into its domain. From 1776 to 1865, a -period occasionally as turbulent, excited and torn by political discord -and strife as any other period in history, political assassinations kept -away from its shores, and appeared only at the close of the great Civil -War between the North and the South, selecting for its victim the -noblest, gentlest, most kind-hearted of Americans who had filled the -Presidential chair.</p> - -<p>Sixteen years later, on July 2, 1881, the second political assassination -took place in the United States, resulting in the death of President -James A. Garfield, after months of intense suffering from a wound -inflicted by a bullet fired by Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed -office-seeker. By removing the President this man hoped to restore -harmony in the Republican party, which, in the state of New York at -least, had been disturbed by the feud between James G. Blaine and Roscoe -Conkling. Guiteau imagined that President Garfield had become an -interested party in this feud by appointing Mr. Blaine<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382"></a>{382}</span> his Secretary of -State. His was the act of a vindictive madman.</p> - -<p>Twenty years had elapsed since Guiteau’s horrible crime, and again a -President of the United States was prostrated by the bullet of an -assassin, who, at the moment of committing the crime, proclaimed himself -an Anarchist. When William McKinley was reëlected President in November, -1900, a successful and perhaps glorious second term seemed to be in -store for him. During his first term the policy of the Republican party -had earned great triumphs, and the President, who was in full accord -with his party on all economical questions, and was even its most -prominent leader on the tariff question, had justly shared these -triumphs.</p> - -<p>Quite unexpectedly the question of armed intervention in Cuba had been -sprung in the middle of Mr. McKinley’s first term of office, and after -having exhausted all diplomatic means to prevent war and to induce Spain -to grant satisfactory terms to the Cubans, the President was forced into -a declaration of war by the enthusiasm of the Senators and -Representatives assembled at Washington. But, as if everything -undertaken by Mr. McKinley was to be blessed with phenomenal success, -the war with Spain was not only instrumental in securing the thing for -which it had been undertaken,—the liberty and independence of the -island of Cuba,—but it had also an entirely unexpected effect on the -international standing of the United States. Up to the time of the -Spanish-American War the United States had always been considered an -exclusively American power, and while the European powers seemed to be -willing to concede to it a leading position—a sort of hegemony—in all -American affairs (including Central<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383"></a>{383}</span> and South America), which the -United States had assumed by the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine in -1823, they had never invited the American government to their councils -treating of European or other non-American affairs. The Spanish-American -War was a revelation to Europe. It opened its eyes to the fact that over -night, while Europe had been sleeping and dreaming only of its own -greatness, a young giant had grown up on the other side of the Atlantic -who was just beginning to feel his own strength and who seemed to make -very light of time-honored sovereignty rights and inherited titles of -possession. As the Atlantic cable flashed over its wires the reports of -American victories and achievements of astounding magnitude,—the -destruction of two powerful Spanish fleets, followed by the surrender of -the large Spanish armies in the Philippine islands and Cuba,—Europe -stood aghast at this superb display of power and naval superiority, and -European statesmen reluctantly admitted that a new world-power of the -first order had been born, and that it might be prudent to invite it to -a seat among the great powers. History is often a great satirist; it was -so in this case. Spain had for a long time made application for -admission to a seat among the great powers of the world and had pointed -to her great colonies and to her splendid navy as her credentials -entitling her to membership in the illustrious company. But England and -Germany, fearing that Spain would strengthen France and Russia by her -influence and navy, kept her out of it. And now comes a young American -nation which nobody had thought of as a great military and naval power, -makes very short work of Spain’s navy, robs her of all her colonies, and -coolly, without having<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384"></a>{384}</span> asked for it, takes the seat which Spain had -vainly sighed for.</p> - -<p>In a monarchy a large part if not the whole of the glory of these -achievements on land and sea would have been ascribed to the ruler under -whose reign they occurred. It was so with Louis the Fourteenth and Queen -Elizabeth, but William McKinley was entirely too modest to claim for -himself honors which did not exclusively belong to him. Nevertheless a -great deal was said about imperialism and militarism during the -campaign, and these charges were even made a strong issue against Mr. -McKinley’s reëlection. However, the good judgment of the American people -disregarded them and reëlected Mr. McKinley by a considerably larger -majority than he had received four years before.</p> - -<p>It might have been supposed that this flattering endorsement of Mr. -McKinley’s first administration would have allayed all opposition to him -personally, because certainly his experience, his conceded integrity and -ability, his great influence in the councils of his party, and his -immense popularity would have been of inestimable value in adjusting and -solving the new problems of administration arising from the acquisition -of our new insular possessions in the Pacific and the West Indies. While -the two great political parties, and in fact all other parties, had -bowed to this decision of the people at the ballot-box, there was, -unfortunately, a class of men in the United States as well as in Europe -who made war upon the present organization of society as unjust to the -poor man, and upon all government, which they declared hostile and -detrimental to the rights of individuals, and which they considered the -source of all wrongs and miseries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385"></a>{385}</span> This doctrine was originated by a -French philosopher, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, in his famous pamphlet -published in 1850 and entitled: “What is Property?” He denounces the -unequal division and distribution of property among men and the unjust -accumulation of capital in the hands of the few as the source of all -social evils, and, concluding with the emphatic declaration that all -property is theft, demands its readjustment and re-apportionment on a -basis of strict justice as the sole hope for happiness. Proudhon’s ideas -and arguments found an echo throughout Europe. He had considered the -question only in its economical bearings; but some of his disciples -extended the inquiry in all other directions, and showed the hurtful -influence of accumulated power and property on all other social -conditions, especially on politics and the government of nations. They -demanded the reinstatement of the individual in all his natural rights, -and a destruction of all those powers and laws which stood in the way of -the free and unobstructed exercise of those rights. This meant a -declaration of war on all established authority and government. It meant -anarchy in the literal sense of the word, and the men who had adopted -this doctrine as their political platform called themselves Anarchists.</p> - -<p>On the twenty-ninth of September, 1872, a violent schism occurred at the -congress of the International Association of Laborers, held at the -Hague, between the partisans of Carl Marx and those of Bakúnin, and from -this date we must count the origin of the anarchistic party. In the -United States the first symptoms of an anarchistic movement appeared in -1878. At the Socialist congress held at Albany, N. Y., the majority of -delegates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386"></a>{386}</span> who were advocates of peaceable methods of propagandism, -were opposed by a minority of revolutionists preaching the most extreme -measures. The leader of this minority was Justus Schwab, who was then -publishing a socialistic newspaper, “The Voice of the People,” at St. -Louis. He was a friend and admirer of John Most, who had been imprisoned -in England for his revolutionary and seditious articles, and who was, -unquestionably, the intellectual leader of the radical minority at -Albany. The final rupture between the two factions occurred a year -later, at the congress at Alleghany, Pa., in 1879, when the radical -revolutionists, who were in a majority, expelled the moderate faction -from the convention. The radical wing has grown rapidly in numbers and -power, and its influence has made itself felt repeatedly on lamentable -occasions, the last of which was the assassination of William McKinley, -President of the United States, during the Pan-American Exposition at -Buffalo, on September 6, 1901.</p> - -<p>The great American cities, from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific, are -hot-beds of extreme political radicalism; Italian Carbonarism and -Russian Nihilism are represented in those cities by some of their most -daring representatives, whose official programme is destruction of -authority by the assassination of its most exalted heads, and subversion -of law. By placing William McKinley in line with the monarchs who were -the special targets of their inflammatory harangues and writings, danger -and death were attracted to his person with magnetic power: and what in -the intention of party opponents was but a forcible means of attacking -Mr. McKinley’s and his party’s colonial policy (to disappear again with -his election) may have lingered in the heated imaginations of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387"></a>{387}</span> -avowed regicides, and may have intensified their feelings against him, -as the most exalted representative of law and order (with alleged -imperial designs) in this country. Several months before the -assassination took place it was reported that detectives had ferreted -out at Paterson, N. J., which is known as a gathering-place of Italian -anarchists and assassins, a conspiracy which had for its object the -assassination of all European monarchs and of President McKinley. This -report, when published in the newspapers, was received with laughter and -contempt by the reading public. The mere idea appeared too absurd to -deserve even a moment’s attention, and the result was that to the recent -assassinations of the Empress of Austria and King Humbert of Italy was -added the tragedy of Buffalo.</p> - -<p>Only a few months after Mr. McKinley was inaugurated for his second term -of office, the Pan-American Exposition was held at Buffalo. Mr. McKinley -had, from the very inception of the great undertaking which was to shed -new lustre upon his administration, given to it great attention and -cordial encouragement. For the first time, such an exposition was to -exhibit all the products, natural and artificial, of the two Americas in -one common presentation, challenging the admiration or the criticism of -the world on the intellectual and industrial standing which this display -manifested. The result was grand, and in many respects surpassed -expectation. It emphasized the impression already created by the Chicago -World’s Fair of 1893, that America would within a short time become a -dangerous rival for Europe in many departments of industry, not only at -home, but even in foreign countries which up to that time had almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388"></a>{388}</span> -held a monopoly for supplying certain articles of manufacture. The -departments in which articles of steel and iron manufacture, electrical -machines, etc., were exhibited showed such superiority over what old -Europe could show that even the most prejudiced visitors from abroad had -to concede it.</p> - -<p>It had been expected that President McKinley, by his presence on several -days in some official capacity, would heighten the interest and -emphasize the importance of the Exposition. He had promised and planned -to do so. In the summer of 1901 he made a trip to the Pacific coast, and -was everywhere welcomed with boisterous enthusiasm. Mrs. McKinley -accompanied him, sharing his popularity and triumphs. Perhaps no -President since George Washington had to a higher degree possessed the -confidence and love of the whole people than Mr. McKinley did at the -time of his second inauguration. Even his political opponents conceded -his eminent worth, his integrity, his loyalty to duty, and his sincere -desire to promote the general welfare of the country. The short -addresses which he made during his trip to California found an -enthusiastic echo in the hearts of his fellow-citizens, East and West; -the ovations he received and which he accepted with becoming modesty and -tact, were heartily endorsed by the nation as symptomatic of the -universal feeling of harmony and of good-will toward the administration. -The ante-election charges of imperialism were laughed at, and both -parties seemed to be willing to make the best of the results of the war. -Moreover the great urbanity of manners, and the personal amiability -which distinguished Mr. McKinley were the strongest refutations of these -ridiculous imperialistic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389"></a>{389}</span> charges and of Mr. McKinley’s ambition to be -clothed with royal honors. He showed equal courtesy to rich and poor, -and his grasp of the laborer’s hand was just as cordial as of the rich -merchant’s.</p> - -<p>The Presidential party had reached San Francisco, and its reception -there was fully as enthusiastic as it had been in the cities along the -route to the Pacific. It had been the President’s intention to stop at -Buffalo on his return from his trip to California, to be the guest of -the managers of the Exposition for a few days, and to perform those -duties and ceremonies which were expected of him as head of the nation. -Unfortunately this programme could not be carried out. Mrs. McKinley, -always in very delicate health, fell seriously ill at San Francisco, and -for several days her life was despaired of. She recovered; but as soon -as she was able to bear the discomforts of transportation, without -inviting the danger of a relapse, the President’s return to the East was -decided on, and all his previous appointments were cancelled. His -intention to visit Buffalo, during the continuance of the Exposition, -was, however, not abandoned, but simply postponed to a more opportune -time, after Mrs. McKinley should have recovered her usual strength.</p> - -<p>Mr. McKinley came to Buffalo in the first week of September. The -Exposition had attracted many thousands of visitors who were anxious to -greet the President. On the fifth—which had been made President’s -Day—he delivered an address to a very large audience, in which he spoke -feelingly of the blessings bestowed by Providence on this country, and -in eloquent terms referred to the unexampled prosperity enjoyed by its -citizens. That secret and unaccountable influence which frequently -inspires<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390"></a>{390}</span> men on the verge of the grave and endows them with almost -prophetic foresight seemed to have taken possession of Mr. McKinley on -this occasion. The speech was, perhaps, the best he had ever made. It -was the speech of a statesman and patriot, full of wisdom and love of -country. He did not know, when he made it, that it would be his farewell -address to the American people; but if he had known it and written it -for that purpose, he could not have made it loftier in spirit, more -patriotic in sentiment, and more convincing in argument.</p> - -<p>On the afternoon of the next day a grand reception had been arranged for -the President at the Temple of Music. An immense multitude had -assembled, eager to shake hands with Mr. McKinley and to have the honor -of exchanging a few words with him. He was in the very best of spirits -and performed the ceremony of handshaking with that amiable and cordial -expression on his features which won him so many hearts. It had been -arranged that only one person at a time should pass by him, and that -after a rapid salutation his place should be taken by the next comer. -Hundreds had already exchanged greetings with the President, when a -young man with smooth face and dark hair stepped up to him. Mr. McKinley -noticed that the right hand of the young man was bandaged, as though it -had been wounded, and he therefore made a move to grasp his left hand; -but at that moment the young man raised his right hand, and in quick -succession fired two shots at the President, which both wounded -him,—the one aimed at his chest, lightly, because the bullet deflected -from the breastbone; the other, which had penetrated the abdomen, very -seriously. The assassin had carried a revolver in his right hand and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391"></a>{391}</span> -had covered it with a handkerchief in order to avoid detection. Mr. -McKinley did not realize immediately that he was wounded, although from -the effects of the shot he staggered and fell into the arms of a -detective who was standing near him.</p> - -<p>“Am I shot?” asked the President. The officer opened the President’s -vest, and seeing the blood, answered: “Yes, I am afraid you are, Mr. -President.”</p> - -<p>The assassin was immediately thrown to the ground. Twenty men were upon -him, and it was with some difficulty that he was rescued from their -grasp. At first he gave a fictitious name, and, when asked for his -motive, replied: “I am an Anarchist, and have done my duty.” His -statements shortly after his arrest seemed to implicate a number of more -or less prominent Anarchists in the crime and to make it appear as the -result of a widespread conspiracy. In consequence a number of the -recognized leaders of the party—especially Emma Goldmann, whom the -assailant named as the person whose teachings had inspired him with the -idea of committing the crime—were arrested and held for a preliminary -examination; but nothing could be proven against them, and they were -discharged.</p> - -<p>After a few days the assailant made a full confession. His name was Leon -Czolgosz; he was a Pole by birth, and his family lived at Detroit. He -was a believer in Anarchism and had murdered the President because he -considered him the chief representative of that authority which, in his -opinion, was hurtful to the development of a society founded on the -equal rights of all its members. He had had no accomplices: he had not -consulted with anybody concerning the plan, time, or execution of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392"></a>{392}</span> -crime, but he had resolved upon and executed it on his own -responsibility. While his confession fully exonerated both the Anarchist -party at large and all its members individually, it nevertheless showed -what terrible consequences may arise from the propagandism of a party -which has declared war on the existing organization of society, when its -doctrines inflame the mind of a fanatic or of an unthinking proselyte. -Public opinion in the United States was stirred to its very depths, all -parties vying with one another in showing not only their abhorrence of -the crime, but also their love and admiration for the illustrious -victim.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately the hopes of the American people that Mr. McKinley would -survive the foul and senseless attempt on his life were disappointed. -For about a week his condition seemed to improve, and his strong -vitality seemed to rise superior to the weakening effects of a dangerous -surgical operation which failed to produce the second bullet, deeply -seated as it was in the spine. At first he rallied from the severe -shock, and his physicians were hopeful of saving his life, but in the -afternoon of September 12, a sudden change for the worse occurred which, -it was soon noticed, indicated the approach of dissolution. He remained -conscious till about seven o’clock in the evening of September 13, and -faced death in the same spirit of calmness and submission to the will of -God which had characterized his whole career. “Good-bye, all; good-bye. -It is God’s way. His will be done!” were his last conscious words to the -members of his cabinet and other friends who, overcome with emotion, -were at his bedside. The end came shortly after two o’clock in the -morning, on September 14, apparently without pain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_393" id="page_393"></a>{393}</span></p> - -<p>President McKinley’s death made a profound impression on the American -people. The rage of the people of Buffalo against the assassin was -boundless, and but for the efficient measures for protecting him at the -station-house in which he was imprisoned, he very likely would have -fallen a victim to the fury of the thousands who surrounded it. The -entire police force and several companies of soldiers were kept under -arms to be ready for any emergency.</p> - -<p>The body of the dead President was first taken to Washington, and thence -to its final resting-place at Canton, Ohio. The obsequies were of -imposing grandeur and magnificence; but even more impressive than these, -and more honorable to his memory, was the sorrow of a whole nation in -tears over his untimely and cruel death.</p> - -<p>President McKinley’s death is typical of the modern attempts on the -lives of sovereigns and prominent men. These attempts have lost much of -the personal character which in former times made them so interesting. -They are much more the results of a wholesale conspiracy against the -organization of society than against great individuals. Unfortunately -political assassinations have not become of rarer occurrence during the -last fifty years, as might have been hoped from the progress of -education and civilization. On the contrary, they have multiplied with -the spread and development of Anarchism. The Anarchist makes no -distinction between the bad ruler and the good ruler. The fact that the -ruler occupies an exalted station above his fellow-men makes him an -object of hatred for the Anarchist, and justifies his removal from an -elevation which is a danger to all. At the present time men very high in -authority, whether<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394"></a>{394}</span> in a monarchy or in a republic, are always exposed -to the daggers or pistols or—what is much worse—to the dynamite or -other explosives of assassins.</p> - -<p>The field of operation of these murderers—who are generally the deluded -agents of a central organization of Anarchists, and who have frequently -no personal grievance against their victims—extends not only all over -Europe, from Russia to Spain, but also to the western hemisphere.</p> - -<p>While these murders fall with the same crushing effect upon the nations -immediately stricken in the persons of their rulers or intellectual -leaders, the interest in the causes leading to them is essentially -diminished since they are all inspired by the same general -motive,—destruction of authority,—and since the hand armed with the -fatal weapon strikes with blind fanaticism, sparing neither age nor sex -nor merit; in fact, quite often slaying those who deserve to live, and -sparing those whose death might be a benefit to their country and the -world. In this way we have seen the Czar Alexander the Second of Russia, -the emancipator of the Russian serfs; General Prim, who, if he had lived -longer, might have secured a constitutional government for Spain and her -political regeneration; the Empress Elizabeth of Austria, a faultless -and much betrayed wife as well as a bereaved mother; King Humbert, whose -best endeavors were made in behalf of a reunited Italy; President Sadi -Carnot, one of the purest and most patriotic statesmen the French -Republic has had; and last, though not least, our genial and -noble-hearted President, William McKinley,—all falling victims to the -senseless vindictiveness of men who do not persecute wrong and -oppression, but power and authority<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395"></a>{395}</span> in whatever form they may present -themselves. We have selected the assassination of President McKinley as -representative of this class of political murders, because he was -dearest to the American heart, and also because, in our opinion, he was -the most illustrious of the many victims of anarchistic vengeance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_396" id="page_396"></a>{396}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_397" id="page_397"></a>{397}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV<br /><br /> -ALEXANDER I AND DRAGA</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_398" id="page_398"></a>{398}</span></p> - -<p><a name="ALEXANDER_I_OF_SERVIA" id="ALEXANDER_I_OF_SERVIA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p398b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p398b_sml.jpg" width="351" height="550" alt="image unavailable: ALEXANDER I. OF SERVIA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ALEXANDER I. OF SERVIA</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_399" id="page_399"></a>{399}</span></p> - -<h2 class="smlr">CHAPTER XXV<br /><br /> -ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER I AND DRAGA, KING AND QUEEN OF SERVIA<br /><br /> -(June 11, 1903)</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE Balkan countries—Servia, Bulgaria, Roumania, Bosnia, and -Herzegovina—are generally considered the political centre from which -will spread, sooner or later, the conflagration of a gigantic war, which -will eventually place Russia in possession of Constantinople and -European Turkey. Some of these Balkan countries are nominally -independent, others are still under the suzerainty of the Sultan, who -holds on to them with the energy of despair. He watches every change in -the political situation with the carefulness of a physician who knows -that his patient is doomed, but who hopes that he may for a while -prolong his life. The half Oriental, half European character of the -populations of these Balkan states, their unquenchable thirst for -national independence, their defiance and hatred of their oppressors, -their contempt for the impotent Turkish administration, and their hope -of improving their condition by some political change,—are singularly -favorable to insurrections and revolutions. Russia is nursing this -revolutionary spirit with great skill and prudence, trusting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_400" id="page_400"></a>{400}</span> to the -proper moment for harvesting the fruit of the seed which she has been -sowing for upwards of a century. Ever since the days of Catherine the -Second Russia has stood, so to speak, like a sentinel on the lookout for -the favorable moment to pounce down on Turkey, to plant the White Eagle -on the peaks of Macedonia and Roumelia, and to take possession of the -Dardanelles as a Russian ship-canal between the Black Sea and the -Mediterranean. Every commotion and revolution in any of the Balkan -states helps her in her far-seeing ambition, especially now since France -will stand by her as an ally. It is in this sense and for this reason -that the terrible tragedy which occurred at Belgrade, Servia, on the -eleventh of June, 1903, may claim a place in this gallery of historical -assassinations. From it sooner or later events of the first magnitude -may develop, and while at present comparative quiet has been restored at -the Servian capital, the change of dynasty may lead to the most serious -international complications.</p> - -<p>The reign of Alexander the First of Servia was ushered into existence by -means of a <i>coup d’état</i> at midnight on the sixth of March, 1889; it -terminated after midnight on the eleventh day of June, 1903, by -assassination.</p> - -<p>The manner in which King Milan forfeited his throne, and again the -manner in which King Alexander lost both his throne and his life, as -well as the many tragedies and comedies which occurred in the royal -family of Servia between these two events,—all these details seem to be -rather detached chapters of a highly sensational novel than the sober -and truthful records of recent history.</p> - -<p>At the age of twenty-one, on the seventeenth of October,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_401" id="page_401"></a>{401}</span> 1875, King -Milan of Servia married Princess Natalia Keschko, the daughter of a -colonel in the Russian army; Natalia’s mother, however, was the daughter -of a Roumanian prince. Natalia was seventeen years old at the time, and -of marvellous beauty. She was one of the most admirable beauties of the -Russian capital, and King Milan, who fell desperately in love with her -at first sight, found but little encouragement from her, in spite of his -exalted rank, because the young lady herself was in love with a Russian -officer and was loved in return. But Colonel Keschko, who was ambitious -and prized very highly the honor of a family alliance with a reigning -King, by his paternal veto put an end to his daughter’s sentimental -love-affair and compelled her to accept King Milan’s hand.</p> - -<p>It is but just to say that Princess Natalia proved herself in every -respect worthy of the honor conferred upon her. As Queen of Servia she -was not only the most beautiful woman of the kingdom, but she was a -model wife, and opened her heart and mind to all the patriotic -aspirations of the Servian people. When shortly afterwards a war broke -out between Servia and Turkey, she personally appealed to the Czar for -assistance, went to the hospitals to nurse the wounded, cared for the -widows and orphans, and became not only a popular favorite, but -deservedly won the esteem of the Servian nation.</p> - -<p>It was a day of public rejoicing, when on August 14, 1876, she bore the -King a son, who was named Alexander after his godfather, Alexander the -Second of Russia. Another son, born two years later, died a few days -after his birth. Soon after the birth of his son Alexander, King Milan -commenced neglecting his wife<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_402" id="page_402"></a>{402}</span> and bestowed his favor on other women of -the court. The Queen felt the King’s neglect very keenly, and became -often an indignant witness to his liaisons, which he did not think it -worth while to conceal from her. The anger and contempt she felt for the -indelicate voluptuary gave her strength to overcome the love which had -gradually grown up in her heart for the father of her son, and to this -son she transferred all the tenderness her heart was capable of. The -Servian people soon saw and learned what was going on at court, and -while they condemned and despised the King, they praised and idolized -the Queen.</p> - -<p>Under such lamentable conditions young Alexander grew up to adolescence. -He was greatly attached to his mother, and applied to her as his adviser -and friend in all questions, while he could hardly conceal his profound -aversion for his father. The King noticed this growing hostility in his -son and heir, and blamed the Queen for having incited it. He saw in it a -deep-laid plot on her part to secure a controlling position which would -enable her, at any given opportunity, to place her son on the throne and -to assume the reins of government under his name. The breach thus -created between the father and the mother, and every day widened by the -excesses and orgies of the King, reached its climax when the question -arose who should be appointed instructors to prepare the prince for his -future duties as the head of the Servian nation. Milan wanted Austrian -instructors for his son, because he had been leaning on Austrian -influence; the Queen, in sympathy with the national demands as well as -prompted by her own impulses, insisted on Russian preceptors, to -initiate him into the maze of European<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_403" id="page_403"></a>{403}</span> politics and to open his mind to -the aspirations of Servian genius. It is said that one day when the -discussion had grown very warm between husband and wife, and when he -accused the Queen of purposely estranging his son’s heart from him, she -reproached him with the indignities he had heaped upon her, with his -many acts of infidelity, and with his low and vulgar excesses, which, -she said, imperilled the dynasty. The King was dumfounded by this -torrent of invectives, which he could neither stop nor contradict, but -which left in his heart a wound which his pride would not permit to heal -up. It seems certain that from that day his resolution was taken to -obtain a divorce from his wife for a double purpose: first, that he -might not be hindered by her from following his low inclinations; -second, that he might withdraw his son from the Queen’s influence and -surround him with his own creatures. The question was, how could he -obtain this divorce from a wife whose conduct was exemplary, and who was -almost worshipped by the whole people for her private and public -virtues? It was clear to him that to succeed in his design he had to -ruin her character, and on this conviction he built a plot of diabolical -malice. Under a plausible pretext he arranged a private meeting in the -Queen’s apartments between her and the Metropolitan of Servia. This -bishop was known to have an almost worshipful admiration for the Queen; -upon him, therefore, it was supposed, the suspicion of illicit relations -with her could be fastened easily. No sooner had the Metropolitan -entered the Queen’s apartments than the King, accompanied by some of his -intimates, appeared on the scene and “surprised the guilty couple.” The -plot failed miserably; the King’s hand appeared too<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_404" id="page_404"></a>{404}</span> visibly in the -arrangement and execution to leave any doubt in the public mind as to -the Queen’s innocence. His evident intention to brand an innocent and -much wronged wife as an adulteress lowered Milan even more in the -estimation of the people, and they commenced talking openly of the -necessity for his abdication.</p> - -<p>The Queen thereafter refused to live with the King, and this refusal -gave him the desired pretext to obtain a divorce. They separated in -1888. Alexander was then twelve years old. The Queen went to Wiesbaden, -and took her boy with her; but on the application of King Milan to the -German authorities, the boy was taken away from her and sent to -Belgrade. The King’s scandalous conduct had now exhausted the patience -of the Servian people. They insisted on his dethronement, either by -voluntary abdication or by forced removal. A delegation of notables -placed before him the alternative of either abdicating in favor of his -son, or of sharing the fate of his uncle, Michael Obrenovitch, who just -twenty years before was assassinated in a park near Belgrade. Milan did -not hesitate long. He declared his willingness to abdicate, but he -demanded two million dollars as the price of this abdication, and the -Servian people, only too glad to get rid of him at any price, paid the -sum demanded.</p> - -<p>On the sixth of March, 1889, Alexander, who was then thirteen years old, -ascended the throne of Servia. A regency of three prominent men—General -Bolimarcovitch, M. Ristitch, and General Protitch—was appointed to -conduct the public affairs of the kingdom. Everything promised a -prosperous reign. There was absolute order and tranquillity in the -country; the people seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_405" id="page_405"></a>{405}</span> to be satisfied. The Queen returned to -Servia, and the government designated one of the royal palaces of -Belgrade for her residence. She was then at the height of her -popularity, and the young King shared in that popularity because it was -generally supposed that he had great respect and love for his mother.</p> - -<p>These happy and peaceful conditions, however, soon underwent a change. -Ex-King Milan, who could not forget the days of luxury he had enjoyed at -Belgrade, was busy stirring up intrigues and conspiracies which might -lead to his restoration; and on the other hand, Queen Natalia, to -counteract his manœuvres, built up a party of her own, and took an -active interest in politics. This became embarrassing to the government, -since it continued to inflame the minds of the people. Through these -conflicting parties the country was actually brought to the verge of -civil war, which very likely would have broken out had not the -government taken energetic measures to put a stop to the strife. The -regents first applied to Milan, and bought him off. They restored to him -the property which had been confiscated when he went into exile, and -paid him one million dollars besides. Milan on his part solemnly -promised never to set foot on Servian soil again, and even renounced his -right of citizenship. The contract between the ex-King and the council -of regency was made on April 14, 1891. Thereupon the regents addressed a -request to the Queen, asking her, in the interest of peace and order, to -leave the country. She refused to comply with the request, and a week -afterwards an attempt was made to remove her by force. She was arrested -in her palace, and rapidly driven in a coach to the quay, where a -steamer was waiting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_406" id="page_406"></a>{406}</span> to convey her across the frontier. But a number of -young students delivered her from the hands of the officers who had -charge of her person, conducted her back in triumph to her palace, and -constituted themselves her guard of honor. Quite a bloody conflict -occurred between the students and the police, in the course of which a -number of persons were killed, and many more wounded. However, a second -attempt made by the police authorities a day or two later was more -successful. She was conveyed by railroad to Hungary. The young King -showed that he was a true Obrenovitch by the fact that he never -interfered or even uttered a kind word in behalf of his mother. He -showed the same ingratitude to the three regents in 1893 when he -dismissed them unceremoniously like body-servants for whom he had no -further use. The first <i>coup d’état</i> which Alexander made occurred on -April 14, 1893. It would seem that the radicals had in some way secured -an influence over his mind, for it was to their advantage that the <i>coup -d’état</i> principally turned out. But Alexander showed considerable -self-assurance on that occasion.</p> - -<p>On the evening of the day mentioned Alexander had invited the three -regents and the members of the cabinet to take supper with him. -Altogether eight persons sat down at the supper-table. The very best of -humor prevailed among the guests. After the third course had been served -the King rose from his seat, and addressed his guests as follows:</p> - -<p>“Gentlemen, for the last four years you have exercised royal authority -in my name, and I sincerely thank you for what you have done. I feel -now, however, that I am able to exercise that power myself, and will do -so<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_407" id="page_407"></a>{407}</span> from this moment. I therefore request you to hand me your -resignations forthwith.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Ristitch was the first to recover his presence of mind. He told the -King that it would be impossible to comply with his request, because by -doing so they would violate the constitution. The King thereupon left -the table without saying another word; but soon afterwards an officer -appeared renewing the King’s demand for the resignation of the members -of the Council of Regency and of the Cabinet.</p> - -<p>During that very night the young King, who was then only seventeen years -old, went to the different barracks and armories where the troops were -under arms, proclaimed his accession to the throne, received the -enthusiastic homage of the regiments, and returned to the palace. The -<i>coup d’état</i> was a complete success. Alexander the First was King, not -only in name, but also in fact. He dismissed the old cabinet, and -appointed a new one, composed exclusively of moderate radicals.</p> - -<p>A few years afterwards Alexander visited the different courts of Europe, -in the hope, it was commonly reported at the time, of finding a young -princess willing to accept his hand; but in this hope he was either -disappointed, or the report of his intentions was unfounded. At all -events he returned to Belgrade without a bride. It was soon after this -that the eyes of the young King were for the first time directed toward -the woman whose striking beauty and sensual charms inflamed him with a -passion to which he blindly yielded. He elevated her to the throne, and -for this act he paid the penalty with his life. For it is absolutely -certain that the King’s marriage with Draga Maschin, and his blind -subordination to her domineering<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_408" id="page_408"></a>{408}</span> spirit in private and public affairs, -had much more to do with his tragic downfall than all his political -mistakes.</p> - -<p><i>Draga</i> Lunyewitza, better known as Draga Maschin, was the widow of a -Servian nobleman who had occupied a prominent position at the court of -King Milan. Even more prominent than her husband had been Madame Draga, -not only on account of her beauty, which was of a pronounced sensual -type, but also on account of her brilliant conversational powers. Her -most conspicuous feature was her wonderful eyes, large, lustrous, and -beaming with an intensity of feeling and intelligence so penetrating -that it was said that no man whose conquest she had resolved upon would -be able to resist them if properly brought under their influence. That -Madame Draga Maschin’s eyes had often proved victorious was well known -from the long list of her favored lovers,—a list which included -statesmen, high military officers, bankers, and noblemen, and lastly, -King Milan himself. In the eyes of the people of Belgrade Madame Draga -Maschin was not only a coquette, but a courtesan. By means of her -brilliant mental powers, her wit, her interesting conversation, her -suavity of manners, and her diplomatic skill, she still maintained her -position in society, although shunned by the most exclusive circles.</p> - -<p>It was principally on account of those brilliant qualities of mind, and -on account of Madame Draga’s intimate acquaintance with a number of the -leading politicians at Belgrade that the ex-Queen made her one of her -attendants in her exile.</p> - -<p>It was in this capacity that King Alexander met Madame Draga Maschin at -Biarritz in the Pyrenees,</p> - -<p><a name="QUEEN_DRAGA" id="QUEEN_DRAGA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_p408b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p408b_sml.jpg" width="347" height="553" alt="image unavailable: QUEEN DRAGA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">QUEEN DRAGA</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_409" id="page_409"></a>{409}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">where his mother spent the summer of 1900. The experienced coquette -tried the power of her eyes on the young man, who had inherited the -sensual temperament of his father. Alexander was by no means a novice in -love-affairs, but he had never come in contact with so consummate a -mistress of the arts of seduction as Draga Maschin. When he left -Biarritz he was passionately in love with her, and those who had -observed her game predicted that something serious would come of it. His -mother was either too deeply engaged in politics to pay much attention -to the flirtation, or she secretly favored it in the hope of securing a -new and reliable ally.</p> - -<p>Some time afterwards Draga Maschin returned to Belgrade, and the game of -love-making was immediately renewed. Their intimacy became a matter of -public notoriety. It also reached the ears of ex-King Milan, who was -overjoyed at hearing it; he hoped that his former “good friend” Draga -would use her influence for his benefit. But Draga Maschin worked -neither for the Queen, nor for the King; she worked for herself only, -and very successfully too.</p> - -<p>Almost maddened by passion the King one day called a cabinet meeting and -informed his ministers that he had made up his mind to make Draga -Maschin his wife, and that a proclamation to that effect would appear in -the official newspaper of the kingdom. The members of the cabinet were -struck with amazement, and implored him to desist from his project, -which they said would be fatal to the Obrenovitch dynasty. They employed -every argument they could think of to change the King’s resolution; but -in vain. With his usual stubbornness, he declared: “I am the King, and -can wed whomsoever I please.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_410" id="page_410"></a>{410}</span> As a last protest they all tendered their -resignations. The King coolly accepted them, and the royal proclamation -was published.</p> - -<p>When on a July morning of 1900 the people of Belgrade were surprised by -the announcement that the widow Draga Maschin was to be Queen of Servia, -and when she was held up to their wives and daughters as a model of all -womanly virtues, their disappointment and their protests against this -“insane” act of the King were so general and so loud that serious -apprehensions of an insurrection were entertained. These fears were not -realized; but the people of Belgrade remained in a state of sullen -discontent. They knew that a speedy and terrible punishment would -overtake the guilty youth. It was reported that on reading his son’s -proclamation, ex-King Milan, who was then a patient at Carlsbad in -Bohemia, left his sick-room and rushed to the depot to take the train -for Belgrade. He declared that this outrage should never be committed, -and that if the King should persist in accomplishing it, he would kill -him with his own hands. But Milan’s wrath had been telegraphed to -Belgrade, and he was not permitted to enter Servian territory.</p> - -<p>No less great was the shame of Queen Natalia. She implored her son to -desist from his pernicious intention, laying stress on the disparity of -the ages,—he being twenty-four and Draga thirty-six, and on the -scandalous reputation of the woman whose beauty had for the moment -infatuated him.</p> - -<p>But neither the father’s threats nor the mother’s tears made the least -impression on Alexander, who once more realized the often-quoted Latin -saying:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_411" id="page_411"></a>{411}</span></p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The Skuptshina (the Servian Parliament) was amazed at the proclamation, -and its president as well as the Metropolitan of Servia implored the -King on their knees to revoke it. He had only deaf ears for them.</p> - -<p>On the fifth of August, 1900, the wedding was solemnized, and Draga -Maschin took her place on the throne of Servia.</p> - -<p>If the King had hoped that the irritation of the public would die out -after the wedding, he must have been a badly disappointed man; for the -scandals about Draga continued. Not only was her past life with its many -stains and blemishes laid bare unsparingly, but her life as queen -consort was also unmercifully exposed. Every word and every act of her -married life were carefully weighed in the scales of public opinion, and -hardly ever was a word of praise accorded to her, while vituperation, -insinuations, and direct accusations abounded. The Belgrade -correspondents of foreign newspapers knew that anything they might have -to report of King Alexander, Queen Draga, or any member of her family -would be read with interest. If they could not pick up anything of -interest they invented some unfavorable story. Unquestionably many of -the stories circulated about Draga, and also of Alexander are utterly -untrue. It should also be remembered that the elevation of Draga to a -station which none of her rivals could hope to attain made her an object -of envy, and that they resented this elevation by telling about her all -the bad things they knew. But after making all these allowances, we -still find enough to justify us in saying that the two were an -exceedingly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_412" id="page_412"></a>{412}</span> ill-matched couple,—he a voluptuous, ungrateful, -good-for-nothing simpleton, and she a designing, ambitious, unscrupulous -woman of powerful mind.</p> - -<p>The scandal which has been most widely circulated referred to the -fictitious pregnancy of the Queen. Unquestionably the young King was -anxious to have a son. Alexander was the last Obrenovitch, and it was -natural for him to desire to have a son so that his dynasty might -continue to rule over Servia. It was equally natural for Draga to desire -to become the mother of an heir, because as such she would have had an -additional claim on the affection of her husband,—a claim which might -have outlasted her physical beauty. This desire was certainly not -unreasonable in a wife twelve years older than her husband. This -pregnancy was officially announced by the court physician, but it was -afterwards stated that the announcement had been premature. These are -the facts in the case; and on these slim facts a superstructure of -rumors and fables has been erected. Very likely the great anxiety of the -couple to have an heir was the real cause of the announcement. The -rumors so widely circulated in the kingdom did certainly not contribute -to improve the reputation of the Queen, or to give the people the -impression of a happy domestic life.</p> - -<p>The generally recognized mental superiority of Queen Draga over her -husband had still another unfavorable consequence,—one of a political -character. While Alexander was unmarried, his political mistakes, his -autocratic interference with the work of the Skuptschina, his violation -of the constitution, were charged to himself; but after his marriage all -the political sins of the government were ascribed to Draga’s -instigation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_413" id="page_413"></a>{413}</span></p> - -<p>The political conditions of the Balkan countries are of the most -unsettled kind. They resemble very much the political conditions in the -South American and Central American states, and while nominally they are -regulated by constitutions and by a parliamentary system of government, -they are really controlled by the principle that “might constitutes -right.” It has been so in Servia from the day of the establishment of -its national independence: continuous party strife, revolutions, -assassinations—frequently winked at, if not directly instigated and -supported, by foreign powers. In 1903 the Radicals had been several -years in full control of the government. They had filled all lucrative -offices with their party friends, many of whom belonged to the rural -population, and had so apportioned the public taxes as to place the -principal burden upon the city populations, where the Liberals had their -voting strength. The misgovernment under the Radicals was so great that -it became a national scandal. The public debt had been nearly doubled, -the annual deficit was enormous, the most flagrant corruption and -extravagance existed in all branches of the public service; but the -Servian Congress refused to correct these abuses, and it remained for -the King to interfere personally. He did so by a new <i>coup d’état</i> in -March, 1903; the old Constitution was abrogated, a new Constitution was -promulgated, and new general elections were ordered.</p> - -<p>One of the most alarming features of the political situation in Servia -was the dissatisfaction of the army, and especially of its officers. -This dissatisfaction was not, as has been asserted frequently, caused by -patriotic considerations or by disapproval of the King’s personal -conduct, but simply by the unpardonable neglect of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_414" id="page_414"></a>{414}</span> army on the part -of the government. While in the royal palace at Belgrade an -uninterrupted series of festivities, all arranged in the most sumptuous -and expensive style, kept the gay capital on the tiptoe of excitement, -the army was reduced nearly to a state of starvation, because neither -officers nor men had been paid for months, “for want of funds in the -public treasury.” Instead of being a firm support of the government, the -army therefore turned against it. It easily lent itself to propositions -for a change, especially if that change would come in with the payment -of their arrears of wages.</p> - -<p>There was another cause of dissatisfaction, which evoked a direct and -strong protest against the Queen and her influence. Disappointed in her -hope of giving the King a son and heir, Draga devised another plan to -perpetuate her own power,—namely, to select an heir to the throne. Her -choice fell upon her own brother, Nicodemus Lunyevitch, a young -lieutenant in the Servian army, and she succeeded in winning the consent -of the King. It is even stated that Alexander intended to adopt this -brother-in-law, who was twenty-four years old, and formally proclaim him -his heir. No sooner had the plan been mentioned than a very loud, and -almost general, opposition to it manifested itself. The cabinet -ministers heard of it, and waited on the King in a body to enter their -protest. When their arrival at the palace was announced to him, the King -knew what they wanted, and kept them waiting for a long time. He finally -received them in the large assembly hall. He was dressed in full -uniform; the Queen was by his side and leaning upon his arm. He turned -to the prime minister and requested him to state the object of the -visit, whereupon the prime minister<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_415" id="page_415"></a>{415}</span> asked the Queen in a very courteous -manner to withdraw for a short time from the conference. She haughtily -refused, and the King coolly informed the ministers that he had no -secrets either private or public which he wished to conceal from his -wife.</p> - -<p>The ministers then presented their complaints. They stated that public -opinion was excited to such a degree that there was imminent danger of a -revolution if the King should persist in carrying out this new plan. -“Moreover,” added the prime minister, “the Skuptschina should be -consulted in a matter of such great importance—a matter in which the -state and the people are principally interested. In default of direct -heirs, the representatives have the right to say who shall succeed to -the throne.”</p> - -<p>The King interrupted him angrily, and said brusquely: “I am the King, -and can do as I please.”</p> - -<p>“But the will of the people should also be consulted!” repeated the -prime minister.</p> - -<p>“The King’s will is supreme!” interposed Draga, and suddenly taking the -King’s arm, she dragged him from the room, leaving the ministers -confused and almost stupefied.</p> - -<p>It may be said that this was the beginning of the end. Both Alexander -and Draga were blinded to such a degree by passion and by the idea of -their own infallibility that they could not see what everybody else did -see—that the measure of their follies was full to overflowing, and that -the day of reckoning was approaching very fast. Anonymous letters came -to the King and to the Queen informing them of plots and conspiracies -against their lives; they disregarded and laughed at them. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_416" id="page_416"></a>{416}</span> openly -showed their contempt for the will of the people and of the Cabinet by -installing Lieutenant Nicodemus Lunyevitch as the heir apparent, in a -brilliant suite of rooms of the royal palace, and abandoned themselves -to an incessant whirl of pleasures and extravagant follies. Concerning -this matter, a guest, the correspondent of a paper in Paris, wrote: “The -King and the Queen do not seem to realize that they are dancing on a -volcano!”</p> - -<p>In the newspapers of the different capitals of Europe dark and ominous -predictions were published about a conspiracy which was being formed at -Belgrade, and of which persons of the highest station would be the -victims.</p> - -<p>Then came the elections of the first of June, and they resulted in such -an overwhelming victory for the government that the predictions of -conspiracy and death were momentarily silenced and a feeling of greater -security was established in the royal palace. It was, however, only the -calm before the storm.</p> - -<p>Evidently the conspiracy which foreign papers had so often hinted at not -only existed, but was well organized. The officers of the Sixth Regiment -stationed at Belgrade were the leaders of it. Another leader was Colonel -Maschin, the cousin (not, as is often stated, the brother-in-law) of the -Queen, who for some personal reason had become her bitter enemy, and who -was the very soul of the conspiracy.</p> - -<p>It is of course impossible, so soon (two months) after the terrible -tragedy, when absolutely reliable data are still lacking, to give with -historic accuracy the details of the plot which culminated in the -assassination of the King, the Queen, two of her brothers, and some of -their most prominent adherents; but from the best and most<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_417" id="page_417"></a>{417}</span> authentic -information obtainable at present it appears that the events of the -night of June 10-11 were as follows:</p> - -<p>Ninety army officers, representing nearly every garrison and military -organization in Servia, had planned to overthrow the government. On -Wednesday, June 10, Colonel Mitshitch, lieutenant-colonel of the Sixth -Regiment, invited his fellow officers belonging to the conspiracy to a -conference at the Helimagdan Garden at 11 <small>P.M.</small> At that conference, which -was largely attended, the immediate execution of the plot was agreed -upon.</p> - -<p>At 1:40 after midnight these officers proceeded in eight groups to the -Konac, the royal residence, which had been closed for the night. But the -conspirators had accessories on the inside. They were Colonel Maschin, -mentioned above, commanding the King’s body-guard, and Colonel -Maumovitch, personal aid of the King. The conspirators were in -possession of the keys of the garden gate of the Konac which had been -handed to them by Captain Panapotovitch, the King’s adjutant. The first -bloody encounter occurred when the conspirators reached the guardhouse -near the gate. On their approach some soldiers rushed out. “Throw down -your arms!” commanded one of the officers. The soldiers fired, but were -shot by the conspirators, who entered the gate and passed through the -garden, without encountering any obstacle until they reached the -courtyard of the old Konac, where Colonel Maumovitch was waiting for -them. He opened the iron door that gave access to the front room of the -first floor. The officers ascended and, by the noise of their steps, -attracted the attention of the royal couple and some of the officers of -the palace.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_418" id="page_418"></a>{418}</span> Lieutenant Lavar Petrovitch, who had been alarmed by the -unusual noise, ran to meet them, holding his revolver in one hand, and -his drawn sword in the other.</p> - -<p>“What do you want?” he asked.</p> - -<p>“Show us where to find the King and the Queen!” was the reply.</p> - -<p>“Back, back!” shouted the Lieutenant; but he fell instantly, killed by -three or four bullets.</p> - -<p>The conspirators advanced, but suddenly the electric lights went out, -and all were enveloped in profound darkness. Utterly confounded and -slowly feeling their way up the stairs, the revolutionists reached the -antechamber of the King’s apartment. It was dark, but one of the -officers discovered a wax candle in a chandelier. He lighted it, and -they could see their way. This trifling little circumstance, entirely -accidental, decided the success of the plot. Without light it would have -been impossible for them to find the victims, who might have made their -escape through the long corridors and numerous apartments of the palace, -with which they were familiar while the conspirators were not, and could -not have followed them.</p> - -<p>Some of the officers now carried lights, while the others followed them -with revolvers in their hands. In breathless haste they hurried through -the rooms in search of the royal couple. They opened the closets and -raised the curtains, but no trace either of the King or of the Queen. At -last Queen Draga’s servant was found. He dangerously wounded Captain -Dimitrevitch, who discovered him, but his life was spared for a little, -because he was needed. It was in fact this servant who indicated to the -officers the place where the King and the Queen had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_419" id="page_419"></a>{419}</span> gone to hide -themselves. Thereupon he was shot. At this moment Colonel Maschin joined -the conspirators and took them to the King’s bedroom, where the King’s -adjutant tried to prevent their search, but was shot by the Colonel’s -companions.</p> - -<p>After a long search a small door was discovered leading to an alcove. -The door was locked and had to be burst open with an axe. In this alcove -the royal couple had taken refuge. Both were in their night robes. The -King was standing in the centre, holding the Queen in his arms, as if to -protect her. Colonel Maumovitch commenced reading to the King a document -which demanded that he should abdicate the throne because he had -dishonored Servia by wedding “a public prostitute.” The King answered by -shooting Maumovitch through the heart. Another officer renewed the -demand for the King’s abdication; but the younger officers had become -impatient and now fired their revolvers at the royal couple until both -expired. The body of the King showed thirty wounds, while the body of -the Queen was so terribly lacerated by pistol-shot and sword wounds that -her features could not be recognized, and the wounds could not be -counted. Both died heroically, trying to protect each other with their -own bodies.</p> - -<p>Together with the King and the Queen, two brothers of the latter, and a -number of their most prominent adherents were murdered in cold blood. -This terrible butchery reveals the semi-savage ferocity of the Balkan -population.</p> - -<p>When the people of Belgrade awoke from their sleep early in the morning -of June 11, there was not, as might have been expected, a manifestation -of horror, pity, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_420" id="page_420"></a>{420}</span> sorrow, among them, but, on the contrary, -rejoicing and exultation on all sides. Flags were raised, houses were -decorated, salutes were fired; a stranger entering the city might have -supposed that a great national festival was being commemorated by the -enthusiastic crowds of men, women, and children.</p> - -<p>It may be taken as a convincing proof of the sincerity of the wrath and -the depth of the contempt which the people of Servia felt for Alexander -I and Draga, that of the immense multitude which came to inspect the -lacerated bodies of those who but the day before had been their King and -their Queen, not one expressed a word of regret, or shed a tear of -sorrow. Many, on the contrary, spat on the mangled remains, or mumbled -words of execration as they passed by the plain coffins. Death itself -had not been able to wipe out the misdeeds of these two persons.</p> - -<p>History, the terrible but just avenger, will preserve for many ages the -memory of Alexander the First of Servia, not so much for any single -crime, as for having persistently insulted the national pride and the -moral sentiment of the people over whom Providence had placed him as -ruler and protector.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_421" id="page_421"></a>{421}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_422" id="page_422"></a>{422}</span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_423" id="page_423"></a>{423}</span> </p> - -<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Y">Y</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></p> - -<p class="nind"> -<a name="A" id="A"></a><span class="smcap">Abo</span>, Treaty of, <a href="#page_253">253</a><br /> - -Adolphus Frederick, <a href="#page_252">252-254</a><br /> - -Æmilianus, Scipio, <a href="#page_013">13</a><br /> - -Africa, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a><br /> - -Agrarian law, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a><br /> - -Agrippina, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a><br /> - -Alba, kings of, <a href="#page_029">29</a><br /> - -Albany, N. Y., <a href="#page_385">385</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Albrecht, of Germany, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Albret, Jeanne d’, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Alcobaza, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br /> - -Alexander, of Epirus, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Alexander I., of Russia, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br /> - -Alexander II., of Russia, <a href="#page_357">357-378</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a>, <a href="#page_401">401</a><br /> - -Alexander III., of Russia, <a href="#page_377">377</a><br /> - -Alexander I., of Servia, <a href="#page_397">397-420</a><br /> - -Alexander III., the Great, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a><br /> - -Alexander Nevski Monastery, <a href="#page_304">304</a><br /> - -Alexandria, <a href="#page_041">41-45</a><br /> - -Alexandria, Library of, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a><br /> - -Alexandrian age, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Alexandrian war, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Alexandrowna Convent, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br /> - -Alexis, son of Peter the Great, <a href="#page_209">209-217</a><br /> - -Alfonso IV., of Portugal, <a href="#page_077">77-85</a><br /> - -Alleghany, Pa., <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Altorf, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Alva, Duke of, <a href="#page_117">117-121</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -America, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -America, Central, see Central America<br /> - -America, South, see South America<br /> - -American Union, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Amphictyon League, <a href="#page_003">3</a><br /> - -Amsterdam, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Anarchism, <a href="#page_391">391</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Anarchists, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>, <a href="#page_391">391-394</a><br /> - -Angoulême, Duc d’, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Anjou, Duke of, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -Ankarström, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_274">274-278</a><br /> - -Anna, daughter of Peter the Great, <a href="#page_222">222</a><br /> - -Anne, Princess of Saxony, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Antony, Mark, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Antwerp, <a href="#page_124">124</a><br /> - -Appomattox Court House, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Aragon, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Arc, Jeanne d’, <a href="#page_298">298</a><br /> - -Argentan, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Argyle, Countess of, <a href="#page_097">97</a><br /> - -Aristotle, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br /> - -Armfeld, Count, <a href="#page_276">276</a><br /> - -Arndt, E. M., <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br /> - -Artois, Comte d’, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Asia, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Athens, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br /> - -Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Attalus, General, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Augustus, Octavianus, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a><br /> - -Austria, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Austria, Ducal hat of, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Austria, Duke of, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Austrian Governors, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, 70<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_424" id="page_424"></a>{424}</span><br /> - -Austrian succession, War of, <a href="#page_252">252</a><br /> - -Avignon, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="B" id="B"></a><span class="smcap">Bakúnin</span>, Michael, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Baltic Sea, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Barbaroux, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a><br /> - -Barnevelt, Olden, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br /> - -Bastile, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> - -Bavaria, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Bayard, Chevalier, <a href="#page_092">92</a><br /> - -Beccaria, <a href="#page_265">265</a><br /> - -Becket, Thomas à, <a href="#page_051">51-63</a><br /> - -Belgrade, Servia, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href="#page_404">404</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a>, <a href="#page_407">407</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a>, <a href="#page_414">414</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a>, <a href="#page_419">419</a><br /> - -Bell, The, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br /> - -Benningsen, General, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br /> - -Bernard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Berry, Duc de, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_325">325-340</a><br /> - -Berry, Duchesse de, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br /> - -Bétysi, Comtesse de, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Biarritz, <a href="#page_408">408</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a><br /> - -Biron, Marshal, <a href="#page_228">228</a><br /> - -Black Sea, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Blaine, James G., <a href="#page_381">381</a><br /> - -Bloedraad, see Blood, Council of<br /> - -Blood, Council of, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Blücher, Marshal, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Blücher monument, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Boer Republics, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br /> - -Bohemia, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a><br /> - -Bohemian wars, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Bolimarcovitch, General, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> - -Bologna, <a href="#page_054">54</a><br /> - -Bonapartist generals, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Bonapartists, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Booth, John Wilkes, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_348">348-350</a><br /> - -Borgia, Cæsar, <a href="#page_143">143</a><br /> - -Bosnia, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Bothwell, Earl of, <a href="#page_101">101-108</a><br /> - -Bourbon, Antony of, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Bourbon, Cardinal de, <a href="#page_153">153</a><br /> - -Bourbon dynasty, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br /> - -Bourbons, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Brabant, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Braga, Archbishop of, <a href="#page_084">84</a><br /> - -Brahe, Count, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Bretteville, Madame de, <a href="#page_285">285-287</a><br /> - -Brown, John, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Brune, Marshal, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Brunswick, Duke of, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Princess of, <a href="#page_213">213</a><br /> - -Brussels, <a href="#page_113">113-115</a>, <a href="#page_117">117-119</a><br /> - -Brutus, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br /> - -Brutus, Decimus, <a href="#page_030">30</a><br /> - -Buffalo, N. Y., <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Buitenhof, <a href="#page_207">207</a><br /> - -Bulgaria, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Bülow, General, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Burgundy, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Burschenschaft, <a href="#page_319">319-321</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br /> - -Butler, Walter, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Buturlin, Count, <a href="#page_233">233</a><br /> - -Buzot, ——, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Byzantinism, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="C" id="C"></a><span class="smcap">Caen</span>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_289">289</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> - -Cæsar, <a href="#page_023">23-31</a>, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a><br /> - -Cæsarium, <a href="#page_048">48</a><br /> - -Cæsars, City of, <a href="#page_041">41</a><br /> - -Cæsars, Palace of the, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Calais, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -California, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Caligula, <a href="#page_033">33-38</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Calvarez, Alvaro, <a href="#page_078">78</a><br /> - -Calvin, John, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Calvinistic church, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -Cantaneda, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Canterbury, <a href="#page_061">61</a><br /> - -Canton, Ohio, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Caps, Party of the, <a href="#page_251">251-253</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br /> - -Caracalla, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Carbonarism, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Carlos, Don, <a href="#page_124">124</a><br /> - -Carlsbad, Bohemia, 410<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_425" id="page_425"></a>{425}</span><br /> - -Carnot, Sadi, President of France, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Casan church, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -Cassius, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_030">30</a><br /> - -Castile, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Castro, Iñez de, <a href="#page_075">75-86</a><br /> - -Catherine I., Empress of Russia, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Catherine II., Empress of Russia, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_224">224-227</a>, <a href="#page_229">229-237</a>, <a href="#page_239">239-246</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_304">304-306</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Catherine de Médicis, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -Catholic church, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Catholic League, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Caucasus, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Central America, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_413">413</a><br /> - -Cevennes, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Chæronea, Battle of, <a href="#page_003">3</a><br /> - -Champ-de-Mars, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> - -Charkow, Governor of, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Charleroi, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Charles V., Emperor, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Charles II., of England, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Charles IX., of France, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -Charles X., of France, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br /> - -Charles XI., of Sweden, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br /> - -Charles XII., of Sweden, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a><br /> - -Charles, Prince, of Sweden, <a href="#page_257">257</a><br /> - -Chateaubriand, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Chatelard, Pierre de, <a href="#page_091">91-93</a><br /> - -Cherbourg, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Chicago, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Choiseul, Duc de, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a><br /> - -Christian IV., of Denmark, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a><br /> - -Christianstadt, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a><br /> - -Cicero, <a href="#page_020">20</a><br /> - -Cid, Le, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Cinna, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Civil War, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a><br /> - -Clarendon, Constitution of, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a><br /> - -Claudius, <a href="#page_033">33-38</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Clément, Jacques, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Cleopatra, Queen of Macedon, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Clio, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Coello, Pedro, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Coimbra, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br /> - -Coligny, Admiral, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Condé, Prince of, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Confederacy, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Confederate States of America, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Conkling, Roscoe, <a href="#page_381">381</a><br /> - -Constancia, wife of Pedro I., <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Constant, Benjamin, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Constantinople, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Corday, Adrian, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Corday, Charlotte, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_285">285-298</a><br /> - -Corday d’Armans, Monsieur de, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Corneille, Marie, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Corneille, Pierre, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br /> - -Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, <a href="#page_012">12</a><br /> - -Crimean War, <a href="#page_364">364</a><br /> - -Croatian horsemen, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#page_193">193</a><br /> - -Crusoe, Robinson, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br /> - -Cuba, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Cuma, <a href="#page_018">18</a><br /> - -Cyril, Saint, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a><br /> - -“Czar of all the Russias,” <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Czolgosz, Leon, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_390">390</a>, <a href="#page_391">391</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="D" id="D"></a><span class="smcap">Dalecarlia</span>, <a href="#page_269">269</a><br /> - -Damiens, R. F., <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a><br /> - -Damocles, Sword of, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -Danton, G. J., <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Dardanelles, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Darius, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br /> - -Darnley, Lord, <a href="#page_087">87-108</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_426" id="page_426"></a>{426}</span><br /> - -Dashkow, Princess, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a><br /> - -Decazes, M., <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Defoe, Daniel, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br /> - -Delft, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Demaratus, the Corinthian, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Denmark, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a><br /> - -De Ruyter, Admiral, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a><br /> - -Detroit, <a href="#page_391">391</a><br /> - -Deveroux, ——, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a><br /> - -De Witt, Cornelius, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_189">189-208</a><br /> - -De Witt, John, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_189">189-208</a><br /> - -Diana of Poitiers, <a href="#page_091">91</a><br /> - -Dimitrevitch, Captain, <a href="#page_418">418</a><br /> - -Dolgorouki, Princess, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> - -Dominican monk, <a href="#page_124">124</a><br /> - -Domitia, <a href="#page_036">36</a><br /> - -Dordrecht, City of, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a><br /> - -Douai, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Douglas, Stephen A., <a href="#page_351">351</a><br /> - -Draga, Queen of Servia, <a href="#page_397">397-420</a><br /> - -Drentelen, General, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Dunbar, <a href="#page_102">102</a><br /> - -Dunbar castle, <a href="#page_100">100</a><br /> - -Dutch Republic, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_197">197-202</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="E" id="E"></a><span class="smcap">Edinburgh</span>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -Eger, Bohemia, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Egmont, Count, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Egypt, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Eisenach, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Elba, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Elizabeth, Empress of Austria, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, <a href="#page_222">222-228</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br /> - -Elizabeth, Queen of England, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a><br /> - -England, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_193">193-195</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Epirus, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Essen, Count, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Esths, <a href="#page_268">268</a><br /> - -Eumenes, King of Pergamus, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Europe, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a>, <a href="#page_315">315-317</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_383">383-385</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Evrard, Catherine, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="F" id="F"></a><span class="smcap">Fehrbellin</span>, <a href="#page_199">199</a><br /> - -Ferdinand II., of Germany, <a href="#page_165">165-167</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_173">173-175</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_180">180</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a><br /> - -Ferdinand, son of Pedro I., <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br /> - -Finland, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_274">274</a><br /> - -Finns, <a href="#page_268">268</a><br /> - -Flaccus, Lucius, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_019">19</a><br /> - -Ford’s Theatre, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br /> - -Forum, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_016">16</a><br /> - -Foy, General, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -France, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_327">327-329</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Franche-Comté, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Francis I., of Austria, <a href="#page_317">317</a><br /> - -Francis I., of France, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Francis II., of France, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Franco-Austrian alliance, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> - -Franconia, <a href="#page_177">177</a><br /> - -Frederick II., King of Prussia, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> - -Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Frederick William I., King of Prussia, <a href="#page_223">223</a><br /> - -Frederick William III., King of Prussia, <a href="#page_317">317</a><br /> - -Frederickshall, Fortress of, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br /> - -Frederickshamm, Fortress of, <a href="#page_268">268</a><br /> - -French chambers, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br /> - -French Empire, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br /> - -French Republic, 394<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_427" id="page_427"></a>{427}</span><br /> - -French Revolution, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br /> - -French Revolutionists, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Friedlanders, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -“Friend of the People,” <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> - -Friesland, <a href="#page_191">191</a><br /> - -Frisia, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Fuerst, Walter, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="G" id="G"></a><span class="smcap">Galitzin</span>, Count, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -Gallas, General, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Garde, Count de la, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Garfield, James A., <a href="#page_381">381</a><br /> - -Gatschina, <a href="#page_303">303</a><br /> - -Gaul, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a><br /> - -Gérard, Balthasar, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br /> - -German Empire, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br /> - -German Reformation, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -German Universities, <a href="#page_318">318-320</a><br /> - -Germany, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_167">167-169</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_318">318-321</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Gessler, Hermann, <a href="#page_065">65-73</a><br /> - -Gil Blas, <a href="#page_158">158</a><br /> - -Girondists, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> - -Glasgow, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -Goethe, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a><br /> - -Golden Fleece, Knight of the, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Goldmann, Emma, <a href="#page_391">391</a><br /> - -Gonsalvez, ——, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Gordon, General, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Gortschakoff, Prince, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Gracchus, Caius, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a><br /> - -Gracchus, Sempronius, <a href="#page_012">12</a><br /> - -Gracchus, Tiberius, <a href="#page_009">9-21</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a><br /> - -Grammaticus, Saxo, <a href="#page_073">73</a><br /> - -Grant, General, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br /> - -Granvella, Cardinal, <a href="#page_114">114-116</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Greece, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Greek church, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Guise, Duke of, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Guise, Henry of, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Guiteau, Charles J., <a href="#page_381">381</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a><br /> - -Gustavus I., <a href="#page_269">269</a><br /> - -Gustavus II., <a href="#page_175">175-182</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a><br /> - -Gustavus III., <a href="#page_247">247-279</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="H" id="H"></a><span class="smcap">Hague</span>, The, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Haller, Albrecht von, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br /> - -Hannibal, <a href="#page_012">12</a><br /> - -Hanseatic League, <a href="#page_102">102</a><br /> - -Hapsburg, House of, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Harrach, Count, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Hats, Party of the, <a href="#page_251">251-253</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br /> - -Helimagdan Garden, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Heliogabalus, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Hellichius, Captain, <a href="#page_257">257</a><br /> - -Henrietta, Princess of France, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Henry II., of England, <a href="#page_053">53-63</a><br /> - -Henry VIII., of England, <a href="#page_094">94</a><br /> - -Henry II., of France, <a href="#page_148">148-150</a><br /> - -Henry III., of France, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Henry IV., of France, <a href="#page_145">145-161</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a><br /> - -“Heptameron,” <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Hermandad, <a href="#page_361">361</a><br /> - -Herzegovina, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Herzen, Alexander, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a><br /> - -Hesse-Cassel, Frederick of, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br /> - -Hesse-Darmstadt, Princess of, <a href="#page_375">375</a><br /> - -Hessian queue, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br /> - -Höchst, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Hohenstaufen, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Holland, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_204">204-206</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Holstein, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Holstein-Gottorp, Charles Frederick of, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br /> - -Holstein-Gottorp, Duke of, <a href="#page_229">229</a><br /> - -Holstein Guards, <a href="#page_236">236</a><br /> - -Holsteiners, <a href="#page_224">224</a><br /> - -Holy Alliance, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Holy Sepulchre, <a href="#page_063">63</a><br /> - -Holyrood Palace, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_099">99-102</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, 108<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_428" id="page_428"></a>{428}</span><br /> - -Horace, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Hoorn, Count, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Horn, Count, <a href="#page_274">274-277</a><br /> - -Horn, General, <a href="#page_177">177</a><br /> - -Humbert, King of Italy, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -“Hundred Days,” <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Hungarian Revolution, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br /> - -Hungary, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a><br /> - -Hungary, King of, <a href="#page_173">173</a><br /> - -Hypatia, <a href="#page_039">39-50</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a>Ides of March, <a href="#page_030">30</a><br /> - -Illo, General, <a href="#page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a><br /> - -Illyria, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Imperial Guards, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a><br /> - -Imperialists, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Ireland, <a href="#page_102">102</a><br /> - -Ismailoff, General, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a><br /> - -Italy, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Ivan IV., <a href="#page_129">129-143</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a><br /> - -Ivan VI., <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="J" id="J"></a><span class="smcap">Jacobins</span>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Jacobins, White, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -James I., of England, <a href="#page_101">101</a><br /> - -James V., of Scotland, <a href="#page_090">90</a><br /> - -James VI., of Scotland, <a href="#page_101">101</a><br /> - -Jaureguy, Juan, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Jena, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a><br /> - -Jena, University of, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br /> - -Jerusalem, <a href="#page_142">142</a><br /> - -Jesuits, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Jews, <a href="#page_118">118</a><br /> - -John of Austria, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a><br /> - -Johnson, Andrew, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br /> - -Johnston, General, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Joseph II., of Austria, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> - -Julia, daughter of Augustus, <a href="#page_037">37</a><br /> - -Juliers-Cleves, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Jupiter, <a href="#page_029">29</a><br /> - -Jupiter, Statue of, <a href="#page_027">27</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="K" id="K"></a><span class="smcap">Karakasow</span>, ——, <a href="#page_370">370</a><br /> - -Karamsin, N. M., <a href="#page_221">221</a><br /> - -Kasan, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br /> - -Keschko, Colonel, <a href="#page_401">401</a><br /> - -Kingsley, Charles, <a href="#page_049">49</a><br /> - -Kinsky, General, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Knox, John, <a href="#page_093">93</a><br /> - -Kolokos (“The Bell”), <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br /> - -Konac, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Körner, K. T., <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Kotzebue, August von, <a href="#page_313">313-324</a><br /> - -Krapotkine, Prince, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Kraskazelo, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Kreuger, Oom, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Kronstadt, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a><br /> - -Krüdener, Madame, <a href="#page_317">317</a><br /> - -Kuessnacht, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a><br /> - -Kuessnacht, Castle of, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br /> - -Kyrillos, see Cyril, St.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="L" id="L"></a><span class="smcap">Labédoyère</span>, General, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Laborers, International Association of, <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Lafayette, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Lagarde, Chauveau, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br /> - -La Guarda, Archbishop, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -“La Henriade,” <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Lamballe, Princess de, <a href="#page_050">50</a><br /> - -Laputkin, Eudoxia, <a href="#page_211">211-215</a><br /> - -Laputkin family, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a><br /> - -La Rochelle, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -La Vendée, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -League, The, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a><br /> - -Lee, General, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Leipsic, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> - -Leipsic, Battle of, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Lennox, Earl of, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a><br /> - -Leslie, ——, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Liberals, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a><br /> - -Licinian law, <a href="#page_014">14</a><br /> - -Liliehorn, Count, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Lille, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Lincoln, Abraham, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_341">341-355</a><br /> - -Lincoln, Mrs., <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br /> - -Livadia, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a><br /> - -Livia, Drusilla, <a href="#page_036">36</a><br /> - -Lobkowitz, Prime Minister, 198<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_429" id="page_429"></a>{429}</span><br /> - -London, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> - -Lorraine, Cardinal de, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Louis, XIV., <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a><br /> - -Louis XV., <a href="#page_156">156-161</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a><br /> - -Louis XVI., <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br /> - -Louis XVIII., <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Louvel, J. P., <a href="#page_334">334-340</a><br /> - -Louvet de Couvray, J. B., <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Lunyevitch, Nicodemus, <a href="#page_414">414</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Luther, Martin, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br /> - -Lutheran church, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Lutheran faith, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Lützen, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Luxembourg, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Luxembourg Garden, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="M" id="M"></a><span class="smcap">Macedonia</span>, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -McKinley, William, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_379">379-395</a><br /> - -McKinley, Mrs., <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Madrid, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Magdeburg, <a href="#page_166">166</a><br /> - -Mannheim, <a href="#page_323">323</a><br /> - -Mansfeld, General, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Marat, <a href="#page_281">281-298</a><br /> - -Maratists, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br /> - -Marcellus, <a href="#page_036">36</a><br /> - -Margaret, Duchess of Parma, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -Margaret, Queen of Navarre, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Margrave, The, of Baden, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Maria, Empress of Russia, <a href="#page_308">308</a><br /> - -Marie Antoinette, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br /> - -Marie de Lorraine, <a href="#page_090">90</a><br /> - -Marie Thérèse Charlotte, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br /> - -Marin, Colonel, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br /> - -Marx, Carl, <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Mary de Médicis, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Mary, Queen of England, <a href="#page_113">113</a><br /> - -Mary, Queen of Scots, <a href="#page_089">89-108</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Maschin, Colonel, <a href="#page_416">416</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a>, <a href="#page_419">419</a><br /> - -Masnaliza (Russian Carnival), <a href="#page_307">307</a><br /> - -Massmann, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br /> - -Maumovitch, Colonel, <a href="#page_417">417</a>, <a href="#page_419">419</a><br /> - -Maurice, Elector of Saxony, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Maximilian of Bavaria, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a><br /> - -Mayenne, Duke of, <a href="#page_150">150</a><br /> - -Mecklenburg, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br /> - -Mecklenburg, Duke of, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a><br /> - -Médicis, Catherine de, see Catherine de Médicis<br /> - -Médicis, Mary de, see Mary de Médicis<br /> - -Mediterranean, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Melchthal, Arnold, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -Melikow, Count, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Messalina, wife of Claudius, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a><br /> - -Metternich, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Mexico, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Milan, King of Servia, <a href="#page_400">400-405</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a><br /> - -Milton, John, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Mirowitch, Lieutenant, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br /> - -Mississippi River, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br /> - -Mitshitch, Colonel, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Monroe Doctrine, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Montesquieu, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Montpellier, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Moravia, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a><br /> - -Moriscoes, <a href="#page_118">118</a><br /> - -Moscow, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a><br /> - -Most, John, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Mueller, Johannes von, <a href="#page_073">73</a><br /> - -Munda, Battle of, <a href="#page_028">28</a><br /> - -Münnich, Marshal, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a><br /> - -Münster, Count, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br /> - -Murray, Lord, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="N" id="N"></a><span class="smcap">Nantes</span>, Edict of, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Naples, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Napoleon I., <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_315">315-317</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a><br /> - -Nasica, Scipio, <a href="#page_019">19</a><br /> - -Nassau, Lewis, Count of, <a href="#page_120">120</a><br /> - -Natalie, Queen of Servia, <a href="#page_401">401-406</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a><br /> - -National Assembly, <a href="#page_284">284</a><br /> - -National Convention, 284<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_430" id="page_430"></a>{430}</span><br /> - -Neoptolemus, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br /> - -Nero, <a href="#page_033">33-38</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br /> - -Netherlands, <a href="#page_112">112-114</a>, <a href="#page_116">116-121</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Neva river, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Newman, ——, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Ney, Marshal, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Nicholas I., <a href="#page_360">360</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href="#page_363">363-365</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a><br /> - -Nicholas, son of Paul I., <a href="#page_307">307</a><br /> - -Nihilism, <a href="#page_369">369-372</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Nihilists, <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -Nîmes, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Nitria, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a><br /> - -Normandy, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_289">289</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a><br /> - -North Carolina, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Northampton, England, <a href="#page_059">59</a><br /> - -Norway, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br /> - -Novgorod, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a><br /> - -Novgorod, Archbishop of, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a><br /> - -Nuremberg, <a href="#page_178">178</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="O" id="O"></a><span class="smcap">Obrenovitch</span>, Michael, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> - -Octavius, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a><br /> - -Olympian games, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br /> - -Olympias, Queen of Macedon, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br /> - -Orange, House of, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a><br /> - -Orange Free State, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Oranienbaum, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Orestes, <a href="#page_044">44-47</a><br /> - -Orléans, Duc d’, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Orléans, Duchesse d’, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Orloff, Alexis, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> - -Orloff, Feodor, <a href="#page_232">232</a><br /> - -Orloff, Gregor, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a><br /> - -Orloff, Ivan, <a href="#page_232">232</a><br /> - -Ostia, <a href="#page_038">38</a><br /> - -Oudenarde, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Oxford, <a href="#page_054">54</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="P" id="P"></a><span class="smcap">Pacheco</span>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Pacific Ocean, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Pahlen, Count, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a><br /> - -Palais Royal, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Palais Royal, Garden of the, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Pan-American Exposition, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Panapotovitch, Captain, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Panin, Count, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Pappenheim, General, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Paris, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_289">289</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_333">333-335</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> - -Paris, University of, <a href="#page_054">54</a><br /> - -Parma, Duke of, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Paterson, N. J., <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Paul I., of Russia, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_299">299-312</a><br /> - -Pausanias, <a href="#page_005">5</a><br /> - -Pavia, Battle of, <a href="#page_147">147</a><br /> - -Pavilion Marsan, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Pechlin, Baron, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Pedro I., of Portugal, <a href="#page_077">77-85</a><br /> - -Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br /> - -Peers, Chamber of, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br /> - -Perpetual Edict, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a><br /> - -Persia, <a href="#page_004">4</a><br /> - -Peter, a priest, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a><br /> - -Peter I. (the Great), of Russia, <a href="#page_211">211-215</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br /> - -Peter II., of Russia, <a href="#page_214">214</a><br /> - -Peter III., of Russia, <a href="#page_219">219-246</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> - -Peterhof, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Pétion, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a><br /> - -Petrovitch, Lavar, <a href="#page_418">418</a><br /> - -Pharsalus, Battle of, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a><br /> - -Philip II., of Macedon, <a href="#page_001">1-7</a><br /> - -Philip II., of Spain, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_113">113-117</a>, <a href="#page_121">121-124</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -Philip IV., of Spain, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Philip, the Metropolitan, <a href="#page_139">139</a><br /> - -Philippine Islands, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Piccolomini, Octavio, 186<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_431" id="page_431"></a>{431}</span><br /> - -Piedmont, <a href="#page_093">93</a><br /> - -Pilsen, <a href="#page_184">184</a><br /> - -Plato, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br /> - -Plutarch, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_289">289</a><br /> - -Plutarch’s Lives, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Poitiers, Diana of, see Diana of Poitiers<br /> - -Poland, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Poland, King of, <a href="#page_140">140</a><br /> - -Polyeucte, <a href="#page_286">286</a><br /> - -Pomerania, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a><br /> - -Pompadour, Madame de, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a><br /> - -Pompey, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a><br /> - -Pompey, Statue of, <a href="#page_031">31</a><br /> - -Poniatowski, Prince, <a href="#page_225">225</a><br /> - -Pontus, <a href="#page_027">27</a><br /> - -Pope of Rome, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a><br /> - -Poppæa, wife of Nero, <a href="#page_037">37</a><br /> - -Portugal, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a><br /> - -Potemkin, General, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Prague, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a><br /> - -Preobrajenski guards, <a href="#page_233">233</a><br /> - -Prim, General, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Protestant church, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Protestant reformation, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a><br /> - -Protestant Union, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Protestantism, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Protitch, General, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> - -Provence, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Provence, Comte de, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br /> - -Providence Hotel, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Provinces, United, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br /> - -Proudhon, P. J., <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Prussia, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br /> - -Pskoff, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Ptolemies, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Ptolemy Philadelphus, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Ptolemy Physcon, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Pyrenean peninsula, <a href="#page_112">112</a><br /> - -Pyrenees, <a href="#page_408">408</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Q" id="Q"></a><span class="smcap">Querouet</span>, Mademoiselle de, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="R" id="R"></a><span class="smcap">Ramel</span>, General, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Rappahannock River, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Ravaillac, François, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a><br /> - -Raynal, Abbé, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Regensburg, Diet of, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br /> - -Reichsrath, <a href="#page_250">250-259</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a><br /> - -Reichstag of Gefle, <a href="#page_273">273</a><br /> - -Reichstag, Swedish, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Repnin, General, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Republicans, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Restitution edict, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Reutli, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -Reutli conspiracy, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Reval, <a href="#page_238">238</a><br /> - -Revolutionists, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br /> - -Rheims, <a href="#page_090">90</a><br /> - -Rhine, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Ribbing, Count, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Richelieu, Duc de, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Richmond, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br /> - -Richter, <a href="#page_323">323</a><br /> - -Ristitch, M., <a href="#page_404">404</a>, <a href="#page_407">407</a><br /> - -Rizzio, David, <a href="#page_087">87-108</a><br /> - -Robespierre, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Robzak, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Romanowna, Anastasia, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br /> - -Rome, <a href="#page_011">11-14</a>, <a href="#page_025">25-27</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Rome, Ancient kings of, <a href="#page_029">29</a><br /> - -Roman Campagna, <a href="#page_013">13</a><br /> - -Roman Empire, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a><br /> - -Roman Republic, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a><br /> - -Rostock, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br /> - -Rostopchin, Count, <a href="#page_308">308</a><br /> - -Roumania, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Roumelia, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Rousseau, <a href="#page_287">287-289</a><br /> - -Royalists, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_328">328-331</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br /> - -Rudolph of Hapsburg, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br /> - -Rue des Cordeliers, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> - -Russia, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_221">221-223</a>, <a href="#page_226">226-230</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_432" id="page_432"></a>{432}</span><br /> -<a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_367">367-369</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a><br /> - -Russian Carnival, <a href="#page_307">307</a><br /> - -Russian Church, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Russian Empire, <a href="#page_305">305</a><br /> - -Russian serfs, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Russian universities, <a href="#page_365">365</a><br /> - -Ruthven, ——, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="S" id="S"></a><span class="smcap">St</span>. Angelo, Castle of, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -St. Bartholomew, Eve of, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -St. Louis, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -St. Michael, Palace of, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br /> - -St. Michael’s Canal, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> - -St. Petersburg, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_233">233-236</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a><br /> - -St. Petersburg, Governor-General of, <a href="#page_309">309</a><br /> - -San Francisco, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Sand, C. L., <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br /> - -Sassoulitch, Vera, <a href="#page_370">370</a><br /> - -Savoy, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Saxony, <a href="#page_180">180</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Saxony, Elector of, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br /> - -Scandinavia, <a href="#page_073">73</a><br /> - -Scania, <a href="#page_257">257</a><br /> - -Scharnhorst, General, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Schiller, Frederick, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Schüsselburg, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a><br /> - -Schwab, Justus, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Schwyz, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -Scipio Africanus, Cornelius, <a href="#page_012">12</a><br /> - -Scotland, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_100">100-102</a><br /> - -Sempronian law, <a href="#page_011">11</a><br /> - -Seni, the astrologer, <a href="#page_173">173</a><br /> - -Serapeum, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a><br /> - -Servia, <a href="#page_399">399</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href="#page_401">401</a>, <a href="#page_404">404</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a>, <a href="#page_411">411</a>, <a href="#page_413">413</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a>, <a href="#page_419">419</a><br /> - -Servia, Metropolitan of, <a href="#page_403">403</a>, <a href="#page_411">411</a><br /> - -Servian Parliament, see Skuptshina<br /> - -Seven Years’ War, <a href="#page_253">253</a><br /> - -Seward, William II., <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Shakespeare, William, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a><br /> - -Siberia, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> - -Siberian exiles, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> - -Silesia, <a href="#page_177">177</a><br /> - -Silius, Caius, <a href="#page_037">37</a><br /> - -Skuptshina, <a href="#page_411">411</a>, <a href="#page_412">412</a><br /> - -Socialism, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br /> - -Socialist congress, <a href="#page_385">385</a><br /> - -Socialists, <a href="#page_369">369</a><br /> - -Sodermanland, Duke of, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Sokoloff, Alexander, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a><br /> - -Solbay, Battle of, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a><br /> - -Soltikoff, Count, <a href="#page_225">225</a><br /> - -Soothsayer, <a href="#page_018">18</a><br /> - -South African War, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br /> - -South America, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_413">413</a><br /> - -Spain, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Spanish-American War, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Spanish Inquisition, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a><br /> - -Spanish Netherlands, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a><br /> - -Stanton, E. M., <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br /> - -Stauffacher, Werner, of Schwyz, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -Stockholm, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_254">254-257</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Stourdza, Baron, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a><br /> - -Stralsund, Fortress of, <a href="#page_171">171</a><br /> - -Sulla, General, <a href="#page_029">29</a><br /> - -Sully, Duke of, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Surratt, Mrs., <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Suwarow, General, <a href="#page_231">231</a><br /> - -Sweden, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a><br /> - -Swenskasund, Battle of, <a href="#page_270">270</a><br /> - -Swiss Cantons, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br /> - -Switzerland, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a><br /> - -Switzerland Republic, <a href="#page_073">73</a><br /> - -Synesius, <a href="#page_046">46</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="T" id="T"></a><span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br /> - -Talizin, General, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, 309<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_433" id="page_433"></a>{433}</span><br /> - -Tasso, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Tell, William, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a><br /> - -Tepelof, ——, <a href="#page_241">241</a><br /> - -Terrorists, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> - -Terzky, General, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a><br /> - -Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a><br /> - -Theocritus, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Theodosius the Great, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br /> - -Theon, father of Hypatia, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br /> - -Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a><br /> - -Thirty Years’ War, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a><br /> - -Thuringia, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Thurn, Count, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Tiberius, <a href="#page_033">33-38</a><br /> - -Tichelaar, ——, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a><br /> - -Tilly, General, <a href="#page_166">166-168</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a><br /> - -Toropetz, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Toulouse, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a><br /> - -Tournay, <a href="#page_194">194</a><br /> - -Transvaal, <a href="#page_070">70</a><br /> - -Transylvania, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Trent, Court of, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Trepow, General, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Trèves, College of, <a href="#page_125">125</a><br /> - -Trianon, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Tribunal, Revolutionary, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> - -Tribunes, Ten, <a href="#page_015">15</a><br /> - -Triple Alliance, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a><br /> - -Tromp, Admiral, <a href="#page_193">193</a><br /> - -Troubles, Court of, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Trubetzkoi, Prince, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br /> - -Turenne, Marshal, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Turgenieff, Ivan, <a href="#page_369">369</a><br /> - -Turkey, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href="#page_401">401</a><br /> - -Turkey, European, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Tuscany, <a href="#page_013">13</a><br /> - -Tver, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> - -Twer, <a href="#page_138">138</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="U" id="U"></a><span class="smcap">United</span> Netherlands, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -United Provinces, <a href="#page_192">192</a><br /> - -United States, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_381">381-385</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a><br /> - -United States Territories, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br /> - -Unterwalden, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -Uri, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -Uri, Lake of, <a href="#page_069">69</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a>Varennes, <a href="#page_273">273</a><br /> - -Vauban, Marshal, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Venus, Temple of, <a href="#page_029">29</a><br /> - -Vergennes, Count de, <a href="#page_254">254</a><br /> - -Versailles, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_334">334-336</a><br /> - -Vienna, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_180">180</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Vienna congress, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Virgil, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Virginia, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -“Voice of the People,” <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Voltaire, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Vorwärts, Marshal, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="W" id="W"></a><span class="smcap">Waldstädte</span>, Three (Forest Cantons), <a href="#page_067">67</a><br /> - -Wallenstein, General, <a href="#page_163">163-188</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a><br /> - -Wartburg, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Wartburg celebration, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br /> - -Washington, D. C., <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Washington, George, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a><br /> - -Waterloo, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -West Indies, <a href="#page_384">384</a><br /> - -Western Hemisphere, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Westminster, <a href="#page_193">193</a><br /> - -White Mountain, Battle of, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Wiesbaden, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> - -Wiesloch, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -William I., Prince of Orange, <a href="#page_109">109-128</a><br /> - -William II., Prince of Orange, <a href="#page_192">192</a><br /> - -William III., Prince of Orange, King of England, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a><br /> - -Wimpfen, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Wimpfen, General, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br /> - -Winter Palace, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a><br /> - -Wladimir, Grand Duchess, <a href="#page_135">135</a><br /> - -Wladimir, Grand Duke, <a href="#page_135">135</a><br /> - -Worcestershire, England, 57<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_434" id="page_434"></a>{434}</span><br /> - -World’s Fair, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Worms, Diet of, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Woronzow, Elizabeth, Countess, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_236">236-239</a><br /> - -Wunsiedel, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br /> - -Würtemberg, <a href="#page_177">177</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Y" id="Y"></a><span class="smcap">York</span>, ——, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br /> - -Yssel, <a href="#page_201">201</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Z" id="Z"></a><span class="smcap">Zealand</span>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a><br /> - -Zubow, Nicholas, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> - -Zubow Brothers, <a href="#page_307">307</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><a name="transcrib" id="transcrib"></a></p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="padding:2%;border:3px dotted gray;"> -<tr><th align="center">Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:</th></tr> -<tr><td align="left">and with mighty leap=> and with a mighty leap {pg 72}</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Protestanism, 354=> Protestantism, 354 {pg 431}</td></tr> -</table> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Famous Assassinations of History, by -Francis Johnson - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAMOUS ASSASSINATIONS OF HISTORY *** - -***** This file should be named 53273-h.htm or 53273-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/2/7/53273/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/colophon.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/colophon.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 10e645e..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/colophon.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aa89d50..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/cover_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/cover_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3dde08c..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/cover_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_f02b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_f02b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7089404..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_f02b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_f02b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_f02b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index eb55ee1..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_f02b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p010b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p010b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a2530b4..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p010b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p010b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p010b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1d3a475..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p010b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p02b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p02b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 21ffbcb..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p02b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p02b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p02b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9c65b74..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p02b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p034b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p034b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 804c9c5..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p034b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p034b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p034b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3780781..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p034b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p036b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p036b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 63b7a53..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p036b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p036b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p036b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0fe85fe..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p036b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p052b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p052b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 218a6a0..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p052b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p052b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p052b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 515529e..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p052b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p066b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p066b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e6fc5f4..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p066b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p066b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p066b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b3c0b8e..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p066b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p076b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p076b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 817c7c4..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p076b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p076b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p076b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 94f361c..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p076b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p088b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p088b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a494e56..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p088b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p088b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p088b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2f95993..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p088b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p094a_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p094a_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2bc0982..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p094a_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p094a_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p094a_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6a08498..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p094a_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p110b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p110b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2d0a9ff..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p110b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p110b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p110b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 14239a3..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p110b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p130b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p130b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0b402f6..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p130b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p130b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p130b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 74476b4..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p130b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p146b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p146b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3923bb8..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p146b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p146b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p146b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 94a219f..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p146b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p164b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p164b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3935e38..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p164b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p164b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p164b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b5da103..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p164b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p190b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p190b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6464f61..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p190b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p190b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p190b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b4111fd..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p190b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p204b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p204b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index da81fed..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p204b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p204b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p204b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c8d1b80..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p204b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p210b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p210b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9540330..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p210b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p210b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p210b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6b94d85..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p210b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p220b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p220b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 35f0968..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p220b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p220b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p220b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7bb74e4..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p220b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p248b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p248b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 340b89f..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p248b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p248b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p248b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 98da70c..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p248b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p282b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p282b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9a0e739..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p282b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p282b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p282b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7ec32a7..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p282b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p300b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p300b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2eacfed..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p300b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p300b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p300b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d110798..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p300b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p314b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p314b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d056d37..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p314b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p314b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p314b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 67d5992..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p314b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p326b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p326b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9177c14..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p326b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p326b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p326b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 65fc7a4..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p326b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p342b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p342b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 063b79e..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p342b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p342b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p342b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5f129da..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p342b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p358b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p358b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9e0ab30..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p358b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p358b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p358b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7a1fe41..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p358b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p380b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p380b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e8ac38f..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p380b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p380b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p380b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 141fd6f..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p380b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p398b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p398b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c4bff48..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p398b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p398b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p398b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f28cf81..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p398b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p408b_lg.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p408b_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cb7631c..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p408b_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53273-h/images/i_p408b_sml.jpg b/old/53273-h/images/i_p408b_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 921c7ec..0000000 --- a/old/53273-h/images/i_p408b_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null |
