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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/5173.txt b/5173.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c07921 --- /dev/null +++ b/5173.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10423 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Religion of the Samurai, by Kaiten Nukariya + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Religion of the Samurai + +Author: Kaiten Nukariya + +Release Date: February, 2004 [EBook #5173] +[This file last updated on August 9, 2010] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on May 28, 2002] + +Edition: 11 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE RELIGION OF THE SAMURAI *** + + + + +This eBook was produced by John B. Hare and proofread by Carrie R. Lorenz. + + + +THE RELIGION OF THE SAMURAI + +A STUDY OF ZEN PHILOSOPHY AND DISCIPLINE IN CHINA AND JAPAN + +by + +KAITEN NUKARIYA + +Professor of Kei-O-Gi-Jiku University and of So-To-Shu Buddhist +College, Tokyo + +1913 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +(1) The Southern and Northern Schools of Buddhism +(2) The Development and Differentiation of Buddhism +(3) The Object of this Book is the Explaining of the Mahayanistic +View of Life and the World +(4) Zen holds a Unique Position among the Established Religions of +the World +(5) The Historical Antiquity of Zen +(6) The Denial of Scriptural Authority by Zen +(7) The Practisers of Zen hold the Buddha as their Predecessor, whose +Spiritual Level they Aim to Attain +(8) The Iconoclastic Attitude of Zen +(9) Zen Activity +(10) The Physical and Mental Training +(11) The Historical Importance + + + +CHAPTER I + + +HISTORY OF ZEN IN CHINA + + +1. The Origin of Zen in India +2. The Introduction of Zen into China by Bodhidharma +3. Bodhidharma and the Emperor Wu +4. Bodhidharma and his Successor, the Second Patriarch +5. Bodhidharma's Disciples and the Transmission of the Law +6. The Second and the Third Patriarchs +7. The Fourth Patriarch and the Emperor Tai Tsung +8. The Fifth and the Sixth Patriarchs +9. The Spiritual Attainment of the Sixth Patriarch +10. The Flight of the Sixth Patriarch +11. The Development of the Southern and the Northern School of Zen +12. The Missionary Activity of the Sixth Patriarch +13. The Disciples under the Sixth Patriarch +14. Three Important Elements of Zen +15. Decline of Zen + + + +CHAPTER II + + +HISTORY OF ZEN IN JAPAN + + +1. The Establishment of the Rin Zai School of Zen in Japan +2. The Introduction of the So To School of Zen +3. The Characteristics of Do-gen, the Founder of the Japanese So To +Sect +4. The Social State of Japan when Zen was Established by Ei-sai and +Do-gen +5. The Resemblance of the Zen Monk to the Samurai +6. The Honest Poverty of the Zen Monk and the Samurai +7. The Manliness of the Zen Monk and the Samurai +8. The Courage and Composure of Mind of the Zen Monk and the Samurai +9. Zen and the Regent Generals of the Ho-jo Period +10. Zen after the Downfall of the Ho-jo Regency +11. Zen in the Dark Age +12. Zen under the Toku-gawa Shogunate +13. Zen after the Restoration + + + +CHAPTER III + + +THE UNIVERSE IS THE SCRIPTURE OF ZEN + + +1. Scripture is no More than Waste Paper +2. No Need of the Scriptural Authority for Zen +3. The Usual Explanation of the Canon +4. Sutras used by the Zen Masters +5. A Sutra Equal in Size to the Whole World 68 +6. Great Men and Nature +7. The Absolute and Reality are but an Abstraction +8. The Sermon of the Inanimate + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +BUDDHA, THE UNIVERSAL SPIRIT + + +1. The Ancient Buddhist Pantheon +2. Zen is Iconoclastic +3. Buddha is Unnamable +4. Buddha, the Universal Life +5. Life and Change +6. The Pessimistic View of Ancient Hindus +7. Hinayanism and its Doctrine +8. Change as seen by Zen +9. Life and Change +10. Life, Change, and Hope +11. Everything is Living according to Zen +12. The Creative Force of Nature and Humanity +13. Universal Life is Universal Spirit +14. Poetical Intuition and Zen +15. Enlightened Consciousness +16. Buddha Dwelling in the Individual Mind +Enlightened Consciousness is not an Intellectual Insight +18. Our Conception of Buddha is not Final +19. How to Worship Buddha + + + +CHAPTER V + + +THE NATURE OF MAN + + +1. Man is Good-natured according to Mencius +2. Man is Bad-natured according to Siun Tsz +3. Man is both Good-natured and Bad-natured according to Yan Hiung +4. Man is neither Good-natured nor Bad-natured according to Su Shih +5. There is no Mortal who is Purely Moral +6. There is no Mortal who is Non-moral or Purely Immoral +7. Where, then, does the Error Lie? +8, Man is not Good-natured nor Bad-natured, but Buddha natured +9. The Parable of the Robber Kih +10. Wang Yang Ming and a Thief +11. The Bad are the Good in the Egg +12. The Great Person and the Small Person +13. The Theory of Buddha-Nature adequately explains the Ethical +States of Man +14. Buddha-Nature is the Common Source of Morals +15. The Parable of a Drunkard +16. Shakya Muni and the Prodigal Son +17. The Parable of the Monk and the Stupid Woman +18. 'Each Smile a Hymn, each Kindly Word a Prayer' + +19. The World is in the Making +20. The Progress and Hope of Life +21. The Betterment of Life +22. The Buddha of Mercy + + + +CHAPTER VI + + +ENLIGHTENMENT + + +1. Enlightenment is beyond Description and Analysis +2. Enlightenment Implies an Insight into the Nature of Self +3. The Irrationality of the Belief of Immortality +4. The Examination of the Notion of Self +5. Nature is the Mother of All Things +6. Real Self +7. The Awakening of the Innermost Wisdom +8. Zen is not Nihilistic +9. Zen and Idealism +10. Idealism is a Potent Medicine for Self -Created Mental Disease +11. Idealistic Scepticism concerning Objective Reality +12. Idealistic Scepticism concerning Religion and Morality +13. An Illusion concerning Appearance and Reality +14. Where does the Root of the Illusion Lie? +15. Thing-in-Itself means Thing-Knowerless +16. The Four Alternatives and the Five Categories +17. Personalism of B. P. Bowne +18. All the Worlds in Ten Directions are Buddha's Holy Land + + + +CHAPTER VII + + +LIFE + + +1. Epicureanism and Life +2. The Errors of Philosophical Pessimists and Religious Optimists +3. The Law of Balance +4. Life Consists in Conflict +5. The Mystery of Life +6. Nature favours Nothing in Particular +7. The Law of Balance in Life +8. The Application of the Law of Causation to Morals +9. The Retribution in the Past, the Present, and the Future Life +10. The Eternal Life as taught by Professor M?nsterberg +11. Life in the Concrete +12. Difficulties are no Match for an Optimist +13. Do Thy Best and Leave the Rest to Providence + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + +THE TRAINING OF THE MIND AND THE PRACTICE OF MEDITATION + + +1. The Method of Instruction adopted by Zen Masters +2. The First Step in the Mental Training +3. The Next Step in the Mental Training +4. The Third Step in the Mental Training +5. Zazen, or the Sitting in Meditation +6. The Breathing Exercise of the Yogi +7. Calmness of Mind +8. Zazen and the Forgetting of Self +9. Zen and Supernatural Power +10. True Dhyana +11. Let Go of Your Idle Thoughts +12. 'The Five Ranks of Merit' +13. 'The Ten Pictures of the Cowherd' +14. Zen and Nirvana +15. Nature and Her Lesson +16. The Beatitude of Zen + + + +APPENDIX + + +ORIGIN OF MAN + + + +PREFACE + + + +INTRODUCTION + + + +CHAPTER I + + +REFUTATION OF DELUSIVE AND PREJUDICED (DOCTRINE) + + + +CHAPTER II + + +REFUTATION OF INCOMPLETE AND SUPERFICIAL (DOCTRINE) + + +1. The Doctrine for Men and Devas +2. The Doctrine of the Hinayanists +3. The Mahayana Doctrine of Dharmalaksana +4. Mahayana Doctrine of the Nihilists + + + +CHAPTER III + + +THE DIRECT EXPLANATION OF THE REAL ORIGIN + + +5. The Ekayana Doctrine that Teaches the Ultimate Reality + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +RECONCILIATION OF THE TEMPORARY WITH THE REAL DOCTRINE + + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Buddhism is geographically divided into two schools[FN#1]--the +Southern, the older and simpler, and the Northern, the later and more +developed faith. The former, based mainly on the Pali texts[FN#2] is +known as Hinayana[FN#3] (small vehicle), or the inferior doctrine; +while the latter, based on the various Sanskrit texts,[4] is known as +Mahayana (large vehicle), or superior doctrine. The chief tenets of +the Southern School are so well known to occidental scholars that +they almost always mean the Southern School by the word Buddhism. +But with regard to the Northern School very little is known to the +West, owing to the fact that most of its original texts were lost, +and that the teachings based on these texts are written in Chinese, +or Tibetan, or Japanese languages unfamiliar to non-Buddhist +investigators. + + +[FN#1] The Southern School has its adherents in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, +Anan, etc.; while the Northern School is found in Nepal, China, +Japan, Tibet, etc. + +[FN#2] They chiefly consist of the Four Nikayas: (1) Digha Nikaya +(Dirghagamas, translated into Chinese by Buddhaya?as, A.D. 412-413); +(2) Majjhima Nikaya (Madhyamagamas, translated into Chinese by +Gautama Sanghadeva, A.D. 397-398); (3) Sanyutta Nikaya +(Samyuktagamas, translated into Chinese by Gunabhadra, of the earlier +Sung dynasty, A.D. 420 479); (4) Anguttara Nikaya (Ekottaragamas, +translated into Chinese by Dharmanandi, A.D. 384-385). Out of these +Hinayana books, the English translation of twenty-three suttas by +Rhys Davids exist in 'Sacred Books of Buddhist,' vols. ii.-iii., and +of seven suttas by the same author in 'Sacred Books of the East,' +vol. xi. + +[FN#3] The Southern Buddhists never call their faith Hinayana, the +name being an invention of later Buddhists, who call their doctrine +Mahayana in contradistinction to the earlier form of Buddhism. We +have to notice that the word Hinayana frequently occurs in Mahayana +books, while it does not in Hinayana books. + +[FN#4] A catalogue of the Buddhist Canon, K'-yuen-luh, gives the +titles of 897 Mahayana sutras, yet the most important books often +quoted by Northern Buddhist teachers amount to little more than +twenty. There exist the English translation of Larger +Sukhavati-vyuha-sutra, Smaller Sukhavati-vyuha-sutra, +Vajracchedika-sutra, Larger Prajna-paramita-hradya-sutra, Smaller +Prajna-paramita-hrdaya-sutra, by Max M?ller, and +Amitayur-dhyana-sutra, by J. Takakusu, in 'Sacred Books of the East,' +vol. xlix. An English translation of Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, by +Kern, is given in 'Sacred Books of the East,' Vol. xxi. Compare +these books with 'Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism,' by D. Suzuki. + + +It is hardly justifiable to cover the whole system of Buddhism with a +single epithet[FN#5] 'pessimistic' or 'nihilistic,' because Buddhism, +having been adopted by savage tribes as well as civilized nations, by +quiet, enervated people as well as by warlike, sturdy hordes, during +some twenty-five hundred years, has developed itself into beliefs +widely divergent and even diametrically opposed. Even in Japan alone +it has differentiated itself into thirteen main sects and forty-four +sub-sects[FN#6] and is still in full vigour, though in other +countries it has already passed its prime. Thus Japan seems to be +the best representative of the Buddhist countries where the majority +of people abides by the guiding principle of the Northern School. To +study her religion, therefore, is to penetrate into Mahayanism, which +still lies an unexplored land for the Western minds. And to +investigate her faith is not to dig out the remains of Buddhist faith +that existed twenty centuries ago, but to touch the heart and soul of +Mahayanism that enlivens its devotees at the present moment. + + +[FN#5] Hinayanism is, generally speaking, inclined to be +pessimistic, but Mahayanism in the main holds the optimistic view of +life. Nihilism is advocated in some Mahayana sutras, but others set +forth idealism or realism. + +[FN#6] (1) The Ten Dai Sect, including three sub-sects; (2) The Shin +Gon Sect, including eleven sub-sects; (3) The Ritsu Sect; (4) The Rin +Zai Sect, including fourteen sub-sects; (5) The So To Sect; (6) The O +Baku Sect; (7) The Jo Do Sect, including two sub-sects; (8) The Shin +Sect, including ten sub-sects; (9) The Nichi Ren Sect, including nine +sub-sects; (10) The Yu Zu Nen Butsu Sect; (11) The Hosso Sect; (12) +The Ke Gon Sect; (13) The Ji Sect. Out of these thirteen Buddhist +sects, Rin Zai, So To, and O Baku belong to Zen. For further +information, see 'A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist +Sects,' by Dr. B. Nanjo. + + +The object of this little book is to show how the Mahayanistic view +of life and of the world differs markedly from that of Hinayanism, +which is generally taken as Buddhism by occidentals, to explain how +the religion of Buddha has adapted itself to its environment in the +Far East, and also to throw light on the existing state of the +spiritual life of modern Japan. + +For this purpose we have singled out of thirteen Japanese sects the +Zen Sect, [FN#7] not only because of the great influence it has +exercised on the nation, but because of the unique position it holds +among the established religious systems of the world. In the first +place, it is as old as Buddhism itself, or even older, for its mode +of practising Meditation has been handed down without much alteration +from pre-Buddhistic recluses of India; and it may, on that account, +provide the student of comparative religion with an interesting +subject for his research. + + +[FN#7] The word Zen is the Sinico-Japanese abbreviation of the +Sanskrit Dhyana, or Meditation. It implies the whole body of +teachings and discipline peculiar to a Buddhist sect now popularly +known as the Zen Sect. + + +In the second place, in spite of its historical antiquity, ideas +entertained by its advocates are so new that they are in harmony with +those of the New Buddhists;[FN#8] accordingly the statement of these +ideas may serve as an explanation of the present movement conducted +by young and able reformers of Japanese Buddhism. + + +[FN#8] There exists a society formed by men who have broken with the +old creeds of Buddhism, and who call themselves the New Buddhists. +It has for its organ 'The New Buddhism,' and is one of the +influential religious societies in Japan. We mean by the New +Buddhists, however, numerous educated young men who still adhere to +Buddhist sects, and are carrying out a reformation. + + +Thirdly, Buddhist denominations, like non-Buddhist religions, lay +stress on scriptural authority; but Zen denounces it on the ground +that words or characters can never adequately express religious +truth, which can only be realized by mind; consequently it claims +that the religious truth attained by Shakya Muni in his Enlightenment +has been handed down neither by word of mouth nor by the letters of +scriptures, but from teacher's mind to disciple's through the line of +transmission until the present day. It is an isolated instance in +the whole history of the world's religions that holy scriptures are +declared to be 'no more than waste[FN#9] paper by religionists, as +done by Zen masters. + + +[FN#9] Lin Tsi Luh (Rin-zai-roku). + + +Fourthly, Buddhist as well as non-Buddhist religions regard, without +exception, their founders as superhuman beings, but the practisers of +Zen hold the Buddha as their predecessor, whose spiritual level they +confidently aim to attain. Furthermore, they liken one who remains +in the exalted position of Buddhaship to a man bound by a gold chain, +and pity his state of bondage. Some of them went even so far as to +declare Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to be their servants and +slaves.[FN#10] Such an attitude of religionists can hardly be found +in any other religion. + + +[FN#10] "Shakya and Maitreya," says Go So, "are servants to the +other person. Who is that other person?" (Zen-rin-rui-ju, Vol. i., +p. 28). + + +Fifthly, although non-Buddhist people are used to call Buddhism +idolatry, yet Zen can never be called so in the accepted sense of the +term, because it, having a grand conception of Deity, is far from +being a form of idol-worship; nay, it sometimes even took an +iconoclastic attitude as is exemplified by Tan Hia, [FN#11] who +warmed himself on a cold morning by making a fire of wooden statues. +Therefore our exposition on this point will show the real state of +existing Buddhism, and serve to remove religious prejudices +entertained against it. + + +[FN#11] A Chinese Zen teacher, well known for his peculiarities, who +died in A.D. 824. For the details of this anecdote, see +Zen-rin-rui-ju, Vol. i., P. 39. + + +Sixthly, there is another characteristic of Zen, which cannot be +found in any other religion-that is to say, its peculiar mode of +expressing profound religious insight by such actions as the lifting +up of a hair-brush, or by the tapping of the chair with a staff, or +by a loud outcry, and so forth. This will give the student of +religion a striking illustration of differentiated forms of religion +in its scale of evolution. + +Besides these characteristics, Zen is noted for its physical and +mental training. That the daily practice of Zazen[FN#12] and the +breathing exercise remarkably improves one's physical condition is an +established fact. And history proves that most Zen masters enjoyed a +long life in spite of their extremely simple mode of living. Its +mental discipline, however, is by far more fruitful, and keeps one's +mind in equipoise, making one neither passionate nor dispassionate, +neither sentimental nor unintelligent, neither nervous nor senseless. + It is well known as a cure to all sorts of mental disease, +occasioned by nervous disturbance, as a nourishment to the fatigued +brain, and also as a stimulus to torpor and sloth. It is +self-control, as it is the subduing of such pernicious passions as +anger, jealousy, hatred, and the like, and the awakening of noble +emotions such as sympathy, mercy, generosity, and what not. It is a +mode of Enlightenment, as it is the dispelling of illusion and of +doubt, and at the same time it is the overcoming of egoism, the +destroying of mean desires, the uplifting of the moral ideal, and the +disclosing of inborn wisdom. + + +[FN#12] The sitting-in-meditation, for the full explanation of which +see Chapter VIII. + + +The historical importance of Zen can hardly be exaggerated. After +its introduction into China in the sixth century, A.D., it grew +ascendant through the Sui (598-617) and the Tang dynasty (618-906), +and enjoyed greater popularity than any other sect of Buddhism during +the whole period of the Sung (976-1126) and the Southern Sung dynasty +(1127-1367). In these times its commanding influence became so +irresistible that Confucianism, assimilating the Buddhist teachings, +especially those of Zen, into itself and changing its entire aspect, +brought forth the so-called Speculative philosophy.[FN#13] And in +the Ming dynasty (1368-1659) the principal doctrines of Zen were +adopted by a celebrated Confucian scholar, Wang Yang Ming,[FN#14] who +thereby founded a school, through which Zen exercised profound +influence on Chinese and Japanese men of letters, statesmen, and +soldiers. + +As regards Japan, it was first introduced into the island as the +faith first for the Samurai or the military class, and moulded the +characters of many distinguished soldiers whose lives adorn the pages +of her history. Afterwards it gradually found its way to palaces as +well as to cottages through literature and art, and at last permeated +through every fibre of the national life. It is Zen that modern +Japan, especially after the Russo-Japanese War, has acknowledged as +an ideal doctrine for her rising generation. + + +[FN#13] See 'A History of Chinese Philosophy,' by Ryukichi Endo, and +A History of Chinese Philosophy,' by Giichi Nakauchi. + +[FN#14] For the life of this distinguished scholar and soldier +(1472-1529), see 'A Detailed Life of O Yo Mei’ by Takejiro Takase, and +also 'O-yo-mei-shutsu-shin-sei-ran-roku.' + + + + + +CHAPTER I + + + +HISTORY OF ZEN IN CHINA + + +1. Origin of Zen in India. + +To-day Zen as a living faith can be found in its pure form only among +the Japanese Buddhists. You cannot find it in the so-called Gospel +of Buddha anymore than you can find Unitarianism in the Pentateuch, +nor can you find it in China and India any more than you can find +life in fossils of bygone ages. It is beyond all doubt that it can +be traced back to Shakya Muni himself, nay, even to pre-Buddhistic +times, because Brahmanic teachers practised Dhyana, or +Meditation,[FN#15] from earliest times. + + +[FN#15] "If a wise man hold his body with its three parts (chest, +neck, and head) erect, and turn his senses with the mind towards the +heart, he will then in the boat of Brahman cross all the torrents +which cause fear. + +"Compressing his breathings let him, who has subdued all motions, +breathe forth through the nose with the gentle breath. Let the wise +man without fail restrain his mind, that chariot yoked with vicious +horses. + +"Let him perform his exercises in a place level, pure, free from +pebbles, fire, and dust, delightful by its sounds, its water, and +bowers; not painful to the eye, and full of shelters and eaves. + +"When Yoga, is being performed, the forms which come first, producing +apparitions in Brahman, are those of misty smoke, sun, fire, wind, +fire-flies, lightnings, and a crystal moon. + +"When, as earth, water, light, heat, and ether arises, the fivefold +quality of Yoga takes place, then there is no longer illness, old +age, or pain for him who has obtained a body produced by the fire of +Yoga. + +The first results of Yoga they call lightness, healthiness, +steadiness, a good complexion, an easy pronunciation, a sweet odour, +and slight excretions "(Cvet. Upanisad, ii. 8-13). + +"When the five instruments of knowledge stand still together with the +mind, and when the intellect does not move, that is called the +highest state. + +"This, the firm holding back of the senses, is what is called Yoga. +He must be free from thoughtlessness then, for Yoga comes and goes" +(Katha Upanisad, ii. 10, 11). + +"This is the rule for achieving it (viz., concentration of the mind +on the object of meditation): restraint of the breath, restraint of +the senses, meditation, fixed attention, investigation, +absorption-these are called the sixfold Yoga. When beholding by this +Yoga, be beholds the gold-coloured maker, the lord, the person, +Brahman, the cause; then the sage, leaving behind good and evil, +makes everything (breath, organs of sense, body, etc.) to be one in +the Highest Indestructible (in the pratyagatman or Brahman) " (Maitr. +Upanisad, vi. 18). + +"And thus it has been elsewhere: There is the superior fixed +attention (dharana) for him-viz., if he presses the tip of the tongue +down the palate, and restrain the voice, mind, and breath, he sees +Brahman by discrimination (taraka). And when, after the cessation of +mind, he sees his own Self, smaller than small, and shining as the +Highest Self, then, having seen his Self as the Self, he becomes +Self-less, and because he is Self-less, he is without limit, without +cause, absorbed in thought. This is the highest mystery--viz., final +liberation " (Maitr. Upanisad, vi. 20). + +Amrtab. Upanisad, 18, describes three modes of sitting-namely, the +Lotus-seat (Padmasana), the sitting with legs bent underneath; the +mystic diagram seat (Svastika); and the auspicious-seat +(Bhadrasana);--while Yogacikha directs the choice of the +Lotus-posture, with attention concentrated on the tip of the nose, +hands and feet closely joined. + + +But Brahmanic Zen was carefully distinguished even by early +Buddhists[FN#16] as the heterodox Zen from that taught by the Buddha. + Our Zen originated in the Enlightenment of Shakya Muni, which took +place in his thirtieth year, when he was sitting absorbed in profound +meditation under the Bodhi Tree. + + +[FN#16] The anonymous author of Lankavatara-sutra distinguishes the +heterodox Zen from the Hinayana Zen, the Hinayana Zen from the +Mahayana Zen, and calls the last by the name of the Buddha's Holy +Zen. The sutra is believed by many Buddhists, not without reason, to +be the exposition of that Mahayana doctrine which Acvaghosa restated +in his Craddhotpada-castra. The sutra was translated, first, into +Chinese by Gunabbadra, in A.D. 443; secondly, by Bodhiruci in A.D. +513; and, thirdly, by Ciksanada in A.D. 700-704. The book is famous +for its prophecy about Nagdrajuna, which (according to Dr. Nanjo's +translation) is as follows: + +"After the Nirvana of the Tathagata, +There will be a man in the future, +Listen to me carefully, O Mahatma, +A man who will hold my law. +In the great country of South, +There will be a venerable Bhiksu +The Bodhisattva Nagarjuna by name, +Who will destroy the views of Astikas and Nastikas, +Who will preach unto men my Yana, +The highest Law of the Mahayana, +And will attain to the Pramudita-bhumi." + + +It is said that then he awoke to the perfect truth and declared: "All +animated and inanimate beings are Enlightened at the same time." +According to the tradition[FN#17] of this sect Shakya Muni +transmitted his mysterious doctrine from mind to mind to his oldest +disciple Mahakacyapa at the assembly hold on the Mount of Holy +Vulture, and the latter was acknowledged as the first patriarch, who, +in turn, transmitted the doctrine to Ananda, the second patriarch, +and so till Bodhidharma, the twenty-eighth[FN#18] patriarch. We have +little to say about the historical value of this tradition, but it is +worth while to note that the list of the names of these twenty-eight +patriarchs contains many eminent scholars of Mahayanism, or the later +developed school of Buddhism, such as Acvaghosa,[FN#19] +Nagarjuna,[FN#20] Kanadeva,[FN#21] and Vasubhandhu.[FN#22] + + +[FN#17] The incident is related as follows: When the Buddha was at +the assembly on the Mount of Holy Vulture, there came a Brahmaraja +who offered the Teacher a golden flower, and asked him to preach the +Dharma. The Buddha took the flower and held it aloft in his hand, +gazing at it in perfect silence. None in the assembly could +understand what he meant, except the venerable Mahakacyapa, who +smiled at the Teacher. Then the Buddha said: "I have the Eye and +Treasury of Good Dharma, Nirvana, the Wonderful Spirit, which I now +hand over to Mahakacyapa." The book in which this incident is +described is entitled 'Sutra on the Great Brahman King's Questioning +Buddha to Dispel a Doubt,' but there exists no original text nor any +Chinese translation in the Tripitaka. It is highly probable that +some early Chinese Zen scholar of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1126) +fabricated the tradition, because Wang Ngan Shih (O-an-seki), a +powerful Minister under the Emperor Shan Tsung (Shin-so, A.D. +1068-1085), is said to have seen the book in the Imperial Library. +There is, however, no evidence, as far as we know, pointing to the +existence of the Sutra in China. In Japan there exists, in a form of +manuscript, two different translations of that book, kept in secret +veneration by some Zen masters, which have been proved to be +fictitious by the present writer after his close examination of the +contents. See the Appendix to his Zen-gaku-hi-han-ron. + +[FN#18] The following is the list of the names of the twenty-eight +patriarchs: + +1. Mahakacyapa. +2. Ananda. +3. Canavasu. +4. Upagupta. +5. Dhrtaka. +6. Micchaka. +7. Vasumitra. +8. Buddhanandi. +9. Buddhamitra. +10. Parcva. +11. Punyayacas. +12. Acvaghosa. +13. Kapimala. +14. Nagarjuna. +15. Kanadeva. +16. Rahulata. +17. Samghanandi. +18. Samghayacas. +19. Kumarata. +20. Jayata. +21. Vasubandhu. +22. Manura. +23. Haklanayacas. +24. Simha. +25. Vacasuta. +26. Punyamitra. +27. Prajnyatara. +28. Bodhidharma. + +The first twenty-three patriarchs are exactly the same as those given +in 'The Sutra on the Nidana of transmitting Dharmapitaka,' translated +in A.D. 472. King Teh Chwen Tang Iuh (Kei-toku-den-to-roku), a +famous Zen history of China, gives two elaborate narratives about the +transmission of Right Dharma from teacher to disciple through these +twenty-eight patriarchs, to be trusted without hesitation. It would +not be difficult for any scholar of sense to find these statements +were made from the same motive as that of the anonymous author who +gives a short life, in Dirghagama-sutra, of each of the six Buddhas, +the predecessors of Shakya Muni, if he carefully compare the list +given above with the lists of the patriarchs of the Sarvastivada +school given by San Yin (So-yu died A.D. 518) in his Chuh San Tsung +Ki (Shutsu-san zo-ki). + +[FN#19] One of the founders of Mahayana Buddhism, who flourished in +the first century A.D. There exists a life of his translated into +Chinese by Kumarajiva in A.D. 401-409. The most important of his +works are: Mahayanacraddhotpada-castra, Mahalankara-sutra-castra, +Buddha-caritakavya. + +[FN#20] The founder of the Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism, +who lived in the second century A.D. A life of his was translated +into Chinese by Kumarajiva in A.D. 401-409. Twenty-four books are +ascribed to him, of which Mahaprajñaparamita-castra, Madhyamika-castra, +Prajnyadipa-castra, Dvadacanikaya-castra, Astadacakaca-castra, are +well known. + +[FN#21] Sometimes called Aryadeva, a successor of Nagarjuna. A life +of his was translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva in A.D. 401-409. +The following are his important works: Cata-castra, 'Castra by the +Bodhisattva Deva on the refutation of four heretical Hinayana schools +mentioned in the Lankatvatara-sutra'; 'Castra by the Bodhisattva Deva +on the explanation of the Nirvana by twenty Hinayana teachers +mentioned in the Lankavatara-sutra.' + +[FN#22] A younger brother of Asamga, a famous Mahayanist of the +fifth century A.D. There are thirty-six works ascribed to +Vasubandhu, of which Dacabhumika-castra, Aparimitayus-sutra-castra, +Mahapari-nirvana-sutra-castra, Mahayana-catadharmavidyadvara-castra, +Vidya-matrasiddhi-tridaca-castra, Bodhicittopadana-castra, +Buddha-gotra-castra, Vidyamatrasiddhivincatigatha-castra, +Madhyantavibhaga-castra, Abhidharma-koca-castra, Tarka-castra, etc., +are well known. + + + +2. Introduction of Zen into China by Bodhidharma. + +An epoch-making event took place in the Buddhist history of China by +Bodhidharma's coming over from Southern India to that country in +about A.D. 520.[FN#23] It was the introduction, not of the dead +scriptures, as was repeatedly done before him, but of a living faith, +not of any theoretical doctrine, but of practical Enlightenment, not +of the relies of Buddha, but of the Spirit of Shakya Muni; so that +Bodhidharma's position as a representative of Zen was unique. He +was, however, not a missionary to be favourably received by the +public. He seems to have behaved in a way quite opposite to that in +which a modern pastor treats his flock. We imagine him to have been +a religious teacher entirely different in every point from a popular +Christian missionary of our age. The latter would smile or try to +smile at every face he happens to see and would talk sociably; while +the former would not smile at any face, but would stare at it with +the large glaring eyes that penetrated to the innermost soul. The +latter would keep himself scrupulously clean, shaving, combing, +brushing, polishing, oiling, perfuming, while the former would be +entirely indifferent to his apparel, being always clad in a faded +yellow robe. The latter would compose his sermon with a great care, +making use of rhetorical art, and speak with force and elegance; +while the former would sit as absolutely silent as the bear, and kick +one off, if one should approach him with idle questions. + + +[FN#23] Buddhist historians differ in opinion respecting the date of +Bodhidharma's appearance in China. Compare Chwen Fah Chan Tsung Lun +(Den bo sho ju ron) and Hwui Yuen (E-gen). + + + +3. Bodhidharma and the Emperor Wu. + +No sooner had Bodhidharma landed at Kwang Cheu in Southern China than +he was invited by the Emperor[FN#24] Wu, who was an enthusiastic +Buddhist and good scholar, to proceed to his capital of Chin Liang. +When he was received in audience, His Majesty asked him: "We have +built temples, copied holy scriptures, ordered monks and nuns to be +converted. Is there any merit, Reverend Sir, in our conduct?" The +royal host, in all probability, expected a smooth, flattering answer +from the lips of his new guest, extolling his virtues, and promising +him heavenly rewards, but the Blue-eyed Brahmin bluntly answered: "No +merit at all." +This unexpected reply must have put the Emperor to shame and doubt in +no small degree, who was informed simply of the doctrines of the +orthodox Buddhist sects. 'Why not,' he might have thought within +himself, 'why all this is futile? By what authority does he declare +all this meritless? What holy text can be quoted to justify his +assertion? What is his view in reference to the different doctrines +taught by Shakya Muni? What does he hold as the first principle of +Buddhism?' Thus thinking, he inquired: "What is the holy truth, or +the first principle?" The answer was no less astonishing: "That +principle transcends all. There is nothing holy." + + +[FN#24] The Emperor Wu (Bu-Tei) of the Liang dynasty, whose reign +was A.D. 502-549.] + + +The crowned creature was completely at a loss to see what the teacher +meant. Perhaps he might have thought: 'Why is nothing holy? Are +there not holy men, Holy Truths, Holy Paths stated in the scriptures? + Is he himself not one of the holy men?' "Then who is that confronts +us?" asked the monarch again. "I know not, your majesty," was the +laconic reply of Bodhidharma, who now saw that his new faith was +beyond the understanding of the Emperor. + +The elephant can hardly keep company with rabbits. The petty +orthodoxy can by no means keep pace with the elephantine stride of +Zen. No wonder that Bodhidharma left not only the palace of the +Emperor Wu, but also the State of Liang, and went to the State of +Northern Wei.[FN#25] There he spent nine years in the Shao +Lin[FN#26] Monastery, mostly sitting silent in meditation with his +face to the wall, and earned for himself the appellation of 'the +wall-gazing Brahmin.' This name itself suggests that the +significance of his mission was not appreciated by his +contemporaries. But neither he was nor they were to blame, because +the lion's importance is appreciated only by the lion. A great +personage is no less great because of his unpopularity among his +fellow men, just as the great Pang[FN#27] is no less great because of +his unpopularity among the winged creatures. Bodhidharma was not +popular to the degree that he was envied by his contemporary +Buddhists, who, as we are told by his biographers, attempted to +poison him three times,[FN#28] but without success. + + +[FN#25] Northern Gi dynasty (A.D. 386-534). + +[FN#26] Sho-rin-ji, erected by the Emperor Hiao Ming of Northern Wei +A.D. 497. + +[FN#27] Chwang-tsz in his famous parable compares a great sage with +the Pang, an imaginary bird of enormous size, with its wings of +ninety thousand miles. The bird is laughed at by wrens and sparrows +because of its excessive size. + +[FN#28] This reminds us of Nan Yoh Hwui Sz (Nan-gaku-e-shi, died +A.D. 577), who is said to have learned Zen under Bodhidharma. He says +in his statement of a vow that he was poisoned three times by those +who envied him. + + + +4. Bodhidharma and his Successor the Second Patriarch. + +China was not, however, an uncultivated[FN#29] land for the seed of +Zen--nay, there had been many practisers of Zen before Bodhidharma. + + +[FN#29] The translation of Hinayana Zen sutras first paved the way +for our faith. Fourteen Zen sutras, including such important books +as Mahanapanadhyana-sutra, Dhyanacarya-dharmasanyjnya-sutra, +Dhyanacarya-saptatrimcadvarga-sutra, were translated by Ngan Shi Kao +(An-sei-ko) as early as A.D. 148-170. Cullamargabhumi-sutra was +translated by K' Yao (Shi-yo) in A.D. 185; Dharmatara-dhyana-sutra by +Buddhabhadra in A.D. 398-421; +Dhyananisthitasamadhi-dharma-parygya-sutra by Kumarajiva in A.D. 402; +'An Abridged Law on the Importance of Meditation' by Kumarajiva in +A.D. 405; Pancadvara-dhyanasutra-maharthadharma by Dharmamitra in +A.D. 424-441. Furthermore, Mahayana books closely related to the +doctrine of Zen were not unknown to China before Bodhidharma. +Pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhavasthita-samadhi was translated by K' Leu +Cia Chan (Shi-ru-ga-sen) in A.D. 164-186; Vimalakirttinirdeca-sutra, +which is much used in Zen, by Kumarajiva in A.D. 384-412; +Lankavatara-sutra, which is said to have been pointed out by +Bodhidharma as the best explanation of Zen, by Gunabhadra in A.D. +433; Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, in its complete form, by Kumarajiva +in A.D. 406; Avatamsaka-sutra by Buddhabhadra in A.D. 418; +Mahaparinirvana-sutra by Dharmaraksa in A.D. 423. + +If we are not mistaken, Kumarajiva, who came to China A.D. 384, made +a valuable contribution towards the foundation of Zen in that +country, not merely through his translation of Zen sutras above +mentioned, but by the education of his disciples, such as Sang Chao +(So-jo, died A.D. 414), Sang Shang (So-sho, whose writings +undoubtedly influenced later Zen teachers. A more important +personage in the history of Zen previous to the Blue-eyed Brahmin is +Buddhabhadra, a well-known Zen master, who came over to China A.D. +406. His translation of Dharmatara-dhyana-sutra (which is said to +have been preached by Bodhidharma himself when he was in India) and +that of Avatamsaka-sutra may be said without exaggeration to have +laid the corner-stone for Zen. He gave a course of lectures on the +Zen sutra for the first time in China in A.D. 413, and it was through +his instruction that many native practisers of Zen were produced, of +whom Chi Yen (Chi-gon) and Huen Kao (Gen-ko) are well known. In +these days Zen should have been in the ascendant in India, because +almost all Indian scholars-at least those known to us-were called Zen +teachers-for instance, Buddhabhadra, Buddhasena, Dharmadhi, and some +others were all Zen scholars. + +Chinese Buddhist scholars did no less than Indian teachers toward the +uprising of Zen. The foremost among them is Hwui Yuen (E-on, died +A.D. 414), who practised Zen by the instruction of Buddhabhadra. He +founded the Society of the White Lotus, which comprised eighteen +eminent scholars of the age among its members, for the purpose of +practising Meditation and of adoring Buddha Amitabha. We must not +forget that during the Western and the Eastern Tsin (Shin) dynasties +(A.D. 265-420) both Taoism and Buddhism grew prosperous to no small +extent. And China produced, on the one hand, Taoists of an eccentric +type, such as the Seven Wise Men of the Bamboo Forest, while she gave +birth to many recluse-like men of letters, such as Tao Yuen Ming +(To-yen-mei, died A.D. 427) and some others on the other. Besides +there were some scholars who studied Buddhism in connection with +Taoism and Confucianism, and led a secluded life. To the last class +of scholars belonged Chwen Hih (Hu dai shi), known as Chwen the +Great. He is said to have been accustomed to wear a Confucianist +hat, a Buddhist robe, and Taoist shoes. It was in A.D. 534 that he +presented a memorial to the Emperor Wu, in which he explained the +three grades of good. "The Highest Good consists," says he, "in the +emptiness of mind and non-attachment. Transcendence is its cause, +and Nirvana is its result. The Middle Good consists in morality and +good administration. It results in a peaceful and happy life in +Heaven and in Earth. The Lowest Good consists in love and protection +of sentient beings." Thus his idea of good, as the reader will see +without difficulty, is the result of a compromise of Taoism and +Buddhism. Sin Wang Ming (Sin-o-mei, On the Mind-King), one of his +masterpieces, together with other minor poems, are still used as a +textbook of Zen. This fact unmistakably proves that Taoist element +found its way into the constituents of Zen from its very outset in +China. + + +All that he had to do was to wait for an earnest seeker after the +spirit of Shakya Muni. Therefore he waited, and waited not in vain, +for at last there came a learned Confucianist, Shang Kwang (Shin-ko) +by name, for the purpose of finding the final solution of a problem +which troubled him so much that he had become dissatisfied with +Confucianism, as it had no proper diet for his now spiritual hunger. +Thus Shang Kwang was far from being one of those half-hearted +visitors who knocked the door of Bodhidharma only for the sake of +curiosity. But the silent master was cautious enough to try the +sincerity of a new visitor before admitting him to the Meditation +Hall. According to a biography[FN#30] of his, Shang Kwang was not +allowed to enter the temple, and had to stand in the courtyard +covered deep with snow. His firm resolution and earnest desire, +however, kept him standing continually on one spot for seven days and +nights with beads of the frozen drops of tears on his breast. At +last he cut off his left arm with a sharp knife, and presented it +before the inflexible teacher to show his resolution to follow the +master even at the risk of his life. Thereupon Bodhidharma admitted +him into the order as a disciple fully qualified to be instructed in +the highest doctrine of Mahayanism. + + +[FN#30] King Teh Chwen Tang Luh (Kei-toku-den-to-roku), published by +Tao Yuen (Do-gen) A.D. 1004, gives a detailed narrative concerning +this incident as stated here, but earlier historians tell us a +different story about the mutilation of Shang Kwang's arm. Compare +Suh Kas San Chwen (Zoku-ko-so-den) and Hwui Yuen (E-gen). + + +Our master's method of instruction was entirely different from that +of ordinary instructors of learning. He would not explain any +problem to the learner, but simply help him to get enlightened by +putting him an abrupt but telling question. Shang Kwang, for +instance, said to Bodhidharma, perhaps with a sigh: "I have no peace +of mind. Might I ask you, sir, to pacify my mind?" "Bring out your +mind (that troubles you so much)," replied the master, "here before +me! I shall pacify it." "It is impossible for me," said the +disciple, after a little consideration, "to seek out my mind (that +troubles me so much)." "Then," exclaimed Bodhidharma, "I have +pacified your mind." Hereon Shang Kwang was instantly Enlightened. +This event is worthy of our notice, because such a mode of +instruction was adopted by all Zen teachers after the first +patriarch, and it became one of the characteristics of Zen. + + + +5. Bodhidharma's Disciples and the Transmission of the Law.[FN#31] + + +[FN#31] For details, see Chwen Tang Luh and Den Ka Roku, by Kei Zan. + As for the life of Bodhidharma, Dr. B. Matsumoto's 'A Life of +Bodhidharma' may well be recommended to the reader. + + +Bodhidharma's labour of nine years in China resulted in the +initiation of a number of disciples, whom some time before his death +he addressed as follows: "Now the time (of my departure from this +world) is at hand. Say, one and all, how do you understand the Law?" + Tao Fu (Do-fuku) said in response to this: "The Law does not lie in +the letters (of the Scriptures), according to my view, nor is it +separated from them, but it works." The Master said: "Then you have +obtained my skin." Next Tsung Chi (So-ji), a nun, replied: "As +Ananda[FN#32] saw the kingdom of Aksobhya[FN#33] only once but not +twice, so I understand the Law". The master said: "Then you have +attained to my flesh." Then Tao Yuh (Do-iku) replied: "The four +elements[FN#34] are unreal from the first, nor are the five +aggregates[FN#35] really existent. All is emptiness according to my +view." The master said: "Then you have acquired my bone." Lastly, +Hwui Ko (E-ka), which was the Buddhist name given by Bodhidharma, to +Shang Kwang, made a polite bow to the teacher and stood in his place +without a word. "You have attained to my marrow." So saying, +Bodhidharma handed over the sacred Kachaya, [FN#36] which he had +brought from India to Hwui Ko, as a symbol of the transmission of the +Law, and created him the Second Patriarch. + + +[FN#32] A favourite disciple of Shakya Muni, and the Third Patriarch +of Zen. + +[FN#33] The: name means I Immovable,' and represents the firmness of +thought. + +[FN#34] Earth, water, fire, and air. + +[FN#35] (1) Rupa, or form; (2) Vedana, or perception; (3) Samjnya, +or consciousness; (4) Karman (or Samskara), or action; (5) Vijnyana, +or knowledge. + +[FN#36] The clerical cloak, which is said to have been dark green. +It became an object of great veneration after the Sixth Patriarch, +who abolished the patriarchal system and did not hand the symbol over +to successors. + + + +6. The Second and the Third Patriarchs. + +After the death of the First Patriarch, in A.D. 528, Hwui Ko did his +best to propagate the new faith over sixty years. On one occasion a +man suffering from some chronic disease called on him, and requested +him in earnest: "Pray, Reverend Sir, be my confessor and grant me +absolution, for I suffer long from an incurable disease." "Bring out +your sin (if there be such a thing as sin)," replied the Second +Patriarch, "here before me. I shall grant you absolution." "It is +impossible," said the man after a short consideration, "to seek out +my sin." "Then," exclaimed the master, "I have absolved you. +Henceforth live up to Buddha, Dharma, and Samgha."[FN#37] "I know, +your reverence," said the man, "that you belong to Samgha; but what +are Buddha and Dharma?" "Buddha is Mind itself. Mind itself is +Dharma. Buddha is identical with Dharma. So is Samgha." "Then I +understand," replied the man, "there is no such thing as sin within +my body nor without it, nor anywhere else. Mind is beyond and above +sin. It is no other than Buddha and Dharma." Thereupon the Second +Patriarch saw the man was well qualified to be taught in the new +faith, and converted him, giving him the name of Sang Tsung (So-san). + After two years' instruction and discipline, he[FN#38] bestowed on +Sang Tsung the Kachaya handed down from Bodhidharma, and authorized +him as the Third Patriarch. It is by Sang Tsung that the doctrine of +Zen was first reduced to writing by his composition of Sin Sin[FN#39] +Ming (Sin zin-mei, On Faith and Mind), a metrical exposition of the +faith. + + +[FN#37] The so-called Three Treasures of the Buddha, the Law, and +the Order. + +[FN#38] The Second Patriarch died in A.D. 593--that is, sixty-five +years after the departure of the First Patriarch. + +[FN#39] A good many commentaries were written on the book, and it is +considered as one of the best books on Zen. + + + +7. The Fourth Patriarch and the Emperor Tai Tsung (Tai-so). + +The Third[FN#40] Patriarch was succeeded by Tao Sin (Do-shin), who +being initiated at the age of fourteen, was created the Fourth +Patriarch after nine years' study and discipline. Tao Sin is said +never to have gone to bed for more than forty years of his +patriarchal career.[FN#41] In A.D. 643 the Emperor Tai Tsung +(627-649), knowing of his virtues, sent him a special messenger, +requesting him to call on His Majesty at the palace. But he declined +the invitation by a memorial, saying that be was too aged and infirm +to visit the august personage. The Emperor, desirous of seeing the +reputed patriarch, sent for him thrice, but in vain. Then the +enraged monarch ordered the messenger to behead the inflexible monk, +and bring the head before the throne, in case he should disobey the +order for the fourth time. As Tao Sin was told of the order of the +Emperor, he stretched out his neck ready to be decapitated. The +Emperor, learning from the messenger what had happened, admired all +the more the imperturbable patriarch, and bestowed rich gifts upon +him. This example of his was followed by later Zen masters, who +would not condescend to bend their knees before temporal power, and +it became one of the characteristics of Zen monks that they would +never approach rulers and statesmen for the sake of worldly fame and +profit, which they set at naught. + + +[FN#40] He died in A.D. 606, after his labour of thirteen years as +the teacher. + +[FN#41] He died in A.D. 651-that is, forty-five years after the +death of the Third Patriarch. + + + +8. The Fifth and the Sixth Patriarchs. + +Tao Sin transmitted the Law to Hung Jan (Ko-nin), who being educated +from infancy, distinguished himself as the Abbot of the Hwang Mei +Monastery at Ki Cheu. The Fifth Patriarch, according to his +biographer, gathered about him seven hundred pupils, who came from +all quarters. Of these seven hundred pupils the venerable Shang Sin +(Jin-shu) was most noted for his learning and virtues, and he might +have become the legitimate successor of Hung Jan, had not the Kachaya +of Bodhidharma been carried away by a poor farmer's son of Sin Cheu. +Hwui Nang, the Sixth Patriarch, seems to have been born a Zen +teacher. The spiritual light of Buddha first flashed in his mind +when he happened to hear a monk reciting a sutra. On questioning the +monk, be learned that the book was +Vajracchedika-prajnya-paramita-sutra,[FN#42] and that Hung Jan, the +Abbot of the Hwang Mei Monastery, was used to make his disciples +recite the book that it might help them in their spiritual +discipline. Hereupon he made up his mind to practise Zen, and called +on Hung Jan at the Monastery. "Who are you," demanded the Fifth +Patriarch, "and whence have you come?" "I am a son of the farmer," +replied the man, "of Sin Cheu in the South of Ta Yu Ling." "What has +brought you here?" asked the master again. "I have no other purpose +than to attain to Buddhahood," answered the man. "O, you, people of +the South," exclaimed the patriarch, "you are not endowed with the +nature of Buddha." "There may be some difference between the +Southern and the Northern people," objected the man, "but how could +you distinguish one from the other as to the nature of Buddha?" The +teacher recognized a genius in the man, but he did not admit the +promising newcomer into the order, so Hwui Nang had to stay in the +Monastery for eight months as a pounder of rice in order to qualify +himself to be a Zen teacher. + + +[FN#42] The book was translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva in A.D. +384. 417; also by Bodhiruci in A.D. 509, and by Paramartha in A.D. +592; then by Hiuen Tsang in A.D. 648. Many commentaries have been +written on it by the prominent Buddhist authors of China and Japan. + + + +9. The Spiritual Attainment of the Sixth Patriarch. + +Some time before his death (in 675 A.D.) the Fifth Patriarch +announced to all disciples that the Spirit of Shakya Muni is hard to +realize, that they should express their own views on it, on condition +that anyone who could prove his right realization should be given +with the Kachaya and created the Sixth Patriarch. Then the venerable +Sung Siu, the head of the seven hundred disciples, who was considered +by his brothers to be the man entitled to the honour, composed the +following verses: + +"The body is the Bodhi-tree.[FN#43] +The mind is like a mirror bright on its stand. +Dust it and wipe it from time to time, +Lest it be dimmed by dust and dirt." + + +[FN#43] The idea expressed by these lines is clear enough. Body is +likened to the Bodhi-tree, under which Shakya Muni attained to his +supreme enlightenment; for it is not in another body in the future +existence, but in this very body that one had to get enlightened. +And mind is pure and bright in its nature like a mirror, but the dirt +and dust of passions and of low desires often pollute and dim it. +Therefore one should dust and wipe it from time to time in order to +keep it bright. + + +All who read these lines thought that the writer was worthy of the +expected reward, and the Fifth Patriarch also, appreciating the +significance of the verses, said: "If men in the future would +practise Zen according to this view, they would acquire an excellent +result." Hwui Nang, the rice-pounder, hearing of them, however, +secretly remarked that they are beautiful, but hardly expressive of +the Spirit of Shakya Muni, and wrote his own verses, which ran as +follows: + +"There is no Bodhi-tree,[FN#44] +Nor is there a mirror stand. +Nothing exists from the first +What can be dimmed by dust and dirt?" + + +[FN#44] These verses have often been misunderstood as expressive of +a nihilistic view, but the real meaning is anything but nihilistic. +Mind is pure and bright in its essence. It is always free from +passions and mean desires, just as the sun is always bright, despite +of cloud and mist that cover its face. Therefore one must get an +insight into this essential nature of Mind, and realize that one has +no mean desires and passions from the first, and also that there is +no tree of Bodhi nor the mirror of Enlightenment without him, but +they are within him. + + +Perhaps nobody ever dreamed such an insignificant fellow as the +rice-pounder could surpass the venerable scholar in a religious +insight, but the Fifth Patriarch saw at once an Enlightened Soul +expressed in those lines; therefore he made up his mind to give the +Kachaya to the writer, in whom he found a great spiritual leader of +future generations. But he did it secretly at midnight, lest some of +the disciples from envy do violence to Hwui Nang. He was, moreover, +cautious enough to advise his successor to leave the Monastery at +once, and go back to the South, that the latter might conceal his +Enlightenment until a time would come for his missionary activities. + + + +10. Flight of the Sixth Patriarch. + +On the following morning the news of what had happened during the +night flew from mouth to mouth, and some of the enraged brothers +attempted to pursue the worthy fugitive. The foremost among them, +Hwui Ming (E-myo), overtook the Sixth Patriarch at a mountain pass +not very far from the Monastery. Then Hwui Nang, laying down the +Kachaya on a rock by the road, addressed the pursuer: "This is a mere +symbol of the patriarchal authority, and it is not a thing to be +obtained by force. Take it along with you, if you long for it." +Upon this Hwui Ming, who began to be ashamed of his base act, tried +to lift the Kachaya, but in vain, for it was, as he felt, as heavy as +the rock itself. At last he said to the Sixth Patriarch: "I have +come here, my brother, not for the sake of this robe, but for the +sake of the Law. Grant my hearty desire of getting Enlightened." +"If you have come for the Law," replied Hwui Nang, "you must put an +end to all your struggles and longings. Think neither of good nor of +evil (make your mind pure from all idle thoughts), then see how is, +Hwui Ming, your original (mental) physiognomy!" Being thus +questioned, Ming found in an instant the Divine Light of Buddha +within himself, and became a disciple of the Sixth Patriarch. + + + +11. The Development of the Southern and of the Northern School of Zen. + +After the death of the Fifth Patriarch the venerable Shang Siu, +though not the legitimate successor of his master, was not inactive +in the propagation of the faith, and gathered about him a number of +enthusiastic admirers. This led to the foundation of the Northern +school of Zen in opposition to the Southern school led by the Sixth +Patriarch. The Empress Tseh Tien Wa Heu,[FN#45] the real ruler of +China at that time, was an admirer of Shang Siu, and patronized his +school, which nevertheless made no further development. + + +[FN#45] The Emperor Chung Tsung (Chu-so, A.D. 684-704) was a nominal +sovereign, and the Empress was the real ruler from A.D. 684 to 705. + + +In the meanwhile the Sixth Patriarch, who had gone to the South, +arrived at the Fah Sing Monastery in Kwang Cheu, where Yin Tsung +(In-shu), the abbot, was giving lectures on the Mahayana sutras to a +number of student monks. It was towards evening that he happened to +overhear two monks of the Monastery discussing about the flag +floating in air. One of them said: "It is the wind that moves in +reality, but not the flag." "No," objected the other, "it is the +flag that moves in reality, but not the wind." Thus each of them +insisted on his own one-sided view, and came to no proper conclusion. + Then the Sixth Patriarch introduced himself and said to them: "It is +neither the wind nor the flag, but your mind that moves in reality." +Yin Tsung, having heard these words of the stranger, was greatly +astonished, and thought the latter should have been an extraordinary +personage. And when he found the man to be the Sixth Patriarch of +Zen, he and all his disciples decided to follow Zen under the master. + Consequently Hwui Nang, still clad like a layman, changed his +clothes, and began his patriarchal career at that Monastery. This is +the starting-point of the great development of Zen in China. + + + +12. Missionary Activity of the Sixth Patriarch. + +As we have seen above, the Sixth Patriarch was a great genius, and +may be justly called a born Zen teacher. He was a man of no +erudition, being a poor farmer, who had served under the Fifth +Patriarch as a rice-pounder only for eight months, but he could find +a new meaning in Buddhist terms, and show how to apply it to +practical life. On one occasion, for instance, Fah Tah (Ho-tatsu), a +monk who had read over the Saddharma-pundarika-sutra[FN#46] three +thousand times, visited him to be instructed in Zen. "Even if you +read the sutra ten thousand times," said the Sixth Patriarch, who +could never read the text, "it will do you no good, if you cannot +grasp the spirit of the sutra." "I have simply recited the book," +confessed the monk, "as it is written in characters. How could such +a dull fellow as I grasp its spirit?" "Then recite it once," +responded the master; "I shall explain its spirit." Hereupon Fah Tah +began to recite the sutra, and when he read it until the end of the +second chapter the teacher stopped him, saying: "You may stop there. +Now I know that this sutra was preached to show the so-called +greatest object of Shakya Muni's appearing on earth. That greatest +object was to have all sentient beings Enlightened just as He +Himself." In this way the Sixth Patriarch grasped the essentials of +the Mahayana sutras, and freely made use of them as the explanation +of the practical questions about Zen. + + +[FN#46] One of the most noted Mahayana sutras, translated by +Dharmaraksa (A.D. 286) and by Kumarajiva (A.D. 406). The reader has +to note that the author states the essential doctrine in the second +chapter. See " Sacred Books of the East," vol. xxi., pp. 30-59. + + + +13. The Disciples under the Sixth Patriarch. + +Some time after this the Sixth Patriarch settled himself down at the +Pao Lin Monastery, better known as Tsao Ki Shan (So-kei-zan), in Shao +Cheu, and it grow into a great centre of Zen in the Southern States. +Under his instruction many eminent Zen masters qualified themselves +as Leaders of the Three Worlds. He did not give the patriarchal +symbol, the Kachaya, to his successors, lest it might cause needless +quarrels among the brethren, as was experienced by himself. He only +gave sanction to his disciples who attained to Enlightenment, and +allowed them to teach Zen in a manner best suited to their own +personalities. For instance, Huen Kioh (Gen-kaku), a scholar of the +Tien Tai doctrine,[FN#47] well known as the Teacher of Yung +Kia[FN#48] (Yo-ka), received a sanction for his spiritual attainment +after exchanging a few words with the master in their first +interview, and was at once acknowledged as a Zen teacher. When he +reached the zenith of his fame, he was presented with a crystal bowl +together with rich gifts by the Empress Tseh Tien; and it was in A.D. +705 that the Emperor Chung Tsung invited him in vain to proceed to +the palace, since the latter followed the example of the Fourth +Patriarch. + + +[FN#47] The Teacher of Tien Tai (Ten-dai, A.D. 538-597), the founder +of the Buddhist sect of the same name, was a great scholar of +originality. His doctrine and criticism on the Tripitaka greatly +influenced the whole of Buddhism after him. His doctrine is briefly +given in the second chapter. + +[FN#48] His Ching Tao Ko (Sho-do-ka), a beautiful metrical +exposition of Zen, is still read by most students of Zen. + + +After the death[FN#49] of the Sixth Patriarch (A.D. 713), the +Southern Zen was divided into two schools, one being represented by +Tsing Yuen (Sei-gen), the other by Nan Yoh (Nan-gaku.) Out of these +two main schools soon developed the five[FN#50] branches of Zen, and +the faith made a splendid progress. After Tsing Yuen and Nan Yoh, +one of the junior disciples of the Sixth Patriarch, Hwui Chung +(E-chu), held an honourable position for sixteen years as the +spiritual adviser to the Emperor Suh Tsung (A.D. 756762) and to the +Emperor Tai Tsung (A.D. 763-779). These two Emperors were +enthusiastic admirers of Zen, and ordered several times the Kachaya +of Bodhidharma to be brought into the palace from the Pao Lin +Monastery that they might do proper homage to it. Within some one +hundred and thirty years after the Sixth Patriarch, Zen gained so +great influence among higher classes that at the time of the Emperor +Suen Tsung (A.D. 847-859) both the Emperor and his Prime Minister, +Pei Hiu, were noted for the practice of Zen. It may be said that Zen +had its golden age, beginning with the reign of the Emperor Suh +Tsung, of the Tang dynasty, until the reign of the Emperor Hiao Tsung +(1163-1189), who was the greatest patron of Buddhism in the Southern +Sung dynasty. To this age belong almost all the greatest Zen +scholars[FN#51] of China. + + +[FN#49] There exists Luh Tan Fah Pao Tan King +(Roku-so-ho-bo-dan-kyo), a collection of his sermons. It is full of +bold statements of Zen in its purest form, and is entirely free from +ambiguous and enigmatical words that encumber later Zen books. In +consequence it is widely read by non-Buddhist scholars in China and +Japan. Both Hwui Chung (E-chu), a famous disciple of the Sixth +Patriarch, and Do-gen, the founder of the Soto Sect in Japan, deny +the authority of the book, and declare it to be misleading, because +of errors and prejudices of the compilers. Still, we believe it to +be a collection of genuine sections given by the Sixth Patriarch, +though there are some mistakes in its historical narratives. + +[FN#50] (1) The Tsao Tung (So-to) Sect, founded by Tsing Yuen (died +in A.D. 740) and his successors; (2) the Lin Tsi (Rin-Zai) Sect, +founded by Nan Yoh (died in 744) and his successors; (3) the Wei Yan +(Yi-gyo) Sect, founded by Wei Shan (Yi-san, died in 853) and his +disciple Yen Shan (Kyo-zan, died in 890); (4) the Yun Man (Un-mon) +Sect, founded by Yun Man (died in 949); (5) the Pao Yen (Ho-gen) +Sect, founded by Pao Yen (died in 958). + +[FN#51] During the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-906) China produced, +besides the Sixth Patriarch and his prominent disciples, such great +Zen teachers as Ma Tsu (Ba-so, died in 788), who is probably the +originator of the Zen Activity; Shih Teu (Seki-to, died in 790), the +reputed author of Tsan Tung Ki (San-do-kai), a metrical writing on +Zen; Poh Chang (Hyaku-jo, died 814), who first laid down regulations +for the Zen Monastery; Wei Shan (Yi-san), Yang Shan (Kyo-zan), the +founders of the Wei Yang Sect; Hwang Pah (O-baku, died in 850), one +of the founders of the Lin Tsi Sect, and the author of Chwen Sin Pao +Yao, (Den-sin-ho-yo), one of the best works on Zen; Lin Tsi (Rin-zai, +died in 866), the real founder of the Lin Tsi Sect; Tung Shan +(To-zan, died in 869), the real founder of the Tsao Tung Sect; Tsao +Shan (So-zan, died in 901), a famous disciple of Tung Shan; Teh Shan +(Toku-san, died in 865), who was used to strike every questioner with +his staff; Chang Sha (Cho-sha, died in 823); Chao Cheu (Jo-shu, died +in 897); Nan Tsuen (Nan-sen, died in 834); Wu Yeh (Mu-go, died in +823); who is said to have replied, 'Away with your idle thoughts,' to +every questioner; Yun Yen (Un-gan, died in 829); Yoh Shan (Yaku-san, +died in 834); Ta Mei (Tai-bai, died in 839), a noted recluse; Ta Tsz +(Dai-ji, died in 862); Kwei Fung (Kei-ho, died in 841), the author of +'The Origin of Man,' and other numerous works; and Yun Ku (Un-go, +died in 902). + +To the period of the Five Dynasties (A.D. 907-959) belong such +teachers as Sueh Fung (Set-po, died in. 908); Huen Sha (Gen-sha, died +in 908); Yun Man (Un-mon, died in 949), the founder of the Yun Man +Sect; Shen Yueh (Zen-getsu, died in 912), a renowned Zen poet; Pu Tai +(Ho-tei, died in 916), well known for his peculiarities; Chang King +(Cho-kei, died in 932); Nan Yuen (Nan-in, died in 952); Pao Yen +(Ho-gen, died in 958), the founder of the Pao Yen Sect. During the +Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1126) appeared such teachers as Yang Ki +(Yo-gi, died in 1049), the founder of the Yang Ki School of Zen; Sueh +Teu (Set-cho, died in 1052), noted for poetical works; Hwang Lung (O +ryu, died in 1069), the founder of the Hwang Lung School of Zen; +Hwang Lin (Ko-rin, died in 987); Tsz Ming (Ji-myo, died in 1040); Teu +Tsy (To-shi, died in 1083); Fu Yun (Fu-yo, died in 1118); Wu Tsu +(Go-so, died in 1104); Yung Ming (Yo-myo, died in 975), the author of +Tsung King Luh (Shu-kyo-roku); Ki Sung (Kai-su, died in 1071), a +great Zen historian and author. In the Southern Sung dynasty (A.D. +1127-1279) flourished such masters as Yuen Wu (En-go, died in 1135), +the author of Pik Yen Tsih (Heki-gan-shu); Chan Hieh (Shin-ketsu, +flourished in 1151); Hung Chi (Wan-shi, died in 1157), famous for his +poetical works; Ta Hwui (Dai-e, died in 1163), a noted disciple of +Yuen Wu; Wan Sung (Ban-sho), flourished in 1193-1197), the author of +Tsung Yun Luh (Sho-yo-roku); Ju Tsing (Nyo-jo), died in 1228), the +teacher to Do-gen, or the founder of the So-to Sect in Japan. + + +To this age belong almost all the eminent men of letters,[FN#52] +statesmen, warriors, and artists who were known as the practisers of +Zen. To this age belongs the production of almost all Zen +books,[FN#53] doctrinal and historical. + + +[FN#52] Among the great names of Zen believers the following are +most important: Pang Yun (Ho-on, flourished in 785-804), whose whole +family was proficient in Zen; Tsui Kiun (Sai-gun, flourished in +806-824); Luh Kang (Rik-ko), a lay disciple to Nan Tsun; Poh Loh Tien +(Haku-raku-ten, died in 847), one of the greatest Chinese literary +men; Pei Hiu (Hai-kyu, flourished 827-856), the Prime Minister under +the Emperor Suen Tsung, a lay disciple to Hwang Pah; Li Ngao (Ri-ko, +lived about 806), an author and scholar who practised Zen under Yoh +Shan; Yu Chuh (U-teki, flourished 785-804), a local governor, a +friend of Pang Yun; Yang Yih (Yo-oku, flourished in 976), one of the +greatest writers of his age; Fan Chung Ngan (Han-chu an, flourished +1008-1052), an able statesman and scholar; Fu Pih (Fu shitsu, +flourished 1041-1083), a minister under the Emperor Jan Tsung; Chang +Shang Ying (Cho-sho-yei, 1086-1122), a Buddhist scholar and a +statesman; Hwang Ting Kien (Ko-tei-ken, 1064-1094), a great poet; Su +Shih (So-shoku, died in 1101), a great man of letters, well known as +So-to-ba; Su Cheh (So-tetsu, died in 1112), a younger brother of +So-to-ba, a scholar and minister under the Emperor Cheh Tsung; Chang +Kiu Ching (Cho-Kyu-sei, flourished about 1131), a scholar and lay +disciple of Ta Hwui; Yang Kieh (Yo-ketsu, flourished 1078-1086), a +scholar and statesman. + +[FN#53] Of doctrinal Zen books, besides Sin Sin Ming by the Third +Patriarch, and Fah Pao Tan King by the Sixth Patriarch, the following +are of great importance: + +(1) Ching Tao Ko (Sho-do-ka), by Huen Kioh (Gen-kaku). +(2) Tsan Tung Ki (San-do-kai), by Shih Ten (Seki-to). +(3) Pao King San Mei (Ho-kyo-san-mai), by Tung Shan (To-zan). +(4) Chwen Sin Pao Yao (Den-sin-ho-yo), by Hwang Pah (O-baku). +(5) Pih Yen Tsih (Heki-gan-shu), by Yuen Wu (En-go). +(6) Lin Tsi Luh (Rin-zai-roku), by Lin Tsi (Rin-zai). +(7) Tsung Yun Luh (Sho-yo-roku), by Wan Sung (Ban-sho). + +Of historical Zen books the following are of importance: + +(1) King teh Chwen Tan-Luh (Kei-toku-den-to-roku), published in 1004 +by Tao Yuen (Do-gen). +(2) Kwan Tang Luh (Ko-to roku), published in 1036 by Li Tsun Suh +(Ri-jun-kyoku). +(3) Suh Tang Luh (Zoku-O-roku), published in 1101 by Wei Poh (I-haku). +(4) Lien Tang Luh (Ren-O-roku), published in 1183 by Hwui Wang +(Mai-o). +(5) Ching Tsung Ki (Sho-ju-ki), published in 1058 by Ki Sung +(Kwai-su). +(6) Pu Tang Luh (Fu-O-roku), published in 1201 by Ching Sheu (Sho-ju). +(7) Hwui Yuen (E-gen), published in 1252 by Ta Chwen (Dai-sen). +(8) Sin Tang Luh (Sin-W-roku), published in 1280-1294 by Sui (Zui). +(9) Suh Chwen Tang Luh (Zoku-den-to-roku), by Wang Siu (Bun-shu). +(10) Hwui Yuen Suh Lioh (E-gen-zoku-ryaku), by Tsing Chu (Jo-chu). +(11) Ki Tang Luh (Kei-to-roku), by Yung Kioh (Yo-kaku). + + + +14. Three Important Elements of Zen. + +To understand how Zen developed during some four hundred years after +the Sixth Patriarch, we should know that there are three important +elements in Zen. The first of these is technically called the Zen +Number--the method of practising Meditation by sitting cross-legged, +of which we shall treat later.[FN#54] This method is fully developed +by Indian teachers before Bodhidharma's introduction of Zen into +China, therefore it underwent little change during this period. The +second is the Zen Doctrine, which mainly consists of Idealistic and +Pantheistic ideas of Mahayana Buddhism, but which undoubtedly +embraces some tenets of Taoism. Therefore, Zen is not a pure Indian +faith, but rather of Chinese origin. The third is the Zen Activity, +or the mode of expression of Zen in action, which is entirely absent +in any other faith. + + +[FN#54] See Chapter VII. + + +It was for the sake of this Zen Activity that Hwang Pah gave a slap +three times to the Emperor Suen Tsung; that Lin Tsi so often burst +out into a loud outcry of Hoh (Katsu); that Nan Tsuen killed a cat at +a single stroke of his knife in the presence of his disciples; and +that Teh Shan so frequently struck questioners with his staff.[FN#55] + The Zen Activity was displayed by the Chinese teachers making use of +diverse things such as the staff, the brush[FN#56] of long hair, the +mirror, the rosary, the cup, the pitcher, the flag, the moon, the +sickle, the plough, the bow and arrow, the ball, the bell, the drum, +the cat, the dog, the duck, the earthworm--in short, any and +everything that was fit for the occasion and convenient for the +purpose. Thus Zen Activity was of pure Chinese origin, and it was +developed after the Sixth Patriarch.[FN#57] For this reason the +period previous to the Sixth Patriarch may be called the Age of the +Zen Doctrine, while that posterior to the same master, the Age of the +Zen Activity. + + +[FN#55] A long official staff (Shu-jo) like the crosier carried by +the abbot of the monastery. + +[FN#56] An ornamental brush (Hos-su) often carried by Zen teachers. + +[FN#57] The giving of a slap was first tried by the Sixth Patriarch, +who struck one of his disciples, known as Ho Tseh (Ka-taku), and it +was very frequently resorted to by the later masters. The lifting up +of the brush was first tried by Tsing Yuen in an interview with his +eldest disciple, Shih Ten, and it became a fashion among other +teachers. The loud outcry of Hoh was first made use of by Ma Tsu, +the successor of Nan Yoh. In this way the origin of the Zen Activity +can easily be traced to the Sixth Patriarch and his direct disciples. + After the Sung dynasty Chinese Zen masters seem to have given undue +weight to the Activity, and neglected the serious study of the +doctrine. This brought out the degeneration severely reproached by +some of the Japanese Zen teachers. + + + +15. Decline of Zen. + +The blooming prosperity of Zen was over towards the end of the +Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1279), when it began to fade, not being +bitten by the frost of oppression from without, but being weakened by +rottenness within. As early as the Sung dynasty (960-1126) the +worship of Buddha Amitabha[FN#58] stealthily found its way among Zen +believers, who could not fully realize the Spirit of Shakya Muni, and +to satisfy these people the amalgamation of the two faiths was +attempted by some Zen masters.[FN#59] + +[FN#58] The faith is based on Larger Sukhavati-vyuha, Smaller +Sukhavati-vyuha, and Amitayus-dhyana-sutra. It was taught in India +by Acvaghosa, Nagariuna, and Vasubandhu. In China Hwui Yuen (E-on, +died in A.D. 416), Tan Lwan (Don-ran, died in 542), Tao Choh +(Do-shaku), and Shen Tao (Zen-do) (both of whom lived about 600-650), +chiefly taught the doctrine. It made an extraordinary progress in +Japan, and differentiated itself into several sects, of which Jodo +Shu and Shin Shu are the strongest. + +[FN#59] It is beyond all doubt that Poh Loh Tien (Haku-raku-ten) +practised Zen, but at the same time believed in Amitabha; so also Su +Shih (So-shoku), a most noted Zen practiser, worshipped the same +Buddha, Yang Kieh (Yo-keteu), who carried a picture of Amitabha +wherever he went and worshipped it, seems to have thought there is +nothing incompatible between Zen and his faith. The foremost of +those Zen masters of the Sung dynasty that attempted the amalgamation +is Yung Ming (Yo-myo, died in 975), who reconciled Zen with the +worship of Amitabha in his Wan Shen Tung Kwei Tsih +(Man-zen-do-ki-shu) and Si Ngan Yan Shan Fu (Sei-an-yo-sin-fu). He +was followed by Tsing Tsz (Jo-ji) and Chan Hieh (Shin-ketsu, lived +about 1151), the former of whom wrote Kwei Yuen Chih Chi +(Ki-gen-jiki-shi), and the latter Tsing Tu Sin Yao (Jo-do-sin-yo), in +order to further the tendency. In the Yuen dynasty Chung Fung +(Chu-ho, died in 1323) encouraged the adoration of Amitabha, together +with the practice of Zen, in his poetical composition +(Kwan-shu-jo-go). In the Ming dynasty Yun Si (Un-sei, died in 1615), +the author of Shen Kwan Tseh Tsin (Zen-kwan-saku-shin) and other +numerous works, writing a commentary on Sukhavati-vyuha-sutra, +brought the amalgamation to its height. Ku Shan (Ku-zan, died in +1657), a Zen historian and author, and his prominent disciple Wei Lin +(E-rin), axe well known as the amalgamators. Yun Ming declared that +those who practise Zen, but have no faith in Amitabha, go astray in +nine cases out of ten; that those who do not practise Zen, but +believe in Amitabha, are saved, one and all; that those who practise +Zen, and have the faith in Amitabha, are like the tiger provided with +wings; and that for those who have no faith in Amitabha, nor practise +Zen, there exist the iron floor and the copper pillars in Hell. Ku +Shan said that some practise Zen in order to attain Enlightenment, +while others pray Amitabha for salvation; that if they were sincere +and diligent, both will obtain the final beatitude. Wei Lin also +observed: "Theoretically I embrace Zen, and practically I worship +Amitabha." E-chu, the author of Zen-to-nenbutsu ('On Zen and the +Worship of Amitabha'), points out that one of the direct disciples of +the Sixth Patriarch favoured the faith of Amitabha, but there is no +trustworthy evidence, as far as we know, that proves the existence of +the amalgamation in the Tang dynasty. + + +This tendency steadily increasing with time brought out at length the +period of amalgamation which covered the Yuen (1280-1367) and the +Ming dynasties (1368-1659), when the prayer for Amitabha was in every +mouth of Zen monks sitting in Meditation. The patrons of Zen were +not wanting in the Yuen dynasty, for such a warlike monarch as the +Emperor Shi Tsu (Sei-so), 1280-1294) is known to have practised Zen +under the instruction of Miao Kao, and his successor Ching Tsung +(1295-1307) to have trusted in Yih Shan,[FN#60] a Zen teacher of +reputation at that time. Moreover, Lin Ping Chung (Rin-hei-cha, died +in 1274), a powerful minister under Shi Tsu, who did much toward the +establishment of the administrative system in that dynasty, had been +a Zen monk, and never failed to patronize his faith. And in the Ming +dynasty the first Emperor Tai Tsu (1368-1398), having been a Zen +monk, protected the sect with enthusiasm, and his example was +followed by Tai Tsung (1403-1424), whose spiritual as well as +political adviser was Tao Yen, a Zen monk of distinction. Thus Zen +exercised an influence unparalleled by any other faith throughout +these ages. The life and energy of Zen, however, was gone by the +ignoble amalgamation, and even such great scholars as Chung +Fung,[FN#61] Yung Si,[FN#62] Yung Kioh,[FN#63] were not free from the +overwhelming influence of the age. + + +[FN#60] The Emperor sent him to Japan in 1299 with some secret +order, but he did nothing political, and stayed as a Zen teacher +until his death. + +[FN#61] A most renowned Zen master in the Yuen dynasty, whom the +Emperor Jan Tsung invited to visit the palace, but in vain. + +[FN#62] An author noted for his learning and virtues, who was rather +a worshipper of Amitabha than a Zen monk. + +[FN#63] An author of voluminous books, of which Tung Shang Ku Cheh +(To-jo-ko-tetsu) is well known. + + +We are not, however, doing justice to the tendency of amalgamation in +these times simply to blame it for its obnoxious results, because it +is beyond doubt that it brought forth wholesome fruits to the Chinese +literature and philosophy. Who can deny that this tendency brought +the Speculative[FN#64] philosophy of the Sung dynasty to its +consummation by the amalgamation of Confucianism with Buddhism +especially with Zen, to enable it to exercise long-standing influence +on society, and that this tendency also produced Wang Yang +Ming,[FN#65] one of the greatest generals and scholars that the world +has ever seen, whose philosophy of Conscience[FN#66] still holds a +unique position in the history of human thought? Who can deny +furthermore that Wang's philosophy is Zen in the Confucian +terminology? + + +[FN#64] This well-known philosophy was first taught by Cheu Men Shuh +(Shu-mo-shiku, died in 1073) in its definite form. He is said to +have been enlightened by the instruction of Hwui Tang, a contemporary +Zen master. He was succeeded by Chang Ming Tao (Tei-mei-do, died in +1085) and Chang I Chwen (Tei-i-sen, died in 1107), two brothers, who +developed the philosophy in no small degree. And it was completed by +Chu Tsz (Shu-shi, died in 1200), a celebrated commentator of the +Confucian classics. It is worthy to note that these scholars +practised Meditation just as Zen monks. See 'History of Chinese +Philosophy' (pp. 215-269), by G. Nakauchi, and 'History of +Development of Chinese Thought,' by R. Endo. + +[FN#65] He was born in 1472, and died in 1529. His doctrine +exercised a most fruitful influence on many of the great Japanese +minds, and undoubtedly has done much to the progress of New Japan. + +[FN#66] See Den-shu-roku and O-ya-mei-zen-sho. + + + + + +CHAPTER II + + + +HISTORY OF ZEN IN JAPAN + + +1. The Establishment of the Rin Zai[FN#67] School of Zen in Japan. + + +[FN#67] The Lin Tsi school was started by Nan Yoh, a prominent +disciple of the Sixth Patriarch, and completed by Lin Tsi or Rin Zai. + + +The introduction of Zen into the island empire is dated as early as +the seventh century;[FN#68] but it was in 1191 that it was first +established by Ei-sai, a man of bold, energetic nature. He crossed +the sea for China at the age of twenty-eight in 1168, after his +profound study of the whole Tripitaka[FN#69] for eight years in the +Hi-yei Monastery[FN#70] the then centre of Japanese Buddhism. + + +[FN#68] Zen was first introduced into Japan by Do sha (629-700) as +early as 653-656, at the time when the Fifth Patriarch just entered +his patriarchal career. Do-sho went over to China in 653, and met +with Huen Tsang, the celebrated and great scholar, who taught him the +doctrine of the Dharma-laksana. It was Huen Tsang who advised Do-sho +to study Zen under Hwui Man (E-man). After returning home, he built +a Meditation Hall for the purpose of practising Zen in the Gan-go +monastery, Nara. Thus Zen was first transplanted into Japan by +Do-sho, but it took no root in the soil at that time. + +Next a Chinese Zen teacher, I Kung (Gi-ku), came over to Japan in +about 810, and under his instruction the Empress Danrin, a most +enthusiastic Buddhist, was enlightened. She erected a monastery +named Dan-rin-ji, and appointed I Kung the abbot of it for the sake +of propagating the faith. It being of no purpose, however, I Kung +went back to China after some years. + +Thirdly, Kaku-a in 1171 went over to China, where he studied Zen +under Fuh Hai (Buk-kai), who belonged to the Yang Ki (Yo-gi) school, +and came home after three years. Being questioned by the Emperor +Taka-kura (1169-1180) about the doctrine of Zen, he uttered no word, +but took up a flute and played on it. But his first note was too +high to be caught by the ordinary ear, and was gone without producing +any echo in the court nor in society at large. + +[FN#69] The three divisions of the Buddhist canon, viz.: + +(1) Sutra-pitaka, or a collection of doctrinal books. +(2) Vinaya-pitaka, or a collection of works on discipline. +(3) Abhidharma-pitaka, or a collection of philosophical and +expository works. + +[FN#70] The great monastery erected in 788 by Sai-cho (767-822), the +founder of the Japanese Ten Dai Sect, known as Den Gyo Dai Shi. + + +After visiting holy places and great monasteries, he came home, +bringing with him over thirty different books on the doctrine of the +Ten-Dai Sect.[FN#71] This, instead of quenching, added fuel to his +burning desire for adventurous travel abroad. So he crossed the sea +over again in 1187, this time intending to make pilgrimage to India; +and no one can tell what might have been the result if the Chinese +authorities did not forbid him to cross the border. Thereon he +turned his attention to the study of Zen, and after five years' +discipline succeeded in getting sanction for his spiritual attainment +by the Hu Ngan (Kio-an), a noted master of the Rin Zai school, the +then abbot of the monastery of Tien Tung Shan (Ten-do-san). His +active propaganda of Zen was commenced soon after his return in 1191 +with splendid success at a newly built temple[FN#72] in the province +of Chiku-zen. In 1202 Yori-iye, the Shogun, or the real governor of +the State at that time, erected the monastery of Ken-nin-ji in the +city of Kyo-to, and invited him to proceed to the metropolis. +Accordingly he settled himself down in that temple, and taught Zen +with his characteristic activity. + + +[FN#71] The sect was named after its founder in China, Chi I +(538-597), who lived in the monastery of Tien Tai Shan (Ten-dai-san), +and was called the Great Teacher of Tien Tai. In 804 Den-gyo went +over to China by the Imperial order, and received the transmission of +the doctrine from Tao Sui (Do-sui), a patriarch of the sect. After +his return he erected a monastery on Mount Hi-yei, which became the +centre of Buddhistic learning. + +[FN#72] He erected the monastery of Sho-fuku-ji in 1195, which is +still prospering. + + +This provoked the envy and wrath of the Ten Dai and the Shin +Gon[FN#73] teachers, who presented memorials to the Imperial court to +protest against his propagandism of the new faith. Taking advantage +of the protests, Ei-sai wrote a book entitled Ko-zen-go-koku-ron +('The Protection of the State by the Propagation of Zen'), and not +only explained his own position, but exposed the ignorance[FN#74] of +the protestants. Thus at last his merit was appreciated by the +Emperor Tsuchi-mikado (1199-1210), and he was promoted to So Jo, the +highest rank in the Buddhist priesthood, together with the gift of a +purple robe in 1206. Some time after this he went to the city of +Kama-kura, the political centre, being invited by Sane-tomo, the +Shogun, and laid the foundation of the so-called Kama-kura Zen, still +prospering at the present moment. + + +[FN#73] The Shin Gon or Mantra Sect is based on +Mahavairocanabhi-sambodhi-sutra, Vajracekhara-sutra, and other +Mantra-sutras. It was established in China by Vajrabodhi and his +disciple Amoahavajra, who came from India in 720. Ku kai (774-835), +well known as Ko Bo Dai Shi, went to China in 804, and received the +transmission of the doctrine from Hwui Kwo (Kei-ka), a, disciple of +Amoghavajra. In 806 he came back and propagated the faith almost all +over the country. For the detail see 'A Short History of the Twelve +Japanese Buddhist Sects' (chap. viii.), by Dr. Nanjo. + +[FN#74] Sai-cho, the founder of the Japanese Ten Dai Sect, first +learned the doctrine of the Northern School of Zen under Gyo-hyo +(died in 797), and afterwards he pursued the study of the same faith +under Siao Jan in China. Therefore to oppose the propagation of Zen +is, for Ten Dai priests, as much as to oppose the founder of their +own sect. + + + +2. The Introduction of the So-To School[FN#75] of Zen. + + +[FN#75] This school was started by Tsing-Yuen (Sei-gen), an eminent +disciple of the Sixth Patriarch, and completed by Tsing Shan (To-zan). + + +Although the Rin Zai school was, as mentioned above, established by +Ei-sai, yet he himself was not a pure Zen teacher, being a Ten Dai +scholar as well as an experienced practiser of Mantra. The first +establishment of Zen in its purest form was done by Do-gen, now known +as Jo Yo Dai Shi. Like Ei-sai, he was admitted into the Hi-yei +Monastery at an early age, and devoted himself to the study of the +Canon. As his scriptural knowledge increased, he was troubled by +inexpressible doubts and fears, as is usual with great religious +teachers. Consequently, one day he consulted his uncle, Ko-in, a +distinguished Ten Dai scholar, about his troubles. The latter, being +unable to satisfy him, recommended him Ei-sai, the founder of the new +faith. But as Ei-sai died soon afterwards, he felt that he had no +competent teacher left, and crossed the sea for China, at the age of +twenty-four, in 1223. There he was admitted into the monastery of +Tien Tung Shan (Ten-do-san), and assigned the lowest seat in the +hall, simply because be was a foreigner. Against this affront he +strongly protested. In the Buddhist community, he said, all were +brothers, and there was no difference of nationality. The only way +to rank the brethren was by seniority, and he therefore claimed to +occupy his proper rank. Nobody, however, lent an ear to the poor +new-comer's protest, so he appealed twice to the Chinese Emperor Ning +Tsung (1195-1224), and by the Imperial order he gained his object. + +After four years' study and discipline, he was Enlightened and +acknowledged as the successor by his master Ju Tsing (Nyo-jo died in +1228), who belonged to the Tsao Tung (So To) school. He came home in +1227, bringing with him three important Zen books.[FN#76] Some three +years he did what Bodhidharma, the Wall-gazing Brahmin, had done +seven hundred years before him, retiring to a hermitage at Fuka-kusa, +not very far from Kyo-to. Just like Bodhidharma, denouncing all +worldly fame and gain, his attitude toward the world was +diametrically opposed to that of Ei-sai. As we have seen above, +Ei-sai never shunned, but rather sought the society of the powerful +and the rich, and made for his goal by every means. But to the Sage +of Fuka-kusa, as Do-gen was called at that time, pomp and power was +the most disgusting thing in the world. Judging from his poems, be +seems to have spent these years chiefly in meditation; dwelling now +on the transitoriness of life, now on the eternal peace of Nirvana; +now on the vanities and miseries of the world; now listening to the +voices of Nature amongst the hills; now gazing into the brooklet that +was, as he thought, carrying away his image reflected on it into the +world. + + +[FN#76] (1) Pao King San Mei (Ho-kyo-san-mai, 'Precious Mirror +Samadhi'), a metrical exposition of Zen, by Tung Shan (To-zan, +806-869), one of the founders of the So To school. (2) Wu Wei Hien +Hueh (Go-i-ken-ketsu. 'Explanation of the Five Categories'), by Tung +Shan and his disciple Tsao Shan (So-zan). This book shows us how Zen +was systematically taught by the authors. (3) Pih Yen Tsih +(Heki-gan-shu, 'A Collection and Critical Treatment of Dialogues'), +by Yuen Wu. + + + +3. The Characteristics of Do-gen, the Founder of the Japanese So To +Sect. + +In the meantime seekers after a new truth gradually began to knock at +his door, and his hermitage was turned into a monastery, now known as +the Temple of Ko-sho-ji.[FN#77] It was at this time that many +Buddhist scholars and men of quality gathered about him but the more +popular he became the more disgusting the place became to him. His +hearty desire was to live in a solitude among mountains, far distant +from human abodes, where none but falling waters and singing birds +could disturb his delightful meditation. Therefore he gladly +accepted the invitation of a feudal lord, and went to the province of +Echi-zen, where his ideal monastery was built, now known as +Ei-hei-ji.[FN#78] + + +[FN#77] It was in this monastery (built in 1236) that Zen was first +taught as an independent sect, and that the Meditation Hall was first +opened in Japan. Do-gen lived in the monastery for eleven years, and +wrote some of the important books. Za-zen-gi ('The Method of +Practising the Cross-legged Meditation') was written soon after his +return from China, and Ben-do-wa and other essays followed, which are +included in his great work, entitled Sho-bo-gen-zo) ('The Eye and +Treasury of the Right Law'). + +[FN#78] The monastery was built in 1244 by Yoshi-shige (Hatano), the +feudal lord who invited Do-gen. He lived in Ei-hei-ji until his +death, which took place in 1253. It is still flourishing as the head +temple of the So To Sect. + + +In 1247, being requested by Toki-yori, the Regent General +(1247-1263), he came down to Kama-kura, where he stayed half a year +and went back to Ei-hei-ji. After some time Toki-yori, to show his +gratitude for the master, drew up a certificate granting a large +tract of land as the property of Ei-hei-ji, and handed it over to +Gen-myo, a disciple of Do-gen. The carrier of the certificate was so +pleased with the donation that he displayed it to all his brethren +and produced it before the master, who severely reproached him +saying: "O, shame on thee, wretch! Thou art -defiled by the desire +of worldly riches even to thy inmost soul, just as noodle is stained +with oil. Thou canst not be purified from it to all eternity. I am +afraid thou wilt bring shame on the Right Law." On the spot Gen-myo +was deprived of his holy robe and excommunicated. Furthermore, the +master ordered the 'polluted' seat in the Meditation Hall, where +Gen-myo was wont to sit, to be removed, and the 'polluted' earth +under the seat to be dug out to the depth of seven feet. + +In 1250 the ex-Emperor Go-sa-ga (1243-1246) sent a special messenger +twice to the Ei-hei monastery to do honour to the master with the +donation of a purple robe, but he declined to accept it. And when +the mark of distinction was offered for the third time, he accepted +it, expressing his feelings by the following verses: + +"Although in Ei-hei's vale the shallow waters leap, +Yet thrice it came, Imperial favour deep. +The Ape may smile and laugh the Crane +At aged Monk in purple as insane." + +He was never seen putting on the purple robe, being always clad in +black, that was better suited to his secluded life. + + + +4. The Social State of Japan when Zen was established by Ei-sai and +Do-gen. + +Now we have to observe the condition of the country when Zen was +introduced into Japan by Ei-sai and Do-gen. Nobilities that had so +long governed the island were nobilities no more. Enervated by their +luxuries, effeminated by their ease, made insipient by their +debauchery, they were entirely powerless. All that they possessed in +reality was the nominal rank and hereditary birth. On the contrary, +despised as the ignorant, sneered at as the upstart, put in contempt +as the vulgar, the Samurai or military class had everything in their +hands. It was the time when Yori-tomo[FN#79] (1148-1199) conquered +all over the empire, and established the Samurai Government at +Kama-kura. It was the time when even the emperors were dethroned or +exiled at will by the Samurai. It was the time when even the +Buddhist monks[FN#80] frequently took up arms to force their will. +It was the time when Japan's independence was endangered by Kublai, +the terror of the world. It was the time when the whole nation was +full of martial spirit. It is beyond doubt that to these rising +Samurais, rude and simple, the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism, +represented by Ten Dai and Shin Gon, were too complicated and too +alien to their nature. But in Zen they could find something +congenial to their nature, something that touched their chord of +sympathy, because Zen was the doctrine of chivalry in a certain sense. + + +[FN#79] The Samurai Government was first established by Yoritomo, of +the Minamoto family, in 1186, and Japan was under the control of the +military class until 1867, when the political power was finally +restored to the Imperial house. + +[FN#80] They were degenerated monks (who were called monk-soldiers), +belonging to great monasteries such as En-ryaku-ji (Hi-yei), +Ko-fuku-ji (at Nara), Mi-i-dera, etc. + + + +5. The Resemblance of the Zen Monk to the Samurai. + +Let us point out in brief the similarities between Zen and Japanese +chivalry. First, both the Samurai and the Zen monk have to undergo a +strict discipline and endure privation without complaint. Even such +a prominent teacher as Ei-sai, for example, lived contentedly in such +needy circumstances that on one occasion[FN#81] he and his disciples +had nothing to eat for several days. Fortunately, they were +requested by a believer to recite the Scriptures, and presented with +two rolls of silk. The hungry young monks, whose mouths watered +already at the expectation of a long-looked-for dinner, were +disappointed when that silk was given to a poor man, who called on +Ei-sai to obtain some help. Fast continued for a whole week, when +another poor follow came in and asked Ei-sai to give something. At +this time, having nothing to show his substantial mark of sympathy +towards the poor, Ei-sai tore off the gilt glory of the image of +Buddha Bhecajya and gave it. The young monks, bitten both by hunger +and by anger at this outrageous act to the object of worship, +questioned Ei-sai by way of reproach: "Is it, sir, right for us +Buddhists to demolish the image of a Buddha?" "Well," replied Ei-sai +promptly, "Buddha would give even his own life for the sake of +suffering people. How could he be reluctant to give his halo?" This +anecdote clearly shows us self-sacrifice is of first importance in +the Zen discipline. + +[FN#81] The incident is told by Do-gen in his Zui-mon-ki. + + +6. The Honest Poverty of the Zen Monk and the Samurai. + +Secondly, the so-called honest poverty is a characteristic of both +the Zen monk and the Samurai. To get rich by an ignoble means is +against the rules of Japanese chivalry or Bushido. The Samurai would +rather starve than to live by some expedient unworthy of his dignity. + There are many instances, in the Japanese history, of Samurais who +were really starved to death in spite of their having a hundred +pieces of gold carefully preserved to meet the expenses at the time +of an emergency; hence the proverb: "The falcon would not feed on the +ear of corn, even if he should starve." Similarly, we know of no +case of Zen monks, ancient and modern, who got rich by any ignoble +means. They would rather face poverty with gladness of heart. +Fu-gai, one of the most distinguished Zen masters just before the +Restoration, supported many student monks in his monastery. They +were often too numerous to be supported by his scant means. This +troubled his disciple much whose duty it was to look after the +food-supply, as there was no other means to meet the increased demand +than to supply with worse stuff. Accordingly, one day the disciple +advised Fu-gai not to admit new students any more into the monastery. + Then the master, making no reply, lolled out his tongue and said: +"Now look into my mouth, and tell if there be any tongue in it." The +perplexed disciple answered affirmatively. "Then don't bother +yourself about it. If there be any tongue, I can taste any sort of +food." Honest poverty may, without exaggeration, be called one of +the characteristics of the Samurais and of the Zen monks; hence a +proverb: "The Zen monk has no money, moneyed Monto[FN#82] knows +nothing." + + +[FN#82] The priest belonging to Shin Shu, who are generally rich. + + + +7. The Manliness of the Zen Monk and of the Samurai. + +Thirdly, both the Zen monk and the Samurai were distinguished by +their manliness and dignity in manner, sometimes amounting to +rudeness. This is due partly to the hard discipline that they +underwent, and partly to the mode of instruction. The following +story,[FN#83] translated by Mr. D. Suzuki, a friend of mine, may well +exemplify our statement: + + +[FN#83] The Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1906-1907. + + +When Rin-zai[FN#84] was assiduously applying himself to Zen +discipline under Obak (Huang Po in Chinese, who died 850), the head +monk recognized his genius. One day the monk asked him how long he +had been in the monastery, to which Rin-zai replied: 'Three years.' +The elder said: 'Have you ever approached the master and asked his +instruction in Buddhism?' Rin-zai said: 'I have never done this, for +I did not know what to ask.' 'Why, you might go to the master and +ask him what is the essence of Buddhism?' + + +[FN#84] Lin Tsi, the founder of the Lin Tsi school. + + +"Rin-zai, according to this advice, approached Obak and repeated the +question, but before he finished the master gave him a slap. + +"When Rin-zai came back, the elder asked how the interview went. +Said Rin-zai: 'Before I could finish my question the master slapped +me, but I fail to grasp its meaning.' The elder said: 'You go to him +again and ask the same question.' When he did so, he received the +same response from the master. But Rin-zai was urged again to try it +for the third time, but the outcome did not improve. + +"At last he went to the elder, and said 'In obedience to your kind +suggestion, I have repeated my question three times, and been slapped +three times. I deeply regret that, owing to my stupidity, I am +unable to comprehend the hidden meaning of all this. I shall leave +this place and go somewhere else.' Said the elder: 'If you wish to +depart, do not fail to go and see the master to say him farewell.' + +"Immediately after this the elder saw the master, and said: 'That +young novice, who asked about Buddhism three times, is a remarkable +fellow. When he comes to take leave of you, be so gracious as to +direct him properly. After a hard training, he will prove to be a +great master, and, like a huge tree, he will give a refreshing +shelter to the world.' + +"When Rin-zai came to see the master, the latter advised him not to +go anywhere else, but to Dai-gu (Tai-yu) of Kaoan, for he would be +able to instruct him in the faith. + +"Rin-zai went to Dai-gu, who asked him whence he came. Being +informed that he was from Obak, Dai-gu further inquired what +instruction he had under the master. Rin-zai answered: 'I asked him +three times about the essence of Buddhism, and he slapped me three +times. But I am yet unable to see whether I had any fault or not.' +Dai-gu said: 'Obak was tender-hearted even as a dotard, and you are +not warranted at all to come over here and ask me whether anything +was faulty with you.' + +"Being thus reprimanded, the signification of the whole affair +suddenly dawned upon the mind of Rin-zai, and he exclaimed: 'There is +not much, after all, in the Buddhism of Obak.' Whereupon Dai-gu took +hold of him, and said: 'This ghostly good-for-nothing creature! A +few minutes ago you came to me and complainingly asked what was wrong +with you, and now boldly declare that there is not much in the +Buddhism of Obak. What is the reason of all this? Speak out quick! +speak out quick!' In response to this, Rin-zai softly struck three +times his fist at the ribs of Dai-gu. The latter then released him, +saying: 'Your teacher is Obak, and I will have nothing to do with +you.' + +"Rin-zai took leave of Dai-gu and came back to Obak, who, on seeing +him come, exclaimed: 'Foolish fellow! what does it avail you to come +and go all the time like this?' Rin-zai said: 'It is all due to your +doting kindness.' + +"When, after the usual salutation, Rin-zai stood by the side of Obak, +the latter asked him whence he had come this time. Rin-zai answered: +"In obedience to your kind instruction, I was with Dai-gu. Thence am +I come.' + +And he related, being asked for further information, all that had +happened there. + +"Obak said: 'As soon as that fellow shows himself up here, I shall +have to give him a good thrashing.' 'You need not wait for him to +come; have it right this moment,' was the reply; and with this +Rin-zai gave his master a slap on the back. + +"Obak said: 'How dares this lunatic come into my presence and play +with a tiger's whiskers?' Rin-zai then burst out into a Ho,[FN#85] +and Obak said: 'Attendant, come and carry this lunatic away to his +cell.'" + + +[FN#85] A loud outcry, frequently made use of by Zen teachers, after +Rin-zai. Its Chinese pronunciation is 'Hoh,' and pronounced 'Katsu' +in Japanese, but 'tsu' is not audible. + + + +8. The Courage and the Composure of Mind of the Zen Monk and of the +Samurai. + +Fourthly, our Samurai encountered death, as is well known, with +unflinching courage. He would never turn back from, but fight till +his last with his enemy. To be called a coward was for him the +dishonour worse than death itself. An incident about Tsu Yuen +(So-gen), who came over to Japan in 1280, being invited by +Toki-mune[FN#86] (Ho-jo), the Regent General, well illustrates how +much Zen monks resembled our Samurais. The event happened when he +was in China, where the invading army of Yuen spread terror all over +the country. Some of the barbarians, who crossed the border of the +State of Wan, broke into the monastery of Tsu Yuen, and threatened to +behead him. Then calmly sitting down, ready to meet his fate, he +composed the following verses + +"The heaven and earth afford me no shelter at all; +I'm glad, unreal are body and soul. +Welcome thy weapon, O warrior of Yuen! Thy trusty steel, +That flashes lightning, cuts the wind of Spring, I feel." + + +[FN#86] A bold statesman and soldier, who was the real ruler of +Japan 1264-1283. + + +This reminds us of Sang Chao[FN#87] (So-jo), who, on the verge of +death by the vagabond's sword, expressed his feelings in the follow +lines: + +"In body there exists no soul. +The mind is not real at all. +Now try on me thy flashing steel, +As if it cuts the wind of Spring, I feel." + + +[FN#87] The man was not a pure Zen master, being a disciple of +Kumarajiva, the founder of the San Ron Sect. This is a most +remarkable evidence that Zen, especially the Rin Zan school, was +influenced by Kumarajiva and his disciples. For the details of the +anecdote, see E-gen. + + +The barbarians, moved by this calm resolution and dignified air of +Tsu Yuen, rightly supposed him to be no ordinary personage, and left +the monastery, doing no harm to him. + + + +9. Zen and the Regent Generals of the Ho-Jo Period. + +No wonder, then, that the representatives of the Samurai class, the +Regent Generals, especially such able rulers as Toki-yori, Toki-mune, +and others noted for their good administration, of the Ho-jo period +(1205-1332) greatly favoured Zen. They not only patronized the +faith, building great temples[FN#88] and inviting best Chinese Zen +teachers[FN#89] but also lived just as Zen monks, having the head +shaven, wearing a holy robe, and practising cross-legged Meditation. + + +[FN#88] To-fuku-ji, the head temple of a sub-sect of the Rin Zai +under the same name, was built in 1243. Ken-cho-ji, the head temple +of a subsect of the Rin Zai under the same name, was built in 1253. +En-gaku ji, the head temple of a sub-sect of the Rin Zai under the +same name, was built in 1282. Nan-zen-ji, the head temple of a +sub-sect of the Rin Zai under the same name, was erected in 1326. + +[FN#89] Tao Lung (Do-ryu), known as Dai-kaku Zen-ji, invited by +Tokiyori, came over to Japan in 1246. He became the founder of +Ken-cho-ji-ha, a sub-sect of the Rin Zai, and died in 1278. Of his +disciples, Yaku-o was most noted, and Yaku-o's disciple, Jaku-shitsu, +became the founder of Yo-genji-ha, another sub-sect of the Rin Zai. +Tsu Yuen (So-gen), known as Buk-ko-koku-shi, invited by Toki-mune, +crossed the sea in 1280, became the founder of En-gaku-ji-ha (a +sub-sect of the Rin Zai), and died in 1286. Tsing Choh (Sei-setsu), +invited by Taka-toki, came in 1327, and died in 1339. Chu Tsun +(So-shun) came in 1331, and died in 1336. Fan Sien (Bon-sen) came +together with Chu Tsun, and died in 1348. These were the prominent +Chinese teachers of that time. + + +Toki-yori (1247-1263), for instance, who entered the monastic life +while be was still the real governor of the country, led as simple a +life, as is shown in his verse, which ran as follows: + +"Higher than its bank the rivulet flows; +Greener than moss tiny grass grows. +No one call at my humble cottage on the rock, +But the gate by itself opens to the Wind's knock." + +Toki-yori attained to Enlightenment by the instruction of Do-gen and +Do-ryu, and breathed his last calmly sitting cross-legged, and +expressing his feelings in the following lines: + +"Thirty-seven of years, +Karma mirror stood high; +Now I break it to pieces, +Path of Great is then nigh." + +His successor, Toki-mune (1264-1283), a bold statesman and soldier, +was no less of a devoted believer in Zen. Twice he beheaded the +envoys sent by the great Chinese conqueror, Kublai, who demanded +Japan should either surrender or be trodden under his foot. And when +the alarming news of the Chinese Armada's approaching the land +reached him, be is said to have called on his tutor, Tsu Yuen, to +receive the last instruction. "Now, reverend sir," said. he, "an +imminent peril threatens the land." "How art thou going to encounter +it?" asked the master. Then Toki-mune burst into a thundering Ka +with all his might to show his undaunted spirit in encountering the +approaching enemy. "O, the lion's roar!" said Tsu Yuen. + +"Thou art a genuine lion. Go, and never turn back." Thus encouraged +by the teacher, the Regent General sent out the defending army, and +successfully rescued the state from the mouth of destruction, gaining +a splendid victory over the invaders, almost all of whom perished in +the western seas. + + + +10. Zen after the Downfall of the Ho-Jo Regency. + +Towards the end of the Ho-Jo period,[FN#90] and after the downfall of +the Regency in 1333, sanguinary battles were fought between the +Imperialists and the rebels. The former, brave and faithful as they +were, being outnumbered by the latter, perished in the field one +after another for the sake of the ill-starred Emperor Go-dai-go +(1319-1338), whose eventful life ended in anxiety and despair. + + +[FN#90] Although Zen was first favoured by the Ho-jo Regency and +chiefly prospered at Kama-kura, yet it rapidly began to exercise its +influence on nobles and Emperors at Kyo-to. This is mainly due to +the activity of En-ni, known as Sho-Ichi-Koku-Shi (1202-1280), who +first earned Zen under Gyo-yu, a disciple of Ei-sai, and afterwards +went to China, where he was Enlightened under the instruction of Wu +Chun, of the monastery of King Shan. After his return, Michi-iye +(Fuji-wara), a powerful nobleman, erected for him To-fuku-ji in 1243, +and he became the founder of a sub-sect of the Rin Zai, named after +that monastery. The Emperor Go-saga (1243-1246), an admirer of his, +received the Moral Precepts from him. One of his disciples, To-zan, +became the spiritual adviser of the Emperor Fushi-mi (1288-1298), and +another disciple, Mu kwan, was created the abbot of the monastery of +Nan-zen-ji by the Emperor Kame-yama (1260-1274), as the founder of a +sub-sect of the Rin Zai under the same name. + +Another teacher who gained lasting influence on the Court is Nan-po, +known as Dai-O-Koku-Shi (1235-1308), who was appointed the abbot of +the monastery of Man-ju-ji in Kyo to by the Emperor Fushi-mi. One of +his disciples, Tsu-o, was the spiritual adviser to both the Emperor +Hana-zono (1308-1318) and the Emperor Go-dai-go. And another +disciple, Myo-cho, known as Dai-To-Koku-Shi (1282-1337), also was +admired by the two Emperors, and created the abbot of Dai-toku-ji, as +the founder of a sub-sect of the Rin Zai under the same name. It was +for Myo-cho's disciple, Kan-zan (1277 1360), that the Emperor +Hana-zono turned his detached palace into a monastery, named +Myo-shin-ji, the head temple of a sub-sect of the Rin Zai under the +same name. + + +It was at this time that Japan gave birth to Masa-shige (Kusu-noki), +an able general and tactician of the Imperialists, who for the sake +of the Emperor not only sacrificed himself and his brother, but by +his will his son and his son's successor died for the same cause, +boldly attacking the enemy whose number was overwhelmingly great. +Masa-shige's loyalty, wisdom, bravery, and prudence are not merely +unique in the history of Japan, but perhaps in the history of man. +The tragic tale about his parting with his beloved son, and his +bravery shown at his last battle, never fail to inspire the Japanese +with heroism. He is the best specimen of the Samurai class. +According to an old document,[FN#91] this Masa-shige was the +practiser of Zen, and just before his last battle he called on Chu +Tsun (So-shun) to receive the final instruction. "What have I to do +when death takes the place of life?" asked Masa-shige. The teacher +replied: + +"Be bold, at once cut off both ties, +The drawn sword gleams against the skies." + +Thus becoming, as it were, an indispensable discipline for the +Samurai, Zen never came to an end with the Ho-jo period, but grew +more prosperous than before during the reign[FN#92] of the Emperor +Go-dai-go, one of the most enthusiastic patrons of the faith. + + +[FN#91] The event is detailed at length in a life of So-shun, but +some historians suspect it to be fictitious. This awaits a further +research. + +[FN#92] As we have already mentioned, Do-gen, the founder of the +Japanese So To Sect, shunned the society of the rich and the +powerful, and led a secluded life. In consequence his sect did not +make any rapid progress until the Fourth Patriarch of his line, +Kei-zan (1268-1325) who, being of energetic spirit, spread his faith +with remarkable activity, building many large monasteries, of which +Yo-ko-ji, in the province of No-to, So-ji-ji (near Yokohama), one of +the head temples of the sect, are well known. One of his disciples, +Mei ho (1277-1350), propagated the faith in the northern provinces; +while another disciple, Ga-san (1275-1365), being a greater +character, brought up more than thirty distinguished disciples, of +whom Tai-gen, Tsu-gen, Mu-tan, Dai-tetsu, and Jip-po, are best known. + Tai-gen (died 1370) and big successors propagated the faith over the +middle provinces, while Tsu-gen (1332-1391) and his successors spread +the sect all over the north-eastern and south-western provinces. +Thus it is worthy of our notice that most of the Rin Zai teachers +confined their activities within Kamakura and Kyo-to, while the So To +masters spread the faith all over the country. + + +The Shoguns of the Ashi-kaga period (1338-1573) were not less devoted +to the faith than the Emperors who succeeded the Emperor Go-dai-go. +And even Taka-uji (1338-1357), the notorious founder of the +Shogunate, built a monastery and invited So-seki,[FN#93] better known +as Mu-So-Koku-Shi, who was respected as the tutor by the three +successive Emperors after Go-dai-go. Taka-uji's example was followed +by all succeeding Shoguns, and Shogun's example was followed by the +feudal lords and their vassals. This resulted in the propagation of +Zen throughout the country. We can easily imagine how Zen was +prosperous in these days from the splendid monasteries[FN#94] built +at this period, such as the Golden Hall Temple and the Silver Hall +Temple that still adorn the fair city of Kyo-to. + +[FN#93] So-seki (1276-1351) was perhaps the greatest Zen master of +the period. Of numerous monasteries built for him, E-rin-ji, in the +province of Kae, and Ten-ryu-ji, the head temple of a sub-sect of the +Rin Zai under the same name, are of importance. Out of over seventy +eminent disciples of his, Gi-do (1365-1388), the author of Ku-ge-shu; +Shun-oku (1331-1338), the founder of the monastery of So-koku-ji, the +head temple of a sub-sect of the Rin Zai under the same name; and +Zek-kai (1337-1405), author of Sho-ken-shu, are best known. + + +[FN#94] Myo-shin-ji was built in 1337 by the Emperor Hana-zono; +Ten-ryu-ji was erected by Taka-uji, the first Shogun of the period, +in 1344; So-koku-ji by Yosh-imitsu, the third Shogun, in 1385; +Kin-Kaku-ji, or Golden Hall Temple, by the same Shogun, in 1397; +Gin-kaku-ji, or Silver Hall Temple, by Yoshi-masa, the eighth Shogun, +in 1480. + + + +11. Zen in the Dark Age. + +The latter half of the Ashikaga period was the age of arms and +bloodshed. Every day the sun shone on the glittering armour of +marching soldiers. Every wind sighed over the lifeless remains of +the brave. Everywhere the din of battle resounded. Out of these +fighting feudal lords stood two champions. Each of them +distinguished himself as a veteran soldier and tactician. Each of +them was known as an experienced practiser of Zen. One was +Haru-nobu[FN#95] (Take-da, died in 1573), better known by his +Buddhist name, Shin-gen. The other was Teru-tora[FN#96] (Uye-sugi, +died in 1578), better known by his Buddhist name, Ken-shin. The +character of Shin-gen can be imagined from the fact that he never +built any castle or citadel or fortress to guard himself against his +enemy, but relied on his faithful vassals and people; while that of +Ken-shin, from the fact that he provided his enemy, Shin-gen, with +salt when the latter suffered from want of it, owing to the cowardly +stratagem of a rival lord. The heroic battles waged by these two +great generals against each other are the flowers of the Japanese +war-history. Tradition has it that when Shin-gen's army was put to +rout by the furious attacks of Ken-shin's troops, and a single +warrior mounted on a huge charger rode swiftly as a sweeping wind +into Shin-gen's head-quarters, down came a blow of the heavy sword +aimed at Shin-gen's forehead, with a question expressed in the +technical terms of Zen: "What shalt thou do in such a state at such a +moment?" Having no time to draw his sword, Shin-gen parried it with +his war-fan, answering simultaneously in Zen words: "A flake of snow +on the red-hot furnace!" Had not his attendants come to the rescue +Shin-gen's life might have gone as 'a flake of snow on the red-hot +furnace.' Afterwards the horseman was known to have been Ken-shin +himself. This tradition shows us how Zen was practically lived by +the Samurais of the Dark Age. + + +[FN#95] Shin-gen practised Zen under the instruction of Kwai-sen, +who was burned to death by Nobu-naga (O-da) in 1582. See +Hon-cho-ko-so-den. + +[FN#96] Ken-shin learned Zen under Shu-ken, a So Ta master. See +To-jo-ren-to-roku. + + +Although the priests of other Buddhist sects had their share in these +bloody affairs, as was natural at such a time, yet Zen monks stood +aloof and simply cultivated their literature. Consequently, when all +the people grew entirely ignorant at the end of the Dark Age, the Zen +monks were the only men of letters. None can deny this merit of +their having preserved learning and prepared for its revival in the +following period.[FN#97] + + +[FN#97] After the introduction of Zen into Japan many important +books were written, and the following are chief doctrinal works: +Ko-zen-go-koku-ron, by Ei-sai; Sho bo-gen-zo; Gaku-do-yo-zin-shu; +Fu-kwan-za-zen-gi; Ei-hei-ko-roku, by Do-gen; Za-zen-yo-zin-ki; and +Den-ko-roku, by Kei-zan. + + + +12. Zen under the Toku-gana Shogunate. + +Peace was at last restored by Iye-yasu, the founder of the Toku-gana +Shogunate (1603-1867). During this period the Shogunate gave +countenance to Buddhism on one hand, acknowledging it as the state +religion, bestowing rich property to large monasteries, making +priests take rank over common people, ordering every householder to +build a Buddhist altar in his house; while, on the other hand, it did +everything to extirpate Christianity, introduced in the previous +period (1544). All this paralyzed the missionary spirit of the +Buddhists, and put all the sects in dormant state. As for Zen[FN#98] +it was still favoured by feudal lords and their vassals, and almost +all provincial lords embraced the faith. + + +[FN#98] The So To Sect was not wanting in competent teachers, for it +might take pride in its Ten-kei (1648-1699), whose religious insight +was unsurpassed by any other master of the age; in its Shi getsu, who +was a commentator of various Zen books, and died 1764; in its Men-zan +(1683-1769), whose indefatigable works on the exposition of So To Zen +are invaluable indeed; and its Getsu-shu (1618-1696) and Man-zan +(1635-1714), to whose labours the reformation of the faith is +ascribed. Similarly, the Rin Zai Sect, in its Gu-do (1579-1661); in +its Isshi (1608-1646); in its Taku-an (1573-1645), the favourite +tutor of the third Shogun, Iye-mitsu; in its Haku-in (1667-1751), the +greatest of the Rin Zai masters of the day, to whose extraordinary +personality and labour the revival of the sect is due; and its To-rei +(1721-1792), a learned disciple of Haku-in. Of the important Zen +books written by these masters, Ro-ji-tan-kin, by Ten-kei; +Men-zan-ko-roku, by Men-zan; Ya-sen-kwan-wa, Soku-ko-roku, +Kwai-an-koku-go, Kei-so-doku-zui, by Haku-in; Shu-mon-mu-jin-to-ron, +by To-rei, are well known. + + +It was about the middle of this period that the forty-seven vassals +of Ako displayed the spirit of the Samurai by their perseverance, +self-sacrifice, and loyalty, taking vengeance on the enemy of their +deceased lord. The leader of these men, the tragic tales of whom can +never be told or heard without tears, was Yoshi-o (O-ishi died 1702), +a believer of Zen,[FN#99] and his tomb in the cemetery of the temple +of Sen-gaku-ji, Tokyo, is daily visited by hundreds of his admirers. +Most of the professional swordsmen forming a class in these days +practised Zen. Mune-nori[FN#100](Ya-gyu), for instance, established +his reputation by the combination of Zen and the fencing art. + + +[FN#99] See "Zen Shu," No. 151. + +[FN#100] He is known as Ta-jima, who practised Zen under Taku-an. + + +The following story about Boku-den (Tsuka-hara), a great swordsman, +fully illustrates this tendency: + +"On a certain occasion Boku-den took a ferry to cross over the Yabase +in the province of Omi. There was among the passengers a Samurai, +tall and square-shouldered, apparently an experienced fencer. He +behaved rudely toward the fellow-passengers, and talked so much of +his own dexterity in the art that Boku-den, provoked by his brag, +broke silence. 'You seem, my friend, to practise the art in order to +conquer the enemy, but I do it in order not to be conquered,' said +Boku-den. 'O monk,' demanded the man, as Boku-den was clad like a +Zen monk, 'what school of swordsmanship do you belong to?' Well, +mine is the Conquering-enemy-without-fighting-school.' 'Don't tell a +fib, old monk. If you could conquer the enemy without fighting, what +then is your sword for?' 'My sword is not to kill, but to save,' +said Boku-den, making use of Zen phrases; 'my art is transmitted from +mind to mind.' 'Now then, come, monk,' challenged the man, 'let us +see, right at this moment, who is the victor, you or I.' The +gauntlet was picked up without hesitation. 'But we must not fight,' +said Boku-den, 'in the ferry, lest the passengers should be hurt. +Yonder a small island you see. There we shall decide the contest.' +To this proposal the man agreed, and the boat was pulled to that +island. No sooner had the boat reached the shore than the man jumped +over to the land, and cried: 'Come on, monk, quick, quick!' +Boku-den, however, slowly rising, said: 'Do not hasten to lose your +head. It is a rule of my school to prepare slowly for fighting, +keeping the soul in the abdomen.' So saying he snatched the oar from +the boatman and rowed the boat back to some distance, leaving the man +alone, who, stamping the ground madly, cried out: 'O, you fly, monk, +you coward. Come, old monk!' 'Now listen,' said Boku-den, 'this is +the secret art of the Conquering-enemy-without-fighting-school. +Beware that you do not forget it, nor tell it to anybody else.' +Thus, getting rid of the brawling fellow, Boku-den and his +fellow-passengers safely landed on the opposite shore."[FN#101] The +O Baku School of Zen was introduced by Yin Yuen (In-gen) who crossed +the sea in 1654, accompanied by many able disciples.[FN#102] The +Shogunate gave him a tract of land at Uji, near Kyo-to, and in 1659 +he built there a monastery noted for its Chinese style of +architecture, now known as O-baku-san. The teachers of the same +school[FN#103] came one after another from China, and Zen[FN#104] +peculiar to them, flourished a short while. + + +[FN#101] Shi-seki-shu-ran. + +[FN#102] In-gen (1654-1673) came over with Ta-Mei (Dai-bi, died +1673), Hwui Lin (E-rin died 1681), Tuh Chan (Doku-tan, died 1706), +and others. For the life of In-gen: see Zoku-ko-shu-den and +Kaku-shu-ko-yo. + +[FN#103] Tsih Fei (Soku-hi died 1671), Muh Ngan (Moku-an died 1684), +Kao Tsuen (Ko-sen died 1695), the author of Fu-so-zen-rin-so-bo-den, +To-koku-ko-so-den, and Sen-un-shu, are best known. + +[FN#104] This is a sub-sect of the Rin Zai School, as shown in the +following table: + +TABLE OF THE TRANSMISSION OF ZEN FROM CHINA TO JAPAN. + +1. Bodhidharma. +2. Hwui Ko (E-ka). +3. San Tsang (So-san). +4. Tao Sin (Do-shin). +5. Hung Jan (Ko nin). +---THE NORTHERN SECT + 6. Shang Siu (Jin-shu). +---THE SOUTHERN SECT + 6. Hwui Nang (E-no). + ---THE RIN ZAI SCHOOL. + 7. Nan Yoh (Nan-gaku). + ---10. Gi-ku. + ---11. Lin Tsi (Rin-zai). + ---21. Yuen Wu (En-go). + ---22. Fuh Hai (Bukkai). + ---28. Kaku-a. + ---THE O BAKU SCHOOL. + 42. In-gen. + ---25. Hti Ngan (Kyo-an). + ---26. Ei-sai. + ---THE SO TO SCHOOL. + 7. Tsing Yuen (Sei-gen). + ---8. Shih Teu (Seki-to). + ---11. Tung Shan (To-zan). + ---23. Ju Tsing (Nyo-jo). + ---24. Do-gen. + +The O Baku School is the amalgamation of Zen and the worship of +Amitabha, and different from the other two schools. The statistics +for 1911 give the following figures: + +The Number of Temples: + +The So To School 14,255 +The Rin Zai School 6,128 +The O Baku School 546 + +The Number of Teachers: + +The So To School 9,576 +The Rin Zai School 4,523 +The O Baku School 349 + + +It was also in this period that Zen gained a great influence on the +popular literature characterized by the shortest form of poetical +composition. This was done through the genius of Ba-sho,[FN#105] a +great literary man, recluse and traveller, who, as his writings show +us, made no small progress in the study of Zen. Again, it was made +use of by the teachers of popular[FN#106] ethics, who did a great +deal in the education of the lower classes. In this way Zen and its +peculiar taste gradually found its way into the arts of peace, such +as literature, fine art, tea-ceremony, cookery, gardening, +architecture, and at last it has permeated through every fibre of +Japanese life. + +[FN#105] He (died 1694) learned Zen under a contemporary Zen master +(Buccho), and is said to have been enlightened before his reformation +of the popular literature. + +[FN#106] The teaching was called Shin-gaku, or the 'learning of +mind.' It was first taught by Bai-gan (Ishi-da), and is the +reconciliation of Shintoism and Buddhism with Confucianism. Bai-gan +and his successors practised Meditation, and were enlightened in +their own way. Do-ni (Naka-zawa, died 1803) made use of Zen more +than any other teacher. + + + +13. Zen after the Restoration. + +After the Restoration of the Mei-ji (1867) the popularity of Zen +began to wane, and for some thirty years remained in inactivity; but +since the Russo-Japanese War its revival has taken place. And now it +is looked upon as an ideal faith, both for a nation full of hope and +energy, and for a person who has to fight his own way in the strife +of life. Bushido, or the code of chivalry, should be observed not +only by the soldier in the battle-field, but by every citizen in the +struggle for existence. If a person be a person and not a beast, +then he must be a Samurai-brave, generous, upright, faithful, and +manly, full of self-respect and self-confidence, at the same time +full of the spirit of self-sacrifice. We can find an incarnation of +Bushido in the late General Nogi, the hero of Port Arthur, who, after +the sacrifice of his two sons for the country in the Russo-Japanese +War, gave up his own and his wife's life for the sake of the deceased +Emperor. He died not in vain, as some might think, because his +simplicity, uprightness, loyalty, bravery, self-control, and +self-sacrifice, all combined in his last act, surely inspire the +rising generation with the spirit of the Samurai to give birth to +hundreds of Nogis. Now let us see in the following chapters what Zen +so closely connected with Bushido teaches us. + + + + + +CHAPTER III + + + +THE UNIVERSE IS THE SCRIPTURE[FN#107] OF ZEN + + +1. Scripture is no More than Waste Paper. + +[FN#107] Zen is not based on any particular sutra, either of +Mahayana or of Hinayana. There are twofold Tripitakas (or the three +collections of the Buddhist scriptures)-namely, the +Mahayana-tripitaka and the Hinayana-tripitaka. The former are the +basis of the Mahayana, or the higher and reformed Buddhism, full of +profound metaphysical reasonings; while the latter form that of the +Hinayana, or the lower and early Buddhism, which is simple and +ethical teaching. These twofold Tripitakas are as follows: + +THE MAHAYANA-TRIPITAKA. + +The Sutra Pitaka.-The Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, +Samdhi-nirmocana-sutra, Avatamsaka-sutra, Prajnyaparamita-sutra, +Amitayus-sutra, Mahaparinirvana-sutra, etc. + +The Vinaya Pitaka.--Brahmajala-sutra, Bodhisattva-caryanirdeca, etc. + +The Abhidharma Pitaka.--Mahaprajnyaparamita-sutra, +Mahayana-craddhotpada-castra, Madhyamaka-castra, Yogacarya +bhumi-castra, etc. + +THE HINAYANA-TRIPITAKA. +The Sutra Pitaka.--Dirghagama, Ekottaragama, Madhyamagama, +Samyuktagama, etc. + +The Vinaya Pitaka.--Dharmagupta-vinaya, Mahasamghika-vinaya, +Sarvastivada-vinaya, etc. + +The Abhidharma Pitaka.--Dharma-skandha-pada, Samgiti-paryaya-pada, +Jnyanaprasthana-castra, Abhidharma-kosa-castra, etc. + +The term 'Tripitaka,' however, was not known at the time of Shakya +Muni, and almost all of the northern Buddhist records agree in +stating that the Tripitaka was rehearsed and settled in the same year +in which the Muni died. Mahavansa also says: "The book called +Abhidharma-pitaka was compiled, which was preached to god, and was +arranged in due order by 500 Budhu priests." But we believe that +Shakya Muni's teaching was known to the early Buddhists, not as +Tripitaka, but as Vinaya and Dharma, and even at the time of King +Acoka (who ascended the throne about 269 B.C.) it was not called +Tripitaka, but Dharma, as we have it in his Edicts. Mahayanists +unanimously assert the compilation of the Tripitaka in the first +council of Rajagrha, but they differ in opinion as to the question +who rehearsed the Abhidharma; notwithstanding, they agree as for the +other respects, as you see in the following: + +The Sutra Pitaka, compiled by Ananda; the Vinaya Pitaka, compiled by +Upali; the Abhidharma Pitaka, compiled by Ananda--according to +Nagarjuna (Mahaprajnyaparamita-castra). + +The Sutra Pitaka, compiled by Ananda; the Vinaya Pitaka, compiled by +Upali; the Abhidharma Pitaka, compiled by Kacyapa according to Huen +Tsang (Ta-tan-si-yu-ki). + +The Sutra Pitaka, compiled by Ananda; the Vinaya Pitaka, compiled by +Upali; the Abhidharma Pitaka, compiled by Purna--according to +Paramartha ('A Commentary on the History of the Hinayana Schools'). + +The above-mentioned discrepancy clearly betrays the uncertainty of +their assertions, and gives us reason to discredit the compilation of +Abhidharma Pitaka at the first council. Besides, judging from the +Dharma-gupta-vinaya and other records, which states that Purna took +no part in the first council, and that he had different opinions as +to the application of the rules of discipline from that of Kacyapa, +there should be some errors in Paramartha's assertion. +Of these three collections of the Sacred Writings, the first two, or +Sutra and Vinaya, of Mahayana, as well as of Himayana, are believed +to be the direct teachings of Shakya Muni himself, because all the +instructions are put in the mouth of the Master or sanctioned by him. + The Mahayanists, however, compare the Hinayana doctrine with a +resting-place on the road for a traveller, while the Mahayana +doctrine with his destination. All the denominations of Buddhism, +with a single exception of Zen, are based on the authority of some +particular sacred writings. The Ten Dai Sect, for instance, is based +on Saddharma-pundarika-sutra; the Jo Do Sect on Larger +Sukhavati-vyuha, Smaller Sukhavati-vyuha, and Amitayus-dhyana-sutra; +the Ke Gon Sect on Avatamsaka-sutra; the Hosso Sect on +Samdhi-nirmocana-sutra. + + +Zen is based on the highest spiritual plane attained by Shakya Muni +himself. It can only be realized by one who has attained the same +plane. To describe it in full by means of words is beyond the power +even of Gotama himself. It is for this reason that the author of +Lankavatara-sutra insists that Shakya Muni spoke no word through his +long career of forty-nine years as a religious teacher, and that of +Mahaprajnyaparamita-sutra[FN#108] also express the same opinion. The +Scripture is no more nor less than the finger pointing to the moon of +Buddhahood. When we recognize the moon and enjoy its benign beauty, +the finger is of no use. As the finger has no brightness whatever, +so the Scripture has no holiness whatever. The Scripture is +religious currency representing spiritual wealth. It does not matter +whether money be gold, or sea-shells, or cows. It is a mere +substitute. What it stands for is of paramount importance. Away +with your stone-knife! Do not watch the stake against which a +running hare once struck its head and died. Do not wait for another +hare. Another may not come for ever. Do not cut the side of the +boat out of which you dropped your sword to mark where it sunk. The +boat is ever moving on. The Canon is the window through which we +observe the grand scenery of spiritual nature. To hold communion +directly with it we must get out of the window. It is a mere stray +fly that is always buzzing within it, struggling to get out. Those +who spend most of their lives in the study of the Scriptures, arguing +and explaining with hair-splitting reasonings, and attain no higher +plane in spirituality, are religious flies good for nothing but their +buzzing about the nonsensical technicalities. It is on this account +that Rin-zai declared:[FN#109] 'The twelve divisions of the Buddhist +Canon are nothing better than waste paper.' + + +[FN#108] Mahaprajnyaparamita-sutra, vol. 425. + +[FN#109] Rin-zai-roku. + + + +2. No Need of the Scriptural Authority for Zen. + +Some Occidental scholars erroneously identify Buddhism with the +primitive faith of Hinayanism, and are inclined to call Mahayanism, a +later developed faith, a degenerated one. If the primitive faith be +called the genuine, as these scholars think, and the later developed +faith be the degenerated one, then the child should be called the +genuine man and the grown-up people be the degenerated ones; +similarly, the primitive society must be the genuine and the modern +civilization be the degenerated one. So also the earliest writings +of the Old Testament should be genuine and the four Gospels be +degenerated. Beyond all doubt Zen belongs to Mahayanism, yet this +does not imply that it depends on the scriptural authority of that +school, because it does not trouble itself about the Canon whether it +be Hinayana or Mahayana, or whether it was directly spoken by Shakya +Muni or written by some later Buddhists. Zen is completely free from +the fetters of old dogmas, dead creeds, and conventions of +stereotyped past, that check the development of a religious faith and +prevent the discovery of a new truth. Zen needs no Inquisition. It +never compelled nor will compel the compromise of a Galileo or a +Descartes. No excommunication of a Spinoza or the burning of a Bruno +is possible for Zen. + +On a certain occasion Yoh Shan (Yaku-san) did not preach the doctrine +for a long while, and was requested to give a sermon by his assistant +teacher, saying: "Would your reverence preach the Dharma to your +pupils, who long thirst after your merciful instruction?" "Then ring +the bell," replied Yoh Shan. The bell rang, and all the monks +assembled in the Hall eager to bear the sermon. Yoh Shan went up to +the pulpit and descended immediately without saying a word. "You, +reverend sir," asked the assistant, "promised to deliver a sermon a +little while ago. Why do you not preach?" "Sutras are taught by the +Sutra teachers," said the master; "Castras are taught by the Castra +teachers. No wonder that I say nothing."[FN#110] This little +episode will show you that Zen is no fixed doctrine embodied in a +Sutra or a Castra, but a conviction or realization within us. + + +[FN#110] Zen-rin-rui-shu and E-gen. + + +To quote another example, an officer offered to Tung Shan (To-zan) +plenty of alms, and requested him to recite the sacred Canon. Tung +Shan, rising from his chair, made a bow respectfully to the officer, +who did the same to the teacher. Then Tung Shan went round the +chair, taking the officer with him, and making a bow again to the +officer, asked: "Do you see what I mean?" "No, sir," replied the +other. "I have been reciting the sacred Canon, why do you not +see?"[FN#111] Thus Zen does not regard Scriptures in black and white +as its Canon, for it takes to-days and tomorrows of this actual life +as its inspired pages. + + +[FN#111] Zen-rin-rui-sha and To-zan-roku. + + + +3. The Usual Explanation of the Canon. + +An eminent Chinese Buddhist scholar, well known as Ten Dai Dai Shi +(A.D. 538-597), arranged the whole preachings of Shakya Muni in a +chronological order in accordance with his own religious theory, and +observed that there were the Five Periods in the career of the Buddha +as a religious teacher. He tried to explain away all the +discrepancies and contradictions, with which the Sacred Books are +encumbered, by arranging the Sutras in a line of development. His +elucidation was so minute and clear, and his metaphysical reasonings +so acute and captivating, that his opinion was universally accepted +as an historical truth, not merely by the Chinese, but also by the +Japanese Mahayanists. We shall briefly state here the so-called Five +Periods. + +Shakya Muni attained to Buddhaship in his thirtieth year, and sat +motionless for seven days under the Bodhi tree, absorbed in deep +meditation, enjoying the first bliss of his Enlightenment. In the +second week he preached his Dharma to the innumerable multitude of +Bodhisattvas,[FN#112] celestial beings, and deities in the nine +assemblies held at seven different places. This is the origin of a +famous Mahayana book entitled Buddhavatamsaka-mahavaipulya-sutra. In +this book the Buddha set forth his profound Law just as it was +discovered by his highly Enlightened mind, without considering the +mental states of his hearers. Consequently the ordinary hearers (or +the Buddha's immediate disciples) could not understand the doctrine, +and sat stupefied as if they were 'deaf and dumb,' while the great +Bodhisattvas fully understood and realized the doctrine. This is +called the first period, which lasted only two or three[FN#113] weeks. + + +[FN#112] Bodhisattva is an imaginary personage, or ideal saint, +superior to Arhat, or the highest saint of Hinayanism. The term +'Bodhisattva' was first applied to the Buddha before his +Enlightenment, and afterwards was adopted by Mahayanists to mean the +adherent of Mahayanism in contradistinction with the Cravaka or +hearers of Hinayanism. + +[FN#113] Bodhiruci says to the effect that the preachings in the +first five assemblies were made in the first week, and the rest were +delivered in the second week. Nagarjuna says that the Buddha spoke +no word for fifty-seven days after his Enlightenment. It is said in +Saddharma-pundarika-sutra that after three weeks the Buddha preached +at Varanasi, and it says nothing respecting Avatamsaka-sutra. Though +there are divers opinions about the Buddha's first sermon and its +date, all traditions agree in this that he spent some time in +meditation, and then delivered the first sermon to the five ascetics +at Varanasi. + + +Thereupon Shakya Muni, having discovered that ordinary bearers were +too ignorant to believe in the Mahayana doctrine and appreciate the +greatness of Buddhahood, thought it necessary to modify his teaching +so as to adjust it to the capacity of ordinary people. So he went to +Varanasi (or Benares) and preached his modified doctrine--that is, +Hinayanism. The instruction given at that time has been handed down +to us as the four Agamas,[FN#114] or the four Nikayas. This is +called the second period, which lasted about twelve years. It was at +the beginning of this period that the Buddha converted the five +ascetics,[FN#115] who became his disciples. Most of the Çravakas or +the adherents of Hinayanism were converted during this period. They +trained their hearts in accordance with the modified Law, learned the +four noble truths,[FN#116] and worked out their own salvation. + + +[FN#114] (1) Anguttara, (2) Majjhima, (3) Digha, (4) Samyutta. + +[FN#115] Kondanynya, Vappa, Baddiya, Mahanana, Assaji. + +[FN#116] The first is the sacred truth of suffering; the second the +truth of the origin of suffering--that is, lust and desire; the third +the sacred truth of the extinction of suffering; the fourth the +sacred truth of the path that leads to the extinction of suffering. +There are eight noble paths that lead to the extinction of +suffering--that is, Right faith, Right resolve, Right speech, Right +action, Right living, Right effort, Right thought, and Right +meditation. + + +The Buddha then having found his disciples firmly adhering to +Hinayanism without knowing that it was a modified and imperfect +doctrine, he had to lead them up to a higher and perfect doctrine +that he might lead them up to Buddhahood. With this object in view +Shakya Muni preached Vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra[FN#117], +Lankavatara-sutra, and other sutras, in which he compared Hinayanism +with Mahayanism, and described the latter in glowing terms as a deep +and perfect Law, whilst he set forth the former at naught as a +superficial and imperfect one. Thus he showed his disciples the +inferiority of Hinayanism, and caused them to desire for Mahayanism. +This is said to be the third period, which lasted some eight years. + + +[FN#117] This is one of the most noted Mahayana books, and is said +to be the best specimen of the sutras belonging to this period. It +is in this sutra that most of Shakya's eminent disciples, known as +the adherents of Hinayanism, are astonished with the profound wisdom, +the eloquent speech, and the supernatural power of Vimalakirtti, a +Bodhisattva, and confess the inferiority of their faith. The author +frequently introduces episodes in order to condemn Hinayanism, making +use of miracles of his own invention. + + +The disciples of the Buddha now understood that Mahayanism was far +superior to Hinayanism, but they thought the higher doctrine was only +for Bodhisattvas and beyond their understanding. Therefore they +still adhered to the modified doctrine, though they did no longer +decry Mahayanism, which they had no mind to practise. Upon this +Shakya Muni preached Prajnyaparamita-sutras[FN#118] in the sixteen +assemblies held at four different places, and taught them Mahayanism +in detail in order to cause them to believe it and practise it. Thus +they became aware that there was no definite demarcation between +Mahayanism and Hinayanism, and that they might become Mahayanists. +This is the fourth period, which lasted about twenty-two years. +Now, the Buddha, aged seventy-two, thought it was high time to preach +his long-cherished doctrine that all sentient beings can attain to +Supreme Enlightenment; so he preached Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, in +which he prophesied when and where his disciples should become +Buddhas. It was his greatest object to cause all sentient beings to +be Enlightened and enable them to enjoy the bliss of Nirvana. It was +for this that he had endured great pain and hardships through his +previous existences. It was for this that he had left his heavenly +abode to appear on earth. It was for this that he had preached from +time to time through his long career of forty-seven years. Having +thus realized his great aim, Shakya Muni had now to prepare for his +final departure, and preached Mahaparinirvana-sutra in order to show +that all the animated and inanimate things were endowed with the same +nature as his. After this last instruction he passed to eternity. +This is called the fifth period, which lasted some eight years. + + +[FN#118] Nagarjuna's doctrine depends mainly on these sutras. + + +These five periods above mentioned can scarcely be called historical +in the proper sense of the term, yet they are ingeniously invented by +Ten Dai Dai Shi to set the Buddhist Scriptures in the order of +doctrinal development, and place Saddharma-pundarika in the highest +rank among the Mahayana books. His argument, however dogmatic and +anti-historical in no small degree, would be not a little valuable +for our reader, who wants to know the general phase of the Buddhist +Canon, consisting of thousands of fascicles. + + + +4. Sutras used by Zen Masters. + +Ten Dai failed to explain away the discrepancies and contradictions +of which the Canon is full, and often contradicted himself by the +ignoring of historical[FN#119] facts. + + +[FN#119] Let us state our own opinion on the subject in question. +The foundation of Hinayanism consists in the four Nikayas, or four +Agamas, the most important books of that school. Besides the four +Agamas, there exist in the Chinese Tripitaka numerous books +translated by various authors, some of which are extracts from +Agamas, and some the lives of the Buddha, while others are entirely +different sutras, apparently of later date. Judging from these +sources, it seems to us that most of Shakya Muni's original teachings +are embodied into the four Agamas. But it is still a matter of +uncertainty that whether they are stated in Agamas now extant just as +they were, for the Buddha's preachings were rehearsed immediately +after the Buddha's death in the first council held at Rajagrha, yet +not consigned to writing. They were handed down by memory about one +hundred years. Then the monks at Vaisali committed the so-called Ten +Indulgences, infringing the rules of the Order, and maintained that +Shakya Muni had not condemned them in his preachings. As there were, +however, no written sutras to disprove their assertion, the elders, +such as Yaca, Revata, and others, who opposed the Indulgences, had to +convoke the second council of 700 monks, in which they succeeded in +getting the Indulgences condemned, and rehearsed the Buddha's +instruction for the second time. Even in this council of Vaisali we +cannot find the fact that the Master's preachings were reduced to +writing. The decisions of the 700 elders were not accepted by the +party of opposition, who held a separate council, and settled their +own rules and doctrine. Thus the same doctrine of the Teacher began +to be differently stated and believed. + +This being the first open schism, one disruption after another took +place among the Buddhistic Order. There were many different schools +of the Buddhists at the time when King Acoka ascended the throne +(about 269 B.C.), and the patronage of the King drew a great number +of pagan ascetics into the Order, who, though they dressed themselves +in the yellow robes, yet still preserved their religious views in +their original colour. This naturally led the Church into continual +disturbances and moral corruption. In the eighteenth year of Acoka's +reign the King summoned the council of 1,000 monks at Pataliputra +(Patna), and settled the orthodox doctrine in order to keep the +Dharma pure from heretical beliefs. We believe that about this time +some of the Buddha's preachings were reduced to writing, for the +missionaries despatched by the King in the year following the council +seem to have set out with written sutras. In addition to this, some +of the names of the passages of the Dharma are given in the Bharbra +edict of the King, which was addressed to the monks in Magadha. We +do not suppose, however, that all the sutras were written at once in +these days, but that they were copied down from memory one after +another at different times, because some of the sutras were put down +in Ceylon 160 years after the Council of Patna. + +In the introductory book of Ekottaragama (Anguttara Nikaya), now +extant in the Chinese Tripitaka, we notice the following points: (1) +It is written in a style quite different from that of the original +Agama, but similar to that of the supplementary books of the Mahayana +sutras; (2) it states Ananda's compilation of the Tripitaka after the +death of the Master; (3) it refers to the past Buddhas, the future +Buddha Maitreya, and innumerable Bodhisattvas; (4) it praises the +profound doctrine of Mahayanism. From this we infer that the Agama +was put in the present form after the rise of the Mahayana School, +and handed down through the hand of Mahasanghika scholars, who were +much in sympathy with Mahayanism. + +Again, the first book of Dirghagama, (Digha Nikaya), that describes +the line of Buddhas who appeared before Shakya Muni, adopts the whole +legend of Gotama's life as a common mode of all Buddhas appearing on +earth; while the second book narrates the death of Gotama and the +distribution of his relies, and refers to Pataliputra, the new +capital of Acoka. This shows us that the present Agama is not of an +earlier date than the third century B.C. Samyuktagama (Samyutta +Nikaya) also gives a detailed account of Acoka's conversion, and of +his father Bindusara. From these evidences we may safely infer that +the Hinayana sutras were put in the present shape at different times +between the third century B.C. and the first century A.D. +With regard to the Mahayana sutras we have little doubt about their +being the writings of the later Buddhist reformers, even if they are +put in the mouth of Shakya Muni. They are entirely different from +the sutras of Hinayanism, and cannot be taken as the preachings of +one and the same person. The reader should notice the following +points: + +(1) Four councils were held for the rehearsal of the Tripitaka +namely, the first at Rajagrha, in the year of Shakya Muni's death; +the second at Vaisali, some 100 years after the Buddha; the third at +the time of King Acoka, about 235 years after the Master; the fourth +at the time of King Kanishka, the first century A.D. But all these +councils were held to compile the Hinayana sutras, and nothing is +known of the rehearsal of the Mahayana books. Some are of opinion +that the first council was held within the Sattapanni cave, near +Rajagrha, where the Hinayana Tripitaka was rehearsed by 500 monks, +while outside the cave there assembled a greater number of monks, who +were not admitted into the cave, and rehearsed the Mahayana +Tripitaka. This opinion, however, is based on no reliable source. + +(2) The Indian orthodox Buddhists of old declared that the Mahayana +sutras were the fabrication of heretics or of the Evil One, and not +the teachings of the Buddha. In reply to this, the Mahayanists had +to prove that the Mahayana sutras were compiled by the direct +disciples of the Master; but even Nagarjuna could not vindicate the +compilation of the doubtful books, and said (in +Mahaprajnyaparamita-castra) that they were compiled by Ananda and +Manjucri, with myriads of Bodhisattvas at the outside of the Iron +Mountain Range, which encloses the earth. Asanga also proved (in +Mahayanalankara-sutra-castra) with little success that Mahayanism was +the Buddha's direct teachings. Some may quote +Bodhisattva-garbhastha-sutra in favour of the Mahayana; but it is of +no avail, as the sutra itself is the work of a later date. + +(3) Although almost all of the Mahayana sutras, excepting +Avatamsaka-sutra, treat of Hinayanism as the imperfect doctrine +taught in the first part of the Master's career, yet not merely the +whole life of Gotama, but also events which occurred after his death +are narrated in the Hinayana sutras. This shows that the Mahayana +sutras were composed after the establishment of early Buddhism. + +(4) The narratives given in the Hinayana sutras in reference to +Shakya Muni seem to be based on historical facts, but those in the +Mahayana books are full of wonders and extravagant miracles far from +facts. + +(5) The Hinayana sutras retain the traces of their having been +classified and compiled as we see in Ekottaragama, while Mahayana +books appear to have been composed one after another by different +authors at different times, because each of them strives to excel +others, declaring itself to be the sutra of the highest doctrine, as +we see in Saddharma-pundarika, Samdhinirmocana, +Suvarnaprabhasottamaraja, etc. + +(6) The dialogues in the Hinayana sutras are in general those between +the Buddha and his disciples, while in the Mahayana books imaginary +beings called Bodhisattvas take the place of disciples. Moreover, in +some books no monks are mentioned. + +(7) Most of the Mahayana sutras declare that they themselves possess +those mystic powers that protect the reader or the owner from such +evils as epidemic, famine, war, etc.; but the Hinayana sutras are +pure from such beliefs. + +(8) The Mahayana sutras extol not only the merits of the reading, but +the copying of the sutras. This unfailingly shows the fact that they +were not handed down by memory, as the Hinayana sutras, but written +by their respective authors. + +(9) The Hinayana sutras were written with a plain style in Pali, +while the Mahayana books, with brilliant phraseology, in Sanskrit. + +(10) The Buddha in the Hinayana sutras is little more than a human +being, while Buddha or Tathagata in the Mahayana is a superhuman +being or Great Deity. + +(11) The moral precepts of the Hinayana were laid down by the Master +every time when his disciples acted indecently, while those of the +Mahayana books were spoken all at once by Tathagata. + +(12) Some Mahayana sutras appear to be the exaggeration or +modification of what was stated in the Hinayana books, as we see in +Mahaparinirvana-sutra. + +(13) If we take both the Hinayana and the Mahayana as spoken by one +and the same person, we cannot understand why there are so many +contradictory statements, as we see in the following: + +(a) Historical Contradictions.--For instance, Hinayana sutras are +held to be the first sermon of the Buddha by the author of +Saddharma-pundarika, while Avatamsaka declares itself to be the first +sermon. Nagarjuna holds that Prajnya sutras are the first. + +(b) Contradictions as to the Person of the Master.--For instance, +Agamas say the Buddha's body was marked with thirty-two +peculiarities, while the Mahayana books enumerate ninety-seven +peculiarities, or even innumerable marks. + +(c) Doctrinal Contradictions.--For instance, the Hinayana sutras put +forth the pessimistic, nihilistic view of life, while the Mahayana +books, as a rule, express the optimistic, idealistic view. + +(14) The Hinayana sutras say nothing of the Mahayana books, while the +latter always compare their doctrine with that of the former, and +speak of it in contempt. It is clear that the name 'Hinayana' was +coined by the Mahayanists, as there is no sutra which calls itself +'Hinayana.' It is therefore evident that when the Hinayana books +took the present shape there appeared no Mahayana sutras. + +(15) The authors of the Mahayana sutras should have expected the +opposition of the Hinayanists, because they say not seldom that there +might be some who would not believe in and oppose Mahayanism as not +being the Buddha's teaching, but that of the Evil One. They say also +that one who would venture to say the Mahayana books are fictitious +should fall into Hell. For example, the author of +Mahaparinirvana-sutra says: "Wicked Bhiksus would say all Vaipulya +Mahayana sutras are not spoken by the Buddha, but by the Evil One." + +(16) There are evidences showing that the Mahayana doctrine was +developed out of the Hinayana one. + +(a) The Mahayanists' grand conception of Tathagata is the natural +development of that of those progressive Hinayanists who belonged to +the Mahasamghika School, which was formed some one hundred years +after the Master. These Hinayanists maintained that the Buddha had +infinite power, endless life, and limitlessly great body. The author +of Mahaparinirvana-sutra also says that Buddha is immortal, his +Dharma-kaya is infinite and eternal. The authors of +Mahayana-mulagata-hrdayabhumi-dhyana-sutra and of +Suvarnaprabha-sottamaraja-sutra enumerate the Three Bodies of Buddha, +while the writer of Lankavatara-sutra describes the Four Bodies, and +that of Avatamsaka-sutra the Ten Bodies of Tathagata. + +(b) According to the Hinayana sutras, there are only four stages of +saintship, but the Mahasamghika School increases the number and gives +ten steps. Some Mahayana sutras also enumerate the ten stages of +Bodhisattva, while others give forty-one or fifty two stages. + +(c) The Himayana sutras name six past Buddhas and one future Buddha +Maitreya, while the Mahayana sutras name thirty-five, fifty-three, or +three thousand Buddhas. + +(d) The Hinayana sutras give the names of six Vijnyanas, while the +Mahayana books seven, eight, or nine Vijnyanas. + +(17) For a few centuries after the Buddha we hear only of Hinayanism, +but not of Mahayanism, there being no Mahayana teacher. + +(18) In some Mahayana sutras (Mahavairocanabhisambodhi-sutra, for +example) Tathagata Vairocana takes the place of Gotama, and nothing +is said of the latter. + +(19) The contents of the Mahayana sutras often prove that they were, +composed, or rewritten, or some additions were made, long after the +Buddha. For instance, Mahamaya-sutra says that Acvaghosa would +refute heretical doctrines 600 years after the Master, and Nagarjuna +would advocate the Dharma 700 years after Gotama, while +Lankavatara-sutra prophesies that Nagarjuna would appear in South +India. + +(20) The author of San-ron-gen-gi tells us Mahadeva, a leader of the +Mahasamghika School, used Mahayana sutras, together with the orthodox +Tripitaka 116 after the Buddha. It is, however, doubtful that they +existed at so early a date. + +(21) Mahaprajnyaparamita-castra, ascribed to Nagarjuna, refers to +many Mahayana books, which include Saddharma-pundarika, +Vimalakirtti-nirdeca, Sukhavati-vyuha, Mahaprajnyaparamita, +Pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhavasthita-samadhi, etc. He quotes in his +Dacabhumivibhasa-castra, Mahaparinirvana, Dacabhumi, etc. + +(22) Sthiramati, whose date is said to be earlier than Nagarjuna and +later than Acvaghosa, tries to prove that Mahayanism was directly +taught by the Master in his Mahayanavataraka-castra. And +Mahayanottaratantra-castra, which is ascribed by some scholars to +him, refers to Avatamsaka, Vajracchedikka-prajnyaparamita, +Saddharmapundarika, Crimala-devi-simhananda, etc. + +(23) Chi-leu-cia-chin, who came to China in A.D. 147 or A.D. 164, +translated some part of Mahayana books known as Maharatnakuta-sutra +and Mahavaipulya-mahasannipata-sutra. + +(24) An-shi-kao, who came to China in A.D. 148, translated such +Mahayana books as Sukhavati-vyaha, Candra-dipa-samadhi, etc. + +(25) Matanga, who came to China in A.D. 67, is said by his biographer +to have been informed of both Mahayanism and Hinayanism to have given +interpretations to a noted Mahayana book, entitled Suvarnaprabhasa. + +(26) Sandhinirmocana-sutra is supposed to be a work of Asanga not +without reason, because Asanga's doctrine is identical with that of +the sutra, and the sutra itself is contained in the latter part of +Yogacaryabhumi-castra. The author divides the whole preachings of +the Master into the three periods that he might place the Idealistic +doctrine in the highest rank of the Mahayana schools. + +(27) We have every reason to believe that Mahayana sutras began to +appear (perhaps Prajnya sutras being the first) early in the first +century A.D., that most of the important books appeared before +Nagarjuna, and that some of Mantra sutras were composed so late as +the time of Vajrabodhi, who came to China in A.D. 719. + + +To say nothing of the strong opposition raised by the Japanese +scholars,[FN#120] such an assumption can be met with an assumption of +entirely opposite nature, and the difficulties can never be overcome. + For Zen masters, therefore, these assumptions and reasonings are +mere quibbles unworthy of their attention. + + +[FN#120] The foremost of them was Chuki Tominaga (1744), of whose +life little is known. He is said to have been a nameless merchant at +Osaka. His Shutsu-jo-ko-go is the first great work of higher +criticism on the Buddhist Scriptures. + + +To believe blindly in the Scriptures is one thing, and to be pious is +another. How often the childish views of Creation and of God in the +Scriptures concealed the light of scientific truths; how often the +blind believers of them fettered the progress of civilization; how +often religious men prevented us from the realizing of a new truth, +simply because it is against the ancient folk-lore in the Bible. +Nothing is more absurd than the constant dread in which religious +men, declaring to worship God in truth and in spirit, are kept at the +scientific discovery of new facts incompatible with the folk-lore. +Nothing is more irreligious than to persecute the seekers of truth in +order to keep up absurdities and superstitions of bygone ages. +Nothing is more inhuman than the commission of 'devout cruelty' under +the mask of love of God and man. Is it not the misfortune, not only +of Christianity, but of whole mankind, to have the Bible encumbered +with legendary histories, stories of miracles, and a crude cosmology, +which from time to time come in conflict with science? + +The Buddhist Scriptures are also overloaded with Indian superstitions +and a crude cosmology, which pass under the name of Buddhism. +Accordingly, Buddhist scholars have confused not seldom the doctrine +of the Buddha with these absurdities, and thought it impious to +abandon them. Kaiseki,[FN#121] for instance, was at a loss to +distinguish Buddhism from the Indian astronomy, which is utterly +untenable in the face of the fact. He taxed his reason to the utmost +to demonstrate the Indian theory and at the same time to refute the +Copernican theory. One day he called on Yeki-do[FN#122] a +contemporary Zen master, and explained the construction of the Three +Worlds as described in the Scriptures, saying that Buddhism would +come to naught if the theory of the Three Worlds be overthrown by the +Copernican. Then Yeki-do exclaimed: "Buddhism aims to destroy the +Three Worlds and to establish Buddha's Holy Kingdom throughout the +universe. Why do you waste your energy in the construction of the +Three Worlds?"[FN#123] + + +[FN#121] A learned Japanese Buddhist scholar, who died in 1882. + +[FN#122] A famous Zen master, the abbot of the So-ji-ji Monastery, +who died in 1879. + +[FN#123] Kin-sei-zen-rin-gen-ko-roku. + + +In this way Zen does not trouble itself about unessentials of the +Scriptures, on which it never depends for its authority. Do-gen, the +founder of the Japanese So To Sect, severely condemns (in his +Sho-bo-gen-zo) the notions of the impurity of women inculcated in the +Scriptures. He openly attacks those Chinese monks who swore that +they would not see any woman, and ridicules those who laid down rules +prohibiting women from getting access to monasteries. A Zen master +was asked by a Samurai whether there was hell in sooth as taught in +the Scriptures. "I must ask you," replied he, "before I give you an +answer. For what purpose is your question? What business have you, +a Samurai, with a thing of that sort? Why do you bother yourself +about such an idle question? Surely you neglect your duty and are +engaged in such a fruitless research. Does this not amount to your +stealing the annual salary from your lord?" The Samurai, offended +not a little with these rebukes, stared at the master, ready to draw +his sword at another insult. Then the teacher said smilingly: "Now +you are in Hell. Don't you see?" + +Does, then, Zen use no scripture? To this question we answer both +affirmatively and negatively: negatively, because Zen regards all +sutras as a sort of pictured food which has no power of appeasing +spiritual hunger; affirmatively, because it freely makes use of them +irrespective of Mahayana or Hinayana. Zen would not make a bonfire +of the Scriptures as Caliph Omar did of the Alexandrian library. A +Zen master, having seen a Confucianist burning his books on the +thought that they were rather a hindrance to his spiritual growth, +observed: "You had better burn your books in mind and heart, but not +the books in black and white."[FN#124] + + +[FN#124] Ukiyo-soshi. + + +As even deadly poison proves to be medicine in the band of a good +doctor, so a heterodox doctrine antagonistic to Buddhism is used by +the Zen teachers as a finger pointing to the principle of Zen. But +they as a rule resorted to Lankavatara-sutra,[FN#125] +Vajracchedika-prajnya-paramita-sutra,[FN#126] +Vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra[FN#127] +Mahavaipulya-purnabuddha-sutra[FN#128] +Mababuddhosnisa-tathagata-guhyahetu-saksatkrta-prasannatha-sarvabhodhi +sattvacarya-surangama-sutra,[FN#129] Mahapari-nirvana-sutra,[FN#130] +Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, Avatamsaka-sutra, and so forth. + + +[FN#125] This book is the nearest approach to the doctrine of Zen, +and is said to have been pointed out by Bodhidharma as the best book +for the use of his followers. See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 175, 1761 +177. + +[FN#126] The author of the sutra insists on the unreality of all +things. The book was first used by the Fifth Patriarch, as we have +seen in the first chapter. See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 10, 11, 12, +13, 14, 15. + +[FN#127] The sutra agrees with Zen in many respects, especially in +its maintaining that the highest truth can only be realized in mind, +and cannot be expressed by word of mouth. See Nanjo's Catalogue, +Nos. 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149. + +[FN#128] The sutra was translated into Chinese by Buddhatrata in the +seventh century. The author treats at length of Samadhi, and sets +forth a doctrine similar to Zen, so that the text was used by many +Chinese Zenists. See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 427 and 1629. + +[FN#129] The sutra was translated into Chinese by Paramiti and +Mikacakya, of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The author conceives +Reality as Mind or Spirit. The book belongs to the Mantra class, +although it is much used by Zenists. See Nanjo's Catalogue, No. 446. + +[FN#130] The author of the book sets forth his own conception of +Nirvana and of Buddha, and maintains that all beings are endowed with +Buddha-nature. He also gives in detail an incredible account about +Gotama's death. + + + +5. A Sutra Equal in Size to the Whole World. + +The holy writ that Zen masters admire is not one of parchment nor of +palm-leaves, nor in black and white, but one written in heart and +mind. On one occasion a King of Eastern India invited the venerable +Prajnyatara, the teacher of Bodhidharma, and his disciples to dinner +at his own palace. + +Finding all the monks reciting the sacred sutras with the single +exception of the master, the King questioned Prajnyatara: "Why do you +not, reverend sir, recite the Scriptures as others do?" "My poor +self, your majesty," replied he, "does not go out to the objects of +sense in my expiration nor is it confined within body and mind in my +inspiration. Thus I constantly recite hundreds, thousands, and +millions of sacred sutras." In like manner the Emperor Wu, of the +Liang dynasty, once requested Chwen Hih (Fu Dai-shi) to give a +lecture on the Scriptures. Chwen went upon the platform, struck the +desk with a block of wood, and came down. Pao Chi (Ho-shi), a +Buddhist tutor to the Emperor, asked the perplexed monarch: "Does +your Lordship understand him?" "No," answered His Majesty. "The +lecture of the Great Teacher is over." As it is clear to you from +these examples, Zen holds that the faith must be based not on the +dead Scriptures, but on living facts, that one must turn over not the +gilt pages of the holy writ, but read between the lines in the holy +pages of daily life, that Buddha must be prayed not by word of mouth, +but by actual deed and work, and that one must split open, as the +author of Avatamsaka-sutra allegorically tells us, the smallest grain +of dirt to find therein a sutra equal in size to the whole world. +"The so-called sutra," says Do-gen, "covers the whole universe. It +transcends time and space. It is written with the characters of +heaven, of man, of beasts, of Asuras,[FN#13l] of hundreds of grass, +and of thousands of trees. There are characters, some long, some +short, some round, some square, some blue, some red, some yellow, and +some white-in short, all the phenomena in the universe are the +characters with which the sutra is written." Shakya Muni read that +sutra through the bright star illuminating the broad expanse of the +morning skies, when he sat in meditation under the Bodhi Tree. + + +[FN#13l] The name of a demon. + + +Ling Yun (Rei-un) read it through the lovely flowers of a peach-tree +in spring after some twenty years of his research for Light, and said: + +"A score of years I looked for Light: +There came and went many a spring and fall. +E'er since the peach blossoms came in my sight, +I never doubt anything at all." + +Hian Yen (Kyo-gen) read it through the noise of bamboo, at which he +threw pebbles. Su Shih (So-shoku) read it through a waterfall, one +evening, and said: + +"The brook speaks forth the Tathagata's words divine, +The hills reveal His glorious forms that shine." + + + +6. Great Men and Nature. + +All great men, whether they be poets or scientists or religious men +or philosophers, are not mere readers of books, but the perusers of +Nature. Men of erudition are often lexicons in flesh and blood, but +men of genius read between the lines in the pages of life. Kant, a +man of no great erudition, could accomplish in the theory of +knowledge what Copernicus did in astronomy. Newton found the law of +gravitation not in a written page, but in a falling apple. +Unlettered Jesus realized truth beyond the comprehension of many +learned doctors. Charles Darwin, whose theory changed the whole +current of the world's thought, was not a great reader of books, but +a careful observer of facts. Shakespeare, the greatest of poets, was +the greatest reader of Nature and life. He could hear the music even +of heavenly bodies, and said: + +"There's not the smallest orb which thou beholdest, +But in his motion like an angel sings." + +Chwang Tsz (So-shi), the greatest of Chinese philosophers, says: +"Thou knowest the music of men, but not the music of the earth. Thou +knowest the music of the earth, but not the music of the +heaven."[FN#132] Goethe, perceiving a profound meaning in Nature, +says: "Flowers are the beautiful hieroglyphics of Nature with which +she indicates how much she loves us." + + +[FN#132] Chwang Tsz, vol. i., p. 10. + + +Son-toku[FN#133] (Ninomiya), a great economist, who, overcoming all +difficulties and hardships by which he was beset from his childhood, +educated himself, says: "The earth and the heaven utter no word, but +they ceaselessly repeat the holy book unwritten." + +[FN#133] One of the greatest self-made men in Japan, who lived +1787-1856. + + + +7. The Absolute and Reality are but an Abstraction. + +A grain of sand you, trample upon has a deeper significance than a +series of lectures by your verbal philosopher whom you respect. It +contains within itself the whole history of the earth; it tells you +what it has seen since the dawn of time; while your philosopher +simply plays on abstract terms and empty words. What does his +Absolute, or One, or Substance mean? What does his Reality or Truth +imply? Do they denote or connote anything? Mere name! mere +abstraction! One school of philosophy after another has been +established on logical subtleties; thousands of books have been +written on these grand names and fair mirages, which vanish the +moment that your hand of experience reaches after them. + +"Duke Hwan," says Chwang Tsz,[FN#134] "seated above in his hall, was" +(once) reading a book, and a wheelwright, Phien, was making a wheel +below it. Laying aside his hammer and chisel, Phien went up the +steps and said: 'I venture to ask your Grace what words you are +reading?' The duke said: 'The words of sages.' 'Are these sages +alive?' Phien continued. 'They are dead,' was the reply. 'Then,' +said the other, 'what you, my Ruler, are reading is only the dregs +and sediments of those old men.' The duke said: + + +[FN#134] Chwang Tsz, vol. ii., p. 24. + + +'How should you, a wheelwright, have anything to say about the book +which I am reading? If you can explain yourself, very well; if you +cannot, you shall die.' The wheelwright said: 'Your servant will +look at the thing from the point of view of his own art. In making a +wheel, if I proceed gently, that is pleasant enough, but the +workmanship is not strong; if I proceed violently, that is toilsome +and the joinings do not fit. If the movements of my hand are neither +(too) gentle nor (too) violent, the idea in my mind is realized. But +I cannot tell (how to do this) by word of mouth; there is a knack in +it. I cannot teach the knack to my son, nor can my son learn it from +me. Thus it is that I am in my seventieth year, and am (still) +making wheels in my old age. But these ancients, and what it was not +possible for them to convey, are dead and gone. So then what you, my +Ruler, are reading is but their dregs and sediments." Zen has no +business with the dregs and sediments of sages of yore. + + + +8. The Sermon of the Inanimate. + +The Scripture of Zen is written with facts simple and familiar, so +simple and familiar with everyday life that they escape observation +on that very account. The sun rises in the east. The moon sets in +the west. High is the mountain. Deep is the sea. Spring comes with +flowers; summer with the cool breeze; autumn with the bright moon; +winter with the fakes of snow. These things, perhaps too simple and +too familiar for ordinary observers to pay attention to, have had +profound significance for Zen. Li Ngao (Ri-ko) one day asked Yoh +Shan (Yaku-san): "What is the way to truth?" Yoh Shan, pointing to +the sky and then to the pitcher beside him, said: "You see?" "No, +sir," replied Li Ngao. "The cloud is in the sky," said Yoh Shan, +"and the water in the pitcher." Huen Sha (Gen-sha) one day went upon +the platform and was ready to deliver a sermon when he heard a +swallow singing. "Listen," said he, "that small bird preaches the +essential doctrine and proclaims the eternal truth." Then he went +back to his room, giving no sermon.[FN#135] + + +[FN#135] Den-to-roku and E-gen. + + +The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, etc., have no meaning whatever. + They are but artificial signs, but when spelt they can express any +great idea that great thinkers may form. Trees, grass, mountains, +rivers, stars, moons, suns. These are the alphabets with which the +Zen Scripture is written. Even a, b, c, etc., when spelt, can +express any great idea. Why not, then, these trees, grass, etc., the +alphabets of Nature when they compose the Volume of the Universe? +Even the meanest clod of earth proclaims the sacred law. + +Hwui Chung[FN#136] (E-chu) is said first to have given an expression +to the Sermon of the Inanimate. "Do the inanimate preach the +Doctrine?" asked a monk of Hwui Chung on one occasion. "Yes, they +preach eloquently and incessantly. There is no pause in their +orations," was the reply. "Why, then, do I not hear them?" asked the +other again. "Even if you do not, there are many others who can hear +them." "Who can hear them?" "All the sages hear and understand +them," said Hwui Chung. Thus the Sermon of the Inanimate had been a +favourite topic of discussion 900 years before Shakespeare who +expressed the similar idea, saying: + +"And this our life, exempt from public haunt, +Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, +Sermons in stones, and good in everything." + + +[FN#136] A direct disciple of the Sixth Patriarch. + + +"How wonderful is the Sermon of the Inanimate," says Tung Shan +(To-zan). "You cannot hear it through your ears, but you can hear it +through your eyes." You should hear it through your mind's eyes, +through your heart's eyes, through your inmost soul's eyes, not +through your intellect, not through your perception, not through your +knowledge, not through your logic, not through your metaphysics. To +understand it you have to divine, not to define; you have to observe, +not to calculate; you have to sympathize, not to analyze; you have to +see through, not to criticize; you have not to explain, but to feel; +you have not to abstract, but to grasp; you have to see all in each, +but not to know all in all; you have to get directly at the soul of +things, penetrating their hard crust of matter by your rays of the +innermost consciousness. "The falling leaves as well as the blooming +flowers reveal to us the holy law of Buddha," says a Japanese Zenist. + +Ye who seek for purity and peace, go to Nature. She will give you +more than ye ask. Ye who long for strength and perseverance, go to +Nature. She will train and strengthen you. Ye who aspire after an +ideal, go to Nature. She will help you in its realization. Ye who +yearn after Enlightenment, go to Nature. She will never fail to +grant your request. + + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + + +BUDDHA, THE UNIVERSAL SPIRIT + + +1. The Ancient Buddhist Pantheon. + +The ancient Buddhist pantheon was full of deities or Buddhas, +3,000[FN#137] in number, or rather countless, and also of +Bodhisattvas no less than Buddhas. Nowadays, however, in every +church of Mahayanism one Buddha or another together with some +Bodhisattvas reigns supreme as the sole object of worship, while +other supernatural beings sink in oblivion. These Enlightened +Beings, regardless of their positions in the pantheon, were generally +regarded as persons who in their past lives cultivated virtues, +underwent austerities, and various sorts of penance, and at length +attained to a complete Enlightenment, by virtue of which they secured +not only peace and eternal bliss, but acquired divers supernatural +powers, such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, all-knowledge, and what +not. Therefore, it is natural that some Mahayanists[FN#138] came to +believe that, if they should go through the same course of discipline +and study, they could attain to the same Enlightenment and Bliss, or +the same Buddhahood, while other Mahayanists[FN#139] came to believe +in the doctrine that the believer is saved and led up to the eternal +state of bliss, without undergoing these hard disciplines, by the +power of a Buddha known as having boundless mercy and fathomless +wisdom whom he invokes. + + +[FN#137] Trikalpa-trisahasra-buddhanrama-sutra gives the names of +3,000 Buddhas, and Buddhabhisita-buddhanama-sutra enumerates Buddhas +and Bodhisattvas 11,093 in number. See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 404, +405, 406, 407. + +[FN#138] Those who believe in the doctrine of Holy Path. See 'A +History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects,' pp. 109-111. + +[FN#139] Those who believe in the doctrine of the Pure Land. + + + +2. Zen is Iconoclastic. + +For the followers of Bodhidharma, however, this conception of Buddha +seemed too crude to be accepted unhesitatingly and the doctrine too +much irrelevant with and uncongenial to actual life. Since Zen +denounced, as we have seen in the previous chapter, the scriptural +authority, it is quite reasonable to have given up this view of +Buddha inculcated in the Mahayana sutras, and to set at naught those +statues and images of supernatural beings kept in veneration by the +orthodox Buddhists. Tan Hia (Tan-ka), a noted Chinese Zen master, +was found warming himself on a cold morning by the fire made of a +wooden statue of Buddha. On another occasion he was found mounting +astride the statue of a saint. Chao Chen (Jo-shu) one day happened +to find Wang Yuen (Bun-yen) worshipping the Buddha in the temple, and +forthwith struck him with his staff. "Is there not anything good in +the worshipping of the Buddha?" protested Wang Yuen. Then the master +said: "Nothing is better than anything good."[FN#140] These examples +fully illustrate Zen's attitude towards the objects of Buddhist +worship. Zen is not, nevertheless, iconoclastic in the commonly +accepted sense of the term, nor is it idolatrous, as Christian +missionaries are apt to suppose. + + +[FN#140] Zen-rin-rui-shu. + + +Zen is more iconoclastic than any of the Christian or the Mohammedan +denominations in the sense that it opposes the acceptance of the +petrified idea of Deity, so conventional and formal that it carries +no inner conviction of the believers. Faith dies out whenever one +comes to stick to one's fixed and immutable idea of Deity, and to +deceive oneself, taking bigotry for genuine faith. Faith must be +living and growing, and the living and growing faith should assume no +fixed form. It might seem for a superficial observer to take a fixed +form, as a running river appears constant, though it goes through +ceaseless changes. The dead faith, immutable and conventional, makes +its embracer appear religious and respectable, while it arrests his +spiritual growth. It might give its owner comfort and pride, yet it +at bottom proves to be fetters to his moral uplifting. It is on this +account that Zen declares: "Buddha is nothing but spiritual chain or +moral fetters," and, "If you remember even a name of Buddha, it would +deprive you of purity of heart." The conventional or orthodox idea +of Buddha or Deity might seem smooth and fair, like a gold chain, +being polished and hammered through generations by religious +goldsmiths; but it has too much fixity and frigidity to be worn by us. + +"Strike off thy fetters, bonds that bind thee down +Of shining gold or darker, baser ore; + +Know slave is slave caressed or whipped, not free; +For fetters tho' of gold, are not less strong to bind." + +--The Song of the Sannyasin. + + + +3. Buddha is Unnamable. + +Give a definite name to Deity, He would be no more than what the name +implies. The Deity under the name of Brahman necessarily differs +from the Being under the appellation of Jehovah, just as the Hindu +differs from the Jew. In like manner the Being designated by God +necessarily differs from One named Amitabha or from Him entitled +Allah. To give a name to the Deity is to give Him tradition, +nationality, limitation, and fixity, and it never brings us nearer to +Him. Zen's object of worship cannot be named and determined as God, +or Brahman, or Amitabha, or Creator, or Nature, or Reality, or +Substance, or the like. Neither Chinese nor Japanese masters of Zen +tried to give a definite name to their object of adoration. They now +called Him That One, now This One, now Mind, now Buddha, now +Tathagata, now Certain Thing, now the True, now Dharma-nature, now +Buddha-nature, and so forth. Tung Shan[FN#141] (To-zan) on a certain +occasion declared it to be "A Certain Thing that pillars heaven above +and supports the earth below; dark as lacquer and undefinable; +manifesting itself through its activities, yet not wholly comprisable +within them." So-kei[FN#142] expressed it in the same wise: "There +exists a Certain Thing, bright as a mirror, spiritual as a mind, not +subjected to growth nor to decay." Huen Sha (Gen-sha) comparing it +with a gem says: "There exists a bright gem illuminating through the +worlds in ten directions by its light."[FN#143] + + +[FN#141] Tung Shan Luh (To-zan-roku, 'Sayings and Doings of Ta-zan') +is one of the best Zen books. + +[FN#142] So-kei, a Korean Zenist, whose work entitled Zen-ke-ki-kwan +is worthy of our note as a representation of Korean Zen. + +[FN#143] Sho-bo-gen-zo. + + +This certain thing or being is too sublime to be named after a +traditional or a national deity, too spiritual to be symbolized by +human art, too full of life to be formulated in terms of mechanical +science, too free to be rationalized by intellectual philosophy, too +universal to be perceived by bodily senses; but everybody can feel +its irresistible power, see its invisible presence, and touch its +heart and soul within himself. "This mysterious Mind," says Kwei +Fung (Kei-ho), "is higher than the highest, deeper than the deepest, +limitless in all directions. There is no centre in it. No +distinction of east and west, and above and below. Is it empty? +Yes, but not empty like space. Has it a form? Yes, but has no form +dependent on another for its existence. Is it intelligent? Yes, but +not intelligent like your mind. Is it non-intelligent? Yes, but not +non-intelligent like trees and stone. Is it conscious? Yes, but not +conscious like you when waking. Is it bright? Yes, but not bright +like the sun or the moon." To the question, "What and who is +Buddha?" Yuen Wu (En-go) replied: "Hold your tongue: the mouth is +the gate of evils!" while Pao Fuh (Ho-fuku) answered to the same +question: "No skill of art can picture Him." Thus Buddha is +unnamable, indescribable, and indefinable, but we provisionally call +Him Buddha. + + + +4. Buddha, the Universal Life. + +Zen conceives Buddha as a Being, who moves, stirs, inspires, +enlivens, and vitalizes everything. Accordingly, we may call Him the +Universal Life in the sense that He is the source of all lives in the +universe. This Universal Life, according to Zen, pillars the heaven, +supports the earth, glorifies the sun and moon, gives voice to +thunder, tinges clouds, adorns the pasture with flowers, enriches the +field with harvest, gives animals beauty and strength. Therefore, +Zen declares even a dead clod of earth to be imbued with the divine +life, just as Lowell expresses a similar idea when he says: + +"Every clod feels a stir of might, +An instinct within it that reaches and towers, +And groping blindly above it for light, +Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers." + +One of our contemporary Zenists wittily observed that 'vegetables are +the children of earth, that animals which feed on vegetables are the +grand-children of earth, and that men who subsist on animals are the +great-grand-children of earth.' If there be no life in earth, how +could life come out of it? If there be no life, the same as the +animal's life in the vegetables, how could animals sustain their +lives feeding on vegetables? If there be no life similar to ours in +animals, how could we sustain our life by subsisting on them? The +poet must be in the right, not only in his esthetic, but in his +scientific point of view, in saying- + +"I must +Confess that I am only dust. +But once a rose within me grew; +Its rootlets shot, its flowerets flew; +And all rose's sweetness rolled +Throughout the texture of my mould; +And so it is that I impart +Perfume to them, whoever thou art." + +As we men live and act, so do our arteries; so does blood; so do +corpuscles. As cells and protoplasm live and act, so do elements, +molecules, and atoms. As elements and atoms live and act, so do +clouds; so does the earth; so does the ocean, the Milky Way, and the +Solar System. What is this life which pervades the grandest as well +as the minutest works of Nature, and which may fitly be said 'greater +than the greatest and smaller than the smallest?' It cannot be +defined. It cannot be subjected to exact analysis. But it is +directly experienced and recognized within us, just as the beauty of +the rose is to be perceived and enjoyed, but not reduced to exact +analysis. At any rate, it is something stirring, moving, acting and +reacting continually. This something which can be experienced and +felt and enjoyed directly by every one of us. This life of living +principle in the microcosmos is identical with that of the +macrocosmos, and the Universal Life of the macrocosmos is the common +source of all lives. Therefore, the Mahaparinirvana-sutra says: + +"Tathagata (another name for Buddha) gives life to all beings, just +as the lake Anavatapta gives rise to the four great rivers." +"Tathagata," says the same sutra, "divides his own body into +innumerable bodies, and also restores an infinite number of bodies to +one body. Now be becomes cities, villages, houses, mountains, +rivers, and trees; now he has a large body; now he has a small body; +now he becomes men, women, boys, and girls." + + + +5. Life and Change. + +A peculiar phase of life is change which appears in the form of +growth and decay. Nobody can deny the transitoriness of life. One +of our friends humorously observed: "Everything in the world may be +doubtful to you, but it can never be doubted that you will die." +Life is like a burning lamp. Every minute its flame dies out and is +renewed. Life is like a running stream. Every moment it pushes +onward. If there be anything constant in this world of change, it +should be change itself. Is it not just one step from rosy childhood +to snowy age? Is it not just one moment from the nuptial song to the +funeral-dirge? Who can live the same moment twice? +In comparison with an organism, inorganic matter appears to be +constant and changeless; but, in fact, it is equally subjected to +ceaseless alteration. Every morning, looking into the mirror, you +will find your visage reflected in it just as it was on the preceding +day; so also every morning, looking at the sun and the earth, you +will find them reflected in your retina just as they were on the +previous morning; but the sun and the earth are no less changeless +than you. Why do the sun and the earth seem changeless and constant +to you? Only because you yourself undergo change more quickly than +they. When you look at the clouds sweeping across the face of the +moon, they seem to be at rest, and the moon in rapid motion; but, in +fact, the clouds, as well as the moon, incessantly move on. + +Science might maintain the quantitative constancy of matter, but the +so-called matter is mere abstraction. To say matter is changeless is +as much as to say 2 is always 2, changeless and constant, because the +arithmetical number is not more abstract than the physiological +matter. The moon appears standing still when you look at her only a +few moments. In like manner she seems to be free from change when +you look at her in your short span of life. Astronomers, +nevertheless, can tell you how she saw her better days, and is now in +her wrinkles and white hair. + + + +6. Pessimistic View of the Ancient Hindus. + +In addition to this, the new theory of matter has entirely over +thrown the old conception of the unchanging atoms, and they are now +regarded to be composed of magnetic forces, ions, and corpuscles in +incessant motion. Therefore we have no inert matter in the concrete, +no unchanging thing in the sphere of experience, no constant organism +in the transient universe. These considerations often led many +thinkers, ancient and modern, to the pessimistic view of life. What +is the use of your exertion, they would say, in accumulating wealth, +which is doomed to melt away in the twinkling of an eye? What is the +use of your striving after power, which is more short-lived than a +bubble? What is the use of your endeavour in the reformation of +society, which does not endure any longer than the castle in the air? + How do kings differ from beggars in the eye of Transience? How do +the rich differ from the poor, how the beautiful from the ugly, bow +the young from the old, how the good from the evil, how the lucky +from the unlucky, how the wise from the unwise, in the court of +Death? Vain is ambition. Vain is fame. Vain is pleasure. Vain are +struggles and efforts. All is in vain. An ancient Hindu +thinker[FN#144] says: + +"O saint, what is the use of the enjoyment of pleasures in this +offensive, pithless body--a mere mass of bones, skins, sinews, +marrow, and flesh? What is the use of the enjoyment of pleasures in +this body, which is assailed by lust, hatred, greed, delusion, fear, +anguish, jealousy, separation from what is loved, union with what is +not loved, hunger, old age, death, illness, grief, and other evils? +In such a world as this, what is the use of the enjoyment of +pleasures, if he who has fed on them is to return to this world again +and again? In this world I am like a frog in a dry well." + + +[FN#144] Maitrayana Upanisad. + + +It is this consideration on the transitoriness of life that led some +Taoist in China to prefer death to life, as expressed in Chwang Tsz +(Su-shi):[FN#145] + +"When Kwang-zze went to Khu, he saw an empty skull, bleached indeed, +but still retaining its shape. Tapping it with his horse-switch, he +asked it saying: 'Did you, sir, in your greed of life, fail in the +lessons of reason and come to this? Or did you do so, in the service +of a perishing state, by the punishment of an axe? Or was it through +your evil conduct, reflecting disgrace on your parents and on your +wife and children? Or was it through your hard endurances of cold +and hunger? Or was it that you had completed your term of life?' + +"Having given expression to these questions, he took up the skull and +made a pillow of it, and went to sleep. At midnight the skull +appeared to him in a dream, and said: 'What you said to me was after +the fashion of an orator. All your words were about the +entanglements of men in their lifetime. There are none of those +things after death. Would you like to hear me, sir, tell you about +death?' 'I should,' said Kwang-zze, and the skull resumed: 'In death +there are not (the distinctions of) ruler above minister below. +There are none of the phenomena of the four seasons. Tranquil and at +ease, our years are those of heaven and earth. No king in his court +has greater enjoyment than we have.' Kwang-zze did not believe it, +and said: 'If I could get the Ruler of our Destiny to restore your +body to life with its bones and flesh and skin, and to give you back +your father and mother, your wife and children, and all your village +acquaintances, would you wish me to do so?' The skull stared fixedly +at him, and knitted its brows and said: 'How should I cast away the +enjoyment of my royal court, and undertake again the toils of life +among mankind?'" + + +[FN#145] 'Chwang Tsz,' vol. vi., p. 23. + + + +7. Hinayanism and its Doctrine. + +The doctrine of Transience was the first entrance gate of Hinayanism. + Transience never fails to deprive us of what is dear and near to us. + It disappoints us in our expectation and hope. It brings out grief, +fear, anguish, and lamentation. It spreads terror and destruction +among families, communities, nations, mankind. It threatens with +perdition the whole earth, the whole universe. Therefore it follows +that life is full of disappointment, sufferings, and miseries, and +that man is like 'a frog in a dry well.' This is the doctrine called +by the Hinayanists the Holy Truth of Suffering. + +Again, when Transcience once gets hold of our imagination, we can +easily foresee ruins and disasters in the very midst of prosperity +and happiness, and also old age and ugliness in the prime and youth +of beauty. It gives rise quite naturally to the thought that body is +a bag full of pus and blood, a mere heap of rotten flesh and broken +pieces of bone, a decaying corpse inhabited by innumerable maggots. +This is the doctrine called by the Hinayanists the Holy Truth of +Impurity.[FN#146] + + +[FN#146] Mahasaptipatthana Suttanta, 7, runs as follows: "And, +moreover, bhikkhu, a brother, just as if he had been a body abandoned +in the charnel-field, dead for one, two, or three days, swollen, +turning black and blue, and decomposed, apply that perception to this +very body (of his own), reflecting: 'This body, too, is even so +constituted, is of such a nature, has not got beyond that (fate).'" + + +And, again, Transience holds its tyrannical sway not only over the +material but over the spiritual world. At its touch Atman, or soul, +is brought to nothing. By its call Devas, or celestial beings, are +made to succumb to death. It follows, therefore, that to believe in +Atman, eternal and unchanging, would be a whim of the ignorant. This +is the doctrine called by the Hinayanists the Holy Truth of No-atman. + +If, as said, there could be nothing free from Transience, Constancy +should be a gross mistake of the ignorant; if even gods have to die, +Eternity should be no more than a stupid dream of the vulgar; if all +phenomena be flowing and changing, there could be no constant noumena +underlying them. It therefore follows that all things in the +universe are empty and unreal. This is the doctrine called by the +Hinayanists the Holy Truth of Unreality. Thus Hinayana Buddhism, +starting from the doctrine of Transience, arrived at the pessimistic +view of life in its extreme form. + + + +8. Change as seen by Zen. + +Zen, like Hinayanism, does not deny the doctrine of Transience, but +it has come to a view diametrically opposite to that of the Hindus. +Transience for Zen simply means change. It is a form in which life +manifests itself. Where there is life there is change or Transience. + Where there is more change there is more vital activity. Suppose an +absolutely changeless body: it must be absolutely lifeless. An +eternally changeless life is equivalent to an eternally changeless +death. Why do we value the morning glory, which fades in a few +hours, more than an artificial glass flower, which endures hundreds +of years? Why do we prefer an animal life, which passes away in a +few scores of years, to a vegetable life, which can exist thousands +of years? Why do we prize changing organism more than inorganic +matter, unchanging and constant? If there be no change in the bright +hues of a flower, it is as worthless as a stone. If there be no +change in the song of a bird, it is as valueless as a whistling wind. + If there be no change in trees and grass, they are utterly +unsuitable to be planted in a garden. Now, then, what is the use of +our life, if it stand still? As the water of a running stream is +always fresh and wholesome because it does not stop for a moment, so +life is ever fresh and new because it does not stand still, but +rapidly moves on from parents to children, from children to +grandchildren, from grandchildren to great-grandchildren, and flows +on through generation after generation, renewing itself ceaselessly. + +We can never deny the existence of old age and death--nay, death is +of capital importance for a continuation of life, because death +carries away all the decaying organism in the way of life. But for +it life would be choked up with organic rubbish. The only way of +life's pushing itself onward or its renewing itself is its producing +of the young and getting rid of the old. If there be no old age nor +death, life is not life, but death. + + + +9. Life and Change. + +Transformation and change are the essential features of life; life is +not transformation nor change itself, as Bergson seems to assume. It +is something which comes under our observation through transformation +and change. There are, among Buddhists as well as Christians, not a +few who covet constancy and fixity of life, being allured by such +smooth names as eternal life, everlasting joy, permanent peace, and +what not. They have forgotten that their souls can never rest +content with things monotonous. If there be everlasting joy for +their souls, it must be presented to them through incessant change. +So also if there be eternal life granted for their souls, it must be +given through ceaseless alteration. What is the difference between +eternal life, fixed and constant, and eternal death? What is the +difference between everlasting bliss, changeless and monotonous, and +everlasting suffering? If constancy, instead of change, govern life, +then hope or pleasure is absolutely impossible. Fortunately, +however, life is not constant. It changes and becomes. Pleasure +arises through change itself. Mere change of food or clothes is +often pleasing to us, while the appearance of the same thing twice or +thrice, however pleasing it may be, causes us little pleasure. It +will become disgusting and tire us down, if it be presented +repeatedly from time to time. + +An important element in the pleasure we derive from social meetings, +from travels, from sight-seeings, etc., is nothing but change. Even +intellectual pleasure consists mainly of change. A dead, unchanging +abstract truth, 2 and 2 make 4, excites no interest; while a +changeable, concrete truth, such as the Darwinian theory of +evolution, excites a keen interest. + + + +10. Life, Change, and Hope. + +The doctrine of Transcience never drives us to the pessimistic view +of life. On the contrary, it gives us an inexhaustible source of +pleasure and hope. Let us ask you: Are you satisfied with the +present state of things? Do you not sympathize with poverty-stricken +millions living side by side with millionaires saturated with wealth? + Do you not shed tears over those hunger-bitten children who cower in +the dark lanes of a great city? Do you not wish to put down the +stupendous oppressor--Might-is-right? Do you not want to do away +with the so-called armoured peace among nations? Do you not need to +mitigate the struggle for existence more sanguine than the war of +weapons? + +Life changes and is changeable; consequently, has its future. Hope +is therefore possible. Individual development, social betterment, +international peace, reformation of mankind in general, can be hoped. + Our ideal, however unpractical it may seem at the first sight, can +be realized. Moreover, the world itself, too, is changing and +changeable. It reveals new phases from time to time, and can be +moulded to subserve our purpose. We must not take life or the world +as completed and doomed as it is now. No fact verifies the belief +that the world was ever created by some other power and predestined +to be as it is now. It lives, acts, and changes. It is transforming +itself continually, just as we are changing and becoming. Thus the +doctrine of Transience supplies us with an inexhaustible source of +hope and comfort, leads us into the living universe, and introduces +us to the presence of Universal Life or Buddha. + +The reader may easily understand how Zen conceives Buddha as the +living principle from the following dialogues: "Is it true, sir," +asked a monk of Teu tsz (To-shi), "that all the voices of Nature are +those of Buddha?" "Yes, certainly," replied Teu tsz. "What is, +reverend sir," asked a man of Chao Cheu (Jo-shu), "the holy temple +(of Buddha)?" "An innocent girl," replied the teacher. "Who is the +master of the temple?" asked the other again. "A baby in her womb," +was the answer. "What is, sir," asked a monk to Yen Kwan (Yen-kan), +"the original body of Buddha Vairocana?"[FN#147] "Fetch me a pitcher +with water," said the teacher. The monk did as he was ordered. "Put +it back in its place," said Yen Kwan again.[FN#148] + + +[FN#147] Literally, All Illuminating Buddha, the highest of the +Trikayas. See Eitel, p. 192. + +[FN#148] Zen-rin-rui-shu. + + + +11. Everything is Living according to Zen. + +Everything alive has a strong innate tendency to preserve itself, to +assert itself, to push itself forward, and to act on its environment, +consciously or unconsciously. The innate, strong tendency of the +living is an undeveloped, but fundamental, nature of Spirit or Mind. +It shows itself first in inert matter as impenetrability, or +affinity, or mechanical force. Rock has a powerful tendency to +preserve itself. And it is hard to crush it. Diamond has a robust +tendency to assert itself. And it permits nothing to destroy it. +Salt has the same strong tendency, for its particles act and react by +themselves, and never cease till its crystals are formed. Steam, +too, should have the same, because it pushes aside everything in its +way and goes where it will. + +In the eye of simple folks of old, mountains, rivers, trees, +serpents, oxen, and eagles were equally full of life; hence the +deification of them. No doubt it is irrational to believe in nymphs, +fairies, elves, and the like, yet still we may say that mountains +stand of their own accord, rivers run as they will, just as we say +that trees and grass turn their leaves towards the sun of their own +accord. Neither is it a mere figure of speech to say that thunder +speaks and hills respond, nor to describe birds as singing and +flowers as smiling, nor to narrate winds as moaning and rain as +weeping, nor to state lovers as looking at the moon, the moon as +looking at them, when we observe spiritual element in activities of +all this. Haeckel says, not without reason: "I cannot imagine the +simple chemical and physical forces without attributing the movement +of material particles to conscious sensation." The same author says +again: "We may ascribe the feeling of pleasure and pain to all atoms, +and so explain the electric affinity in chemistry." + + + +12. The Creative Force of Nature and Humanity. + +The innate tendency of self-preservation, which manifests itself as +mechanical force or chemical affinity in the inorganic nature, +unfolds itself as the desire of the preservation of species in the +vegetables and animals. See how vegetables fertilize themselves in a +complicated way, and how they spread their seeds far and wide in a +most mysterious manner. A far more developed form of the same desire +is seen in the sexual attachment and parental love of animals. Who +does not know that even the smallest birds defend their young against +every enemy with self -sacrificing courage, and that they bring food +whilst they themselves often starve and grow lean? In human beings +we can observe the various transformations of the self-same desire. +For instance, sorrow or despair is experienced when it is impossible; +anger, when it is hindered by others; joy, when it is fulfilled; +fear, when it is threatened; pleasure, when it is facilitated. +Although it manifests itself as the sexual attachment and parental +love in lower animals, yet its developed forms, such as sympathy, +loyalty, benevolence, mercy, humanity, are observed in human beings. +Again, the creative force in inorganic nature, in order to assert +itself and act more effectively, creates the germ of organic nature, +and gradually ascending the scale of evolution, develops the sense +organs and the nervous system; hence intellectual powers, such as +sensation, perception, imagination, memory, unfold themselves. Thus +the creative force, exerting itself gradually, widens its sphere of +action, and necessitates the union of individuals into families, +clans, tribes, communities, and nations. For the sake of this union +and co-operation they established customs, enacted laws, and +instituted political and educational systems. Furthermore, to +reinforce itself, it gave birth to languages and sciences; and to +enrich itself, morality and religion. + + + +13. Universal Life is Universal Spirit. + +These considerations naturally lead us to see that Universal Life is +not a blind vital force, but Creative Spirit, or Mind, or +Consciousness, which unfolds itself in myriads of ways. Everything +in the universe, according to Zen, lives and acts, and at the same +time discloses its spirit. To be alive is identically the same as to +be spiritual. As the poet has his song, so does the nightingale, so +does the cricket, so does the rivulet. As we are pleased or +offended, so are horses, so are dogs, so are sparrows, ants, +earthworms, and mushrooms. Simpler the body, simpler its spirit; +more complicated the body, more complicated its spirit. 'Mind +slumbers in the pebble, dreams in the plant, gathers energy in the +animal, and awakens to self-conscious discovery in the soul of man.' + +It is this Creative, Universal Spirit that sends forth Aurora to +illuminate the sky, that makes Diana shed her benign rays and Æolus +play on his harp, wreathes spring with flowers, that clothes autumn +with gold, that induces plants to put forth blossoms, that incites +animals to be energetic, and that awakens consciousness in man. The +author of Mahavaipulya-purnabuddha-sutra expressly states our idea +when he says: "Mountains, rivers, skies, the earth: all these are +embraced in the True Spirit, enlightened and mysterious." Rin-zai +also says: "Spirit is formless, but it penetrates through the world +in the ten directions."[FN#149] The Sixth Patriarch expresses the +same idea more explicitly: "What creates the phenomena is Mind; what +transcends all the phenomena is Buddha."[FN#150] + + +[FN#149] Rin-zai-roku. + +[FN#150] Roku-so-dan-kyo. + + + +14. Poetical Intuition and Zen. + +Since Universal Life or Spirit permeates the universe, the poetical +intuition of man never fails to find it, and to delight in everything +typical of that Spirit. "The leaves of the plantain," says a Zen +poet, "unfold themselves, hearing the voice of thunder. The flowers +of the hollyhock turn towards the sun, looking at it all day long." +Jesus could see in the lily the Unseen Being who clothed it so +lovely. Wordsworth found the most profound thing in all the world to +be the universal spiritual life, which manifests itself most directly +in nature, clothed in its own proper dignity and peace. "Through +every star," says Carlyle, "through every grass blade, most through +every soul, the glory of present God still beams." + +It is not only grandeur and sublimity that indicate Universal Life, +but smallness and commonplace do the same. A sage of old awakened to +the faith[FN#151] when he heard a bell ring; another, when he looked +at the peach blossom; another, when he heard the frogs croaking; and +another, when he saw his own form reflected in a river. The minutest +particles of dust form a world. The meanest grain of sand under our +foot proclaims a divine law. Therefore Teu Tsz Jo-shi), pointing to +a stone in front of his temple, said: "All the Buddhas of the past, +the present, and the future are living therein."[FN#152] + + +[FN#151] Both the Chinese and the Japanese history of Zen are full +of such incidents. + +[FN#152] Zen-rin-rui-shu and To-shi-go-roku. + + + +15. Enlightened Consciousness. + +In addition to these considerations, which mainly depend on indirect +experience, we can have direct experience of life within us. In the +first place, we experience that our life is not a bare mechanical +motion or change, but is a spiritual, purposive, and self-directing +force. In the second place, we directly experience that it knows, +feels, and wills. In the third place, we experience that there +exists some power unifying the intellectual, emotional, and +volitional activities so as to make life uniform and rational. +Lastly, we experience that there lies deeply rooted within us +Enlightened Consciousness, which neither psychologists treat of nor +philosophers believe in, but which Zen teachers expound with strong +conviction. Enlightened Consciousness is, according to Zen, the +centre of spiritual life. It is the mind of minds, and the +consciousness of consciousness. It is the Universal Spirit awakened +in the human mind. It is not the mind that feels joy or sorrow; nor +is it the mind that reasons and infers; nor is it the mind that +fancies and dreams; nor is it the mind that hopes and fears; nor is +it the mind that distinguishes good from evil. It is Enlightened +Consciousness that holds communion with Universal Spirit or Buddha, +and realizes that individual lives are inseparably united, and of one +and the same nature with Universal Life. It is always bright as a +burnished mirror, and cannot be dimmed by doubt and ignorance. It is +ever pure as a lotus flower, and cannot be polluted by the mud of +evil and folly. Although all sentient beings are endowed with this +Enlightened Consciousness, they are not aware of its existence, +excepting men who can discover it by the practice of Meditation. +Enlightened consciousness is often called Buddha-nature, as it is the +real nature of Universal Spirit. Zen teachers compare it with a +precious stone ever fresh and pure, even if it be buried in the heaps +of dust. Its divine light can never be extinguished by doubt or +fear, just as the sunlight cannot be destroyed by mist and cloud. +Let us quote a Chinese Zen poet to see how Zen treats of it:[FN#153] + +"I have an image of Buddha, +The worldly people know it not. +It is not made of clay or cloth, +Nor is it carved out of wood, +Nor is it moulded of earth nor of ashes. +No artist can paint it; +No robber can steal it. +There it exists from dawn of time. +It's clean, although not swept and wiped. +Although it is but one, +Divides itself to a hundred thousand million forms." + + +[FN#153] See Zen-gaku-ho-ten. + + + +16. Buddha Dwelling in the Individual Mind. + +Enlightened Consciousness in the individual mind acquires for its +possessor, not a relative knowledge of things as his intellect does, +but the profoundest insight in reference to universal brotherhood of +all beings, and enables him to understand the absolute holiness of +their nature, and the highest goal for which all of them are making. +Enlightened Consciousness once awakened within us serves as a guiding +principle, and leads us to hope, bliss, and life; consequently, it is +called the Master[FN#154] of both mind and body. Sometimes it is +called the Original[FN#155] Mind, as it is the mind of minds. It is +Buddha dwelling in individuals. You might call it God in man, if you +like. The following dialogues all point to this single idea: + +On one occasion a butcher, who was used to kill one thousand sheep a +day, came to Gotama, and, throwing down his butcher-knife, said "I am +one of the thousand Buddhas." "Yes, really," replied Gotama. A +monk, Hwui Chao (E-cha) by name, asked Pao Yen (Ho-gen): "What is +Buddha?" "You are Hwui Chao," replied the master. The same question +was put to Sheu Shan (Shu-zan), Chi Man (Chi-mon), and Teu Tsz +(To-shi), the first of whom answered: "A bride mounts on a donkey and +her mother-in-law drives it;" and the second: "He goes barefooted, +his sandals being worn out;" while the third rose from his chair and +stood still without saying a word. Chwen Hih (Fu-kiu) explains this +point in unequivocal terms: "Night after night I sleep with Buddha, +and every morning I get up with Him. He accompanies me wherever I +go. When I stand or sit, when I speak or be mute, when I am out or +in, He never leaves me, even as a shadow accompanies body. Would you +know where He is? Listen to that voice and word."[FN#156] + + +[FN#154] It is often called the Lord or Master of mind. + +[FN#155] Another name for Buddha is the Original Mind" +(Kechi-myaku-ron). + +[FN#156] For such dialogues, see Sho-yo-roku, Mu-mon-kan, +Heki-gan-shu. Fu-kiu's words are repeatedly quoted by Zen masters. + + + +17. Enlightened Consciousness is not an Intellectual Insight. + +Enlightened Consciousness is not a bare intellectual insight, for it +is full of beautiful emotions. It loves, caresses, embraces, and at +the same time esteems all beings, being ever merciful to them. It +has no enemies to conquer, no evil to fight with, but constantly +finds friends to help, good to promote. Its warm heart beats in +harmony with those of all fellow beings. The author of +Brahmajala-sutra fully expresses this idea as he says: "All women are +our mothers; all men our fathers; all earth and water our bodies in +the past existences; all fire and air our essence." + +Thus relying on our inner experience, which is the only direct way of +knowing Buddha, we conceive Him as a Being with profound wisdom and +boundless mercy, who loves all beings as His children, whom He is +fostering, bringing up, guiding, and teaching. "These three worlds +are His, and all beings living in them are His children."[FN#157] +"The Blessed One is the mother of all sentient beings, and gives them +all the milk of mercy."[FN#158] Some people named Him Absolute, as +He is all light, all hope, all mercy, and all wisdom; some, Heaven, +as He is high and enlightened; some, God, as He is sacred and +mysterious; some, Truth, as He is true to Himself; some, Buddha, as +He is free from illusion; some, Creator, as He is the creative force +immanent in the universe; some, Path, as He is the Way we must +follow; some, Unknowable, as He is beyond relative knowledge; some, +Self, as He is the Self of individual selves. All these names are +applied to one Being, whom we designate by the name of Universal Life +or Spirit. + + +[FN#157] Saddharma-pundarika-sutra. + +[FN#158] Mahaparinirvana-sutra. + + + +18. Our Conception of Buddha is not Final. + +Has, then, the divine nature of Universal Spirit been completely and +exhaustively revealed in our Enlightened Consciousness? To this +question we should answer negatively, for, so far as our limited +experience is concerned, Universal Spirit reveals itself as a Being +with profound wisdom and boundless mercy; this, nevertheless, does +not imply that the conception is the only possible and complete one. +We should always bear in mind that the world is alive, and changing, +and moving. It goes on to disclose a new phase, or to add a new +truth. The subtlest logic of old is a mere quibble of nowadays. The +miracles of yesterday are the commonplaces of to-day. Now theories +are formed, new discoveries are made, only to give their places to +newer theories are discoveries. New ideals realized or new desires +satisfied are sure to awaken newer and stronger desires. Not an +instant life remains immutable, but it rushes on, amplifying and +enriching itself from the dawn of time to the end of eternity. + +Therefore Universal Life may in the future possibly unfold its new +spiritual content, yet unknown to us because it has refined, lifted +up, and developed living beings from the amœba to man, increasing the +intelligence and range of individuals, until highly civilized man +emerge into the plane of consciousness-consciousness of divine light +in him. Thus to believe in Buddha is to be content and thankful for +the grace of His, and to hope for the infinite unfoldment of His +glories in man. + + + +19. How to Worship Buddha. + +The author of Vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra well explains our attitude +towards Buddha when he says: "We ask Buddha for nothing. We ask +Dharma for nothing. We ask Samgha for nothing." Nothing we ask of +Buddha. No worldly success, no rewards in the future life, no +special blessing. Hwang Pah (O-baku) said: "I simply worship Buddha. + I ask Buddha for nothing. I ask Dharma for nothing. I ask Samgha +for nothing." Then a prince[FN#159] questioned him: "You ask Buddha +for nothing. You ask Dharma for nothing. You ask Samgha for nothing. + What, then, is the use of your worship?" The Prince earned a slap +as an answer to his utilitarian question.[FN#160] This incident well +illustrates that worship, as understood by Zen masters, is a pure act +of thanksgiving, or the opening of the grateful heart; in other +words, the disclosing of Enlightened Consciousness. We are living +the very life of Buddha, enjoying His blessing, and holding communion +with Him through speech, thought, and action. The earth is not 'the +vale of tears,' but the glorious creation of Universal Spirit; nor +man 'the poor miserable sinner' but the living altar of Buddha +Himself. Whatever we do, we do with grateful heart and pure joy +sanctioned by Enlightened Consciousness; eating, drinking, talking, +walking, and every other work of our daily life are the worship and +devotion. We agree with Margaret Fuller when she says: "Reverence +the highest; have patience with the lowest; let this day's +performance of the meanest duty be thy religion. Are the stars too +distant? Pick up the pebble that lies at thy feet, and from it learn +all." + + +[FN#159] Afterwards the Emperor Suen Tsung (Sen-so), of the Tang +dynasty. + +[FN#160] For the details, see Heki-gan-shu. + + + + + +CHAPTER V + + + +THE NATURE OF MAN + + +1. Man is Good-natured according to Mencius.[FN#161] + +Oriental scholars, especially the Chinese men of letters, seem to +have taken so keen an interest in the study of human nature that they +proposed all the possible opinions respecting the subject in +question-namely, (1) man is good-natured; (2) man is bad-natured; (3) +man is good-natured and bad-natured as well; (4) man is neither +good-natured nor bad-natured. The first of these opinions was +proposed by a most reputed Confucianist scholar, Mencius, and his +followers, and is still adhered to by the majority of the Japanese +and the Chinese Confucianists. Mencius thought it as natural for man +to do good as it is for the grass to be green. 'Suppose a person has +happened,' he would say, 'to find a child on the point of tumbling +down into a deep well. He would rescue it even at the risk of his +life, no matter how morally degenerated he might be. He would have +no time to consider that his act might bring him some reward from its +parents, or a good reputation among his friends and fellow-citizens. +He would do it barely out of his inborn good-nature.' After +enumerating some instances similar to this one, Mencius concludes +that goodness is the fundamental nature of man, even if he is often +carried away by his brutal disposition. + + +[FN#161] Mencius (372-282 B.C.) is regarded as the best expounder of +the doctrine of Confucius. There exists a well-known work of his, +entitled after his own name. See 'A History of Chinese Philosophy,' +by R. Endo, and also 'A History of Chinese Philosophy' (pp. 38-50), +by G. Nakauchi. + + + +2. Man is Bad-natured according to Siun Tsz[FN#162] (Jun-shi). + +The weaknesses of Mencius's theory are fully exposed by another +diametrically opposed theory propounded by Siun Tsz (Jun-shi) and his +followers. 'Man is bad-natured,' says Siun Tsz, 'since he has inborn +lust, appetite, and desire for wealth. As he has inborn lust and +appetite, he is naturally given to intemperance and wantonness. As +he has inborn desire for wealth, he is naturally inclined to quarrel +and fight with others for the sake of gain.' Leave him without +discipline or culture, he would not be a whit better than the beast. +His virtuous acts, such as charity, honesty, propriety, chastity, +truthfulness, are conduct forced by the teachings of ancient sages +against his natural inclination. Therefore vices are congenial and +true to his nature, while virtues alien and untrue to his fundamental +nature. + + +[FN#162] Siun Tsz's date is later by some fifty years than Mencius. + Siun Tsz gives the reason why man seeks after morality, saying that +man seeks what he has not, and that he seeks after morality simply +because he has not morality, just as the poor seek riches. See 'A +History of Chinese Philosophy' (pp. 51-60), by G. Nakauchi, and 'A +History of Development of Chinese Thought,' by R. Endo. + + +These two theories are not only far from throwing light on the moral +state of man, but wrap it in deeper gloom. Let us raise a few +questions by way of refutation. If man's fundamental nature be good, +as Mencius maintains, why is it easy for him to be vicious without +instruction, while he finds it hard to be virtuous even with +instruction. If you contend that good is man's primary nature and +evil the secondary one, why is be so often overpowered by the +secondary nature? If you answer saying that man is good-natured +originally, but he acquires the secondary nature through the struggle +for existence, and it gradually gains power over the primary nature +by means of the same cause, then the primitive tribes should be more +virtuous than the highly civilized nations, and children than grownup +people. Is this not contrary to fact? + +If, again, man's nature is essentially bad, as Siun Tsz holds, how +can he cultivate virtue? If you contend that ancient sages invented +so-called cardinal virtues and inculcated them against his natural +inclination, why does he not give them up? If vices be congenial and +true to man's nature, but virtues be alien and untrue to him, why are +virtues honoured by him? If vices be genuine and virtue a deception, +as you think, why do you call the inventors of that deceiving art +sages? How was it possible for man to do good before these sages' +appearance on earth? + + + +3. Man is both Good-natured and Bad-natured according to Yan +Hiung[FN#163] (Yo-yu). + +According to Yang Hiung and his followers, good is no less real than +evil, and evil is no more unreal than good. Therefore man must be +double-natured-that is, partly good and partly bad. This is the +reason why the history of man is full of fiendish crimes, and, at the +same time, it abounds with godly deeds. This is the reason why +mankind comprises, on the one hand, a Socrates, a Confucius, a Jesus, +and, on the other, a Nero and a Kieh. This is the reason why we find +to-day a honest fellow in him whom we find a betrayer to-morrow. + +[FN#163] Yan Hiung (died A.D. 18) is the reputed author of Tai Huen +(Tai-gen) and Fah Yen (Ho-gen). His opinion in reference to human +nature is found in Fah Yen. + + +This view of man's nature might explain our present moral state, yet +it calls forth many questions bard to answer. If this assertion be +true, is it not a useless task to educate man with the purpose of +making him better and nobler? How could one extirpate man's bad +nature implanted within him at his origin? If man be double-natured, +how did he come to set good over evil? How did he come to consider +that he ought to be good and ought not to be bad? How could you +establish the authority of morality? + + + +4. Man is neither Good-natured nor Bad-natured according to Su Shih +(So-shoku).[FN#164] + +The difficulty may be avoided by a theory given by Su Shih and other +scholars influenced by Buddhism, which maintains that man is neither +good-natured nor bad-natured. According to this opinion man is not +moral nor immoral by nature, but unmoral. He is morally a blank. He +is at a crossroad, so to speak, of morality when he is first born. +As he is blank, he can be dyed black or red. As he is at the +cross-road, he can turn to the right or to the left. He is like +fresh water, which has no flavour, and can be made sweet or bitter by +circumstances. If we are not mistaken, this theory, too, has to +encounter insurmountable difficulties. How could it be possible to +make the unmoral being moral or immoral? We might as well try to get +honey out of sand as to get good or evil out of the blank nature. +There can be no fruit of good or evil where there is no seed of good +or bad nature. Thus we find no satisfactory solution of the problem +at issue in these four theories proposed by the Chinese scholars--the +first theory being incompetent to explain the problem of human +depravity; the second breaking down at the origin of morality; the +third failing to explain the possibility of moral culture; the fourth +being logically self-contradictory. + +[FN#164] Su Shih (1042-1101), a great man of letters, practiser of +Zen, noted for his poetical works. + + + +5. There is no Mortal who is Purely Moral. + +By nature man should be either good or bad; or he should be good as +well as bad; or he should be neither good nor bad. There can be no +alternative possible besides these four propositions, none of which +can be accepted as true. Then there must be some misconception in +the terms of which they consist. It would seem to some that the +error can be avoided by limiting the sense of the term 'man,' saying +some persons are good-natured, some persons are bad-natured, some +persons are good-natured and bad-natured as well, and some persons +are neither good-natured nor bad-natured. There is no contradiction +in these modified propositions, but still they fail to explain the +ethical state of man. Supposing them all to be true, let us assume +that there are the four classes of people: (1) Those who are purely +moral and have no immoral disposition; (2) those who are half moral +and half immoral; (3) those who are neither moral nor immoral; (4) +those who are purely immoral and have no moral disposition. Orthodox +Christians, believing in the sinlessness of Jesus, would say he +belongs to the first class, while Mohammedans and Buddhists, who +deify the founder of their respective faith, would in such case +regard their founder as the purely moral personage. But are your +beliefs, we should ask, based on historical fact? Can you say that +such traditional and self-contradictory records as the four gospels +are history in the strict sense of the term? Can you assert that +those traditions which deify Mohammed and Shakya are the statements +of bare facts? Is not Jesus an abstraction and an ideal, entirely +different from a concrete carpenter's son, who fed on the same kind +of food, sheltered himself in the same kind of building, suffered +from the same kind of pain, was fired by the same kind of anger, +stung by the same kind of lust as our own? Can you say the person +who fought many a sanguinary battle, who got through many cunning +negotiations with enemies and friends, who personally experienced the +troubles of polygamy, was a person sinless and divine? We might +allow that these ancient sages are superhuman and divine, then our +classification has no business with them, because they do not +properly belong to mankind. Now, then, who can point out any sinless +person in the present world? Is it not a fact that the more virtuous +one grows the more sinful he feels himself? If there be any mortal, +in the past, the present, and the future, who declares himself to be +pure and sinless, his very declaration proves that he is not highly +moral. Therefore the existence of the first class of people is open +to question. + + + +6. There is no Mortal who is Non-Moral or Purely Immoral. + +The same is the case with the third and the fourth class of people +who are assumed as non-moral or purely immoral. There is no person, +however morally degraded he may be, but reveals some good nature in +his whole course of life. It is our daily experience that we find a +faithful friend in the person even of a pickpocket, a loving father +even in a burglar, and a kind neighbour even in a murderer. Faith, +sympathy, friendship, love, loyalty, and generosity dwell not merely +in palaces and churches, but also in brothels and gaols. On the +other hand, abhorrent vices and bloody crimes often find shelter +under the silk hat, or the robe, or the coronet, or the crown. Life +may fitly be compared with a rope made of white and black straw, and +to separate one from the other is to destroy the rope itself; so also +life entirely independent of the duality of good and bad is no actual +life. We must acknowledge, therefore, that the third and the fourth +propositions are inconsistent with our daily experience of life, and +that only the second proposition remains, which, as seen above, +breaks down at the origin of morality. + + + +7. Where, then, does the Error Lie? + +Where, then, does the error lie in the four possible propositions +respecting man's nature? It lies not in their subject, but in the +predicate-that is to say, in the use of the terms 'good' and 'bad.' +Now let us examine how does good differ from bad. A good action ever +promotes interests in a sphere far wider than a bad action. Both are +the same in their conducing to human interests, but differ in the +extent in which they achieve their end. In other words, both good +and bad actions are performed for one end and the same purpose of +promoting human interests, but they differ from each other as to the +extent of interests. For instance, burglary is evidently bad action, +and is condemned everywhere; but the capturing of an enemy's property +for the sake of one's own tribe or clan or nation is praised as a +meritorious conduct. Both acts are exactly the same in their +promoting interests; but the former relates to the interests of a +single individual or of a single family, while the latter to those of +a tribe or a nation. If the former be bad on account of its ignoring +others' interests, the latter must be also bad on account of its +ignoring the enemy's interests. Murder is considered bad everywhere; +but the killing of thousands of men in a battle-field is praised and +honoured, because the former is perpetrated to promote the private +interests, while the latter those of the public. If the former be +bad, because of its cruelty, the latter must also be bad, because of +its inhumanity. + +The idea of good and bad, generally accepted by common sense, may be +stated as follows: 'An action is good when it promotes the interests +of an individual or a family; better when it promotes those of a +district or a country; best when it promotes those of the whole +world. An action is bad when it inflicts injury on another +individual or another family; worse when it is prejudicial to a +district or a country; worst when it brings harm on the whole world. +Strictly speaking, an action is good when it promotes interests, +material or spiritual, as intended by the actor in his motive; and it +is bad when it injures interests, material or spiritual, as intended +by the actor in his motive.' + +According to this idea, generally accepted by common sense, human +actions may be classified under four different heads: (1) Purely good +actions; (2) partly good and partly bad actions; (3) neither good nor +bad actions; (4) purely bad actions. First, purely good actions are +those actions which subserve and never hinder human interests either +material or spiritual, such as humanity and love of all beings. +Secondly, partly good and partly bad actions are those actions which +are both for and against human interests, such as narrow patriotism +and prejudiced love. Thirdly, neither good nor bad actions are such +actions as are neither for nor against human interests--for example, +an unconscious act of a dreamer. Lastly, purely bad actions, which +are absolutely against human interests, cannot be possible for man +except suicide, because every action promotes more or less the +interests, material or spiritual, of the individual agent or of +someone else. Even such horrible crimes as homicide and parricide +are intended to promote some interests, and carry out in some measure +their aim when performed. It follows that man cannot be said to be +good or bad in the strict sense of the terms as above defined, for +there is no human being who does the first class of actions and +nothing else, nor is there any mortal who does the fourth class of +actions and nothing else. Man may be called good and bad, and at the +same time be neither good nor bad, in that he always performs the +second and the third class of actions. All this, nevertheless, is a +more play of words. Thus we are driven to conclude that the +common-sense view of human nature fails to grasp the real state of +actual life. + + + +8. Man is not Good-natured nor Bad-natured, but Buddha-natured. + +We have had already occasion to observe that Zen teaches +Buddha-nature, which all sentient beings are endowed with. The term +'Buddha-nature,'[FN#165] as accepted generally by Buddhists, means a +latent and undeveloped nature, which enables its owner to become +Enlightened when it is developed and brought to actuality.[FN#166] +Therefore man, according to Zen, is not good-natured nor bad-natured +in the relative sense, as accepted generally by common sense, of +these terms, but Buddha-natured in the sense of non-duality. A good +person (of common sense) differs from a bad person (of common sense), +not in his inborn Buddha-nature, but in the extent of his expressing +it in deeds. Even if men are equally endowed with that nature, yet +their different states of development do not allow them to express it +to an equal extent in conduct. Buddha-nature may be compared with +the sun, and individual mind with the sky. Then an Enlightened mind +is like the sky in fair weather, when nothing prevents the beams of +the sun; while an ignorant mind is like the sky in cloudy weather, +when the sun sheds faint light; and an evil mind is like the sky in +stormy weather, when the sun seems to be out of existence. It comes +under our daily observation that even a robber or a murderer may +prove to be a good father and a loving husband to his wife and +children. He is an honest fellow when he remains at home. The sun +of Buddha-nature gives light within the wall of his house, but +without the house the darkness of foul crimes shrouds him. + +[FN#165] For a detailed explanation of Buddha-nature, see the +chapter entitled Buddha-nature in Sho-bo-gen-zo. + +[FN#166] Mahaparinirvana-sutra may be said to have been written for +the purpose of stating this idea. + + + +9. The Parable of the Robber Kih.[FN#167] + +Chwang Tsz (So-shi) remarks in a humorous way to the following +effect: "The followers of the great robber and murderer Kih asked him +saying: 'Has the robber also any moral principles in his +proceedings?' He replied: 'What profession is there which has not +its principles? That the robber comes to the conclusion without +mistake that there are valuable deposits in an apartment shows his +wisdom; that he is the first to enter it shows his bravery; that he +makes an equal division of the plunder shows his justice; that he +never betrays the fellow-robbers shows his faithfulness; and that he +is generous to the followers shows his benevolence. Without all +these five qualities no one in the world has ever attained to become +a great robber.'" The parable clearly shows us Buddha-nature of the +robber and murderer expresses itself as wisdom, bravery, justice, +faithfulness, and benevolence in his society, and that if he did the +same outside it, he would not be a great robber but a great sage. + + +[FN#167] The parable is told for the purpose of undervaluing +Confucian doctrine, but the author thereby accidentally touches human +nature. We do not quote it here with the same purpose as the +author's. + + + +10. Wang Yang Ming (O-yo-mei) and a Thief. + +One evening when Wang was giving a lecture to a number of students on +his famous doctrine that all human beings are endowed with +Conscience,[FN#168] a thief broke into the house and hid himself in +the darkest corner. Then Wang declared aloud that every human being +is born with Conscience, and that even the thief who had got into the +house had Conscience just as the sages of old. The burglar, +overhearing these remarks, came out to ask the forgiveness of the +master; since there was no way of escape for him, and he was +half-naked, he crouched behind the students. Wang's willing +forgiveness and cordial treatment encouraged the man to ask the +question how the teacher could know such a poor wretch as he was +endowed with Conscience as the sages of old. Wang replied: "It is +your Conscience that makes you ashamed of your nakedness. You +yourself are a sage, if you abstain from everything that will put +shame on you." We firmly believe that Wang is perfectly right in +telling the thief that he was not different in nature from the sages +of old. It is no exaggeration. It is a saving truth. It is also a +most effective way of saving men out of darkness of sin. Any thief +ceases to be a thief the moment he believes in his own Conscience, or +Buddha-nature. You can never correct criminals by your severe +reproach or punishment. You can save them only through your sympathy +and love, by which you call forth their inborn Buddha-nature. +Nothing can produce more pernicious effects on criminals than to +treat them as if they were a different sort of people and confirm +them in their conviction that they are bad-natured. We greatly +regret that even in a civilized society authorities neglecting this +saving truth are driving to perdition those criminals under their +care, whom it is their duty to save. + +[FN#168] It is not conscience in the ordinary sense of the term. It +is 'moral' principle, according to Wang, pervading through the +Universe. 'It expresses itself as Providence in Heaven, as moral +nature in man, and as mechanical laws in things.' The reader will +notice that Wang's Conscience is the nearest approach to +Buddha-nature. + + + +11. The Bad are the Good in the Egg. + +This is not only the case with a robber or a murderer, but also with +ordinary people. There are many who are honest and good in their +homesteads, but turn out to be base and dishonest folk outside them. +Similarly, there are those who, having an enthusiastic love of their +local district, act unlawfully against the interests of other +districts. They are upright and honourable gentlemen within the +boundary of their own district, but a gang of rascals without it. So +also there are many who are Washingtons and William Tells in their +own, but at the same time pirates and cannibals in the other +countries. Again, there are not a few persons who, having racial +prejudices, would not allow the rays of their Buddha-nature to pass +through a coloured skin. There are civilized persons who are humane +enough to love and esteem any human being as their brother, but so +unfeeling that they think lower creatures as their proper food. The +highly enlightened person, however, cannot but sympathize with human +beings and lower creatures as well, as Shakya Muni felt all sentient +beings to be his children. + +These people are exactly the same in their Buddha-nature, but a wide +difference obtains among them in the extent of their expressing that +nature in deeds. If thieves and murderers be called bad-natured, +reformers and revolutionists should be called so. If, on the other +hand, patriotism and loyalty be said to be good, treason and +insurrection should likewise be so. Therefore it is evident that a +so-called good person is none but one who acts to promote wider +interests of life, and a so-called bad person is none but one who +acts to advance narrower ones. In other words, the bad are the good +in the egg, so to speak, and the good are the bad on the wing. As +the bird in the egg is one and the same as the bird on the wing, so +the good in the egg is entirely of the same nature as the bad on the +wing. To show that human nature transcends the duality of good and +evil, the author of Avatamsaka-sutra declares that 'all beings are +endowed with the wisdom and virtue of Tathagata.' Kwei Fung (Kei-ho) +also says: "All sentient beings have the Real Spirit of Original +Enlightenment (within themselves). It is unchanging and pure. It is +eternally bright and clear, and conscious. It is also named +Buddha-nature, or Tathagata-garbha." + + + +12. The Great Person and Small Person. + +For these reasons Zen proposes to call man Buddha-natured or +Good-natured in a sense transcendental to the duality of good and +bad. It conveys no sense to call some individuals good in case there +is no bad individual. For the sake of convenience, however, Zen +calls man good, as is exemplified by Shakya Muni, who was wont to +address his hearers as 'good men and women,' and by the Sixth +Patriarch in China, who called everybody 'a good and wise one.' This +does not imply in the least that all human beings are virtuous, +sinless, and saintly-nay, the world is full of vices and crimes. It +is an undeniable fact that life is the warfare of good against evil, +and many a valiant hero has fallen in the foremost ranks. It is +curious, however, to notice that the champions on the both sides are +fighting for the same cause. There can be no single individual in +the world who is fighting against his own cause or interest, and the +only possible difference between one party and the other consists in +the extent of interests which they fight for. So-called bad persons, +who are properly designated as 'small persons' by Chinese and +Japanese scholars, express their Buddha-nature to a small extent +mostly within their own doors, while so-called good persons, or +'great persons' as the Oriental scholars call them, actualize their +Buddha-nature to a large extent in the whole sphere of a country, or +of the whole earth. + +Enlightened Consciousness, or Buddha-nature, as we have seen in the +previous chapter, is the mind of mind and the consciousness of +consciousness, Universal Spirit awakened in individual minds, which +realizes the universal brotherhood of all beings and the unity of +individual lives. It is the real self, the guiding principle, the +Original Physiognomy[FN#169] (nature), as it is called by Zen, of +man. This real self lies dormant under the threshold of +consciousness in the minds of the confused; consequently, each of +them is inclined to regard petty individual as his self, and to exert +himself to further the interests of the individual self even at the +cost of those of the others. He is 'the smallest person' in the +world, for his self is reduced to the smallest extent possible. Some +of the less confused identify their selves with their families, and +feel happy or unhappy in proportion as their families are happy or +unhappy, for the sake of which they sacrifice the interests of other +families. On the other hand, some of the more enlightened unite +their selves through love and compassion with their whole tribe or +countrymen, and consider the rise or fall of the tribe or of the +country as their own, and willingly sacrifice their own lives, if +need be, for the cause of the tribe or the country. When they are +fully enlightened, they can realize the unity of all sentient lives, +and be ever merciful and helpful towards all creatures. They are +'the greatest persons' on earth, because their selves are enlarged to +the greatest extent possible. + + +[FN#169] The expression first occurs in Ho-bo-dan-kyo of the Sixth +Patriarch, and is frequently used by later Zenists. + + + +13. The Theory of Buddha-Nature adequately explains the Ethical +States of Man. + +This theory of Buddha-nature enables us to get an insight into the +origin of morality. The first awakening of Buddha-nature within man +is the very beginning of morality, and man's ethical progress is the +gradually widening expression of that nature in conduct. But for it +morality is impossible for man. But for it not only moral culture or +discipline, but education and social improvement must be futile. +Again, the theory adequately explains the ethical facts that the +standard of morality undergoes change in different times and places, +that good and bad are so inseparably knit together, and that the bad +at times become good all on a sudden, and the good grow bad quite +unexpectedly. First, it goes without saying that the standard of +morality is raised just in proportion as Buddha-nature or real self +extends and amplifies itself in different times and places. +Secondly, since good is Buddha-nature actualized to a large extent, +and bad is also Buddha-nature actualized to a small extent, the +existence of the former presupposes that of the latter, and the mess +of duality can never be got rid of. Thirdly, the fact that the bad +become good under certain circumstances, and the good also become bad +often unexpectedly, can hardly be explained by the dualistic theory, +because if good nature be so arbitrarily turned into bad and bad +nature into good, the distinction of good and bad nature has no +meaning whatever. According to the theory of Buddha-nature, the fact +that the good become bad or the bad become good, does not imply in +the least a change of nature, but the widening or the narrowing of +its actualization. So that no matter how morally degenerated one may +be, he can uplift himself to a high ethical plane by the widening of +his self, and at the same time no matter how morally exalted one may +be, he can descend to the level of the brute by the narrowing of his +self. To be an angel or to be a devil rests with one's degrees of +enlightenment and free choice. This is why such infinite varieties +exist both among the good and the bad. This is why the higher the +peak of enlightenment the people climb, the more widely the vista of +moral possibilities open before them. + + + +14. Buddha-Nature is the Common Source of Morals. + +Furthermore, Buddha-nature or real self, being the seat of love and +the nucleus of sincerity, forms the warp and woof of all moral +actions. He is an obedient son who serves his parents with sincerity +and love. He is a loyal subject who serves his master with sincerity +and love. A virtuous wife is she who loves her husband with her +sincere heart. A trustworthy friend is he who keeps company with +others with sincerity and love. A man of righteousness is he who +leads a life of sincerity and love. Generous and humane is he who +sympathizes with his fellow-men with his sincere heart. Veracity, +chastity, filial piety, loyalty, righteousness, generosity, humanity, +and what not-all-this is no other than Buddha-nature applied to +various relationships of human brotherhood. This is the common +source, ever fresh and inexhaustible, of morality that fosters and +furthers the interests of all. To-ju[FN#170] expresses the similar +idea as follows: + +"There exists the Inexhaustible Source (of morality) within me. +It is an invaluable treasure. +It is called Bright Nature of man. +It is peerless and surpasses all jewels. +The aim of learning is to bring out this Bright Nature. +This is the best thing in the world. +Real happiness can only be secured by it." + +Thus, in the first place, moral conduct, which is nothing but the +expression of Buddha-nature in action, implies the assertion of self +and the furtherance of one's interests. On this point is based the +half-truth of the Egoistic theory. Secondly, it is invariably +accompanied by a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction when it fulfils +its end. This accidental concomitance is mistaken for its essence by +superficial observers who adhere to the Hedonistic theory. Thirdly, +it conduces to the furtherance of the material and spiritual +interests of man, and it led the Utilitarians to the confusion of the +result with the cause of morality. Fourthly, it involves the control +or sacrifice of the lower and ignoble self of an individual in order +to realize his higher and nobler self. This gave rise to the +half-truth of the Ascetic theory of morality. + + +[FN#170] To-ju Naka-e (died A.D. 1649), the founder of the Japanese +Wang School of Confucianism, known as the Sage of Omi. + + + +15. The Parable of a Drunkard. + +Now the question arises, If all human beings are endowed with +Buddha-nature, why have they not come naturally to be Enlightened? +To answer this question, the Indian Mahayanists[FN#171] told the +parable of a drunkard who forgets the precious gems put in his own +pocket by one of his friends. The man is drunk with the poisonous +liquor of selfishness, led astray by the alluring sight of the +sensual objects, and goes mad with anger, lust, and folly. Thus he +is in a state of moral poverty, entirely forgetting the precious gem +of Buddha-nature within him. To be in an honourable position in +society as the owner of that valuable property, he must first get rid +himself of the influence of the liquor of self, and detach himself +from sensual objects, gain control over his passion, restore peace +and sincerity to his mind, and illumine his whole existence by his +inborn divine light. Otherwise he has to remain in the same plight +to all eternity. + + +[FN#171] Mahaparinirvana-sutra. + + +Lot us avail ourselves of another figure to explain more clearly the +point at issue. Universal Spirit may fitly be likened to the +universal water, or water circulating through the whole earth. This +universal water exists everywhere. It exists in the tree. It exists +in the grass. It exists in the mountain. It exists in the river. +It exists in the sea. It exists in the air. It exists in the cloud. + Thus man is not only surrounded by water on all sides, but it +penetrates his very body. But be can never appease his thirst +without drinking water. In like manner Universal Spirit exists +everywhere. It exists in the tree. It exists in the grass. It +exists in the ground. It exists in the mountain. It exists in the +river. It exists in the sea. It exists in the bird. It exists in +the beast. Thus man is not merely surrounded by Spirit on all sides, +but it permeates through his whole existence. But he can never be +Enlightened unless he awakens it within him by means of Meditation. +To drink water is to drink the universal water; to awaken +Buddha-nature is to be conscious of Universal Spirit. + +Therefore, to get Enlightened we have to believe that all beings are +Buddha-natured--that is, absolutely good-natured in the sense that +transcends the duality of good and bad. "One day," to cite an +example, "Pan Shan (Ban-zan) happened to pass by a meat-shop. He +heard a customer saying: 'Give me a pound of fresh meat.' To which +the shopkeeper, putting down his knife, replied: Certainly, sir. +Could there be any meat that is not fresh in my shop?' Pan Shan, +hearing these remarks, was Enlightened at once." + + + +16. Shakya Muni and the Prodigal Son. + +A great trouble with us is that we do not believe in half the good +that we are born with. We are just like the only son of a +well-to-do, as the author of Saddharma-pundarika-sutra[FN#172] tells +us, who, being forgetful of his rich inheritance, leaves his home and +leads a life of hand-to-mouth as a coolie. How miserable it is to +see one, having no faith in his noble endowment, burying the precious +gem of Buddha-nature into the foul rubbish of vices and crimes, +wasting his excellent genius in the exertion that is sure to disgrace +his name, falling a prey to bitter remorse and doubt, and casting +himself away into the jaw of perdition. Shakya Muni, full of +fatherly love towards all beings, looked with compassion on us, his +prodigal son, and used every means to restore the half-starved man to +his home. It was for this that he left the palace and the beloved +wife and son, practised his self-mortification and prolonged +Meditation, attained to Enlightenment, and preached Dharma for +forty-nine years; in other words, all his strength and effort were +focussed on that single aim, which was to bring the prodigal son to +his rich mansion of Buddha-nature. He taught not only by words, but +by his own actual example, that man has Buddha-nature, by the +unfoldment of which he can save himself from the miseries of life and +death, and bring himself to a higher realm than gods. When we are +Enlightened, or when Universal Spirit awakens within us, we open the +inexhaustible store of virtues and excellencies, and can freely make +use of them at our will. + + +[FN#172] See 'Sacred Books of the East,' vol. xxi., chap. iv., pp. +98-118. + + + +17. The Parable of the Monk and the Stupid Woman. + +The confused or unenlightened may be compared with a monk and a +stupid woman in a Japanese parable which runs as follows: "One +evening a monk (who was used to have his head shaved clean), getting +drunk against the moral precepts, visited a woman, known as a +blockhead, at her house. No sooner had he got into her room than the +female fell asleep so soundly that the monk could not wake her nap. +Thereupon he made up his mind to use every possible means to arouse +her, and searched and searched all over the room for some instrument +that would help him in his task of arousing her from death-like +slumber. Fortunately, he found a razor in one of the drawers of her +mirror stand. With it he gave a stroke to her hair, but she did not +stir a whit. Then came another stroke, and she snored like thunder. +The third and fourth strokes came, but with no better result. And at +last her head was shaven clean, yet still she slept on. The next +morning when she awoke, she could not find her visitor, the monk, as +he had left the house in the previous night. 'Where is my visitor, +where my dear monk?' she called aloud, and waking in a state of +somnambulation looked for him in vain, repeating the outcry. When at +length her hand accidentally touched her shaven head, she mistook it +for that of her visitor, and exclaimed: 'Here you are, my dear, where +am I myself gone then?" A great trouble with the confused is their +forgetting of real self or Buddha-nature, and not knowing 'where it +is gone.' Duke Ngai, of the State of Lu, once said to Confucius: +"One of my subjects, Sir, is so much forgetful that he forgot to take +his wife when be changed his residence." "That is not much, my +lord," said the sage, "the Emperors Kieh[FN#173] and Cheu[FN#174] +forgot their own selves."[FN#175] + + +[FN#173] The last Emperor of the Ha dynasty, notorious for his +vices. His reign was 1818-1767 B.C. + +[FN#174] The last Emperor of the Yin dynasty, one of the worst +despots. His reign was 1154-1122 B.C. + +[FN#175] Ko-shi-ke-go. + + + +18. 'Each Smile a Hymn, each Kindly Word a Prayer.' + +The glorious sun of Buddha-nature shines in the zenith of Enlightened +Consciousness, but men still dream a dream of illusion. Bells and +clocks of the Universal Church proclaim the dawn of Bodhi, yet men, +drunk with the liquors of the Three Poisons[FN#176] Still slumber in +the darkness of sin. Let us pray to Buddha, in whose bosom we live, +for the sake of our own salvation. Let us invoke Buddha, whose +boundless mercy ever besets us, for the Sake of joy and peace of all +our fellow-beings. Let us adore Him through our sympathy towards the +poor, through our kindness shown to the suffering, through our +thought of the sublime and the good. + +"O brother man, fold to thy heart thy brother; +Where pity dwells, the peace of God is there; +To worship rightly is to love each other, +Each smile a hymn, each kindly word a prayer." +--Whittier. + +Let, then, your heart be so pure that you may not be unworthy of the +sunshine beaming upon you the light of Universal Spirit. Let your +thought be so noble that you may deserve fair flowers blooming before +you, reminding you of merciful Buddha. Let your life be so good that +you may not be ashamed of yourself in the presence of the Blessed +One. This is the piety of Mahayanists, especially of Zenists. + + +[FN#176] Lust, anger, and folly. + + + +19. The World is in the Making. + +Our assertion is far from assuming that life is now complete, and is +in its best state. On the contrary, it is full of defects and +shortcomings. We must not be puffed up with modern civilization, +however great victory it has scored for its side. Beyond all doubt +man is still in his cradle. He often stretches forth his hands to +get at his higher ideal, yet is still satisfied with worthless +playthings. It is too glaring a fact to be overlooked by us that +faith in religion is dying out in the educated circles of society, +that insincerity, cowardice, and double-tongue are found holding high +positions in almost ever community, that Lucrese and Ezzeling are +looking down upon the starving multitude from their luxurious palace, +that Mammon and Bacchus are sometimes preying on their living +victims, that even religion often sides with Contention and piety +takes part in Cruelty, that Anarchy is ever ready to spring on the +crowned beings, that philosophy is disposed to turn the deaf ear to +the petition of peace, while science provides fuel for the fire of +strife. + +Was the golden age of man, then, over in the remote past? Is the +doomsday coming instead? Do you bear the trumpet call? Do you feel +the earth tremble? No, absolutely no, the golden age is not passed. +It is yet to come. There are not a few who think that the world is +in completion, and the Creator has finished His work. We witness, +however, that He is still working and working, for actually we hear +His hammer-strokes resounding through heaven above and earth beneath. + Does He not show us new materials for His building? Does He not +give new forms to His design? Does He not surprise us with +novelties, extraordinaries, and mysteries? In a word, the world is +in progress, not in retrogression. + +A stream does not run in a straight line. It now turns to the right, +now to the left, now leaps down a precipice, now waters rich fields, +now runs back towards its source; but it is destined to find its +outlet in the ocean. So it is with the stream of life. It now leaps +down the precipice of revolution. Now it enriches the fertile field +of civilization. Now it expands itself into a glassy lake of peace. +Now it forms the dangerous whirlpool of strife. But its course is +always toward the ocean of Enlightenment, in which the gems of +equality and freedom, jewels of truth and beauty, and treasures of +wisdom and bliss can be had. + + + +20. The Progress and Hope of Life. + +How many myriads of years have passed since the germs of life first +made appearance on earth none can tell; how many thousands of summers +and winters it has taken to develop itself into higher animals, no +scientist can calculate exactly. Slowly but steadily it has taken +its swerving course, and ascending stop by step the series of +evolution, has reached at length the plane of the rational animal. +We cannot tell how many billions of years it takes to develop +ourselves and become beings higher than man himself, yet we firmly +believe that it is possible for us to take the same unerring course +as the organic germs took in the past. Existing humanity is not the +same as primitive one. It is quite another race. Our desires and +hopes are entirely different from those of primitive man. What was +gold for them is now iron for us. Our thoughts and beliefs are what +they never dreamed of. Of our knowledge they had almost none. That +which they kept in veneration we trample under our feet. Things they +worshipped as deities now serve us as our slaves. Things that +troubled and tortured them we now turn into utilities. To say +nothing of the customs and manners and mode of living which underwent +extraordinary change, we are of a race in body and mind other than +the primitive forefathers of good old days. +In addition to this we have every reason to believe in the betterment +of life. Let us cast a glance to the existing state of the world. +While the Turco-Italian war was raising its ferocious outcry, the +Chinese revolution lifted its head before the trembling throne. Who +can tell whether another sanguinary affair will not break out before +the Bulgarian bloodshed comes to an end? Still we believe that, as +fire drives out fire, to borrow Shakespeare's phrase, so war is +driving out war. As an ocean, which separated two nations in the +past, serves to unite them now, so a war, which separated two people +in the past, brings them to unity now. It goes without saying, that +every nation groans under the burden of cannons and warships, and +heartily desires peace. No nation can willingly wage war against any +other nation. It is against the national conscience. It is no +exaggeration to say the world is wholly the ear to hear the news from +the goddess of peace. A time will surely come, if our purpose be +steady and our resolution firm, when universal peace will be +restored, and Shakya Muni's precept, 'not to kill,' will be realized +by all mankind. + + + +21. The Betterment of Life. + +Again, people nowadays seem to feel keenly the wound of the +economical results of war, but they are unfeeling to its moral +injuries. As elements have their affinities, as bodies have their +attractions, as creatures have their instinct to live together, so +men have their inborn mutual love. 'God divided man into men that +they might help each other.' Their strength lies in their mutual +help, their pleasure is in their mutual love, and their perfection is +in their giving and receiving of alternate good. Therefore Shakya +Muni says: "Be merciful to all living beings." To take up arms +against any other person is unlawful for any individual. It is the +violation of the universal law of life. + +We do not deny that there are not a few who are so wretched that they +rejoice in their crimes, nor that there is any person but has more or +less stain on his character, nor that the means of committing crimes +are multiplied in proportion as modern civilization advances; yet +still we believe that our social life is ever breaking down our +wolfish disposition that we inherited from our brute ancestors, and +education is ever wearing out our cannibalistic nature which we have +in common with wild animals. On the one hand, the signs of social +morals are manifest in every direction, such as asylums for orphans, +poorhouses, houses of correction, lodgings for the penniless, asylums +for the poor, free hospitals, hospitals for domestic animals, +societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals, schools for the +blind and the dumb, asylums for the insane, and so forth; on the +other hand, various discoveries and inventions have been made that +may contribute to the social improvement, such as the discovery of +the X rays and of radium, the invention of the wireless telegraph and +that of the aeroplane and what not. Furthermore, spiritual wonders +such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, telepathy, etc., remind us of +the possibilities of further spiritual unfoldment in man which he +never dreamed of. Thus life is growing richer and nobler step by +step, and becoming more and more hopeful as we advance in the Way of +Buddha. + + + +22. The Buddha of Mercy. + +Milton says: + +"Virtue may be assailed, but never hurt; +Surprised by unjust force, but not enthralled. +But evil on itself shall back recoil, +And mix no more with goodness. If this fail, +The pillared firmament is rottenness, +And earth's base built on stubble." + +The world is built on the foundation of morality, which is another +name for Universal Spirit, and moral order sustains it. We human +beings, consciously or unconsciously, were, are, and will be at work +to bring the world into perfection. This idea is allegorically +expressed in the Buddhist sutra,[FN#177] which details the advent of +a merciful Buddha named Maitreya in the remote future. At that time, +it says, there will be no steep hills, no filthy places, no epidemic, +no famine, no earthquake, no storm, no war, no revolution, no +bloodshed, no cruelty, and no suffering; the roads will be paved +smoothly, grass and trees always blooming, birds ever singing, men +contented and happy; all sentient beings will worship the Buddha of +Mercy, accept His doctrine, and attain to Enlightenment. This +prophecy will be fulfilled, according to the sutra, 5,670,000,000 +years after the death of Shakya Muni. This evidently shows us that +the Mahayanist's aim of life is to bring out man's inborn light of +Buddha-nature to illumine the world, to realize the universal +brotherhood of all sentient beings, to attain to Enlightenment, and +to enjoy peace and joy to which Universal Spirit leads us. + + +[FN#177] See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 204-209. + + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + + +ENLIGHTENMENT + + +1. Enlightenment is beyond Description and Analysis. + +In the foregoing chapters we have had several occasions to refer to +the central problem of Zen or Enlightenment, whose content it is +futile to attempt to explain or analyze. We must not explain or +analyze it, because by doing so we cannot but mislead the reader. We +can as well represent Enlightenment by means of explanation or +analysis as we do personality by snapshots or by anatomical +operations. As our inner life, directly experienced within us, is +anything but the shape of the head, or the features of the face, or +the posture of the body, so Enlightenment experienced by Zenists at +the moment of their highest Samadhi[FN#178] is anything but the +psychological analysis of mental process, or the epistemological +explanation of cognition, or the philosophical generalization of +concepts. Enlightenment can be realized only by the Enlightened, and +baffles every attempt to describe it, even by the Enlightened +themselves. The effort of the confused to guess at Enlightenment is +often likened by the Zenists to the effort of the blind who feel an +elephant to know what it looks like. Some of them who happen to feel +the trunk would declare it is like a rope, but those who happen to +feel the belly would declare it is like a huge drum; while those who +happen to feel the feet would declare it is like the trunk of a tree. +But none of these conjectures can approach the living elephant. + + +[FN#178] Abstract Contemplation, which the Zenists distinguish from +Samadhi, practised by the Brahmins. The author of 'An Outline of +Buddhist Sects' points out the distinction, saying: "Contemplation of +outside religionists is practised with the heterodox view that the +lower worlds (the worlds for men, beasts, etc.) are disgusting, but +the upper worlds (the worlds for Devas) are desirable; Contemplation +of common people (ordinary lay believers of Buddhism) is practised +with the belief in the law of Karma, and also with disgust (for the +lower worlds) and desire (for the upper worlds); Contemplation of +Hinayana is practised with an insight into the truth of Anatman +(non-soul); Contemplation of Mahayana is practised with an insight of +Unreality of Atman (soul) as well as of Dharma (thing); Contemplation +of the highest perfection is practised with the view that Mind is +pure in its nature, it is endowed with unpolluted wisdom, free from +passion, and it is no other than Buddha himself." + + + +2. Enlightenment implies an Insight into the Nature of Self. + +We cannot pass over, however, this weighty problem without saying a +word. We shall try in this chapter to present Enlightenment before +the reader in a roundabout way, just as the painter gives the +fragmentary sketches of a beautiful city, being unable to give even a +bird's-eye view of it. Enlightenment, first of all, implies an +insight into the nature of Self. It is an emancipation of mind from +illusion concerning Self. All kinds of sin take root deep in the +misconception of Self, and putting forth the branches of lust, anger, +and folly, throw dark shadows on life. To extirpate this +misconception Buddhism[FN#179] strongly denies the existence of the +individual soul as conceived by common sense-that is, that unchanging +spiritual entity provided with sight, hearing, touch, smell, feeling, +thought, imagination, aspiration, etc., which survives the body. It +teaches us that there is no such thing as soul, and that the notion +of soul is a gross illusion. It treats of body as a temporal +material form of life doomed to be destroyed by death and reduced to +its elements again. It maintains that mind is also a temporal +spiritual form of life, behind which there is no immutable soul. + + +[FN#179] Both Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism teach the doctrine of +Anatman, or Non-self. It is the denial of soul as conceived by +common sense, and of Atman as conceived by Indian heterodox thinkers. + Some Mahayanists believe in the existence of real Self instead of +individual self, as we see in Mahaparinirvana-sutra, whose author +says: "There is real self in non-self." It is worthy of note that +the Hinayanists set forth Purity, Pleasure, Atman, and Eternity, as +the four great misconceptions about life, while the same author +regards them as the four great attributes of Nirvana itself. + + +An illusory mind tends either to regard body as Self and to yearn +after its material interests, or to believe mind dependent on soul as +Ego. Those who are given to sensual pleasures, consciously or +unconsciously, bold body to be the Self, and remain the life-long +slave to the objects of sense. Those who regard mind as dependent on +soul as the Self, on the other hand, undervalue body as a mere tool +with which the soul works, and are inclined to denounce life as if +unworthy of living. We must not undervalue body, nor must we +overestimate mind. There is no mind isolated from body, nor is there +any body separated from mind. Every activity of mind produces +chemical and physiological changes in the nerve-centres, in the +organs, and eventually in the whole body; while every activity of +body is sure to bring out the corresponding change in the mental +function, and eventually in the whole personality. We have the +inward experience of sorrow when we have simultaneously the outward +appearance of tears and of pallor; when we have the outward +appearance of the fiery eyes and short breath, we have simultaneously +the inward feeling of anger. Thus body is mind observed outwardly in +its relation to the senses; mind is body inwardly experienced in its +relation to introspection. Who can draw a strict line of demarcation +between mind and body? We should admit, so far as our present +knowledge is concerned, that mind, the intangible, has been formed to +don a garment of matter in order to become an intelligible existence +at all; matter, the solid, has faded under examination into +formlessness, as that of mind. Zen believes in the identification of +mind and body, as Do-gen[FN#180] says: "Body is identical with mind; +appearance and reality are one and the same thing." + Bergson denies the identification of mind and body, saying:[FN#181] +"It (experience) shows us the interdependence of the mental and the +physical, the necessity of a certain cerebral substratum for the +psychical state-nothing more. From the fact that two things are +mutually dependent, it does not follow that they are equivalent. +Because a certain screw is necessary for a certain machine, because +the machine works when the screw is there and stops when the screw is +taken away, we do not say that the screw is equivalent of the +machine." Bergson's simile of a screw and a machine is quite +inadequate to show the interdependence of mind and body, because the +screw does cause the machine to work, but the machine does not cause +the screw to work; so that their relation is not interdependence. On +the contrary, body causes mind to work, and at the same time mind +causes body to work; so that their relation is perfectly +interdependent, and the relation is not that of an addition of mind +to body, or of body to mind, as the screw is added to the machine. +Bergson must have compared the working of the machine with mind, and +the machine itself with body, if be wanted to show the real fact. +Moreover, he is not right in asserting that "from the fact that two +things are mutually dependent, it does not follow that they are +equivalent," because there are several kinds of interdependence, in +some of which two things can be equivalent. For instance, bricks, +mutually dependent in their forming an arch, cannot be equivalent one +with another; but water and waves, being mutually dependent, can be +identified. In like manner fire and heat, air and wind, a machine +and its working, mind and body.[FN#182] + + +[FN#180] The master strongly condemns the immortality of the soul as +the heterodox doctrine in his Sho-bo-gen-zo. The same argument is +found in Mu-chu-mon-do, by Mu-so Koku-shi. + +[FN#181] 'Creative Evolution,' pp. 354, 355. + +[FN#182] Bergson, arguing against the dependence of the mind on +brain, says: "That there is a close connection between a state of +consciousness and the brain we do not dispute. But there is also a +close connection between a coat and the nail on which it hangs, for +if the nail is pulled out, the coat will fall to the ground. Shall +we say, then, that the shape of the nail gave the shape of the coat, +or in any way corresponds to it? No more are we entitled to +conclude, because the psychical fact is hung on to a cerebral state, +that there is any parallelism between the two series, psychical and +physiological." We have to ask, in what respects does the +interrelation between mind and body resemble the relation between a +coat and a nail? + + + +3. The Irrationality of the Belief of Immortality. + +Occidental minds believe in a mysterious entity under the name of +soul, just as Indian thinkers believe in the so-called subtle body +entirely distinct from the gross body of flesh and blood. Soul, +according to this belief, is an active principle that unites body and +mind so as to form an harmonious whole of mental as well as bodily +activities. And it acts through the instrumentality of the mind and +body in the present life, and enjoys an eternal life beyond the +grave. It is on this soul that individual immortality is based. It +is immortal Self. +Now, to say nothing of the origin of soul, this long-entertained +belief is hardly good for anything. In the first place, it throws no +light upon the relation of mind and body, because soul is an empty +name for the unity of mind and body, and serves to explain nothing. +On the contrary, it adds another mystery to the already mysterious +relationships between matter and spirit. Secondly, soul should be +conceived as a psychical individual, subject to spacial +determinations--but since it has to be deprived by death of its body +which individualizes it, it will cease to be individuality after +death, to the disappointment of the believer. How could you think +anything purely spiritual and formless existing without blending +together with other things? Thirdly, it fails to gratify the desire, +cherished by the believer, of enjoying eternal life, because soul has +to lose its body, the sole important medium through which it may +enjoy life. Fourthly, soul is taken as a subject matter to receive +in the future life the reward or the punishment from God for our +actions in this life; but the very idea of eternal punishment is +inconsistent with the boundless love of God. Fifthly, it is beyond +all doubt that soul is conceived as an entity, which unifies various +mental faculties and exists as the foundation of individual +personality. But the existence of such soul is quite incompatible +with the well-known pathological fact that it is possible for the +individual to have double or treble or multiple personalities. Thus +the belief in the existence of soul conceived by the common sense +turns out not only to be irrational, but a useless encumbrance on the +religious mind. Therefore Zen declares that there is no such thing +as soul, and that mind and body are one. Hwui Chung (Ye-chu), a +famous disciple of the Sixth Patriarch in China, to quote an example, +one day asked a monk: "Where did you come from?" "I came, sir, from +the South," replied the man. "What doctrine do the masters of the +South teach?" asked Hwui Chung again. "They teach, sir, that body is +mortal, but mind is immortal," was the answer. "That," said the +master, "is the heterodox doctrine of the Atman!" "How do you, sir," +questioned the monk, "teach about that?" "I teach that the body and +mind are one," was the reply.[FN#183] + + +[FN#183] For further explanation, see Sho-bo-gen-zo and +Mu-chu-mon-do. + +Fiske, [FN#184] in his argument against materialism, blames the +denial of immortality, saying: "The materialistic assumption that +there is no such state of things, and that the life of the soul ends +accordingly with the life of the body, is perhaps the most colossal +instance of baseless assumption that is known to the history of +philosophy." But we can say with equal force that the common-sense +assumption that the life of soul continues beyond the grave is, +perhaps, the most colossal instance of baseless assumption that is +known to the history of thought, because, there being no scientific +evidences that give countenance to the assumption, even the +spiritualists themselves hesitate to assert the existence of a ghost +or soul. Again he[FN#185] says: "With this illegitimate hypothesis +of annihilation the materialist transgresses the bounds of experience +quite as widely as the poet who sings of the New Jerusalem with its +river of life and its street of gold. Scientifically speaking, there +is not a particle of evidence for either view." This is as much as +to say there is not a particle of evidence, scientifically speaking, +for the common-sense view of soul, because the poet's description of +the New Jerusalem is nothing but the result of the common-sense +belief of immortality. + + +[FN#184] 'The Destiny of Man,' p. 110. + +[FN#185] 'The Destiny of Man,' pp. 110, 111. + + +4. The Examination of the Notion of Self. + +The belief in immortality is based on the strong instinct of +self-preservation that calls forth an insatiable longing for +longevity. It is another form of egoism, one of the relics of our +brute forefathers. We must bear in mind that this illusion of the +individual Self is the foundation on which every form of immorality +has its being. I challenge my readers to find in the whole history +of mankind any crime not based on egoism. Evil-doers have been as a +rule pleasure-hunters, money-seekers, seekers after self-interests, +characterized by lust, folly, and cruelty. Has there been anyone who +committed theft that he might further the interests of his villagers? + Has there been any paramour who disgraced himself that lie might +help his neighbours? Has there been any traitor who performed the +ignoble conduct to promote the welfare of his own country or society +at large? + +To get Enlightened, therefore, we have to correct, first of all, our +notions concerning Self. Individual body and mind are not the only +important constituents of Self. There are many other indispensable +elements in the notion of Self. For instance, I have come into +existence as another form of my parents. I am theirs, and may justly +be called the reincarnation of them. And again, my father is another +form of his parents; my mother of hers; his and her parents of +theirs; and ad infinitum. In brief, all my forefathers live and have +their being in me. I cannot help, therefore, thinking that my +physical state is the result of the sum total of my good and bad +actions in the past lives I led in the persons of my forefathers, and +of the influence I received therein;[FN#186] and that my psychical +state is the result of that which I received, felt, imagined, +conceived, experienced, and thought in my past existences in the +persons of my ancestors. + +[FN#186] This is the law of Karma. + + +Besides this, my brothers, my sisters, my neighbours--nay, all my +follow-men and fellow-women are no other than the reincarnation of +their parents and forefathers, who are also mine. The same blood +invigorated the king as well as the beggar; the same nerve energized +the white as well as the black men; the same consciousness vitalized +the wise as well as the unwise. Impossible it is to conceive myself +independent of my fellow-men and fellow-women, for they are mine and +I am theirs--that is, I live and move in them, and they live and move +in me. + +It is bare nonsense to say that I go to school, not to be educated as +a member of society, but simply to gratify my individual desire for +knowledge; or that I make a fortune, not to lead the life of a +well-to-do in society, but to satisfy my individual money-loving +instinct; or that I seek after truth, neither to do good to my +contemporaries nor to the future generations, but only for my +individual curiosity or that I live neither to live with my family +nor with my friends nor with anyone else, but to live my individual +life. It is as gross absurdity to say that I am an individual +absolutely independent of society as to say I am a husband with no +wife, or I am a son to no parents. Whatever I do directly or +indirectly I contribute to the common fortune of man; whatever anyone +else does directly or indirectly determines my fate. Therefore we +must realize that our Selves necessarily include other members of the +community, while other members' Selves necessarily comprehend us. + + + +5. Nature is the Mother of All Things. + +Furthermore, man has come into existence out of Nature. He is her +child. She provided him food, raiment, and shelter. She nourishes +him, strengthens him, and vitalizes him. At the same time she +disciplines, punishes, and instructs him. His body is of her own +formation, his knowledge is of her own laws, and his activities are +the responses to her own addresses to him. Modern civilization is +said by some to be the conquest of man over Nature; but, in fact, it +is his faithful obedience to her. "Bacon truly said," says +Eucken,[FN#187] "that to rule nature man must first serve her. He +forgot to add that, as her ruler, he is still destined to go on +serving her." She can never be attacked by any being unless he acts +in strict conformity to her laws. To accomplish anything against her +law is as impossible as to catch fishes in a forest, or to make bread +of rock. How many species of animals have perished owing to their +inability to follow her steps! How immense fortunes have been lost +in vain from man's ignorance of her order! How many human beings +disappeared on earth from their disobedience to her unbending will! +She is, nevertheless, true to those who obey her rules. Has not +science proved that she is truthful? Has not art found that she is +beautiful? + + +[FN#187] Eucken's 'Philosophy of Life,' by W. R. Royce Gibbon, p. 51. + + +Has not philosophy announced that she is spiritual? Has not religion +proclaimed that she is good? At all events, she is the mother of all +beings. She lives in all things and they live in her. All that she +possesses is theirs, and all that they want she supplies. Her life +is the same vitality that stirs all sentient beings. Chwang +Tsz[FN#188] (So-shi) is right when he says: "Heaven, Earth, and I +were produced together, and all things and I are one." And again: +"If all things be regarded with love, Heaven and Earth are one with +me." Sang Chao (So-jo) also says: "Heaven and Earth are of the same +root as we. All things in the world are of one substance with +Me."[FN#189] + + +[FN#188] Chwang Tsz, vol. i., p. 20. + +[FN#189] This is a favourite subject of discussion by Zenists. + + + +6. Real Self. + +If there be no individual soul either in mind or body, where does +personality lie? What is Real Self? How does it differ from soul? +Self is living entity, not immutable like soul, but mutable and +ever-changing life, which is body when observed by senses, and which +is mind when experienced by introspection. It is not an entity lying +behind mind and body, but life existent as the union of body and +mind. It existed in our forefathers in the past, is existing in the +present, and will exist in the future generations. It also discloses +itself to some measure in vegetables and animals, and shadows itself +forth in inorganic nature. It is Cosmic life and Cosmic spirit, and +at the same time individual life and individual spirit. It is one +and the same life which embraces men and nature. It is the +self-existent, creative, universal principle that moves on from +eternity to eternity. As such it is called Mind or Self by Zenists. +Pan Shan (Ban-zan) says: "The moon of mind comprehends all the +universe in its light." A man asked Chang Sha (Cho-sha): "How can +you turn the phenomenal universe into Self ?" "How can you turn Self +into the phenomenal universe?" returned the master. + +When we get the insight into this Self, we are able to have the open +sesame to the mysteries of the universe, because to know the nature +of a drop of water is to know the nature of the river, the lake, and +the ocean--nay, even of vapour, mist, and cloud; in other words, to +get an insight into individual life is the key to the secret of +Universal Life. We must not confine Self within the poor little +person called body. That is the root of the poorest and most +miserable egoism. We should expand that egoism into family-egoism, +then into nation-egoism, then into race-egoism, then into +human-egoism, then into living-being-egoism, and lastly into +universe-egoism, which is not egoism at all. Thus we deny the +immortality of soul as conceived by common sense, but assume +immortality of the Great Soul, which animates, vitalizes, and +spiritualizes all sentient beings. It is Hinayana Buddhism that +first denied the existence of atman or Self so emphatically +inculcated in the Upanisads, and paved the way for the general +conception of Universal Self, with the eulogies of which almost every +page of Mahayana books is filled. + + + +7. The Awakening of the Innermost Wisdom. + +Having set ourselves free from the misconception of Self, next we +must awaken our innermost wisdom, pure and divine, called the Mind of +Buddha,[FN#190] or Bodhi,[FN#191] or Prajnya[FN#192] by Zen masters. +It is the divine light, the inner heaven, the key to all moral +treasures, the centre of thought and consciousness, the source of all +influence and power, the seat of kindness, justice, sympathy, +impartial love, humanity, and mercy, the measure of all things. When +this innermost wisdom is fully awakened, we are able to realize that +each and everyone of us is identical in spirit, in essence, in nature +with the universal life or Buddha, that each ever lives face to face +with Buddha, that each is beset by the abundant grace of the Blessed +One, that He arouses his moral nature, that He opens his spiritual +eyes, that He unfolds his new capacity, that He appoints his mission, +and that life is not an ocean of birth, disease, old age, and death, +nor the vale of tears, but the holy temple of Buddha, the Pure +Land,[FN#193] where be can enjoy the bliss of Nirvana. + + +[FN#190] Zen is often called the Sect of Buddha-mind, as it lays +stress on the awakening of the Mind of Buddha. The words 'the Mind +of Buddha' were taken from a passage in Lankavatara-sutra. + +[FN#191] That knowledge by which one becomes enlightened. + +[FN#192] Supreme wisdom. + +[FN#193] Sukhavati, or the land of bliss. + + +Then our minds go through an entire revolution. We are no more +troubled by anger and hatred, no more bitten by envy and ambition, no +more stung by sorrow and chagrin, no more overwhelmed by melancholy +and despair. Not that we become passionless or simply intellectual, +but that we have purified passions, which, instead of troubling us, +inspire us with noble aspirations, such as anger and hatred against +injustice, cruelty, and dishonesty, sorrow and lamentation for human +frailty, mirth and joy for the welfare of follow-beings, pity and +sympathy for suffering creatures. The same change purifies our +intellect. Scepticism and sophistry give way to firm conviction; +criticism and hypothesis to right judgment; and inference and +argument to realization. + +What we merely observed before we now touch with heart as well. What +we knew in relation of difference before we now understand in +relation of unity as well. How things happen was our chief concern +before, but now we consider as well bow much value they have. What +was outside us before now comes within us. What was dead and +indifferent before grows now alive and lovable to us. What was +insignificant and empty before becomes now important, and has +profound meaning. Wherever we go we find beauty; whomever we meet we +find good; whatever we get we receive with gratitude. This is the +reason why the Zenists not only regarded all their fellow-beings as +their benefactors, but felt gratitude even towards fuel and water. +The present writer knows a contemporary Zenist who would not drink +even a cup of water without first making a salutation to it. Such an +attitude of Zen toward things may well be illustrated by the +following example: Sueh Fung (Sep-po) and Kin Shan (Kin-zan), once +travelling through a mountainous district, saw a leaf of the rape +floating down the stream. Thereon Kin Shan said: "Let us go up, dear +brother, along the stream that we may find a sage living up on the +mountain. I hope we shall find a good teacher in him." "No," +replied Sueh Fung, "for he cannot be a sage who wastes even a leaf of +the rape. He will be no good teacher for us." + + + +8. Zen is not Nihilistic. + +Zen judged from ancient Zen masters' aphorisms may seem, at the first +sight, to be idealistic in an extreme form, as they say: "Mind is +Buddha" or, "Buddha is Mind," or, "There is nothing outside mind," +or, "Three worlds are of but one mind." And it may also appear to be +nihilistic, as they say: "There has been nothing since all eternity," +"By illusion you see the castle of the Three Worlds"; "by +Enlightenment you see but emptiness in ten directions."[FN#194] In +reality, however, Zen[FN#195] is neither idealistic nor nihilistic. +Zen makes use of the nihilistic idea of Hinayana Buddhism, and calls +its students' attention to the change and evanescence of life and of +the world, first to destroy the error of immutation, next to dispel +the attachment to the sensual objects. + + +[FN#194] These words were repeatedly uttered by Chinese and Japanese +Zenists of all ages. Chwen Hih (Fu-dai-shi) expressed this very idea +in his Sin Wang Ming (Shin-o-mei) at the time of Bodhidharma. + +[FN#195] The Rin-zai teachers mostly make use of the doctrine of +unreality of all things, as taught in Prajnya-paramita-sutras. We +have to note that there are some differences between the Mahayana +doctrine of unreality and the Hinayana doctrine of unreality. + + +It is a misleading tendency of our intellect to conceive things as if +they were immutable and constant. It often leaves changing and +concrete individual objects out of consideration, and lays stress on +the general, abstract, unchanging aspect of things. It is inclined +to be given to generalization and abstraction. It often looks not at +this thing or at that thing, but at things in general. It loves to +think not of a good thing nor of a bad thing, but of bad and good in +the abstract. This intellectual tendency hardens and petrifies the +living and growing world, and leads us to take the universe as a +thing dead, inert, and standing still. This error of immutation can +be corrected by the doctrine of Transcience taught by Hinayana +Buddhism. But as medicine taken in an undue quantity turns into +poison, so the doctrine of Transcience drove the Hinayanists to the +suicidal conclusion of nihilism. A well-known scholar and believer +of Zen, Kwei Fung (Kei-ha) says in his refutation of nihilism:[FN#196] + +"If mind as well as external objects be unreal, who is it that knows +they are so? Again, if there be nothing real in the universe, what +is it that causes unreal objects to appear? We stand witness to the +fact that there is no one of the unreal things on earth that is not +made to appear by something real. If there be no water of unchanging +fluidity, how can there be the unreal and temporary forms of waves? +If there be no unchanging mirror, bright and clean, bow can there be +the various images, unreal and temporary, reflected in it? If mind +as well as external objects be nothing at all, no one can tell what +it is that causes these unreal appearances. Therefore this doctrine +(of the unreality of all things) can never clearly disclose spiritual +Reality. So that Mahabheri-harakaparivarta-sutra says: " All the +sutras that teach the unreality of things belong to the imperfect +doctrine " (of the Shakya Muni). Mahaprajnya-paramita-sutra says The +doctrine of unreality is the entrance-gate of Mahayana." + + +[FN#196] See the appendix, chap. ii., 'The Mahayana Doctrine of +Nihilism.' + + + +9. Zen and Idealism. + +Next Zen makes use of Idealism as explained by the Dharmalaksana +School of Mahayana Buddhism.[FN#197] For instance, the Fourth +Patriarch says: "Hundreds and thousands of laws originate with mind. +Innumerable mysterious virtues proceed from the mental source." Niu +Teu (Go-zu) also says: "When mind arises, various things arise; when +mind ceases to exist, various things cease to exist." Tsao Shan +(So-zan) carried the point so far that he cried out, on hearing the +bell: "It hurts, it pains." Then an attendant of his asked "What is +the matter?" "It is my mind," said he, that is struck."[FN#198] + + +[FN#197] Appendix, chap. ii., 'The Mahayana Doctrine of +Dharmalaksana.' + +[FN#198] Zen-rin-rui-shu. + + +We acknowledge the truth of the following considerations: There +exists no colour, nor sound, nor odour in the objective world, but +there are the vibrations of ether, or the undulations of the air, or +the stimuli of the sensory nerves of smell. Colour is nothing but +the translation of the stimuli into sensation by the optical nerves, +so also sounds by the auditory, and odours by the smelling. +Therefore nothing exists objectively exactly as it is perceived by +the senses, but all are subjective. Take electricity, for example, +it appears as light when perceived through the eye; it appears as +sound when perceived through the ear; it appears as taste when +perceived through the tongue; but electricity in reality is not +light, nor sound, nor taste. Similarly, the mountain is not high nor +low; the river is not deep nor shallow; the house is not large nor +small; the day is not long nor short; but they seem so through +comparison. It is not objective reality that displays the phenomenal +universe before us, but it is our mind that plays an important part. +Suppose that we have but one sense organ, the eye, then the whole +universe should consist of colours and of colours only. If we +suppose we were endowed with the sixth sense, which entirely +contradicts our five senses, then the whole world would be otherwise. + Besides, it is our reason that finds the law of cause and effect in +the objective world, that discovered the law of uniformity in Nature, +and that discloses scientific laws in the universe so as to form a +cosmos. Some scholars maintain that we cannot think of non-existence +of space, even if we can leave out all objects in it; nor can we +doubt the existence of time, for the existence of mind itself +presupposes time. Their very argument, however, proves the +subjectivity of time and space, because, if they were objective, we +should be able to think them non-existent, as we do with other +external objects. Even space and time, therefore are no more than +subjective. + + + +10. Idealism is a Potent Medicine for Self-created Mental Disease. + +In so far as Buddhist idealism refers to the world of sense, in so +far as it does not assume that to to be known is identical with to +be, in so far as it does not assert that the phenomenal universe is a +dream and a vision, we may admit it as true. On the one hand, it +serves us as a purifier of our hearts polluted with materialistic +desires, and uplifts us above the plain of sensualism; on the other +hand, it destroys superstitions which as a rule arise from ignorance +and want of the idealistic conception of things. +It is a lamentable fact that every country is full of such +superstitions people as described by one of the New Thought writers: +'Tens of thousands of women in this country believe that if two +people look in a mirror at the same time, or if one thanks the other +for a pin, or if one gives a knife or a sharp instrument to a friend, +it will break up friendship. If a young lady is presented with a +thimble, she will be an old maid. Some people think that after +leaving a house it is unlucky to go back after any article which has +been forgotten, and, if one is obliged to do so, one should sit down +in a chair before going out again; that if a broom touches a person +while someone is sweeping, bad luck will follow; and that it is +unlucky to change one's place at a table. A man took an opal to a +New York jeweller and asked him to buy it. He said that it had +brought him nothing but bad luck, that since it had come into his +possession he had failed in business, that there bad been much +sickness in his family, and all sorts of misfortune had befallen him. + He refused to keep the cursed thing any longer. The jeweller +examined the stone, and found that it was not an opal after all, but +an imitation.' + + +Idealism is a most potent medicine for these self-created mental +diseases. It will successfully drive away devils and spirits that +frequent ignorant minds, just as Jesus did in the old days. Zen +makes use of moral idealism to extirpate, root and branch, all such +idle dreams and phantasmagoria of illusion and opens the way to +Enlightenment. + + + +11. Idealistic Scepticism concerning Objective Reality. + +But extreme Idealism identifies 'to be' with 'to be known,' and +assumes all phenomena to be ideas as illustrated in +Mahayana-vidyamatra-siddhi-tridaca-castra[FN#199] and +Vidyamatra-vincati-castra,[FN#200] by Vasubandhu. Then it +necessarily parts company with Zen, which believes in Universal Life +existing in everything instead of behind it. Idealism shows us its +dark side in three sceptic views: (1) scepticism respecting objective +reality; (2) scepticism respecting religion; (3) scepticism +respecting morality. + + +[FN#199] A philosophical work on Buddhist idealism by Vasubandhu, +translated into Chinese by Hiuen Tsang in A.D. 648. There exists a +famous commentary on it, compiled by Dharmapala, translated into +Chinese by Hiuen Tsang in A.D. 659. See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 1197 +and 1125. + +[FN#200] A simpler work on Idealism, translated into Chinese by +Hiuen Tsang in A.D. 661. See Nanjo's Catalogue, Nos. 1238, 1239, and +1240. + + +First it assumes that things exist in so far as they are known by us. + It is as a matter of course that if a tree exists at all, it is +known as having a trunk long or short, branches large or small, +leaves green or yellow, flowers yellow or purple, etc., all of which +are ideas. But it does not imply in the least that 'to be known' is +equivalent to 'to be existent.' Rather we should say that to be +known presupposes to be existent, for we cannot know anything +non-existent, even if we admit that the axioms of logic subsist. +Again, a tree may stand as ideas to a knower, but it can stand at the +same time as a shelter in relation to some birds, as food in relation +to some insects, as a world in relation to some minute worms, as a +kindred organism to other vegetables. How could you say that its +relation to a knower is the only and fundamental relation for the +existence of the tree? The disappearance of its knower no more +affects the tree than of its feeder; nor the appearance of its knower +affects the tree any more than that of kindred vegetables. + +Extreme idealism erroneously concludes that what is really existent, +or what is directly proved to be existent, is only our sensations, +ideas, thoughts; that the external world is nothing but the images +reflected on the mirror of the mind, and that therefore objective +reality of things is doubtful-nay, more, they are unreal, illusory, +and dreams. If so, we can no longer distinguish the real from the +visionary; the waking from the dreaming; the sane from the insane; +the true from the untrue. Whether life is real or an empty dream, we +are at a loss to understand. + + + +12. Idealistic Scepticism concerning Religion and Morality. + +Similarly, it is the case with religion and morality. If we admit +extreme idealism as true, there can be nothing objectively real. God +is little more than a mental image. He must be a creature of mind +instead of a Creator. He has no objective reality. He is when we +think He is. He is not when we think He is not. He is at the mercy +of our thought. How much more unreal the world must be, which is +supposed to have been created by an unreal God! Providence, +salvation, and divine grace--what are they? A bare dream dreamed in +a dream! + +What is morality, then? It is subjective. It has no objective +validity. A moral conduct highly valued by our fathers is now held +to be immoral by us. Immoral acts now strongly denounced by us may +be regarded as moral by our posterity. Good deeds of the savage are +not necessarily good in the eyes of the civilized, nor evil acts of +the Orientals are necessarily evil before the face of the +Occidentals. It follows, then, that there is no definite standard of +morality in any place at any time. + +If morality be merely subjective, and there be no objective standard, +how can you distinguish evil from good? How can you single out +angels from among devils? Was not Socrates a criminal? Was not +Jesus also a criminal? How could you know Him to be a Divine man +different from other criminals who were crucified with Him? What you +honour may I not denounce as disgrace? What you hold as duty may I +not condemn as sin? Every form of idealism is doomed, after all, to +end in such confusion and scepticism. We cannot embrace radical +idealism, which holds these threefold sceptical views in her womb. + + + +13. An Illusion concerning Appearance and Reality. + +To get Enlightened we must next dispel an illusion respecting +appearance and reality. According. to certain religionists, all the +phenomena of the universe are to succumb to change. Worldly things +one and all are evanescent. They are nought in the long run. +Snowcapped mountains may sink into the bottom of the deep, while the +sands in the fathomless ocean may soar into the azure sky at some +time or other. Blooming flowers are destined to fade and to bloom +again in the next year. So destined are growing trees, rising +generations, prospering nations, glowing suns, moons, and stars. +This, they would say, is only the case with phenomena or appearances, +but not with reality. Growth and decay, birth and death, rise and +fall, all these are the ebb and flow of appearances in the ocean of +reality, which is always the same. Flowers may fade and be reduced +to dust, yet out of that dust come flowers. Trees may die out, yet +they are reproduced somewhere else. The time may come when the earth +will become a dead sphere quite unsuitable for human habitation, and +the whole of mankind will perish; yet who knows that whether another +earth may not be produced as man's home? The sun might have its +beginning and end, stars, moons, theirs as well; yet an infinite +universe would have no beginning nor end. + +Again, they say, mutation is of the world of sense or phenomenal +appearances, but not of reality. The former are the phases of the +latter shown to our senses. Accordingly they are always limited and +modified by our senses, just as images are always limited and +modified by the mirror in which they are reflected. On this account +appearances are subject to limitations, while reality is limitless. +And it follows that the former are imperfect, while the latter is +perfect; that the former is transient, while the latter is eternal; +that the former is relative, while the latter is absolute; that the +former is worldly, while the latter is holy; that the former is +knowable, while the latter is unknowable. + +These considerations naturally lead us to an assertion that the world +of appearances is valueless, as it is limited, short-lived, +imperfect, painful, sinful, hopeless, and miserable; while the realm +of reality is to be aspired for, as it is eternal, perfect, +comfortable, full of hope, joy, and peace-hence the eternal divorce +of appearance and reality. Such a view of life tends to make one +minimize the value of man, to neglect the present existence, and to +yearn after the future. + +Some religionists tell us that we men are helpless, sinful, hopeless, +and miserable creatures. Worldly riches, temporal honours, and +social positions-nay, even sublimities and beauties of the present +existence, are to be ignored and despised. We have no need of caring +for those things that pass away in a twinkling moment. We must +prepare for the future life which is eternal. We must accumulate +wealth for that existence. We must endeavour to hold rank in it. We +must aspire for the sublimity and beauty and glory of that realm. + + + +14. Where does the Root of the Illusion Lie? + +Now let us examine where illusion lies hidden from the view of these +religionists. It lies deeply rooted in the misconstruction of +reality, grows up into the illusive ideas of appearances, and throws +its dark shadow on life. The most fundamental error lies in their +construing reality as something unknowable existing behind +appearances. + +According to their opinion, all that we know, or perceive, or feel, +or imagine about the world, is appearances or phenomena, but not +reality itself. Appearances are 'things known as,' but not 'things +as they are.' Thing-in-itself, or reality, lies behind appearances +permanently beyond our ken. This is probably the most profound +metaphysical pit into which philosophical minds have ever fallen in +their way of speculation. Things appear, they would say, as we see +them through our limited senses; but they must present entirely +different aspects to those that differ from ours, just as the +vibration of ether appears to us as colours, yet it presents quite +different aspects to the colour-blind or to the purblind. The +phenomenal universe is what appears to the human mind, and in case +our mental constitution undergoes change, it would be completely +otherwise. + +This argument, however, is far from proving that the reality is +unknowable, or that it lies hidden behind appearances or +presentations. Take, for instance, a reality which appears as a ray +of the sun. When it goes through a pane of glass it appears to be +colourless, but it exhibits a beautiful spectrum when it passes +through a prism. Therefore you assume that a reality appearing as +the rays of the sun is neither colourless nor coloured in itself, +since these appearances are wholly due to the difference that obtains +between the pane of glass and the prism. + +We contend, however, that the fact does not prove the existence of +the reality named the sun's ray beyond or behind the white light, nor +its existence beyond or behind the spectrum. It is evident that the +reality exists in white light, and that it is known as the white +light when it goes through a pane of glass; and that the same reality +exists in the spectrum, and is known as the spectrum when it goes +through the prism. The reality is known as the white light on the +one hand, and as the spectrum on the other. It is not unknowable, +but knowable. + +Suppose that one and the same reality exhibits one aspect when it +stands in relation to another object; two aspects when it stands in +relation in two different objects; three aspects when it stands in +relation to three different objects. The reality of one aspect never +proves the unreality of another aspect, for all these three aspects +can be equally real. A tree appears to us as a vegetable; it appears +to some birds as a shelter; and it appears to some worms as a food. +The reality of its aspect as a vegetable never proves the unreality +of its aspect as food, nor the reality of its aspect as food +disproves the reality of its aspect as shelter. The real tree does +not exist beyond or behind the vegetable. We can rely upon its +reality, and make use of it to a fruitful result. At the same time, +the birds can rely on its reality as a shelter, and build their nests +in it; the worms, too, can rely on its reality as food, and eat it-to +their satisfaction. A reality which appears to me as my wife must +appear to my son as his mother, and never as his wife. But the same +real woman is in the wife and in the mother; neither is unreal. + + + +15. Thing-in-Itself means Thing-Knowerless. + +How, then, did philosophers come to consider reality to be unknowable +and hidden behind or beyond appearances? They investigated all the +possible presentations in different relationships, and put them all +aside as appearances, and brooded on the thing-in-itself, shut out +from all possible relationship, and declared it unknowable. +Thing-in-itself means thing cut off from all possible relationships. +To, put it in another way: thing-in-itself means thing deprived of +its relation to its knower--that is to say, thing-knower-less. So +that to declare thing-in-itself unknowable is as much as to declare +thing-unknowable unknowable; there is no doubt about it, but what +does it prove? + +Deprive yourself of all the possible relationships, and see what you +are. Suppose you are not a son to your parents, nor the husband to +your wife, nor the father to your children, nor a relative to your +kindred, nor a friend to your acquaintances, nor a teacher to your +students, nor a citizen to your country, nor an individual member to +your society, nor a creature to your God, then you get +you-in-yourself. Now ask yourself what is you-in-yourself? You can +never answer the question. It is unknowable, just because it is cut +off from all knowable relations. Can you thus prove that +you-in-yourself exist beyond or behind you? + +In like manner our universe appears to us human beings as the +phenomenal world or presentation. It might appear to other creatures +of a different mental constitution as something else. We cannot +ascertain how it might seem to Devas, to Asuras, to angels, and to +the Almighty, if there be such beings. However different it might +seem to these beings, it does not imply that the phenomenal world is +unreal, nor that the realm of reality is unknowable. + +'Water,' the Indian tradition has it, 'seems to man as a drink, as +emerald to Devas, as bloody pus to Pretas, as houses to fishes.' +Water is not a whit less real because of its seeming as houses to +fishes, and fishes' houses are not less real because of its seeming +as emerald to Devas. There is nothing that proves the unreality of +it. It is a gross illusion to conceive reality as transcendental to +appearances. Reality exists as appearances, and appearances are +reality known to human beings. You cannot separate appearances from +reality, and hold out the latter as the object of aspiration at the +cost of the former. You must acknowledge that the so-called realm of +reality which you aspire after, and which you seek for outside or +behind the phenomenal universe, exists here on earth. Let Zen +teachers tell you that "the world of birth and death is the realm of +Nirvana"; "the earth is the pure land of Buddha." + + + +16. The Four Alternatives and the Five Categories. + +There are, according to Zen, the four classes of religious and +philosophical views, technically called the Four +Alternatives,[FN#201] of life and of the world. The first is 'the +deprivation of subject and the non-deprivation of object' that is to +say, the denial of subject, or mind, or Atman, or soul, and the +non-denial of object, or matter, or things--a view which denies the +reality of mind and asserts the existence of things. Such a view was +held by a certain school of Hinayanism, called Sarvastivada, and +still is held by some philosophers called materialists or +naturalists. The second is the 'deprivation of object and the +non-deprivation of subject'--that is to say, the denial of object, or +matter, or things, and the non-denial of subject, or mind, or +spirit-a view which denies the reality of material object, and +asserts the existence of spirit or ideas. Such a view was held by +the Dharmalaksana School of Mahayanism, and is still held by some +philosophers called idealists. The third is 'the deprivation of both +subject and object'--that is to say, the denial of both subject or +spirit, and of object or matter-a view which denies the reality of +both physical and mental phenomena, and asserts the existence of +reality that transcends the phenomenal universe. Such a view was +held by the Madhyamika School of Mahayanism, and is still held by +some religionists and philosophers of the present day. The fourth is +'the non-deprivation of both subject and object'--that is to say, the +non-denial of subject and object--a view which holds mind and body as +one and the same reality. Mind, according to this view, is reality +experienced inwardly by introspection, and body is the selfsame +reality observed outwardly by senses. They are one reality and one +life. There also exist other persons and other beings belonging to +the same life and reality; consequently all things share in one +reality, and life in common with each other. This reality or life is +not transcendental to mind and body, or to spirit and matter, but is +the unity of them. In other words, this phenomenal world of ours is +the realm of reality. This view was held by the Avatamsaka School of +Mahayanism, and is still held by Zenists. Thus Zen is not +materialistic, nor idealistic, nor nihilistic, but realistic and +monistic in its view of the world. + + +[FN#201] Shi-rya-ken in Japanese, the classification mostly made use +of by masters of the Rin Zai School of Zen. For the details, see +Ki-gai-kwan, by K. Watanabe. + + +There are some scholars that erroneously maintain that Zen is based +on the doctrine of unreality of all things expounded by Kumarajiva +and his followers. Ko-ben,[FN#202] known as Myo-ye Sho-nin, said 600 +years ago: "Yang Shan (Kyo-zan) asked Wei Shan (I-san): 'What shall +we do when hundreds, thousands, and millions of things beset us all +at once?' 'The blue are not the yellow,' replied Wei Shan, 'the long +are not the short. Everything is in its own place. It has no +business with you.' Wei Shan was a great Zen master. He did not +teach the unreality of all things. Who can say that Zen is +nihilistic?" + +[FN#202] A well-known scholar (1173-1232) of the Anatamsaka School +of Mahayanism. + + +Besides the Four Alternatives, Zen uses the Five Categories[FN#203] +in order to explain the relation between reality and phenomena. The +first is 'Relativity in Absolute,' which means that the universe +appears to be consisting in relativities, owing to our relative +knowledge; but these relativities are based on absolute reality. The +second is 'Absolute in Relativity,' which means Absolute Reality does +not remain inactive, but manifests itself as relative phenomena. The +third is 'Relativity out of Absolute,' which means Absolute Reality +is all in all, and relative phenomena come out of it as its secondary +and subordinate forms. The fourth is 'Absolute up to Relativity,' +which means relative phenomena always play an important part on the +stage of the world; it is through these phenomena that Absolute +Reality comes to be understood. The fifth is the 'Union of both +Absolute and Relativity,' which means Absolute Reality is not +fundamental or essential to relative phenomena, nor relative +phenomena subordinate or secondary to Absolute Reality--that is to +say, they are one and the same cosmic life, Absolute Reality being +that life experienced inwardly by intuition, while relative phenomena +are the same life outwardly observed by senses. The first four +Categories are taught to prepare the student's mind for the +acceptance of the last one, which reveals the most profound truth. + + +[FN#203] Go-i in Japanese, mostly used by the So-To School of Zen. +The detailed explanation is given in Go-i-ken-ketsu. + + + +17. Personalism of B. P. Bowne. + +B. P. Bowne[FN#204] says: They (phenomena) are not phantoms or +illusions, nor are they masks of a back-lying reality which is trying +to peer through them." "The antithesis," he continues,[FN#205] "of +phenomena and noumena rests on the fancy that there is something that +rests behind phenomena which we ought to perceive but cannot, because +the masking phenomena thrusts itself between the reality and us." +Just so far we agree with Bowne, but we think he is mistaken in +sharply distinguishing between body and self, saying:[FN#206] "We +ourselves are invisible. The physical organism is only an instrument +for expressing and manifesting the inner life, but the living self is +never seen." "Human form," he argues,[FN#207] "as an object in space +apart from our experience of it as the instrument and expression of +personal life, would have little beauty or attraction; and when it is +described in anatomical terms, there is nothing in it that we should +desire it. The secret of its beauty and its value lies in the +invisible realm." "The same is true," he says again, "of literature. + It does not exist in space, or in time, or in books, or in libraries +. . . all that could be found there would be black marks on a white +paper, and collections of these bound together in various forms, +which would be all the eyes could see. But this would not be +literature, for literature has its existence only in mind and for +mind as an expression of mind, and it is simply impossible and +meaningless in abstraction from mind." "Our human history"--he gives +another illustration[FN#208]--"never existed in space, and never +could so exist. If some visitor from Mars should come to the earth +and look at all that goes on in space in connection with human +beings, he would never get any hint of its real significance. He +would be confined to integrations and dissipations of matter and +motion. He could describe the masses and grouping of material +things, but in all this be would get no suggestion of the inner life +which gives significance to it all. As conceivably a bird might sit +on a telegraph instrument and become fully aware of the clicks of the +machine without any suspicion of the existence or meaning of the +message, or a dog could see all that eye can see in a book yet +without any hint of its meaning, or a savage could gaze at the +printed score of an opera without ever suspecting its musical import, +so this supposed visitor would be absolutely cut off by an impassable +gulf from the real seat and significance of human history. The great +drama of life, with its likes and dislikes, its loves and hates, its +ambitions and strivings, and manifold ideas, inspirations, +aspirations, is absolutely foreign to space, and could never in any +way be discovered in space. So human history has its seat in the +invisible." + + +[FN#204] 'Personalism,' p. 94. + +[FN#205] Ibid., p. 95. + +[FN#206] Ibid., p. 268. + +[FN#207] Ibid., p. 271. + +[FN#208] 'Personalism,' pp. 272, 273. + + +In the first place, Bowne's conception of the physical organism as +but an instrument for the expression of the inner, personal life, +just as the telegraphic apparatus is the instrument for the +expression of messages, is erroneous, because body is not a mere +instrument of inner personal life, but an essential constituent of +it. Who can deny that one's physical conditions determine one's +character or personality? Who can overlook the fact that one's +bodily conditions positively act upon one's personal life? There is +no physical organism which remains as a mere passive mechanical +instrument of inner life within the world of experience. Moreover, +individuality, or personality, or self, or inner life, whatever you +may call it, conceived as absolutely independent of physical +condition, is sheer abstraction. There is no such concrete +personality or individuality within our experience. + +In the second place, he conceives the physical organism simply as a +mark or symbol, and inner personal life as the thing marked or +symbolized; so he compares physical forms with paper, types, books, +and libraries, and inner life, with literature. In so doing he +overlooks the essential and inseparable connection between the +physical organism and inner life, because there is no essential +inseparable connection between a mark or symbol and the thing marked +or symbolized. The thing may adopt any other mark or symbol. The +black marks on the white paper, to use his figure, are not essential +to literature. Literature may be expressed by singing, or by speech, +or by a series of pictures. But is there inner life expressed, or +possible to be expressed, in any other form save physical organism? +We must therefore acknowledge that inner life is identical with +physical organism, and that reality is one and the same as appearance. + + + +18. All the Worlds in Ten Directions are Buddha's Holy Land. + +We are to resume this problem in the following chapter. Suffice it +to say for the present it is the law of Universal Life that +manifoldness is in unity, and unity is in manifoldness; difference is +in agreement, and agreement in difference; confliction is in harmony, +and harmony in confliction; parts are in the whole, and the whole is +in parts; constancy is in change, and change in constancy; good is in +bad, and bad in good; integration is in disintegration, and +disintegration is in integration; peace is in disturbance, and +disturbance in peace. We can find something celestial among the +earthly. We can notice something glorious in the midst of the base +and degenerated. + +'There are nettles everywhere, but are not smooth, green grasses more +common still?' Can you recognize something awe-inspiring in the rise +and fall of nations? Can you not recognize something undisturbed and +peaceful among disturbance and trouble? Has not even grass some +meaning? Does not even a stone tell the mystery of Life? Does not +the immutable law of good sway over human affairs after all, as +Tennyson says- + +"I can but trust that good shall fall +At last-far off-at last, to all." + +Has not each of us a light within him, whatever degrees of lustre +there may be? Was Washington in the wrong when he said: "Labour to +keep alive in your heart that little spark of celestial fire called +conscience." + +We are sure that we can realize the celestial bliss in this very +world, if we keep alive the Enlightened Consciousness, of which +Bodhidharma and his followers showed the example. 'All the worlds in +ten directions are Buddha's Holy Lands!' That Land of Bliss and +Glory exists above us, under us, around us, within us, without us, if +we open our eyes to see. 'Nirvana is in life itself,' if we enjoy it +with admiration and love. "Life and death are the life of Buddha," +says Do-gen. Everywhere the Elysian gates stand open, if we do not +shut them up by ourselves. Shall we starve ourselves refusing to +accept the rich bounty which the Blessed Life offers to us? Shall we +perish in the darkness of scepticism, shutting our eyes to the light +of Tathagata? Shall we suffer from innumerable pains in the +self-created hell where remorse, jealousy, and hatred feed the fire +of anger? Let us pray to Buddha, not in word only, but in the deed +of generosity and tolerance, in the character noble and loving, and +in the personality sublime and good. Let us pray to Buddha to save +us from the hell of greed and folly, to deliver us from the thraldom +of temptation. Let us 'enter the Holy of Holies in admiration and +wonder.' + + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + + +LIFE + + +1. Epicureanism and Life. + +There are a good many people always buoyant in spirit and mirthful in +appearance as if born optimists. There are also no fewer persons +constantly crestfallen and gloomy as if born pessimists. The former, +however, may lose their buoyancy and sink deep in despair if they are +in adverse circumstances. The latter, too, may regain their +brightness and grow exultant if they are under prosperous conditions. + As there is no evil however small but may cause him to groan under +it, who has his heart undisciplined, so there is no calamity however +great but may cause him to despair, who has his feelings in control. +A laughing child would cry, a crying child would laugh, without a +sufficient cause. 'It can be teased or tickled into anything.' A +grown-up child is he who cannot hold sway over his passions. + +He should die a slave to his heart, which is wayward and blind, if he +be indulgent to it. It is of capital importance for us to discipline +the heart,[FN#209] otherwise it will discipline us. Passions are +like legs. They should be guided by the eye of reason. No wise +serpent is led by its tail, so no wise man is led by his passion. +Passions that come first are often treacherous and lead us astray. +We must guard ourselves against them. In order to gratify them there +arise mean desires-the desires to please sight, hearing, smell, +taste, and touch. These five desires are ever pursuing or, rather, +driving us. We must not spend our whole lives in pursuit of those +mirage-like objects which gratify our sensual desires. When we +gratify one desire, we are silly enough to fancy that we have +realized true happiness. But one desire gratified begets another +stronger and more insatiable. Thirst allayed with salt water becomes +more intense than ever. + + +[FN#209] Compare Gaku-do-yo-jin-shu, chap. i., and Zen-kwan-saku +shin. + + +Shakya Muni compared an Epicurean with a dog chewing a dry bone, +mistaking the blood out of a wound in his mouth for that of the bone. + The author of Mahaparinirvana-sutra[FN#210] has a parable to the +following effect: 'Once upon a time a hunter skilled in catching +monkeys alive went into the wood. He put something very sticky on +the ground, and hid himself among the bushes. By-and-by a monkey +came out to see what it was, and supposing it to be something +eatable, tried to feed on it. It stuck to the poor creature's snout +so firmly that he could not shake it off. Then he attempted to tear +it off with both his paws, which also stuck to it. Thereupon he +strove to kick it off with both his hind-legs, which were caught too. + Then the hunter came out, and thrusting his stick through between +the paws and hind-legs of the victim, and thus carrying it on his +shoulder, went home.' In like manner an Epicurean (the monkey), +allured by the objects of sense (something sticky), sticks to the +five desires (the snout and the four limbs), and being caught by +Temptation (the hunter), loses his life of Wisdom. + + +[FN#210] The sutra translated by Hwui Yen and Hwui Kwan, A.D. +424-453. + + +We are no more than a species of monkeys, as evolutionists hold. Not +a few testify to this truth by their being caught by means of +'something eatable.' We abolished slavery and call ourselves +civilized nations. Have we not, nevertheless, hundreds of life-long +slaves to cigars among us? Have we not thousands of life-long slaves +to spirits among us? Have we not hundreds of thousands of life-long +slaves to gold among us? Have we not myriads of lifelong slaves to +vanity among us? These slaves are incredibly loyal to, and +incessantly work for, their masters, who in turn bestow on them +incurable diseases, poverty, chagrin, and disappointment. + +A poor puppy with an empty can tied to his tail, Thomas Carlyle +wittily observes, ran and ran on, frightened by the noise of the can. + The more rapidly he ran, the more loudly it rang, and at last he +fell exhausted of running. Was it not typical of a so-called great +man of the world? Vanity tied an empty can of fame to his tail, the +hollow noise of which drives him through life until he falls to rise +no more. Miserable! + +Neither these men of the world nor Buddhist ascetics can be +optimists. The latter rigorously deny themselves sensual +gratifications, and keep themselves aloof from all objects of +pleasure. For them to be pleased is equivalent to sin, and to laugh, +to be cursed. They would rather touch an adder's head than a piece +of money.[FN#211] They would rather throw themselves into a fiery +furnace than to come in contact with the other sex. Body for them is +a bag full of blood and pus;[FN#212] life, an idle, or rather evil, +dream. Vegetarianism and celibacy are their holy privileges. Life +is unworthy of having; to put an end to it is their +deliverance.[FN#213] Such a view of life is hardly worth our +refutation. + + +[FN#211] Such is the precept taught in the Vinaya of Hinayanists. + +[FN#212] See Mahasatiptthana Suttanta, 2-13. + +[FN#213] This is the logical conclusion of Hinayanism. + + + +2. The Errors of Philosophical Pessimists and Religious Optimists. + +Philosophical pessimists[FN#214] maintain that there are on earth +many more causes of pain than of pleasure; and that pain exists +positively, but pleasure is a mere absence of pain because we are +conscious of sickness but not of health; of loss, but not of +possession. On the contrary, religious optimists insist that there +must not be any evil in God's universe, that evil has no independent +nature, but simply denotes a privation of good--that is, evil is +null, is nought, is silence implying sound.' + + +[FN#214] Schopenhauer, 'The World as Will and Idea' (R. B. Haldane +and J. Kemp's translation, vol. iii., pp. 384-386); Hartman, +'Philosophy of the Unconsciousness' (W. C. Coupland's translation, +vol. iii., pp. 12-119). + + +No matter what these one-sided observers' opinion may be, we are +certain that we experience good as well as evil, and feel pain and +pleasure as well. Neither can we alleviate the real sufferings of +the sick by telling them that sickness is no other than the absence +of health, nor can we make the poor a whit richer by telling them +that poverty is a mere absence of riches. How could we save the +dying by persuading them that death is a bare privation of life? Is +it possible to dispirit the happy by telling them that happiness is +unreal, or make the fortunate miserable by telling them that fortune +has no objective reality, or to make one welcome evil by telling one +that it is only the absence of good? + +You must admit there are no definite external causes of pain nor +those of pleasure, for one and the same thing causes pain at one time +and pleasure at another. A cause of delight to one person turns out +to be that of aversion to another. A dying miser might revive at the +sight of gold, yet a Diogenes would pass without noticing it. Cigars +and wine are blessed gifts of heaven to the intemperate,[FN#215] but +accursed poison to the temperate. Some might enjoy a long life, but +others would heartily desire to curtail it. Some might groan under a +slight indisposition, while others would whistle away a life of +serious disease. An Epicure might be taken prisoner by poverty, yet +an Epictetus would fearlessly face and vanquish him. How, then, do +you distinguish the real cause of pain from that of pleasure? How do +you know the causes of one are more numerous than the causes of the +other? + + +[FN#215] The author of Han Shu (Kan Sho) calls spirits the gift of +Heaven. + + +Expose thermometers of several kinds to one and the same temperature. + One will indicate, say, 60°, another as high as 100°, another as low as +15°. Expose the thermometers of human sensibilities, which are of +myriads of different kinds, to one and the same temperature of +environment. None of them will indicate the same degrees. In one +and the same climate, which we think moderate, the Eskimo would be +washed with perspiration, while the Hindu would shudder with cold. +Similarly, under one and the same circumstance some might be +extremely miserable and think it unbearable, yet others would be +contented and happy. Therefore we may safely conclude that there are +no definite external causes of pain and pleasure, and that there must +be internal causes which modify the external. + + + +3. The Law of Balance. + +Nature governs the world with her law of balance. She puts things +ever in pairs,[FN#216] and leaves nothing in isolation. Positives +stand in opposition to negatives, actives to passives, males to +females, and so on. Thus we get the ebb in opposition to the flood +tide; the centrifugal force to the centripetal; attraction to +repulsion; growth to decay; toxin to antitoxin; light to shade; +action to reaction; unity to variety; day to night; the animate to +the inanimate. Look at our own bodies: the right eye is placed side +by side with the left; the left shoulder with the right; the right +lung with the left; the left hemisphere of the brain with that of the +right; and so forth. + + +[FN#216] Zenists call them 'pairs of opposites.' + + +It holds good also in human affairs: advantage is always accompanied +by disadvantage; loss by gain; convenience by inconvenience; good by +evil; rise by fall; prosperity by adversity; virtue by vice; beauty +by deformity; pain by pleasure; youth by old age; life by death. 'A +handsome young lady of quality,' a parable in Mahaparinirvana-sutra +tells us, 'who carries with her an immense treasure is ever +accompanied by her sister, an ugly woman in rags, who destroys +everything within her reach. If we win the former, we must also get +the latter.' As pessimists show intense dislike towards the latter +and forget the former, so optimists admire the former so much that +they are indifferent to the latter. + + + +4. Life Consists in Conflict. + +Life consists in conflict. So long as man remains a social animal he +cannot live in isolation. All individual hopes and aspirations +depend on society. Society is reflected in the individual, and the +individual in society. In spite of this, his inborn free will and +love of liberty seek to break away from social ties. He is also a +moral animal, and endowed with love and sympathy. He loves his +fellow-beings, and would fain promote their welfare; but he must be +engaged in constant struggle against them for existence. He +sympathizes even with animals inferior to him, and heartily wishes to +protect them; yet he is doomed to destroy their lives day and night. +He has many a noble aspiration, and often soars aloft by the wings of +imagination into the realm of the ideal; still his material desires +drag him down to the earth. He lives on day by day to continue his +life, but he is unfailingly approaching death at every moment. + +The more he secures new pleasure, spiritual or material, the more he +incurs pain not yet experienced. One evil removed only gives place +to another; one advantage gained soon proves itself a disadvantage. +His very reason is the cause of his doubt and suspicion; his +intellect, with which he wants to know everything, declares itself to +be incapable of knowing anything in its real state; his finer +sensibility, which is the sole source of finer pleasure, has to +experience finer suffering. The more he asserts himself, the more he +has to sacrifice himself. These conflictions probably led Kant to +call life "a trial time, wherein most succumb, and in which even the +best does not rejoice in his life." "Men betake themselves," says +Fichte, "to the chase after felicity. . . . But as soon as they +withdraw into themselves and ask themselves, 'Am I now happy?' the +reply comes distinctly from the depth of their soul, 'Oh no; thou art +still just as empty and destitute as before!' . . . They will in the +future life just as vainly seek blessedness as they have sought it in +the present life." + +It is not without reason that the pessimistic minds came to conclude +that 'the unrest of unceasing willing and desiring by which every +creature is goaded is in itself unblessedness,' and that 'each +creature is in constant danger, constant agitation, and the whole, +with its restless, meaningless motion, is a tragedy of the most +piteous kind.' 'A creature like the carnivorous animal, who cannot +exist at all without continually destroying and tearing others, may +not feel its brutality, but man, who has to prey on other sentient +beings like the carnivorous, is intelligent enough, as hard fate +would have it, to know and feel his own brutal living.' He must be +the most miserable of all creatures, for he is most conscious of his +own misery. Furthermore, 'he experiences not only the misfortunes +which actually befall him, but in imagination he goes through every +possibility of evil.' Therefore none, from great kings and emperors +down to nameless beggars, can be free from cares and anxieties, which +'ever flit around them like ghosts.' + + + +5. The Mystery of Life. + +Thus far we have pointed out the inevitable conflictions in life in +order to prepare ourselves for an insight into the depth of life. We +are far from being pessimistic, for we believe that life consists in +confliction, but that confliction does not end in confliction, but in +a new form of harmony. Hope comes to conflict with fear, and is +often threatened with losing its hold on mind; then it renews its +life and takes root still deeper than before. Peace is often +disturbed with wars, but then it gains a still firmer ground than +ever. Happiness is driven out of mind by melancholy, then it is +re-enforced by favourable conditions and returns with double +strength. Spirit is dragged down by matter from its ideal heaven, +then, incited by shame, it tries a higher flight. Good is opposed by +evil, then it gathers more strength and vanquishes its foe. Truth is +clouded by falsehood, then it issues forth with its greater light. +Liberty is endangered by tyranny, then it overthrows it with a +splendid success. + +Manifoldness stands out boldly against unity; difference against +agreement; particularity against generality; individuality against +society. Manifoldness, nevertheless, instead of annihilating, +enriches unity; difference, instead of destroying agreement, gives it +variety; particularities, instead of putting an end to generality, +increase its content; individuals, instead of breaking the harmony of +society, strengthen the power of it. + +Thus 'Universal Life does not swallow up manifoldness nor extinguish +differences, but it is the only means of bringing to its full +development the detailed content of reality; in particular, it does +not abolish the great oppositions of life and world, but takes them +up into itself and brings them into fruitful relations with each +other.' Therefore 'our life is a mysterious blending of freedom and +necessity, power and limitation, caprice and law; yet these opposites +are constantly seeking and finding a mutual adjustment.' + + + +6. Nature Favours Nothing in Particular. + +There is another point of view of life, which gave the present writer +no small contentment, and which he believes would cure one of +pessimistic complaint. Buddha, or Universal Life conceived by Zen, +is not like a capricious despot, who acts not seldom against his own +laws. His manifestation as shown in the Enlightened Consciousness is +lawful, impartial, and rational. Buddhists believe that even Shakya +Muni himself was not free from the law of retribution, which +includes, in our opinion, the law of balance and that of causation. + +Now let us briefly examine how the law of balance holds its sway over +life and the world. When the Cakravartin, according to an Indian +legend, the universal monarch, would come to govern the earth, a +wheel would also appear as one of his treasures, and go on rolling +all over the world, making everything level and smooth. Buddha is +the spiritual Cakravartin, whose wheel is the wheel of the law of +balance, with which he governs all things equally and impartially. +First let us observe the simplest cases where the law of balance +holds good. Four men can finish in three days the same amount of +work as is done by three men in four days. The increase in the +number of men causes the decrease in that of days, the decrease in +the number of men causes the increase in that of days, the result +being always the same. Similarly the increase in the sharpness of a +knife is always accompanied by a decrease in its durability, and the +increase of durability by a decrease of sharpness. The more +beautiful flowers grow, the uglier their fruits become; the prettier +the fruits grow, the simpler become their flowers. 'A strong soldier +is ready to die; a strong tree is easy to be broken; hard leather is +easy to be torn. But the soft tongue survives the hard teeth.' +Horned creatures are destitute of tusks, the sharp-tusked creatures +lack horns. Winged animals are not endowed with paws, and handed +animals are provided with no wings. Birds of beautiful plumage have +no sweet voice, and sweet-voiced songsters no feathers of bright +colours. The finer in quality, the smaller in quantity, and bulkier +in size, the coarser in nature. + +Nature favours nothing in particular. So everything has its +advantage and disadvantage as well. What one gains on the one hand +one loses on the other. The ox is competent in drawing a heavy cart, +but he is absolutely incompetent in catching mice. A shovel is fit +for digging, but not for ear-picking. Aeroplanes are good for +aviation, but not for navigation. Silkworms feed on mulberry leaves +and make silk from it, but they can do nothing with other leaves. +Thus everything has its own use or a mission appointed by Nature; and +if we take advantage of it, nothing is useless, but if not, all are +useless. 'The neck of the crane may seem too long to some idle +on-lookers, but there is no surplus in it. The limbs of the tortoise +may appear too short, but there is no shortcoming in them.' The +centipede, having a hundred limbs, can find no useless feet; the +serpent, having no foot, feels no want. + + + +7. The Law of Balance in Life. + +It is also the case with human affairs. Social positions high or +low, occupations spiritual or temporal, work rough or gentle, +education perfect or imperfect, circumstances needy or opulent, each +has its own advantage as well as disadvantage. The higher the +position the graver the responsibilities, the lower the rank the +lighter the obligation. The director of a large bank can never be so +careless as his errand-boy who may stop on the street to throw a +stone at a sparrow; nor can the manager of a large plantation have as +good a time on a rainy day as his day-labourers who spend it in +gambling. The accumulation of wealth is always accompanied by its +evils; no Rothschild nor Rockefeller can be happier than a poor +pedlar. + +A mother of many children may be troubled by her noisy little ones +and envy her sterile friend, who in turn may complain of her +loneliness; but if they balance what they gain with what they lose, +they will find the both sides are equal. The law of balance strictly +forbids one's monopoly of happiness. It applies its scorpion whip to +anyone who is given to pleasures. Joy in extremity lives next door +to exceeding sorrow. "Where there is much light," says Goethe, +"shadow is deep." Age, withered and disconsolate, lurks under the +skirts of blooming youth. The celebration of birthday is followed by +the commemoration of death. Marriage might be supposed to be the +luckiest event in one's life, but the widow's tears and the orphan's +sufferings also might be its outcome. But for the former the latter +can never be. The death of parents is indeed the unluckiest event in +the son's life, but it may result in the latter's inheritance of an +estate, which is by no means unlucky. The disease of a child may +cause its parents grief, but it is a matter of course that it lessens +the burden of their livelihood. Life has its pleasures, but also its +pains. Death has no pleasure of life, but also none of its pain. So +that if we balance their smiles and tears, life and death are equal. +It is not wise for us, therefore, to commit suicide while the terms +of our life still remain, nor to fear death when there is no way of +avoiding it. + +Again, the law of balance does not allow anyone to take the lion's +share of nature's gifts. Beauty in face is accompanied by deformity +in character. Intelligence is often uncombined with virtue. "Fair +girls are destined to be unfortunate," says a Japanese proverb, "and +men of ability to be sickly." "He makes no friend who never makes a +foe." "Honesty is next to idiocy." "Men of genius," says +Longfellow, "are often dull and inert in society; as the blazing +meteor when it descends to earth is only a stone." Honour and shame +go hand in hand. Knowledge and virtue live in poverty, while ill +health and disease are inmates of luxury. + +Every misfortune begets some sort of fortune, while every good luck +gives birth to some sort of bad luck. Every prosperity never fails +to sow seeds of adversity, while every fall never fails to bring +about some kind of rise. We must not, then, despair in days of frost +and snow, reminding ourselves of sunshine and flowers that follow +them; nor must we be thoughtless in days of youth and health, keeping +in mind old age and ill health that are in the rear of them. In +brief, all, from crowns and coronets down to rags and begging bowls, +have their own happiness and share heavenly grace alike. + + + +8. The Application of the Law of Causation to Morals. + +Although it may be needless to state here the law of causation at any +length, yet it is not equally needless to say a few words about its +application to morals as the law of retribution, which is a matter of +dispute even among Buddhist scholars. The kernel of the idea is very +simple-like seed, like fruit; like cause, like effect; like action, +like influence--nothing more. As fresh air strengthens and impure +air chokes us, so good conduct brings about good consequence, and bad +conduct does otherwise.[FN#217] + + +[FN#217] Zen lays much stress on this law. See Shu-sho-gi and +Ei-hei-ka-kun, by Do-gen. + + +Over against these generalizations we raise no objection, but there +are many cases, in practical life, of doubtful nature. An act of +charity, for example, might do others some sort of damage, as is +often the case with the giving of alms to the poor, which may produce +the undesirable consequence of encouraging beggary. An act of love +might produce an injurious effect, as the mother's love often spoils +her children. Some[FN#218] may think these are cases of good cause +and bad effect. We have, however, to analyze these causes and +effects in order to find in what relation they stand. In the first +case the good action of almsgiving produces the good effect of +lessening the sufferings of the poor, who should be thankful for +their benefactor. The giver is rewarded in his turn by the peace and +satisfaction of his conscience. The poor, however, when used to +being given alms are inclined to grow lazy and live by means of +begging. Therefore the real cause of the bad effect is the +thoughtlessness of both the giver and the given, but not charity +itself. In the second case the mother's love and kindness produce a +good effect on her and her children, making them all happy, and +enabling them to enjoy the pleasure of the sweet home; yet +carelessness and folly on the part of the mother and ingratitude on +the part of the children may bring about the bad effect. + + +[FN#218] Dr. H. Kato seems to have thought that good cause may bring +out bad effect when he attacked Buddhism on this point. + + +History is full of numerous cases in which good persons were so +unfortunate as to die a miserable death or to live in extreme +poverty, side by side with those cases in which bad people lived in +health and prosperity, enjoying a long life. Having these cases in +view, some are of the opinion that there is no law of retribution as +believed by the Buddhists. And even among the Buddhist scholars +themselves there are some who think of the law of retribution as an +ideal, and not as a law governing life. This is probably due to +their misunderstanding of the historical facts. There is no reason +because he is good and honourable that he should be wealthy or +healthy; nor is there any reason because he is bad that he should be +poor or sickly. To be good is one thing, and to be healthy or rich +is another. So also to be bad is one thing, And to be poor and sick +is another. The good are not necessarily the rich or the healthy, +nor are the bad necessarily the sick or the poor. Health must be +secured by the strict observance of hygienic rules, and not by the +keeping of ethical precepts; nor can wealth ever be accumulated by +bare morality, but by economical and industrial activity. The moral +conduct of a good person has no responsibility for his ill health or +poverty; so also the immoral action of a bad person has no concern +with his wealth or health. You should not confuse the moral with the +physical law, since the former belongs only to human life, while the +latter to the physical world. + +The good are rewarded morally, not physically; their own virtues, +honours, mental peace, and satisfaction are ample compensation for +their goodness. Confucius, for example, was never rich nor high in +rank; he was, nevertheless, morally rewarded with his virtues, +honours, and the peace of mind. The following account of +him,[FN#219] though not strictly historical, well explains his state +of mind in the days of misfortune: + +"When Confucius was reduced to extreme distress between Khan and +Zhai, for seven days he had no cooked meat to eat, but only some soup +of coarse vegetables without any rice in it. His countenance wore +the appearance of great exhaustion, and yet be kept playing on his +lute and singing inside the house. Yen Hui (was outside) selecting +the vegetables, while Zze Lu and Zze Kung were talking together, and +said to him: 'The master has twice been driven from Lu; he had to +flee from Wei; the tree beneath which he rested was cut down in Sung; +he was reduced to extreme distress in Shang and Kau; he is held in a +state of siege here between Khan and Zhai; anyone who kills him will +be held guiltless; there is no prohibition against making him a +prisoner. And yet he keeps playing and singing, thrumming his lute +without ceasing. Can a superior man be without the feeling of shame +to such an extent as this?' Yen Hui gave them no reply, but went in +and told (their words) to Confucius, who pushed aside his lute and +said: 'Yu and Zhze are small men. Call them here, and I will explain +the thing to them.' + + +[FN#219] The account is given by Chwang Tsz in his book, vol. +xviii., p. 17. + + +"When they came in, Zze Lu said: 'Your present condition may be +called one of extreme distress!' Confucius replied: 'What words are +these? When the superior man has free course with his principles, +that is what we call his success; when such course is denied, that is +what we call his failure. Now I hold in my embrace the principles of +righteousness and benevolence, and with them meet the evils of a +disordered age; where is the proof of my being in extreme distress? +Therefore, looking inwards and examining myself, I have no +difficulties about my principles; though I encounter such +difficulties (as the present), I do not lose my virtue. It is when +winter's cold is come, and the hoar-frost and snow are falling, that +we know the vegetative power of the pine and cypress. This distress +between Khan and Zhai is fortunate for me.' He then took back his +lute so that it emitted a twanging sound, and began to play and sing. + (At the same time) Zze Lu hurriedly seized a shield and began to +dance, while Zze Kung said: 'I did not know (before) the height of +heaven nor the depth of earth!'" + +Thus the good are unfailingly rewarded with their own virtue, and the +wholesome consequences of their actions on society at large. And the +bad are inevitably recompensed with their own vices, and the +injurious effects of their actions on their fellow-beings. This is +the unshaken conviction of humanity, past, present, and future. It +is the pith and marrow of our moral ideal. It is the crystallization +of ethical truths, distilled through long experiences from time +immemorial to this day. We can safely approve Edwin Arnold, as he +says: + +"Lo I as hid seed shoots after rainless years, +So good and evil, pains and pleasures, hates +And loves, and all dead deeds come forth again, +Bearing bright leaves, or dark, sweet fruit or sour." + +Longfellow also says: + +"No action, whether foul or fair, +Is ever done, but it leaves somewhere +A record-as a blessing or a curse." + + + +9. Retribution[FN#220] in the Past, the Present, and the Future Life. + +Then a question suggests itself: If there be no soul that survives +body (as shown in the preceding chapter), who will receive the +retributions of our actions in the present life? To answer this +question, we have to restate our conviction that life is one and the +same; in other words, the human beings form one life or one +self--that is to say, our ancestors in the past formed man's past +life. We ourselves now form man's present life, and our posterity +will form the future life. Beyond all doubt, all actions of man in +the past have brought their fruits on the present conditions of man, +and all actions of the present man are sure to influence the +conditions of the future man. To put it in another way, we now reap +the fruits of what we sowed in our past life (or when we lived as our +fathers), and again shall reap the fruits of what we now sow in our +future life (or when we shall live as our posterity). + +There is no exception to this rigorous law of retribution, and we +take it as the will of Buddha to leave no action without being +retributed. Thus it is Buddha himself who kindles our inward fire to +save ourselves from sin and crimes. We must purge out all the stains +in our hearts, obeying Buddha's command audible in the innermost self +of ours. It is the great mercy of His that, however sinful, +superstitious, wayward, and thoughtless, we have still a light within +us which is divine in its nature. When that light shines forth, all +sorts of sin are destroyed at once. What is our sin, after all? It +is nothing but illusion or error originating in ignorance and folly. +How true it is, as an Indian Mahayanist declares, that 'all frost and +the dewdrops of sin disappear in the sunshine of wisdom!'[FN#221] +Even if we might be imprisoned in the bottomless bell, yet let once +the Light of Buddha shine upon us, it would be changed into heaven. +Therefore the author of Mahakarunika-sutra[FN#222] says: "When I +climb the mountain planted with swords, they would break under my +tread. When I sail on the sea of blood, it will be dried up. When I +arrive at Hades, they will be ruined at once." + + +[FN#220] The retribution cannot be explained by the doctrine of the +transmigration of the soul, for it is incompatible with the +fundamental doctrine of non-soul. See Abhidharmamahavibhasa-castra, +vol. cxiv. + +[FN#221] Samantabhadra-dhyana-sutra. + +[FN#222] Nanjo's Catalogue, No. 117. + + + +10. The Eternal Life as taught by Professor Munsterberg. + +Some philosophical pessimists undervalue life simply because it is +subject to limitation. They ascribe all evils to that condition, +forgetting that without limitation life is a mere blank. Suppose our +sight could see all things at once, then sight has no value nor use +for us, because it is life's purpose to choose to see one thing or +another out of many; and if all things be present at once before us +through sight, it is of no purpose. The same is true of intellect, +bearing, smell, touch, feeling, and will. If they be limitless, they +cease to be useful for us. Individuality necessarily implies +limitation, hence if there be no limitation in the world, then there +is no room for individuality. Life without death is no life at all. + +Professor Hugo Munsterberg finds no value, so it seems to me, in +'such life as beginning with birth and ending with death.' He +says:[FN#223] "My life as a causal system of physical and +psychological processes, which lies spread out in time between the +dates of my birth and of my death, will come to an end with my last +breath; to continue it, to make it go on till the earth falls into +the sun, or a billion times longer, would be without any value, as +that kind of life which is nothing but the mechanical occurrence of +physiological and psychological phenomena had as such no ultimate +value for me or for you, or for anyone, at any time. But my real +life, as a system of interrelated-will-attitudes, has nothing before +or after because it is beyond time. It is independent of birth and +death because it cannot be related to biological events; it is not +born, and will not die; it is immortal; all possible thinkable time +is enclosed in it; it is eternal." + + +[FN#223] 'The Eternal Life,' p. 26. + + +Professor Munsterberg tries to distinguish sharply life as the causal +system of physiological and psychological processes, and life as a +system of interrelated-will-attitudes, and denounces the former as +fleeting and valueless, in order to prize the latter as eternal and +of absolute value. How could he, however, succeed in his task unless +he has two or three lives, as some animals are believed to have? Is +it not one and the same life that is treated on the one hand by +science as a system of physiological and psychological processes, and +is conceived on the other by the Professor himself as a system of +interrelated-will-attitudes? It is true that science treats of life +as it is observed in time, space, and causality, and it estimates it +of no value, since to estimate the value of things is no business of +science. The same life observed as a system of +interrelated-will-attitudes is independent of time, space, and +causality as he affirms. One and the same life includes both phases, +the difference being in the points of view of the observers. + +Life as observed only from the scientific point of view is bare +abstraction; it is not concrete life; nor is life as observed only in +the interrelated-will-attitude point of view the whole of life. Both +are abstractions. Concrete life includes both phases. Moreover, +Professor Munsterberg sees life in the relationship entirely +independent-of time, space, and causality, saying: "If you agree or +disagree with the latest act of the Russian Czar, the only +significant relation which exists between him and you has nothing to +do with the naturalistic fact that geographically 'an ocean lies +between you; and if you are really a student of Plato, your only +important relation to the Greek philosopher has nothing to do with +the other naturalistic fact that biologically two thousand years lie +between you"; and declares life (seen from that point of view) to be +immortal and eternal. This is as much as to say that life, when seen +in the relationship independent of time and space, is independent of +time and space-that is, immortal and eternal. Is it not mere +tautology? He is in the right in insisting that life can be seen +from the scientific point of view as a system of physiological and +psychological processes, and at the same time as a system of +interrelated-will-attitudes independent of time and space. But he +cannot by that means prove the existence of concrete individual life +which is eternal and immortal, because that which is independent of +time and space is the relationship in which he observes life, but not +life itself. Therefore we have to notice that life held by Professor +Munsterberg to be eternal and immortal is quite a different thing +from the eternal life or immortality of soul believed by common sense. + + + +11. Life in the Concrete. + +Life in the concrete, which we are living, greatly differs from life +in the abstract, which exists only in the class-room. It is not +eternal; it is fleeting; it is full of anxieties, pains, struggles, +brutalities, disappointments, and calamities. We love life, however, +-not only for its smoothness, but for its roughness; not only for its +pleasure, but for its pain; not only for its hope, but for its fear; +not only for its flowers, but for its frost and snow. As +Issai[FN#224] (Sato) has aptly put it: "Prosperity is like spring, in +which we have green leaves and flowers wherever we go; while +adversity is like winter, in which we have snow and ice. Spring, of +course, pleases us; winter, too, displeases us not." Adversity is +salt to our lives, as it keeps them from corruption, no matter how +bitter to taste it way be. It is the best stimulus to body and mind, +since it brings forth latent energy that may remain dormant but for +it. Most people hunt after pleasure, look for good luck, hunger +after success, and complain of pain, ill-luck, and failure. It does +not occur to them that 'they who make good luck a god are all unlucky +men,' as George Eliot has wisely observed. Pleasure ceases to be +pleasure when we attain to it; another sort of pleasure displays +itself to tempt us. It is a mirage, it beckons to us to lead us +astray. When an overwhelming misfortune looks us in the face, our +latent power is sure to be aroused to grapple with it. Even delicate +girls exert the power of giants at the time of emergency; even +robbers or murderers are found to be kind and generous when we are +thrown into a common disaster. Troubles and difficulties call forth +our divine force, which lies deeper than the ordinary faculties, and +which we never before dreamed we possessed. + + +[FN#224] A noted scholar (1772-1859) and author, who belonged to the +Wang School of Confucianism. See Gen-shi-roku. + + +12. Difficulties are no Match for the Optimist. + +How can we suppose that we, the children of Buddha, are put at the +mercy of petty troubles, or intended to be crushed by obstacles? Are +we not endowed with inner force to fight successfully against +obstacles and difficulties, and to wrest trophies of glory from +hardships? Are we to be slaves to the vicissitudes of fortune? Are +we doomed to be victims for the jaws of the environment? It is not +external obstacles themselves, but our inner fear and doubt that +prove to be the stumbling-blocks in the path to success; not material +loss, but timidity and hesitation that ruin us for ever. + +Difficulties are no match for the optimist, who does not fly from +them, but welcomes them. He has a mental prism which can separate +the insipid white light of existence into bright hues. He has a +mental alchemy by which he can produce golden instruction out of the +dross of failure. He has a spiritual magic which makes the nectar of +joy out of the tears of sorrow. He has a clairvoyant eye that can +perceive the existence of hope through the iron walls of despair. +Prosperity tends to make one forget the grace of Buddha, but +adversity brings forth one's religious conviction. Christ on the +cross was more Christ than Jesus at the table. Luther at war with +the Pope was more Luther than he at peace. Nichi-ren[FN#225] laid +the foundation of his church when sword and sceptre threatened him +with death. Shin-ran[FN#226] and Hen-en[FN#227] established their +respective faiths when they were exiled. When they were exiled, they +complained not, resented not, regretted not, repented not, lamented +not, but contentedly and joyously they met with their inevitable +calamity and conquered it. Ho-nen is said to have been still more +joyous and contented when be bad suffered from a serious disease, +because he had the conviction that his desired end was at hand. + + +[FN#225] The founder (1222-1282) of the Nichi Ren Sect, who was +exiled in 1271 to the Island of Sado. For the history and doctrine +of the Sect, see I A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist +Sects,' by B. Nanjo, pp. 132-147. + +[FN#226] The founder (1173-1262) of the Shin Sect, who was banished +to the province of Eechigo in 1207. See Nanjo's 'History,' pp. +122-131. + +[FN#227] The founder (1131 1212) of the Jo Do Sect, who was exiled +to the Island of Tosa in 1207. See Nanjo's 'History,' pp. 104-113. + + +A Chinese monk, E Kwai by name, one day seated himself in a quiet +place among hills and practised Dhyana. None was there to disturb +the calm enjoyment of his meditation. The genius of the hill was so +much stung by his envy that he made up his mind to break by surprise +the mental serenity of the monk. Having supposed nothing ordinary +would be effective, he appeared all on a sudden before the man, +assuming the frightful form of a headless monster. E Kwai being +disturbed not a whit, calmly eyed the monster, and observed with a +smile: "Thou hast no head, monster! How happy thou shouldst be, for +thou art in no danger of losing thy head, nor of suffering from +headache!" + +Were we born headless, should we not be happy, as we have to suffer +from no headache? Were we born eyeless, should we not be happy, as +we are in no danger of suffering from eye disease? Ho Ki +Ichi,[FN#228] a great blind scholar, was one evening giving a +lecture, without knowing that the light had been put out by the wind. + When his pupils requested him to stop for a moment, he remarked with +a smile: "Why, how inconvenient are your eyes!" Where there is +contentment, there is Paradise. + +[FN#228] Hanawa (1746-1821), who published Gun-sho-rui-zu in 1782. + + + +13. Do Thy Best and Leave the Rest to Providence. + +There is another point of view which enables us to enjoy life. It is +simply this, that everything is placed in the condition best for +itself, as it is the sum total of the consequences of its actions and +reactions since the dawn of time. Take, for instance, the minutest +grains of dirt that are regarded by us the worst, lifeless, +valueless, mindless, inert matter. They are placed in their best +condition, no matter how poor and worthless they may seem. They can +never become a thing higher nor lower than they. To be the grains of +dirt is best for them. But for these minute microcosms, which, +flying in the air, reflect the sunbeams, we could have no azure sky. +It is they that scatter the sun's rays in mid-air and send them into +our rooms. It is also these grains of dirt that form the nuclei of +raindrops and bring seasonable rain. Thus they are not things +worthless and good for nothing, but have a hidden import and purpose +in their existence. Had they mind to think, heart to feel, they +should be contented and happy with their present condition. + +Take, for another example, the flowers of the morning glory. They +bloom and smile every morning, fade and die in a few hours. How +fleeting and ephemeral their lives are! But it is that short life +itself that makes them frail, delicate, and lovely. They come forth +all at once as bright and beautiful as a rainbow or as the Northern +light, and disappear like dreams. This is the best condition for +them, because, if they last for days together, the morning glory +shall no longer be the morning glory. It is so with the cherry-tree +that puts forth the loveliest flowers and bears bitter fruits. It is +so with the apple-tree, which bears the sweetest of fruits and has +ugly blossoms. It is so with animals and men. Each of them is +placed in the condition best for his appointed mission. + +The newly-born baby sucks, sleeps, and cries. It can do no more nor +less. Is it not best for it to do so? When it attained to its +boyhood, he goes to school and is admitted to the first-year class. +He cannot be put in a higher nor lower class. It is best for him to +be the first-year class student. When his school education is over, +he may get a position in society according to his abilities, or may +lead a miserable life owing to his failure of some sort or other. In +any case he is in a position best for his special mission ordained by +Providence or the Hum-total of the fruits of his actions and +reactions since all eternity. He should be contented and happy, and +do what is right with might and main. Discontent and vexation only +make him more worthy of his ruin Therefore our positions, no matter, +how high or low, no matter how favourable or unfavourable our +environment, we are to be cheerful. "Do thy best and leave the rest +to Providence," says a Chinese adage. Longfellow also says: + +"Do thy best; that is best. +Leave unto thy Lord the rest." + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + + +THE TRAINING OF THE MIND AND THE PRACTICE OF MEDITATION + + +1. The Method of Instruction Adopted by Zen Masters. + +Thus far we have described the doctrine of Zen inculcated by both +Chinese and Japanese masters, and in this chapter we propose to +sketch the practice of mental training and the method of practising +Dhyana or Meditation. Zen teachers never instruct their pupils by +means of explanation or argument, but urge them to solve by +themselves through the practice of Meditation such problems as--'What +is Buddha?' What is self?' 'What is the spirit of Bodhidharma?' +'What is life and death?' 'What is the real nature of mind?' and so +on. Ten Shwai (To-sotsu), for instance, was wont to put three +questions[FN#229] to the following effect: (1) Your study and +discipline aim at the understanding of the real nature of mind. +Where does the real nature of mind exist? (2) When you understand +the real nature of mind, you are free from birth and death. How can +you be saved when you are at the verge of death? (3) When you are +free from birth and death, you know where you go after death. Where +do you go when your body is reduced to elements? The pupils are not +requested to express their solution of these problems in the form of +a theory or an argument, but to show how they have grasped the +profound meaning implied in these problems, how they have established +their conviction, and how they can carry out what they grasped in +their daily life. + + +[FN#229] The famous three difficult questions, known as the Three +Gates of Teu Shwai (To Sotsu San Kwan), who died in 1091. See Mu Mon +Kwan, xlvii. + + +A Chinese Zen master[FN#230] tells us that the method of instruction +adopted by Zen may aptly be compared with that of an old burglar who +taught his son the art of burglary. The burglar one evening said to +his little son, whom he desired to instruct in the secret of his +trade: "Would you not, my dear boy, be a great burglar like myself?" +"Yes, father," replied the promising young man." "Come with me, +then. I will teach you the art." So saying, the man went out, +followed by his son. Finding a rich mansion in a certain village, +the veteran burglar made a hole in the wall that surrounded it. +Through that hole they crept into the yard, and opening a window with +complete ease broke into the house, where they found a huge box +firmly locked up as if its contents were very valuable articles. The +old man clapped his hands at the lock, which, strange to tell, +unfastened itself. Then he removed the cover and told his son to get +into it and pick up treasures as fast as he could. No sooner had the +boy entered the box than the father replaced the cover and locked it +up. He then exclaimed at the top of his voice: "Thief! thief! thief! +thief!" Thus, having aroused the inmates, he went out without taking +anything. All the house was in utter confusion for a while; but +finding nothing stolen, they went to bed again. The boy sat holding +his breath a short while; but making up his mind to get out of his +narrow prison, began to scratch the bottom of the box with his +finger-nails. The servant of the house, listening to the noise, +supposed it to be a mouse gnawing at the inside of the box; so she +came out, lamp in hand, and unlocked it. On removing the cover, she +was greatly surprised to find the boy instead of a little mouse, and +gave alarm. In the meantime the boy got out of the box and went down +into the yard, hotly pursued by the people. He ran as fast as +possible toward the well, picked up a large stone, threw it down into +it, and hid himself among the bushes. The pursuers, thinking the +thief fell into the well, assembled around it, and were looking into +it, while the boy crept out unnoticed through the hole and went home +in safety. Thus the burglar taught his son how to rid himself of +overwhelming difficulties by his own efforts; so also Zen teachers +teach their pupils how to overcome difficulties that beset them on +all sides and work out salvation by themselves. + + +[FN#230] Wu Tsu (Go So), the teacher of Yuen Wu (En Go). + + + +2. The First Step in the Mental Training. + +Some of the old Zen masters are said to have attained to supreme +Enlightenment after the practice of Meditation for one week, some for +one day, some for a score of years, and some for a few months. The +practice of Meditation, however, is not simply a means for +Enlightenment, as is usually supposed, but also it is the enjoyment +of Nirvana, or the beatitude of Zen. It is a matter, of course, that +we have fully to understand the doctrine of Zen, and that we have to +go through the mental training peculiar to Zen in order to be +Enlightened. + +The first step in the mental training is to become the master of +external things. He who is addicted to worldly pleasures, however +learned or ignorant he may be, however high or low his social +position may be, is a servant to mere things. He cannot adapt the +external world to his own end, but he adapts himself to it. He is +constantly employed, ordered, driven by sensual objects. Instead of +taking possession of wealth, he is possessed by wealth. Instead of +drinking liquors, he is swallowed up by his liquors. Balls and music +bid him to run mad. Games and shows order him not to stay at home. +Houses, furniture, pictures, watches, chains, hats, bonnets, rings, +bracelets, shoes--in short, everything has a word to command him. +How can such a person be the master of things? To Ju (Na-kae) says: +"There is a great jail, not a jail for criminals, that contains the +world in it. Fame, gain, pride, and bigotry form its four walls. +Those who are confined in it fall a prey to sorrow and sigh for ever." + +To be the ruler of things we have first to shut up all our senses, +and turn the currents of thoughts inward, and see ourselves as the +centre of the world, and meditate that we are the beings of highest +intelligence; that Buddha never puts us at the mercy of natural +forces; that the earth is in our possession; that everything on earth +is to be made use of for our noble ends; that fire, water, air, +grass, trees, rivers, hills, thunder, cloud, stars, the moon, the +sun, are at our command; that we are the law-givers of the natural +phenomena; that we are the makers of the phenomenal world; that it is +we that appoint a mission through life, and determine the fate of man. + + + +3. The Next Step in the Mental Training. + +In the next place we have to strive to be the master of our bodies. +With most of the unenlightened, body holds absolute control over +Self. Every order of the former has to be faithfully obeyed by the +latter. Even if Self revolts against the tyranny of body, it is +easily trampled down under the brutal hoofs of bodily passion. For +example, Self wants to be temperate for the sake of health, and would +fain pass by the resort for drinking, but body would force Self into +it. Self at times lays down a strict dietetic rule for himself, but +body would threaten Self to act against both the letter and spirit of +the rule. Now Self aspires to get on a higher place among sages, but +body pulls Self down to the pavement of masses. Now Self proposes to +give some money to the poor, but body closes the purse tightly. Now +Self admires divine beauty, but body compels him to prefer +sensuality. Again, Self likes spiritual liberty, but body confines +him in its dungeons. + +Therefore, to get Enlightened, we must establish the authority of +Self over the whole body. We must use our bodies as we use our +clothes in order to accomplish our noble purposes. Let us command +body not to shudder under a cold shower-bath in inclement weather, +not to be nervous from sleepless nights, not to be sick with any sort +of food, not to groan under a surgeon's knife, not to succumb even if +we stand a whole day in the midsummer sun, not to break down under +any form of disease, not to be excited in the thick of +battlefield--in brief, we have to control our body as we will. + +Sit in a quiet place and meditate in imagination that body is no more +bondage to you, that it is your machine for your work of life, that +you are not flesh, that you are the governor of it, that you can use +it at pleasure, and that it always obeys your order faithfully. +Imagine body as separated from you. When it cries out, stop it +instantly, as a mother does her baby. When it disobeys you, correct +it by discipline, as a master does his pupil. When it is wanton, +tame it down, as a horse-breaker does his wild horse. When it is +sick, prescribe to it, as a doctor does to his patient. Imagine that +you are not a bit injured, even if it streams blood; that you are +entirely safe, even if it is drowned in water or burned by fire. + +E-Shun, a pupil and sister of Ryo-an,[FN#231] a famous Japanese +master, burned herself calmly sitting cross-legged on a pile of +firewood which consumed her. She attained to the complete mastery of +her body. Socrates' self was never poisoned, even if his person was +destroyed by the venom he took. Abraham Lincoln himself stood +unharmed, even if his body was laid low by the assassin. Masa-shige +was quite safe, even if his body was hewed by the traitors' swords. +Those martyrs that sang at the stake to the praise of God could never +be burned, even if their bodies were reduced to ashes, nor those +seekers after truth who were killed by ignorance and superstition. +Is it not a great pity to see a man endowed with divine spirit and +power easily upset by a bit of headache, or crying as a child under a +surgeon's knife, or apt to give up the ghost at the coming of little +danger, or trembling through a little cold, or easily laid low by a +bit of indisposition, or yielding to trivial temptation? + + +[FN#231] Ryo an (E-myo, died 1411), the founder of the monastery of +Sai-jo-ji, near the city of Odawara. See To-jo-ren-to-roku. + + +It is no easy matter to be the dictator of body. It is not a matter +of theory, but of practice. You must train your body that you may +enable it to bear any sort of suffering, and to stand unflinched in +the face of hardship. It is for this that So-rai[FN#232] (Ogiu) laid +himself on a sheet of straw-mat spread on the ground in the coldest +nights of winter, or was used to go up and down the roof of his +house, having himself clad in heavy armour. It is for this that +ancient Japanese soldiers led extremely simple lives, and that they +often held the meeting-of-perseverance,[FN#233] in which they exposed +themselves to the coldest weather in winter or to the hottest weather +in summer. It is for this that Katsu Awa practised fencing in the +middle of night in a deep forest.[FN#234] + + +[FN#232] One of the greatest scholars of the Tokugawa period, who +died in 1728. See Etsu-wa-bun-ko. + +[FN#233] The soldiers of the Tokugawa period were used to hold such +a meeting. + +[FN#234] Kai-shu-gen-ko-roku. + + +Ki-saburo, although he was a mere outlaw, having his left arm half +cut at the elbow in a quarrel, ordered his servant to cut it off with +a saw, and during the operation he could calmly sit talking and +laughing with his friends. Hiko-kuro (Takayama),[FN#235] a Japanese +loyalist of note, one evening happened to come to a bridge where two +robbers were lying in wait for him. They lay fully stretching +themselves, each with his head in the middle of the bridge, that he +might not pass across it without touching them. Hiko-kuro was not +excited nor disheartened, but calmly approached the vagabonds and +passed the bridge, treading upon their heads, which act so frightened +them that they took to their heels without doing any harm to +him.[FN#236] + + +[FN#235] A well-known loyalist in the Tokugawa period, who died in +1793. + +[FN#236] Etsu-wa-bun-ko. + + +The history of Zen is full of the anecdotes that show Zen priests +were the lords of their bodies. Here we quote a single example by +way of illustration: Ta Hwui (Dai-ye), once having had a boil on his +hip, sent for a doctor, who told him that it was fatal, that he must +not sit in Meditation as usual. Then Ta Hwui said to the physician: +"I must sit in Meditation with all my might during my remaining days, +for if your diagnosis be not mistaken, I shall die before long." He +sat day and night in constant Meditation, quite forgetful of his +boil, which was broken and gone by itself.[FN#237] + +[FN#237] Sho-bo-gen-zo-zui-mon-ki, by Do-gen. + + + +4. The Third Step in the Mental Training. + +To be the lord of mind is more essential to Enlightenment, which, in +a sense, is the clearing away of illusions, the putting out of mean +desires and passions, and the awakening of the innermost wisdom. He +alone can attain to real happiness who has perfect control over his +passions tending to disturb the equilibrium of his mind. Such +passions as anger, hatred, jealousy, sorrow, worry, grudge, and fear +always untune one's mood and break the harmony of one's mind. They +poison one's body, not in a figurative, but in a literal sense of the +word. Obnoxious passions once aroused never fail to bring about the +physiological change in the nerves, in the organs, and eventually in +the whole constitution, and leave those injurious impressions that +make one more liable to passions of similar nature. + +We do not mean, however, that we ought to be cold and passionless, as +the most ancient Hinayanists were used to be. Such an attitude has +been blamed by Zen masters. "What is the best way of living for us +monks?" asked a monk to Yun Ku (Un-go), who replied: "You had better +live among mountains." Then the monk bowed politely to the teacher, +who questioned: "How did you understand me?" "Monks, as I +understood," answered the man, "ought to keep their hearts as +immovable as mountains, not being moved either by good or by evil, +either by birth or by death, either by prosperity or by adversity." +Hereupon Yun Ku struck the monk with his stick and said: "You forsake +the Way of the old sages, and will bring my followers to perdition!" +Then, turning to another monk, inquired: "How did you understand me?" + "Monks, as I understand," replied the man, "ought to shut their eyes +to attractive sights and close their ears to musical notes." "You, +too," exclaimed Yun Ka, "forsake the Way of the old sages, and will +bring my followers to perdition!" An old woman, to quote another +example repeatedly told by Zen masters, used to give food and +clothing to a monk for a score of years. One day she instructed a +young girl to embrace and ask him: "How do you feel now?" "A +lifeless tree," replied the monk coolly, "stands on cold rock. There +is no warmth, as if in the coldest season of the year." The matron, +being told of this, observed: "Oh that I have made offerings to such +a vulgar fellow for twenty years!" She forced the monk to leave the +temple and reduced it to ashes.[FN#238] + + +[FN#238] These instances are quoted from Zen-rin-rui-shu. + + +If you want to secure Dhyana, let go of your anxieties and failures +in the past; let bygones be bygones; cast aside enmity, shame, and +trouble, never admit them into your brain; let pass the imagination +and anticipation of future hardships and sufferings; let go of all +your annoyances, vexations, doubts, melancholies, that impede your +speed in the race of the struggle for existence. As the miser sets +his heart on worthless dross and accumulates it, so an unenlightened +person clings to worthless mental dross and spiritual rubbish, and +makes his mind a dust-heap. Some people constantly dwell on the +minute details of their unfortunate circumstances, to make themselves +more unfortunate than they really are; some go over and over again +the symptoms of their disease to think themselves into serious +illness; and some actually bring evils on them by having them +constantly in view and waiting for them. A man asked Poh Chang +(Hyaku-jo): "How shall I learn the Law?" "Eat when you are hungry," +replied the teacher; " sleep when you are tired. People do not +simply eat at table, but think of hundreds of things; they do not +simply sleep in bed, but think of thousands of things."[FN#239] + + +[FN#239] E-gen and Den-to-roku. + + +A ridiculous thing it is, in fact, that man or woman, endowed with +the same nature as Buddha's, born the lord of all material objects, +is ever upset by petty cares, haunted by the fearful phantoms of his +or her own creation, and burning up his or her energy in a fit of +passion, wasting his or her vitality for the sake of foolish or +insignificant things. + +It is a man who can keep the balance of his mind under any +circumstances, who can be calm and serene in the hottest strife of +life, that is worthy of success, reward, respect, and reputation, for +he is the master of men. It was at the age of forty-seven that Wang +Yang Ming[FN#240] (O-yo-mei) won a splendid victory over the rebel +army which threatened the throne of the Ming dynasty. During that +warfare Wang was giving a course of lectures to a number of students +at the headquarters of the army, of which he was the +Commander-in-chief. At the very outset of the battle a messenger +brought him the news of defeat of the foremost ranks. All the +students were terror-stricken and grew pale at the unfortunate +tidings, but the teacher was not a whit disturbed by it. Some time +after another messenger brought in the news of complete rout of the +enemy. All the students, enraptured, stood up and cheered, but he +was as cool as before, and did not break off lecturing. Thus the +practiser of Zen has so perfect control over his heart that he can +keep presence of mind under an impending danger, even in the presence +of death itself. + + +[FN#240] The founder of the Wang School of Confucianism, a practiser +of Meditation, who was born in 1472, and died at the age of +fifty-seven in 1529. + + +It was at the age of twenty-three that Haku-in got on board a boat +bound for the Eastern Provinces, which met with a tempest and was +almost wrecked. All the passengers were laid low with fear and +fatigue, but Haku-in enjoyed a quiet sleep during the storm, as if he +were lying on a comfortable bed. It was in the fifth of Mei-ji era +that Doku-on[FN#241] lived for some time in the city of Tokyo, whom +some Christian zealots attempted to murder. One day he met with a +few young men equipped with swords at the gate of his temple. "We +want to see Doku-on; go and tell him," said they to the priest. "I +am Doku-on," replied he calmly, "whom you want to see, gentlemen. +What can I do for you?" "We have come to ask you a favour; we are +Christians; we want your hoary head." So saying they were ready to +attack him, who, smiling, replied: "All right, gentlemen. Behead me +forthwith, if you please." Surprised by this unexpected boldness on +the part of the priest, they turned back without harming even a hair +of the old Buddhist.[FN#242] + + +[FN#241] Doku On (Ogino), a distinguished Zen master, an abbot of +So-koku-ji, who was born in 1818, and died in 1895. + +[FN#242] Kin-sei-zen-rin-gen-ko-roku, by D. Mori. + + +These teachers could through long practice constantly keep their +minds buoyant, casting aside useless encumbrances of idle thoughts; +bright, driving off the dark cloud of melancholy; tranquil, putting +down turbulent waves of passion; pure, cleaning away the dust and +ashes of illusion; and serene, brushing off the cobwebs of doubt and +fear. The only means of securing all this is to realize the +conscious union with the Universal Life through the Enlightened +Consciousness, which can be awakened by dint of Dhyana. + + + +5. Zazen, or the Sitting in Meditation. + +Habit comes out of practice, and forms character by degrees, and +eventually works out destiny. Therefore we must practically sow +optimism, and habitually nourish it in order to reap the blissful +fruit of Enlightenment. The sole means of securing mental calmness +is the practice of Zazen, or the sitting in Meditation. This method +was known in India as Yoga as early as the Upanisad period, and +developed by the followers of the Yoga system.[FN#243] But Buddhists +sharply distinguished Zazen from Yoga, and have the method peculiar +to themselves. Kei-zan[FN#244] describes the method to the following +effect: 'Secure a quiet room neither extremely light nor extremely +dark, neither very warm nor very cold, a room, if you can, in the +Buddhist temple located in a beautiful mountainous district. You +should not practise Zazen in a place where a conflagration or a flood +or robbers may be likely to disturb you, nor should you sit in a +place close by the sea or drinking-shops or brothel-houses, or the +houses of widows and of maidens or buildings for music, nor should +you live in close proximity to the place frequented by kings, +ministers, powerful statesmen, ambitious or insincere persons. You +must not sit in Meditation in a windy or very high place lest you +should get ill. Be sure not to let the wind or smoke get into your +room, not to expose it to rain and storm. Keep your room clean. +Keep it not too light by day nor too dark by night. Keep it warm in +winter and cool in summer. Do not sit leaning against a wall, or a +chair, or a screen. You must not wear soiled clothes or beautiful +clothes, for the former are the cause of illness, while the latter +the cause of attachment. Avoid the Three Insufficiencies-that is to +say, insufficient clothes, insufficient food, and insufficient sleep. + Abstain from all sorts of uncooked or hard or spoiled or unclean +food, and also from very delicious dishes, because the former cause +troubles in your alimentary canal, while the latter cause you to +covet after diet. Eat and drink just too appease your hunger and +thirst, never mind whether the food be tasty or not. Take your meals +regularly and punctually, and never sit in Meditation immediately +after any meal. Do not practise Dhyana soon after you have taken a +heavy dinner, lest you should get sick thereby. Sesame, barley, +corn, potatoes, milk, and the like are the best material for your +food. Frequently wash your eyes, face, hands, and feet, and keep +them cool and clean. + + + +[FN#243] See Yoga Sutra with the Commentary of Bhoja Raja +(translated by Rajendralala Mitra), pp. 102-104. + +[FN#244] Kei-zan (Jo-kin), the founder of So-ji-ji, the head temple +of the So To Sect of Zen, who died at the age of fifty-eight in 1325. + He sets forth the doctrine of Zen and the method of practising Zazen +in his famous work, entitled Za-zen-yo-jin-ki. + +'There are two postures in Zazen--that is to say, the crossed-leg +sitting, and the half crossed-leg sitting. Seat yourself on a thick +cushion, putting it right under your haunch. Keep your body so erect +that the tip of the nose and the navel are in one perpendicular line, +and both ears and shoulders are in the same plane. Then place the +right foot upon the left thigh, the left foot on the right thigh, so +as the legs come across each other. Next put your right hand with +the palm upward on the left foot, and your left hand on the right +palm with the tops of both the thumbs touching each other. This is +the posture called the crossed-leg sitting. You may simply place the +left foot upon the right thigh, the position of the hands being the +same as in the cross-legged sitting. This posture is named the half +crossed-leg sitting.' + +'Do not shut your eyes, keep them always open during whole +Meditation. Do not breathe through the mouth; press your tongue +against the roof of the mouth, putting the upper lips and teeth +together with the lower. Swell your abdomen so as to hold the breath +in the belly; breathe rhythmically through the nose, keeping a +measured time for inspiration and expiration. Count for some time +either the inspiring or the expiring breaths from one to ten, then +beginning with one again. Concentrate your attention on your breaths +going in and out as if you are the sentinel standing at the gate of +the nostrils. If you do some mistake in counting, or be forgetful of +the breath, it is evident that your mind is distracted.' + +Chwang Tsz seems to have noticed that the harmony of breathing is +typical of the harmony of mind, since he says: "The true men of old +did not dream when they slept. Their breathing came deep and +silently. The breathing of true men comes (even) from his heels, +while men generally breathe (only) from their throats."[FN#245] At +any rate, the counting of breaths is an expedient for calming down of +mind, and elaborate rules are given in the Zen Sutra,[FN#246] but +Chinese and Japanese Zen masters do not lay so much stress on this +point as Indian teachers. + +[FN#245] Chwang Tsz, vol. iii., p. 2. + +[FN#246] Dharmatara-dhyana-sutra. + + + +6. The Breathing Exercise of the Yogi. + +Breathing exercise is one of the practices of Yoga, and somewhat +similar in its method and end to those of Zen. We quote here[FN#247] +Yogi Ramacharaka to show how modern Yogis practise it: "(1) Stand or +sit erect. Breathing through the nostrils, inhale steadily, first +filling the lower part of the lungs, which is accomplished by +bringing into play the diaphragm, which, descending, exerts a gentle +pressure on the abdominal organs, pushing forward the front walls of +the abdomen. Then fill the middle part of the lungs, pushing out the +lower ribs, breastbone, and chest. Then fill the higher portion of +the lungs, protruding the upper chest, thus lifting the chest, +including the upper six or seven pairs of ribs. In the final +movement the lower part of the abdomen will be slightly drawn in, +which movement gives the lungs a support, and also helps to fill the +highest part of the lungs. At the first reading it may appear that +this breath consists of three distinct movements. This, however, is +not the correct idea. The inhalation is continuous, the entire chest +cavity from the lower diaphragm to the highest point of the chest in +the region of the collar-bone being expanded with a uniform movement. + Avoid a jerking series of inhalations, and strive to attain a +steady, continuous action. Practice will soon overcome the tendency +to divide the inhalation into three movements, and will result in a +uniform continuous breath. You will be able to complete the +inhalation in a couple of seconds after a little practice. (2) +Retain the breath a few seconds. (3) Exhale quite slowly, holding +the chest in a firm position, and drawing the abdomen in a little and +lifting it upward slowly as the air leaves the lungs. When the air +is entirely exhaled, relax the chest and abdomen. A little practice +will render this part of exercise easy, and the movement once +acquired will be afterwards performed almost automatically." + + +[FN#247] Hatha Yoga, pp. 112, 113. + + + +7. Calmness of Mind. + +The Yogi breathing above mentioned is fit rather for physical +exercise than for mental balance, and it will be beneficial if you +take that exercise before or after Meditation. Japanese masters +mostly bold it very important to push forward. The lowest part of +the abdomen during Zazen, and they are right so far as the present +writer's personal experiences go. + +'If you feel your mind distracted, look at the tip of the nose; never +lose sight of it for some time, or look at your own palm, and let not +your mind go out of it, or gaze at one spot before you.' This will +greatly help you in restoring the equilibrium of your mind. Chwang +Tsz[FN#248] thought that calmness of mind is essential to sages, and +said: "The stillness of the sages does not belong to them as a +consequence of their skilful ability; all things are not able to +disturb their minds; it is on this account that they are still. When +water is still, its clearness shows the beard and eyebrows (of him +who looks into it). It is a perfect level, and the greatest +artificer takes his rule from it. Such is the clearness of still +water, and how much greater is that of the human spirit? The still +mind of the sage is the mirror of heaven and earth, the glass of all +things." + +Forget all worldly concerns, expel all cares and anxieties, let go of +passions and desires, give up ideas and thoughts, set your mind at +liberty absolutely, and make it as clear as a burnished mirror. Thus +let flow your inexhaustible fountain of purity, let open your +inestimable treasure of virtue, bring forth your inner hidden nature +of goodness, disclose your innermost divine wisdom, and waken your +Enlightened Consciousness to see Universal Life within you. "Zazen +enables the practiser," says Kei-zan,[FN#249] "to open up his mind, +to see his own nature, to become conscious of mysteriously pure and +bright spirit, or eternal light within him." + + +[FN#248] Chwang Tsz, vol. v., p. 5. + +[FN#249] Za-zen-yo-jin-ki. + + +Once become conscious of Divine Life within you, yon can see it in +your brethren, no matter how different they may be in circumstances, +in abilities, in characters, in nationalities, in language, in +religion, and in race. You can see it in animals, vegetables, and +minerals, no matter how diverse they may be in form, no matter how +wild and ferocious some may seem in nature, no matter how unfeeling +in heart some may seem, no matter how devoid of intelligence some may +appear, no matter how insignificant some may be, no matter how simple +in construction some may be, no matter how lifeless some may seem. +You can see that the whole universe is Enlightened and penetrated by +Divine Life. + + + +8. Zazen and the Forgetting of Self. + +Zazen is a most effectual means of destroying selfishness, the root +of all Sin, folly, vice, and evil, since it enables us to see that +every being is endowed with divine spirituality in common with men. +It is selfishness that throws dark shadows on life, just as it is not +the sun but the body that throws shadow before it. It is the +self-same selfishness that gave rise to the belief in the immortality +of soul, in spite of its irrationality, foolishness, and +superstition. Individual self should be a poor miserable thing if it +were not essentially connected with the Universal Life. We can +always enjoy pure happiness when we are united with nature, quite +forgetful of our poor self. When you look, for example, into the +smiling face of a pretty baby, and smile with it, or listen to the +sweet melody of a songster and sing with it, you completely forget +your poor self at that enraptured moment. But your feelings of +beauty and happiness are for ever gone when you resume your self, and +begin to consider them after your own selfish ideas. To forget self +and identify it with nature is to break down its limitation and to +set it at liberty. To break down petty selfishness and extend it +into Universal Self is to unfetter and deliver it from bondage. It +therefore follows that salvation can be secured not by the +continuation of individuality in another life, but by the realization +of one's union with Universal Life, which is immortal, free, +limitless, eternal, and bliss itself. This is easily effected by +Zazen. + + + +9. Zen and Supernatural Power. + +Yoga[FN#250] claims that various supernatural powers can be acquired +by Meditation, but Zen does not make any such absurd claims. It +rather disdains those who are believed to have acquired supernatural +powers by the practice of austerities. The following traditions +clearly show this spirit: "When Fah Yung (Ho-yu) lived in Mount Niu +Teu[FN#251] (Go-zu-san) he used to receive every morning the +offerings of flowers from hundreds of birds, and was believed to have +supernatural powers. But after his Enlightenment by the instruction +of the Fourth Patriarch, the birds ceased to make offering, because +be became a being too divine to be seen by inferior animals." "Hwang +Pah (O-baku), one day going up Mount Tien Tai (Ten-dai-san), which +was believed to have been inhabited by Arhats with supernatural +powers, met with a monk whose eyes emitted strange light. They went +along the pass talking with each other for a short while until they +came to a river roaring with torrent. There being no bridge, the +master bad to stop at the shore; but his companion crossed the river +walking on the water and beckoned to Hwang Pah to follow him. +Thereupon Hwang Pah said: 'If I knew thou art an Arhat, I would have +doubled you up before thou got over there!' The monk then understood +the spiritual attainment of Hwang Pah, and praised him as a true +Mahayanist." "On one occasion Yang Shan (Kyo-zan) saw a stranger +monk flying through the air. When that monk came down and approached +him with a respectful salutation, he asked: 'Where art thou from? +'Early this morning,' replied the other, 'I set out from India.' +'Why,' said the teacher, 'art thou so late?' 'I stopped,' responded +the man, 'several times to look at beautiful sceneries.' Thou mayst +have supernatural powers,' exclaimed Yang Shan, 'yet thou must give +back the Spirit of Buddha to me.' Then the monk praised Yang Shan +saying: 'I have come over to China in order to worship +Manyjucri,[FN#252] and met unexpectedly with Minor Shakya,' and, +after giving the master some palm leaves he brought from India, went +back through the air.'"[FN#253] + + +[FN#250] 'Yoga Aphorisms of Patanyjali,' chap. iii. + +[FN#251] A prominent disciple of the Fourth Patriarch, the founder +of the Niu Teu School (Go-zu-zen) of Zen, who died in A.D. 675. + +[FN#252] Manyjucri is a legendary Bodhisattva, who became an object +of worship of some Mahayanists. He is treated as a personification +of transcendental wisdom. + +[FN#253] Hwui Yuen (E-gen) and Sho-bo-gen-zo. + + +It is quite reasonable that Zenists distinguish supernatural powers +from spiritual uplifting, the former an acquirement of Devas, or of +Asuras, or of Arhats, or of even animals, and the latter as a nobler +accomplishment attained only by the practisers of Mahayanism. +Moreover, they use the term supernatural power in a meaning entirely +different from the original one. Lin Tsi (Rin-zai) says, for +instance: "There are six supernatural powers of Buddha: He is free +from the temptation of form, living in the world of form; He is free +from the temptation of sound, living in the world of sound; He is +free from the temptation of smell, living in the world of smell; He +is free from the temptation of taste, living in the world of taste; +He is free from the temptation of Dharma,[FN#254] living in the world +of Dharma. These are six supernatural powers."[FN#255] + + +[FN#254] The things or objects, not of sense, but of mind. + +[FN#255] Lin Tsi Luh (Rin-zai-roku). + + +Sometimes Zenists use the term as if it meant what we call Zen +Activity, or the free display of Zen in action, as you see in the +following examples. Tung Shan (To-Zan) was on one occasion attending +on his teacher Yun Yen (Un-gan), who asked: "What are your +supernatural powers?" Tung Shan, saying nothing, clasped his hands +on his breast, and stood up before Yun Yen. "How do you display your +supernatural powers?" questioned the teacher again. Then Tung Shan +said farewell and went out. Wei Shan (E-san) one day was taking a +nap, and seeing his disciple Yang Shan (Kyo-zan) coming into the +room, turned his face towards the wall. "You need not, Sir," said +Yang Shan, "stand on ceremony, as I am your disciple." Wei Shan +seemed to try to get up, so Yang Shan went out; but Wei Shan called +him back and said: "I shall tell you of a dream I dreamed." The +other inclined his head as if to listen. "Now," said Wei Shan, +"divine my fortune by the dream." Thereupon Yang Shan fetched a +basin of water and a towel and gave them to the master, who washed +his face thereby. By-and-by Hiang Yen (Kyo-gen) came in, to whom Wei +Shan said: "We displayed supernatural powers a moment ago. It was +not such supernatural powers as are shown by Hinayanists." "I know +it, Sir," replied the other, "though I was down below." "Say, then, +what it was," demanded the master. Then Hiang Yen made tea and gave +a cup to Wei Shan, who praised the two disciples, saying: "You +surpass Çariputra[FN#256] and Maudgalyayana[FN#257] in your wisdom and +supernatural powers."[FN#258] + + +[FN#256] One of the prominent disciples of Shakya Muni, who became +famous for his wisdom. + +[FN#257] One of the eminent disciples of Shakya Muni, noted for his +supernatural powers. + +[FN#258] Zen-rin-rui-sku. + + +Again, ancient Zenists did not claim that there was any mysterious +element in their spiritual attainment, as Do-gen says[FN#259] +unequivocally respecting his Enlightenment: "I recognized only that +my eyes are placed crosswise above the nose that stands lengthwise, +and that I was not deceived by others. I came home from China with +nothing in my hand. There is nothing mysterious in Buddhism. Time +passes as it is natural, the sun rising in the east, and the moon +setting into the west." + +[FN#259] Ei-hei-ko-roku. + + + +10. True Dhyana. + +To sit in Meditation is not the only method of practising Zazen. "We +practise Dhyana in sitting, in standing, and in walking," says one of +the Japanese Zenists. Lin Tsi (Rin-Zai) also says: "To concentrate +one's mind, or to dislike noisy places, and seek only for stillness, +is the characteristic of heterodox Dhyana." It is easy to keep +self-possession in a place of tranquillity, yet it is by no means +easy to keep mind undisturbed amid the bivouac of actual life. It is +true Dhyana that makes our mind sunny while the storms of strife rage +around us. It is true Dhyana that secures the harmony of heart, +while the surges of struggle toss us violently. It is true Dhyana +that makes us bloom and smile, while the winter of life covets us +with frost and snow. + +"Idle thoughts come and go over unenlightened minds six hundred and +fifty times in a snap of one's fingers," writes an Indian +teacher,[FN#260] "and thirteen hundred million times every +twenty-four hours." This might be an exaggeration, yet we cannot but +acknowledge that one idle thought after another ceaselessly bubbles +up in the stream of consciousness. "Dhyana is the letting go," +continues the writer--"that is to say, the letting go of the thirteen +hundred million of idle thoughts." The very root of these thirteen +hundred million idle thoughts is an illusion about one's self. He is +indeed the poorest creature, even if he be in heaven, who thinks +himself poor. On the contrary, he is an angel who thinks himself +hopeful and happy, even though he be in hell. "Pray deliver me," +said a sinner to Sang Tsung (So-san).[FN#261] "Who ties you up?" was +the reply. You tie yourself up day and night with the fine thread of +idle thoughts, and build a cocoon of environment from which you have +no way of escape. 'There is no rope, yet you imagine yourself +bound.' Who could put fetters on your mind but your mind itself? +Who could chain your will but your own will? Who could blind your +spiritual eyes, unless you yourself shut them up? Who could prevent +you from enjoying moral food, unless you yourself refuse to eat? +"There are many," said Sueh Fung (Sep-po) on one occasion, "who +starve in spite of their sitting in a large basket full of victuals. +There are many who thirst in spite of seating themselves on the shore +of a sea." "Yes, Sir," replied Huen Sha (Gen-sha), "there are many +who starve in spite of putting their heads into the basket full of +victuals. There are many who thirst in spite of putting their heads +into the waters of the sea."[FN#262] Who could cheer him up who +abandons himself to self-created misery? Who could save him who +denies his own salvation? + + +[FN#260] The introduction to Anapana-sutra by Khin San Hwui, who +came to China A.D. 241. + +[FN#261] The Third Patriarch. + +[FN#262] Hwui Yuen (E-gen). + + + +11. Let Go of your Idle Thoughts.[FN#263] + + +[FN#263] A famous Zenist, Mu-go-koku-shi, is said to have replied to +every questioner, saying: "Let go of your idle thoughts." + + +A Brahmin, having troubled himself a long while with reference to the +problem of life and of the world, went out to call on Shakya Muni +that he might be instructed by the Master. He got some beautiful +flowers to offer them as a present to the Muni, and proceeded to the +place where He was addressing his disciples and believers. No sooner +had he come in sight of the Master than he read in his mien the +struggles going on within him. "Let go of that," said the Muni to +the Brahmin, who was going to offer the flowers in both his hands. +He dropped on the ground the flowers in his right hand, but still +holding those in his left. "Let go of that," demanded the Master, +and the Brahmin dropped the flowers in his left hand rather +reluctantly. "Let go of that, I say," the Muni commanded again; but +the Brahmin, having nothing to let go of, asked: "What shall I let go +of, Reverend Sir? I have nothing in my hands, you know." "Let go of +that, you have neither in your right nor in your left band, but in +the middle." Upon these words of the Muni a light came into the +sufferer's mind, and he went home satisfied and in joy.[FN#264] "Not +to attach to all things is Dhyana," writes an ancient Zenist, "and if +you understand this, going out, staying in, sitting, and lying are in +Dhyana." Therefore allow not your mind to be a receptacle for the +dust of society, or the ashes of life, or rags and waste paper of the +world. You bear too much burden upon your shoulders with which you +have nothing to do. + + +[FN#264] 'Sutra on the Brahmacarin Black-family,' translated into +Chinese by K' Khien, of the Wu dynasty (A.D. 222-280). + + +Learn the lesson of forgetfulness, and forget all that troubles you, +deprives you of sound sleep, and writes wrinkles on your forehead. +Wang Yang Ming, at the age of seventeen or so, is said to have +forgotten the day 'on which he was to be married to a handsome young +lady, daughter of a man of high position. It was the afternoon of +the very day on which their nuptials had to be held that he went out +to take a walk. Without any definite purpose he went into a temple +in the neighbourhood, and there he found a recluse apparently very +old with white hair, but young in countenance like a child. The man +was sitting absorbed in Meditation. There was something extremely +calm and serene in that old man's look and bearing that attracted the +young scholar's attention. Questioning him as to his name, age, and +birthplace, Wang found that the venerable man had enjoyed a life so +extraordinarily long that he forgot his name and age, but that he had +youthful energy so abundantly that be could talk with a voice +sounding as a large bell. Being asked by Wang the secret of +longevity, the man replied: "There is no secret in it; I merely kept +my mind calm and peaceful." Further, he explained the method of +Meditation according to Taoism and Buddhism. Thereupon Wang sat face +to face with the old man and began to practise Meditation, utterly +forgetful of his bride and nuptial ceremony. The sun began to cast +his slanting rays on the wall of the temple, and they sat motionless; +twilight came over them, and night wrapped them with her sable +shroud, and they sat as still as two marble statues; midnight, dawn, +at last the morning sun rose to find them still in their reverie. +The father of the bride, who had started a search during the night, +found to his surprise the bridegroom absorbed in Meditation on the +following day.[FN#265] + + +[FN#265] O-yo-mei-shutsu-shin-sei-ran-roku. + + +It was at the age of forty-seven that Wang gained a great victory +over the rebel army, and wrote to a friend saying: "It is so easy to +gain a victory over the rebels fortifying themselves among the +mountains, yet it is not so with those rebels living in our +mind."[FN#266] Tsai Kiun Mu (Sai-kun-bo) is said to have had an +exceedingly long and beautiful beard, and when asked by the Emperor, +who received him in audience, whether he should sleep with his beard +on the comforters or beneath them, be could not answer, since he had +never known how he did. Being distracted by this question, he went +home and tried to find out how he had been used to manage his beard +in bed. First he put his beard on the comforters and vainly tried to +sleep; then he put it beneath the comforters and thought it all +right. Nevertheless, he was all the more disturbed by it. So then, +putting on the comforters, now putting it beneath them, he tried to +sleep all night long, but in vain. You must therefore forget your +mental beard that annoys you all the time. + + +[FN#266] Ibid. + + +Men of longevity never carried troubles to their beds. It is a +well-known fact that Zui-o (Shi-ga)[FN#267] enjoyed robust health at +the age of over one hundred years. One day, being asked whether +there is any secret of longevity, he replied affirmatively, and said +to the questioner: "Keep your mind and body pure for two weeks, +abstaining from any sort of impurity, then I shall tell you of the +secret." The man did as was prescribed, and came again to be +instructed in the secret. Zui-o said: "Now I might tell you, but be +cautious to keep yourself pure another week so as to qualify yourself +to learn the secret." When that week was over the old man said: "Now +I might tell you, but will you be so careful as to keep yourself pure +three days more in order to qualify yourself to receive the secret?" +The man did as he was ordered, and requested the instruction. +Thereupon Zui-o took the man to his private room and softly +whispered, with his mouth close to the ear of the man: "Keep the +secret I tell you now, even at the cost of your life. It is +this-don't be passionate. That is all."[FN#268] + + +[FN#267] This famous old man died in A.D. 1730. + +[FN#268] Se-ji-hyaku-dan. + + + +12. 'The Five Ranks of Merit.' + +Thus far we have stated how to train our body and mind according to +the general rules and customs established by Zenists. And here we +shall describe the different stages of mental uplifting through which +the student of Zen has to go. They are technically called 'The Five +Ranks of Merit.'[FN#269] The first stage is called the Rank of +Turning,[FN#270] in which the student 'turns' his mind from the +external objects of sense towards the inner Enlightened +Consciousness. He gives up all mean desires and aspires to spiritual +elevation. He becomes aware that he is not doomed to be the slave of +material things, and strives to conquer over them. Enlightened +Consciousness is likened to the King, and it is called the Mind-King, +while the student who now turns towards the King is likened to common +people. Therefore in this first stage the student is in the rank of +common people. + + +[FN#269] Ko-kun-go-i. For further details, see So-to-ni-shi-roku. + +[FN#268] Ko in Japanese. + + + +The second stage is called the Rank of Service,[FN#271] in which the +student distinguishes himself by his loyalty to the Mind-King, and +becomes a courtier to 'serve' him. He is in constant 'service' to +the King, attending him with obedience and love, and always fearing +to offend him. Thus the student in this stage is ever careful not to +neglect rules and precepts laid down by the sages, and endeavours to +uplift himself in spirituality by his fidelity. +The third stage is called the Rank of Merit,[FN#272] in which the +student distinguishes himself by his 'meritorious' acts of conquering +over the rebel army of passion which rises against the Mind-King. +Now, his rank is not the rank of a courtier, but the rank of a +general. In other words, his duty is not only to keep rules and +instructions of the sages, but to subjugate his own passion and +establish moral order in the mental kingdom. + + +[FN#271] Bu in Japanese. + +[FN#272] Ko in Japanese. + + +The fourth stage is called the Rank of Co-operative Merit,[FN#273] in +which the student 'co-operates' with other persons in order to +complete his merit. Now, he is not compared with a general who +conquers his foe, but with the prime-minister who co-operates with +other officials to the benefit of the people. Thus the student in +this stage is not satisfied with his own conquest of passion, but +seeks after spiritual uplifting by means of extending his kindness +and sympathy to his fellow-men. + + +[FN#273] Gu-ko in Japanese. + + +The fifth stage is called the Rank of Merit-over-Merit,[FN#274] which +means the rank of meritless-merit. This is the rank of the King +himself. The King does nothing meritorious, because all the +governmental works are done by his ministers and subjects. All that +he has to do is to keep his inborn dignity and sit high on his +throne. Therefore his conduct is meritless, but all the meritorious +acts of his subjects are done through his authority. Doing nothing, +he does everything. Without any merit, he gets all merits. Thus the +student in this stage no more strives to keep precepts, but his +doings are naturally in accord with them. No more he aspires for +spiritual elevation, but his, heart is naturally pure from material +desires. No more he makes an effort to vanquish his passion, but no +passion disturbs him. No more he feels it his duty to do good to +others, but he is naturally good and merciful. No more he sits in +Dhyana, but he naturally lives in Dhyana at all times. It is in this +fifth stage that the student is enabled to identify his Self with the +Mind-King or Enlightened Consciousness, and to abide in perfect bliss. + + +[FN#274] Ko-ko in Japanese. + + +13. 'The Ten Pictures of the Cowherd.'[FN#275] + + +[FN#275] The pictures were drawn by Kwoh Ngan (Kaku-an), a Chinese +Zenist. For the details, see Zen-gaku-ho-ten. + + +Besides these Five Ranks of Merit, Zenists make use of the Ten +Pictures of the Cowherd, in order to show the different stages of +mental training through which the student of Zen has to go. Some +poems were written by Chinese and Japanese teachers on each of these +pictures by way of explanation, but they are too ambiguous to be +translated into English, and we rest content with the translation of +a single Japanese poem on each of the ten pictures, which are as +follows: + +The first picture, called 'the Searching of the Cow,' represents the +cowherd wandering in the wilderness with a vague hope of finding his +lost cow that is running wild out of his sight. The reader will +notice that the cow is likened to the mind of the student and the +cowherd to the student himself. + +"I do not see my cow, +But trees and grass, +And hear the empty cries +Of cicadas." + +The second picture, called 'the Finding of the Cow's Tracks,' +represents the cowherd tracing the cow with the sure hope of +restoring her, having found her tracks on the ground. + +"The grove is deep, and so +Is my desire. +How glad I am, O lo! +I see her tracks." + +The third picture, called 'the Finding out of the Cow,' represents +the cowherd slowly approaching the cow from a distance. + +"Her loud and wild mooing +Has led me here; +I see her form afar, +Like a dark shadow." + +The fourth 'picture, called 'the Catching of the Cow,' represents the +cowherd catching hold of the cow, who struggles to break loose from +him. + +"Alas! it's hard to keep +The cow I caught. +She tries to run and leap +And snap the cord." + +The fifth picture, called 'the Taming of the Cow,' represents the +cowherd pacifying the cow, giving her grass and water. + +"I'm glad the cow so wild +Is tamed and mild. +She follows me, as if +She were my shadow." + +The sixth picture, called 'the Going Home Riding on the Cow,' +represents the cowherd playing on a flute, riding on the cow. + +"Slowly the clouds return +To their own hill, +Floating along the skies +So calm and still. + +The seventh picture, called 'the Forgetting of the Cow and the +Remembering of the Man,' represents the cowherd looking at the +beautiful scenery surrounding his cottage. + +"The cow goes out by day +And comes by night. +I care for her in no way, +But all is right." + +The eighth picture, called 'the Forgetting of the Cow and of the +Man,' represents a large empty circle. + +"There's no cowherd nor cow +Within the pen; +No moon of truth nor clouds +Of doubt in men." + +The ninth picture, called 'the Returning to the Root and Source,' +represents a beautiful landscape full of lovely trees in full blossom. + +"There is no dyer of hills, +Yet they are green; +So flowers smile, and titter rills +At their own wills." + +The tenth picture, called 'the Going into the City with Open Hands,' +represents a smiling monk, gourd in hand, talking with a man who +looks like a pedlar. + +"The cares for body make +That body pine; +Let go of cares and thoughts, +O child of mine!" + +These Ten Pictures of the Cowherd correspond in meaning to the Five +Ranks of Merit above stated, even if there is a slight difference, as +is shown in the following table: + + +THE FIVE RANKS.---THE TEN PICTURES. + +1. The Rank of Turning---1. The Searching of the Cow. + 2. The Finding of the Cow's Tracks. + +2. The Rank of Service---3. The Finding of the Cow. + 4. The Catching of the Cow. + +3. The Rank of Merit---5. The Taming of the Cow. + 6. The Going Home, Riding on the Cow. + +4. The Rank of Co-operative Merit---9. The Returning to the Root and +Source. + 10. The Going into the City with +Open Hands. + +5. The Rank of Merit-over-Merit---7. The Forgetting of the Cow and +the Remembering of the Man. + 8. The Forgetting of the Cow and of +the Man. + + + +14. Zen and Nirvana. + +The beatitude of Zen is Nirvana, not in the Hinayanistic sense of the +term, but in the sense peculiar to the faith. Nirvana literally +means extinction or annihilation; hence the extinction of life or the +annihilation of individuality. To Zen, however, it means the state +of extinction of pain and the annihilation of sin. Zen never looks +for the realization of its beatitude in a place like heaven, nor +believes in the realm of Reality transcendental of the phenomenal +universe, nor gives countenance to the superstition of Immortality, +nor does it hold the world is the best of all possible worlds, nor +conceives life simply as blessing. It is in this life, full of +shortcomings, misery, and sufferings, that Zen hopes to realize its +beatitude. It is in this world, imperfect, changing, and moving, +that Zen finds the Divine Light it worships. It is in this +phenomenal universe of limitation and relativity that Zen aims to +attain to highest Nirvana. "We speak," says the author of +Vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra, "of the transitoriness of body, but not +of the desire of the Nirvana or destruction of it." "Paranirvana," +according to the author of Lankavatarasutra, "is neither death nor +destruction, but bliss, freedom, and purity." "Nirvana," says Kiai +Hwan,[FN#276] "means the extinction of pain or the crossing over of +the sea of life and death. It denotes the real permanent state of +spiritual attainment. It does not signify destruction or +annihilation. It denotes the belief in the great root of life and +spirit." It is Nirvana of Zen to enjoy bliss for all sufferings of +life. It is Nirvana of Zen to be serene in mind for all disturbances +of actual existence. It is Nirvana of Zen to be in the conscious +union with Universal Life or Buddha through Enlightenment. + + +[FN#276] A commentator of Saddharma-pundarika-sutra. + + + +15. Nature and her Lesson. + +Nature offers us nectar and ambrosia every day, and everywhere we go +the rose and lily await us. "Spring visits us men," says +Gu-do,[FN#277] "her mercy is great. Every blossom holds out the +image of Tathagata." "What is the spiritual body of Buddha who is +immortal and divine?" asked a man to Ta Lun (Dai-ryu), who instantly +replied: "The flowers cover the mountain with golden brocade. The +waters tinge the rivulets with heavenly blue." "Universe is the +whole body of Tathagata; observed Do-gen. "The worlds in ten +directions, the earth, grass, trees, walls, fences, tiles, pebbles-in +a word, all the animated and inanimate objects partake of the +Buddha-nature. Thereby, those who partake in the benefit of the Wind +and Water that rise out of them are, all of them, helped by the +mysterious influence of Buddha, and show forth Enlightenment."[FN#278] + + +[FN#277] One of the distinguished Zenists in the Tokugawa period, +who died in 1661. + +[FN#278] Sho-bo gen-zo. + + +Thus you can attain to highest bliss through your conscious union +with Buddha. Nothing can disturb your peace, when you can enjoy +peace in the midst of disturbances; nothing can cause you to suffer, +when you welcome misfortunes and hardships in order to train and +strengthen your character; nothing can tempt you to commit sin, when +you are constantly ready to listen to the sermon given by everything +around you; nothing can distress you, when you make the world the +holy temple of Buddha. This is the state of Nirvana which everyone +believing in Buddha may secure. + + + +16. The Beatitude of Zen. + +We are far from denying, as already shown in the foregoing chapters, +the existence of troubles, pains, diseases, sorrows, deaths in life. +Our bliss consists in seeing the fragrant rose of Divine mercy among +the thorns of worldly trouble, in finding the fair oasis of Buddha's +wisdom in the desert of misfortunes, in getting the wholesome balm of +His love in the seeming poison of pain, in gathering the sweet honey +of His spirit even in the sting of horrible death. + +History testifies to the truth that it is misery that teaches men +more than happiness, that it is poverty that strengthens them more +than wealth, that it is adversity that moulds character more than +prosperity, that it is disease and death that call forth the inner +life more than health and long life. At least, no one can be blind +to the fact that good and evil have an equal share in forming the +character and working out the destiny of man. Even such a great +pessimist as Schopenhauer says: "As our bodily frame would burst +asunder if the pressure of atmosphere were removed, so if the lives +of men were relieved of all need, hardship, and adversity, if +everything they took in hand were successful, they would be so +swollen with arrogance . . . that they would present the spectacle of +unbridled folly. A ship without ballast is unstable, and will not go +straight." Therefore let us make our ship of life go straight with +its ballast of miseries and hardships, over which we gain control. + +The believer in Buddha is thankful to him, not only for the sunshine +of life, but also for its wind, rain, snow, thunder, and lightning, +because He gives us nothing in vain. Hisa-nobu (Ko-yama) was, +perhaps, one of the happiest persons that Japan ever produced, simply +because he was ever thankful to the Merciful One. One day he went +out without an umbrella and met with a shower. Hurrying up to go +home, he stumbled and fell, wounding both his legs. As he rose up, +he was overheard to say: "Thank heaven." And being asked why he was +so thankful, replied: "I got both my legs hurt, but, thank heaven, +they were not broken." On another occasion he lost consciousness, +having been kicked violently by a wild horse. When he came to +himself, he exclaimed: "Thank heaven," in hearty joy. Being asked +the reason why he was so joyful, he answered: "I have really given up +my ghost, but, thank heaven, I have escaped death after all."[FN#279] + A person in such a state of mind can do anything with heart and +might. Whatever he does is an act of thanks for the grace of Buddha, +and he does it, not as his duty, but as the overflowing of his +gratitude which lie himself cannot check. Here exists the formation +of character. Here exist real happiness and joy. Here exists the +realization of Nirvana. + + +[FN#279] Ki-jin-den. + + +Most people regard death as the greatest of evils, only because they +fear death. They fear death only because they have the instinct of +self-preservation. Hereupon pessimistic philosophy and religion +propose to attain to Nirvana by the extinction of Will-to-live, or by +the total annihilation of life. But this is as much as to propose +death as the final cure to a patient. Elie Metchnikoff proposes, in +his 'Nature of Man,' another cure, saying: 'If man could only +contrive to live long enough--say, for one hundred and forty years--a +natural desire for extinction would take the place of the instinct +for self-preservation, and the call of death would then harmoniously +satisfy his legitimate craving of a ripe old age.' Why, we must ask, +do you trouble yourself so much about death? Is there any instance +of an individual who escaped it in the whole history of mankind? If +there be no way of escape, why do you trouble yourself about it? Can +you cause things to fall off the earth against the law of +gravitation? Is there any example of an individual object that +escaped the government of that law in the whole history of the world? + Why, then, do you trouble yourself about it? It is no less silly to +trouble yourself about death than you do about gravitation. Can you +realize that death, which you have yet no immediate experience of, is +the greatest of evil? We dare to declare death to be one of the +blessings which we have to be thankful for. Death is the scavenger +of the world; it sweeps away all uselessness, staleness, and +corruption from the world, and keeps life clean and ever now. When +you are of no use for the world it comes upon you, removes you to +oblivion in order to relieve life of useless encumbrance. The stream +of existence should be kept running, otherwise it would become +putrid. If old lives were to stop the running stream it would stand +still, and consequently become filthy, poisoned, and worthless. +Suppose there were only births and no deaths. The earth has to be +packed with men and women, who are doomed to live to all eternity, +jostling, colliding, bumping, trampling each other, and vainly +struggling to get out of the Black Hole of the earth. Thanks to +death we are not in the Black Hole! + +Only birth and no death is far worse than only death and no birth. +"The dead," says Chwang Tsz, "have no tyrannical king about, no +slavish subject to meet; no change of seasons overtakes them. The +heaven and the earth take the places of Spring and Autumn. The king +or emperor of a great nation cannot be happier than they." How would +you be if death should never overtake you when ugly decrepitude makes +you blind and deaf, bodily and mentally, and deprives you of all +possible pleasures? How would you be if you should not die when your +body is broken to pieces or terribly burned by an accident--say, by a +violent earthquake followed by a great conflagration? Just imagine +Satan, immortal Satan, thrown down by the ire of God into Hell's +fiery gulf, rolling himself in dreadful torture to the end of time. +You cannot but conclude that it is only death which relieves you of +extreme sufferings, incurable diseases, and it is one of the +blessings you ought to be thankful for. + +The believer of Buddha is thankful even for death itself, the which +is the sole means of conquering death. If he be thankful even for +death, how much more for the rest of things! He can find a meaning +in every form of life. He can perceive a blessing in every change of +fortune. He can acknowledge a mission for every individual. He can +live in contentment and joy under any conditions. Therefore Lin Tsi +(Rin-zai) says: "All the Buddhas might appear before me and I would +not be glad. All the Three Regions[FN#280] and Hells might suddenly +present themselves before me, and I would not fear. . . . He (an +Enlightened person) might get into the fire, and it would not burn +him. He might get into water, and it would not drown him. He might +be born in Hell, and he would be happy as if he were in a fair +garden. He might be born among Pretas and beasts, and he would not +suffer from pain. How can he be so? Because he can enjoy +everything.'[FN#281] + + +[FN#280] (1) Naraka, or Hell; (2) Pretas, or hungry demons; (3) +beasts. + +[FN#281] Lin Tsi Luk (Rin-zai-roku). + + + + + + +APPENDIX + + + +ORIGIN OF MAN + +(GEN-NIN-RON) + + + +BY + +KWEI FUNG TSUNG MIH + +THE SEVENTH PATRIARCH OF THE KEGON SECT + + + +TRANSLATED BY + +KAITEN NUKARIYA + + + + + +PREFACE + + + +Tsung Mih (Shu-Mitsu, A.D. 774-841), the author of Yuen Jan Lun +('Origin of Man'), one of the greatest scholars that China ever +produced, was born in a Confucianist family of the State of Kwo Cheu. + Having been converted by Tao Yuen (Do-yen), a noted priest of the +Zen Sect, he was known at the age of twenty-nine as a prominent +member of that sect, and became the Eleventh Patriarch after +Bodhidharma, the First Patriarch of the sect, who had come over to +China from India about A.D. 520. Some years after he studied under +Chino, Kwan (Cho-kwan) the philosophical doctrine of the Avatamsaka +School, now known in Japan as the Kegon Sect, and distinguished +himself as the Seventh Patriarch of that school. In A.D. 835 he was +received in audience by the Emperor Wan Tsung, who questioned him in +a general way about the Buddhist doctrines, and bestowed upon him the +honourable title of Great Virtuous Teacher, together with abundant +gifts. The author produced over ninety volumes of books, which +include a commentary on Avatamsaka-sutra, one on +Purnabuddha-sutra-prasannartha-sutra, and many others. Yuen Jan Lun +is one of the shortest of his essays, but it contains all the +essential doctrines, respecting the origin of life and of the +universe, which are found in Taoism, Confucianism, Hinayanism, and +Mahayanism. How important a position it holds among the Buddhist +books can be well imagined from the fact that over twenty +commentaries were written on it both by the Chinese and the Japanese +Buddhist scholars. It is said that a short essay under the same +title by a noted contemporary Confucianist scholar, Han Tui Chi +(Kan-tai-shi, who flourished 803-823), suggested to him to write a +book in order to make clear to the public the Buddhist view on the +same subject. Thus be entitled the book 'Origin of Man,' in spite of +his treating of the origin of life and of the universe. Throughout +the whole book occur coupled sentences, consisting mostly of the same +number of Chinese characters, and consequently while one sentence is +too laconic, the other is overladen with superfluous words, put in to +make the right number in the balanced group of characters. In +addition to this, the text is full of too concise phrases, and often +of ambiguous ones, as it is intended to state as briefly as possible +all the important doctrines of the Buddhist as well as of the outside +schools. On this account the author himself wrote a few notes on the +passages that lie thought it necessary to explain. The reader will +find these notes beginning with 'A' put by the translator to +distinguish them from his own. + +K. N. + + + + +ORIGIN OF MAN[FN#282] + + +INTRODUCTION + +All animated beings that live (under the sun) have an origin, while +each of inanimate things, countless in number, owes its existence to +some source.[FN#283] There can never be (any being nor) any thing +that has (no origin, as there can be no) branch which has no root. +How could man, the most spiritual of the Three Powers[FN#284] exist +without an origin? + + +[FN#282] The author treats the origin of life and of the universe, +but the book was entitled as we have seen in the preface. + +[FN#283] The same idea and expression are found in Tao Teh King +(Do-toku-kyo), by Lao Tsz (Ro-shi, 604-522 B.C.). + +[FN#284] The Three Powers are-(1) Heaven, that has the power of +revolution; (2) Earth, that has the power of production; and (3) Man, +that has the power of thought. + + +(It is said),[FN#285] moreover, that that which knows others is +intellect, and that that which knows itself is wisdom. Now if I, +being born among men, know not whence I came (into this life), how +could I know whither I am going in the after-life? How could I +understand all human affairs, ancient and modern, in the world? So, +for some scores of years I learned under many different tutors, and +read extensively (not only) the Buddhist (but also) outside books. +By that means I tried to trace my Self, and never stopped my research +till I attained, as I had expected, to its origin. + +[FN#285] The sentence is a direct quotation of Tao Teh King. + +Confucianists and Taoists of our age, nevertheless, merely know that +our nearest origin is the father or the grandfather, as we are +descended from them, and they from their fathers in succession. +(They say) that the remotest (origin) is the undefinable (primordial) +Gas[FN#286] in the state of chaos; that it split itself into the two +(different) principles of the Positive and the Negative; that the two +brought forth the Three Powers of Heaven, Earth, and Man, which (in +their turn) produced all other things; that man as well as other +things originated in the Gas. + + +[FN#286] Such a statement concerning the creation of the universe as +the one here given is found in I King (Eeki-kyo). The primordial +substance is not exactly 'gas,' but we may conceive it as being +something like a nebula. + + +(Some)[FN#287] Buddhists, (however), maintain simply that the nearest +(origin) is Karma,[FN#288] as we were born among men as the results +of the Karma that we had produced in the past existences; and that +the remotest (origin) is the Alaya-vijnyana,[FN#289] (because) our +Karma is brought forth by illusion, and (illusion by attachment), and +so forth, in one word, the Alaya is the origin of life. Although all +of (these scholars) claim that they have already grasped the ultimate +truth, yet not in fact. + + +[FN#287] Not all Buddhists, but some of them, are meant here-that +is, Hinayanists and Dharma-laksanists. + +[FN#288] According to Hinayanists, Karma (action) is that moral germ +which survives death and continues in transmigration. It may be +conceived as something like an energy, by the influence of which +beings undergo metempsychosis. + +[FN#289] According to the Dharma-laksana Sect, Alaya-vijnyana +(receptacle-knowledge) is the spiritual Substance which holds the +'seeds' or potentialities of all things. + + +Confucius, Lao Tsz, and Shakya, however, were all the wisest of +sages. Each of them gave his teachings in a way different from the +other two, that they might meet the spiritual needs of his time and +fit to the capacities of men. (So that) the Buddhist and the outside +doctrines, each supplementing the other, have done good to the +multitude. They were all (intended) to encourage thousands of +virtuous acts by explaining the whole chain of causality. They were +(also intended) to investigate thousands of things, and throw light +on the beginning and on the end of their evolution. Although all +these doctrines (might) answer the purpose of the sages, yet there +must be some teachings that would be temporary,[FN#290] while others +would be eternal. The first two faiths are merely temporary, while +Buddhism includes both the temporary and the eternal. We may act +according to the precepts of these three faiths, which aim at the +peace and welfare (of man), in so far as they encourage thousands of +virtuous acts by giving warning against evil and recommending good. +(But) Buddhism (alone) is altogether perfect and best of all, in +investigating thousands of things and in tracing them back to their +first cause, in order to acquire thorough understanding of the +natures of things and to attain to the ultimate truth. + + +[FN#290] The temporary doctrine means the teaching preached by +Shakya Muni to meet the temporary needs of the hearers. The term is +always used in contrast with the real or eternal doctrine. + + +Each of our contemporary scholars, nevertheless, adheres to one +school of the (above mentioned) teachings. And there are some (even) +among the Buddhists who mistake the temporary for the eternal +doctrine. In consequence they are never successful in tracing +Heaven, Earth, Man, and other things back to their First Cause. But +I am now (going to show how) to infer an Ultimate Cause for thousands +of things, not only from the Buddhist, but from outsiders' teachings. + First I shall treat of the superficial doctrines, and then of the +profound, (in order to) free the followers of the temporary faiths +from those (prejudices that prove to be) obstructions in their way to +the truth, and enable them to attain to the Ultimate Reality. +Afterwards I shall point out, according to the perfect doctrine, how +things evolved themselves through one stage after another out of the +First Cause (in order to) make the incomplete doctrines fuse into the +complete one, and to enable the followers to explain the phenomenal +universe.[FN#291] + + +[FN#291] A. 'That is, Heaven, Earth, Man, and other things.' + + +This essay is entitled 'Origin of Man,' and it consists of the +(following) four chapters: (1) Refutation of Delusive and Prejudiced +(Doctrine); (2) Refutation of Incomplete and Superficial (Doctrine); +(3) Direct Explanation of the Real Origin; (4) Reconciliation of the +Temporary with the Eternal Doctrine. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +REFUTATION OF DELUSIVE AND PREJUDICED (DOCTRINE)[FN#292] + + + +According to Confucianism[FN#293] and Taoism all sorts of beings, +such as men and beasts, were born out of and brought up by the +(so-called) Great Path of Emptiness.[FN#294] That is to say, the +Path by the operation of its own law gave rise naturally to the +primordial Gas, and that Gas produced Heaven and Earth, which (in +their turn) brought forth thousands of things. Accordingly the wise +and the unwise, the high and the low, the rich and the poor, the +happy and the miserable, are predestined to be so by the heavenly +flat, and are at the mercy of Time and Providence. Therefore they +(must) come back after death to Heaven and Earth, from which (in +turn) they return to the (Path) of Emptiness. The main purpose of +these[FN#295] (two) outside teachings is simply to establish morals +with regard to bodily actions, but not to trace life to its First +Cause. They tell of nothing beyond the phenomenal universe in their +explanation of thousands of things. Though they point out the Great +Path as the origin, yet they never explain in detail (what is) the +direct, and (what) the indirect cause of the phenomenal universe, or +how it was created, or how it will be destroyed, how life came forth, +whither it will go, (what is) good, (what) evil. Therefore the +followers of these doctrines adhere to them as the perfect teachings +without knowing that they are merely temporary. + + +[FN#292] A. 'Those of Confucianists and Taoists.' + +[FN#293] Confucianists are not of exactly the same opinion as +Taoists respecting the creation. The Great Path here mentioned +refers exclusively to Taoism. + +[FN#294] The Great Path of Emptiness, Hu Wu Ta Tao, is the technical +name for the Taoist conception of the Absolute. It is something +existent in an undeveloped state before the creation of the +phenomenal universe. According to Tao Teh King, it is +'self-existent, unchangeable, all-pervading, and the mother of all +things. It is unnamable, but it is sometimes called the Path or the +Great.' It is also called the Emptiness, as it is entirely devoid of +relative activities. + +[FN#295] Confucianism mainly treats of ethical problems, but Taoism +is noted for its metaphysical speculation. + + +Now I (shall) raise, in brief, a few questions to point out their +weaknesses. If everything in the universe, as they say, came out of +the Great Path of Emptiness, that Great Path itself should be the +cause of (not only) of wisdom, (but) of folly, (not only) of life, +(but) of death. It ought to be the source of prosperity (as well as) +of adversity, of fortune (as well as) of misfortune. If this origin +exist (as it is supposed) to all eternity, it must be possible +neither to remove follies, villainies, calamities, and wars, nor to +promote wisdom, good, happiness, and welfare. Of what use (then) are +the teachings of Lao Tsz and Chwang Tsz?[FN#296] The Path, besides, +should have reared the tiger and the wolf, given birth to +Kieh[FN#297] and Cheu,[FN#298] caused the premature deaths of +Yen[FN#299] and Jan,[FN#300] and placed I[FN#301] and Tsi[FN#302] in +their most lamentable condition. How could it be called a noble +(path)? + + +[FN#296] One of the greatest Taoist philosophers, and the author of +the book entitled after his name. He flourished 339-327 B.C. + +[FN#297] The last Emperor of the Hia dynasty, notorious for his +vices. His reign was 1818-1767 B.C. + +[FN#298] The last Emperor of the Yin dynasty, one of the worst +despots. His reign was 1154-1122 B.C. + +[FN#299] Yen Hwui (Gan-kai, 541-483 B.C.), a most beloved disciple +of Confucius, known as a wise and virtuous scholar. + +[FN#300] Jan Poh Niu (Zen-pak-giu, 521- . . . B.C.), a prominent +disciple, of Confucius, distinguished for his virtues. + +[FN#301] Poh I (Haku-i), the elder brother of Tsi, who distinguished +himself by his faith and wisdom at the downfall of the Yin dynasty. + +[FN#302] Shuh Tsi (Shiku Sei), the brother of I, with whom he shared +the same fate. + + +Again, if, as they say, thousands of things could come naturally into +existence without direct or indirect causes, they should come forth +in all places where there are neither direct nor indirect causes. +For instance, a stone would bring forth grass, while grass would give +birth to man, and man would beget beasts, etc. In addition to this +they would come out all at the same time, nothing being produced +before or after the others. They would come into existence all at +the same moment, nothing being produced sooner or later than the +others. Peace and welfare might be secured without the help of the +wise and the good. Humanity and righteousness might be acquired +without instruction and study. One might even become an immortal +genius[FN#303] without taking the miraculous medicine. Why did Lao +Tsz, Chwang Tsz, Cheu Kung[FN#304] and Confucius do such a useless +task as to found their doctrines and lay down the precepts for men? + + +[FN#303] Degenerated Taoists maintained that they could prepare a +certain miraculous draught, by the taking of which one could become +immortal. + +[FN#304] Cheu Kung (Shu-ko), a most noted statesman and scholar, the +younger brother of the Emperor Wu (1122-1116 B.C.), the founder of +the Chen dynasty. + + +Again, if all things, as they say, were made of the primordial Gas +(which has no feeling nor will), how could an infant, just born of +the Gas, who had never learned to think, or love, or hate, or to be +naughty, or wilful (even begin to think or feel)? If, as they may +answer, the infant as soon as it was born could quite naturally love +or hate, etc., as it wished, it could (as well) gain the Five +Virtues[FN#305] and the Six Acquirements,[FN#306] as it wished. Why +does it wait for some direct or indirect causes (to gain its +knowledge), and to acquire them through study and instruction? + + +[FN#305] (1) Humanity, (2) Uprightness, (3) Propriety, (4) Wisdom, +(5) Sincerity. + +[FN#306] (1) Reading, (2) Arithmetic, (3) Etiquette, (4) Archery, +(5) Horsemanship, (6) Music. + + +Again, they might say life suddenly came into existence, it being +formed of the Gas, and suddenly goes to naught (at death), the Gas +being dispersed. What, then, are the spirits of the dead (which they +believe in)? Besides, there are in history some instances of +persons[FN#307] who could see through previous existences, or of +persons[FN#308] who recollected the events in their past lives. +Therefore we know that the present is the continuation of the past +life, and that it did not come into existence on a sudden by the +formation of a Gas. Again, there are some historical facts[FN#309] +proving that the supernatural powers of spirits will not be lost. +Thus we know that life is not to be suddenly reduced to naught after +death by the dispersion of the Gas. Therefore (matters concerning) +sacrifices, services, and supplications (to the spirits) are +mentioned in the sacred books.[FN#310] Even more than that! Are +there not some instances, ancient and modern, of persons who revived +after death to tell the matters concerning the unseen world, or +who[FN#311] appeared to move the hearts of their wives and children a +while after death, or who[FN#312] took vengeance (on the enemy), or +who[FN#313] returned favours (to their friends)? + + +[FN#307] According to Tsin Shu, a man, Pao Tsing by name, told his +parents, when he was five years, that he had been in the previous +life a son to Li, an inhabitant of Kuh Yang, and that he had fallen +into the well and died. Thereupon the parents called on Li, and +found, to their astonishment, that the boy's statement was actually +coincident with the fact. + +[FN#308] Yan Hu, a native of Tsin Chen, recollected, at the age of +five, that he had been a son to the next-door neighbour, and that he +had left his ring under a mulberry-tree close by the fence of the +house. Thereupon he went with his nurse and successfully restored +it, to the astonishment of the whole family. + +[FN#309] All the ancient sages of China believed in spirits, and +propitiated them by sacrifices. + +[FN#310] The sacred books of Confucianism, Shu King and Li Ki. + +[FN#311] Pang Shang, the Prince of Tsi, is said to have appeared +after his death. + +[FN#312] Poh Yiu, of Ching, is said to have become an epidemic +spirit to take vengeance on his enemies. + +[FN#313] According to Tso Chwen (Sa-den), when Wei Wu, a General of +Tsin, fought with Tu Hwui, the dead father of his concubine appeared, +and prevented the march of the enemy in order to return favours done +to him. + + +The outside scholars might ask, by way of objection, if one live as a +spirit after death, the spirits of the past would fill up streets and +roads, and be seen by men; and why are there no eye-witnesses? I say +in reply that (as) there are the Six Worlds[FN#314] for the dead, +they do not necessarily live in the world of spirits. (Even as +spirits) they must die and be born again among men or other beings. +How can the spirits of the past always live in a crowd? Moreover, if +(as you say) man was born of (primordial) Gas which gave rise to +Heaven and Earth, and which was unconscious from the very beginning, +how could he be conscious all on a sudden after his birth? Why are +trees and grass which were also formed of the same Gas unconscious? +Again, if, (as you say), the rich and the poor, the high and the low, +the wise and the unwise, the good and the bad, the happy and the +unhappy, the lucky and the unlucky, are predestinated alike by +heavenly decree, why are so many destined by heaven to be poor and so +few to be rich? Why so many to be low and so few to be high? In +short, why are so many destined to be unlucky and so few to be lucky? + + +[FN#314] (1) The heaven, or the world for Devas; (2) the earth, or +the world for men; (3) the world for Asuras; (4) the world for +Petras; (5) the world for beasts; (6) hell. + + +If it be the will of Heaven to bless so limited a number of persons +at all, and to curse so many, why is Heaven so partial? Even more +than that! Are there not many who hold a high position without any +meritorious conduct, while some are placed in a low one in spite of +their keeping to (the rules of) conduct? Are there not many who are +rich without any virtues, while some are poor in spite of their +virtues? Are there not the unjust who are fortunate, while the just +are unfortunate? Are there not the humane, who die young, while the +inhuman enjoy long lives? In short, the righteous (are doomed) to +perish, while the unrighteous prosper! Thus (we must infer) that all +this depends on the heavenly will, which causes the unrighteous to +prosper and the righteous to perish. How can there be reward for the +good (as it is taught in your sacred books),[FN#315] that Heaven +blesses the good and shows grace to the humble? How can there be +punishment for the bad (as it is taught in your holy books),[FN#316] +that Heaven curses the evil and inflicts punishment on the proud? + + +[FN#315] Shu King and I King. + +[FN#316] Ibid. + + +Again, if even all such evils as wars, treacheries, and rebellions +depend on the heavenly will, those Sages would be in the wrong who, +in the statement of their teaching, censure or chastise men, but not +Heaven or the heavenly will. Therefore, even if Shi[FN#317] is full +of reproofs against maladministration, while Shu[FN#318] of eulogies +for the reigns of the wisest monarchs-even if Propriety[FN#319] is +recommended as a most effectual means of creating peace between the +governors and the governed, while Music[FN#320] (is recommended as a +means of) ameliorating the customs and manners of the people--still, +they can hardly be said to realize the Will on High or to conform to +the wishes of the Creator. Hence you must acknowledge that those who +devote themselves to the study of these doctrines are not able to +trace man to his origin. + + +[FN#317] Shu King, a famous book of odes. + +[FN#318] Shu King, the records of the administrations of the wisest +monarchs of old. + +[FN#319] Li Ki, the book on proprieties and etiquette. + +[FN#320] It is said in Hiao King that music is the best means to +improve customs and manners. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +REFUTATION OF INCOMPLETE AND SUPERFICIAL (DOCTRINE)[FN#321] + + + +There are in the Buddhist doctrines, to state briefly, the five +grades (of development), beginning with the most superficial, and +ending with the most profound teachings. (They are as follows:) (1) +The Doctrine for Men and Devas; (2) the Doctrine of the Hinayanists; +(3) the Mahayana Doctrine of Dharma-laksana; (4) the Mahayana +Doctrine of the Nihilists[FN#322]; (5) the Ekaydna Doctrine that +teaches the Ultimate Reality.[FN#323] + + +[FN#321] A. 'The imperfect doctrines taught by the Buddha.' + +[FN#322] A. 'These first four doctrines are treated of in this +chapter.' + +[FN#323] A. 'This is mentioned in the third chapter.' + + + +1. The Doctrine for Men and Devas. + +The Buddha, to meet temporarily the spiritual needs of the +uninitiated, preached a doctrine concerning good or bad Karma as the +cause, and its retribution as the effect, in the three existences (of +the past, the present, and the future). That is, one who commits the +tenfold sin[FN#324] must be reborn after death in hell, when these +sins are of the highest grade;[FN#325] among Pretas,[FN#326] when of +the middle grade; and among animals, when of the lowest grade. + + +[FN#324] (1) Taking life, (2) theft, (3) adultery, (4) lying, (5) +exaggeration, (6) abuse, (7) ambiguous talk, (8) coveting, (9) +malice, (10) unbelief. + +[FN#325] There are three grades in each of the tenfold sin. For +instance, the taking of the life of a Buddha, or of a sage, or of a +parent, etc., is of the highest grade; while to kill fellow-men is of +the middle; and to kill beasts and birds, etc., is of the lowest. +Again, to kill any being with pleasure is of the highest grade; while +to repent after killing is of the middle; and killing by mistake is +of the lowest. + +[FN#326] Hungry spirits. + + +Therefore the Buddha for a temporary purpose made these (uninitiated) +observe the Five Precepts similar to the Five Virtues[FN#327] of the +outside doctrine, in order to enable them to escape the three (worst) +States[FN#328] of Existence, and to be reborn among men. (He also +taught that) those who cultivate[FN#329] the tenfold virtue[FN#330] +of the highest grade, and who give alms, and keep the precepts, and +so forth, are to be born in the Six Celestial Realms of Kama[FN#331] +while those who practise the Four[FN#332] Dhyanas, the Eight +Samadhis,[FN#333] are to be reborn in the heavenly worlds of +Rupa[FN#334] and Arupa. For this reason this doctrine is called the +doctrine for men and Devas. According to this doctrine Karma is the +origin of life.[FN#335] + +[FN#327] The five cardinal virtues of Confucianism are quite similar +to the five precepts of Buddhism, as we see by this table: + +VIRTUES.---PRECEPTS. + +1. Humanity.---1. Not to take life. +2. Uprightness.---2. Not to steal. +3. Propriety.---3. Not to be adulterous. +4. Wisdom.---4. Not to get drunk. +5. Sincerity.---5. Not to lie. + +[FN#328] (1) Hell, (2) Pretas, (3) Beasts. + +[FN#329] A. 'The Buddhist precepts are different from the Confucian +teachings in the form of expression, but they agree in their warning +against the evil and in encouraging the good. The moral conduct of +the Buddhist can be secured by the cultivation of the five virtues of +humanity, uprightness, etc., as though people in this country hold up +their hands joined in the respectable salutation, while the same +object is attained by those of The Fan, who stand with their bands +hanging down. Not to kill is humanity. Not to steal is uprightness. + Not to be adulterous is propriety. Not to lie is sincerity. Not to +drink spirits nor eat meat is to increase wisdom, keeping mind pure.' + +[FN#330] (1) Not to take life, (2) not to steal, (3) not to be +adulterous, (4) not to lie, (5) not to exaggerate, (6) not to abuse, +(7) not to talk ambiguously, (8) not to covet, (9) not to be +malicious, (10) not to unbelieve. + +[FN#331] Kama-loka, the world of desire, is the first of the Three +Worlds. It consists of the earth and the six heavenly worlds, all +the inhabitants of which are subject to sensual desires. + +[FN#332] The Buddhists taught the four Dhyanas, or the four +different degrees of abstract contemplation, by which the mind could +free itself from all subjective and objective trammels, until it +reached a state of absolute absence of unconcentrated thought. The +practiser of the four Dhyanas would be born in the four regions of +the Rupa-lokas in accordance with his spiritual state. + +[FN#333] Namely, the above-mentioned four degrees of contemplation, +and other four deeper ecstatic meditations. The practiser of the +latter would be born in the four spiritual regions of Arupa-loka in +accordance with his state of abstraction. + +[FN#334] Rupa-loka, the world of form, is the second of the Three +Worlds. It consists of eighteen heavens, which were divided into +four regions. The first Dhyana region comprised the first three of +the eighteen heavens, the second Dhyana region the next three, the +third Dhyana region the following three, and the fourth Dhyana region +the remaining nine. + +Arupa-loka, the world of formlessness, is the third of the Three +Worlds. It consists of four heavens. The first is called 'the +heaven of unlimited space,' the second 'the heaven of unlimited +knowledge,' the third 'the heaven of absolute non-existence,' the +fourth 'the heaven of neither consciousness nor unconsciousness.' + +A. 'None of heavens, or of hells, or of the worlds of spirits, is +mentioned in the title of this book, because these worlds are +entirely different from ours, and absolutely beyond the sight and +hearing. Ordinary people know not even the phenomena actually +occurring before them; how could they understand the unseen? So I +entitled it simply, "The Origin of Man " in agreement with the +worldly teachings. Now that I treat, however, of the Buddhist +doctrine, it is reasonable to enumerate these worlds in full.' + +[FN#335] A. 'But there are three sorts of Karmas: (1) The bad, (2) +the good, (3) the immovable. There are the three periods for +retribution: (1) In this life, (2) in the next life, (3) in some +remote future life.' + + +Now let me raise some questions by way of objection. Granting that +one has to be born in the Five States of Existences[FN#336] by virtue +of Karma produced (in previous lives), is it not doubtful who is the +author of Karma, and who the recipient of its consequences? If it +might be said that the eyes, ears, hands, and feet produce Karma, +then the eyes, ears, hands, and feet of a newly-dead person are still +as they were. So why do they not see and hear and thus produce Karma? + + +[FN#336] The states of--(1) heavenly beings, (2) men, (3) beings in +hell, (4) hungry spirits, (5) beasts. + + +If it be said that it is the mind that produces Karma (I ask), what +is the mind? If you mean the heart, the heart is a material thing, +and is located within the body. How can it, by coming quickly into +the eyes and ears, distinguish the pleasing from the disgusting in +external objects? If there be no distinction between the pleasing +and the disgusting, why does it accept the one or reject the other? + +Besides, the heart is as much material and impenetrable as the eyes, +ears, hands, and feet. How, then, can the heart within freely pass +to the organs of sense without? How can this one put the others in +motion, or communicate with them, in order to co-operate in producing +Karma? +If it be said that only such passions as joy, anger, love, and hatred +act through the body and the mouth and enable them to produce Karma, +(I should say) those passions--joy, anger, and the rest--are too +transitory, and come and go in a moment. They have no Substance +(behind their appearances). What, then, is the chief agent that +produces Karma? + +It might be said that we should not seek after (the author of Karma) +by taking mind and body separately (as we have just done), because +body and mind, as a whole, conjointly produce Karma. Who, then, +after the destruction of body by death, would receive the retribution +(in the form) of pain or of pleasure? + +If it be assumed that another body is to come into existence after +death, then the body and mind of the present life, committing sins or +cultivating virtues, would cause another body and mind in the future +which would suffer from the pains or enjoy the pleasures. +Accordingly, those who cultivate virtues would be extremely unlucky, +while those who commit sins very lucky. How can the divine law of +causality be so unreasonable? Therefore we (must) acknowledge that +those who merely follow this doctrine are far from a thorough +understanding of the origin of life, though they believe in the +theory of Karma. + + + +2. The Doctrine of the Hinayanists. + +This doctrine tells us that (both) the body, that is formed of +matter, and the mind, that thinks and reflects, continually exist +from eternity to eternity, being destroyed and recreated by means of +direct or indirect causes, just as the water of a river glides +continually, or the flame of a lamp keeps burning constantly. Mind +and body unite themselves temporarily, and seem to be one and +changeless. The common people, ignorant of all this, are attached to +(the two combined) as being Atman.[FN#337] + + +[FN#337] Atman means ego, or self, on which individuality is based. + + +For the sake of this Atman, which they hold to be the most precious +thing (in the world), they are subject to the Three Poisons Of +lust,[FN#338] anger,[FN#339] and folly,[FN#340] which (in their turn) +give impulse to the will and bring forth Karma of all kinds through +speech and action. Karma being thus produced, no one can evade its +effects. Consequently all must be born[FN#341] in the Five States of +Existence either to suffer pain or to enjoy pleasure; some are born +in the higher places, while others in the lower of the Three +Worlds.[FN#342] + + +[FN#338] A. 'The passion that covets fame and gain to keep oneself +in prosperity.' + +[FN#339] A. 'The passion against disagreeable things, for fear of +their inflicting injuries on oneself.' + +[FN#340] A. 'Wrong thoughts and inferences.' + +[FN#341] A. 'Different sorts of beings are born by virtue of the +individualizing Karma.' + +[FN#342] A. 'Worlds are produced by virtue of the Karma common to +all beings that live in them.' + + +When born (in the future lives) they are attached again to the body +(and mind) as Atman, and become subject to lust and the other two +passions. Karma is again produced by them, and they have to receive +its inevitable results. (Thus) body undergoes birth, old age, +disease, death, and is reborn after death; while the world passes +through the stages of formation, existence, destruction, and +emptiness, and is re-formed again after emptiness. Kalpa after +Kalpa[FN#343] (passes by), life after life (comes on), and the circle +of continuous rebirths knows no beginning nor end, and resembles the +pulley for drawing water from the well.[FN#344] + + +[FN#343] Kalpa, a mundane cycle, is not reckoned by months and +years. lt is a period during which a physical universe is formed to +the moment when another is put into its place. + +A. "The following verses describe how the world was first created in +the period of emptiness: A strong wind began to blow through empty +space. Its length and breadth were infinite. It was 16 lakhs thick, +and so strong that it could not be cut even with a diamond. Its name +was the world-supporting-wind. The golden clouds of Abhasvara heaven +(the sixth of eighteen heavens of the Rupa-loka) covered all the +skies of the Three Thousand Worlds. Down came the heavy rain, each +drop being as large as the axle of a waggon. The water stood on the +wind that checked its running down. It was 11 lakhs deep. The first +layer was made of adamant (by the congealing water). Gradually the +cloud poured down the rain and filled it. First the Brahma-raja +worlds, next the Yama-heaven (the third of six heavens of the Kama +loka), were made. The pure water rose up, driven by the wind, and +Sumeru, (the central mountain, or axis of the universe) and the seven +concentric circles of mountains, and so on, were formed. Out of +dirty sediments the mountains, the four continents, the hells, +oceans, and outer ring of mountains, were made. This is called the +formation of the universe. The time of one Increase and one Decrease +(human life is increased from 10 to 84,000 years, increasing by one +year at every one hundred years; then it is decreased from 84,000 to +10 years, decreasing by one year at every one hundred years) elapsed. + In short, those beings in the second region of Rupa-loka, whose good +Karma had spent its force, came down on the earth. At first there +were the 'earth bread' and the wild vine for them. Afterwards they +could not completely digest rice, and began to excrete and to +urinate. Thus men were differentiated from women. They divided the +cultivated land among them. Chiefs were elected; assistants and +subjects were sought out; hence different classes of people. A +period of nineteen Increases and Decreases elapsed. Added to the +above-mentioned period, it amounted to twenty Increases and +Decreases. This is called the Kalpa of the formation of the universe. + +"Now let us discuss this point. The Kalpa of Emptiness is what the +Taoist calls the Path of Emptiness. The Path or the Reality, +however, is not empty, but bright, transcendental, spiritual, and +omnipresent. Lao Tsz, led by his mistaken idea, called the Kalpa of +Emptiness the Path; otherwise he did so for the temporary purpose of +denouncing worldly desires. The wind in the empty space is what the +Taoist calls the undefinable Gas in the state of Chaos. Therefore +Lao Tsz said, 'The Path brings forth one.' The golden clouds, the +first of all physical objects, is (what the Confucianist calls) the +First Principle. The rain-water standing (on the wind) is the +production of the Negative Principle. The Positive, united with the +Negative, brought forth the phenomenal universe. The +Brahma-raja-loka, the Sumeru, and others, are what they call the +Heaven. The dirty waters and sediment are the Earth. So Lao Tsz +said, 'One produces two.' Those in the second region of the +Rupra-loka, whose good Karma had spent its force, came down upon the +earth and became human beings. Therefore Lao Tsz said, 'The two +produce three.' Thus the Three Powers were completed. The +earth-bread and different classes of people, and so on, are the +so-called 'production of thousands of things by the Three.' This was +the time when people lived in eaves or wandered in the wilderness, +and knew not the use of fire. As it belongs to the remote past of +the prehistoric age, previous to the reigns of the first three +Emperors, the traditions handed down to us are neither clear nor +certain. Many errors crept into them one generation after another, +and consequently no one of the statements given in the various works +of scholars agrees with another. Besides, when the Buddhist books +explain the formation of the Three Thousand Worlds, they do not +confine themselves merely within the limits of this country. Hence +their records are entirely different from those of the outsiders +(which are confined to China). + +"'Existence' means the Kalpa of Existence that lasts twenty Increases +and Decreases. 'Destruction' means the Kalpa of Destruction that +lasts also twenty Increases and Decreases. During the first nineteen +Increases and Decreases living beings are destroyed; while in the +last worlds are demolished through the three periods of distress (1) +the period of water, (2) the period of fire, (3) the period of wind. +'Emptiness' means the Kalpa of Emptiness, during which no beings nor +worlds exist. This Kalpa also lasts twenty Increases and Decreases." + +[FN#344] A. 'Taoists merely know that there was one Kalpa of +Emptiness before the formation of this present universe, and point +out the Emptiness, the Chaos, the primordial Gas, and the rest, +naming them as the first or the beginningless. But they do not know +that the universe had already gone through myriads of cycles of +Kalpas of formation, existence, destruction, and emptiness. Thus +even the most superficial of the Hinayana doctrines far excels the +most profound of the outside doctrines.' + + +All this is due to Ignorance which does not understand that no bodily +existence, by its very nature, can be Atman. The reason why it is +not Atman is this, that its formation is, after all, due to the union +of matter and mind. Now (let us) examine and analyze (mind and +body). Matter consists of the four elements of earth, water, fire, +and wind, while mind consists of the four aggregates of +perception,[FN#345] consciousness,[FN#346] conception,[FN#347] and +knowledge.[FN#348] + + +[FN#345] A. 'It receives both the agreeable and the disagreeable +impressions from without.' It is Yedana, the second of the five +Skandhas, or aggregates. + +[FN#346] A. 'It perceives the forms of external objects.' It is +Samjnya, name, the third of the five aggregates. + +[FN#347] A. 'It acts, one idea changing after another.' It is +Samskara, the fourth of the five aggregates. + +[FN#348] A. 'It recognizes.' It is Vijnyana, the last of the five +aggregates. + + +If all (these elements) be taken as Atman, there must be eight Atmans +(for each person). More than that! There are many different things, +even in the element of earth. Now, there are three hundred and sixty +bones, each one distinct from the other. No one is the same as any +other, either of the skin, hair, muscles, the liver, the heart, the +spleen, and the kidneys. Furthermore, there are a great many mental +qualities each different from the others. Sight is different from +hearing. Joy is not the same as anger. If we enumerate them, in +short, one after another, there are eighty thousand passions.[FN#349] + + +[FN#349] Eighty thousand simply means a great many. + + +As things are thus so innumerable, none can tell which of these +(without mistake) is to be taken as the Atman. In case all be taken +as the Atman, there must be hundreds and thousands of Atmans, among +which there would be as many conflicts and disturbances as there are +masters living in the one (house of) body. As there exists no body +nor mind separated from these things, one can never find the Atman, +even if he seeks for it over and over again. + +Hereupon anyone understands that this life (of ours) is no more than +the temporary union of numerous elements (mental and physical). +Originally there is no Atman to distinguish one being from another. +For whose sake, then, should he be lustful or angry? For whose sake +should he take life,[FN#350] or commit theft, or give alms, or keep +precepts? (Thus thinking) at length he sets his mind free from the +virtues and vices subjected to the passions[FN#351] of the Three +Worlds, and abides in the discriminative insight into (the nature of) +the Anatman[FN#352] only. +By means of that discriminative insight he makes himself pure from +lust, and the other (two passions) puts an end to various sorts of +Karma, and realizes the Bhutatathata[FN#353] of Anatman. In brief, +he attains to the State of Arhat,[FN#354] has his body reduced to +ashes, his intelligence annihilated, and entirely gets rid of +sufferings. + + +[FN#350] A. 'He understands the truth of misery.' The truth of +Duhkha, or misery, is the first of the four Noble Satyas, or Truths, +that ought to be realized by the Hinayanists. According to the +Hinayana doctrine, misery is a necessary concomitant of sentient +life.' + +[FN#351] A. 'He destroys Samudaya.' The truth of Samudaya, or +accumulation, the second of the four Satyas, means that misery is +accumulated or produced by passions. This truth should be realized +by the removal of passions. + +[FN#352] A. 'This is the truth of Marga.' The truth of Marga, or +Path, is the fourth of the four Satyas. There are the eight right +Paths that lead to the extinction of passions; (1) Right view (to +discern truth), (2) right thought (or purity of will and thought), +(3) right speech (free from nonsense and errors), (4) right action, +(5) right diligence, (6) right meditation, (7) right memory, (8) +right livelihood. + +[FN#353] A. 'This is the truth of Nirodha.' Nirodha, or destruction, +the third of the four Satyas, means the extinction of passions. +Bhutatathati of Anatman means the truth of the non existence of Atma +or soul, and is the aim and end of the Hinayanist philosophy. + +[FN#354] Arhat, the Killer of thieves (i.e., passions), means one +who conquered his passions. It means, secondly, one who is exempted +from birth, or one who is free from transmigration. Thirdly, it +means one deserving worship. So the Arhat is the highest sage who has +attained to Nirvana by the destruction of all passions. + + +According to the doctrine of this school the two aggregates, material +and spiritual, together with lust, anger, and folly, are the origin +of ourselves and of the world in which we live. There exists nothing +else, either in the past or in the future, that can be regarded as +the origin. + +Now let us say (a few words) by way of refutation. That which +(always) stands as the origin of life, birth after birth, generation +after generation, should exist by itself without cessation. Yet the +Five Vijnyanas[FN#355] cease to perform their functions when they +lack proper conditions, (while) the Mano-vijnyana[FN#356] is lost at +times (in unconsciousness). There are none of those four (material) +elements in the heavenly worlds of Arupa. How, then, is life +sustained there and kept up in continuous birth after birth? +Therefore we know that those who devote themselves to the study of +this doctrine also cannot trace life to its origin. + + +[FN#355] A. 'The conditions are the Indriyas and the Visayas, etc.' +Indriyas are organs of sense, and Visayas are objects on which the +sense acts. Five Vijnyanas are--(1) The sense of sight, (2) the +sense of hearing, (3) the sense of smell, (4) the sense of taste, (5) +the sense of touch. + +[FN#356] Mano-vijnyana is the mind itself, and the last of the six +Vijnyanas of the Hinayana doctrine. A. '(For instance), in a state +of trance, in deep slumber, in Nirodha-samapatti (where no thought +exists), in Asamjnyi-samapatti (in which no consciousness exists), +and in Avrhaloka (the thirteenth of Brahmalokas). + + + +3. The Mahayana Doctrine of Dharmalaksana.[FN#357] + +This doctrine tells us that from time immemorial all sentient beings +naturally have eight different Vijnyanas[FN#358] and the eighth, +Alaya-vijnyana,[FN#359] is the origin of them. (That is), the Alaya +suddenly brings forth the 'seeds'[FN#360] of living beings and of the +world in which they live, and through transformation gives rise to +the seven Vijnyanas. Each of them causes external objects on which +it acts to take form and appear. In reality there is nothing +externally existent. How, then, does Alaya give rise to them through +transformation? Because, as this doctrine tells us, we habitually +form the erroneous idea that Atman and external objects exist in +reality, and it acts upon Alaya and leaves its impressions[FN#361] +there. Consequently, when Vijnyanas are awakened, these impressions +(or the seed-ideas) transform and present themselves (before the +mind's eye) Atman and external objects. + + +[FN#357] This school studies in the main the nature of things +(Dharma), and was so named. The doctrine is based on +Avatamsaka-sutra and Samdhi-nirmocana-sutra, and was systematized by +Asamga and Vasu-bandhu. The latter's book, +Vidyamatra-siddhi-castra-karika, is held to be the best authoritative +work of the school. + +[FN#358] (1) The sense of sight; (2) the sense of hearing; (3) the +sense of smell; (4) the sense of taste; (5) the sense of touch; (6) +Mano-vijnyana (lit., mind-knowledge), or the perceptive faculty; (7) +Klista-mano-vijnyana (lit., soiled-mind-knowledge), or an +introspective faculty; (8) Alaya-vijnyana (lit., +receptacle-knowledge), or ultimate-mind-substance. + +[FN#359] The first seven Vijnyanas depend on the Alaya, which is +said to hold all the 'seeds' of physical and mental objects. + +[FN#360] This school is an extreme form of Idealism, and maintains +that nothing separated from the Alaya can exist externally. The +mind-substance, from the first, holds the seed ideas of everything, +and they seem to the non-enlightened mind to be the external +universe, but are no other than the transformation of the seed-ideas. + The five senses, and the Mano-vijnyana acting on them, take them for +external objects really existent, while the seventh Vijnyana mistakes +the eighth for Atman. + +[FN#361] The non-enlightened mind, habitually thinking that Atman +and external objects exist, leaves the impression of the seed-ideas +on its own Alaya. + + +Then the sixth and the seventh[FN#362] Vijnyana veiled with Avidya, +dwelling on them, mistake them for real Atman and the real external +objects. This (error) may be compared with one diseased[FN#363] in +the eye, who imagines that he sees various things (floating in the +air) on account of his illness; or with a dreamer[FN#364] whose +fanciful thoughts assume various forms of external objects, and +present themselves before him. While in the dream he fancies that +there exist external objects in reality, but on awakening he finds +that they are nothing other than the transformation of his dreaming +thoughts. + + +[FN#362] Avidya, or ignorance, which mistakes the illusory phenomena +for realities. + +[FN#363] A. 'A person with a serious disease sees the vision of +strange colours, men, and things in his trance.' + +[FN#364] A. 'That a dreamer fancies he sees things is well known to +everybody.' + + +So are our lives. They are no other than the transformation of the +Vijnyanas; but in consequence of illusion, we take them for the Atman +and external objects existing in reality. From these erroneous ideas +arise delusive thoughts that lead to the production of Karma; hence +the round-of rebirth to time without end.[FN#365] When we understand +these reasons, we can realize the fact that our lives are nothing but +transformations of the Vijnyanas, and that the (eighth) Vijnyana is +the origin.[FN#366] + + +[FN#365] A. 'As it was detailed above.' + +[FN#366] A. 'An imperfect doctrine, which is refuted later.' + + + +4. Mahayana Doctrine of the Nihilists. + +This doctrine disproves (both) the Mahayana and the Hinayana +doctrines above mentioned that adhere to Dharma-laksana, and +suggestively discloses the truth of Transcendental Reality which is +to be treated later.[FN#367] Let me state, first of all, what it +would say in the refutation of Dharma-laksana. + + +[FN#367] A. "The nihilistic doctrine is stated not only in the +various Prajnya-sutras (the books having Prajnya-paramita in their +titles), but also in almost all Mahayana sutras. The above-mentioned +three doctrines were preached (by the Buddha) in the three successive +periods. But this doctrine was not preached at any particular +period; it was intended to destroy at any time the attachment to the +phenomenal objects. Therefore Nagarjuna tells us that there are two +sorts of Prajnyas, the Common and the Special. The Çravakas (lit., +hearers) and the Pratyekabuddhas (lit., singly enlightened ones), or +the Hinayanists, could hear and believe in, with the Bodhisattvas or +the Mahayanists, the Common Prajnya, as it was intended to destroy +their attachment to the external objects. Bodhisattvas alone could +understand the Special Prajnya, as it secretly revealed the Buddha +nature, or the Absolute. Each of the two great Indian teachers, +Çilabhadra and Jnyanaprabha, divided the whole teachings of the Buddha +into three periods. (According to Çilabhadra, A.D. 625, teacher of +Hiuen Tsang, the Buddha first preached the doctrine of 'existence' to +the effect that every living being is unreal, but things are real. +All the Hinayana sutras belong to this period. Next the Buddha +preached the doctrine of the middle path, in Samdhi-nirmocana-sutra +and others, to the effect that all the phenomenal universe is unreal, +but that the mental substance is real. According to Jnyanaprabha, +the Buddha first preached the doctrine of existence, next that of the +existence of mental substance, and lastly that of unreality.) One +says the doctrine of unreality was preached before that of +Dharma-laksana, while the others say it was preached after. Here I +adopt the latters' opinion." + + +If the external objects which are transformed are unreal, how can the +Vijnyana, the transformer, be real? If you say the latter is really +existent, but not the former,[FN#368] then (you assume that) the +dreaming mind (which is compared with Alaya-vijnyana) is entirely +different from the objects seen in the dream (which are compared with +external objects). If they are entirely different, you ought not to +identify the dream with the things dreamed, nor to identify the +things dreamed with the dream itself. In other words, they ought to +have separate existences. (And) when you awake your dream may +disappear, but the things dreamed would remain. + + +[FN#368] A. 'In the following sentences I refute it, making use of +the simile of the dream.' + + +Again, if (you say) that the things dreamed are not identical with +the dream, then they would be really existent things. If the dream +is not the same as the things dreamed, in what other form does it +appear to you? Therefore you must acknowledge that there is every +reason to believe that both the dreaming mind and the things dreamed +are equally unreal, and that nothing exists in reality, though it +seems to you as if there were a seer, and a seen, in a dream. + +Thus those Vijnyanas also would be unreal, because all of them are +not self-existent realities, their existence being temporary, and +dependent upon various conditions. + +"There is nothing," (the author of) Madhyamika-castra[FN#369] says, +"that ever came into existence without direct and indirect causes. +Therefore there is anything that is not unreal in the world." He +says again: "Things produced through direct and indirect causes I +declare to be the very things which are unreal." (The author of) +Craddhotdada-castra[FN#370] says: "All things in the universe present +themselves in different forms only on account of false ideas. If +separated from the (false) ideas and thoughts, no forms of those +external objects exist." "All the physical forms (ascribed to +Buddha)," says (the author of) a sutra,[FN#371] "are false and +unreal. The beings that transcend all forms are called +Buddhas."[FN#372] Consequently you must acknowledge that mind as +well as external objects are unreal. This is the eternal truth of +the Mahayana doctrine. We are driven to the conclusion that +unreality is the origin of life, if we trace it back according to +this doctrine. + + +[FN#369] The principal textbook of the Madhyamika School, by +Nagarjuna and Nilanetra, translated into Chinese (A.D. 409) by +Kumarajiva. + +[FN#370] A well-known Mahayana book ascribed to Acvaghosa, +translated into Chinese by Paramartha. There exists an English +translation by D. Suzuki. + +[FN#371] Vajracchedha-prajnya-paramita-sutra, of which there exist +three Chinese translations. + +[FN#372] A. 'Similar passages are found in every book of the +Mahayana Tripitaka.' + + +Now let us say (a few words) to refute this doctrine also. If mind +as well as external objects be unreal, who is it that knows they are +so? Again, if there be nothing real in the universe, what is it that +causes unreal objects to appear? We stand witness to the fact there +is no one of the unreal things on earth that is not made to appear by +something real. If there be no water of unchanging fluidity,[FN#373] +how can there be the unreal and temporary forms of waves? If there +be no unchanging mirror, bright and clean, how can there be various +images, unreal and temporary, reflected in it? It is true in sooth +that the dreaming mind as well as the things dreamed, as said above, +are equally unreal, but does not that unreal dream necessarily +presuppose the existence of some (real) sleepers? + + +[FN#373] The Absolute is compared with the ocean, and the phenomenal +universe with the waves. + + +Now, if both mind and external objects, as declared above, be nothing +at all, no- one can tell what it is that causes these unreal +appearances. Therefore this doctrine, we know, simply serves to +refute the erroneous theory held by those who are passionately +attached to Dharma-laksana, but never clearly discloses spiritual +Reality. So that Mahabheri-harakaparivarta-sutra[FN#374] says as +follows: "All the sutras that teach the unreality of things belong to +an imperfect doctrine (of the Buddha). +Mahaprajnya-paramita-sutra[FN#375] says: "The doctrine of unreality +is the first entrance-gate to Mahayanism." + + +[FN#374] The book was translated into Chinese by Gunabhadra, A.D. +420-479. + +[FN#375] This is not the direct quotation from the sutra translated +by Hiuen Tsang. The words are found in Mahaprajnya-paramita-sutra, +the commentary on the sutra by Nagarjuna. + + +When the above-mentioned four doctrines are compared with one another +in the order of succession, each is more profound than the preceding. + They are called the superficial, provided that the follower, +learning them a short while, knows them by himself to be imperfect; +(but) if he adheres to them as perfect, these same (doctrines) are +called incomplete. They are (thus) said to be superficial and +incomplete with regard to the follower. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE DIRECT EXPLANATION OF THE REAL ORIGIN[FN#376] + + +5. The Ekayana Doctrine that Teaches the Ultimate Reality. + +This doctrine teaches us that all sentient beings have the Real +Spirit[FN#377] of Original Enlightenment (within themselves). From +time immemorial it is unchanging and pure. It is eternally bright, +and clear, and conscious. It is also named the Buddha-nature, or +Tathagata-garbha.[FN#378] As it is, however, veiled by illusion from +time without beginning, (sentient beings) are not conscious of its +existence, and think that the nature within themselves are +degenerated. Consequently they are given to bodily pleasures, and +producing Karma, suffer from birth and death. The great Enlightened +One, having compassion on them, taught that everything in the +universe is unreal. He pointed out that the Real Spirit of +Mysterious Enlightenment (within them) is pure and exactly the same +as that of Buddha. Therefore he says in Avatamsaka-sutra[FN#379]: +"There are no sentient beings, the children of Buddha, who are not +endowed with wisdom of Tathagata;[FN#380] but they cannot attain to +Enlightenment simply because of illusion and attachment. When they +are free from illusion, the Universal Intelligence,[FN#381] the +Natural Intelligence,[FN#382] the Unimpeded Intelligence,[FN#383] +will be disclosed (in their minds)." + + +[FN#376] A. 'The perfect doctrine, in which eternal truth is taught +by the Buddha.' + +[FN#377] The ultimate reality is conceived by the Mahayanist as an +entity self-existent, omnipresent, spiritual, impersonal, free from +all illusions. It may be regarded as something like the universal +and enlightened soul. + +[FN#378] Tathagata's womb, Tathagata being another name for Buddha. + +[FN#379] The book was translated into Chinese by Buddhabhadra, A.D. +418-420. + +[FN#380] The highest epithet of the Buddha, meaning one who comes +into the world like the coming of his predecessors. + +[FN#381] The all-knowing wisdom that is acquired by Enlightenment. + +[FN#382] The inborn wisdom of the Original Enlightenment. + +[FN#383] The wisdom that is acquired by the union of Enlightenment +with the Original Enlightenment. + + +Then he tells a parable of a single grain of minute dust[FN#384] +containing large volumes of Sutra, equal in dimension of the Great +Chiliocosmos.[FN#385] The grain is compared with a sentient being, +and the Sutra with the wisdom of Buddha. Again he says +later:[FN#386] "Once Tathagata, having observed every sort of +sentient beings all over the universe, said as follows: 'Wonderful, +how wonderful! That these various sentient beings, endowed with the +wisdom of Tathagata, are not conscious of it because of their errors +and illusions! I shall teach them the sacred truth and make them +free from illusion for ever. I shall (thus) enable them to find by +themselves the Great Wisdom of Tathagatha within them and make them +equal to Buddha.' + + +[FN#384] One of the famous parables in the sutra. + +[FN#385] According to the Buddhist literature, one universe +comprises one sun, one moon, one central mountain or Sumeru, four +continents, etc. One thousand of these universes form the Small +Thousand Worlds; one thousand of the Small Thousand Worlds form the +Middle Thousand Worlds; and the Great Thousand Worlds, or Great +Chiliocosmos, comprises one thousand of the Middle Thousand Worlds. + +[FN#386] This is not an exact quotation of the sutra. + + +Let me say (a few words) about this doctrine by way of criticism. So +many Kalpas we spent never meeting with this true doctrine, and knew +not how to trace our life back to its origin. Having been attached +to nothing but the unreal outward forms, we willingly acknowledged +ourselves to be a common herd of lowly beings. Some regarded +themselves as beasts, (while) others as men. + +But now, tracing life to its origin according to the highest +doctrine, we have fully understood that we ourselves were originally +Buddhas. Therefore we should act in conformity to Buddha's (action), +and keep our mind in harmony with his. Lot us betake ourselves once +more to the source of Enlightened Spirit, restoring ourselves to the +original Buddhahood. Let us cut off the bond of attachment, and +remove the illusion that common people are habitually given to. + +Illusion being destroyed,[FN#387] the will to destroy it is also +removed, and at last there remains nothing to be done (except +complete peace and joy). This naturally results in Enlightenment, +whose practical uses are as innumerable as the grains of sand in the +Ganges. This state is called Buddhahood. We should know that the +illusory as well as the Enlightened are originally of one and the +same Real Spirit. How great, how excellent, is the doctrine that +traces man to such an origin![FN#388] + + +[FN#387] The passage occurs in Tao Teh King. + +[FN#388] A. 'Although all of the above-mentioned five doctrines were +preached by the Buddha Himself, yet there are some that belong to the +Sudden, while others to the Gradual, Teachings. If there were +persons of the middle or the lowest grade of understanding, He first +taught the most superficial doctrine, then the less superficial, and +"Gradually" led them up to the profound. At the outset of His career +as a teacher He preached the first doctrine to enable them to give up +evil and abide by good; next He preached the second and the third +doctrine that they might remove the Pollution and attain to the +Purity; and, lastly, He preached the fourth and the fifth doctrine to +destroy their attachment to unreal forms, and to show the Ultimate +Reality. (Thus) He reduced (all) the temporary doctrines into the +eternal one, and taught them how to practise the Law according to the +eternal and attain to Buddhahood. + +'If there is a person of the highest grade of understanding, he may +first of all learn the most profound, next the less profound, and, +lastly, the most superficial doctrine-that is, he may at the outset +come "Suddenly" to the understanding of the One Reality of True +Spirit, as it is taught in the fifth doctrine. When the Spiritual +Reality is disclosed before his mind's eye, he may naturally see that +it originally transcends all appearances which are unreal, and that +unrealities appear on account of illusion, their existence depending +on Reality. Then he must give up evil, practise good, put away +unrealities by the wisdom of Enlightenment, and reduce them to +Reality. When unrealities are all gone, and Reality alone remains +complete, he is called the Dharma-kaya-Buddha.' + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +RECONCILIATION OF THE TEMPORARY WITH THE REAL DOCTRINE[FN#389] + + + +EVEN if Reality is the origin of life, there must be in all +probability some causes for its coming into existence, as it cannot +suddenly assume the form of body by accident. In the preceding +chapters I have refuted the first four doctrines, merely because they +are imperfect, and in this chapter I shall reconcile the temporary +with the eternal doctrine. In short, I shall show that even +Confucianism is in the right.[FN#390] That is to say, from the +beginning there exists Reality (within all beings), which is one and +spiritual. It can never be created nor destroyed. It does not +increase nor decrease itself. It is subject to neither change nor +decay. Sentient beings, slumbering in (the night of) illusion from +time immemorial, are not conscious of its existence. As it is hidden +and veiled, it is named Tathagata-garbha.[FN#391] On this +Tathagata-garbha the mental phenomena that are subject to growth and +decay depend. +Real Spirit, as is stated (in the Acvaghosa's Çastra), that transcends +creation and destruction, is united with illusion, which is subject +to creation and destruction; and the one is not absolutely the same +as nor different from the other. This union (with illusion) has the +two sides of enlightenment and non -enlightenment,' and is called +Alaya-vijnyana. Because of non-enlightenment,[FN#392] it first +arouses itself, and forms some ideas. This activity of the Vijnyana +is named 'the state of Karma.[FN#393] Furthermore, since one does +not understand that these ideas are unreal from the beginning, they +transform themselves into the subject (within) and the object +(without), into the seer and the seen. One is at a loss how to +understand that these external objects are no more than the creation +of his own delusive mind, and believes them to be really existent. +This is called the erroneous belief in the existence of external +objects.[FN#394] In consequence of these erroneous beliefs, he +distinguishes Self and non-self, and at last forms the erroneous +belief of Atman. Since he is attached to the form of the Self, he +yearns after various objects agreeable to the sense for the sake of +the good of his Self. He is offended, (however), with various +disagreeable objects, and is afraid of the injuries and troubles +which they bring on him. (Thus) his foolish passions[FN#395] are +strengthened step by step. + + +[FN#389] A. 'The doctrines refuted above are reconciled with the +real doctrine in this chapter. They are all in the right in their +pointing to the true origin.' + +[FN#390] A. 'The first section states the fifth doctrine that +reveals the Reality, and the statements in the following sections are +the same as the other doctrines, as shown in the notes.' + +[FN#391] A. 'The following statement is similar to the fourth +doctrine explained above in the refutation of the phenomenal +existence subject to growth and decay.' Compare Çraddhotpada-castra. + +[FN#392] A. 'The following statement is similar to the doctrine of +Dharma-laksana.' + +[FN#393] Here Karma simply means an active state; it should be +distinguished from Karma, produced by actions. + +[FN#394] A. 'The following statement is similar to the second +doctrine, or Hinayanism.' + +[FN#395] A. 'The following statement is similar to the first +doctrine for men and Devas.' + + +Thus (on one hand) the souls of those who committed the crimes of +killing, stealing, and so on, are born, by the influence of the bad +Karma, in hell, or among Pretas, or among beasts, or elsewhere. On +the other hand, the souls of those who, being afraid of such +sufferings, or being good-natured, gave alms, kept precepts, and so +on, undergo Antarabhava[FN#396] by the influence of the good Kharma, +enter into the womb of their mothers.[FN#397] + + +[FN#396] The spiritual existence between this and another life. + +[FN#397] A. 'The following statement is similar to Confucianism and +Taoism.' + + +There they are endowed with the (so-called) Gas, or material (for +body).[FN#398] The Gas first consists of four elements[FN#399] and +it gradually forms various sense-organs. The mind first consists of +the four aggregates,[FN#400] and it gradually forms various +Vijnyanas. After the whole course of ten months they are born and +called men. These are our present bodies and minds. Therefore we +must know that body and mind has each its own origin, and that the +two, being united, form one human being. They are born among Devas +and Asuras, and so on in a manner almost similar to this. + + +[FN#398] A. 'This harmonizes with the outside opinion that Gas is +the origin.' + +[FN#399] (1) Earth, (2) water, (3) fire, (4) air. + +[FN#400] (1) Perception, (2) consciousness, (3) conception, (4) +knowledge. + + +Though we are born among men by virtue of 'the generalizing +Karma,'[FN#401] yet, by the influence of 'the particularizing +Karma,'[FN#402] some are placed in a high rank, while others in a +low; some are poor, while others rich; some enjoy a long life, while +others die in youth; some are sickly, while others healthy; some are +rising, while others are falling; some suffer from pains, while +others enjoy pleasures. For instance, reverence or indolence in the +previous existence, working as the cause, brings forth high birth or +low in the present as the effect. So also benevolence in the past +results in long life in the present; the taking of life, a short +life; the giving of alms, richness, miserliness, Poverty. There are +so many particular cases of retribution that cannot be mentioned in +detail. Hence there are some who happen to be unfortunate, doing no +evil, while others fortunate, doing no good in the present life. So +also some enjoy a long life, in spite of their inhuman conduct; while +others die young, in spite of their taking no life, and so forth. As +all this is predestinated by 'the particularizing Karma' produced in +the past, it would seem to occur naturally, quite independent of +one's actions in the present life. Outside scholars ignorant of the +previous existences, relying simply on their observations, believe it +to be nothing more than natural.[FN#403] + + +[FN#401] The Karma that determines different classes of beings, such +as men, beasts, Pretas, etc. + +[FN#402] The Karma that determines the particular state of an +individual in the world. + +[FN#403] A. 'This harmonizes with the outside opinion that +everything occurs naturally.' + + +Besides, there are some who cultivated virtues in the earlier, and +committed crimes in the later, stages of their past existences; while +others were vicious in youth, and virtuous in old age. In +consequence, some are happy in youth, being rich and noble, but +unhappy in old age, being poor and low in the present life; while +others lead poor and miserable lives when young, but grow rich and +noble when old, and so on. Hence outside scholars come to believe +that one's prosperity or adversity merely depends on a heavenly +decree.[FN#404] + + +[FN#404] A. 'This harmonizes with the outside opinion that +everything depends on providence.' + + +The body with which man is endowed, when traced step by step to its +origin, proves to be nothing but one primordial Gas in its +undeveloped state. And the mind with which man thinks, when traced +step by step to its source, proves to be nothing but the One Real +Spirit. To tell the truth, there exists nothing outside of Spirit, +and even the Primordial Gas is also a mode of it, for it is one of +the external objects projected by the above-stated Vijnyanas, and is +one of the mental images of Alaya, out of whose idea, when it is in +the state of Karma, come both the subject and the object. As the +subject developed itself, the feebler ideas grow stronger step by +step, and form erroneous beliefs that end in the production of +Karma.[FN#405] Similarly, the object increases in size, the finer +objects grow gradually grosser, and gives rise to unreal things that +end in the formation[FN#406] of Heaven and Earth. When Karma is ripe +enough, one is endowed by father and mother with sperm and ovum, +which, united with his consciousness under the influence of Karma, +completes a human form. + + +[FN#405] A. 'As above stated.' + +[FN#406] A. "In the beginning, according to the outside school, +there was 'the great changeableness,' which underwent fivefold +evolutions, and brought out the Five Principles. Out of that +Principle, which they call the Great Path of Nature, came the two +subordinate principles of the Positive and the Negative. They seem +to explain the Ultimate Reality, but the Path, in fact, no more than +the 'perceiving division' of the Alaya. The so-called primordial Gas +seems to be the first idea in the awakening Alaya, but it is a mere +external object." + + +According to this view (of Dharmalaksana), things brought forth +through the transformations of Alaya and the other Vijnyanas are +divided into two parts; one part (remaining), united with Alaya and +the other Vijnyanas, becomes man, while the other, becoming separated +from them, becomes Heaven, Earth, mountains, rivers, countries, and +towns. (Thus) man is the outcome of the union of the two; this is +the reason why he alone of the Three Powers is spiritual. This was +taught by the Buddha[FN#407] himself when he stated that there +existed two different kinds of the four elements--the internal and +the external. + + +[FN#407] Ratnakuta-sutra (?), translated into Chinese by Jnyanagupta. + + +Alas! O ye half-educated scholars who adhere to imperfect doctrines, +each of which conflicts with another! Ye that seek after truth, if +ye would attain to Buddhahood, clearly understand which is the +subtler and which is the grosser (form of illusive ideas), which is +the originator and which is the originated. (Then) give ye up the +originated and return ye to the originator, and to reflect on the +Spirit, the Source (of all). When the grosser is exterminated and +the subtler removed, the wonderful wisdom of spirit is disclosed, and +nothing is beyond its understanding. This is called the +Dharma-sambhoga-kaya. It can of itself transform itself and appear +among men in numberless ways. This is called the Nirmana-kaya of +Buddha.[FN#408] + + +[FN#408] Every Buddha has three bodies: (1) Dharma-kaya, or +spiritual body; (2) Sambhoga-kaya, or the body of compensation; (3) +Nirmana-kaya, or the body capable of transformation. + + + +THE END. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE RELIGION OF THE SAMURAI *** + +This file should be named 5173.txt or 5173.zip + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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