diff options
133 files changed, 17 insertions, 35893 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..97032cb --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #51078 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51078) diff --git a/old/51078-0.txt b/old/51078-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1d202ca..0000000 --- a/old/51078-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17078 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Venoms, by A. Calmette - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Venoms - Venomous Animals and Antivenomous Serum-therapeutics - -Author: A. Calmette - -Translator: Ernest E. Austen - -Release Date: January 30, 2016 [EBook #51078] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VENOMS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - VENOMS - - VENOMOUS ANIMALS - AND ANTIVENOMOUS - SERUM-THERAPEUTICS - - - BY - - A. CALMETTE, M.D. - - Corresponding Member of the French Institute and of the Academy - of Medicine, Director of the Pasteur Institute, Lille - - - TRANSLATED BY ERNEST E. AUSTEN, F.Z.S. - - - NEW YORK - WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY - MDCCCCVIII - - - - -PREFACE TO ENGLISH EDITION. - - -Mr. E. E. Austen, of the British Museum, has been good enough to -undertake the translation of my book on “Venoms.” For the presentation -of my work to the scientific public in an English dress I could not -have hoped to find a more faithful interpreter. To him I express my -liveliest gratitude for the trouble that he has so kindly taken, and -I thank Messrs. John Bale, Sons and Danielsson for the care they have -bestowed upon the preparation of this edition. - - A. CALMETTE, M.D. - - _Institut Pasteur de Lille, - June 17, 1908._ - - - - -INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION. - - -In the month of October, 1891, during the rains, a village in the -vicinity of Bac-Lieu, in Lower Cochin-China, was invaded by a swarm of -poisonous snakes belonging to the species known as _Naja tripudians_, -or Cobra-di-Capello. These creatures, which were forced by the deluge -to enter the native huts, bit four persons, who succumbed in a few -hours. An Annamese, a professional snake-charmer in the district, -succeeded in catching nineteen of these cobras and shutting them up -alive in a barrel. M. Séville, the administrator of the district, -thereupon conceived the idea of forwarding the snakes to the newly -established Pasteur Institute at Saigon, to which I had been appointed -as director. - -At this period our knowledge of the physiological action of venoms was -extremely limited. A few of their properties alone had been brought -to light by the works of Weir Mitchell and Reichard in America, of -Wall and Armstrong in India and England, of A. Gautier and Kaufmann in -France, and especially by Sir Joseph Fayrer’s splendidly illustrated -volume (“The Thanatophidia of India”), published in London in 1872. - -An excellent opportunity was thus afforded to me of taking up a study -which appeared to possess considerable interest on the morrow of the -discoveries of E. Roux and Behring, with reference to the toxins of -diphtheria and tetanus, and I could not allow the chance to escape. -For the last fifteen years I have been occupied continuously with -this subject, and I have published, or caused to be published by my -students, in French, English, or German scientific journals, a fairly -large number of memoirs either on venoms and the divers venomous -animals, or on antivenomous serum-therapeutics. The collation of these -papers is now becoming a matter of some difficulty, and it appeared to -me that the time had arrived for the production of a monograph, which -may, I hope, be of some service to all who are engaged in biological -research. - - * * * * * - -_Antivenomous serum-therapy_, which my studies, supplemented by those -of Phisalix and Bertrand, Fraser, George Lamb, F. Tidswell, McFarland, -and Vital Brazil, have enabled me to establish upon scientific bases, -has now entered into current medical practice. In each of the countries -in which venomous bites represent an important cause of mortality in -the case of human beings and domestic animals, special laboratories -have been officially organised for the preparation of antivenomous -serum. All that remains to be done is to teach its use to those who are -ignorant of it, especially to the indigenous inhabitants of tropical -countries, where snakes are more especially formidable and deadly. -This book will not reach such people as these, but the medical men, -naturalists, travellers, and explorers to whom it is addressed will -know how to popularise and apply the information that it will give -them. - -I firmly believe also that physiologists will read the book with -profit. Its perusal will perhaps suggest to them the task of -investigating a host of questions, which are still obscure, relating -to toxins, their mode of action upon the different organisms, and -their relations to the antitoxins. There is no doubt that in the study -of venoms a multitude of workers will, for a long time to come, find -material for the exercise of their powers of research. - - * * * * * - -At the moment of completing this work I would like to be allowed to -cast a backward glance upon the stage that it marks in my scientific -career, and to express my heartfelt gratitude to my very dear master -and friend, Dr. Émile Roux, to whom I owe the extreme gratification -of having been able to dedicate my life to the study of experimental -science, and of having caused to germinate, grow, and ripen a few of -the ever fertile seeds that he sows broadcast around him. - - * * * * * - -I am especially grateful to those of my pupils, C. Guérin, A. Deléarde, -F. Noc, L. Massol, Bernard, and A. Briot, who have helped me in my -work, while showering upon me the marks of their confidence, esteem, -and attachment; to my former chiefs, colleagues, and friends of the -Colonial Medical Staff, Drs. G. Treille, Kermorgant, Paul Gouzien, -Pineau, Camail, Angier, Lépinay, Lecorre, Gries, Lhomme, and Mirville; -and to my numerous foreign or French correspondents, George Lamb, -Semple, C. J. Martin, Vital Brazil, Arnold, de Castro, Simon Flexner, -Noguchi, P. Kyes, Morgenroth, J. Claine, Piotbey, and R. P. Travers, -several of whom have come to work in my laboratory, or have obligingly -procured for me venoms and venomous animals. - -I have experienced at the hands of a large number of our ministers, -consuls, or consular agents abroad the most cordial reception on -repeatedly addressing myself to them in order to obtain the papers or -information of which I was in need. It is only right for me to thank -them for it, and to acknowledge the trouble that M. Masson has most -kindly taken in publishing this book. - - A. CALMETTE. - - _Institut Pasteur de Lille, - March 10, 1907._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - -PART I. - - Page - - CHAP. I.--I. General notes on poisonous animals 1 - - II. General classification of poisonous snakes. Their - anatomo-physiological characters 3 - - CHAP. II.--Habits of poisonous snakes. Their capture 17 - - CHAP. III.--Description of the principal species of poisonous - snakes. Their geographical distribution 22 - - A. _Europe_ 22 - - B. _Asia, Dutch Indies and Philippine Islands_ 30 - - C. _Africa_ 57 - - D. _Australia and adjacent large islands_ 81 - - E. _America_ 100 - - F. _Hydrophiidæ_ (_sea-snakes_) 131 - - G. _Geographical distribution of the principal genera - of poisonous snakes in the five divisions of the - world_ 142 - - -PART II. - - CHAP. IV.--Secretion and collection of venom in snakes 147 - - CHAP. V.--Chemical study of snake-venoms 159 - - CHAP. VI.--Physiological action of snake-venoms 168 - - A. Physiology of poisoning in man and in animals bitten - by the different species of poisonous snakes - (_Colubridæ_, _Viperidæ_, _Hydrophiidæ_) 168 - - B. Physiology of experimental poisoning 170 - - C. Determination of the lethal doses of venom for - different species of animals 173 - - D. Effects of venom in non-lethal doses 177 - - CHAP. VII.--Physiology of poisoning (_continued_). Effects - of the various venoms on the different tissues - of the organism 179 - - (1) Action upon the liver 182 - - (2) Action upon the kidney 183 - - (3) Action upon the spleen, heart and lungs 183 - - (4) Action upon the striated muscles 184 - - (5) Action upon the nervous centres 185 - - CHAP. VIII.--Physiology of poisoning (_continued_). Action of - venoms on the blood 188 - - A. Effects of venom on the coagulation of the blood 188 - - I. Coagulant venoms 190 - - II. Anticoagulant venoms 192 - - III. Mechanism of the anticoagulant action of - venoms on the blood 195 - - B. Effects of venom on the red corpuscles and on the - serum 196 - - (1) Hæmolysis 196 - - (2) Precipitins of venoms 202 - - (3) Agglutinins of venoms 202 - - C. Effects of venom upon the white corpuscles: Leucolysin 203 - - CHAP. IX.--Physiology of poisoning (_continued_). Proteolytic, - cytolytic, bacteriolytic, and various diastasic - actions of venoms: diastasic and cellular actions - on venoms 204 - - A. Proteolytic action 204 - - B. Cytolytic action 206 - - C. Bacteriolytic action 206 - - D. Various diastasic actions of venoms 212 - - E. Action of various diastases upon venoms 214 - - CHAP. X.--Toxicity of the blood of venomous snakes 217 - - CHAP. XI.--Natural immunity of certain animals with respect - to snake-venoms 222 - - CHAP. XII.--Snake-charmers 228 - - -PART III. - -ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM-THERAPEUTICS. - - CHAP. XIII.--Vaccination against snake-venom--Preparation of - antivenomous serum--Its preventive properties - as regards intoxication by venom 241 - - Specificity and polyvalence of antivenomous serums 248 - - CHAP. XIV.--Neutralisation of venom by antitoxin 253 - - CHAP. XV.--Treatment of poisonous snake-bites in man and - animals. Objects of the treatment. Technique of - antivenomous serum-therapy 259 - - -PART IV. - -VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES. - - CHAP. XVI.--Venoms in the animal series. - - 1.--Invertebrates 269 - - A. _Cœlenterates_ 269 - - B. _Echinoderms_ 273 - - C. _Arthropods_: (_a_) _Araneids_ 274 - - (_b_) _Scorpions_ 276 - - (_c_) _Myriopods_ 280 - - (_d_) _Insects_ 281 - - D. _Molluscs_ 286 - - CHAP. XVII.--Venoms in the animal series (_continued_). - - 2.--Venomous fishes 288 - - A. _Teleostei. Acanthopterygii_: 1. _Triglidæ_ 290 - - -- -- 2. _Trachinidæ_ 297 - - -- -- 3. _Gobiidæ_ 300 - - -- -- 4. _Teuthididæ_ 301 - - -- -- 5. _Batrachiidæ_ 302 - - -- -- 6. _Pediculati_ 303 - - B. _Teleostei. Plectognathi_: 305 - - C. _Teleostei. Physostomi_: 307 - - -- -- 1. _Siluridæ_ 308 - - -- -- 2. _Murænidæ_ 309 - - CHAP. XVIII.--Venoms in the animal series (_continued_). - - 3.--Batrachians; Lizards; Mammals 312 - - A. Batrachians 312 - - B. Lizards 321 - - C. Mammals (_Ornithorhynchus_) 323 - - -PART V. - -DOCUMENTS. - - I.--_A few notes and observations relating to bites of - poisonous snakes treated by antivenomous serum- - therapeutics_ 326 - - II.--_A few notes and observations relating to domestic - animals bitten by poisonous snakes and treated - with serum_ 356 - - III.--_Note on the collection of cobra-venom and the treatment - of poisonous bites in the French Settlements in India - (by Dr. Paul Gouzien)_ 359 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - PAGE - - Fig. 1.--A. Skull of one of the non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ - (_Ptyas mucosus_) 7 - B. Skull of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_ - (_Naja tripudians_) 7 - C. Skull of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_ - (_Bungarus fasciatus_) 7 - D. Skull of one of the _Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_) 7 - E. Skull of one of the _Viperidæ Crotalinæ_ (_Crotalus - durissus_) 7 - F. Skull of one of the _Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ_ - (_Hydrophis pelamis_) 7 - - Fig. 2.--A. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Viperidæ_ - (_Vipera russellii_) 8 - B. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_ - (_Naja tripudians_) 8 - C. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_ - (_Bungarus fasciatus_) 8 - D. Maxillary bone and teeth of one of the non-poisonous - _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_) 8 - - Fig. 3.--A. Fang of one of the _Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_) 8 - D. Transverse section of the fang 8 - - Fig. 4.--B. Fang of one of the _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_) 9 - E. Transverse section 9 - - Fig. 5.--C. Fang of one of the _Hydrophiinæ_ - (_Hydrophis pelamis_) 9 - F. Transverse section 9 - - Fig. 6.--Three transverse sections of a poison-fang of one of - the _Colubridæ_ 9 - - Fig. 7.--Marks produced on the skin by the bites of different - species of snakes 10 - - Fig. 8.--Poison-gland and fangs of a venomous snake (_Naja - tripudians_) 11 - - Fig. 9.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Vipera - russellii_ 12 - - Fig. 10.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Vipera - russellii_ 12 - - Fig. 11.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Naja - tripudians_ 13 - - Fig. 12.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Naja - tripudians_ 13 - - Fig. 13.--Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the - non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_) 14 - - Fig. 14.--Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the - poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_) 15 - - Fig. 15.--Feeding a poisonous snake (first stage) 18 - - Fig. 16.--Feeding a poisonous snake (second stage) 18 - - Fig. 17.--Capture of a _Naja tripudians_ (first stage) 19 - - Fig. 18.--Capture of a _Naja tripudians_ (second stage) 20 - - Fig. 19.--Hindu carrying two captured Cobras in “chatties” 21 - - Fig. 20.--Maxillary bone, mandible, and head of _Cœlopeltis - monspessulana_ 23 - - Fig. 21.--(1) _Vipera berus_; (2) _Vipera aspis_; (3) _Vipera - ammodytes_; (4) _Vipera ammodytes_ 25 - - Fig. 22.--_Vipera aspis_, from the Forest of Fontainebleau 28 - - Fig. 23.--Skull of _Bungarus_ 31 - - Fig. 24.--_Bungarus fasciatus_ (India) 32 - - Fig. 25.--Skull of _Naja tripudians_ 34 - - Fig. 26.--_Naja tripudians_ (Cobra-di-Capello) on the defensive, - preparing to strike 35 - - Fig. 27.--_Naja tripudians_ (Cobra-di-Capello) 36 - - Fig. 28.--_Vipera russellii_ (Daboia) 45 - - Fig. 29.--_Pseudocerastes persicus_ 47 - - Fig. 30.--_Echis carinatus_ (India) 48 - - Fig. 31.--_Ancistrodon hypnale_ (Carawalla, of Ceylon) 50 - - Fig. 32.--_Lachesis okinavensis_ 52 - - Fig. 33.--_Lachesis flavomaculatus_ 55 - - Fig. 34.--Skull of _Dendraspis viridis_ 65 - - Fig. 35.--Skull of _Causus rhombeatus_ 68 - - Fig. 36.--Skull of _Bitis arietans_ (Puff Adder) 70 - - Fig. 37.--_Bitis arietans_ (Puff Adder) 71 - - Fig. 38.--_Bitis cornuta_ 73 - - Fig. 39.--_Bitis rasicornis_ 74 - - Fig. 40.--_Cerastes cornutus_ 75 - - Fig. 41.--_Echis coloratus_ 77 - - Fig. 42.--Skull of _Atractaspis aterrima_ 79 - - Fig. 43.--Skull of _Glyphodon tristis_ (Australian Colubrine) 83 - - Fig. 44.--_Pseudelaps krefftii_ 85 - - Fig. 45.--_Pseudelaps harriettæ_ 85 - - Fig. 46.--_Pseudelaps diadema_ 85 - - Fig. 47.--_Diemenia psammophis_ 86 - - Fig. 48.--_Diemenia olivacea_ 86 - - Fig. 49.--_Diemenia textilis_ 86 - - Fig. 50.--_Diemenia nuchalis_ 87 - - Fig. 51.--_Pseudechis porphyriacus_ (Black Snake) 87 - - Fig. 52.--_Denisonia superba_ (Copperhead) 89 - - Fig. 53.--_Denisonia coronoides_ 89 - - Fig. 54.--_Denisonia ramsayi_ 90 - - Fig. 55.--_Denisonia signata_ 90 - - Fig. 56.--_Denisonia maculata_ 91 - - Fig. 57.--_Denisonia gouldii_ 91 - - Fig. 58.--_Hoplocephalus bitorquatus_ 94 - - Fig. 59.--_Notechis scutatus_ (Tiger Snake) 95 - - Fig. 60.--Skull of _Acanthophis antarcticus_ (Death Adder) 96 - - Fig. 61.--_Acanthophis antarcticus_ 97 - - Fig. 62.--_Rhynchelaps australis_ 98 - - Fig. 63.--Skull of _Furina occipitalis_ 99 - - Fig. 64.--_Furina occipitalis_ 99 - - Fig. 65.--Skull of _Elaps marcgravii_ 101 - - Fig. 66.--_Elaps fulvius_ (Harlequin Snake) 105 - - Fig. 67.--Head and Skull of _Crotalus horridus_ (Horrid - Rattle-snake) 109 - - Fig. 68.--_Ancistrodon piscivorus_ (Water Viper) 110 - - Fig. 69.--_Lachesis lanceolatus_ (Fer-de-Lance) 112 - - Fig. 70.--_Lachesis neuwiedii_ (Urutù) 116 - - Fig. 71.--_Sistrurus catenatus_ (Prairie Rattle-snake) 121 - - Fig. 72.--A. Horny appendage (rattle) of a _Crotalus horridus_ 122 - B. Horny appendage, longitudinal section 122 - C. Separated segments of the appendage 122 - - Fig. 73.--_Crotalus terrificus_ (Dog-faced Rattle-snake) 123 - - Fig. 74.--_Crotalus scutulatus_ (Texas Rattle-snake) 126 - - Fig. 75.--_Crotalus confluentus_ (Pacific Rattle-snake) 128 - - Fig. 76.--_Crotalus cerastes_ (Horned Rattle-snake) 130 - - Fig. 77.--Skull of _Hydrus platurus_ 132 - - Fig. 78.--_Hydrus platurus_ 133 - - Fig. 79.--_Hydrophis coronatus_ 134 - - Fig. 80.--_Hydrophis elegans_ 135 - - Fig. 81.--Skull of _Distira_ 137 - - Fig. 82.--_Enhydrina valakadien_ (_E. bengalensis_) 138 - - Fig. 83.--Skull of _Platurus colubrinus_ 139 - - Fig. 84.--_Platurus laticaudatus_ (_P. fischeri_) 140 - - Fig. 85.--Collecting venom from a _Lachesis_ at the - Serotherapeutic Institute of São Paulo (Brazil) 154 - - Fig. 86.--Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at - Pondicherry (first stage) 155 - - Fig. 87.--Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at - Pondicherry (second stage) 157 - - Fig. 88.--Collecting Cobra-venom at Pondicherry (third stage) 158 - - Fig. 89.--Mongoose seized by a Cobra 225 - - Fig. 90.--Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) 230 - - Fig. 91.--Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) 231 - - Fig. 92.--Musical instrument used by Indian snake-charmers to - charm Cobras 232 - - Fig. 93.--Vaccinating a horse against venom at the Pasteur - Institute, Lille 244 - - Fig. 94.--Aseptically bleeding a horse, vaccinated against - venom, in order to obtain antivenomous serum, at - the Pasteur Institute, Lille 245 - - Fig. 95.--Technique of injecting antivenomous serum beneath - the skin of the abdomen 264 - - Fig. 96.--_Lactrodectus mactans_ 275 - - Fig. 97.--_Scorpio occitanus_ 277 - - Fig. 98.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ 280 - - Fig. 99.--Poison-apparatus of the bee 281 - - Fig. 100.--Interior of the gorget of the Bee 282 - - Fig. 101.--_Synanceia brachio_ var. _Verrucosa_ 291 - - Fig. 102.--_Cottus scorpius_ (Sea Scorpion, or Father Lasher) 292 - - Fig. 103.--_Scorpæna grandicornis_ 293 - - Fig. 104.--_Scorpæna diabolus_ 294 - - Fig. 105.--_Pterois artemata_ 295 - - Fig. 106.--_Pelor filamentosum_ 296 - - Fig. 107.--_Trachinus vipera_ (Lesser Weever) 297 - - Fig. 108.--Operculum and opercular spine of the Lesser Weever 298 - - Fig. 109.--_Callionymus lyra_ (Dragonet) 300 - - Fig. 110.--_Batrachus grunniens_ 302 - - Fig. 111.--_Thalassophryne reticulata_ 302 - - Fig. 112.--_Lophius setigerus_ 303 - - Fig. 113.--_Serranus ouatabili_ 304 - - Fig. 114.--_Holacanthus imperator_ 305 - - Fig. 115.--_Tetrodon stellatus_ 306 - - Fig. 116.--_Tetrodon rubripes_ 306 - - Fig. 117.--_Chilomycterus orbicularis_ 307 - - Fig. 118.--_Chilomycterus tigrinus_ 307 - - Fig. 119.--_Silurus glanis_ 308 - - Fig. 120.--_Muræna moringa_ 310 - - Fig. 121.--_Salamandra maculosa_ (Spotted Salamander) 314 - - Fig. 122.--_Triton marmoratus_ (Marbled Newt) 314 - - Fig. 123.--_Cryptobranchus japonicus_ (Great Japanese - Salamander) 315 - - Fig. 124.--_Heloderma horridum_ 322 - - Fig. 125.--_Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_ (Duck-billed Platypus) 324 - - - - -VENOMS. - - - - -PART I. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - _GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS--POISONOUS SNAKES: GENERAL - CLASSIFICATION AND ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS._ - - -I.--GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS. - -A large number of animals possess special glandular organs capable of -secreting toxic substances called _venoms_. - -Sometimes these substances are simply discharged into the surrounding -medium, and serve to keep off enemies (_toad_, _salamander_); sometimes -they mingle with the fluids and digestive juices, and then play an -important part in the nourishment of the animal that produces them -(_snakes_); in other cases, again, they are capable of being inoculated -by means of _stings_ or _teeth_ specially adapted for this purpose, -and then they serve at once as a means of attack or defence, and as a -digestive ferment (_snakes_, _spiders_, _scorpions_, _bees_). - -An animal is said to be _venomous_ when it possesses the power of -_inoculating_ its venom. - -Venomous species are met with in almost all the lower zoological -groups, in the _Protozoa_, _Cœlenterates_, _Arthropods_, _Molluscs_, -and in a large number of _Vertebrates_ (fishes, amphibians, and -reptiles). - -The _reptiles_ are best endowed in this respect, and it is in this -class of creatures that we meet with the species most dangerous to -man and to mammals in general. The study of their venom, too, is of -considerable interest, since it should lead to the quest of means of -protection sufficiently efficacious to preserve us from their attacks. - - * * * * * - -Venomous reptiles are not always easy to distinguish from those devoid -of any inoculatory apparatus. For this reason both classes alike have -at all times inspired mankind with a lively dread, which is displayed -among the various races in legends and religious beliefs. - -In ancient days the cult of the snake occupied a prominent place. In -_Genesis_ the serpent is the incarnation of the Evil One, tempting and -deceitful. In Greece it was the symbol of wisdom and prudence. In Egypt -it was associated with the Sacred Scarabæus and the flowers of the -lotus to represent Immortality! - -At Rome epidemics ceased when the snake sacred to Æsculapius was -brought from Epidaurus. - -According to Kraff, the Gallas of Central Africa consider the snake as -the ancestor of the human race, and hold it in great respect. - -In India the cult of the Seven-headed _Naja_, or serpent-god, was -formerly almost as flourishing as that of Buddha. It is still regarded -as a crime to kill a Cobra when it enters a hut; prayers are addressed -and food is offered to it. Its presence is an omen of happiness and -prosperity; it is believed that its death would bring down the most -terrible calamities on whomsoever should have brought it about, and on -his family. - -Nevertheless, in the Indian Peninsula alone, the Cobra, the Krait, and -a few other extremely poisonous species of snakes cause every year an -average of _25,000_ deaths. The number of fatalities from the same -cause is likewise considerable in Burma, Indo-China, the Dutch Indies, -Australia, Africa, the West Indies and Tropical America generally. - -The temperate regions of the globe are less severely affected; North -America the Rattle-snake and the Moccasin are especially deadly. - -In France the Common Viper abounds in Jura, Isère, Ardèche, Auvergne, -Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau. _Three hundred thousand_ have -been killed in twenty-seven years in the Department of Haute-Saône -alone. Every year this snake causes the death of some sixty persons. -Cow-herds, shepherds, and sportsmen fear it greatly, since it is very -dangerous to cattle, sheep, and dogs. - - -II.--GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR -ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. - -Poisonous snakes are divided by naturalists into two great Families, -the COLUBRIDÆ and VIPERIDÆ, distinguished from each -other by certain anatomical characters, and especially by the dentition. - -The COLUBRIDÆ resemble harmless snakes, which renders them all -the more dangerous. - -They are divided into two groups: OPISTHOGLYPHA (ὄπισθεν, -behind; γλυφὴ, a groove) and PROTEROGLYPHA (πρότερον, before; -γλυφὴ, a groove). - -The OPISTHOGLYPHA have the upper jaws furnished in front with -smooth or non-grooved teeth, but _behind_ with one or several rows of -long, canaliculate teeth. - -This group includes three _Sub-families_:-- - -A. The _Homalopsinæ_, having valved nostrils, placed above the snout. - -B. The _Dipsadomorphinæ_, in which the nostrils are lateral in -position, and the dentition is highly developed. - -C. The _Elachistodontinæ_, which have but rudimentary teeth only on -the posterior portion of the maxillary, on the palatine and on the -pterygoid bones. - -Almost all the snakes belonging to these three sub-families are -poisonous, but only slightly so. They are not dangerous to man. Their -venom merely serves to paralyse their prey before deglutition takes -place; it does not afford them an effective means of defence or attack. - -All the _Homalopsinæ_ are aquatic; they bring forth their young in -the water, and are met with commonly in the Indian Ocean, starting -from Bombay, and especially in the Bay of Bengal, on the shores of -Indo-China and Southern China, from Singapore to Formosa, in the -Dutch Indies, in Borneo, the Philippines, New Guinea and the Papuan -Archipelago, and as far as the north of Australia. - -The _Dipsadomorphinæ_ comprise a large number of highly cosmopolitan -genera and species, found in all the regions of the earth except the -northerly portions of the Northern Hemisphere. None of these reptiles -is capable of causing serious casualties among human beings, owing -to the peculiarly defective arrangement of their poison-apparatus. -I therefore do not think it worth while to linger here over their -description. - -The _Elachistodontinæ_ are of even less importance; at the present time -only two species are known, both of small size and confined to Bengal. - - * * * * * - -The PROTEROGLYPHA group of the _Colubridæ_ is of much greater -interest to us, since all the snakes belonging to it are armed with -powerful fangs, in front of the upper maxillaries. These fangs, which -are provided with a channel in the shape of a deep groove, communicate -at the base with the efferent duct of poison glands, which are often of -very large size. - -The group is composed of two _Sub-families_:-- - -A. The _Hydrophiinæ_ (sea-snakes), provided with a flattened -_oar-shaped_ tail. The body is more or less laterally compressed; the -eyes are usually small, with circular pupils; the scales of the nose -have two notches on the upper labial border. - -The normal habitat of all the members of this sub-family is the sea, -near the shore, with the exception of the genus _Distira_, which is -met with in the fresh water of a lake in the Island of Luzon, in the -Philippines. They are frequently found in very large numbers in the -Indian seas and throughout the tropical zone of the Pacific Ocean, from -the Persian Gulf to the west coast of the American Continent, but they -are entirely absent from the West Coast of Africa. - -B. The _Elapinæ_ (land-snakes), with a cylindrical tail, and covered -with smooth or carinate scales. These serpents are frequently adorned -with brilliant colours. Some of them (belonging to the genus _Naja_) -have the faculty of expanding the neck in the shape of a parachute, by -spreading out the first pairs of ribs when they are alarmed or excited: -the breadth of the neck then greatly exceeds that of the head. They are -distributed throughout Africa, Asia, and North and South America, and -are also found in Australia, where almost all the snakes that are known -belong to this sub-family. - - * * * * * - -The Family VIPERIDÆ is characterised by a triangular head, -which is widened posteriorly, and by the general aspect of the body, -which is usually thick-set and terminated by a short tail. The bones -of the face are movable. The præfrontal bone is not in contact with -the nasal; the maxillary is greatly shortened and may be articulated -perpendicularly to the ectopterygoid; it bears a pair of large -poison-fangs, one on each side, and these are always accompanied by -several teeth to replace them, folded back in the gum; these latter -teeth come in succession to take the place of the principal tooth, when -this is broken or falls out of itself when the snake sheds its skin. - -The poison-fangs are not _grooved_, as in the _Proteroglyphous -Colubridæ_; they are pierced by a perfectly formed canal, the upper -end of which inosculates with the efferent duct of the corresponding -poison-gland, while its lower extremity opens to the exterior a little -above and in front of the tip. The latter is always very sharp. - -The palate and lower jaw are furnished with small hooked teeth, which -are solid and non-venomous. - -With the exception of the species of _Atractaspis_, these snakes -are all ovoviviparous. The majority are terrestrial; a few lead a -semi-aquatic existence, while others are arboreal. - -Their distribution includes Europe, Asia, Africa (with the exception -of Madagascar), and North and South America. They do not exist in -Australia. - -They are divided into two _Sub-families_:-- - -A. The _Viperinæ_, in which the head, which is very broad and covered -with little plates and scales, has no pit between the nose and the eyes; - -B. The _Crotalinæ_ (κρὁταλον, a rattle), in which the head is -incompletely covered with scales, and exhibits a deep pit on each side, -between the eye and the nostril. - - * * * * * - -Among snakes, the characters that serve as a basis for the -determination of genera and species are the general shape of the body, -especially that of the head, the arrangement of the cephalic scales, -the cranial skeleton, and the dentition. - - * * * * * - -_Cranial Skeleton._--The cranium is composed of a certain number of -bones, the homologues of which are found in the mammalian skeleton; but -the bones are complex, and subject to modifications according to the -structure and habitat of each species. - -The special arrangement of the bones of the face is above all -characteristic of the poisonous snakes. Those forming the upper jaw, -the palate and the mandibles or “inter-maxillaries” are movable upon -each other and on the cranium. The upper and lower maxillaries are -united by an extensile ligament and articulated with the tympanic -bone, which permits the mouth to be opened very widely when the animal -swallows its prey. - - * * * * * - -_Dentition._--The _non-poisonous_ snakes have two rows of teeth in -the upper jaw--one external, the _maxillary_, usually composed of -from 35-40 small, backwardly curved teeth; the other internal, the -_palatine_, which only numbers from 20-22 teeth, having the same -curvature (fig. 1, A). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, Cranial skeleton of one of -the non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_); B, cranial -skeleton of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_); -C, cranial skeleton of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_ -(_Bungarus fasciatus_); D, cranial skeleton of one of the -_Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_); E, cranial skeleton of one -of the _Viperidæ Crotalinæ_ (_Crotalus durissus_); F, cranial -skeleton of one of the _Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ_ (_Hydrophis pelamis_).] - -In the _poisonous_ snakes the maxillary bones are shorter, and the -_outer_ row is represented by a single long and tubular or grooved -tooth (the fang), fused with the maxillary bone, which is itself -movable (fig. 1, B, C, D, E, -F). - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, Maxillary bone and fangs -of one of the _Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_); B, maxillary -bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_); -C, maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_ -(_Bungarus fasciatus_); D, maxillary bone and teeth of one -of the non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_). (After Sir Joseph -Fayrer.)] - -Certain species (_Dipsas_) have maxillary teeth which increase in size -from front to rear; the longest teeth are _grooved_ and serve for the -better retention of prey, and also to impregnate it with saliva; but -they are not in communication with the poison-glands. - -The _poison-fangs_ are normally covered with a fold or capsule of -mucous membrane, in which they are sheathed. This fold conceals a whole -series of _reserve_ teeth in different degrees of development, which -eventually become attached to the extremity of the maxillary when the -principal tooth falls out or is broken (fig. 2). - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Fang of one of the -_Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_); D, transverse section of the -fang.] - -_Poison Apparatus._--The grooved or furrowed teeth in the -_Proteroglypha_ and the canaliculate teeth in the _Solenoglypha_ are -arranged, not for the purpose of seizing prey, but in order to deal it -a mortal blow by injecting the venom into its flesh. - -In the normal position they lie almost horizontally, and exhibit no -mobility of their own. But, when the animal prepares to bite, their -erection is effected by the snake throwing its jaw back; and this -movement, which is always very sudden, enables it at the same time to -compress its poison-glands, by the aid of special constrictor muscles. - -On examining the various species of poisonous snakes, we observe very -sharply marked differences in the arrangement and dimensions of the -teeth. Thus, in the VIPERIDÆ they are long, extraordinarily -sharp, and capable of producing deep wounds (fig. 2, A, and -fig. 3). They are traversed by an almost completely closed canal, from -the base, which communicates with the poison-duct, to the neighbourhood -of the point, where it opens very obliquely on the convex surface (fig. -3, A and D). - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--B, Fang of one of the -_Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_); E, transverse section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--C, Fang of one of the -_Hydrophiinæ_ (_Hydrophis pelamis_); F, transverse section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Three transverse sections of a -poison-fang of one of the _Colubridæ_, through A A, B -B, C C; P P, pulp cavity; V V V, -poison-canal (groove). (After C. J. Martin.)] - - * * * * * - -In the _Elapinæ_ sub-family of the _Colubridæ_, and especially in -the _Hydrophiinæ_, the teeth are much shorter and simply grooved or -canaliculate; that is to say, the canal communicates with the exterior -throughout its extent by a narrow slit, which traverses the entire -convex surface of the tooth (figs. 4, 5, and 6). - -It does not follow from this that the bites of these reptiles are less -dangerous; the contrary, indeed, is the case, for their venom is -infinitely more active. - -These differences, as well as the particular mode of arrangement of the -other little non-poisonous teeth in both jaws, enable us in many cases -to recognise, by the mere appearance of the bite, the species of snake -by which the bite has been inflicted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--MARKS PRODUCED ON THE SKIN BY THE -BITES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SNAKES. - -I. _Non-venomous Colubrine._--The bite is marked only by the imprint of -from 35-40 small palatine or pterygoid teeth, and 20-22 upper maxillary -teeth (on the outside of the foregoing) on each side. - -II. _Venomous Colubrine_ (_Naja tripudians_, -PROTEROGLYPHA).--The bite exhibits 25 or 26 punctures from -the pterygoid or palatine teeth, and, on each side, one or two, rarely -three, circular wounds produced by the principal poison-fangs and by -the reserve teeth. - -III. _Viperidæ_ (SOLENOGLYPHA).--The sole indication of the -bite consists of 8 or 10 punctures from the palatine or pterygoid -teeth, and one little round wound, on each side, produced by the -poison-fangs. - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -Fig. 7, above, shows how it is possible to distinguish the marks left -by a _non-venomous_ reptile, and by one of the _Proteroglypha_ or -_Solenoglypha_ respectively. - -_Poison-glands._--The poison-glands occupy an extensive inter-muscular -space behind the eyes, on each side of the upper jaw. They are oval in -shape, and may, in _Naja tripudians_ for example, attain the size of a -large almond (fig. 8). - -Their structure is the same as that of the salivary glands of the -larger animals. The poison that they secrete accumulates in their -_acini_ and in the efferent duct that opens at the base of the -corresponding fang. - -Each gland is surrounded by a capsule, to which are partly attached -the fibres of the masseter muscle, which violently compresses it and -drives the poison, just as the piston of a syringe would do, into the -canaliculi or groove of the fang. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--POISON-GLAND AND FANGS OF A -VENOMOUS SNAKE (_Naja tripudians_, _Colubridæ_). (Natural size.) - -L, Lobe of the gland; D, poison-duct; F, -fang attached to the maxillary bone; G G, gland; M, -capsule of mucous membrane surrounding the fangs; R, reserve -fangs; A A, muscular fascia covering the gland. - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -In a few venomous snakes the gland is developed to such an extent that -it extends as far as the first ribs. - -The species, on the contrary, that have the poison-teeth placed in -the hinder part of the mouth (_Opisthoglypha_) have glands but little -developed. - - * * * * * - -_Muscular Apparatus of the Head._--Figs. 9 and 10, 11 and 12 show the -arrangement of the principal muscles that work the jaws and glandular -organs in _Vipera russellii_ and _Naja tripudians_, which respectively -represent the most formidable types of _Viperidæ_ and venomous -_Colubridæ_. - -It is not necessary to give a detailed description of each of these -muscles. Let it suffice to point out that all contribute in giving -the greatest elasticity to the jaws, and at the same time strength -sufficient to retain the prey and to cause it to pass from front to -rear towards the œsophagus, by a series of alternate antero-posterior -movements and analogous lateral ones. By means of these movements, -which are participated in by the upper and lower maxillary bones, the -palatines, mandibles or inter-maxillaries, and the pterygoids, the -animal in a manner _draws itself_ over its prey _like a glove_, since -the arrangement of its dentition does not admit of _mastication_. - -[Illustration: A A, Fascia covering the anterior and posterior -temporal muscles; B, small gland; C, tendinous -insertion of the fascia; D, poison-duct; E, -poison-fang; F, reserve fangs; G, mandible; -H, ectopterygoid muscle; J, poison-gland covered -by the masseter; K, masseter inserted in the mandible; -L, insertion of the temporal muscle; M, digastric -muscle. - -A A, Ectopterygoid muscle; B, præ-spheno-pterygoid -muscle; C, intermandibular muscle; D, -præ-spheno-palatine muscle; E præ-spheno-vomerine muscle; -F, capsule of mucous membrane surrounding the fangs; -G, long muscle of the neck. - -FIGS. 9 AND 10.--MUSCULAR APPARATUS AND POISON-GLAND -OF _Vipera russellii_ (_Viperidæ_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -[Illustration: A, Tracheo·mastoid muscle; B B, -digastric muscle; C C, posterior temporal muscle; D -D, anterior temporal muscle; E E, masseter; F, -poison-gland, covered by the masseter and fascia; G, -poison-duct; H, maxillary bone; I, neuro-mandibular -muscle; J, costo-mandibular muscle. - -A, Entopterygoid muscle; B, poison-gland; C, -poison-duct; D, poison-fangs; E, præ-spheno-palatine -muscle; F, præ-spheno-vomerine muscle; G, capsule of -mucous membrane surrounding the fangs; H, præ-spheno-pterygoid -muscle (which erects the fangs); J, inter-mandibular muscle; -K, ectopterygoid muscle; L, long muscle of the neck -(_longus colli_). - -FIGS. 11 AND 12.--MUSCULAR APPARATUS AND POISON-GLAND -OF _Naja tripudians_ (_Colubridæ_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCALES OF THE -HEAD IN ONE OF THE NON-POISONOUS _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_). -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) - -A, Rostral scale; B, anterior frontals; B^1, -posterior frontals; C, vertical; D, occipitals; -E, supra-ciliaries; F, temporals; L, -M, nasals; N, loreals, or frenals; O, -anterior oculars, or præ-orbitals; P, posterior oculars, or -post-orbitals; Q, supralabials; G, median infralabial; H H, -lateral infralabials; I K, mentals.] - -The enormous extensile power of the mouth and œsophagus thus enables -snakes to swallow animals, the size of which is several times in excess -of their own diameter. - -Deglutition is slow and painful, but the gastric and intestinal juices -are so speedy in action, that the digestion of the most resistant -substances rapidly takes place. The very bones are dissolved, and the -fæces, which are voided some days later, contain only a few osseous -remains and a felt-like material composed of hair or feathers. - -_Scales._--The skin of snakes, which is very elastic and extensile, is -covered with scales, small on the back, and in great transverse plates -on the entire ventral surface. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCALES OF -THE HEAD IN ONE OF THE POISONOUS _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_, -OR _Cobra-di-Capello_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -The shape and dimensions of the scales of the head are highly -characteristic in each species. It is therefore necessary to know their -names and the arrangement that they exhibit: these details are shown -with sufficient clearness in figs. 13 and 14. - -_Coloration._--The colouring exhibited by the scales of snakes is -governed generally by the biological laws of _mimicry_. It is therefore -not a character of specific value, and may be modified several times -in the course of the existence of the same reptile, according to the -surroundings in which it is obliged to live. - -“Nature,” write Dumeril and Bibron, “seems to have caused the tints -and colours of snakes to vary in accordance with their habits and -modes of life. Generally speaking, the colours are greyish or dull in -species that are wont to live among sand, or which bury themselves in -loose earth, as also in those that lie in wait on the trunks or large -boughs of trees; while these hues are of a bluish-green, resembling the -tint of the leaves and young shoots of plants, in snakes that climb -among bushes or balance themselves at the end of branches. It would -be difficult to describe all the modifications revealed by a general -study of the colours of their skins. Let us imagine all the effects -of the decomposition of light, commencing with white and the purest -black, and passing on to blue, yellow, and red; associating and mixing -them together, and toning them down so as to produce all shades, such -as those of green, of violet, with dull or brilliant tints more or -less pronounced, and of iridescent or metallic reflections modified by -spots, streaks, and straight, oblique, undulating, or transverse lines. -Such is the range of colours to be found in the skin of snakes.” - -This skin is covered by a thick epidermis, which is periodically -detached in its entirety, most frequently in a single piece. Before -effecting its _moult_, the reptile remains in a state of complete -repose for several weeks, as if asleep, and does not eat. Its scales -grow darker and its skin becomes wrinkled. Then one day its epidermis -tears at the angle of the lips. The animal thereupon wakes up, rubs -itself among stones or branches, divests itself entirely of its -covering as though it were emerging from a sheath, and proceeds -forthwith in quest of food. - -The _moult_ is repeated in this way three or four times every year. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_HABITS OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR CAPTURE._ - - -All poisonous snakes are _carnivorous_. They feed on small mammals -(rats, mice), birds, batrachians, other reptiles or fish, which they -kill by poisoning them by means of their fangs. - -They almost always wait until their prey is dead before swallowing it. - -Some of them are very fond of eggs, which they well know how to find in -the nests of birds, and swallow whole. - -When a poisonous snake wishes to seize its prey, or strike an enemy, -it raises its head, and depresses the lower and elevates the upper jaw -in such a way that the _fangs_ are directed straight forward. Then, -with the quickness of a spring when it is released, the reptile makes a -sudden dart and strikes its victim. After inflicting the wound it draws -back, doubles up its neck and head, and remains prepared to strike -again. - -So rapid is the action of the venom, that the wounded animal falls to -the ground almost immediately; it is forthwith stricken with paralysis, -and dies in a few moments. In most cases the snake holds it in its -mouth until death ensues; the reptile then sets to work to swallow its -victim, an operation which is always slow and painful. - -In captivity poisonous snakes almost always refuse to take any food -whatever. If it be desired to keep them for a long time, it is often -necessary to resort to artificial feeding. For this purpose the snake -is seized by the head by means of a strong pair of long forceps; it is -then grasped by the neck with the left hand without squeezing too -hard (fig. 15), taking care at the same time not to give the body a -chance of coiling itself round anything. Next, one or more lumps of -beef or horse-flesh are introduced into the jaws, and gently forced -down deep into the œsophagus by means of a glass rod, which is polished -in order not to injure the mucous membrane. The œsophagus is then -gently massaged in a downward direction, in order to cause the bolus of -food to descend into the stomach (fig. 16). This operation is repeated -every fortnight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--FEEDING A POISONOUS SNAKE, FIRST -STAGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--FEEDING A POISONOUS SNAKE, SECOND -STAGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CATCHING A -_Cobra-di-Capello_ (_Naja tripudians_), FIRST STAGE. (At the -French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.)] - -In this way, at my laboratory, I have been able to preserve, in perfect -condition for more than two years, Indian _Cobras_ and _Fers-de-lance_ -from Martinique, taking care to keep them in a hothouse, at a -temperature of about 82° to 86° F. - -It is also very important to place inside the cases a vessel full of -water, which should be frequently changed, for almost all snakes drink -often and like to bathe for whole days at a time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CATCHING A -_Cobra-di-Capello_ (_Naja tripudians_), SECOND STAGE. (At the -French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.)] - -Within their reach should be placed in addition branches and rockwork, -against which they rub at the _moulting_ times, in order periodically -to rid themselves of their scarf-skin. - -While moulting, snakes must neither be touched nor fed, since to force -them to take food at such a time would be fatal. - -_Snake-catching._--The capture of poisonous snakes, in order to keep -them alive, can only be performed without danger by skilful persons, -who are possessed of much coolness. - -The best way of securing them is suddenly to pin the neck to the ground -by means of a stick held horizontally, or a small two-pronged fork of -wood or metal (fig. 17). - -The stick is rolled along until close to the occiput (fig. 18). The -animal can then be seized with the hand immediately behind the head, in -such a way that it is impossible for it to turn and bite. It is then -put into a wire cage, provided with a small movable trapdoor, with the -fastening on the outside. - -In this way poisonous snakes can be sent to a distance, and left -without food for one or even two months, provided that they be kept in -a place which is somewhat moist and sufficiently warm. - -Fig. 19 shows how captured cobras are carried in India, in the environs -of Pondicherry. They are enclosed in earthern _chatties_, or in baskets -of plaited bamboo, which are provided with covers, and are very -convenient for carrying snakes short distances. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--HINDU CARRYING TWO CAPTURED -COBRAS IN “CHATTIES.”] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - _DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES. - THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION._ - - -Poisonous snakes are especially common in the tropical zones of the -Old and New Worlds. The species found in Europe are but of small size -and not very formidable. In hot countries, on the other hand, they -attain large dimensions, their venom is much more active, and, although -they hardly ever attack man, and in most cases avoid him, they cause a -considerable number of fatal accidents. - -It is sometimes a rather difficult matter to recognise from the mere -appearance of a snake whether it is poisonous or not. Naturalists -themselves are occasionally deceived. It is therefore useful to -learn to distinguish the most dangerous species by their external -characters, and to know in what countries there is a risk of their -being encountered. - - -_A.--EUROPE._ - -Of the continents of the Old World, the poorest in poisonous snakes -is Europe. The only species found there are a CŒLOPELTIS -(belonging to the Sub-family _Dipsadomorphinæ_ of the _Opisthoglypha_), -and certain VIPERINÆ, which rarely exceed 75 centimetres in -length. - -CŒLOPELTIS, the cranial skeleton and head of which are -represented in fig. 20, is characterised by a narrow, concave frontal -shield, projecting supraciliaries, short snout, large eyes, with round -pupils, two poison-fangs at the back of the upper maxillaries, and a -cylindrical body. The scales of the back are finely grooved, and in the -adult slightly concave. - -FIG. 20.--MAXILLARY, MANDIBLE, AND HEAD OF -_Cœlopeltis monspessulana_. - -The coloration, olivaceous-brown, or deep red on the back, becomes on -the ventral surface pale yellow with brown streaks, and from five to -seven longitudinal series of small spots, which are blackish and edged -with yellow on the sides. - -The mean total length is 1,800 millimetres. The tail is somewhat -tapering, and about 350 millimetres long. - -The only European species is _Cœlopeltis monspessulana_, which is met -with pretty commonly in France, in the neighbourhood of Montpellier, -and Nice, near Valencia in Spain, and in Dalmatia. It is likewise found -throughout North Africa, and in Asia Minor. - -A second species, _Cœlopeltis moilensis_, occurs in Southern Tunis, -Egypt, and Arabia. - -The European VIPERINÆ belong exclusively to the Genus -VIPERA, the principal zoological characters of which are as -follows:-- - -Head distinct from the neck, covered with small scales, with or without -frontal and parietal shields; eyes small, with vertically elongate -pupils, separated from the labials by scales; nostrils lateral. Body -cylindrical. Scales keel-shaped, with an apical pit, in from 19-31 -rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; subcaudal scales in two rows. - -The Genus _Vipera_ is represented in Europe by several species, which -are likewise found in Western Asia and North Africa. - -These species are:-- - -_V. ursinii_, _V. berus_, _V. aspis_, _V. latastii_, and _V. -ammodytes_. [1] - - -Vipera ursinii. - -Snout obtuse, soft on its upper surface, with the frontal and parietal -shields distinct, the former about one and a half times as long as -broad, and almost always longer than the parietals. A single series of -scales between the eyes and the free margin of the lips. - -Temporal shields smooth. Body scales in from 19 to 21 rows, strongly -keeled on the back, less strongly on the sides. - -Colour yellowish or pale brown above, grey or dark brown on the sides, -sometimes uniform brown; spots more or less regular on the vertebral -column, oval, elliptic or rhomboidal, dark brown or flecked with white, -sometimes forming an undulous or zigzag band; two or three longitudinal -series of dark brown or black spots on the sides; small dark dots -running obliquely from the eye to the angle of the mouth; nose and lips -white, and one or two dark angular streaks on the head; chin and throat -yellowish; belly black, with transverse series of white or grey dots. -No sexual differences in coloration. - -Total length from 420-500 millimetres; tail 50-55. - -_Habitat_: South-east France (Basses-Alpes); Italy (Abruzzi); Istria; -Mountains of Bosnia; Plains of Lower Austria; Hungary (environs of -Buda-Pesth). - - -Vipera berus (_Common Viper_, or _Adder_). - -Snout rounded, short and truncate; pupil vertically elongate; vertical -diameter of the eyes equal to or greater than the distance separating -them from the mouth; frontal and parietal shields distinct, the former -as long as broad, usually shorter than the space separating it from the -rostral shield; 6-13 scales round the eyes; one or rarely two series of -scales between the eyes and the lips; nasal shield single, separated -from the rostral by a naso-rostral shield; temporal scales smooth. Body -scales in 21 rows (exceptionally 19 or 23), strongly keeled; 132-150 -ventral shields; 38-36 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--(_1_) _Vipera berus_; (_2_) _Vipera -aspis_; (_3_, _4_) _Vipera ammodytes_. - -(Natural size.)] - -Colour very variable, grey, yellowish, olive, brown, or red above, -generally with an undulating or zigzag band along the vertebral column, -and a series of lateral spots. A black spot shaped like a =V=, an -=X=, or a circumflex accent, on the head. The tip of the tail is -yellow or reddish. Some specimens are entirely black. - -Total length from 350 to 700 millimetres; tail 75 to 90. - -_Habitat_: Northern Europe, and especially the mountains of Central -Europe; irregularly distributed in Southern Europe; Northern Spain and -Portugal, Northern Italy, Bosnia, Caucasus. - - * * * * * - -This viper, which is very common in France, ranges as far as the -Scandinavian Peninsula to about the 65th parallel of North Latitude. It -is sometimes met with among the mountains at an altitude of about 6,500 -feet (2,000 metres). It is found on heaths, in grass-lands, vineyards, -and forests. Certain parts of the sandy moors of North Germany are -literally infested with it. It abounds in the Jura, Isère, Ardèche, -Auvergne, Brittany, Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau. - -It seeks its prey by night, and feeds on voles, small birds, frogs, -lizards, and small fish. During the summer it shows a preference for -moist places, often even remaining in the water, in which it swims with -ease. - -Light and fire attract it. It does not climb trees, but is frequently -found coiled up on boughs of dead wood scattered on the ground. - -When on the defensive, and preparing to bite, it throws its head back, -and makes a sudden dart of from a foot to sixteen inches. If irritated -it makes a sort of hissing noise. - -To pass the winter it retires into the crevices of rocks or into old -tree-trunks, where it entwines itself closely with a number of its -congeners. In this way ten or fifteen vipers are frequently found -together in the same hole. - -In April, the whole company awakes, and copulation then takes place. -The eggs are laid in August and September, and the young immediately -crawl out of the shell, already prepared to bite, and capable -of finding their own food. Their length at birth amounts to 230 -millimetres. - -The two glands of an adult adder contain about 10 centigrammes of -poison. This small quantity is sometimes sufficient to cause death; out -of 610 persons bitten, Rollinger returns 59 deaths, or about 10 per -cent. - -In the departments of Vendée and Loire-Inférieure alone, Viaud Grand -Marais has noted during a period of six years 321 cases of bites from -adders, 62 of which were followed by death. In Auvergne, Dr. Fredet[2] -(of Royat) returns 14 cases, which caused 6 deaths. - - -Vipera aspis (_Asp_, or _Red Viper_). - -(Fig. 21, _2_, and fig. 22.) - -Snout slightly turned up, soft and squarely truncate; vertical diameter -of the eyes equal to the space separating them from the mouth; upper -surface of the head usually covered with small, imbricate, smooth or -feebly keeled scales, in 4-7 series, between the supraocular shields, -which are prominent. The frontal and parietal shields are usually -wanting; sometimes they are distinct, but small and irregular; the -former are separated from the supraoculars by two series of scales; -8-13 scales round the eyes; two (rarely three) series of scales between -the eyes and the labials; nasal shield single, separated from the -rostral by a naso-rostral shield. Body scales in 21-23 rows, strongly -keeled; 134-158 ventrals; 32-49 subcaudals. - -Coloration very variable, grey, yellowish, brown, or red above, with a -zigzag band as in _V. berus_. Usually a black =U=-shaped mark on -the hinder part of the head, with a longitudinal black streak behind -the eyes; upper lip white, or yellowish. Ventral surface yellow, white, -grey, or black, with lighter or darker markings. - -Total length, 620-675 millimetres; tail 75-95. - -_Habitat_: France (especially Vendée, the Forest of Fontainebleau, and -the South), Pyrenees, Alsace-Lorraine, the Black Forest, Switzerland, -Italy and Sicily, and the Tyrol. - -This viper especially frequents dry, rocky, and arid hillsides, which -are exposed to the sun. Like the adder, it hibernates in tree-trunks -and old walls. It lays from 6 to 15 eggs, from which the living young -immediately issue, provided with poison. It feeds upon small rodents, -worms, insects, and young birds. Raptorial birds, storks, and hedgehogs -pursue it and devour it in large numbers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Vipera aspis._ (Natural size.) (From -the Forest of Fontainebleau.)] - - -Vipera latastii. - -Intermediate between _V. aspis_ and _V. ammodytes_. Snout less turned -up into a corneous appendage than in the latter. Head covered with -small, smooth, or feebly keeled, subimbricate scales, among which -an enlarged frontal shield may sometimes be distinguished; 5-7 -longitudinal series of scales between the supraocular shields; 9-13 -scales round the eyes; 2 or 3 series between the eyes and the labials; -nasal shield entire, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. Body -scales in 21 rows, strongly keeled; 125-147 ventrals; 32-43 subcaudals. - -Coloration grey or brown above, with a longitudinal zigzag band, -usually spotted with white; head with or without spots on the vertex; -black streak behind the eyes; ventral surface grey, spotted with black -and white; tip of the tail usually yellow or with yellow spots. - -Total length, 550-610 millimetres; tail 80-85. - -_Habitat_: Spain and Portugal. - - -Vipera ammodytes. - -(Fig. 21, _3_ and _4_). - -Snout terminated in front by a horny appendage covered with 10-20 -small scales; vertical diameter of the eyes less than the distance -separating them from the mouth; upper surface of the head covered -with small, smooth, or feebly keeled scales, among which an enlarged -frontal and a pair of parietal shields are sometimes distinguishable; -5-7 longitudinal series of scales between the supraoculars; 10-13 -scales round the eyes; two series between the eyes and the labials; -nasal shield entire, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. -Body scales in 21-23 rows, strongly keeled; 133-162 ventrals; 24-38 -subcaudals. - -Coloration grey, brown, or reddish above, with a zigzag dorsal band, -usually spotted with white; black streak behind the eyes; belly grey or -violaceous; end of the tail yellow, orange, or coral-red. - -Total length, 550-640 millimetres; tail 70-80. - -_Habitat_: Southern Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, Hungary, Danubian -principalities and kingdoms, Turkey. Does not pass beyond the 48th -parallel of North Latitude. - -This viper loves very sunny places, and hillsides planted with vines. -It rarely hibernates. - -In districts in which it is plentiful, it is only necessary to light a -fire at night in order to attract this species in swarms; this is the -best method of taking it. - -Its food consists of small rodents, lizards, and birds. - - -_B.--ASIA, DUTCH INDIES, AND PHILIPPINE ISLANDS._ - -The species of snakes most dangerous to man are found in the -warmer regions of Asia. India especially is infested by the famous -Cobra-di-Capello (_Naja tripudians_), which possesses the highly -remarkable faculty of dilating its neck in the form of a hood when -irritated, and whose sculptured image appears on almost all the Hindu -monuments. - -We shall describe in a separate section (see below, F.) the -HYDROPHIINÆ, or _Sea-snakes_, a large number of species of -which frequent the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, -the China Sea, the Moluccas, Celebes, and North Australia. In the case -of certain species the area of distribution includes the whole of -the tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Pacific Ocean, as far as -the West Coast of America. It is therefore preferable to group them -together for the purpose of comprehensive study. - -Besides the above, the continent of Asia harbours a multitude of -poisonous snakes belonging to the two Families COLUBRIDÆ and -VIPERIDÆ. - -The genera and species belonging to these are so diverse, that we must -confine ourselves to mentioning the essential characters of those that -present most interest. - - -I.--FAMILY COLUBRIDÆ. - - { (a) _Bungarus_. - { (b) _Naja_. - Subfamily ELAPINÆ: Genera { (c) _Hemibungarus_. - { (d) _Callophis_. - { (e) _Doliophis_. - - -(a) Bungarus. - -Head hardly distinct from the neck; eyes small, with round or -vertically elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Two -large poison-fangs followed by one or two small, slightly grooved -teeth (fig. 23). Scales smooth, oblique, in 13-17 rows, enlarged and -hexagonal in shape on the vertebral column; ventral scales round. Tail -relatively short; subcaudal scales in one or two rows. - -Two very dangerous snakes found in India and Indo-China belong to this -genus, _B. fasciatus_ and _B. candidus_ (var. _cæruleus_). Both are -fairly common. In Ceylon _B. ceylonicus_ is met with, and in South -China _B. candidus_ (var. _multicinctus_). The length of these snakes -is from 1,000-1,500 millimetres. The back is compressed in the shape of -a keel. The neck is not dilatable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--SKULL OF _Bungarus_. (After -G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - - -1. _B. fasciatus_ (_Banded Krait_). - -Colour bright yellow, ringed with black, with a black band commencing -between the eyes, and broadening behind upon the nape and neck (fig. -24). - -Especially abundant on the Coromandel Coast, in Bengal, and in Burma. -In the North-west Provinces of India it is known as the _Koclia-Krait_. -Its bite is very serious, but does not cause nearly so many fatalities -as that of the _Cobra_, since its fangs are smaller. - -Dogs bitten by _B. fasciatus_ die in from four to five hours. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Bungarus fasciatus_ (India). (After -Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - - -2. _B. candidus._ - -Blackish-brown or bluish, with narrow transverse white streaks, or -small white spots, or alternate rings of yellow and dark brown; belly -white. Smaller than the foregoing, scarcely exceeding 1,000 millimetres -in length. It is known as the “Krait” in India, where, after the -Cobra, the variety _cæruleus_ causes most deaths among human beings. -It is found in jungles and rice-fields, and commonly secretes itself -in old trees and old walls. It frequently penetrates into houses, -verandahs, bathrooms, and even beds. Sir Joseph Fayrer relates the -story of a lady, who, when travelling in a palanquin, found on arriving -at her destination a “Krait” coiled up in her luggage, the snake having -thus made the journey with her throughout a whole night. - -The Krait may easily be confused with _Lycodon aulicus_, a harmless -snake which closely resembles it, though it can at once be -distinguished by examining its mouth. - - -(b) Naja. - -(Fig. 25.) - -Head scarcely distinct from the neck; eyes with round pupils; nostril -between two nasal shields and an internasal. A pair of solid grooved -poison-fangs. Body elongate, cylindrical, terminated by a conical and -pointed tail. Scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in 15-25 rows. Ventral -scales round. - - -_N. tripudians_ (_Cobra-di-Capello_). (Fig. 26.) - -Head small, covered with large shields, a frontal as long as broad, a -supraocular, a præocular, 3 postoculars, 2 + 3 or 3 + 3 temporals, 7 -upper labials, 4 lower labials. Neck dilatable by the separation of -the first cervical ribs; 21-35 scales round the neck, 17-25 round the -middle of the body; 163-205 ventrals; 42-75 subcaudals. - -Total length, 1,500-1,900 millimetres; tail 230. - -Coloration very variable, usually cinereous grey or almost black -with a bluish sheen; belly lighter, sometimes tinted with red. The -head is frequently tinged with golden-yellow; it is spotted with -yellowish-white above, and is pure white underneath. - -This species is distributed throughout the whole of Southern Asia, from -the south of the Caspian Sea to South China and the Malay Archipelago. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Skull of _Naja tripudians_. (After G. -A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -Several varieties occur, and of these the principal are:-- - -(1) Var. _Typica_ (fig. 27), with a black-and-white spectacle-shaped -mark on the middle of the dorsal surface of the most dilatable portion -of the neck, and one or more dark transverse bands on the ventral -surface, behind the head. - -_Habitat_: India, Ceylon. - -(2) Var. _Cæca_.--Colour, pale brown or uniform dark grey, without mark -on the neck, and with one or more dark transverse bands on the anterior -part of the belly. - -_Habitat_: Transcaspian region, India, Java. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Naja tripudians_ -(_Cobra-di-Capello_) ON THE DEFENSIVE, PREPARING TO STRIKE.] - -(3) Var. _Fasciata_.--Colour, brown, olive, or black, with more or less -distinct light transverse bands. White spot edged with black in the -shape of a ring or of a U on the neck, behind; a black spot on each -side in front. - -_Habitat_: India, Indo-China and South China, Hainan, Cambodia, Siam, -Malay Peninsula. - -(4) Var. _Sputatrix_.--Black or dark brown, with yellow or -orange-coloured spots on the sides of the head and neck. The young have -a pale spot in the shape of a U or an O on the middle of the dorsal -surface of the neck, and the throat is whitish. - -_Habitat_: Chusan Islands and South China, Burma, Malay Peninsula, -Sumatra, Java. - -(5) Var. _Leucodira_.--Brown or black, without mark on the neck. Throat -yellowish-white, followed by a black transverse band. - -_Habitat_: Sumatra, Malay Peninsula. - -(6) Var. _Miolepis_.--Brown or black; sides of the head and throat -yellowish, no mark on the neck. Young with white rings completely -encircling the body and tail. - -_Habitat_: Sarawak, Labuan, Borneo. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Naja tripudians_ -(_Cobra-di-Capello_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - - -_Naja samarensis._ - -Internasal shields shorter than the præfrontals, and in contact with -the præoculars; 1-3 large occipital shields behind the parietals; 1 -præocular and 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 temporals; 7 supralabials, -4 infralabials; 21-23 scales across the neck, 17-19 across the middle -of the body; 159-175 ventrals; 45-50 subcaudals. - -Coloration black or sometimes yellowish above; pale brown or yellowish -on the belly; neck black. - -Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 160. - -_Habitat_: Philippine Islands. - - -_Naja bungarus_ (_Ophiophagus_ or _Hamadryas elaps_). - -(King Cobra or Hamadryad.) - -A pair of large occipital shields; 1 præocular; 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 -temporals; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials; 19-21 scales across the -neck, 15 across the middle of the body; 215-262 ventral scales, 80-117 -subcaudals. Neck dilatable. - -Coloration very variable, yellowish, brown, olive, or black, with or -without dark transverse bands. - -Total length, 3,900 millimetres; tail 630. - -_Habitat_: India, Burma, Indo-China, Siam, Southern China, Malay -Peninsula and Archipelago. - - * * * * * - -The species of _Naja_ are oviparous, and usually lay some twenty eggs, -elliptical in shape and as large as those of a pigeon, with a soft -shell. - -These snakes do not fear the proximity of man, and feed upon rats, -mice, and birds; they seek their prey chiefly in the evening, after -sunset. - -They swim extremely well, and frequent the neighbourhood of -water-courses. - -Indian legends relate that Brahma, having descended on earth and fallen -asleep one day at high noon, a _Naja_ placed itself in front of him -and, dilating its broad neck, procured for him kindly shade. In order -to repay it for the service rendered, Brahma gave _Naja_ the marks -that it bears on its neck, intended to frighten the kites and other -birds of prey, which are implacable enemies of this snake. - -When a native of the Malabar Coast finds a _Naja_ in his dwelling, he -begs it in a friendly way to depart; if the request be without avail, -he offers it food in order to attract it outside; if the snake still -does not move, the Hindu goes in search of the pious servitors of -one of his divinities, who, procuring an offering, address the most -touching supplications to it (_Brehm_). - -The mortality due to the bite of this snake, which is by far the most -common in India, is considerable. In the course of a period of eight -years, from 1880 to 1887, it amounted on the average to 19,880 human -beings and 2,100 head of cattle every year. - -In 1889, 22,480 persons and 3,793 head of cattle perished from -snake-bite. Since then, the annual tale of fatalities always fluctuates -between 16,000 and 22,000, in spite of the rewards for the destruction -of snakes which the Indian Government has been obliged to institute, -which represent an expenditure of about £10,000 per annum. - -For every 100 persons bitten, it is estimated that on an average from -25 to 30 die, and in most cases death supervenes in from two to twelve -hours after the bite. - -_Naja bungarus_, or the Hamadryad, is the largest and most formidable -of poisonous snakes. It is very vigorous and very aggressive, but is -more rarely met with than _Naja tripudians_. It loves the vicinity of -rivers and streams, lives in forests and jungles, and climbs trees with -facility. It feeds upon other snakes (whence its name _Ophiophagus_), -and also on birds, fish, and small mammals. - -Hindu snake-charmers assert that it is very difficult to capture, and -dangerous owing to its strength; they handle it only after having -extracted its poison-fangs. - -A very intelligent Hindu told Torrens how he had seen the way in which -the Hamadryad procures the snakes that form its favourite food. The -Hindu in question happened to be on the flat roof of his house, when -a young Hamadryad appeared quite close to him. The snake raised its -head, expanded its neck, and emitted a shrill hissing noise. Thereupon -a dozen snakes came crawling up from all directions and assembled round -the Hamadryad, when the latter made a dart at one of them and hastened -to devour it (_Fayrer_). - -The Hamadryad is dreaded with good reason, for not only is it -aggressive, and hurls itself boldly upon its adversary, but it also -pursues him, a trait exhibited by no other poisonous snake. - -Cantor relates that in Assam an officer met with several young -Hamadryads which were being watched over by their mother. The latter -turned towards its enemy, who took to his heels with all speed, pursued -by the terrible reptile. The course taken led to a river, which the -fugitive did not hesitate to swim in order to gain the opposite bank, -hoping thus to make good his escape; all, however, to no purpose. -The snake still pursued him, and the officer saved himself only by a -stratagem. He dashed his turban on the ground; the snake threw itself -upon it and savagely bit it several times, thus giving the officer time -to reach a place of safety. - -Cantor’s experiments show that the venom of the Hamadryad is extremely -rapid in its action. A dog usually dies a quarter of an hour after -being bitten, and Nicholson states that he has seen an elephant bitten -by a snake of this species die in three hours. - - -(c) =Hemibungarus.= - -This genus includes several species of snakes of somewhat small -size, rarely exceeding 700 millimetres in length, with an elongate, -cylindrical body; the head is scarcely distinct from the neck, the -pupil round, and the tail short, while the nostril is situate between -two nasal shields. The temporal shields are arranged in a single row. -The poison-glands sometimes extend into the abdominal cavity. Scales -in 13 or 15 rows; 190-260 ventrals, 12-44 subcaudals in 2 rows. - -Four species belonging to this genus are known:-- - -(1) _H. calligaster._--2 + 3 temporal scales, 6 supralabials. - -Colour purple, with black transverse bands separated by narrow white -bars; belly and end of tail red; snout yellow, with a black band on the -upper lip below the eyes. - -Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: Philippine Islands. - -(2) _H. collaris._--No anterior temporal scales. - -Colour black on the back, with black and red bands on the belly; a -yellow collar on the occiput. - -Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 15. - -_Habitat_: Philippine Islands. - -(3) _H. nigrescens._--Scales in 13 rows. A single temporal scale; -218-251 ventrals; 33-44 subcaudals. - -Belly uniformly red; upper lip yellow in front of and behind the eyes. - -Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 115. - -_Habitat_: Hills of Western India, from Bombay to Travancore. - -(4) _H. japonicus._--Scales in 13 rows; 190-216 ventrals; 28-29 -subcaudals; temporals 1 + 1. - -Colour red on the back, with 1-5 black bands crossed by other black -bands edged with yellow. Snout and sides of head black. Belly yellow, -with large black spots alternating with black transverse bands. - -Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Loo Choo Islands. - - -(d) =Callophis.= - -This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending forwards -beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs, but without -other teeth. Head and eyes small, pupils round; nostril between two -nasal shields. Body cylindrical, greatly elongate. Scales smooth, in 13 -rows; ventrals rounded; subcaudals in 2 rows. - -Five species are known:-- - -(1) _C. gracilis._--Red or pale brown, with three longitudinal black -lines passing through brown, or black spots; the lateral spots -alternating with the vertebræ. Black and yellow bands under the tail -and on the belly. - -Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: Malay Peninsula, Sumatra. - -(2) _C. trimaculatus._--Head and nape black, with a yellow spot on each -side of the occiput; belly uniform red; tail with two black rings. - -Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 21. - -_Habitat_: India and Burma. - -(3) _C. maculiceps._--Head and nape black, with one or two yellow bands -on each side. Belly red, two black rings on the tail. Diameter of the -eyes equal to two-thirds of the space separating them from the mouth. - -Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula. - -(4) _C. macclellandii._--Head and neck black, with a yellow transverse -band behind the eyes. The space separating the eyes equal to that -separating them from the mouth. Colour reddish-brown on the back, with -regular and equi-distant black streaks; belly yellow, with black bands -or quadrangular spots. The head exhibits two black transverse bands -separated by a yellow band. - -Total length, 620 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma, Southern China. - -(5) _C. bibronii._--Met with by Beddome in the forests of Malabar, at -an altitude of 3,280 feet. Back purplish-brown, with a pearly lustre, -and about forty irregular black transverse bands, extending to the tip -of the tail. Head black in front, cherry-red on the occiput. - -Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Malabar. - - * * * * * - -All the snakes belonging to the genus _Callophis_ are remarkable -for their bright and varied colours, whence the generic name, which -signifies “_beautiful snakes_.” - -They feed exclusively on other snakes belonging to the Family -_Calamaridæ_; consequently they are not found in regions where -_Calamaridæ_ do not occur, as, for instance, in Ceylon. - -They are essentially terrestrial, and live in old tree-trunks, or -clefts in rocks. They are sluggish, slow-moving, and chiefly nocturnal. - -As a rule they do not seek either to defend themselves or to bite; -consequently fatal accidents caused by them are scarcely known in the -case of human beings. Their venom, however, is very toxic to animals. - - -(e) =Doliophis.= - -This genus exhibits the same characters as _Callophis_, except that the -poison-glands, instead of being confined to the temporal region, extend -a very long way on each side of the body, to about one-third of its -length, gradually growing thicker and terminating at the base of the -heart. - -It includes four species:-- - -(1) _D. bivirgatus._--Colour reddish-purple or black on the back, red -on the head, tail, and belly. - -Total length, 1,610 millimetres; tail 190. - -_Habitat_: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and -Borneo. - -(2) _D. intestinalis._--Brown or black on the back, with darker or -lighter longitudinal streaks; tail red beneath; belly red, crossed with -black streaks. - -Total length, 580 millimetres; tail 45. - -_Habitat_: Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes. - -(3) _D. bilineatus._--Black on the back, with two white streaks along -the whole length of the body. Snout white; belly striped with black and -white bands. Tail orange, with two or three black rings or spots. - -Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 45. - -_Habitat_: Philippine Islands. - -(4) _D. philippinus._--Back with dark brown cross-bands, merging into -black transverse ventral streaks, which are separated by yellow or red -interspaces. Head brown, with small yellow spots. - -Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: Philippine Islands. - - -II.--FAMILY VIPERIDÆ. - -The Family VIPERIDÆ is represented in Asia by a considerable -number of snakes belonging to the two Subfamilies VIPERINÆ and -CROTALINÆ. - -The Asiatic VIPERINÆ belong to the genera:-- - - (a) _Vipera._ - (b) _Pseudocerastes._ - (c) _Cerastes._ - (d) _Echis._ - -The CROTALINÆ consist of only two genera:-- - - (e) _Ancistrodon._ - (f) _Lachesis._ - - -1.--VIPERINÆ. - - -(a) =Vipera.= - -We shall not recapitulate here the characters of the Genus _Vipera_, -which we described in dealing with the vipers of Europe. The genus is -represented by several species, the geographical range of which is -chiefly confined to Eastern and Central Asia. - - * * * * * - -(1) _Vipera renardi._--Resembles _V. berus_, but the snout is pointed -and soft, with a turned-up tip; a single series of scales between the -eyes and the lips; nostril pierced in the lower half of a single nasal -shield; 8-9 supralabial shields; 4 infralabials. Body scales in 21 -rows; 130-150 ventrals; 24-37 subcaudals. - -Coloration the same as in the European _V. ursinii_, but the snout and -lips are spotted with black or brown. - -Total length, 395-620 millimetres; tail 40-75. - -_Habitat:_ Central Asia, Turkestan. - - * * * * * - -(2) _V. raddii._--Snout rounded; supraocular shields erectile; eyes -surrounded by a complete circle of 14-17 scales; 9-10 supralabials; -body scales in 23 rows; 150-180 ventrals; 23-32 subcaudals. - -Coloration pale brown or grey on the back, with a dorsal series of -small reddish spots arranged in alternating pairs. A black mark like -a circumflex accent on the occiput, and a black band behind the eyes. -Belly yellow, speckled with black and white. - -Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Armenia. - - * * * * * - -(3) _V. lebetina._--Snout rounded and obtuse, with a well-marked -prominence; 7-12 longitudinal series of scales between the eyes; -supraocular shields well developed or narrow, or broken up into several -small portions; 12-18 scales round the eyes; 9-12 supralabials; 4-5 -infralabials; body scales in 23-27 rows; 147-180 ventrals; 29-51 -subcaudals. - -Coloration variable, grey or pale brown on the back, with a series of -large dark spots. Large brown mark like a circumflex accent on the -crown of the head and another on the occiput. Belly whitish, speckled -with grey-brown; end of tail yellow. - -Total length, 960 millimetres; tail 120. The female may attain the -length of 1,350 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Cyprus, Galilee, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaspia, Persia, -Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Cashmir. - - * * * * * - -(4) _V. russellii_ (Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). (Fig. 28.)--This -viper, which may attain a length of as much as 2,000 millimetres, is -magnificently coloured. Its dorsal surface is brownish-yellow, marked -with large oval spots of blackish-brown, edged with yellow or white. -The belly is covered with transverse bands, with beautiful triangular -black spots, bordered with white. The head, which is long, ends in -front in a thick, rounded snout; it is covered above with small keeled -scales. The nostril, which is large and laterally placed, is surrounded -by three shields and soft smooth skin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Vipera russellii_ (Syn. _Vipera -elegans_. Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). India. - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -The species is found throughout India, from Bombay to Bengal, in -Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. It is particularly common in Burma, around -Rangoon. For walking in the jungle and rice-fields, the natives of this -region encase their feet and legs in a special kind of jack-boots made -of coarse jute-cloth, in order to protect themselves from the bites of -this snake, which cause a large number of fatal accidents. - -The Daboia ascends the Himalayas to an altitude of 5,250 feet. It lives -in thickets, under stones, and in the clefts of rocks. When disturbed -it makes a terrible hissing, but bites only when attacked or irritated. - -It feeds upon small vertebrates, such as mice, rats, birds, and frogs, -and often enters houses in pursuit of rats. - -“Schrott had the opportunity of observing a Daboia on the defensive. A -lady carrying a child on her arm was returning home towards evening; -she had almost reached her house when a bulldog accompanying her -began to bark furiously. Although the lady saw nothing, she was, -nevertheless, frightened and called for help. Schrott, who was not -far away, ran to the spot, and saw a Daboia lying across the path by -which the lady had to proceed. The reptile had its neck thrown back and -its head in a horizontal position; its bright eyes followed all the -movements of the dog, to whose barks it replied by shrill hisses. It -was only waiting for an opportunity to strike. Schrott called off the -dog, and the snake at once disappeared among the high grass close by. -Next day it was killed at the same spot” (_Brehm_). - -The venom of this viper is terribly potent. According to Russell, a -large dog exhibited symptoms of poisoning five minutes after being -bitten. At the end of a quarter of an hour it lay down, uttering -heartrending cries, began to breathe with difficulty and noisily, was -seized with spasms of the jaws and cramps, and died in frightful agony -less than half an hour after the wound was inflicted. Fowls in most -cases die in less than two minutes. A horse succumbed in half an hour, -and another in eleven hours. - -It appears that in India many cattle are killed by Daboias while -grazing (_Fayrer_). - - -(b) =Pseudocerastes.= - -(Fig. 29.) - -This genus is represented by a single species (_Pseudocerastes -persicus_), which appears to be exclusively confined to Persia. - -The head is very distinct from the neck, and covered with small -imbricate scales; the eyes, which are small, have vertical pupils; -they are separated from the lips by small scales. The nostrils are -directed upwards and outwards. The snout is very short and rounded. -The cylindrical body has 23-25 rows of scales; 151-156 ventrals; 43-49 -subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Pseudocerastes persicus._ (After -Duméril and Bibron.)] - -The coloration is gray or brown, with four series of large black spots, -and the head exhibits two longitudinal black streaks behind the eyes. -The belly is whitish, dotted with black. - -Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 110. - - -(c) =Cerastes.= - -The vipers belonging to this genus are much more common in North -Africa, and we shall therefore study them in conjunction with the -African snakes. _Cerastes cornutus_ alone, the special habitat of which -is Egypt, is sometimes met with in Arabia and on the eastern bank of -the Suez Canal. - - -(d) =Echis.= - -_Echis carinatus_ (the Phoorsa). (Fig. 30).--This viper is -characterised by the subcaudal shields being arranged in a single row. -It is savage and very aggressive, being always ready to attack. Its -length does not exceed 600 millimetres at the most. The colour of the -body is grey, more or less dark and adorned with streaks, spots, and -dots of blackish-brown. The back displays yellowish-white wavy lines, -forming X-shaped markings. The upper side of the head exhibits a yellow -spot surrounded by brown, and other small black spots, the whole -arrangement forming a fairly good representation of a cross. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Echis carinatus._ India. (After Sir -Joseph Fayrer.)] - -This species is found in India, Persia, Baluchistan, Arabia, and -Palestine; while, as we shall see, it also occurs in Africa. It is -fairly common in the environs of Aden. - -In moving over the ground a peculiar sound is produced by the friction -of its scales. It is capable of springing with great agility a fairly -long distance on to its prey. When it believes itself in danger it -coils up, doubling its body twice in the shape of a crescent, in the -middle of which it places its head, ready to strike. Its venom is very -rapid in taking effect. - - -2.--CROTALINÆ. - - -(e) =Ancistrodon.= - -The snakes belonging to this genus of _Crotalinæ_ are found in Central -and Eastern Asia, but three important species occur in the New World, -in the United States and Central America. The head is covered with -nine large symmetrical shields, but the internasals and præfrontals -are sometimes broken up into scales. The body is cylindrical; the tail -rather short; the subcaudal scales are arranged in one or two rows. - - * * * * * - -_A. acutus._--The snout of this snake is prolonged into an appendage -directed forwards. The head-shields are finely granulate. Body scales -arranged in 21 rows; 162-166 ventrals; 58-60 subcaudals. - -Coloration brown on the back, with blackish-brown X-shaped spots; head -dark brown, yellow on the cheeks, with a black band running from the -eye to the angle of the jaw; belly yellowish, spotted with brown, with -a series of large black transverse blotches. - -Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 200. - -_Habitat_: Upper Yang-tse, China. - -_A. halys._--Snout prolonged into an upturned appendage, blunt at the -tip; 7-8 supralabial scales, the third of which forms part of the -margin of the eye; body scales in 23 rows; 149-174 ventrals; 31-44 -subcaudals. - -Coloration yellowish, grey, red, or pale brown above, with darker spots -or cross-bars. A black spot on the snout; two black spots on the -vertex; a dark, light-edged band on the temple; belly whitish, more or -less speckled with grey or brown. - -Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 65. - -_Habitat_: From the borders of the Caspian Sea and the Ural River to -the Upper Yenisei; Turkestan. - -_A. intermedius._--Resembles the foregoing very closely, but the snout -is not turned up at the end. - -Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 85. - -_Habitat_: Central Asia, Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, and Japan. - - * * * * * - -_A. blomhoffii._--Similar to _A. halys_, but the snout is not turned up -at the end, and the body scales are in 21 rows; 137-166 ventral scales; -29-55 subcaudals. - -Coloration very variable; grey, brown, or red above, with large -black-edged spots arranged in pairs; black, light-edged band on the -temple; upper lip uniformly yellow or red; belly yellow or reddish, -more or less spotted with black, or almost entirely black. - -Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, China, Japan, Siam. - - * * * * * - -_A. himalayanus._--Snout scarcely turned up, with a hard tip; 5-7 -supralabial shields. Body scales in 21 (rarely 23) rows; 144-166 -ventrals; subcaudals in 35-51 pairs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Ancistrodon hypnale._ - -(The _Carawalla_ of Ceylon.) - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - -Coloration brown, with black spots or transverse bands; black, -light-edged band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly dark -brown, or more or less whitish. - -Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Himalayas (5,000 to 10,000 feet), especially in the -North-west; Khasi Hills. - -This snake feeds chiefly on mice. - - * * * * * - -_A. rhodostoma._--Snout pointed, somewhat turned up at the tip: 7-9 -supralabial shields; body scales in 21 rows; 138-157 ventrals; 34-54 -subcaudal pairs. - -Coloration reddish, grey, or pale brown above, with large angular, dark -brown, black-edged spots arranged in pairs or alternating. Vertebral -line almost black; lips yellow, speckled with brown; brown, black-edged -band, running from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Belly yellowish, -spotted with greyish-brown. - -Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Java. - - * * * * * - -_A. hypnale_ (fig. 31).--Snout more or less turned up, with a hard, -pointed end; 7-8 supralabial shields; body scales in 17 rows; 125-155 -ventrals; 28-45 subcaudal pairs. - -Coloration very variable; brown, yellowish, or greyish above, sometimes -with dark brown spots or transverse bands. Cheeks brown, with a -longitudinal, white, black-edged streak on each side of the neck. Belly -more or less speckled with dark brown. - -Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 65. - -_Habitat_: Ceylon, and Western Ghats of India as far north as Bombay. - -In Ceylon this snake is known as the _Carawalla_. It is much dreaded, -but its bite is not rapidly fatal. - - -(f) =Lachesis.= - -This genus has many representatives in Asia and the New World. The -American species are for the most part of larger size and more -formidable. - -They are characterised by a triangular head, covered with small scales -or small shields, and by a cylindrical or compressed body. The Asiatic -species have the subcaudal scales in two rows and the tail short, and -often prehensile, which enables them to climb trees or bushes, where -they lie in wait for their prey. - -Their classification is based upon the following characters:-- - -A. First infralabial scale in contact with its fellow. - -I. Scales in 21-25 (rarely 27) rows; 129-158 ventrals; 21-57 -subcaudals; 5-9 series of scales between the supraocular shields; tail -_non-prehensile_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Lachesis okinavensis._ (After G. A. -Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -(1) _L. monticola._--Supraocular shields large, separated by 5-8 -scales; snout obtuse. - -Colour brown or yellowish above, brown or pale yellow on the sides, -with a brown temporal streak. Belly white, spotted with brown. - -Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 115. - -_Habitat_: Tibet, Himalayas (2,000 to 8,000 feet), Hills of Assam, -Burma, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra. - -(2) _L. okinavensis_ (fig. 32).--Supraocular shields large, separated -by a transverse series of 6-9 scales; end of snout pointed and turned -up. - -Colour brown above, with dark transverse bands and a light temporal -streak. Belly brown, spotted with black, especially on the sides. - -Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: Okinawa, Loo Choo Islands. - -(3) _L. strigatus._--Supraocular shields small, sometimes broken up, -separated by 8-11 convex scales in juxtaposition. - -Colour brown above, with black spots often forming a median zigzag -band; temporal band black; belly whitish, spotted with grey or black; -end of tail yellow or reddish. - -Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: Hills near Bombay, Deccan, Anamallays and Nilgherries. - - * * * * * - -II. Scales in 27-37 rows; 174-231 ventrals; 54-90 subcaudals; tail -_non-prehensile_. - -(4) _L. flavoviridis._--Scales in 33-37 rows; 222-231 ventrals; 75-90 -subcaudals; 8-9 supralabials. - -Coloration pale brown or greenish-yellow above, marbled with black; -longitudinal black streaks symmetrically disposed on the head; belly -yellow or greenish, with darker spots. - -Total length, 1,215 millimetres; tail 220. - -_Habitat_: Loo Choo Islands. - -This snake is not infrequently termed by naturalists _Trimeresurus -riukianus_. - -(5) _L. cantoris._--Scales in 27-31 rows; 174-184 ventrals; 55-76 -subcaudals; 13 supralabials. - -Coloration pale brown or dull green, with small black spots; a whitish -streak along the sides of the body; belly white or greenish. - -Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 140. - -_Habitat_: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. - -III. Scales in 21-27 rows; 160-218 ventrals; 54-92 subcaudals; tail -_not or scarcely prehensile_. - -(6) _L. jerdonii._--7-9 scales in a line between the supraocular -shields; scales in 21 or 23 rows; 164-188 ventrals; 54-67 subcaudals. - -Coloration greenish-yellow or olive above, mixed with black, a dorsal -series of reddish-brown transverse rhomboidal spots; upper lip yellow, -with one or two black spots; belly yellow, more or less marbled with -black. - -Total length, 930 millimetres; tail 145. - -_Habitat_: Assam, Tibet, Upper Yang-tse. - -(7) _L. mucrosquamatus._--10-15 scales in a line between the -supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; 183-218 ventrals; 72-92 -subcaudals. Colour brownish-grey above, with a series of large black -median spots and smaller ones on the sides; a black streak from the eye -to the angle of the mouth; belly brownish, spotted with white. - -Total length, 1,050 millimetres; tail 210. - -_Habitat_: Formosa, Assam. - -(8) _L. luteus._--12 or 13 scales in a line between the supraocular -shields; scales in 23-25 rows; 182-186 ventrals; 72-74 subcaudals; -supraocular shields large. - -Colour yellow above, with a series of dark rhomboidal spots, and a -dorsal, black-spotted zigzag band; a black streak on each side of the -head behind the eyes; belly yellowish, spotted with grey. - -Total length, 945 millimetres; tail 164. - -_Habitat_: Loo Choo Islands. - -(9) _L. purpureomaculatus._--12-15 scales in a line between the -supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; ventrals 160-182; subcaudals -55-76; supraocular shield very narrow, sometimes broken up. - -Coloration purplish-black above, sometimes variegated with pale green; -flanks pale green; belly olive or greenish-white, uniform or spotted -with black. Some specimens are entirely green. - -Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150. - -_Habitat_: Himalayas, Bengal, Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Andaman -and Nicobar Islands, Pulo-Pinang, Sumatra. - -IV. Scales in 21 rows (rarely 19 or 23); 7-13 series of scales between -the supraoculars; tail _more or less prehensile_. - -(10) _L. gramineus_ (Syn. _Trimeresurus gramineus_. The Green Pit -Viper).--145-175 ventral scales; 53-75 subcaudals; snout slightly -projecting; supraocular shield narrow. - -Colour bright green, rarely olive or yellowish, with or without darker -transverse bands; end of tail yellow or red; belly green, yellow, or -white. - -Total length, 870 millimetres; tail 150. - -_Habitat_: South-eastern Asia, Darjeeling, Himalayas, Ganges Delta, -Siam, Southern China, Hong Kong, Formosa, Java, Sumatra, Timor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Lachesis flavomaculatus._ (After G. -A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -(11) _L. flavomaculatus_ (fig. 33).--170-187 ventral scales; 53-73 -subcaudals; snout projecting, obliquely truncate; supraocular shield -narrow. - -Colour bright green or olive, sometimes barred with reddish-brown; -belly green, olive, or greenish-yellow; end of tail sometimes red. - -Total length, 1,060 millimetres; tail 160. - -_Habitat_: Philippine Islands. - -(12) _L. sumatranus._--180-191 ventral scales; 58-82 subcaudals; -supraocular shield large. - -Coloration bright green, with or without black transverse bands; -yellowish band on each side; belly yellow or green, with or without -black speckles; end of tail red. - -Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 180. - -_Habitat_: Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Palawan. - -(13) _L. anamallensis._--138-158 ventral scales; 44-58 subcaudals. - -Colour green, olive, yellowish, or reddish-brown; a black temporal -band; belly pale green, olive, or yellow; tail usually black and yellow. - -Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 110. - -_Habitat_: Anamallay and Nilgherry Hills, South India. - -(14) _L. trigonocephalus._--Scales in 17-19 rows, 145-170 ventrals; -53-67 subcaudals. - -Coloration green, with or without black transverse bands or spots; a -black temporal streak; belly green or yellow; end of tail usually black. - -Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 130. - -_Habitat_: Ceylon. - -(15) _L. macrolepis._--Scales in 13-15 rows; 134-143 ventrals; 48-56 -subcaudals. - -Colour bright green or olive; belly pale green. - -Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 120. - -_Habitat_: Southern India. - -B. First lower labial shield divided; the portion separated off forms -a pair of small supplementary dental shields; 144-176 ventral scales; -38-57 subcaudals; tail _prehensile_. - -(16) _L. puniceus._--Scales in 21-23 rows; 12-14 series of scales -between the supraocular shields. - -Colour grey, brown, or red; belly spotted with brown; end of tail red. - -Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Natuna Islands. - -(17) _L. borneensis._--Scales in 19-21 rows; 10-11 series of scales -between the supraocular shields; 152-168 ventrals; 43-65 subcaudals. - -Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 105. - -_Habitat_: Borneo, Sumatra. - -C. (18) _L. wagleri._--Scales in 19-27 rows, 127-154 ventrals; 45-55 -subcaudals; tail _prehensile_. - -Colour green, with darker or lighter markings, black and yellow, or -nearly entirely black. - -Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150. - -_Habitat_: Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. - - -_C.--AFRICA._ - -In Africa, poisonous snakes abound throughout the whole of the tropical -and sub-tropical zones. The fatal accidents to human beings caused by -them in this continent are fewer than in India, since the population of -Africa is less dense, but several species occur, the venom of which is -especially dangerous to life. - -These species belong in nearly equal numbers to the Families -COLUBRIDÆ and VIPERIDÆ. - - -I.--COLUBRIDÆ. - -The poisonous COLUBRIDÆ of Africa are all included in the -Subfamily _Elapinæ_, of which the following are the eight principal -genera:-- - - (a) _Boulengerina._ - (b) _Elapechis._ - (c) _Naja._ - (d) _Sepedon._ - (e) _Aspidelaps._ - (f) _Walterinnesia._ - (g) _Homorelaps._ - (h) _Dendraspis._ - - -(a) =Boulengerina.= - -A small snake 240 millimetres in length, the principal characters of -which are as follows:-- - -Maxillary bones equal to the palatines in length, with a pair of -relatively large poison-fangs, followed by three or four small teeth. - -Head hardly distinct from the neck. Eye small, with round pupil; -nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in -21 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal scales in 2 rows. - -The only known species, _B. stormsi_, is brown, with black transverse -bars on the neck; tail black; belly white in front, brown behind, with -a black border to the scales. - -It is found in the region of Lake Tanganyika. - - -(b) =Elapechis.= - -This genus is characterised by the size of the maxillary bones, which -is equal to that of the palatines; a pair of large poison-fangs -followed by two to four small teeth; head not distinct from the -neck; eye small with round pupil; nostril between two nasal shields. -Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth, in 13 or 15 rows; ventrals -rounded. Tail very short, subcaudal shields in 2 rows. - -Six species are known:-- - -(1) _E. guentheri._--Scales in 13 rows. Snout short, rounded; -first lower labial shield in contact with its neighbour behind the -symphysis. Internasal shorter than the præfrontals; length of frontal -three-fourths of that of the parietals. - -Coloration whitish or grey above, with black, white-edged cross-bands. -Belly dirty white, brownish, or grey. - -Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Gaboon, Congo, Angola, Central Africa. - -(2) _E. niger._--Snout and arrangement of scales as before. Internasal -shields three-fourths of the length of the præfrontals; frontal -two-thirds of the length of the parietals. - -Colour, black all over. - -Total length, 420 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: Zanzibar. - -(3) _E. hessii._--Snout as in foregoing. Symphysial shield of the lower -lip in contact with the anterior chin-shields. - -Colour grey, with black cross-bars; a series of black spots on the -sides, between the bars; large black blotch on nape; belly white. - -Total length, 160 millimetres; tail 12. - -_Habitat_: Congo. - -(4) _E. decosteri._--Snout obtusely pointed. - -Colour, dark grey, each scale edged with black; belly white. - -Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 38. - -_Habitat_: Delagoa Bay. - -(5) _E. sundevallii._--Snout obtusely pointed. - -Colour reddish-brown, with yellow transverse bands, the scales in which -are edged with reddish-brown; upper lip and belly yellow. - -Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 43. - -_Habitat_: Caffraria. - -(6) _E. boulengeri._--Scales in 15 rows. - -Colour black on the back, with narrow white transverse bands; -head white, with a black streak along the parietal suture; belly -blackish-grey. - -Total length, 170 millimetres; tail 14. - -_Habitat_: Zambesi. - - -(c) =Naja.= - -(For the characters of this genus, see Asia, p. 33.) - -Six species of _Naja_ are found in Africa:-- - -(1) _N. haje_ or _haie_.--Scales in 21-23 rows on the neck, which is -dilatable, although slightly less so than that of _N. tripudians_, the -Cobra-di-Capello of India. - -Six or seven large supralabial shields, sixth or seventh in contact -with the lower postocular. Eyes separated from the labial shields by -the suboculars. 191-214 ventral scales; 53-64 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish, olive, or uniform black; belly yellowish; black or -brown band on the neck; head sometimes blackish. - -Total length, 1,180 millimetres; tail 290. - -_Habitat_: Borders of the Sahara, Egypt, Southern Palestine, East -Africa as far south as Mozambique. - - * * * * * - -_Naja haje_ (the Egyptian Cobra) is common throughout the Nile Basin, -the Sudan and Central Africa. Livingstone mentions it several times. -In Egypt it is met with in the vicinity of ruined monuments, under the -large blocks of stone or among brushwood. - -The Egyptians are greatly in dread of it, and hunt it down as often -as possible. When pursued, _N. haje_ turns bravely and faces its -adversary, raising itself upon its tail, puffing out its neck and -hissing fiercely. If too hard pressed it strikes at its enemy. - -“A friend of mine,” writes Anderson, “had great difficulty in escaping -from one of these snakes. While botanising one day a _Naja_ passed -quite close to him. My friend darted backwards with all speed, but the -_Naja_ pursued and was about to attack him, when he stumbled against -an ant-hill and fell flat on his back. This, no doubt, frightened the -snake, which disappeared in a twinkling.” - -Another case of the same kind is narrated by Waller, who writes: “A -young girl met with her death in a truly dramatic fashion. She was -walking behind some porters on a narrow path, when suddenly an Aspic -came out of a thick bush, attacked and bit her in the thigh; in spite -of all efforts to save her the unfortunate girl died in less than ten -minutes.” This instance, which is absolutely authentic, proves the -truth of the statements made by various travellers. Natives assert -that a full-grown _Naja_ invariably pursues either a man or an animal, -however large, when either passes within its range (Brehm). - -Snake-charmers, of whom there are many in Egypt, always employ _Naja -haje_ for their performances. They know how to capture it, and tear out -its fangs by making it bite a bundle of rags. - -This species rarely lives more than six or eight months in captivity, -and is quite untamable. It is fond of bathing, and remains in the water -for hours together. - -“The Ancient Egyptians,” write Duméril and Bibron,[3] “are known to -have worshipped the _Naja_, which they regarded as the protector of -their crops. They allowed it to live and multiply among the cultivated -lands, which they apparently entrusted to the care of their tutelary -guardian, recognising that this snake freed them from the ravages -of the rats, the immense number of which otherwise caused terrible -destruction and even actual famine. It was, therefore, from motives of -gratitude that the Egyptian Cobra was venerated in this way; that its -image was hung up in the temples; that its skin was embalmed; and that -its effigy, so easy to recognise and to reproduce roughly, was graven -or sculptured on the stones of their monuments. This is the explanation -of the fact that paintings representing _N. haje_ are frequently -reproduced in hieroglyphics and on Egyptian sarcophagi.” - -The _Naja_ was the tutelary deity of the temples, whose duty was to -prevent the profane from entering. Thus, in one of the crypts of -Denderah we find represented _Serpent-genie_, figures with a head like -that of a _Naja_ supported by the body of a man, with the hands armed -with enormous cutlasses (Mariette, _Dendérah_, p. 91, 1875). - - * * * * * - -(2) _N. flava._--Same arrangement of scales. Neck dilatable. 200-227 -ventrals; 50-67 subcaudals. - -Colour very variable, yellowish, reddish, brown, or black, uniform or -with light spots; sometimes a black transverse band on the neck. - -Total length, 1,470 millimetres; tail 230. - -_Habitat_: South Africa. - -(3) _N. melanoleuca._--Coloration very variable. Sides of the head -yellow or whitish; labial shields tinged with black on the posterior -edge. - -Total length, 2,400 millimetres; tail 400. - -_Habitat_: Tropical Africa. - -(4) _N. nigricollis._--Third supralabial shield the deepest, sixth and -seventh not in contact with the postoculars; 183-228 ventral scales; -55-68 subcaudals. - -Coloration very variable; lower surface of the neck with a black -transverse bar. - -Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 300. - -_Habitat_: From Senegambia and Upper Egypt to Angola and the Transvaal. - -(5) _N. anchietæ._--Scales in 17 rows on the neck and on the body; -181-192 ventrals; 52-62 subcaudals. - -Colour blackish or brown above; end of snout and cheeks yellow; belly -yellow or pale brown, with or without black cross-bar under the neck. - -Total length, 1,800 millimetres; tail 340. - -_Habitat_: Angola and Ovamboland. - -(6) _N. goldii._--Eyes large, two-thirds the length of the snout -in adults. Scales in 15 rows on the neck and on the body; 194--195 -ventrals; 88 subcaudals. - -Colour black, uniform, or with transverse series of small whitish -spots; cheeks and end of snout white, with a black border at the margin -of the shields; belly white in front, black behind; subcaudal scales -black. - -Total length, 1,750 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Lower Niger. - - -(d) =Sepedon.= - -Maxillary bones projecting considerably beyond the palatines, with a -pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head not distinct -from neck; eyes of moderate size, with round pupils; nostril between -two nasal shields and an internasal. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, -keeled, in 19 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal scales -in 2 rows. - -_S. hæmachates_ (The Spitting Snake, or Ring Hals Slang).--This snake, -which is about 700 millimetres in length, is of a bluish-brown colour, -with numerous narrow, undulating and denticulate cross-bands of yellow -or yellowish-white. The throat is black or dark red; the belly grey. - -It is met with throughout West, East, and South Africa, as far as the -Cape of Good Hope, where it is very common. It lives among bushes in -sandy places, where the ground is full of the holes of rats, moles, -and small rodents, upon which it feeds. It is very active and exhibits -great ferocity. - -Natives at the Cape declare that this snake is able to project its -venom to a distance of more than a yard, especially if the wind is -blowing in the same direction, and that, if the poison happens to enter -the eye, the inflammation that results therefrom often leads to loss of -sight (Smith). - -As to this, a very definite statement is given by Bavay,[4] on the -authority of Le Naour:-- - -“While hunting in Dahomey,” wrote Le Naour to Bavay, “I thrice met with -the snake called the _Spitter_. On two occasions my dog was struck -in both eyes by the liquid projected by the reptile. Immediately -(less than two minutes afterwards), symptoms of conjunctivitis -manifested themselves, with considerable swelling of the pupils; the -conjunctivitis seemed as though it were going to be very serious, and -yielded only after twelve days’ treatment with boracic lotion, aided -by a few cauterisations with sulphate of copper. - -“During my sojourn at Porto-Novo, a store-keeper at the Dogba trading -station was a victim of the _Spitter_. While working at his store -he received in his eye a jet of liquid, which produced violent -conjunctivitis.” - - -(e) =Aspidelaps.= - -Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, as in -_Sepedon_, with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. -Head slightly distinct from the neck. Eyes of moderate size, with round -or vertically elliptic pupils. Rostral shield very large, detached on -the sides. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth or keeled, in 19-23 -rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short, obtuse; subcaudal scales in 2 rows. - -(1) _A. lubricus._--146-167 ventral scales; 20-28 subcaudals. - -Colour orange or red, with black rings; a black bar below the eyes; -upper surface of head sometimes entirely black. - -Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: Cape Colony and Namaqualand. - -(2) _A. scutatus_ (Fula-fula of Mozambique).--115-135 ventrals; 24-38 -subcaudals. - -Colour pale grey, with black spots or cross-bars, and a black mark -shaped like a circumflex accent on the head. A black collar encircling -the neck, and a black vertical streak below the eye. Belly whitish. - -The total length may be as much as 520 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Natal, Delagoa Bay, Mozambique. - - -(f) =Walterinnesia.= - -Maxillary bones prolonged forwards beyond the palatines, with a pair of -large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head distinct from the -neck; eyes rather small, with round pupils; nostril between two or -three nasal shields and the internasal. Body cylindrical; scales smooth -or feebly keeled, in 23 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail rather short; -subcaudal scales for the most part in 2 rows. - -_W. ægyptia._--Colour blackish-brown on the back, paler on the belly. - -Total length, 1,170 millimetres; tail 170. - -_Habitat_: Egypt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--SKULL OF _Dendraspis -viridis_ (Poisonous West African Colubrine). (After G. A. Boulenger, -_op. cit._)] - - -(g) =Dendraspis.= - -(Fig. 34.) - -Maxillary bone curved upwards, bearing a pair of powerful poison-fangs, -not fissured, and not followed by other teeth; a long tooth at -the end of each ramus of the mandible. Head narrow, elongate; eye -moderate, with round pupil; nostril between two shields. Body slightly -compressed; scales smooth, narrow, very oblique, in 13-23 rows; -ventrals rounded. Tail long; subcaudals in 2 rows. - -(1) _D. viridis._--211-225 ventral scales; 107-119 subcaudals. - -Colour uniform olive-green. Shields on the head edged with black; lips -yellow; belly and tail yellow, with scales and shields bordered with -black. - -Total length, 1,830 millimetres; tail 460. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Senegal to the Niger; St. Thome Island. - -(2) _D. jamesonii._--Coloration as before. Scales in 15-19 rows (19-21 -on the neck); 210-235 ventrals; 99-121 subcaudals. Tail sometimes black. - -Total length, 2,100 millimetres; tail 560. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Niger to Angola; Central Africa. - -(3) _D. angusticeps_ (The Mamba).--202-270 ventral scales; 99-121 -subcaudals. - -Colour green, olive, or blackish, uniform; belly yellowish or pale -green; caudal scales and shields not bordered with black. - -Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 430. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, south of the Congo; Central Africa, East -Africa, Transvaal, Natal. - -(4) _D. antinorii._--Scales in 21-23 rows; 248 ventrals; 117 -subcaudals. Colour olive on the back, yellowish on the belly. - -Total length, 2,690 millimetres; tail 545. - -_Habitat_: Abyssinia. - - -II.--VIPERIDÆ. - -The African _Viperidæ_ all belong to the Subfamily _Viperinæ_, of which -the following are the seven principal genera:-- - - (a) _Causus_. - (b) _Vipera_. - (c) _Bitis._ - (d) _Cerastes._ - (e) _Echis._ - (f) _Atheris._ - (g) _Atractaspis._ - - -(a) =Causus.= - -(Fig. 35.) - -Head distinct from the neck, covered with symmetrical shields; nostril -between two nasal shields, and the internasal; eyes moderate, with -round pupils, separated from the lips by subocular shields. Body -cylindrical; scales smooth or keeled, oblique on the sides, in 15-22 -rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; subcaudals in 2 rows or -single. - -Four species:-- - -(1) _C. rhombeatus._--Snout obtuse, moderately prominent. Scales in -17-21 rows; 120-155 ventrals; 15-29 subcaudals. - -Colour olive or pale brown, usually with a series of V-shaped brown -spots bordered with white, and a large spot in the form of a circumflex -accent at the back of the head; lips bordered with black; belly -yellowish or grey. - -Total length, 700 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_: Tropical and South Africa, from the Gambia to the Cape. - -(2) _C. resimus._--Snout prominent, more or less turned up; scales in -19-22 rows; 134-152 ventrals; 17-25 subcaudals. - -Colour greyish-olive on the back; uniform white on the belly. - -Total length, 470 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Central and East Africa, Angola. - -(3) _C. defilipii._--Snout prominent, more or less turned up. Scales in -17 rows; 113-125 ventrals; 10-18 subcaudals. - -Colour grey or pale brown above, with a series of large rhomboidal or -V-shaped blackish-brown spots; a large A-shaped dark brown mark on the -occiput; an oblique dark streak behind the eye; supralabial shields -edged with black; belly yellowish. - -Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 22. - -_Habitat_: Central and East Africa, Transvaal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--SKULL OF _Causus -rhombeatus._ (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit_.)] - -(4) _C. lichtensteinii._--Snout obtuse; scales in 15 rows; 142-144 -ventrals; subcaudals 15-21, single. - -Colour greyish, with rather indistinct darker chevron-shaped -cross-bands. - -Total length, 413 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: West Africa (Gold Coast), Congo. - - -(b) =Vipera.= - -(For the characters of this genus, see p. 23,--Europe.) - -In North Africa are found _Vipera latastii_, _V. ammodytes_, and -especially _V. lebetina_, the range of which extends from Morocco to -Northern India. _Vipera superciliaris_, which occurs on the coast of -Mozambique, has the snout rounded, and the head covered with small, -imbricate, keeled scales, with a large supraocular shield; nostril very -large, between two nasal shields; scales on the body strongly keeled, -in 27 rows; 142 ventrals; 40 subcaudals. - -The colour is pale reddish-brown or orange, with blackish transverse -bars broken by a longitudinal yellow band on each side; the belly is -white, spotted with black. - -Total length, 570 millimetres; tail 77. - - -(c) =Bitis.= - -(Fig. 36.) - -The _Viperidæ_ belonging to this genus have the head very distinct from -the neck, covered with small imbricate scales; the eyes rather small, -with vertical pupils, separated from the lips by small scales; the -nostrils directed upwards and outwards, usually pierced in a single -nasal shield, with a rather deep pit above, closed by a valvular -supranasal. The postfrontal bones are very large, in contact with -the ectopterygoids. Scales keeled, with apical pits, in 22-41 rows; -ventrals rounded. Tail very short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows. - -(1) _B. arietans_ (the Puff Adder; fig. 37).--This viper has the -nostrils on the upper surface of the snout, and two series of scales -between the supranasal shields; 12-16 supralabials; 3-5 lower labials. -The scales on the body are in 29-41 rows, and strongly keeled; ventrals -131-145; subcaudals 16-34. - -The body is thick, the head large and triangular, and the tail very -short. The colour is dirty yellow or orange, with large, transverse -or oblique, chevron-shaped black bands; an oblique black band extends -behind the eye. The belly is dirty yellow, uniform, or marked with -small black spots. - -Total length, 1,350 millimetres, sometimes more; tail 160. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--SKULL of _Bitis arietans_ -(the Puff Adder). (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -_Habitat_: This snake is met with throughout Africa, from Southern -Morocco, Kordofan, and Somaliland, to the Cape of Good Hope, and also -in Southern Arabia. It is especially common near the Niger and on the -Congo. - -When irritated, it puffs itself out to such an extent that its body -becomes twice the ordinary size. It then doubles back its head and -neck in the shape of an S, and emits a loud and prolonged hiss. Before -biting, it first strikes a blow with its head as with a battering-ram, -thus justifying its French name, _vipère heurtante_ (Striking Viper). - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Bitis arietans_ (the Puff Adder). -(After Duméril and Bibron.)] - -The natives of South Africa assert that this Viper is able to spring -high enough to strike a rider on horseback. It feeds upon rats and -mice, in search of which it often approaches habitations. - -The Hottentots hunt it in order to obtain its venom; they pound its -head between stones, and mix the pulp with the juice of certain plants -for the purpose of poisoning their arrows. - -It lives for a fairly long time in captivity. At the Pasteur Institute -at Lille I have succeeded in keeping one of these snakes for two years, -feeding it by forcing milk and eggs down its throat. - -(2) _B. peringueyi._--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. Head -covered with small, strongly keeled scales, which are smallest on the -vertex; 11 scales round the eye; 3 series of scales between the eye and -the lip; 11-14 supralabials. Scales on the body in 25-27 rows, strongly -keeled; 130-132 ventrals; 19-28 subcaudals. - -Colour greyish-olive, with 3 longitudinal series of grey or blackish -spots; head sometimes with a trident-shaped dark mark, followed by a -cross; under surface whitish, with small dark spots. - -Total length, 325 millimetres; tail 26. - -_Habitat_: Angola and Damaraland. - -(3) _B. atropos._--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards, 13-16 scales -round the eye; 2-5 series of scales between the supranasals; 10-12 -supralabials; 3-4 infralabials. Scales on the body in 29-31 rows, all -strongly keeled; 124-145 ventrals; 18-29 subcaudals. - -Colour brown or grey-brown, with 4 longitudinal series of dark spots, -edged with black and white; two large black marks on the head; belly -grey or brown, with darker spots. - -Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 25. - -_Habitat_: Cape of Good Hope. - -(4) _B. inornata._--Eyes smaller than in _B. atropos_, and separated -from the lips by 4 series of scales; supraorbital region raised, but -without erect horn-like scales; 15-17 scales across the head; 13-14 -supralabials; 3 lower labials. Scales on the body in 27-29 rows, all -keeled; 126-140 ventrals; 19-26 subcaudals. - -Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: Cape of Good Hope. - -(5) _B. cornuta_ (fig. 38).--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. -Head covered with small, imbricate, strongly keeled scales; 2-5 raised -scales, like horns, above each eye; 12-14 scales round the eye; 12-15 -supralabials; 2-3 infralabials. Scales on the body keeled, in 25-29 -rows; 120-152 ventrals; 18-36 subcaudals. - -Colour grey or reddish-brown, with black spots, edged with white and -arranged in 3 or 4 longitudinal series; a dark, oblique streak from the -eye to the mouth; belly yellow or brown, uniform or spotted. - -Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 35. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Bitis cornuta._ (After Duméril and -Bibron.)] - -_Habitat_: Cape Colony, Namaqualand, Damaraland. - -(6) _B. caudalis._--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. 12-16 scales -from one eye to the other across the head; above each eye a single, -erect, horn-like scale; 10-16 scales round the eye; 10-13 supralabials; -2-3 infralabials. Scales on the body in 22-29 rows, strongly keeled; -112-153 ventrals; 18-33 subcaudals. - -Colour reddish or sandy-grey, with 2 series of brown spots with light -centres, and frequently a vertebral series of narrow spots; belly dull -yellow, uniform, or with small black spots on the sides. - -Total length, 360 millimetres; tail 25. - -_Habitat_: South-west Africa, from Angola to Namaqualand. - -(7) _B. gabonica_ (Gaboon Viper, or River Jack Viper).--Nostrils -directed upwards and outwards. Head covered with small, moderately -keeled scales, smallest on the vertex, 13-16 from eye to eye; 15-19 -scales round the eye; a pair of erectile, triangular, nasal “horns,” -consisting of sometimes tricuspid shields, between the supranasals; -13-16 supralabials; 4-5 infralabials. Scales on the body in 33-41 -rows, strongly keeled; lateral scales slightly oblique; 125-140 -ventrals; 17-33 subcaudals. - -This viper, which often attains a length of 1,200 millimetres, is -brown, with a vertebral series of quadrangular, yellowish, or light -brown spots connected by black markings; the belly is dull yellow, with -small brown or blackish spots. - -_Habitat_: Tropical Africa (West Africa, from Liberia to Damaraland; -Zanzibar, Mozambique). - -This species, which is nocturnal, is often met with on the Gaboon, and -in the forests near the banks of the Ogowai. Its head is enormous, -triangular in shape, and wider above; it has a bulky body, and a very -short tail, terminating abruptly in a point. - -The Gaboon Viper is a savage snake, with very active venom, and its -poison-glands are of the size of large almonds. It lives in virgin -forests, among dead wood and rocks. I have several times met with it in -manioc plantations on the edge of the woods. In broad daylight it is -sluggish, moves somewhat slowly, and never attacks man. It bites only -when surprised. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Bitis nasicornis._ (After Duméril -and Bibron.)] - -(8) _B. nasicornis_ (fig. 39).--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. -Head covered with small strongly keeled scales, smaller on the vertex, -14-16 from one eye to the other; 2 or 3 pairs of compressed, erectile, -horn-like shields between the supranasals, usually separated in the -middle by 1 or 2 series of small scales; 15-18 supralabials; 4-6 -infralabials. Scales on the body in 35-41 rows, strongly keeled; -124-140 ventrals; 16-32 subcaudals. - -Colour purple or reddish-brown above, with pale olive or dark brown -spots; a vertebral series of brown, black-edged spots, which assume a -rhomboidal form; sides of head dark brown, with a triangular light mark -in front of the eye, and an oblique light streak from behind the eye to -the mouth; belly pale olive, spotted with black or yellow. - -Total length, 1,250 millimetres; tail 125. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, from Liberia to the Gaboon. - - -(d) =Cerastes.= - -Head very distinct from the neck, covered with small juxtaposed or -slightly imbricate scales; eyes small, with vertical pupils, separated -from the lips by small scales; nostrils opening upwards and outwards. -Body cylindrical; scales keeled, with apical pits, in 23-35 rows. Tail -short; subcaudals in 2 rows. - -(1) _C. cornutus_ (fig. 40).--Snout very short and broad; two erectile -horns above the eyes, which are separated by 15-21 scales and -surrounded by 14-18; 4-5 series of scales between the eyes and the -lips; 12-15 supralabials; 3 infralabials; scales on the body in 27-35 -rows; 130-165 ventrals; 25-42 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Cerastes cornutus._ (After Duméril -and Bibron.)] - -Colour yellowish-brown or grey, with or without brown spots, forming -4-6 regular series, the two middle ones sometimes forming cross-bars; -an oblique dark streak behind the eye; belly white; end of tail -sometimes black. - -Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Northern border of the Sahara, Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, and -Southern Palestine. - -(2) _C. vipera._--Snout very short and broad; head covered with small, -tubercularly keeled scales, to the number of 9-13 from eye to eye; -no “horns”; 9-14 scales round the eye; nostril between two small -shields, separated from their neighbours by 5-6 series of scales; 10-12 -supralabials; 3 infralabials. Scales on the body in 23-27 rows; 102-122 -ventrals, rather strongly keeled at the sides; 18-26 subcaudals. Colour -dull yellow, pale brown or reddish, with or without black spots; end of -tail often black above; ventral surface white. - -Total length, 340 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: Northern border of the Sahara, from Algeria to Egypt. - -The snakes belonging to this genus live constantly hidden in the -sand, lying in wait for small birds, which alight beside them without -suspicion, mistaking their horns for insects or larvæ; they also feed -upon mice. Their poison-fangs are of relatively large size. - -These small and exceedingly active vipers, whose colour harmonises -marvellously with their surroundings, are very dangerous to the Arabs -and blacks, who walk barefooted; they frequently cause fatal accidents. - -They are able to exist for a very long time without drinking. They -are attracted by the fires which are lighted at night round caravan -encampments. - - -(e) =Echis.= - -(See Asia, p. 48.) - -(1) _E. carinatus_ (Efa, Viper of the Pyramids).--The same as met with -in Persia, Arabia, and India. Very common in the environs of Cairo, and -throughout Egypt and Abyssinia. It often makes its way into towns and -villages. Brehm records that he more than once found an _Efa_ in his -house at Khartoum, and that on one occasion he discovered one of these -vipers coiled up beneath the covering of his bed. At another time, -getting up in the night, he put his foot on one of these animals and -was not bitten, the reptile being very fortunately just at that moment -in the act of devouring a tame bird which it had seized. - -It hardly ever happens that a native of Egypt can bring himself to -destroy an _Efa_, of which he has the greatest dread. If, as often -occurs, he finds one of these reptiles in his house, he addresses -himself to the _Hani_ or juggler, in order that, by his magic art, he -may expel the dangerous visitor. From this custom the juggler evidently -derives no small advantage, for, as is only right, he does not ply his -craft for nothing. In many cases, indeed, the juggler releases a snake -in a house, and then goes and informs the owner that he knows that a -reptile is concealed in his dwelling, and that, in consideration of a -stipulated reward, he will rid him of it (Brehm). - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Echis coloratus._ (After G. A. -Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -(2) _E. coloratus_ (fig. 41).--Scales on the snout and vertex convex, -smooth or bluntly keeled, 13-15 from eye to eye; no supraocular shield; -17-22 scales round the eye; 12-15 supralabials; scales on the body in -31-35 rows; 174-205 ventrals; 42-52 subcaudals. No cruciform mark on -the head. - -Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Palestine, Arabia, Socotra. - - -(f) =Atheris.= - -Head very distinct from neck, covered with imbricate scales; eyes -large, with vertical pupils, usually separated from the labial shields -by small scales; nostrils lateral. Body slightly compressed; scales -keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate, _prehensile_; subcaudal scales -in a single row. - -(1) _A. chlorechis._--No supraciliary horn-like scales; 9-11 scales -from eye to eye; 25-36 rows of scales in the middle of the body, -strongly keeled; 154-165 ventrals; 53-62 subcaudals. - -Colour green, uniform or with small yellow spots; end of tail yellowish -or blackish. - -Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 85. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, from Liberia to the Ogowai. - -(2) _A. squamiger._--No supraciliary horn-like scales; 7-8 scales from -eye to eye; 15-25 rows of scales in the middle of the body, strongly -keeled; 153-173 ventrals; 51-95 subcaudals. - -Colour olive, uniform or with more or less regular, narrow yellow -cross-bands, or yellow with green spots; belly pale olive, marbled with -black or yellow, or uniform yellow. - -Total length, 550 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Cameroons to Angola. - -(3) _A. ceratophorus._--Several erect, supraciliary horn-like scales; -9-10 scales from eye to eye; 25 rows of scales in the middle of the -body, strongly keeled; 142 ventrals; 55 subcaudals. - -Colour dark olive, with black spots forming cross-bands; belly pale -olive, speckled with black. - -Total length, 210 millimetres; tail 65. - -_Habitat_: East Africa. - - -(g) =Atractaspis.= - -(Fig. 42.) - -This genus is characterised by enormous poison-fangs, a few teeth on -the palatines, and none on the pterygoids. The mandible, which is -edentulous in front, has only two or three small teeth in the middle -of the dentary bone. Head small, not distinct from the neck, covered -with large symmetrical shields; nostril between two nasal shields; eyes -minute, with round pupils; postfrontal bone absent. Body cylindrical; -scales smooth, in 17-37 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short; subcaudals -in 1 or 2 rows. - -(1) _A. hildebrandtii._--Six supralabials; no præocular shields; -frontal shorter than the parietals; scales on the body in 17 rows; -ventrals 167-174. - -Colour uniform dark brown. - -Total length, 450 millimetres; tail 53. - -_Habitat_: East Africa. - -(2) _A. congica._--Five supralabials, of which the fourth is the -larger; postocular in contact with a large temporal; one præocular; -frontal as long as or slightly shorter than the parietals. Scales on -the body in 19-21 rows; 209-230 ventrals; 19-23 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--SKULL OF _Atractaspis -aterrima_ (African Viperine). (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -Colour uniform dark brown or black. - -Total length, 450 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: Congo, Angola. - -(3) _A. irregularis._--Characters as before, but scales on the body in -25-27 rows; 220-257 ventrals, subcaudals 22-28 pairs. - -Colour uniform black or dark brown. - -Total length, 560 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Gold Coast to the Congo; Central -Africa. - -(4) _A. corpulenta._--Postocular shield in contact with a large -temporal; second lower labial very large, fused with the chin-shields. -Scales on the body in 23-27 rows; 178-193 ventrals; 23-27 subcaudals. - -Colour uniform blackish-brown; tail sometimes white. - -Total length, 345 millimetres; tail 33. - -HABITAT: West Africa, from Liberia to the Gaboon. - -(5) _A. rostrata._--Snout very prominent, cuneiform. Third lower labial -very large; first lower labial in contact with its fellow, behind the -symphysial. Scales on the body in 19-23 rows; ventrals 227-248. - -Colour uniform dark brown, or blackish. - -Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 37. - -_Habitat_: East and Central Africa. - -(6) _A. bibronii._--Characters as before. Snout prominent, -subcuneiform. Ventral scales, 221-260. - -Colour dark purplish-brown above, dull yellow or pale brown on the -belly. - -Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 25. - -_Habitat_: Eastern districts of Cape Colony, Natal, Namaqualand, Angola. - -(7) _A. aterrima._--Characters as before. Snout rounded; 251-300 -ventral scales. - -Colour uniform dark brown or black. - -Total length, 650 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: West and Central Africa. - -(8) _A. dahomeyensis._--Characters as before. Symphysial shield in -contact with the chin-shields. Scales on the body in 31 rows; 240 -ventrals; 24 subcaudals. - -Colour black above, brown on the belly. - -Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 32. - -_Habitat_: Dahomey. - -(9) _A. micropholis._--Temporal shields small, 2 + 3 or 4; fourth -or fifth infralabial larger; scales on the body in 25 rows; 210-215 -ventrals; 29-30 subcaudals. Frontal shield slightly longer than broad, -much longer than the parietals. - -Colour uniform dark brown. - -Total length, 330 millimetres; tail 28. - -_Habitat_: Cape Verd. - -(10) _A. leucomelas._--Characters as before. Frontal one and two-fifths -as long as broad, as long as the parietals. - -Colour black, with a vertebral white line, occupying one row and two -half rows of scales; ventrals and subcaudals white; neck black, head -white, with a black spot covering the nasals and upper head-shields. - -Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Somaliland. - -(11) _A. microlepidota._--Characters as before. Scales on the body in -29-37 rows; 212-245 ventrals; 26-37 subcaudals. - -Colour uniform dark brown. - -Total length, 540 millimetres; tail 45. - -_Habitat_: Central and East Africa. - - -_D.--AUSTRALIA AND THE LARGE ADJACENT ISLANDS._ - -The Sunda Islands and the whole of Malaysia are rich in poisonous -snakes. Those that are found there belong for the most part to species -that we have already met with in India or the Malay Peninsula. We shall -therefore not describe them again here. - -All those that inhabit Australia are included in the great Family -COLUBRIDÆ and the Subfamily _Elapinæ_. There are no -VIPERIDÆ; but certain genera of poisonous COLUBRIDÆ -are peculiar to this continent. - -These reptiles have been particularly well studied by Gérard Krefft, -formerly Director of the Australian Museum at Sydney, from whose -work[5] we shall borrow a considerable portion of the following notes, -and the figures accompanying them. - -The genera represented in Australia are:-- - - (a) _Ogmodon._ - (b) _Glyphodon._ - (c) _Pseudelaps._ - (d) _Diemenia._ - (e) _Pseudechis._ - (f) _Denisonia._ - (g) _Micropechis._ - (h) _Hoplocephalus._ - (i) _Tropidechis._ - (j) _Notechis._ - (k) _Rhinhoplocephalus._ - (l) _Brachyaspis._ - (m) _Acanthophis._ - (n) _Elapognathus._ - (o) _Rhynchelaps._ - (p) _Furina._ - - -(a) =Ogmodon.= - -This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending forwards -as far as the palatines, and bearing, in addition to the poison-fangs, -6-7 grooved teeth. The head is not distinct from the neck; the eyes are -very small. The body is cylindrical, and covered with smooth scales in -17 rows. Tail short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows. - -_O. vitianus._--Snout elongate, pointed; 139-152 ventral scales; 27-38 -subcaudals. - -Colour dark brown, lighter on the sides; belly brown or white, more or -less spotted with black; tail black. - -Total length, 360 millimetres; tail 45. - -_Habitat_: Fiji Islands. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--SKULL OF _Glyphodon tristis_ -(Australian Colubrine). - -(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - - -(b) =Glyphodon.= - -General characters the same; snout rounded; poison-fangs followed, -after a wide interspace, by 6 small grooved teeth; anterior mandibular -teeth strongly developed (fig. 43). Head and eyes small; pupils round -or vertically subelliptic; nostrils pierced between 2 nasal shields. -Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 17 rows; tail short; subcaudals in -2 rows. - -_G. tristis._--Ventral scales 165-179; subcaudals 38-52. - -Colour dark brown; occiput often yellowish, or pale reddish-brown; -belly yellow. - -Total length, 900 millimetres; tail 125. - -_Habitat_: North-eastern Australia and South-eastern New Guinea. - - -(c) =Pseudelaps.= - -Maxillaries extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair -of large grooved poison-fangs, and, after a wide interval, 8-12 small -grooved teeth. The anterior mandibular teeth are of large size, almost -like fangs. Head hardly distinct from the neck; eyes small, with -vertically elliptic pupils. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-17 -rows. Tail moderate or short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows. - -(1) _P. muelleri._--Scales in 15 rows. Nasal shield divided, in contact -with the præocular; 2 + 2 temporals; 139-176 ventral scales; 21-35 -subcaudals. - -Colour brown, with a light vertebral line; a more or less distinct -dark, light-edged streak on each side of the head, passing through the -eye; belly yellowish or coral-red; uniform or spotted with black. - -Total length, 500 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain. - -(2) _P. squamulosus_.--Scales in 15 rows. Nasal shield divided, in -contact with the præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 170-183 ventrals; 34-52 -subcaudals. - -Colour brown, with a yellowish streak round the snout and through the -eyes to the nape; belly whitish, with confluent black spots forming -lines on each side. - -Total length, 375 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales. - -(3) _P. krefftii_ (fig. 44).--Nasal shield entire, in contact with the -præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 146-156 ventrals; 26-38 subcaudals. - -Colour dark brown, with a light longitudinal line on each scale; a -yellowish cross-band on the occiput, connected with another yellow band -which encircles the snout. - -Belly yellowish in front, black behind; subcaudals white, with a -longitudinal black band running between them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Pseudelaps krefftii._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Pseudelaps harriettæ._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--_Pseudelaps diadema._] - -Total length, 255 millimetres; tail 33. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(4) _P. harriettæ_ (fig. 45).--Nasal shield entire, in contact with -or narrowly separated from the præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 176-193 -ventrals; 29-35 subcaudals. - -Colour dark brown, with a light longitudinal line on each scale; a long -yellow blotch on the nape, and, connected with this, a yellow ring -round the snout; ventrals and subcaudals brown or black, edged with -white. - -Total length, 415 millimetres; tail 45. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(5) _P. diadema_ (fig. 46).--Nasal shield entire, widely separated -from the præocular; 2 + 2 temporals; third and fourth upper labials -entering the eye; 164-203 ventrals; 40-62 subcaudals. Colour pale brown -or reddish, with a brown edging to each scale forming a reticulate -pattern; a yellow cross-band on the occiput; belly uniformly white. - -Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Eastern, Northern, and Western Australia. - -(6) _P. warro._--Characters the same as in the previous species; 143 -ventrals. Colour brown; a broad lunate black collar on the nape; head -black above, but paler than the collar. - -_Habitat_: Port Curtis, Queensland. - -(7) _P. sutherlandi._--Characters as before. Scales on the body in 17 -rows; 160 ventrals; 40 subcaudals. Colour red-brown on the back, yellow -on the belly; a broad lunate black collar on the nape, with a lighter -edging; light bars across the head, body, and tail. - -_Habitat_: Norman River, Queensland. - - -(d) =Diemenia.= - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--_Diemenia psammophis._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--_Diemenia olivacea._ (Northern -Australia and New Guinea). - -(After Krefft.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--_Diemenia textilis._] - -Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a -pair of large grooved poison-fangs, followed, after an interspace, by -7-15 small grooved teeth; anterior mandibular teeth much elongated, -resembling poison-fangs. Head scarcely distinct from the neck: eyes -rather large, with round pupils; nasal shield entire or divided; -frontal elongate. - -Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-19 rows (more on the neck). Tail -moderate or long; subcaudals all or for the most part in 2 rows. - -Coloration very variable, orange-yellow, olive, red-brown, or pale -brown. - -Average length, 1,000-1,700 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: South-eastern New Guinea, and Australia. - -Seven species of this genus are known, divided into two groups as -follows:-- - -(1) Scales on the body in 15 rows. - -_D. psammophis._ (fig. 47).--Internasal shields at least half as long -as the præfrontals. - -_D. torquata._--Internasals more than half as long as the præfrontals. - -_D. olivacea._ (fig. 48).--Internasals not more than half as long as -the præfrontals; snout broad. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--_Diemenia nuchalis._] - -(2) Scales in 17 or 19 rows. - -_D. modesta._--154-165 ventrals. - -_D. textilis_ (Brown Snake, fig. 49).--190-232 ventrals. - -_D. nuchalis_ (fig. 50).--184-224 ventrals. - - -(e) =Pseudechis.= - -Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a -pair of large grooved poison-fangs followed by 2-5 small solid teeth; -anterior mandibular teeth long. Head distinct from the neck; eyes -rather small, with round pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. -Body cylindrical. Scales smooth, in 17-23 rows (more on the neck). Tail -moderate; subcaudals in 2 rows, or partly single, partly in 2 rows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--_Pseudechis porphyriacus._] - -Total length, 1,500-2,000 millimetres, sometimes more. - -_Habitat_: Australia and New Guinea. - -This genus includes eight species. - -(1) _P. porphyriacus_ (Black Snake; fig. 51).--Frontal shield longer -than broad; 180-200 ventrals; 50-60 subcaudals. - -Colour black on the back; outer row of scales red at the base; ventrals -red, edged with black. - -(2) _P. cupreus._--199-210 ventrals; 57-72 subcaudals. - -Colour coppery above, brown or orange below, all the scales and shields -edged with brown. - -(3) _P. australis._--199-220 ventrals; 57-70 subcaudals; frontal shield -once and two-thirds to twice as long as broad. - -Colour pale brown on the back, yellowish on the belly. - -(4) _P. darwiniensis._--Frontal as broad as long; 212 ventrals; 54-64 -subcaudals. - -Colour reddish-brown; head pale brown; belly yellowish-white. - -(5) _P. papuanus._--Scales in 19-21 rows (26 or 27 on the neck); -221-224 ventrals; 49-55 subcaudals. - -Colour uniform black; chin white. - -(6) _P. scutellatus._--Subcaudal shields in 2 rows; scales on the body -in 23 rows (25-30 on the neck); 230-233 ventrals; 61-78 subcaudals. - -Colour pale brown or dark brown; snout and cheeks pale brown or -yellowish; belly yellow. - -(7) _P. microlepidotus._--30-36 scales across the neck, 23 across the -middle of the body; 232-237 ventrals; 61-66 pairs of subcaudals. - -Colour dark brown on the back, yellowish-grey on the belly; head -sometimes blackish. - -(8) _P. ferox._--Snout very broadly rounded. Scales on the body in 23 -rows; 235 ventrals; 60 pairs of subcaudals. - -Colour black above, yellowish beneath. - - -(f) =Denisonia.= - -Maxillary bones prolonged as far as the palatines, with a pair of large -grooved poison-fangs, followed by 3-5 small solid teeth; anterior -mandibular teeth greatly developed. Head fairly distinct from the body; -eyes small, with round or vertically elliptic pupils; nasal shield -entire or divided. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-19 rows; tail -moderate or short; subcaudals in a single row, except in one species. - -According to the British Museum Catalogue, the genus _Denisonia_ -includes twenty-one species, the principal characters of which are as -follows:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Denisonia superba_ (The Copperhead).] - -(1) _D. superba_ (The Copperhead. Fig. 52).--Scales in 15-17 rows; -nasal shield entire, in contact with the præocular; ventral scales -145-160; subcaudals 41-50. - -Colour brownish to dark olive on the back, often yellow or salmon-red -on the sides; belly yellowish or greyish-olive. - -Total length, 1,010 millimetres; tail 160. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales, Southern Australia, Tasmania. - -(2) _D. coronata._--Scales in 15 rows; 138-151 ventrals; 38-51 -subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Denisonia coronoides._] - -Colour olive, with a black streak on each side of the head; belly -yellowish or pale olive. - -Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 95. - -_Habitat_: Western Australia and New South Wales. - -(3) _D. coronoides_ (fig. 53).--Scales in 15 rows; 136-151 ventrals; -39-57 subcaudals. - -Colour brown, lips yellow; belly salmon-red to dark olive-grey; end of -tail salmon-red. - -Total length, 440 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Southern Australia and Tasmania. - -(4) _D. muelleri._--Scales in 17 rows; 118 ventrals; 38 subcaudals. - -Colour grey-brown; lips and chin with yellow spots; belly grey. - -Total length, 292 millimetres; tail 52. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(5) _D. frenata._--Scales in 19 rows; 167 ventrals; 35 subcaudals. - -Colour olive-brown; upper lip yellow; belly white. - -Total length, 390 millimetres; tail 54. - -_Habitat_: Lake Elphinstone, Queensland. - -(6) _D. ramsayi_ (fig. 54).--Scales in 15 rows; 164 ventrals; 51 -subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Denisonia ramsayi._] - -Colour dark olive-green above, yellow beneath; subcaudals nearly black. - -Total length, 265 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales. - -(7) D. signata (fig. 55).--Scales in 17 rows; 153-170 ventrals; 41-56 -subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Denisonia signata._] - -Colour dark olive or black, head brown; belly dark grey or black. - -Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 120. - -_Habitat_: Queensland, New South Wales. - -(8) _D. daemelii._--Scales in 17 rows; 147-168 ventrals; 33-45 -subcaudals. - -Colour olive, head darker; belly yellowish-white. - -Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(9) _D. suta._--Scales in 19 rows; 157-164 ventrals; 25-30 subcaudals. - -Colour pale olive-brown, head dark brown, nape black; upper lip and -belly yellow. - -Total length, 200 millimetres; tail 23. - -_Habitat_: Southern Australia. - -(10) _D. frontalis._--Scales in 19 rows; 154 ventrals; 30 subcaudals. - -Colour light brown, with a vertebral black line; belly pearly-white, -with a median bronze-coloured band. - -Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales. - -(11) _D. flagellum._--Scales in 17 rows; 132-138 ventrals; 25-27 -subcaudals. - -Colour pale brown; vertex, occiput, and nape black; upper lip and belly -white. - -Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Victoria. - -(12) _D. maculata._ (fig. 56).--Scales in 17 rows; 121-136 ventrals; -20-30 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Denisonia maculata._] - -Colour dark grey-brown, or brown; a large dark olive-green or brown -blotch on the head, with two or three unequal light grey spots; belly -white. - -Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(13) _D. punctata._--Scales in 15 rows; 160 ventrals; 25 subcaudals. - -Colour pale brown; head and nape orange; upper lip and belly yellow. - -Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 36. - -_Habitat_: North-Western Australia. - -(14) _D. gouldii_ (fig. 57).--Scales in 15 rows; 140-170 ventrals; -22-23 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Denisonia gouldii._] - -Colour brownish-yellow; nape black; head covered with a broad -greenish-blue blotch, extending from the nose to the neck; upper lip -and belly yellow. - -Total length, 435 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Western and Southern Australia. - -(15) _D. nigrescens._--Scales in 15 rows; 170-200 ventrals; 30-46 -subcaudals. - -Colour dark olive; head black; belly yellow. - -Total length, 545 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales and Queensland. - -(16) _D. nigrostriata._--Scales in 15 rows; 180-184 ventrals; 50-64 -subcaudals. - -Colour yellow, streaked with black; head dark brown; upper lip and -belly yellowish-white. - -Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 52. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(17) _D. carpentariæ._--Scales in 15 rows; 166-183 ventrals; 31-43 -subcaudals. - -Colour brown; upper lip and belly yellowish-white. - -Total length, 285 millimetres; tail 47. - -_Habitat_: Northern Queensland. - -(18) _D. pallidiceps._--Scales in 15 rows; 170-178 ventrals; 37-38 -subcaudals. - -Colour dark olive-brown; head somewhat paler; belly yellowish. Total -length, 590 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Northern Australia. - -(19) _D. melanura._--Scales in 15 or 17 rows; 165-171 ventrals; 38-48 -subcaudals. - -Colour dark brown; head and sides usually reddish; belly yellow; tail -black. - -Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 140. - -_Habitat_: Solomon Islands. - -(20) _D. par._--Scales in 16 rows; 164-166 ventrals; 40-49 subcaudals. - -Colour reddish-brown, in broad bands with white intervals; head -blackish-brown; belly white; tail with red rings. - -Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 110. - -_Habitat_: Faro and Howla Islands, Bougainville Straits, Solomon -Islands. - -(21) _D. woodfordii._--Scales in 17 rows; 166-172 ventrals; 41-45 -subcaudal pairs. - -Colour brownish-white, with a reticulate pattern; head dark brown; -belly white. - -Total length, 670 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: New Georgia, Solomon Islands. - - -(g) =Micropechis.= - -Maxillary bones extending forward as far as the palatines, with a pair -of large grooved poison-fangs, followed by three small solid teeth; -mandibular teeth longer in front. Head distinct from the neck; eyes -very small, with round pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Body -cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 or 17 rows. Tail short; subcaudals in -2 rows. - -(1) _M. ikaheka._--Scales in 15 rows; 180-223 ventrals; 39-55 -subcaudals. - -Colour yellow and black, in irregular cross-bars; head and tail black -above; belly yellow. - -Total length, 1,550 millimetres; tail 180. - -_Habitat_: New Guinea. - -(2) _M. elapoides._--Scales in 17 rows; 208 ventrals; 35 subcaudals. - -Colour cream, with 22 black bands, broader than the interspaces between -them; snout and ocular region black. - -Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_: Florida Island, Solomon Group. - - -(h) =Hoplocephalus.= - -Characters the same as in _Micropechis_. Scales in 21 rows; ventrals -angulate and notched laterally. Tail moderate; subcaudals in a single -row. - - -(1) _H. bungaroides_ (Syn. _H. variegatus_. The Broad-headed -Snake).--204-221 ventrals; 40-56 subcaudals. - -Colour black on the back, with yellow spots forming more or less -regular cross-bands on the body; upper lip yellow, margined with black; -belly blackish, yellow on the sides. - -Total length, 1,620 millimetres; tail 210. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales. - -(2) _H. bitorquatus_ (fig. 58).--Ventral scales strongly angulate -laterally, 191-227; subcaudals 44-59. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Hoplocephalus bitorquatus._] - -Colour olive-green; head pale olive, with a bright yellow occipital -blotch, and a large black blotch on each side of the nape; a pair of -small spots in front of and between the eyes; three black transverse -blotches on the vertex; belly greyish-olive or brown. - -Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 95. - -_Habitat_: Queensland, New South Wales. - -(3) _H. stephensii._--239 ventrals; 60 subcaudals. - -Body barred alternately with black and white; the black bars are twice -as broad as the white ones; head dark, spotted with yellow; a W-shaped -yellow mark on the back of the head. - -Total length, 760 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Port Macquarie, New South Wales. - - -(i) =Tropidechis.= - -Same general characters; nasal shield entire; scales on the body -strongly keeled, in 23 rows. Tail moderate; subcaudals in a single row. - -_T. carinatus._--Colour dark olive, with darker cross-bands; belly -yellow, more or less tinged with olive-green. - -Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 120. - -_Habitat_: New South Wales, Queensland. - - -(j) =Notechis.= - -Same general characters; pupil round; nasal shield entire. Body -cylindrical; scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in 15-19 rows, the -lateral scales shorter than the dorsals. Tail moderate; subcaudals in a -single row. - -_N. scutatus_ (Syn. _Hoplocephalus curtus_. The Tiger Snake. Fig. -59).--Colour dark olive; belly yellow or olive; the shields often -dark-edged. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Notechis scutatus_ (The Tiger -Snake.)] - -Total length, 1,280 millimetres; tail 170. - -_Habitat_: Australia and Tasmania. - - -(k) =Rhinhoplocephalus.= - -Dentition as in _Hoplocephalus_. Head but little distinct from the -neck; eyes small, with round pupils; no internasal shields. Body -cylindrical, rigid. Scales smooth, in 15 rows. Tail short; subcaudals -in a single row. - -_R. bicolor._--Colour greyish-olive on the back, yellowish-white on the -belly; tongue white. - -Total length, 395 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: Australia. - - -(l) =Brachyaspis.= - -Characters the same, but head distinct from the neck; eyes small, with -vertically elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Body -stout, cylindrical; scales smooth, slightly oblique, in 19 rows. Tail -short; subcaudals in a single row. - -_B. curta._--Colour uniform olive-brown; belly yellowish. - -Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Western Australia. - - -(m) =Acanthophis= (_Death Adder_). - -(Figs. 60, 61.) - -Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair -of large grooved poison-fangs, followed by two or three small teeth; -anterior mandibular teeth elongate, fang-like. Head distinct from the -neck; eyes small, with vertically elliptic pupils; nostril in the upper -part of a single nasal shield. Body stout, cylindrical. Scales more or -less distinctly keeled, in 21-23 rows. Tail short, compressed at the -end and terminating in a sort of long spine, turned upwards; anterior -subcaudals in a single row, posterior in 2 rows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--SKULL of _Acanthophis -antarcticus_. (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -_A. antarcticus_ (The Death Adder; fig. 61).--Supraocular shields -often raised and angular, assuming the shape of little horns; scales -on the crown of the head rugose and striated; 113-130 ventrals; 41-51 -subcaudals (the last 5-27 are divided). - -Colour yellow-brown or reddish, with more or less distinct dark -cross-bands; black spots or small dark bars on the lips; belly -yellowish-white; end of tail yellow or black, covered with spiny scales. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Acanthophis antarcticus_ (The Death -Adder).] - -Total length, 850 millimetres; tail 150. - -_Habitat_: Moluccas, New Guinea, Australia. - - -(n) =Elapognathus.= - -Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair -of moderately large grooved poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth; -mandibular teeth subequal. Eyes moderate, with round pupils; nasal -shield entire. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 rows; ventrals -rounded; tail moderate; subcaudals in a single row. - -_E. minor._--Colour dark olive, with a black occipital blotch in the -young; belly yellow or greenish-grey. - -Total length, 460 millimetres; tail 95. - -_Habitat_: South-west Australia. - - -(o) =Rhynchelaps.= - -Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair -of moderately large grooved poison-fangs, and two small teeth near the -posterior extremity of the bone; anterior mandibular teeth the longest. -Head small, not distinct from the neck; eyes small, with vertically -elliptic pupils; nostril in a single nasal shield. Body short, -cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-17 rows. Tail very short; subcaudals -in 2 rows. - -(1) _R. bertholdi._--Scales in 15 rows; 112-126 ventrals. - -Colour yellow, with 19-40 black annuli, usually narrower than the -interspaces; head brown, with a large black blotch on the nape, and -another on the vertex and temples. - -Total length, 270 millimetres; tail 22. - -_Habitat_: Southern and Western Australia. - -(2) _R. australis_ (fig. 62).--Scales in 17 rows; 152-163 ventrals; -18-20 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Rhynchelaps australis._] - -Colour red on the body, with ill-defined cross-bars formed of yellowish -black-edged scales; a black blotch on the head, covering the vertex and -temples, and surrounding the eyes; another large blotch on the nape; -snout and occiput yellow; belly white. - -Total length, 290 millimetres; tail 25. - -_Habitat_: Queensland. - -(3) _R. semifasciatus._--Scales in 17 rows; 143-170 ventrals; 17-25 -subcaudals. - -Colour yellow, with brown cross-bands; large brown blotches on the head -and nape; belly white. - -Total length, 300 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: West Australia. - -(4) _R. fasciolatus._--Scales in 17 rows; 145-161 ventrals; 22-27 -subcaudals. - -Colour red, with numerous blackish-brown cross-bands; large -blackish-brown blotches on the head and nape; belly white. - -Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat_: West Australia. - - -(p) =Furina.= - -(Figs. 63 and 64.) - -Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, bearing a -pair of moderately large grooved poison-fangs, and one or two small -teeth near their posterior extremities; mandibular teeth subequal. Head -small, not distinct from neck; eyes very small, with round pupils; -nostril in a single nasal shield. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in -15 rows. Tail very short, obtuse; subcaudals in 2 rows. - -(1) _F. calonota._--Six supralabial shields; 126-131 ventrals; 29-30 -subcaudals. - -Colour yellow, with a black vertebral stripe; a black bar across the -end of the snout; a large black blotch covering the vertex and the -parietals; belly white. - -Total length, 215 millimetres; tail 33. - -_Habitat_: West Australia. - -(2) _F. bimaculata._--Scales in 15 rows; 181-200 ventrals; 21-25 -subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--SKULL OF _Furina -occipitalis_. (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Furina occipitalis._] - -Colour yellow, with large black blotches on the snout, middle of head, -and occiput; belly white. - -Total length, 330 millimetres; tail 25. - -_Habitat_: West Australia. - -(3) _F. occipitalis_ (fig. 64).--Scales in 15 rows; 180-234 ventrals; -14-25 subcaudals. - -Entire body ringed with black and white, annuli narrower on head -black, with a broad white band across the occiput, and another narrower -and irregular one across the snout; nose black. - -Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 36. - -_Habitat_: Australia. - - * * * * * - -There are no poisonous snakes in New Zealand. In New Caledonia no -_terrestrial_ poisonous snakes are known, but _Hydrophiidæ_ abound on -its shores, as on those of the majority of the islands of the Pacific. - -In Australia, especially in New South Wales and farther to the north, -fatalities due to the bites of poisonous snakes are not rare. The most -dangerous species are: _Acanthophis antarcticus_ (the Death Adder), -_Diemenia textilis_ (the Brown Snake), _Pseudechis porphyriacus_ (the -Black Snake), and _Notechis scutatus_ or _Hoplocephalus curtus_ (the -Tiger Snake). - -The health authorities of this country have accordingly taken -the wise precaution of circulating very widely among the public -coloured placards bearing illustrations of these four species, with -a description of the essential anatomical details by which they may -be recognised. Similar placards are exhibited in all the schools, -and a generous distribution is made of instructions, printed on -handkerchiefs, indicating the most effective method of treating -poisonous bites. - -In Queensland, according to information furnished to me by Mr. C. W. -De Vis, late Director of the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, the number -of deaths resulting from the bites of poisonous snakes has been only -twenty-seven in ten years. - - -_E.--AMERICA._ - -The fauna of the New World includes only a very small number of -poisonous snakes belonging to the family COLUBRIDÆ. The Genus -_Elaps_ alone is represented there by twenty-eight species, scattered -over Mexico, Central America, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and -Brazil. - -VIPERIDÆ, on the other hand, are extremely numerous, and -belong exclusively to the subfamily CROTALINÆ; there are no -VIPERINÆ. - - -I.--COLUBRIDÆ. - - -(a) =Elaps.= - -(Fig. 65.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--SKULL OF _Elaps marcgravii_. -(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -The characters of this genus are: Maxillary bones very short, extending -beyond the palatines, and bearing a pair of large poison-fangs; -pterygoid teeth few or absent; mandibular teeth all of equal length. -No postfrontal bones; præfrontals meeting, or narrowly separated on -the median line. Head small, not distinct from neck; eyes small, with -vertically elliptic or sub-elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal -shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 rows. Tail short; -subcaudal scales in 2 rows, or partly single, partly in 2 rows. - -(1) _E. surinamensis._--Seven supralabials, of which the fourth enters -the eye; frontal shield very narrow; 167-182 ventrals. - -Colour red, with black annuli disposed in threes (the middle one -broader), separated by narrow yellow interspaces; 7 or 8 sets of annuli -on the body; the red scales dotted with black; head red above, with -the shields black-edged, followed by a black cross-band behind the -parietals. - -Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 95. Grows to 1,900 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Venezuela, Guianas, Northern Brazil, North-east Peru. - -(2) _E. heterochilus._--Six supralabials, second and third entering the -eye; snout narrow; 209 ventrals. - -Colour red, with black annuli, as in _E. marcgravii_. - -Total length, 553 millimetres; tail 43. - -_Habitat_: Brazil. - -(3) _E. euryxanthus_ (Sonoran Coral Snake).--Seven supralabials, -third and fourth entering the eye; internasals nearly as long as the -præfrontals; 215-241 ventrals; 21-29 subcaudals. - -Colour red, with 11 black annuli edged with yellow; head black. - -Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 33. - -_Habitat_: Arizona, Colorado, North-western Mexico. It is found in -Arizona up to an altitude of nearly 6,000 feet (1,800 metres). - -(4) _E. gravenhorstii._--First lower labial in contact with its fellow; -posterior nasal not reaching the præocular: 191 ventrals; 23 subcaudals. - -Colour: Seven sets of black annuli disposed in threes, median annulus -the broadest; head black, with a yellow transverse band behind the eyes. - -Total length, 550 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Brazil. - -(5) _E. langsdorffii._--Ventrals 204-225; subcaudals 37-54; 1 + 1 -temporals. - -Colour dark brown, with 63 transverse series of cream-coloured spots, -each occupying one scale; belly yellow, with red cross-bands. - -Total length, 300 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Upper Amazons. - -(6) _E. buckleyi._--203-211 ventrals; 39-43 subcaudals; 1 + 2 temporals. - -Colour orange, with 48-60 black annuli edged with small yellow spots; -head black; temples yellow. - -Total length, 505 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Northern Brazil, Eastern Ecuador. - -(7) _E. anomalus._--227 ventrals; 29 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals. - -Colour: Body with 55 black annuli separated by narrow brownish-white -bands; belly yellowish; anterior half of head black, posterior half -yellow; tail yellow or red, with 4 black rings. - -Total length, 280 millimetres; tail 23. - -_Habitat_: Colombia. - -(8) _E. heterozonus._--Scales in 15 rows; 210-219 ventrals; 16-23 -subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals. - -Colour red or brown, with 17 to 23 black rings, mostly narrower than -the interspaces; a black band on the head across the eyes. - -Total length, 900 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Eastern Ecuador, Eastern Peru, Bolivia. - -(9) _E. elegans._--Scales in 15 rows; 189-221 ventrals; 29-47 -subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals. - -Colour: Black annuli in sets of three, separated by reddish-brown -interspaces; 12-17 sets; head black, with yellow blotches. - -Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Mexico and Guatemala. - -(10) _E. annellatus._--Scales in 15 rows; 200-211 ventrals; 30-45 -subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals. - -Colour black, with 41-49 narrow white rings on the body, 4-7 on the -tail; a white ring on the head. - -Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Eastern Peru. - -(11) _E. decoratus._--Scales in 15 rows; 196-213 ventrals: 29-37 -subcaudals. - -Colour red, with 15-16 sets of black annuli disposed in threes; head -yellow, with end of snout black, and a black band across the eyes. - -Total length, 625 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Brazil. - -(12) _E. dumerilii._--Scales in 15 rows; 197-204 ventrals; 50-53 -subcaudals. - -Colour: 8-9 sets of three black annuli on red and yellow; head black, -with a yellow band on the occiput. - -Total length, 410 millimetres; tail 65. - -_Habitat_: Colombia. - -(13) _E. corallinus_ (The Coral Snake).--Scales in 15 rows; 179-231 -ventrals; 30-47 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals. - -Colour: Body with black annuli, separated by red interspaces edged with -yellow; head bluish-black; temples yellow; a blue line from behind the -eye to the lower jaw; tail white. - -Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Tropical South America and Lesser Antilles (St. Thomas, St. -Vincent, Martinique). - -(14) _E. hemprichii._--Scales in 15 rows; 168-181 ventrals; 22-29 -subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals. - -Colour: Black, with red or yellow annuli, a broad annulus between the -narrow ones; occiput, upper lip, and temples yellow. - -Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 65. - -_Habitat_: Guianas, Colombia, Peru. - -(15) _E. tschudii._--Scales in 15 rows; 207-221 ventrals; 21-28 -subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with black annuli broader than the interspaces, disposed -in sets; interspaces red and yellow; snout and occiput black. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Elaps fulvius_ (The Harlequin Snake, -or Coral Snake). (After L. Stejneger.)] - -Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: Peru. - -(16) _E. dissoleucus._--Scales in 15 rows; 200 ventrals; 19 subcaudals. - -Coloration as in foregoing species. - -Total length, 1,070 millimetres; tail 35. - -_Habitat_: Venezuela. - -(17) _E. fulvius_ (Harlequin, or Coral Snake, fig. 66).--Scales in 15 -rows; 180-237 ventrals; 30-59 subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with black, red, and yellow annuli; tail with black and -yellow annuli; snout black. - -Total length, 990 millimetres; tail 85. - -_Habitat_: Eastern North America, from Southern Virginia, the Ohio -River, and the Missouri to the Rio Grande, Mexico. Central America. - -(18) _E. psyches._--Scales in 15 rows; 188-214 ventrals; 32-47 -subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with alternate black and brown annuli, and 48-52 narrow -yellow rings; head black, blotched with yellow. - -Total length, 495 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Guianas. - -(19) _E. spixii._--Scales in 15 rows; 201-219 ventrals; 22-29 -subcaudals. - -Colour red, with 20-38 black rings disposed in threes; a black -occipital collar, followed by a wide red space. - -Total length, 1,400 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Venezuela and Northern Brazil. - -(20) _E. frontalis._--Scales in 15 rows; 197-230 ventrals; 15-26 -subcaudals. Tail ending very obtusely. - -Colour: Body with black annuli disposed in threes, with red and yellow -interspaces; head black, spotted with yellow or red. - -Total length, 1,350 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: Southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina. - -(21) _E. marcgravii._--Scales in 15 rows; 210-240 ventrals; 23-42 -subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with black annuli in 6-10 sets of three, separated by -broad red interspaces, the middle annulus usually wider; snout yellow, -the end usually black; back of head red. - -Total length, 1,120 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: Tropical South America. - -(22) _E. lemniscatus._--Scales in 15 rows; 241-262 ventrals; 30-39 -subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with 11-14 sets of black annuli disposed in threes, -separated by red interspaces; head yellow; end of snout and a band -across the middle of the head black. - -Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Guianas, Brazil. - -(23) _E. filiformis._--Scales in 15 rows; 290-308 ventrals; 35-45 -subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with black annuli disposed in threes, with red -interspaces; head yellow; end of snout black; a black band across the -eyes. - -Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Amazons, Colombia. - -(24) _E. mipartitus._--Scales in 15 rows; 210-278 ventrals; 24-34 -subcaudals. - -Colour black, with 40-68 narrow white annuli; head black to between the -eyes, elsewhere yellow. - -Total length, 610 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Central America and Tropical South America. - -(25) _E. fraseri._--Scales in 15 rows; 303 ventrals; 25 subcaudals. - -Colour black, with 75 narrow whitish rings with broken outlines; head -black in front, yellow behind. - -Total length, 780 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Ecuador. - -(26) _E. mentalis._--Scales in 15 rows; 255-268 ventrals; 30-31 -subcaudals. - -Colour: Body black, with 58-70 narrow white annuli, which become wider -on the belly; snout black, occiput yellow; tail annulate, black and -orange. - -Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 30. - -_Habitat._--Colombia and Ecuador. - -(27) _E. ancoralis._--Scales in 15 rows; 258 ventrals; 31 subcaudals. - -Colour: Body with 16 sets of black annuli disposed in threes, the -middle one of each set a little wider; head light in front, spotted -with black; an anchor-shaped black mark on the occiput and nape. - -Total length, 780 millimetres; tail 57. - -_Habitat_: Ecuador. - -(28) _E. narduccii._--Scales in 15 rows; 240-315 ventrals; 15-33 -subcaudals. - -Colour black, beneath with yellow or red cross-bands or transversely -oval spots, sometimes extending as triangular blotches up the sides; -head with a yellow cross-band. - -Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Eastern Ecuador, North-eastern Peru, Bolivia. - -The species of the genus _Elaps_, which are remarkable for the -brightness and beauty of their colours, are generally found in forests. - -“The traveller,” says Neuwied, “who ventures into the great Brazilian -forests, where the ground is covered with leafy plants, is astonished -to see shining through the verdure the black and red rings of the -beautiful Coral Snake. Uncertainty as to whether the creature is -dangerous alone prevents him from seizing it. The body of the snake -is not lithe enough to enable it to climb trees. Its food consists of -small animals.” - -Dr. Lacerda relates that the Austrian naturalist Wertheimer, when in -the Brazilian settlement of Philadelphia, was bitten by a Coral Snake -in the back of the hand. The usual symptoms of poisoning manifested -themselves immediately, and the unfortunate man died twelve hours -later. Nevertheless, the small size and slenderness of the fangs, the -narrowness of their canals, and the considerable distance between the -fangs and the anterior opening of the mouth, must necessarily render -the bites of these snakes less serious and of rarer occurrence. - - -II.--VIPERIDÆ.--CROTALINÆ. - -The _Solenoglypha_ are infinitely more formidable in the two divisions -of the New World. They are represented by a large number of species, -some of which are feared in consequence of their size and ferocity, -even more than on account of the deadliness of their venom (fig. 67). - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--HEAD AND SKULL OF _Crotalus -horridus_.] - -The American CROTALINÆ are divided into two groups:-- - -The first of these comprises snakes not provided with the caudal -appendage, which is characteristic of the Rattle-Snakes. It consists of -two genera:-- - -(a) _Ancistrodon._ - -(b) _Lachesis._ - -The second group includes only those snakes the tails of which are -terminated by the scaly appendage known as the “rattle.” - -These are likewise divided into two genera:-- - -(c) _Sistrurus._ - -(d) _Crotalus._ - - -(a) =Ancistrodon.= - -Usually with 9 shields on the head, or internasals and præfrontals -broken up into scales. Body cylindrical: scales smooth or keeled, with -apical pits. Tail moderate or short; subcaudals single or in 2 rows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Ancistrodon piscivorus_ (Water -Viper). (After Stejneger.)] - -(1) _A. piscivorus_ (Water Viper, or Cotton-mouth; fig. 68).--Snout -rounded, soft above. Scales on the body strongly keeled, in 25 (rarely -27) rows; 130-147 ventrals; 33-51 subcaudals, all single or the -posterior divided. - -Colour pale reddish-brown to dark brown above, with more or less -distinct dark brown cross-bands, or with alternating C-shaped dark -markings each enclosing a central spot. Belly dull yellow spotted with -black, or almost black. - -Total length, 1,170 millimetres; tail 200. - -_Habitat_: Eastern North America, from North Carolina and Indiana to -Florida and Texas. The Water Viper lives for the most part in the -vicinity of rivers, and feeds upon fish, but also devours small -warm-blooded animals. The Creoles call it the Congo Snake. It is fairly -common in the environs of New Orleans. In summer time it conceals -itself in the branches of trees at the edge of the water. It frequents -inundated rice-fields, and is a terror to the blacks. It attacks -readily, and opens its jaws some seconds before it bites. - -(2) _A. bilineatus._--Snout obtusely pointed. Scales more or less -strongly keeled, in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 135-141 ventrals; 52-64 -subcaudals, anterior single, posterior divided. - -Colour dull yellow or reddish-brown, with more or less distinct darker -cross-bands, or alternating transverse blotches, with yellow edges; -a vertical yellow line on the rostral shield, and a fine yellow line -round the snout; belly brownish or blackish, with white spots. - -Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 200. - -_Habitat_: Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras. - -(3) _A. contortrix_ (The Copperhead).--Snout rounded or truncate. -Scales strongly keeled, in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 145-155 ventrals; 31-52 -subcaudals, anterior single, posterior divided. - -Colour dull yellow or reddish-brown, with dark brown or brick-red -cross-bars; these bars are sometimes interrupted on the vertebral line, -and form alternating triangles; belly yellow or reddish, more or less -spotted with grey or brown. - -Total length, 990 millimetres; tail 110. - -_Habitat_: North America, from Massachusetts and Kansas to Northern -Florida and Texas. - -This snake is often more dreaded than a Rattle-Snake. - - -(b) =Lachesis.= - -In _Lachesis_ the caudal rattle is represented by a series of 10 or -12 rows of spiny scales, which are slightly hooked at the tips. The -head is covered with small shields or smooth or keeled scales, with or -without apical pits. The maxillary is much reduced; the transverse or -pterygoid bone, on the contrary, is greatly developed. - -The name is derived from one of the Parcæ, daughters of Night, who -placed the thread on the spindle, and upon whom depended the fate of -men. - -In addition to the 19 Asiatic species, of which we have already given -descriptions, the genus _Lachesis_ includes 21 American species. - -(1) _L. mutus_ (Bushmaster, or Surucucu).--Two or three scales -separating the internasals in front; 10 to 15 scales on a line between -the supraoculars; 9 or 10 supralabials. Scales tubercularly keeled, -feebly imbricate, in 35 or 37 rows; 200-230 ventrals; 32-50 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Lachesis lanceolatus_ -(_Fer-de-lance_ OF MARTINIQUE). (After Stejneger.)] - -Colour yellow or pinkish on the back, with a series of large rhomboidal -brown or black spots enclosing smaller light spots; a black streak from -the eye to the angle of the mouth. - -Total length, 1,995 millimetres; tail 170. - -_Habitat_: Central and Tropical South America. - -(2) _L. lanceolatus_ (known as the Fer-de-lance in Martinique, and -Jararacussu in Brazil; fig. 69).--Snout obtuse, slightly turned up; -upper head-scales small, imbricate, more or less strongly keeled, in -5-10 longitudinal series between the supraoculars, which are large; -7 or 8 supralabials. Scales in 23-33 rows, sharply keeled; 180-240 -ventrals; 46-70 subcaudals, all or the greater part in two rows. - -Coloration very variable, grey, brown, yellow, olive, or reddish; -uniform or with more or less distinct dark spots, or cross-bands, or -with dark triangles on the sides enclosing pale rhombs; a dark streak -from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly yellowish, uniform, or -spotted with brown. - -Total length, 1,600 millimetres; tail 190. - -_Habitat_: Tropical America; Mexico, Martinique, St. Lucia, Bequia -Island near St. Vincent, Venezuela, Guianas, Rio de Janeiro. - -This snake does not exist in Guadeloupe. “In the islands in which it is -found,” says Dr. Rufz de Lavison, “its presence makes itself felt even -where man has built his dwelling and cultivates the soil. Because of -it no one can carelessly lie down to rest in the shade of a tree; no -one can walk in the woods or enter unconcernedly into the pleasures of -the chase.” It is especially abundant in coffee and sugar plantations, -and is met with from the sea-level up to the summits of the highest -mountains in Martinique and St. Lucia. It not infrequently makes its -way into human habitations, and is not uncommon in gardens, even -entering those of the town of Fort-de-France. - -It does not seek its prey by day, but remains on the alert, always -ready to bite. With open mouth, and fangs projecting forwards, it -strikes with the rapidity of lightning. It swims in the rivers and -moves over the ground with great speed. Oviposition takes place in -July, and the young are hatched forthwith, the usual number being from -about 50-60. - -It feeds upon lizards and rats, but also destroys a certain number of -fowls and turkeys. All the large animals are afraid of it. Its bite is -extremely dangerous, and causes about a hundred deaths in Martinique -every year. - -In striking at its prey or at a man, the _Fer-de-lance_ throws back -its head and opens its jaws widely, with the fangs directed forwards. -It drives in its poison-teeth as with the blow of a hammer, and -quickly draws back again. When very excited, it resumes its position -and strikes afresh. It never becomes tame, but is capable of living a -fairly long time in captivity. I have kept a number of specimens of it -for more than two years, caged in my laboratory. - -(3) _L. atrox_ (Labaria).--Closely resembling _L. lanceolatus_, but -bulkier; the enormous head is armed with powerful fangs, which are -often more than a centimetre in length; 7 supralabial shields; scales -in 25-29 rows, strongly keeled; 161-216 ventrals; 47-73 pairs of -subcaudals. - -Colour brown, with dark cross-bands or triangular blotches, with the -apices adjacent on the vertebral line; a dark streak from the eye to -the angle of the mouth; belly yellowish-white, speckled with brown, or -brown spotted with yellowish-white. - -Total length, 1,110 millimetres; tail 180. - -_Habitat_: from Central America to Peru and Northern Brazil. - -(4) _L. pulcher._--Two postocular shields and a subocular, separated -from the labials by one series of scales; 7 supralabials; scales in 21 -or 23 rows, strongly and tubercularly keeled; 156-172 ventrals; 58-64 -pairs of subcaudals. - -Colour olive-grey, with brown, light-edged cross-bands, which are -continuous or broken on the vertebral line; a light streak from the eye -to the angle of the mouth; belly covered with minute confluent brown -markings, with darker and lighter spots on the sides. - -Total length, 685 millimetres; tail 115. - -_Habitat_: Andes of Ecuador. - -(5) _L. microphthalmus._--Snout short, rounded; eyes very small; 7 -supralabials, of which the third and the sixth or seventh are the -largest; scales in 23 rows, dorsals tubercularly keeled; 159-161 -ventrals; 52-55 subcaudal pairs. - -Colour yellowish-brown or pale olive on the back, with dark brown -triangles on the sides; posteriorly, the united triangles form -cross-bands; a yellowish band from the eye to the side of the neck; -belly dark brown with yellowish spots. - -Total length, 630 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: Peru, Ecuador. - -(6) _L. pictus._--Snout obliquely truncate; two series of scales -between the eye and the labials; scales in 21-23 rows, strongly keeled; -157-172 ventrals; 40-74 pairs of subcaudals. - -Colour pale brown, with a dorsal series of large black-edged brown -spots, which may form a vertebral zigzag band; a black streak behind -the eye, and a vertical bar below the eye; belly yellowish, spotted -with brown. - -Total length, 310 millimetres; tail 43. - -_Habitat_: Peru. - -(7) _L. alternatus._--Head narrow, elongate; 8-9 supralabials; scales -in 29-35 rows, very strongly keeled; 167-181 ventrals; 34-51 pairs of -subcaudals. - -Colour brown, very elegantly marked with opposite or alternating pairs -of large C-shaped markings, which are dark brown, edged with black and -yellow, and separated by narrow interspaces of the ground colour; head -dark·brown above, with a ⅄̅-shaped light marking, the transverse bar -between the eyes; belly whitish, spotted with brown or black. - -Total length, 1,190 millimetres; tail 110. - -_Habitat_: Southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina. - -(8) _L. neuwiedii_ (known as the _Urutù_ in Brazil; fig. 70).--Snout -obtusely pointed; supraocular large, separated from its fellow by -6-9 longitudinal series of scales; 8 or 9 supralabials; scales very -strongly keeled, in 21-27 rows; 168-182 ventrals; 41-53 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish or pale brown, with dark brown black-edged spots; -the spots on the back form a single series or a double alternating -series; a dark spot on the snout; a pair of dark bands from the vertex -to the nape, and another from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly -yellowish, more or less powdered with brown. - -Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 120. - -_Habitat_: Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Lachesis neuwiedii_ (known as the -_Urutù_ in Brazil). (After Lacerda.)] - -(9) _L. ammodytoides._--Snout turned up, in the shape of a wart; two -series of scales between the eye and the labials; scales in 23 or 25 -rows, very strongly keeled; 149-160 ventrals; 30-38 pairs of subcaudals. - -Colour pale brown, with large brown black-edged spots or cross-bands, -which may alternate and form a zigzag band; a dark streak behind the -eye; belly yellowish, spotted with brown. - -Total length, 460 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: North-eastern Patagonia and Argentina. - -(10) _L. xanthogrammus._--Head elongate, snout short; scales in 27 -rows, feebly keeled; 196 ventrals; 54 subcaudals. - -Colour very dark olive, with a yellow zigzag line on each side from the -head to the base of the tail; the angular parts enclose rhombic spaces -and lateral triangles; top of head black, with a pair of undulating -yellow bands from the nape to the vertex; a bright golden band round -the snout; labials bright yellow; ventral shields black, paler in the -middle, with yellow triangular spots at their extremities. - -Total length, 1,530 millimetres; tail 190. - -_Habitat_: Eastern Ecuador, Andes of Colombia. - -(11) _L. castelnaudi._--Head narrow and elongate; scales on the head -smooth or feebly keeled, small; body-scales strongly keeled, in 25 -or 27 rows; 230-253 ventrals; 72-83 subcaudals, all or majority in a -single row. - -Colour greyish or brown, with dark or light-edged spots or cross-bands; -head with dark spots, one of which occupies the middle of the snout; -a dark band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly brown or -blackish, spotted with yellow. - -Total length, 1,220 millimetres; tail 180. - -_Habitat_: Brazil, Ecuador, Eastern Peru. - -(12) _L. nummifer._--Snout broad, rounded; 10 or 11 supralabials; -scales in 23-27 rows, strongly keeled; 121-134 ventrals; 26-36 -subcaudals, all or the majority single. - -Colour pale brown, with a dorsal series of rhomboidal spots, which may -form a zigzag band; belly whitish, uniform or spotted with dark brown. - -Total length, 800 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Mexico and Central America. - -(13) _L. godmani._--Snout broad, rounded; 9 or 10 supralabials; scales -in 21 rows, strongly keeled; 135-142 ventrals; 22-34 subcaudals in a -single row. - -Colour brown, with or without a dorsal series of large darker spots; -belly yellowish, more or less spotted with grey or blackish. - -Total length, 610 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: Guatemala. - -(14) _L. lansbergii._--Snout pointed, turned up at the end, as in -Vipera aspis; scales in 25-27 rows, strongly keeled; 152-159 ventrals; -29-35 subcaudals in a single row. - -Colour yellowish-brown, pale brown, or grey, with a dorsal series of -large rhomboidal or squarish spots, usually divided by a narrow yellow -or orange vertebral line; cheeks blackish; belly powdered with brown, -with or without whitish spots. - -Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: from Southern Mexico to Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil. - -(15) _L. brachystoma._--Similar to the foregoing species; scales in 23 -(rarely 25) rows; 132-150 ventrals; 27-38 subcaudals. - -Total length, 500 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Southern Mexico and Central America. - -(16) _L. bilineatus._--Snout rounded; 7 or 8 supralabials; scales in -27-35 rows, strongly keeled; 198-218 ventrals; 59-71 subcaudals, all or -majority in two rows. _Tail prehensile._ - -Colour green, uniform or spotted with black; a lateral yellow streak; -belly white; end of tail reddish. - -Total length, 840 millimetres; tail 125. - -_Habitat_: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador. - -(17) _L. undulatus._--Snout short, rounded; 11 supralabials; scales -in 21 rows, the dorsals strongly or very strongly keeled; 149-171 -ventrals; 41-49 pairs of subcaudals. _Tail prehensile._ - -Colour olive or brown, sometimes speckled with black, with a dorsal -series of rhomboidal dark spots or an undulous or zigzag band; belly -yellowish or brownish, powdered with blackish. - -Total length, 570 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_: Mexico. - -(18) _L. lateralis._--Snout rounded; 9 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 -rows, rather strongly keeled; 171 ventrals; 59 subcaudals, in a single -row. _Tail prehensile._ - -Colour green, with a yellow line on each side of the body. - -Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_: Costa Rica. - -(19) _L. bicolor._--Very similar to the foregoing; scales in 21 rows; -164-167 ventrals; 62-67 subcaudals, in a single row. - -Colour uniform green, yellowish on the belly. - -Total length, 375 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: Guatemala. - -(20) _L. schlegelii._--Snout rounded; 8 or 9 supralabials; scales in -19-25 rows, more or less strongly keeled; 138-162 ventrals; 47-62 -subcaudals, in a single row. _Tail prehensile._ - -Coloration very variable, green or olive, spotted with black, or with -pinkish, reddish, or purplish black-edged spots or cross-bars; belly -yellow, spotted with green, or variegated; end of tail generally red. - -Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 115. - -_Habitat_: Central America, Colombia, Ecuador. - -(21) _L. nigroviridis._--Snout short, rounded; 9-11 supralabials; -19 rows of scales, rather feebly keeled; 134-146 ventrals; 49-54 -subcaudals, in a single row. _Tail prehensile._ - -Colour green or olive, spotted with black; head with a black streak on -each side; belly yellowish. - -Total length, 535 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Costa Rica. - -(22) _L. aurifer._--Snout short and broad; 9 or 10 supralabials; scales -in 19 rows, rather strongly keeled; 154-158 ventrals; 53-61 subcaudals, -single. _Tail prehensile._ - -Colour green, spotted with yellow; a black streak on the temple; belly -greenish-yellow. - -Total length, 825 millimetres; tail 145. - -_Habitat_: Guatemala. - - -(c) =Sistrurus.= - -Head very distinct from neck, covered above with nine large symmetrical -shields; eyes rather small, with vertical pupils. Body cylindrical; -scales keeled, with apical pits; tail short, ending in a segmented -horny apparatus (rattle), producing a special sound; subcaudals all or -the majority in a single row. - -(1) _S. miliarius_ (Ground Rattle-Snake).--9-11 supralabials; scales -in 21 or 23 rows, strongly keeled; 127-139 ventrals; 27-36 subcaudals; -rattle short, consisting at the most of 10 segments. - -Colour greyish, yellowish, or brown, the vertebral line often orange; -two undulating dark stripes from between the eyes to the occiput, the -enclosed space usually orange; belly whitish, spotted with dark brown -or black. - -Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 70. - -_Habitat_: South-eastern North America, from North Carolina to Texas. - -(2) _S. catenatus_ (Prairie Rattle-Snake, or Massasanga, fig. -71).--Two or three series of scales between the eye and the labials; -11-14 supralabials; scales in 23 or 25 rows; 136-153 ventrals; 20-31 -subcaudals. - -Colour the same as in _S. miliarius_: a dark spot on the parietal -shields. - -Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Great Lakes district; United States east of the Rocky -Mountains and west of the Mississippi; Northern Mexico. - -(3) _S. ravus._--11 or 12 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 rows; 147 -ventrals; 26 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish-brown, with a dorsal series of dark brown spots, -longer than broad, and a series of transverse dark bars on each side; -belly yellowish, spotted with blackish-brown. - -[Illuatration: FIG. 71.--_Sistrurus catenatus_ (Prairie -Rattle-Snake, or Massasanga). (After Holbrook and Stejneger.)] - -Total length, 200 millimetres; tail 22. - -_Habitat_: Vera Cruz, Mexico. - - -(d) =Crotalus= (Rattle-Snakes). - -These snakes differ from all others in that the end of the tail bears a -series of large conical scales, forming rattles, each fitting into the -next and movable in such a manner that when the reptile causes them to -move they produce a strident sound (fig. 72). - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--A, Horny appendage (rattle) of -_Crotalus horridus_ (three-quarters natural size. After Garman). -B, longitudinal section of the same. C, separated segments of the -appendage: _a_, terminal point; _h_, basal segment (after Czermak).] - -The length of these animals often exceeds 2,000 millimetres. The head -is flat, very large and expanded posteriorly, and terminated in front -by a short, truncate snout; it is covered above with scales or small -shields. - -Rattle-Snakes are armed with enormous fangs enclosing a complete canal, -which extends throughout almost their entire length. The poison-glands -are of the size of a large almond. - -The number of segments in the rattle is variable, but rarely exceeds 18 -or 20. At the time of the shedding of the skin these segments fall -off and are at once replaced. Contrary to the belief which was long -entertained, their number bears no relation to the age of the snake. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Crotalus terrificus_ (Dog-faced -Rattle-Snake, Cascavella in Brazil). (After Stejneger.)] - -Rattle-Snakes are met with especially in stony and arid localities, or -among brushwood near water. They hardly ever bite except when surprised -or attacked. - -(1) _C. terrificus_ (Dog-faced Rattle-Snake, _Cascavella_ in Brazil; -fig. 73).--Snout very short; three or four series of scales between the -eye and the supralabial shields; body-scales in 23-31 rows, dorsals -very strongly keeled; 160-199 ventrals; 18-30 subcaudals. - -Colour brown, with a series of darker, light-edged rhombs, often -lighter in the centre; a dark streak from the eye to the angle of the -mouth; belly yellowish-white, uniform or spotted with brown; tail -generally brown or blackish. - -Total length, 1,320 millimetres; tail 130. - -_Habitat_: Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas to Southern Brazil, and -Northern Argentina. - -(2) _C. scutulatus_ (Texas Rattle-Snake; fig. 74).--13-16 supralabials; -scales in 25 or 27 rows; dorsals striated and strongly keeled; 167-170 -ventrals; 18-20 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish or greyish-brown, with a series of large dark brown -light-edged rhomboidal spots; an oblique dark streak below the eye; -belly uniform yellowish-white. - -Total length, 760 millimetres; tail 65. - -_Habitat_: Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, North Mexico. - -(3) _C. confluentus_ (Pacific or Mottled Rattle-Snake; fig. 75).--Upper -head-scales small, striated; 13-18 supralabials; body scales in 25-29 -rows, striated and strongly keeled; 168-197 ventrals; 17-34 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish, greyish, or pale brown, with a dorsal series of -large brown or red spots, usually rhomboidal or transversely elliptic -in shape; a light streak or triangular marking across the supraocular -shields; belly yellowish, uniform or spotted with brown. - -Total length, 1,520 millimetres; tail 140. - -_Habitat_: Western North America, from British Columbia to South -California, eastwards to Assiniboia, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and -Western and Southern Texas; Northern Mexico. - - * * * * * - -According to Holbrook, this reptile feeds upon young rabbits, -squirrels, rats and other small mammals. It lays its eggs in August, -and the young are hatched at once, and are capable of seeking their own -food. - -In captivity as well as under natural conditions the Mottled -Rattle-Snake is an excessively irritable species. “The noise of the -wind,” says Brehm, “or even the distant view of a man or animal, are -sufficient to irritate it. It then coils itself up in a spiral, and -places its head and tail in the centre of the disc thus formed, in -a state of absolute immobility. After a short interval the creature -raises its head to a height of about 8 to 12 inches above the ground, -curves its neck in the shape of an S, and elevates its tail into a -vertical position and shakes it vigorously, whereupon the strident -noise caused by the rattle is heard. So rapid are the movements -communicated by the _Crotalus_ to its tail that they can scarcely be -distinguished. So long as the _Crotalus_ believes itself menaced it -remains in the position that we have just described, and continues to -sound its rattle. If one withdraws from the irritated snake, the sound -gradually lessens and ceases, to begin again more vigorously when the -reptile is once more approached.” - -The bite of these snakes is exceedingly dangerous. Pigs wage an -inveterate war against them and devour them. - -At the Pasteur Institute at Lille, I have kept several of these -reptiles in captivity for eighteen months and longer. They invariably -refused their food, and I always had to resort to artificial feeding. -They are easily capable of withstanding a prolonged fast. - -(4) _C. durissus_ (Common Rattle-Snake).--7 or 8 longitudinal series -of scales between the supraoculars, 3 or 4 series of scales between the -eye and the labials; 13-16 supralabials; scales in 25-29 rows, dorsals -strongly keeled; ventrals 169-181; 24-32 subcaudals. - -[Illustartion: FIG. 74.--_Crotalus scutulatus_ (Texas -Rattle-Snake). (After Baird and Stejneger.)] - -Colour pale greyish or brownish, with a dorsal series of large blackish -rhomboidal spots; a yellowish cross-line between the eyes; snout -blackish; end of tail usually black; belly yellowish, more or less -spotted with brown or black. - -Total length may be as much as 8 feet (2,400 millimetres). - -_Habitat_: South-eastern United States, from North Carolina to Florida -and the mouths of the Mississippi. - -(5) _C. horridus._--Supraoculars considerably narrower than the space -between them, which is covered by 3-8 longitudinal series of small -scales; 12-16 supralabials; body scales in 23-29 rows, dorsals very -strongly keeled; 165-178 ventrals; 19-29 subcaudals. - -Colour greyish-brown, usually with a rusty vertebral stripe, and -=V-= or =M-=shaped blackish cross-bands; head uniform above, -with a dark band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; usually a pair -of roundish or triangular dark spots on the nape; belly yellowish, -uniform or spotted with blackish; end of tail blackish. - -Total length, 1,340 millimetres; tail 135. - -_Habitat_: United States, from Massachusetts and Iowa to Northern -Florida and Texas. - -(6) _C. tigris._--13-15 supralabials; scales in 23 or 25 rows, dorsals -strongly keeled; 166-181 ventrals; 26-46 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish or pale brown, with a dorsal series of brown spots -and cross-bands posteriorly; sides with smaller dark spots; belly -yellowish, spotted with brown. - -Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 50. - -_Habitat_: Southern California, Lower California, Nevada, Colorado, -Arizona, and Northern Mexico. - -(7) _C. mitchelli._--14-16 supralabials; scales in 25 rows, striated, -dorsals strongly keeled; 178-198 ventrals; 24-26 subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Crotalus confluentus_ (Pacific or -Mottled Rattle-Snake). (After Baird and Stejneger.)] - -Colour greyish-yellow to salmon-red, finely punctulated with brown, -with a dorsal series of transverse darker spots; belly yellowish. - -Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Desert regions of Southern California, Lower California, and -Arizona. - -(8) _C. triseriatus._--9-13 supralabials; scales in 21-25 rows, dorsals -strongly keeled; 142-184 ventrals; 22-30 subcaudals. - -Colour olive or brown, with a vertebral series of rather small dark -brown spots edged with black and white; belly yellowish, spotted with -dark brown, or dark grey-brown powdered with whitish. - -Total length, 530 millimetres; tail 55. - -_Habitat_: Mexico. - -(9) _C. polystictus._--Closely allied to the foregoing, but 4 -internasals, 14 or 15 supralabials, and scales in 27-30 rows; 123-151 -ventrals; 18-23 subcaudals. - -Colour yellowish-brown, beautifully marked with 6 or 7 longitudinal -series of alternating, elongate, dark brown, black- and white-edged -spots, separated by narrow interspaces of the ground-colour; a pair -of diverging dark bands on the top of the head, separated by a narrow -pinkish-white streak; belly pinkish or yellowish, spotted with dark -brown. - -Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: Tableland of Mexico. - -(10) C. LEPIDUS.--12 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 rows, -dorsals strongly keeled; 153-169 ventrals; 24-31 subcaudals. - -Colour brown or greenish-grey, with dark brown or jet-black light-edged -cross-bands, narrowing on the sides; two dark spots, or a =V-= or -heart-shaped black marking on the nape; belly dirty white, spotted with -brown. - -Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, North Mexico. - -(11) _C. cerastes_ (Horned Rattle-Snake; fig. 76).--Supraocular -transformed into a raised horn-like process; 11-13 supralabials; scales -in 21 or 23 rows; dorsals feebly keeled, each scale along the middle -of the back with a central tubercular swelling; 146 ventrals; 17 -subcaudals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Crotalus cerastes_ (Horned -Rattle-Snake.) (After Baird and Stejneger.)] - -Colour yellowish, with a dorsal series of rather indistinct brown -blotches; a narrow brown streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth. - -Total length, 250 millimetres; tail 20. - -_Habitat_: Desert regions of Southern California, Nevada, Arizona, and -Utah. - - -_F.--HYDROPHIINÆ (SEA-SNAKES)._ - -The Sea-Snakes, which are found in great numbers on the shores of the -Indian Ocean, are common throughout the whole of the tropical zone of -the China Sea and the Pacific. They are met with from the Persian Gulf -to the west coast of Equatorial America, but are entirely absent from -the east coast of the same continent and the west and east coasts of -Africa. - -They often travel in companies. All are poisonous, and very savage. -They never come to land, and move with difficulty if taken out of the -water, although they are excellent swimmers. It is impossible to keep -them in captivity in aquariums, and they die in two or three days. -Their food consists of fishes and crustacea. Their tail is prehensile, -and they make use of it as an anchor to attach themselves to coral -reefs when they wish to rest. They generally float on the surface -of the waves, but can dive to great depths, thanks to the extreme -dilatability of their lungs, which enables them to store up large -reserves of air. They are viviparous. - -In these snakes, the head, which is always very small, is scarcely -distinct from the body. It is often covered with nine large shields. -The body is laterally compressed, and the tail, which serves as a fin, -is similarly flattened. The nostrils open on the upper surface of the -snout, between the nasal shields. The eyes are always very small. - -The number of species at present known is considerable; they are -divided into _ten_ genera. We shall confine ourselves here to -mentioning the principal diagnostic characters of these genera, and to -describing the most common species. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--SKULL OF _Hydrus platurus_. -(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - - -(1) =Hydrus.= - -(Fig. 77.) - -Maxillaries longer than the ectopterygoids, not extending forwards as -far as the palatines; poison-fangs grooved, rather short, followed, -after an interspace, by 7 or 8 solid, backwardly curved teeth. Snout -long, bearing the nostrils on its upper surface; head-shields large, -nasals in contact with each other. Body rather short; scales hexagonal -or squarish, juxtaposed; no distinct ventral scales. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Hydrus platurus_ (syn. _Pelamis -bicolor_). - -(After Krefft.)] - -The principal species of this genus is _H. platurus_ (syn. _Pelamis -bicolor_, fig. 78). - -Coloration black or brown and yellow, with very variable markings. - -Total length, 700 millimetres; tail 80. - -_Habitat_: Indian Ocean, Tropical and Sub-tropical Pacific. - - -(2) =Thalassophis.= - -Poison-fangs followed by 5 small teeth. Snout short; nostrils superior, -horizontal, between two nasal shields and an internasal; frontal and -parietal shields large; præocular present. Body rather elongate; scales -hexagonal, juxtaposed; no distinct ventral scales. - -_T. anomalus._--Body with dark annuli, wider on the back. - -Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 84. - -_Habitat_: Java. - - -(3) =Acalyptophis.= - -Maxillaries longer than the ectopterygoids; frontal and parietal -shields broken up into scales. Body rather elongate; scales -subimbricate; no distinct ventrals. - -_A. peronii._--Greyish or pale olive, with dark cross-bands; belly -whitish. - -Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 115. - -_Habitat_: Western Tropical Pacific. - - -(4) =Hydrelaps.= - -Snout short; 6 teeth behind the poison-fangs; nostril in a single nasal -shield; head-shields large. Body feebly compressed; scales imbricate; -ventral scales small, but well developed. - -_H. darwiniensis._--Body with yellowish-white and blackish annuli, the -black rings narrower on the belly; head dark olive spotted with black. - -Total length, 435 millimetres; tail 43. - -_Habitat_: North Australia. - - -(5) =Hydrophis.= - -(FIG. 79.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--_Hydrophis coronatus._ (After Sir -Joseph Fayrer.)] - -Poison-fangs large, followed by a series of 7-18 solid teeth. Head -small; nostrils on the upper surface of the snout, pierced in a single -nasal shield; head-shields large; præocular present. Body long, often -very slender anteriorly; scales on the anterior part of the body -imbricate, rectangular, keeled or tubercular; ventrals more or less -distinct, very small. - -A considerable number of (at least 22) species of HYDROPHIS -are known. Those most frequently met with are the following:-- - -_H. spiralis._--Olive above, yellowish beneath, with black rings; head -black above, with a horse-shoe-shaped yellow mark, the convexity of -which rests on the præfrontal shields; end of tail black. - -Total length, 400 millimetres. Grows to 1,800 millimetres. - -_Habitat_: Coasts of India, and the Malay Archipelago. - -_H. cærulescens._--Grey above, with black cross-bands, which form -complete rings, or are interrupted on the belly; head uniform black. - -Total length, 665 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_: Bombay Coast, Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca. - -_H. nigrocinctus._--Pale olive on the back, yellowish on the belly, -with black annuli, which are broader on the back. - -Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal and Straits of Malacca. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--_Hydrophis elegans._ (After Krefft.)] - -_H. elegans_ (fig. 80).--Yellowish-white, back with transverse -rhomboidal black spots, separated by a series of small black spots; -belly with black spots or cross-bars; head blackish, with a more or -less distinct light crescentic marking across the snout, from above the -eyes. - -Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 60. - -_Habitat_: North coast of Australia. - -_H. gracilis._--Bluish-black or greyish, olive above in the adult, -with more or less distinct lighter cross-bands anteriorly. Young -sometimes with rhombic black cross-bands extending to the belly, or -sub-interrupted on the sides. - -Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Coasts of Persia, India, and Ceylon; Malay Archipelago. - -_H. cantoris._--Body dark olive or blackish anteriorly, with yellowish -cross-bands above; posterior part of body olive above, yellowish on -the sides; tail with olive vertical bars; a blackish streak along the -belly. - -Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal. - -_H. fasciatus._--Head and neck black, the latter with yellowish -cross-bands; body pale, with black annuli, which are broader on the -back. - -Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 85. - -_Habitat_: From the coasts of India to China and New Guinea. - -_H. obscurus_ (syn. _H. stricticollis_).--Olive or dark green above, -with yellowish cross-bars, which form complete rings round the slender -anterior part of the body; a yellow spot on the snout, and a yellow -streak on each side of the upper surface of the head. - -Total length, 970 millimetres; tail 105. - -_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal, Malay Archipelago. - -_H. leptodira.-_-Black, with yellow cross-bars on the neck, and -complete annuli on the body, the bars and annuli numbering 77. - -Total length, 525 millimetres; tail 40. - -_Habitat_: Mouths of the Ganges. - - -(6) =Distira.= - -(Fig. 81.) - -Poison-fangs large, followed by 4-10 grooved teeth. Head larger than in -HYDROPHIS; body more or less elongate; scales on the anterior -part of the body imbricate; ventrals more or less distinct, and always -very small. - -The species of this genus, 18 in number according to the British Museum -Catalogue, are found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, from the Persian -Gulf to Japan and New Caledonia. - -The most important are:-- - -_D. ornata._--Uniform blackish-olive on the back, whitish on the belly. - -Total length, 1,200 millimetres; tail 130. _ Habitat_: From the Mouth -of Persian Gulf, and the coasts of India and Ceylon to New Guinea, and -North Australia. - -_D. subcincta._--Trunk with 41 broad dark cross-bands, about as broad -as the interspaces, not extending downwards to the middle of the side; -a series of small roundish, blackish spots along the lower part of the -sides. - -Total length, 1,070 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: Indian Ocean. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--SKULL OF _Distira_. - -(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -_D. cyanocincta._--Greenish-olive above, with dark olive or black -cross-bars or annuli, broader on the back, and sometimes joined by a -black band along the belly, or yellowish, with a black vertebral stripe -and a few bars on the neck. - -Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 140. - -_Habitat_: From the Persian Gulf and the coasts of India to China, -Japan, and Papuasia. - -_D. jerdonii._--Olive above, yellowish on the belly, with black -cross-bands forming complete rings in young and half-grown specimens; -a black spot sometimes present between each pair of annuli. - -Total length, 910 millimetres; tail 100. - -_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca, Borneo. - - -(7) =Enhydris.= - -Two large poison-fangs, and 2-4 small feebly grooved teeth. Body short -and stout; scales hexagonal or squarish, juxtaposed, disappearing -almost completely on the belly. - -_E. curtus._--Above with dark transverse bands, broadest in the middle; -end of tail black. - -Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 75. - -_Habitat_ Coasts of India and Ceylon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--_Enhydrina valakadien_ (syn. _E. -bengalensis_).] - - -(8) =Enhydrina.= - -Two large poison-fangs, followed by 4 solid non-grooved teeth. Body -moderately elongate; scales imbricate; ventrals distinct but very small. - -_E. valakadien_ (syn. _E. bengalensis_; fig. 82).--Colour olive or -grey, with black transverse bands, usually less distinct in the adult; -sides and belly whitish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--SKULL OF _Platurus -olubrinus_. - -(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)] - -Total length, 1,300 millimetres; tail 190. - -_Habitat_: From the Persian Gulf along the coasts of India and Burma, -to the Malay Archipelago and Papuasia. - - -(9) =Aipysurus.= - -Maxillaries a little longer than the ectopterygoids; poison-fangs -moderate, followed, after a short interval, by 8-10 grooved teeth; -anterior mandibular teeth feebly grooved. Snout short; head shields -large, or broken up into scales. Body moderate; scales imbricate; -ventrals large, keeled in the middle. - -_A. australis._--Brown, or cream-colour, with brown spots forming more -or less distinct cross-bars. - -Total length, 930 millimetres; tail 110. - -_Habitat_: Coasts of New Guinea and Australia. - -Other species of AIPYSURUS (_A. eydouxii_, _annulatus_, and -_lævis_) are found on the coasts of Singapore, Java, Celebes, and the -Philippine and Loyalty Islands. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--_Platurus laticaudatus_ (syn. _P. -fischeri_). - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)] - - -(10) =Platurus.= - -(Figs. 83, 84.) - -Two large poison-fangs, and only one or two small solid teeth near the -posterior extremity of the maxillary. Head shields large; nostrils -lateral, the nasal shields separated by the internasals. Body greatly -elongate; scales smooth and imbricate; ventrals and subcaudals large. - -Four species, distributed in the eastern parts of the Indian Ocean and -in the Western Pacific. - -_P. laticaudatus_ (syn. _P. fischeri;_ fig. 84).--Olive above, -yellowish on the belly, with 29-48 black annuli. - -Total length: 970 millimetres; tail 90. - -_Habitat_: From the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea and the Western -South Pacific Ocean. - -_P. colubrinus_ (fig. 83).--Olive above, yellowish on the belly, with -28-54 black annuli, some or all of which may be interrupted below. - -Total length, 1,270 millimetres; tail 125. - -_Habitat_: From the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea and the Western -South Pacific Ocean. - -_P. muelleri._--62 black annuli, some of which are interrupted on the -belly. - -_Habitat_: Only found in the South Pacific Ocean (subtropical zone), as -far as the New Hebrides and the shores of Tasmania. - -_P. schistorhynchus._--Coloration and size as in _P. colubrinus_: body -with 25-45 annuli. - -_Habitat_: Western Tropical Pacific. - - - _G.--GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRINCIPAL GENERA OF - POISONOUS SNAKES IN THE FIVE DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD._ - - -(1) _EUROPE._ - - FAMILIES SUB-FAMILIES GENERA GEOGRAPHICAL AREA - - {Borders of the Mediterranean - COLUBRIDÆ _Dipsadomorphinæ Cœlopeltis_ { in France and Spain; - { Italy {only in Liguria). - - {France, Italy, Switzerland, - { Austria-Hungary, Germany, - { Belgium, Sweden - VIPERIDÆ _Viperinæ Vipera_ { and Norway, Gt. Britain, - { Spain and Portugal, Bosnia - { and Herzegovina, - { Southern Russia, Turkey - { and Greece. - - -(2) _ASIA._ - - {_Hydrus_ } - {_Thalassophis_} - {_Acalyptophis_} - {_Hydrelaps_ } Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, - {_Hydrophis_ } Bay of Bengal, Straits - {_Hydrophiinæ_ {_Distira_ } of Malacca, China Sea, - { {_Enhydris_ } Philippines, and Malay - { {_Enhydrina_ } Archipelago. - { {_Aipysurus_ } - { {_Platurus_ } - { - COLUBRIDÆ { {India, Ceylon, Burma, - { {_Bungarus_ { Indo-China, Southern China, - { { { Dutch Indies, Borneo. - { { {India, Ceylon, Burma, - { {_Naja_ { Indo-China, Dutch Indies, - { { { Philippines. - {_Elapinæ_ {_Hemibungarus_ {South-eastern Asia, India, - { { Japan, Philippines. - { {South-eastern Asia, India, - {_Callophis_ { Formosa, Burma, Indo- - { { China, Southern China. - {_Doliophis_ {Indo-China, Malay Peninsula. - { { {Turkestan, Ural, Siberia, - { {_Vipera_ { Caucasus, Persia, Armenia, - { { { Western China, - { { { India, Ceylon, Himalayas. - { { - { _Viperinæ_ {_Pseudocerastes_ Persia. - { {_Cerastes_ Arabia, Palestine. - { { - { {_Echis_ {Persia, Arabia, India, Baluchistan, - VIPERIDÆ { { Afghanistan. - { - { { {Transcaspia, Turkestan, - { { { Himalayas, Southern - { {_Ancistrodon_ { China, Formosa, Japan, - {_Crotalinæ_ { { Ceylon, Java. - { { - { { {South-eastern Asia, India, - { {_Lachesis_ { Southern China, Indo-China, - { { { Formosa, Sumatra. - - -(3) _AFRICA._ - - {_Boulengerina_ Central Africa. - {_Elapechis_ Central and South Africa. - { - { {Egypt, Central and West - {_Naja_ { Africa, Morocco, Congo, - { { Angola. - { - {_Sepedon_ {South Africa, Cape of Good - COLUBRIDÆ _Elapinæ_ { { Hope. - { - {_Aspidelaps_ {South and South-east Africa, - { { Mozambique. - { - {_Walterinnesia_ Egypt. - { - {_Homorelaps_ {South Africa, Cape of Good - { { Hope. - { - { {Central and South Africa, - {_Dendraspis_ { Angola, Great Lakes, - { { Congo, Transvaal. - { {West Africa, Gambia, Great - {_Causus_ { Lakes, Congo, Angola, - { { Transvaal. - { - {_Vipera_ {Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, - { { Egypt, Mozambique. - { - { {Zanzibar, Zambesia, the - {_Bitis_ { Cape, Transvaal, Congo, - { { the Gaboon, Benguella, - { { Angola, Senegal, Nigeria. - { - {_Cerastes_ North Africa, the Sahara. - { - VIPERIDÆ _Viperinæ_ { {North Africa, Lake Chad, - {_Echis_ { Soudan, Egypt, Somaliland, - { { Socotra. - { - { {Tropical Africa, Dahomey, - {_Atheris_ { Lagos, the Cameroons, - { { the Gaboon, Congo. - { - { {Tropical and South Africa, - { { Congo, Angola, Lake - {_Atractaspis_ { Chad, the Gaboon, Dahomey, - { { Gold Coast, Zanzibar, - { { Somaliland, Natal, - { { and the Cape. - - -(4) _OCEANIA._ - - FAMILIES SUB-FAMILIES GENERA GEOGRAPHICAL AREA - - { {_Hydrus_ } - { {_Thalassophis_ } - { {_Hydrelaps_ } Equatorial and Sub-tropical - { {_Hydrophis_ } Pacific Ocean, the - {_Hydrophiinæ_ {_Distira_ } Moluccas, Papuasia, New - { {_Enhydris_ } Guinea, Celebes, Timor, - { {_Enhydrina_ } Australia, Tasmania, New - { {_Aipysurus_ } Caledonia, New Hebrides. - { {_Platurus_ } - { - { {_Ogmodon_ Fiji Islands. - { { - { {_Glyphodon_ {Northern Australia, New - COLUBRIDÆ { { { Guinea. - { { - { {_Pseudelaps_ {Australia, the Moluccas, - { { { Papuasia. - { { - { {_Diemenia_ Australia, New Guinea. - { {_Pseudechis_ Australia, New Guinea. - { { - { {_Denisonia_ {Australia, Solomon Islands. - { { { Tasmania - { { - {_Elapinæ_ {_Micropechis_ New Guinea, Solomon Islands. - { {_Hoplocephalus_ Australia. - { {_Tropidechis_ Australia. - { {_Notechis_ Australia, Tasmania. - { {_Rhinhoplocephalus_ Australia. - { {_Brachyaspis_ Australia. - { - { {_Acanthophis_ {Moluccas, Papuasia, Northern - { { { Australia. - { { - { {_Elapognathus_ Australia. - { {_Rhynchelaps_ Australia. - { {_Furina_ Australia. - - -(5) _AMERICA._ - - FAMILIES SUB-FAMILIES GENERA GEOGRAPHICAL AREA - - {Mexico, Central America, - COLUBRIDÆ _Elapinæ_ _Elaps_ { Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, - { Colombia, Brazil. - - {_Ancistrodon_ {North America, Florida, - { { Texas, Mexico, Guatemala. - { - {_Lachesis_ {Central and South America, - { { Martinique, St. Lucia. - { { - VIPERIDÆ _Crotalinæ_ {_Sistrurus_ {North America east of the - { { Rocky Mountains, Mexico. - { { - { {Southern Canada, British - { { Columbia, Central America, - {_Crotalus_ { Guiana, Venezuela, - { { Brazil, Uruguay, Northern - { { Argentina. - - - - -PART II. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - - - -_SECRETION AND COLLECTION OF VENOM IN SNAKES._ - - -_Non-poisonous_ as well as _poisonous_ snakes possess _parotid_ and -_upper labial_ glands capable of secreting venom. In the former the -organs of inoculation are wanting, but we shall see later on that the -toxic secretion of their glands is just as indispensable to them as to -the snakes of the second category for the purpose of enabling them to -digest their prey. - -For the morphological, histological, and physiological demonstration of -the existence of these glands in harmless reptiles we are indebted to -Leydig (1873), whose discovery has since been confirmed and extended -by the researches of Phisalix and Bertrand, Alcock, L. Rogers, and L. -Lannoy. - -The parotids of Grass Snakes are mixed glands of the sero-mucous type. -The serous tubes are situate almost exclusively in the posterior -portion of the gland. As we proceed towards the anterior portion, we -find that these serous tubes are interspersed with others which are -exclusively mucous or sero-mucous, and they become entangled with those -of the upper labial gland, properly so-called. The substance of the -gland is divided into several lobes by bands of connective tissue; -the tubes are separated by _septa_ of the same tissue, in extremely -delicate layers (Lannoy). - -In poisonous snakes these glands are much more developed, especially -in their hinder portions, which sometimes assume enormous dimensions. -They may attain the size of a large almond (_Crotalus_, _Naja_), and -they then occupy the spacious chamber already described (Chap. I., p. -10), which is situated behind the eye on each side of the skull. - -Each gland is surrounded by a thick capsule of fibrous tissue, two -prolongations of which, the one anterior, the other posterior, keep it -in its place beneath the _masseter_ muscle. A portion of the latter -is inserted in the capsule itself, in such a way that when the snake -closes its jaws to bite, the gland is forcibly compressed and the -contained liquid is squeezed into its excretory duct. - -Between the muscle and the envelope of the gland there is a serous -pouch, which enables the one to slide over the other. - -The excretory duct runs along the outer side of the upper jaw, -and opens by a slit at the base of the poison-fang, with which it -inosculates at right angles in a little muscular mass forming a -_sphincter_. - -In the normal position of repose, the poison-fang is always concealed -by a gingival fold of mucous membrane, in the substance of which are -buried a few fibres of the tendon of the internal pterygoid muscle. -When the latter contracts, the tooth is almost completely exposed, and -the efferent duct of the gland then assumes an oblique position, which -allows of the direct discharge of the venom through the canal which -runs along the greater portion of the length of the tooth. - -When the poison-fangs are folded back in their sheath, the poisonous -secretion can escape freely into the buccal cavity by the slit situated -at the base of the fangs. - -At the moment when the animal is about to bite, when it throws back its -head and opens its jaws, directing its fangs forwards, the muscles that -come into action (_masseters_, _temporals_, and _pterygoids_) compress -the glands on each side, and cause the venom to be expelled in a sudden -jet, as if by a sort of ejaculatory process. In the case of certain -species the venom may be projected to a distance of more than a yard. - -The quantity of venom secreted by the glands varies greatly, according -to the length of time which has elapsed since the animal took its last -meal, and in accordance with a number of other conditions not very easy -to determine. - -The Common Viper of Europe yields scarcely 10 centigrammes of poison, -while an adult Indian Cobra may excrete more than 1 gramme. - - * * * * * - -Freshly collected venom is a syrupy liquid, citron-yellow or slightly -opalescent white in colour. - -When dried rapidly _in vacuo_ or in a desiccator over calcium chloride, -it concretes in cracked translucent lamellæ like albumin or gum arabic, -and thus assumes a crystalloid aspect. In this condition it may be kept -indefinitely, if protected from light, air, and moisture. It dissolves -again in water just as readily as albumin or dried serums. - -I regularly weighed the dry residue from eleven bites made on a -watch-glass by two _Naja haje_, received at my laboratory from Egypt -at the same time, and placed in the same case. Both snakes were -approximately of equal length, 1,070 millimetres. Throughout the entire -course of the experiment, which lasted _one hundred and two days_, -neither of them took any food, but they drank water and frequently -bathed. - -The results that I obtained are shown in the table on next page. - -It will be seen that in one hundred and two days, an adult _Naja haje_ -is capable of producing on an average 0·632 gramme of liquid venom, -equal to a mean weight of 0·188 gramme of dry extract; and we may -conclude that 1 gramme of _liquid_ gives 0·336 gramme of _dry_ venom. - -In Australia it has been found by MacGarvie Smith, of Sydney, that -_Pseudechis porphyriacus_ yields at each bite a quantity of venom -varying from 0·100 gramme to 0·160 gramme (equal to 0·024 gramme to -0·046 gramme of dry venom), and that a _Hoplocephalus curtus_ (Tiger -Snake) yields 0·065 gramme to 0·150 gramme of liquid venom, with 0·017 -gramme to 0·055 gramme of dry residue. In all the experiments of this -physiologist, the proportion of dry residue varied from 9 to 38 per -cent. of the liquid venom excreted by the reptile. - -A _Lachesis lanceolatus_ (Fer-de-lance) from Martinique, of medium -size, when both of its glands were squeezed, furnished me with 0·320 -gramme of liquid venom, and 0·127 gramme of dry extract. - - +---------+----------+-------------------+-------------------+ - | | | _NAJA HAJE_ I. | _NAJA HAJE_ II. | - |Number of| Date | WEIGHT OF VENOM | WEIGHT OF VENOM | - | bite | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ - | | | Fresh | Dry | Fresh | Dry | - +---------+----------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ - | | | Gramme | Gramme | Gramme | Gramme | - | 1 | April 20 | 0·119 | 0·031 | -- | -- | - | 2 | “ 23 | -- | -- | 0·151 | 0·043 | - | 3 | May 14 | 0·124 | 0·035 | -- | -- | - | 4 | “ 21 | -- | -- | 0·132 | 0·037 | - | 5 | “ 28 | -- | -- | 0·091 | 0·019 | - | 6 | June 2 | 0·127 | 0·039 | -- | -- | - | 7 | “ 19 | -- | -- | 0·121 | 0·043 | - | 8 | July 1 | -- | -- | 0·078 | 0·026 | - | 9 | “ 2 | 0·122 | 0·048 | -- | -- | - | 10 | “ 25 | -- | -- | 0·111 | 0·034 | - | 11 | “ 26 | 0·079 | 0·021 | -- | -- | - +---------+----------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ - | | Totals | 0·581 | 0·174 | 0·684 | 0·202 | - +---------+----------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ - -Two large _Cerastes_ vipers, from Egypt, yielded me, one 0·123 gramme, -the other 0·085 gramme of liquid venom, which, after desiccation, left -respectively 0·027 gramme and 0·019 gramme of dry residue. - -Under the same conditions, a magnificent _Crotalus confluentus_ -(Mottled Rattle-Snake), for which I was indebted to the kindness of Mr. -Retlie, of New York, yielded, two months after reaching my laboratory, -0·370 gramme of liquid venom and 0·105 gramme of dry extract in _a -single bite_. - -The total quantity of liquid venom that I found contained in the two -glands of the same reptile, when extirpated after death, and after the -snake had been in the laboratory for five months, amounted to 1·136 -gramme, which gave 0·480 gramme of dry extract. - -We see, therefore, that the proportion of dry residue, including -albumin, salts, the _débris_ of leucocytes, and the toxic substance, -oscillates between 20 and 38 per cent. Its strength varies with the -length of time that has elapsed since the snake’s last bite or last -meal. - - * * * * * - -From the _histological standpoint_, the process of the secretion of -venom, in the cells of the glands, may be divided into two stages:-- - -(_a_) A stage of nuclear elaboration. - -(_b_) A stage of cytoplasmic elaboration. - -These two stages are superposed and successive. - -In addition to the passive exchanges between the nucleus and the -cytoplasm, the nuclear mass actively participates in the secretion. -This participation is rendered evident:-- - -(1) By the difference of chromaticity in the granules of chromatin. - -(2) By the emission of formed granules into the cytoplasm, granules -which are spherical and of equal bulk, with the chromatic reactions of -differentiated intranuclear chromatin. - -(3) By the exosmosis of the dissolved nuclear substance, accessorily -formed in an ergastoplasmic shape. - -These formations constitute, on the one hand, the granules of -_venogen_; on the other, the ergastoplasmic venogen. In the poison-cell -of _Vipera aspis_, and in the serous cell of the parotid glands of -_Tropidonotus natrix_ (Grass Snake) the venogen is elaborated chiefly -in granular form. - -On entering the perinuclear cytoplasm, the granule of venogen and the -ergastoplasmic venogen may either disappear immediately, as happens -in periods of cellular stimulation, or else continue to exist for -some time within the cell, indicating a period of saturation by the -elaborated material. - -During cytoplasmic activity the granule of venogen and the -ergastoplasmic venogen disappear. - -Nuclear elaboration and cytoplasmic elaboration constitute two -different cycles of secretion. The effect of the nuclear cycle is to -furnish the cytoplasm with the elements necessary for the work of -secretion properly so-called. Cytoplasmic elaboration is not confined -to the basal protoplasm, but takes place throughout the entire cell: it -is especially active in the perinuclear cytoplasm. - -The granule of venogen is distinguished from the granule of elaborated -venom by its affinity for Unna’s blue, safranin, and fuchsin. The -granule of venom has an affinity for eosin; it is never excreted in -granular form, but after intracellular dissolution. - -Venogen is never met with in the lumen of the gland-tube.[6] - - -COLLECTION OF VENOM. - -Venom can be extracted from the poison-glands of either freshly killed -or living snakes. - -In cases in which the venom of dead snakes has to be collected, the -best method of extraction consists in fixing the head of the animal to -a sheet of cork and carefully dissecting out the gland on each side. -The reptile being placed on its back, the lower jaw is removed with a -pair of scissors; two strong pins or two tacks are thrust through the -skull, in the median line, in order to keep the head from moving. The -poison-fangs are next drawn out of their sheaths, and, without injuring -them, the two poison-ducts, which open at their bases, are isolated and -tied with a thread in order to prevent the poison from running out. - -The dissection of the glands is then very easy; they are lifted out -and placed in a saucer. The end of the duct is cut between the gland -and the ligature, and with a pair of fenestrated or polypus forceps the -whole of the glandular mass is gently squeezed from behind forwards, -the liquid which flows out being received in a large watch-glass. - -If pressed for time, a more simple method of operating is to hold -the head of the snake in the left hand, with the mouth open and the -lower jaw directed downwards. A watch-glass, capsule, or receptacle of -some sort, such as a cup or plate, is then introduced by an assistant -between the jaws, and, with the index finger and thumb of the right -hand, the whole of the region occupied by the glands on each side of -the upper jaw is forcibly compressed from behind forwards; the poison -flows out by the fangs. - - * * * * * - -The extraction of the venom from living snakes is effected in the same -manner. The animal being firmly held by the neck, as close as possible -to the head, so that it cannot turn and bite; it can be made to eject -the greater portion of the liquid contained in its two glands by -compressing the latter with force from behind forwards, as one would -squeeze out the juice from a quarter of an orange (fig. 85). - -It is necessary to take care that the reptile cannot coil itself round -furniture or other objects in the vicinity of the operator, for if -this should happen there would be the greatest difficulty in making it -let go, especially if dealing with a strong animal such as a Cobra, -Rattle-Snake, or Fer-de-lance. - -Snakes of the last-mentioned kind are especially difficult to manage. -In order to avoid the risk of being bitten, it is always wise to -begin by pinning down the head of the animal in a corner of its cage -by means of a stick, and to seize it with a pair of long fenestrated -tongs shaped like forceps. The operator then easily draws the reptile -towards him and grasps it firmly by the neck with his left hand, always -as close to the head as possible, at the same time raising the body -quickly in order to prevent it from taking of anything. In this way -the most powerful snake is perfectly under control. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--COLLECTING VENOM FROM A -_Lachesis_ AT THE SEROTHERAPEUTIC INSTITUTE AT SÃO PAULO -(BRAZIL).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--CHLOROFORMING A COBRA IN ORDER TO -COLLECT VENOM, AT THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT OF PONDICHERRY, IN INDIA -(STAGE I.).] - -At Pondicherry, where is collected the greater portion of the venom of -_Naja tripudians_ used by me for the vaccination of the horses that -produce antivenomous serum, it is customary to chloroform the snakes in -order to render them easier to manipulate. - -The reptile is placed in a large covered jar, containing a pad of -absorbent wool impregnated with chloroform (figs. 86, 87), and in a few -minutes it is stupefied. It is then grasped by the neck with the hands, -and the edge of a plate is slipped between its jaws. On compressing the -two poison-glands with the fingers, the venom dribbles out on to the -plate. - -A detailed description of this technique will be found in a note kindly -drawn up for me by my friend Dr. Gouzien, late head of the Medical -Staff of the French Settlements in India, and reproduced further on in -the section of this book devoted to documents. The note in question was -accompanied by figs. 17, 18, 19, 86, 87, and 88, which are reproduced -from photographs, for which I am indebted to the kindness of M. -Geracki, Engineer of the Savanna Spinning Mill at Pondicherry, Dr. -Lhomme, and M. Serph, Assistant Surgeon-Dispenser. - -The collection of the venom having been completed, the snake is put -back into its cage again, the tail and the body being introduced first, -and then the head. The lid or trap-door is half closed with the left -hand, and, with a quick forward thrust, the right hand releases its -grasp of the reptile and is immediately withdrawn; at the same time the -left hand completes the closure of the cage. The snake is temporarily -dazed, as though stunned, and it is only after the lapse of a moment -that it thinks of darting open-mouthed at the walls of its prison. - -When it is desired to procure large quantities of venom, as is -indispensable in laboratories where antivenomous serum is prepared, -the endeavour must be made to keep the snakes alive for the longest -possible time. It then becomes necessary to resort artificial feeding -in the manner previously described (see p. 17), for they very often -refuse to feed themselves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--CHLOROFORMING A COBRA IN ORDER TO -COLLECT VENOM, AT THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT OF PONDICHERRY, IN INDIA -(STAGE II.).] - -Except when a snake is _moulting_, the venom can be extracted from its -glands about every fortnight; and it is better that the extraction be -not performed concurrently with artificial feeding, since, owing to the -fact that the venom serves the animal as digestive juice, the reptile -will soon perish if deprived of the means of digesting the food that it -is obliged to receive. It is best, therefore, to select one day of the -week for artificial feeding, and the corresponding day of the following -week for the extraction of the venom. - -When the venom has been collected, it must immediately be in a -desiccator over calcium chloride or sulphuric acid, in order to dry -it rapidly. In hot countries, and where no laboratory specially -equipped for the purpose exists, it will suffice to dry the venom in -a current of air, or even in the sun. It then concretes in scales of -a citrin colour, more or less dark, according to the concentration -of the liquid. In this dry condition, placed in well-corked bottles, -protected from damp air, it may be kept almost indefinitely without -losing anything of its original toxic power. On the contrary, if the -desiccation be imperfect it undergoes a somewhat rapid change, and -assumes a disagreeable odour of meat peptone. I have kept samples of -various venoms, dried as described, for _fifteen_ years without any -sensible diminution of their activity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--COLLECTING COBRA VENOM AT PONDICHERRY -(STAGE III.).] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_THE CHEMICAL STUDY OF SNAKE-VENOMS._ - - -In the condition in which they are received on issuing from the -glands, venoms always present the appearance of a thick saliva, of -an oily consistency and more or less tinged with yellow, according -to the species of snake by which the poison has been produced. They -are entirely soluble in water, the addition of which renders them -opalescent. Tested with litmus they exhibit a slightly acid reaction; -this acidity, which is due to the presence of a very small quantity -of an indeterminate volatile acid, disappears on desiccation, so that -solutions of dried venom are neutral. The taste of venoms is very -bitter. Their density, which is slightly greater than that of water, -varies from 1030 to 1050. - -Venoms are composed of a mixture, in variable proportions, of proteid -substances, mucus and epithelial _débris_, fatty matters and salts -(chlorides and phosphates of lime, ammonia and magnesia), with from 65 -to 80 per cent. of water. - -The elementary analysis of Cobra-venom made by H. Armstrong[7] gave the -following results:-- - - Carbon 43·04 per cent. - Hydrogen 7·00 “ - Nitrogen 12·45 “ - Sulphur 2·50 “ - Residue Small quantities. - -Not much is to be learnt from these figures; it would be of far greater -importance to know the exact constitution of the proteid substances -to which venom owes its physiological properties. Unfortunately, our -knowledge of the chemistry of the albuminoid matters is still too -imperfect for it to be possible for us to determine their nature. - - * * * * * - -As early as 1843 it was pointed out by Lucien Bonaparte that in the -venom of _Vipera berus_ the most important principle is a proteid -substance to which he gave the name of _viperin_ or _echidnin_, and -which he compared to the digestive ferments. Later on Weir Mitchell -and Reichert, and subsequently Norris Wolfenden, Pedlar, Wall, -Kanthack, C. J. Martin, and MacGarvie Smith, showed that venoms, like -diastases, exhibit a great complexity in composition; that all their -characteristic toxic constituents are precipitable by absolute alcohol, -and that the precipitate, when redissolved in water, recovers the -properties possessed by the venom before precipitation. - -According to Armand Gautier,[8] venoms contain alkaloids. The latter -may be obtained, in very small amounts, however, by finely pulverizing -dried venom with carbonate of soda, and systematically exhausting the -mixture with alcoholic ether at a temperature of 50° C. These alkaloids -have yielded crystallized chloraurates and chloroplatinates, and -slightly deliquescent crystallized chlorhydrates. The latter produce -Prussian blue when treated with very dilute ferric salts, and mixed -with a little red prussiate. They therefore represent reductive bodies -analogous to ptomaines. - -Norris Wolfenden did not succeed in extracting these alkaloids from -Cobra-venom, whence they had nevertheless been isolated by Armand -Gautier. Wolcott Gibbs, and afterwards Weir Mitchell and Reichert, -likewise failed to find them in _Crotalus_-venom. The toxicity of these -bases is, moreover, but very slight, for the totality of the alkaloids -extracted by A. Gautier from 0·3 gramme of Cobra-venom did not kill a -small bird. - -It is therefore to the _toxalbumins_ that the toxic properties of -venoms are essentially due. - -All venoms are not equally affected by heat. The venoms of -COLUBRIDÆ (_Naja_, _Bungarus_, _Hoplocephalus_, _Pseudechis_) -and those of the HYDROPHIIDÆ are entirely uninjured by -temperatures approaching 100° C., and even boiling for a short time. -When the boiling is prolonged, or when venoms are heated beyond -100° C., their toxic power at first diminishes, and then disappears -altogether. At 120° C. it is always destroyed. - -The venoms of VIPERIDÆ (_Lachesis_, _Crotalus_, _Vipera_) are -much less resistant. By heating to the coagulating point of albumin, -_i.e._, to about 70° C., their toxic properties become attenuated, and -they are entirely suppressed between 80° and 85° C. _Lachesis_-venoms -are the most sensitive; their toxicity is lost if they be heated beyond -65° C. - -On separating the coagulable albumins of the venoms of -COLUBRIDÆ, by heating to 72° C., followed by filtration, -we obtain a perfectly limpid liquid, which is no longer injured by -boiling, and in which the toxic substance remains wholly in solution. -The albuminous precipitate, when separately collected and washed, is -no longer toxic. The clear liquid, after being filtered, is again -precipitated by absolute alcohol, and the precipitate, redissolved in -an equal quantity of water, is just as toxic as the original filtered -liquid. - -The venoms of VIPERIDÆ, when coagulated, by heating them to -a temperature of 72° C., and filtered, are almost always inert. The -albuminous coagula, if washed, redissolved in water, and injected into -the most sensitive animals, produce no harmful effect whatever. - - * * * * * - -The results of dialysis likewise differ when we experiment with the -venoms of COLUBRIDÆ and VIPERIDÆ. The former pass -slowly through vegetable membranes, and with greater difficulty through -animal parchment. The latter do not dialyse. - -Filtration through porcelain (Chamberland candle F) does not sensibly -modify the toxicity of the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ; on the -contrary, it diminishes that of the venom of VIPERIDÆ by -nearly one-half. - -By using a special filter at a pressure of 50 atmospheres, C. J. -Martin has succeeded in separating from the venom of an Australian -_Pseudechis_ two substances: a non-diffusible _albuminoid_, coagulable -at 82° C., and a diffusible, non-coagulable _albumose_. The former -produces hæmorrhages; the second attacks the nerve-cell of the -respiratory centres. - - * * * * * - -All venoms exhibit most of the chemical reactions characteristic of the -proteids:-- - -_Millon’s reaction._ - -_Xantho-proteic reaction_ (heating with nitric acid and subsequent -addition of ammonia = orange coloration). - -_Biuret reaction_ (caustic potash and traces of sulphate of copper). - -_Precipitation by picric acid_, disappearing on being heated, -reappearing when cooled. - -_Precipitation by_ saturation with _chloride of sodium_. - -_Precipitation by_ saturation with _sulphate of magnesium_. - -_Precipitation by_ saturation with _ammonium sulphate_. - -_Precipitation by a 5 per cent. solution of sulphate of copper._ - -_Precipitation by alcohol._ - -According to C. J. Martin and MacGarvie Smith, the albumoses of the -venoms of COLUBRIDÆ are _hetero-albumoses_, _proto-albumoses_, -and perhaps _deutero-albumoses_ in small quantities. They can be -separated in the following manner:-- - -The solution of venom is heated to 90° C., and filtered in order to -separate the albumins coagulable by heat. The filtrate, saturated with -sulphate of magnesium, is shaken for twelve hours. By this means there -is obtained a flocculent precipitate, which is placed upon a filter and -washed with a saturated solution of sulphate of magnesium. The filtrate -is dialysed for twenty-four hours in a stream of distilled water, and -then concentrated, likewise by dialysis, in absolute alcohol. Thus -we obtain a few cubic centimetres of liquid, which contains a small -quantity of _proteids_ in solution. These _proteids_ can be nothing but -a mixture of _proto-_ and _deutero_-albumoses with peptones. That there -is actually no trace of the latter can easily be ascertained. - -Neumeister[9] has shown that it is impossible to precipitate all the -_proto-albumoses_ of a solution by saturation with neutral salts, and, -since the filtrate becomes slightly turbid when a few drops of a 5 per -cent. solution of sulphate of copper are added to it, we must conclude -that it contains a small proportion of these _proto-albumoses_. - -The deposit retained upon the filter after washing with sulphate of -magnesium is redissolved in distilled water, and dialysed for three -days. An abundant precipitate then becomes collected in the dialyser. -This is centrifuged. The clear liquid is decanted with a pipette, then -concentrated by dialysis in absolute alcohol, and finally evaporated -at 40° C. until completely desiccated. The solid residue is washed and -centrifuged several times in distilled water, after which it is dried -on chloride of sodium. - -This method enables us to separate two albumoses, both precipitable -by saturation with sulphate of magnesium, and belonging to the class -of _primary albumoses_: one of these, _proto-albumose_, is soluble in -distilled water, the other, _hetero-albumose_, is insoluble; but the -latter can be dissolved in dilute solutions of neutral salts. These -bodies are respectively identical with those obtained by the pepsic -digestion of proteids.[10] - -In order to study separately the local and general effects of these -different albumoses, C. J. Martin and MacGarvie Smith performed the -following experiment:-- - -They introduced beneath the skin of the belly of a guinea-pig, -previously shaved and rendered aseptic, two small pieces of sterilized -sponge, about 2 c.mm., one of which was impregnated with the solution -of proteid, while the other served as control. The two small incisions, -one on either side of the median line, were then sutured and covered -with collodion. In this way the maximum of local effect and the minimum -of general effects was obtained. The solutions of albumoses introduced -by this method into the organism produced an enormous œdema, which, in -from six to eight hours, extended along the whole side of the abdomen -containing the sponge charged with poison. - -To test the general toxic effects, the solutions were injected into a -vein or into the peritoneal cavity. It was thus found that the _proto-_ -and _hetero-albumoses_ killed the animals in a few hours. - -It must therefore be concluded from these facts that the active -principles of venom are _proto-_ and _hetero-albumoses_, the albumins -that it contains being devoid of all toxic power. - - * * * * * - -Many chemical substances modify or destroy venoms, and we shall see in -another chapter that several of them, by reason of their properties, -may be very usefully employed for the destruction, in the actual wound -resulting from a venomous bite, of the venom that has not yet been -absorbed in the circulation. - -Among these substances the most important are:-- - -A 1 per cent. solution of _permanganate of potash_ (Lacerda). - -A 1 per cent. solution of _chloride of gold_ (Calmette). - -_Chloride of lime_ or even _hypochloride of calcium_ (Calmette), in -a solution of 1 in 12, which is augmented, at the moment of use, by -5 to 6 volumes of distilled water, so as to bring it to the standard -strength of about 850 cubic centimetres of active _chlorine_ per litre -of solution. - -A 1 per cent. solution of _chromic acid_ (Kaufmann). - -Saturated _bromized water_ (Calmette). - -A 1 per cent. solution of _trichloride of iodine_ (Calmette). - -All these chemical bodies also modify or destroy the diastases and the -microbic toxins. The venoms, although more resistant to the influence -of heat, behave, therefore, like these latter, and exhibit the closest -affinity with them. Moreover, like all the normal glandular juices, -they possess very manifest zymotic properties, which singularly -complicate their physiological action, and upon which we shall dwell -later on. - - * * * * * - -_Electricity_, employed in the form of continuous electrolytic currents -passing through a solution of venom, destroys the toxicity of the -latter, because under these conditions there is always formed, at the -expense of the salts accompanying the venom, a sufficient quantity -of chlorinated products (hypochlorites, chlorates, &c.), and a small -amount of ozone, the oxidizing action of which is extremely powerful. - -With alternating currents of high frequency, Phisalix, repeating the -experiments that Arsonval and Charrin had performed upon diphtheria -toxin, thought that he had succeeded in attenuating venom to the -point of transforming it into vaccine.[11] But it has been shown by -Marmier that this attenuation was simply the result of thermic actions. -When, by means of a suitable arrangement, any rise of temperature was -carefully avoided, no modification of toxicity was obtained.[12] - - * * * * * - -The influence of _light_, which has no effect upon venom preserved in -a dry state, is, on the contrary, very marked upon venom in solution. -Solutions of venom that are destined for physiological experiments -should therefore not be employed without controls, if they be several -days old. Apart from the fact that, if care be not taken to render -them aseptic, they very soon become contaminated with the germs of all -kinds of microbes, it is found that they gradually lose a large part of -their activity, especially when they remain in contact with the air. -By filtering them through a Chamberland candle and keeping them in the -dark, in a refrigerator, in perfectly closed phials, they may be kept -unimpaired for several months. - -The addition of _glycerine_ in equal parts to a concentrated solution -of venom is also an excellent means of preservation. - - * * * * * - -Phisalix has shown that the emanations from _radium_ attenuate and then -destroy the virulence of Cobra- and also of Viper-venom. - -“Dry Viper-venom, dissolved in _aqua chloroformi_ in the proportion of -1 in 1,000, is put up in four tubes, three of which are irradiated, the -first for six hours, the second for twenty hours, and the third for -thirty-six hours. Three guinea-pigs, of equal weight, are inoculated -with equal quantities of the irradiated venom; a control receives -the non-irradiated venom. The latter dies in ten hours; the animal -inoculated from the first tube dies in twelve hours; the one inoculated -from the second tube in twenty hours, and the third proves resistant -without any symptom of poisoning. A second inoculation produces a -transitory lowering of the animal’s temperature by half a degree. At -the end of four days it dies after inoculation with a lethal dose.” - -The nature of the solvent exerts a great influence upon the action of -the emanations from radium: if the same experiment be performed with -venom dissolved in a 50 per cent. mixture of glycerine and water, the -attenuation is merely relative after six hours. - - * * * * * - -Auguste Lumière and Joseph Nicolas, of Lyons, conceived the idea of -studying the effect upon venom of the prolonged action of the intense -_cold_ produced by the evaporation of liquid air.[13] The Cobra-venom -employed by these investigators was in solution at a strength of 1 -in 1,000. It was submitted to the action of liquid air, partly for -twenty-four hours and partly for nine days at -191° C. Its toxicity was -in no way diminished. - - * * * * * - -Lastly, I must mention the recent researches of Hideyo Noguchi,[14] -with reference to the photodynamic action of _eosin_ and _erythrosin_ -upon the venoms of the Cobra, _Vipera russellii_, and _Crotalus_. It -was found by the scientist in question that the toxicity of these -various venoms is more or less diminished in the presence of these -aniline colours, when the mixtures are insolated. Cobra-venom is the -most resistant, just as it is in regard to the other physical or -chemical agents. That of _Crotalus_, on the contrary, is the least -stable. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF SNAKE-VENOMS._ - - - A.--PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING IN MAN AND IN ANIMALS BITTEN BY - THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES. - -(_Colubridæ; Viperidæ; Hydrophiidæ._) - -The bites of poisonous snakes produce very different effects according -to the species of snake, the species to which the animal bitten -belongs, and according to the situation of the bite. It is therefore -necessary to take these various factors into account, in describing the -symptoms of poisoning in different animals. - -When the quantity of venom introduced into the tissues by the bite of -the reptile is sufficient to produce fatal results--which is happily -not always the case--the venom manifests its toxic action in two series -of phenomena: the first of these is local and affects only the seat and -surroundings of the bite; the second, or general series, is seen in the -effects produced upon the circulation and nervous system. - -It is remarkable to find how great is the importance of the local -disorders when the venomous reptile belongs to the _Solenoglypha_ -group (VIPERIDÆ), while it is almost _nil_ in the case of the -_Proteroglypha_ (COLUBRIDÆ and HYDROPHIIDÆ). - -The effects of general intoxication, on the contrary, are much more -intense and more rapid with the venom of _Proteroglypha_, than with -that of _Solenoglypha_. - -In considering the usual phenomena of snake-poisoning in man, we must -therefore take this essential difference into account, and draw up -separately a clinical description of the symptoms observed after a -bite from a _Cobra_ (COLUBRIDÆ), for instance, and another -list of those that accompany a bite from _Lachesis_ or _Vipera berus_ -(VIPERIDÆ). - -The bite of a _Cobra_, even of large size, is not very painful; it is -characterized especially by numbness, that supervenes in the bitten -part, rapidly extends throughout the body, and produces attacks -of syncope and fainting. The patient soon experiences a kind of -lassitude and irresistible desire to sleep; his legs scarcely support -him; he breathes with difficulty and his respiration becomes of the -diaphragmatic type. - -By degrees the drowsiness and the difficulty of breathing become -greater; the pulse, which at first is more rapid, becomes slower and -gradually weaker, the mouth contracts, and there is profuse salivation, -the tongue appears swollen, the eyelids remain drooping, and, after -a few hiccoughs frequently accompanied by vomiting and involuntary -emissions of urine or fæcal matter, the unfortunate victim falls -into the most profound coma and dies. The pupils react to luminous -impressions up to the last moment, and the heart continues to beat -sometimes for two hours after respiration has ceased. - -All this takes but a few hours, most frequently from two to six or -seven, rarely more. - -When the reptile by which the bite is inflicted is one of the -_Solenoglypha_, such as a _Lachesis_ for example, the seat of the bite -immediately becomes very painful and red, then purple. The surrounding -tissues are soon infiltrated with sanguinolent serosity. Sharp pains, -accompanied by attacks of cramp, extend towards the base of the limb. -The patient complains of intense thirst, and extreme dryness of -the mouth and throat; the mucous membranes of the eyes, mouth, and -genitalia become congested. - -These phenomena often continue for a very long period, even for more -than twenty-four hours, and are sometimes accompanied by hæmorrhages -from the eyes, mouth, stomach, intestines, or bladder, and by more or -less violent delirium. - -If the quantity of venom absorbed be sufficient to cause death, -the patient exhibits, a few hours after being bitten, stupor, -insensibility, and then somnolence, with increasing difficulty of -respiration, which ends by becoming stertorous. Loss of consciousness -seems complete a good while before coma appears. Asphyxia then ensues, -and the heart continues to beat for nearly a quarter of an hour after -respiratory movements have entirely ceased. - -In certain exceptional cases death is very rapid; it may supervene -suddenly in a few minutes, even before the local phenomena have had -time to manifest themselves; in this case the venom, having penetrated -directly into a vein, has produced almost immediate coagulation of the -blood, thus causing the formation of a generalized embolism. - -If the venom be introduced in a highly vascular region, or directly -into a vein, the result is almost invariably fatal. On the contrary, -if the derm be scarcely broken, or if the clothing has acted as a -protection, scarcely any absorption will take place. We are here -confronted with the same factors of gravity as in the case of bites -inflicted upon human beings by animals suffering from _rabies_. - -In experiments we are able to eliminate all these factors, and to -follow in an animal inoculated with a known quantity of venom the -whole series of phenomena of poisoning, the intensity of which can -be graduated. Let us see, then, how the various animals that it is -possible to make use of in laboratories behave with regard to venoms of -different origins. - - -B.--THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EXPERIMENTAL POISONING. - -In the monkey, the first apparent sign of the absorption -of _Cobra_-venom, or of the venom of any other species of -COLUBRIDÆ, is a sort of general lassitude; the eyelids next -become half closed. The animal appears to be seeking a suitable spot -in which to rest; it gets up again immediately, and walks with a -jerky action; its limbs have a difficulty in supporting it. It is -soon attacked by nausea, vomiting and dyspnœa; it rests its head upon -the ground, raises it, trying to get breath, and carries its hand to -its mouth as if in order to pluck a foreign body from its throat. It -totters upon its limbs, and lies down upon its side with its face -against the ground. Ptosis increases, and complete asphyxia soon -supervenes. The heart continues to beat for some time after respiration -has ceased, and then stops in diastole. - -Cadaveric rigidity very rapidly sets in, and persists for a long time, -even after putrefaction has commenced. During the last moments of -life the pupil remains very sensitive; the animal appears to retain -unimpaired its sense of hearing and sensibility to pain. The electric -excitability of the muscles of the face persists, but that of those -of the limbs and body almost entirely disappears. The application of -volta-faradic currents from the nape to the diaphragm produces no -respiratory movement when asphyxia begins to manifest itself. The -sphincters of the bladder and anus relax after a few spasms, which, in -case of males, frequently provoke the ejaculation of semen; the urine -and fæces immediately escape. - -The autopsy reveals slight hæmorrhagic œdema at the point of -inoculation, and hyperæmia of all the viscera, especially of the liver -and spleen, with, very frequently, small hæmorrhagic patches on the -surface of these organs, and on that of the intestine and kidneys. The -serous membranes, especially the meninges, endocardium, pleuræ, and -peritoneum, exhibit ecchymoses; the lungs are besprinkled with small -infarcts, the more numerous the slower the intoxication. The blood -remains fluid and laccate. - - * * * * * - -In poisoning by the venoms of VIPERIDÆ, the hæmorrhagic -phenomena appear at the outset, and are more intense. Death is always -preceded by a period of asphyxia, indicating that the bulbar nuclei -of the pneumogastric nerve have become affected. At the autopsy, -however, the blood, instead of remaining fluid, is always found to -be coagulated into a mass in all the vessels; it afterwards gradually -becomes redissolved in six or eight hours, and then appears laccate, as -after poisoning by _Cobra_-venom, but darker. - - * * * * * - -All mammals exhibit the same symptoms after inoculation with lethal -doses of venom. The same applies to birds; but in the latter the -period of asphyxia is much longer, probably on account of the reserves -of air accumulated in their air-sacs and pneumatic bones. They gape -like pigeons that are being suffocated, rest the tip of the beak on -the floor of the cage, and frequently have convulsive spasms of the -pharynx, accompanied by flapping of the wings. Small birds and even -pigeons are extremely sensitive to venom; fowls are more resistant. - -Frogs, thanks to their cutaneous respiration, succumb very slowly. I -have seen some survive for thirty hours after being inoculated with a -quantity of venom which, when subcutaneously injected into a rabbit, -causes death in ten minutes. - - * * * * * - -Lizards and chameleons succumb very rapidly. Grass Snakes and -non-venomous snakes in general withstand doses of venom that in -proportion to their weight are fairly large; nevertheless, as indeed we -shall see in the sequel, they do not possess any real immunity. It is -only poisonous snakes that are unaffected by enormous doses of their -own venom, as has already been shown by Fontana, Weir Mitchell, and -Viaud Grand Marais. They are, however, quite capable of being poisoned -by snakes belonging to altogether different species; strong doses of -_Crotalus_- or _Lachesis_-venom are fatal to Cobras or Kraits, and, -when several poisonous snakes are shut up together in the same cage, -they are not infrequently seen to kill each other as the result of -repeated bites. - -Fishes, which are particularly sensitive to the venom of -HYDROPHIIDÆ, readily succumb to inoculation with other venoms, -such as that of the Cobra. At Saigon, in 1891, I made experiments upon -the action of this latter venom on two specimens of the fighting -fishes, that the natives of Annam rear in aquariums in order to witness -their combats and make bets on them. The fishes died five hours after -intramuscular inoculation with a dose which kills a pigeon in twenty -minutes. - -Many invertebrates, such as leeches, crayfish, and gastropod molluscs -(snails), are killed by inoculation with very small quantities of venom. - - -C.--DETERMINATION OF THE LETHAL DOSES OF VENOM FOR DIFFERENT -SPECIES OF ANIMALS. - -It is very difficult to specify, even within broad limits, the dose -of venom necessary to kill a human being. The quantity of poison -introduced by the bite of a venomous snake depends, as has already -been stated, upon a large number of factors, and, very fortunately, -this quantity is not always sufficient to cause death. Thus in India, -that is to say in the region in which snakes are most numerous and -most dangerous, the mean mortality seems scarcely to exceed 35 to 40 -per cent., so far as it is possible to judge from official statistics. -But, by experimenting upon animals, and commencing with known doses of -venom, which has first been dried and then dissolved again in always -the same quantity of physiological saline solution or sterile distilled -water, we can determine exactly, _for each kind of venom, and for each -species of animal_, the minimum lethal dose _per kilogramme of animal_. - -The entire series of data collected by investigators who have devoted -themselves to this study may be summed up as follows:-- - -Minimal doses lethal in twenty-four hours for a _guinea-pig_ weighing -from 600 to 700 grammes:-- - - -_Colubridæ._ - - Venom of _Naja tripudians_ 0·0002 gramme - “ _Bungarus cæruleus_ 0·0006 “ - “ _Naja haje_ 0·003 “ - - -_VIPERIDÆ._ - - Venom of _Vipera berus_ 0·04 gramme - “ _Vipera russellii_ (_Daboia_) 0·001 “ - “ _Lachesis lanceolatus_ 0·02 “ - “ _Lachesis mutus_ (_Surucucu_) 0·02 “ - “ _Lachesis neuwiedii_ (_Urutù_) 0·02 “ - “ _Lachesis flavoviridis_ 0·007 “ - “ _Ancistrodon contortrix_ 0·015 “ - -_Cobra_-venom. Dose lethal in twenty-four hours for different animals:-- - - Dog 0·0008 gramme per kilogramme - Rabbit 0·0005 “ “ - Guinea-pig 0·0004 “ “ - Rat 0·0001 “ 150 grammes - Mouse 0·000003 “ 25 “ - Frog 0·0003 “ 30 “ - -Venom of _Bungarus cæruleus_ (Common Krait), according to Elliot, -Sillar, and Carmichael.[15] Minimal lethal doses for:-- - - Frog 0·0005 gramme - Rat 0·001 “ - Rabbit (by subcutaneous injection) 0·00008 “ per kilogramme - Rabbit (by intravenous injection, - according to G. Lamb) 0·00004 “ “ - -Venom of _Enhydrina valakadien_ (according to Elliot and Fraser).[16] -Minimal lethal doses per kilogramme:-- - - Rat 0·00009 gramme - Rabbit 0·00006 “ - Cat 0·0002 “ - -Venom of _Enhydris curtus_:-- - - Rat 0·0005 to 0·0006 gramme per kilogramme - -Venom of _Notechis scutatus_ (syn. _Hoplocephalus curtus_; the Tiger -Snake of Australia):-- - - Rabbit (by intravenous injection, - according to Tidswell) 0·00006 gramme per kilogramme - -Venom of _Vipera russellii_ (Daboia):-- - - Rabbit (by intravenous injection, - according to G. Lamb) 0·00005 gramme per kilogramme - -Venom of _Lachesis gramineus_ (Green Pit-Viper, India):-- - - Rabbit (by intravenous injection, - according to G. Lamb) 0·002 gramme per kilogramme - -Venom of _Crotalus adamanteus_ (Californian Rattle-Snake):-- - - Rabbit (by intravenous injection, - according to McFarland, G. Lamb, - and Flexner and Noguchi) 0·00025 gramme per kilogramme - -It will have been seen from the foregoing figures, that the respective -sensitiveness of the dog, cat, rabbit, guinea-pig, rat, mouse, and -frog, with regard to the same venom, is in no way proportional to the -weight of these animals. - -The species mentioned are, per unit of weight, more or less resistant -to intoxication; and, on experimenting with other animals, as for -instance the monkey, pig, ass, and horse, we find that the monkey is -much more susceptible to intoxication than the dog, and that the ass -is extremely sensitive (0·010 gramme of Cobra-venom is sufficient to -kill it), while the horse is less so, and the pig is by far the most -resistant. - -The same weight of dry Cobra-venom, let us say 1 gramme to be precise, -will enable us to kill 1,250 kilogrammes of dog, 2,000 kilogrammes of -rabbit, 2,500 kilogrammes of guinea-pig, 1,430 kilogrammes of rat, or -8,333 kilogrammes of mouse. - -The lethal dose for a horse being, as I have ascertained by my own -experiments, about 0·025 gramme, 1 gramme of dry Cobra-venom will -therefore suffice to kill 20,000 kilogrammes of horse. - -Assuming that man, in proportion to his weight, possesses a resistance -intermediate between that of the dog and that of the horse, we may -consider that the lethal dose for a human being is about 0·015 gramme. -It follows, therefore, that 1 gramme of venom would kill 10,000 -kilogrammes of man, or, let us say, 165 persons of an average weight of -60 kilogrammes. - -Another extremely important fact, which must not be lost sight of, -is that differences of toxicity, which are often considerable, are -exhibited by the venoms of different specimens of the same species of -snake, or by the venom of the same snake collected at different times. -I have found, for instance, in the case of the specimens of _Naja_ and -_Lachesis_ reared in my laboratory, that, according to the length of -time that the animals had been without food, and to the nearness or -otherwise of the moulting period, the venom was more or less active, -and that on evaporation it left behind a more or less considerable -quantity of dry extract. In certain cases, immediately after the moult -and after a prolonged fast, the venom was _ten times_ more active than -after a plentiful meal or before the moult. - -The figures given above must therefore not be regarded as determining -the minimal lethal doses of the different venoms, except in a purely -comparative way, and they must be considered only as data useful -to know when it is desired to experiment upon animals with these -substances. - -Variations of this kind are observed in the case of all species of -snakes. Thus Phisalix rightly insists upon the necessity of always -noting, besides the species of snake, the place of origin and the -season; for he has himself seen that, as regards French vipers, -those of the Jura, for example, produce in the spring a venom almost -devoid of local phlogogenic action; while vipers from the vicinity of -Clermont-Ferrand, though less toxic, produce much more serious local -effects. - -On the other hand, it has been shown by Th. Madsen and H. Noguchi, -in a very interesting study of venoms and anti-venoms,[17] that, -when we examine the relation between dose and toxicity, we find -that the interval separating the moment of inoculation from that of -death diminishes only up to a certain point in proportion as the -dose is increased. In the case of the guinea-pig, with 0·0005 gramme -of Cobra-venom the interval is 3 hours 75 seconds; but after this, -an increase in the dose produces only a relatively inconsiderable -acceleration of death. There is therefore no strict ratio between the -dose inoculated and the time that elapses until death supervenes. - - -D.--EFFECTS OF VENOM IN NON-LETHAL DOSES. - -When the quantity of venom introduced into the organism is insufficient -to cause death, the phenomena that precede and accompany recovery -differ very greatly according as the snake from which the venom was -derived belongs to the COLUBRIDÆ or VIPERIDÆ. - -After a non-lethal bite from a Cobra or Krait, for example, -convalescence usually takes place very rapidly, and, apart from the -local œdema of the subcutaneous tissue surrounding the wound, which -in very many cases leads to the formation of a suppurating abscess, -no lasting injury to health is observed. The venom is eliminated by -the kidneys, without even causing albuminuria, and sensation gradually -returns, in twenty-four or forty-eight hours, in the part affected by -the original lesion. - -If the bite has been inflicted by a Viperine snake, the local lesion, -which is much more extensive, almost always results in the formation -of a patch of gangrene. Hæmorrhages from the mucous membranes, and -sanguineous suffusions into the serous cavities, such as the pleura -or pericardium, may supervene more or less slowly. Pulmonary infarcts -are sometimes produced, as well as desquamation and hæmorrhage from -the kidneys, albuminuria, or hæmaturia. These lesions, which are more -or less severe, last for several days, and then slowly disappear after -a period of true convalescence. In many cases they leave behind them -traces which last for months and even years, and they then more or less -affect the health of the subjects according to the organs that were -most seriously affected. - -In certain cases, in domestic animals such as dogs, and more rarely in -man, after recovery from the bite of a viper, total or partial loss of -sight, smell, or hearing, has been observed. Such results, however, are -fortunately exceptional. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING_ (_continued_). - -EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS VENOMS ON THE DIFFERENT TISSUES OF THE -ORGANISM. - - -The physiological effects of the various venoms are very different from -those that we have just described, when these toxic substances are -introduced into the organism otherwise than subcutaneously. - -Their direct penetration into the blood-stream, whether by the bite -of the snake itself or by experimental intravenous injection, always -produces immediate results. With the venoms of VIPERIDÆ, -coagulation of the blood and, consequently, death are almost -instantaneous. With the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ, which, on the -contrary, destroy the coagulability of the blood, the toxic effects are -less rapid, but after the lapse of only a few minutes asphyxia ensues -and the death-struggle is very short. - -Absorption by the serous membranes is slower, but is nevertheless -effected much more quickly than when it takes place in the subcutaneous -cellular tissue. When cobra-venom is injected into the peritoneal -cavity of a rabbit or a guinea-pig, the local effects upon the serous -membrane are almost _nil_. No leucocytic exudation is observed; death -supervenes before this has had time to take place. The venoms of -VIPERIDÆ, on the contrary, produce, directly after their -introduction into the peritoneum, an enormous afflux of sanguinolent -serosity; the capillary vessels of the serous membrane, immediately -becoming distended, allow the blood to filter through their walls, and -the animal succumbs after a few minutes, or a few hours, according to -the dose injected, with the peritoneum full of blood. - -When deposited upon the mucous membranes of the eye, vagina, or -urethra, all venoms, those of COLUBRIDÆ like those of -VIPERIDÆ--but the latter with greater intensity--cause very -acute inflammation, comparable to that produced by jequirity; the -capillaries become distended, allow leucocytes to exude _en masse_, -and, as for instance upon the eye of the rabbit, a purulent ophthalmia -soon establishes itself. - -Certain species of _Sepedon_ (COLUBRIDÆ), common on the -West Coast of Africa, especially in Senegambia and in the hinterland -of Dahomey, and to which the name _Spitting Snakes_ has been given, -possess the faculty of projecting little drops of venom to a distance -by forcibly expelling the air from their lungs, and the natives assert -that this venom, when it happens to come into contact with the eyes, -causes blindness. This is true to a certain extent, in so far as it -produces attacks of purulent ophthalmia which are often serious; but -these attacks, like those provoked experimentally in animals, can be -cured in a few days when properly treated. - -When absorbed by the _digestive_ tract, the venoms of -COLUBRIDÆ often produce no ill-effects. It is otherwise with -those of VIPERIDÆ. The venom of _Lachesis_, for example, if -administered in sufficient doses, sets up acute inflammation of the -gastric mucous membrane, and the animals speedily succumb with attacks -of gastro-intestinal hæmorrhage, even before it has been possible for -the toxic effects upon the nerve-cells to become apparent. - -These facts explain the contradictions that are to be found in the -works of different investigators upon this subject. It is affirmed -by some writers that venom can be swallowed without danger, and they -even advise the sucking of venomous wounds in order to hinder its -absorption. Others, including Sir Joseph Fayrer, Richards, and Weir -Mitchell, have killed pigeons and fowls by making them ingest venom -of _Vipera russellii_, or _Crotalus_. C. J. Martin, in experimenting -upon rats with the venom of _Pseudechis_ (COLUBRIDÆ), has -succeeded in keeping these animals alive for a whole week by providing -them every day with a ration of bread and milk mixed with a dose of -venom one hundred times greater than the lethal dose for a subcutaneous -injection. This innocuousness of the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ, -which I have frequently been able to establish by causing them to -be ingested by different animals, is explained by the fact that the -pancreatic juice and the ptyalin of the saliva very rapidly modify the -proteic substances to which these venoms owe their toxicity, so that -this disappears. No trace of them is found in the fæces. - -The glandular secretions of persons bitten by venomous snakes, and -those of animals inoculated with doses of venom calculated to kill only -after a few hours, are not infrequently found to be toxic. In the case -of the urine in particular this has been shown to be so. - -Observations have also been recorded by C. Francis[18] and Sir Joseph -Fayrer with reference to the passage of venom through the mammary -gland. In the year 1893 a poor Mussulman woman died at Madras from the -bite of a Cobra. She was nursing her child at the time, and the latter -succumbed in its turn a few hours later, with all the symptoms of -poisoning, although it had not itself been bitten, and had been suckled -by its mother only once since the bite. - -The _histological lesions_ produced by snake poisoning have been -particularly well studied by Hindale,[19] Karlinski,[20] Nowak,[21] -Louis Vaillant-Hovius,[22] and Zeliony.[23] - - -(1) ACTION UPON THE LIVER. - -Whether we are dealing with the venoms of VIPERIDÆ or -COLUBRIDÆ, the anatomo-pathological processes are alike, and -the changes produced are more or less profound, according to the degree -or the slowness of the intoxication. - -The liver is more affected than any other organ. In cases in which -death has quickly followed the injection of the venom, the protoplasm -of the cells is merely cloudy, or granular, and the granulations -readily take a stain in their periphery, though the interior remains -uncoloured. If, on the contrary, the animal has survived for some -hours, the protoplasm becomes condensed in certain parts of the cell, -leaving vacuoles, the limits of which are not well defined. A portion -of the cellular protoplasm is necrosed and destroyed. In these cases -the nuclei have already undergone a change; although their contours -may be well defined, we discover in their interior only a very little -chromatin in the form of small granulations, and the nuclear fluid -takes a feeble stain with basic colours, since it contains a little -chromatin in solution. - -When the protoplasm of the hepatic cells has suffered more pronounced -lesions, the changes in the nuclei are also more marked; the quantity -of nuclear chromatin diminishes and slowly loses its property of taking -stains, in proportion as the protoplasm of the hepatic cells undergoes -necrosis; finally, in the hepatic cell, there remains nothing more than -a small quantity of granular protoplasm without a nucleus (Nowak). - -In certain cases we find extensive areas of fatty degeneration, or -small foci in which the hepatic tissue is absolutely destroyed. In the -case of the dog it may even happen that the microscopic structure of -the parenchyma has entirely disappeared. The arrangement of the hepatic -cells in lobules can no longer be distinguished; the trabeculæ are -ruptured and broken asunder, and we find nothing more than a confused -agglomeration of cells floating in the extravasated blood. - -In animals which have lived for a long time after being poisoned, -lesions of the bile-ducts are also found. The epithelial cells have -undergone fatty degeneration, or else, in the case of small animals, -the ducts appear infiltrated with small mononuclear cells, which -penetrate between the epithelial cells of the canaliculi. Sometimes -also the latter cells are distended, and enclose large vacuoles. - -Venom thus produces in the liver lesions of _fatty degeneration_, or -_necrosis_, and an infiltration of the bile-ducts by lymphatic cells. - - -(2) ACTION UPON THE KIDNEY. - -The changes in the kidney are also very extensive. The three portions -of the glomerulus often exhibit lesions; the vessels of the tuft -show ectasia; their walls are sometimes ruptured, and the blood is -extravasated into the capsular cavity. The latter is filled with a -granular exudation, which varies in amount with the slowness of the -intoxication. The epithelial lining of _Bowman’s capsule_ is swollen; -the nucleus stains badly (Vaillant-Hovius). - -In the _tubuli contorti_ the lesions in the cells greatly resemble -those seen in the liver. Granulations and vacuoles appear, and the -nucleus becomes diffuse. The lumens of the tubules are filled with -necrosed cells, and the _branches of Henle_ are found to be similarly -obliterated. - -In the _straight tubes_ and in the _collecting tubes_ the epithelium -is sometimes detached in its entirety. Some of these canals are -obliterated by granular cylinders or by accumulations of epithelial -cells. - -The vessels met with in the parenchyma of the kidney are always greatly -distended, and sometimes they are torn, whence there results the -formation of small foci of interstitial hæmorrhage. In many cases the -extravasated blood also destroys the parenchyma. - - -(3) ACTION UPON THE SPLEEN, HEART, AND LUNGS. - -In the spleen, Nowak merely found a little fatty degeneration, and only -in cases in which the lesions in the liver and kidneys were very far -advanced. The same applies to the muscular fibres of the heart. This -organ exhibits, above all, hæmorrhagic infiltrations in its peripheral -portion, rarely in its substance. - -The lungs are the seat of more important lesions. We find in them a -multitude of little infarcts. Around these the capillary vessels are -extremely dilated, and the pulmonary vesicles have become very small. - -All these lesions of the visceral organs strangely resemble those -observed in the case of individuals who have died from _yellow fever_. -This observation has been made by several scientists, among others -by Sanarelli, and it is this perhaps that has suggested to some -(Dyer, of St. Louis, R. Bettencourt, of São-Paulo[24]) the idea of -treating--without much success, however--yellow fever by the antitoxin -of venom. - - -(4) ACTION UPON THE STRIATED MUSCLES. - -The changes in the _striated muscles_ in places at which venom has been -injected do not present any specific character. The muscular fibres -already become necrosed half an hour after the injection; the diseased -tissue becomes permeated with an albuminous mass rich in fibrin, and -the blood is extravasated. A few hours later we observe, between the -bundles of degenerate muscle fibres, polymorphous leucocytes. The -number of these latter constantly increases, and attains its maximum -after one or two days. The muscular nuclei become distorted, appear -long or angular, and assume the aspect of myoblasts (sarcoblastic -muscle cells). In the protoplasm of the myoblasts we frequently find -particles of broken-down muscle, and globules of fat. - -All these changes resemble those observed as the result of the action -of a host of other muscle poisons, especially the irritant or caustic -chemical substances. - - -(5) ACTION UPON THE NERVOUS CENTRES. - -It is extremely difficult to determine with any degree of precision -the nature of the lesions produced by venoms in the _nervous system_. -The intensity of these lesions depends in the first place upon the -length of time that has elapsed between the introduction of the venom -into the organism and death. It depends, secondarily, in a large -measure, upon the origin of the venom. That of the VIPERIDÆ -acts almost exclusively upon the blood by coagulation, and exhibits -only a very slight degree of toxicity as regards the nerve-cell. -That of the COLUBRIDÆ, on the contrary, produces manifest -changes in the chromatic substance. Nissl’s bodies are completely -disintegrated, and transformed into a granular mass. In the majority of -the stichochromes neither the form of the bodies nor even the reticulum -is distinguishable. The nuclei are opaque, the nucleoli swollen and -broken up. The dendrites often become irregular and contracted (Ewing -and Bailey,[25] G. Lamb[26]). - -It was found by Bailey that the majority of the cells of the anterior -cornua of the medulla are normal, but that a small number of them -exhibit indications of acute granular degeneration; a few cells were -found to have lost almost all their chromatic substance. - -From the physiological point of view it is perfectly clear that -Cobra-venom especially affects the bulbar centres, and particularly -the nuclei of origin of the pneumogastric nerve. We observe in the -first instance the gradual suppression of the functions vested in the -nerve-cells that are found in connection with the vagus nerve, the -spinal accessory, and the hypoglossal. Later on the excitability of the -nerve-endings in the muscles is found to have been destroyed, and this -action presents great similarity to that of curare. - -The venoms of VIPERIDÆ, when injected in very weak doses, -exercise a paralysing action upon the reflex excitability of the -medulla. But it is open to question whether these effects are -not exclusively due to the lesions of the blood, which are here -all-predominant; for no histological modification is observed in the -cells of the central nervous system. - -I have made a number of experiments with a view to discovering whether -the cerebral, bulbar, or medullary substance of animals susceptible -to the action of Cobra-venom (rabbit, guinea-pig, fowl) possesses -the property of _fixing_ this venom as it fixes the toxin of tetanus -(Wassermann and Takaki). I found that, on pounding up a little of the -pulp of the cerebral hemispheres or bulb with doses of venom lethal in -two hours for the control animals, the injection of the mixture, well -washed and centrifuged in order to free it from all excess of non-fixed -venom, always caused death, but with a retardation of from four to ten -_hours_. We see, therefore, that partial fixation of the venom upon -the nervous elements really takes place, but we cannot conclude from -this that these elements exercise an antitoxic function, any more than -in the case of tetanus, for animals that receive cerebral emulsions in -one thigh and the dose of venom lethal in two hours in the other thigh, -succumb at the same time as the controls. - -Major Rogers has made similar experiments with the venom of _Enhydrina_ -(HYDROPHIIDÆ), and has obtained the same result on employing -the cerebral hemispheres of the pigeon.[27] - -Flexner and Noguchi,[28] on their part, have compared, by aid of -the method of intra-cerebral injections, the toxicity of the venom -of _Crotalus_ with that of the venom of the _Cobra_. On employing -Cobra-venom heated to 75° C., they found that the convulsive and -paralytic effects were immediate, contrary to what takes place after -subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injections, but that the dose of venom -necessary to produce death was the same (0·1 milligramme for the -guinea-pig) as when the injection is made in the peritoneum or beneath -the skin. - -With the venom of _Crotalus_ heated for half an hour at 75° C., which -contains but very little _neurotoxin_ and has lost all its hæmorrhagic -properties, 0·5 milligramme introduced directly into the brain of the -guinea-pig only produces transitory and non-lethal effects; while, if -fresh venom be employed, 0·05 milligramme is sufficient to cause death -in three hours, with severe hæmorrhagic lesions. Now this dose is -twenty times smaller than the minimal lethal dose for a subcutaneous -injection. - -It is evident that the harmful matter, in the particular case of -_Crotalus_-venom, is not the _neurotoxin_, but an altogether different -substance, termed by Flexner and Noguchi _hæmorrhagin_, which acts upon -the elements of the blood and upon the endothelium of the blood-vessels. - -We shall meet with this substance again in almost all VIPERINE -venoms, and shall study it further on. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -_PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING_ (_continued_). - -ACTION OF VENOMS ON THE BLOOD. - - -On making an autopsy of an animal which has succumbed to intoxication -by snake-venom, we find that the blood in the heart and large vessels -is sometimes coagulated into a mass, sometimes entirely fluid, and -that, in certain cases, it is as black as prune-juice, while in others -it is of a fine transparent red colour. - -These differences in the effects of venom upon the blood are due to the -fact that the various venoms contain in variable proportions, besides -the _neurotoxic_ substance which represents the true venomous _toxin_, -other substances which act, some upon the plasmasia or fibrin-ferment, -or upon the fibrin, others upon the red corpuscles, others on the -leucocytes, and others again on the endothelium of the blood-vessels. - - -A.--EFFECTS OF VENOM ON THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD. - -It was observed long ago by Fontana[29] that after viper-bites the -blood remains fluid, and Brainard[30] on the contrary, pointed out -that, in the case of animals that succumb very rapidly after having -been bitten by a _Crotalus_, the blood was always found coagulated into -a mass, while, when a certain interval of time had elapsed since the -bite, it remained fluid. Weir Mitchell[31] explained these differences -by the hypothesis that, in cases of rapid death, the blood had not had -time to become modified by the venom. - -Later on it was found by Sir Joseph Fayrer, and subsequently by -Halford,[32] in Melbourne, C. J. Martin,[33] in Sydney, G. Lamb,[34] -in Bombay, and recently by Noc, in my laboratory, that the venoms -of COLUBRIDÆ, especially those of _Naja tripudians_ and -AUSTRALIAN species of this family, always leave the blood -fluid after death, while the venoms of VIPERIDÆ, on the -contrary, are usually coagulant. - -On the other hand, it was observed by Phisalix,[35] and at an earlier -date by Mosso, of Turin, that the venom of _Vipera berus_ causes the -blood of the dog to lose its coagulability, while, on the contrary, the -same venom is actively coagulant as regards the blood of the rabbit. - -How are these differences of action to be explained? It was found by -Delezenne,[36] who made an excellent study of the phenomena following -the injection of peptone, extracts of organs, and other anticoagulant -substances into the organism, that those of these substances that -render the blood non-coagulable always dissolve the leucocytes, and -thus set at liberty two antagonistic bodies which they contain. One of -these substances is coagulant and is found retained by the liver, while -the other remains in solution in the plasma, and keeps the blood fluid -after issuing from the vessels. - -Now, certain extracts of organs, ricin, abrin and certain venoms in -weak doses, retard coagulation, while in large doses, on the contrary, -they produce partial or general intravascular clotting. - -It is believed by Delezenne that the explanation of this phenomenon -may be that the doses, which are weak but sufficient to produce the -disintegration of the leucocytes, injure the red corpuscle in only a -slight degree, while the stronger doses are equally destructive to the -two kinds of blood corpuscles. - -It follows that we must understand that there are two phases in the -action of venoms: one _negative_, when the dose absorbed does not -injure the leucocytes; the other _positive_, when the leucocytes are -destroyed. - -If the blood of the dog remains non-coagulable when mixed with doses of -venom which, on the contrary, are actively coagulant for the blood of -the rabbit, the reason would be that the leucocytes of these animals -are not equally resistant to venom. - -This conception, however, does not conform to the facts that I have -myself observed. I have always found that viper-venom, mixed with -citrate- or oxalate-plasma of the dog, rabbit, or horse, coagulates -these various plasmas when the venom is in weak doses, while with -strong doses coagulation is not produced. To be quite accurate, it -should be stated that the quantity of venom necessary to render the -plasma of the dog, or of the horse, non-coagulable is less than that -which must be employed in the case of the plasma of the rabbit. - -I have caused Noc to take up anew the study of this question in my -laboratory, with venoms of nine different origins, and I here give a -_résumé_ of the results of his researches.[37] - - -I. COAGULANT VENOMS. - -The venoms of VIPERIDÆ studied range themselves as follows -according to their coagulant power:-- - - CROTALINÆ: _Lachesis lanceolatus_ (Fer-de-lance, Martinique). - _Lachesis neuwiedii_ (Urutù, Brazil). - _Lachesis mutus_ (Bushmaster, or Surucucu, Brazil). - _Lachesis flavoviridis_ (Japan). - VIPERINÆ: _Vipera russellii_ (Daboia, India). - -The venoms of _Ancistrodon contortrix_ and _A. piscivorus_ -(CROTALINÆ) proved entirely inactive. - -No COLUBRINE venom exhibited coagulant power, whatever the -dose employed. - -There is, therefore, a very decided difference between venoms of divers -origins as regards their effects upon the coagulation of the blood. - -Noc has determined more especially the coagulant action of the -venom of _Lachesis lanceolatus_ (Fer-de-lance of Martinique) upon -1 per cent. citrate-plasmas, 1 per cent. oxalate-plasmas, 4 per -cent. chloridate-plasmas, and upon blood rendered non-coagulable by -extract of leeches’ heads. He found that, while weak doses of venom -(1 milligramme per cubic centimetre of horse- or rabbit-plasma) -produce coagulation in a few minutes in the citrate-plasmas, -chloridate-plasmas, or those treated with extract of leeches, the doses -of the same venom greater than 4 milligrammes on the contrary suppress -the coagulability of these plasmas, even when there be added to them -doses of chloride of calcium (for the citrate- and oxalate-plasmas), or -of distilled water (for the chloridate-plasma), or of fibrin-ferment -(for the plasma treated with leech-extract) sufficient to cause rapid -coagulation in the control tubes that do not contain venom. - -Noc also observed that the venom of the same species of snake -(_Lachesis lanceolatus_), when heated to 75° C., entirely loses its -coagulant properties; and that, with a temperature of 58° C., its -coagulant power already commences to diminish. When heated for thirty -minutes at a temperature of 65° C., a dose of 1 milligramme does not -coagulate more than 1 c.c. of citrate-plasma in one hour. G. Lamb has -likewise found that the venom of _Vipera russellii_ loses its coagulant -power when heated to 75° C. - -The coagulant substance in these venoms is precipitable by alcohol at -the same time as the _neurotoxin_ and other active substances. The -precipitate, when dissolved again in physiological water, preserves all -the properties of the original solution. - -Antivenomous _anticolubrine_ serum, that is to say, that furnished by -horses vaccinated against the venoms of the _Cobra_ and the _Krait_, -does not prevent coagulation by coagulant venoms. This need not -surprise us, since the coagulant substances in venoms are destroyed by -heating, and the animals vaccinated in order to obtain antitoxic serum -are usually inoculated exclusively with heated venoms. - -It is easy, however, to obtain active serums specific against -the coagulant venoms; it is sufficient to treat these animals by -inoculation with progressively increasing doses of the same venoms -unheated. I have had no difficulty in achieving this result with -small laboratory animals (guinea-pigs and rabbits) and also with the -horse, but I have never had at my disposal a sufficient amount of the -venoms of _Lachesis_ or _Vipera russellii_ to undertake with them -the regular acquisition of large quantities of horse-serum, at once -_antineurotoxic_ and _anticoagulant_. The preparation of such a serum, -nevertheless, presents much interest for certain countries, such as -Burma, where the Daboia (_Vipera russellii_) is almost as common as -the Cobra, and Brazil, where nearly all the casualties due to venomous -snakes are produced by _Lachesis_.[38] - - -II.--ANTICOAGULANT VENOMS. - -Contrary to what is observed with the venoms of VIPERIDÆ -in general, all the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ and, as exceptions -to the rule, the venoms of some North American CROTALINÆ -(_Ancistrodon contortrix_ and _A. piscivorus_) suppress the -coagulability of the blood _in vivo_ and _in vitro_. It is, however, -important to observe that, _in vivo_, the blood remains fluid after -death only if the dose of venom absorbed has been sufficient. _In -vitro_ this phenomenon is easier to study, and has been the subject of -several important memoirs. - -Halford,[39] Sir Joseph Fayrer,[40] C. J. Martin,[41] Delezenne,[42] -Phisalix,[43] and lastly Noc,[44] have shown that the venoms of -COLUBRIDÆ exert a manifestly anticoagulant action upon -citrate-, chloridate-, or oxalate-plasmas, and also upon blood mixed -with venom on issuing from the vessels. - -On adding 1 milligramme of _Cobra_-, _Bungarus_-, Australian -_Pseudechis_-, or _Ancistrodon_-venom to 1 c.c. of citrate-, oxalate-, -or chloridate-plasma, and supplementing the mixture, after varying -periods of contact, with a quantity of chloride of calcium (for the -citrate- or oxalate-plasmas), or distilled water (for the saline -plasma) sufficient to produce coagulation in a few minutes in the -control tubes without venom, we find that coagulation no longer -takes place after one hour in the tubes containing _Cobra_- or -_Bungarus_-venom, and after ten minutes in those that contain the venom -of _Ancistrodon_. - -In doses less than 1 milligramme for 1 c.c. of plasma, these venoms -by themselves never produce coagulation as do those of _Lachesis_ -or _Vipera russellii_. They are thus sharply differentiated in this -respect. - -If fresh blood issuing from the arteries of an animal be received in -a vessel containing a sufficient quantity of COLUBRINE-venom -(that of the Cobra for example), and steps be immediately taken to -ensure the perfect mixture of the venom and the blood, we find that the -latter has entirely lost its coagulability, just as though it had been -mixed with peptone or extract of leeches’ heads. - -Again, if a mixture be made _in vitro_ of coagulant venoms, such as -that of the _Lachesis_, with anticoagulant venoms such as that of the -_Cobra_ or of _Ancistrodon_, it is found that these mixtures, when -properly effected, become neutral, so that the respective effects of -the component venoms are entirely destroyed. Assuming, for instance, -that 1 milligramme of _Lachesis_-venom coagulates in two minutes 1 c.c. -of 1 per cent. citrate rabbit-plasma, if we add to the plasma firstly -1 milligramme of _Ancistrodon_-, or 1 milligramme of _Cobra_-venom, -and then 1 milligramme of _Lachesis_-venom, the plasma remains -non-coagulated, yet coagulates perfectly on the subsequent addition of -1 c.c. of a ½ per cent. solution of chloride of calcium. - -There is, therefore, a real antagonism between the actively coagulant -substance contained in certain VIPERINE venoms and the -anticoagulant substance comprised in the venoms of certain other -VIPERIDÆ (_Ancistrodon_), belonging to the subfamily -CROTALINÆ, and in those of all the COLUBRIDÆ. - -The conclusion to be deduced from the foregoing facts is that the -venoms of COLUBRIDÆ and those of certain VIPERIDÆ -are decidedly _anticoagulant_, while the majority of the venoms -of VIPERIDÆ, on the contrary, possess strong _coagulant_ -properties, even when mixed with blood in infinitesimal doses. - -The question therefore arises why these _coagulant_ VIPERINE -venoms suppress the coagulability of the blood when mixed with it -_in vitro_ in strong doses (for example, in doses beginning from 4 -milligrammes of _Lachesis_-venom, or 7 milligrammes of the venom of -_Vipera russellii_ for 1 c.c. of 1 per cent. citrate rabbit-plasma). - -The explanation of this apparently contradictory phenomenon is -furnished by the intense proteolysis that these VIPERINE -venoms exert upon fibrin, in solution or coagulated. This proteolysis -actually manifests itself with weak coagulant doses, for the compact -clots formed at the outset soon become soft and then dissolve, like -a cube of egg-albumen in an experiment in artificial digestion by -trypsin. We shall revert to the subject later on. - - -III.--MECHANISM OF THE ANTICOAGULANT ACTION OF VENOMS ON THE -BLOOD. - -The anticoagulant action of the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ and of -_Ancistrodon_ upon the blood appears to take effect in the first place -upon the fibrin-ferment, and afterwards upon the fibrin by proteolysis. -The action on the fibrin-ferment seems manifest when we experiment with -anticoagulant venoms which are feebly proteolytic, like the venom of -the _Cobra_. - -I have already stated that a mixture of fresh blood with a sufficient -dose of _Cobra_-venom is non-coagulable, as though the blood on issuing -from the animal had been mixed with peptone or leech-extract. But, -while blood when peptonised or mixed with leech-extract coagulates -readily on the subsequent addition of fibrin-ferment, blood mixed with -venom remains positively non-coagulable. It is the same with citrate- -or oxalate-plasmas, which no longer coagulate when chloride of calcium -is added to them, and with 4 per cent. saline plasma on the addition of -distilled water. - -The anticoagulant substance in the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ and -_Ancistrodon_ is precipitable by alcohol, like the coagulant substance -in the venoms of VIPERIDÆ and like the _neurotoxins_, from -which it is difficult to separate them. The separation can nevertheless -be effected by the aid of heat, if we make use of certain venoms that -are particularly resistant to high temperatures, such as those of the -_Cobra_ or the _Krait_. These latter venoms, when heated for one hour -at 70° C., cease to be anticoagulant, and _preserve their toxicity -unimpaired_. It is, however, impossible to suppress the toxicity -without at the same time destroying the anticoagulant substance. - -_Antivenomous serum_ completely protects citrate- or chloridate-plasmas -against the anticoagulant action of venoms. It is sufficient to mix -½ c.c. of 4 per cent. saline antivenomous serum with 1 c.c. of 4 -per cent. saline plasma to ensure that the subsequent addition of 1 -milligramme of _Cobra_-venom to this mixture remains without effect -upon the coagulability of the latter. If, after a contact of two hours -or more, 2 c.c. of distilled water be added, coagulation is produced -just as in saline plasma without venom. - - -B.--EFFECTS OF VENOM UPON THE RED CORPUSCLES. - -(1) _Hæmolysis._--The hæmolytic properties of venoms, that is to say, -their faculty of dissolving the red corpuscles, have been the subject -of very important researches on the part of a number of investigators -during the last few years (W. Stephens,[45] Flexner and Noguchi,[46] -Calmette,[47] Phisalix,[48] Preston Kyes and Hans Sachs,[49] Noc[50]). - -The different venoms are all hæmolytic, but in very variable doses. -It is possible to make a very precise comparative study of them from -this special point of view by taking as a base for each venom, as was -done by Noc, the unital dose of 1 milligramme (or one-tenth of a cubic -centimetre of a 1 per cent. solution freshly prepared and not filtered, -the filtration through porcelain retaining an appreciable part of the -active substance), and noting the time strictly necessary for this dose -of 1 milligramme to dissolve completely, _in vitro_, 1 c.c. of a 5 per -cent. dilution of red corpuscles of the horse in physiological saline -solution. - -It is very important, before allowing the venom to act on the red -corpuscles, to first wash the latter by means of several successive -centrifugings with 8 per 1,000 physiological saline solution. - -It is also better to choose the corpuscles of the horse in preference -to those of other species of animals, since they exhibit a nearly -constant mean sensitivity. The corpuscles of the ox, goat, sheep, and -rabbit are less sensitive. Those of man, the guinea-pig, and the rat, -on the contrary, are more so. - -On experimenting with _washed_ corpuscles, it is found that venom alone -is incapable of dissolving them. In order that dissolution may take -place, we are obliged to add to the mixture either a small quantity of -normal horse-serum, preferably _heated_, and, consequently, deprived of -alexin (Calmette), or ½ c.c. of a 1 in 10,000 solution of _lecithin_ in -physiological saline water (P. Kyes). - -Venom, therefore, is capable of hæmolysing red corpuscles only when -it is _quickened_, either by heated normal serum, or by lecithin. The -solution of lecithin employed for this purpose should be prepared -by dissolving 1 gramme of lecithin in 100 grammes of pure methylic -alcohol. Taking 1 c.c. of this dilution we add it to 9 c.c. of 8 in -1,000 saline solution, and make a second dilution of 1 c.c. of the -foregoing mixture in 9 c.c. of saline water. This latter dilution of 1 -in 10,000 is utilised as the reagent. - -Let us now see how the serum or lecithin acts. It has been shown by -P. Kyes that with either of these substances the mechanism of the -hæmolytic action is the same, for the serum quickens the venom only -through the agency of the free lecithin it contains. The lecithin takes -part in the reaction by combining with the venom to form a hæmolysing -_lecithide_ more resistant to heat than its two components, for it may -be heated for several hours at a temperature of 100° C., without the -loss of any of its properties. - -When venom is brought into contact with certain kinds of highly -sensitive red corpuscles, those of the rat for example, these -corpuscles, although washed and freed from serum, may undergo -hæmolysis. This result is due to the fact that these corpuscles contain -sufficient quantities of lecithin, which becomes liberated from -their protoplasm and, uniting with the venom, constitutes the active -_lecithide_. - -It was already known that lecithin is capable of combining with various -albuminoid matters and with sugars to form _lecithides_. We must not, -therefore, be surprised to find that such a combination may take place -with the proteic substances in venom. The combination in this case is -a truly chemical one. Lecithin in its natural state, or that which is -normally found in serums which quicken venom, such as horse-serum, -even when heated to 65° C., therefore plays the part of _complement_ -according to Ehrlich’s theory, or that of _alexin_ according to the -theory of Bordet, while venom itself would be an _amboceptor_ or -_sensitiser_. - -This is not, however, the way in which the phenomenon should be -understood, for it is impossible to admit the identification of heated -serum or lecithin with the complementary substances or alexins, seeing -that the essential characteristic of the latter is that they are -intolerant of heat and become entirely inactive on being raised to a -temperature of 58° C., or even by simply being kept for a few days -exposed to the air and light. We must therefore suppose, with P. Kyes -and H. Sachs, that the red corpuscles themselves contain substances -capable of playing the part of complements (_endo-complements_), and -that it is with these that the venom combines when quickened by the -presence of lecithin or heated serum, the latter only acting because it -contains free lecithin. - -All substances that contain lecithin, such as bile, hot milk, or -cephalin, are capable of exerting the same quickening action, but do -not themselves possess any inherent hæmolytic power. - -_Cholesterin_, on the contrary, represents a kind of antidote to -lecithin, as also to normal serums. It prevents hæmolysis of the red -corpuscles in a mixture of washed corpuscles and venom, yet it does not -in any way modify the properties of true alexins or complements. - -Moreover, no correlation exists between _lecithides_ and the -_neurotoxin_ in venoms. The combination lecithin + venom possesses -_hæmolytic_ action, but is in no way _neurotoxic_. Conversely, venom -can be freed from its groups of molecules combinable with lecithin, and -remain _neurotoxic_. - -_Lecithide_ is insoluble in ether and acetone, but soluble in -chloroform, alcohol, toluene, and water. Its properties are therefore -entirely distinct from those of its two components. It precipitates -slowly from its aqueous solutions, without losing its hæmolytic power; -it does not show _biuret_-reaction; it dissolves with equal readiness -the red corpuscles of all species of animals, and its effects, like -those of venom, are impeded by cholesterin. - -Kyes has succeeded in obtaining lecithides with all the hæmolytic -venoms that he was able to study: thus he has prepared lecithides -from _Lachesis lanceolatus_, _Naja haje_, _Bungarus_, _Lachesis -flavoviridis_, and _Crotalus_. It is therefore probable that the -_lecithinophile_ group exists in all venoms, even when these differ as -regards their other properties. - -A wide range of difference is exhibited by the various venoms, as -regards their hæmolysing power in the presence of normal heated serum -or lecithin. The venom of _Naja_ and that of _Bungarus_ are the most -active. The action of the venoms of VIPERIDÆ, and especially -of those of _Crotalus_, is very weak. For example, while 1 milligramme -of _Cobra_-venom dissolves in from five to ten minutes 1 c.c. of a 5 -per cent. dilution of red corpuscles in the presence of lecithin or -normal heated serum, the same dose of the venom of _Vipera russellii_ -takes thirty minutes to effect the dissolution, and the venom of -_Lachesis lanceolatus_ takes three hours. - -P. Kyes and H. Sachs have discovered the apparently paradoxical -fact that, if to the red corpuscles of certain species of animals -_Cobra_-venom be added in increasing doses, hæmolysis augments up -to a certain point, beyond which the destruction of the corpuscles -shows progressive diminution. In a large dose _Cobra_-venom no -longer produces any effect upon the corpuscles of the horse, for -example, even when the venom is added in presence of a great excess -of lecithin or heated serum. It would seem, then, that, according to -the theory of Ehrlich, under the influence of an exaggerated amount -of venom-amboceptor there is produced a deviation on the part of the -complement (serum or lecithin), and that the latter, instead of fixing -itself upon the corpuscles, becomes united with the surplus fraction of -the amboceptors, which has remained free in the liquid. - -Noguchi,[51] resuming the study of this extremely curious action of -strong doses of venom, observed that the red corpuscles of certain -species of animals (such as the horse for example), when previously -washed and held in suspension in a physiological solution of sea-salt -containing 4 per cent. of _Cobra_-venom, acquire a considerable -augmentation of resisting power with regard to various physical and -chemical agents. In consequence of this they are no longer hæmolysed by -distilled water, ether, or saponin. - -Nevertheless, acids or alkalies, except ammonia, destroy corpuscles -treated with venom more easily than those in their normal condition. - -If corpuscles, previously treated with a strong dose of venom, are -subjected to repeated washings in physiological saline solution, -the special resistance acquired by them in the presence of the -venom disappears; they even become more sensitive to the action of -destructive agents, such as water, ether, or saponin. - -The principle contained in venom, to which must be attributed the -protective action, is not destroyed by heating to 95° C., although -at this temperature _Cobra_-venom becomes partially coagulated. -Moreover, the protective substance is contained in the coagulum, while -the _hæmolysin_ remains entirely in the filtrate. The agglutinin of -venom, on the other hand, is destroyed at a temperature of 75° C. The -protective substance, therefore, can be identified neither with the -hæmolysin nor with the agglutinin. - -It follows that it is impossible to accept the hypothesis of the -“deviation of the complement” suggested by Kyes and Sachs to explain -the innocuousness of strong doses of venom. Besides, it would be -difficult to reconcile this hypothesis with the fact, observed by -Noguchi, that venom in a strong dose protects corpuscles, not only -against the action of lecithin (complement), but also against distilled -water, ether, &c. - -Noguchi, seeking more thoroughly to elucidate the mechanism of this -protective action, finds that _Cobra_-venom forms a precipitate with -blood-serum, when the latter is relatively poor in salts or when it is -dilated with water. It likewise forms a precipitate with the aqueous -extract of red corpuscles, and precipitates the globulins, hæmoglobin, -or globin of the corpuscle, when treated separately. The precipitates -are insoluble in water, but dissolve with the assistance of a small -quantity of acid or alkali, and also in a great excess of saline -solution. - -Noguchi supposes that red corpuscles, when treated with strong -solutions of venom, are protected against destructive agents on account -of the formation by the venom and certain constituents of the corpuscle -(chiefly hæmoglobin) of a compound insoluble in water. When this -compound is removed by repeated washings in physiological solution, the -corpuscles can easily be hæmolysed afresh by the ordinary destructive -agents. Venom, none the less, exerts a noxious influence upon the -corpuscles in all cases; but when strong solutions are employed, this -effect is masked by the protective action. - -All kinds of red blood corpuscles are not equally sensitive to the -protective action of strong doses of venom. In this respect all degrees -are observed in the action of venom. Thus the corpuscles of the dog are -not protected at all by _Cobra_-venom. But it is interesting to observe -that this venom in no way precipitates either the aqueous extract of -dog’s corpuscles, or the hæmoglobin, or the globin of this animal. - -The venom of _Crotalus_ and that of _Ancistrodon_ likewise possess -protective power, which is, however, less marked than in the case of -_Cobra_-venom. - -Noguchi finally points out that corpuscles treated with venom are -not hæmolysed by fluorescent substances such as eosin. They are also -refractory to the hæmolysing action of tetanolysin. - -The resistance of the hæmolysins of venom to heat (which, according to -Morgenroth, may extend to heating for thirty minutes at a temperature -of 100° C.) explains how it is that the serum of horses immunised by -means of venoms heated to 72° C. is distinctly antihæmolysing, and -capable of perfectly protecting the red corpuscles _in vitro_ and _in -vivo_. - -I have been able to prove that the _antineurotoxic_ property of -antitoxic serums with regard to the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ is -pretty much on a par with their antihæmolysing property, so that -it is possible to measure _in vitro_ the antitoxic activity of a -serum by establishing the degree of its antihæmolysing activity. -Thus we see that a serum, which is antitoxic and antihæmolytic with -respect to the venom of _Naja_, is likewise antihæmolytic as regards -the other COLUBRINE-venoms, and even certain venoms of -VIPERIDÆ. Here we have a very important fact, for it enables -us to measure _in vitro_ the activity of antivenomous serums. - -(2) _Precipitins of Venoms._--The serum of rabbits treated with -increasing doses of _Cobra_-venom precipitates the latter in more -or less concentrated solution. It has no effect as regards other -venoms. On the other hand, the serum of a strongly immunised horse, -the antivenomous power of which was pretty considerable, gave no -precipitate with _Cobra_-venom; the formation of precipitate is -therefore entirely independent of that of antitoxins (G. Lamb).[52] - -(3) _Agglutinins of Venoms._--Besides their hæmolytic action, -it is easy to observe that certain venoms, especially those of -VIPERIDÆ, agglutinate the red corpuscles, and that the -substance that produces this agglutination is different from the -hæmolysing substance; for it acts rapidly at a temperature of O° C., -at which hæmolysin manifests its effects only with extreme slowness. -Heating to 75° C. destroys this agglutinant property (Flexner and -Noguchi). - - -C.--EFFECTS OF VENOM UPON THE WHITE CORPUSCLES: LEUCOLYSIN. - -The white corpuscles themselves do not escape the action of venom. It -is possible _in vitro_ to prove this action upon leucocytic exudations -obtained, _e.g._, by injecting sterilised cultures of _Bacillus -megatherium_ into the pleura or peritoneum of the rabbit. After a few -hours this exudation is removed by means of capillary tubes, and, on -mixing these with weak doses of venom, we see, in the course of a -microscopic examination, that the large mononuclear cells are the first -to be dissolved, then the polynuclears, and lastly the lymphocytes. The -leucolysis is much more intense and more rapid with _Cobra_-venom than -with that of _Crotalus_ (Flexner and Noguchi, Noc). - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -_PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING_ (_continued_). - - PROTEOLYTIC, CYTOLYTIC, BACTERIOLYTIC AND VARIOUS DIASTASIC - ACTIONS OF VENOMS: DIASTASIC AND CELLULAR ACTION ON VENOMS. - - -A.--PROTEOLYTIC ACTION. - -The proteolytic action of venoms on gelatine, fibrin, and egg-albumen -has been studied by Flexner and Noguchi,[53] Delezenne,[54] and -subsequently by Noc[55] in my laboratory. It was already known that -_in vivo_ certain venoms exert a manifestly dissolving action on the -endothelium of blood-vessels and on the muscular tissues themselves. - -Delezenne, on his part, has established the existence in snake-venoms -of a _kinase_ analogous to the kinase of leucocytes and enterokinase. -Venom alone does not attack egg-albumen coagulated by heat, but it -confers an exceedingly strong digestive power on inert pancreatic -juices. - -_Lachesis_-venom has been found to be much the richest in kinase. It -digests gelatine perfectly, and when this substance has been subjected -to its action it is no longer capable of being solidified. - -_Lannoy_,[56] on the other hand, experimenting upon albuminoid -substances (casein, albumins of ox-serum) in solution, has shown -that _Cobra_-venom and that of _Vipera_ disintegrate the albuminoid -molecule; but the latter remains soluble after the addition of formol -and is no longer precipitable by acetic acid. The hydrolysis never -leads to the stage of peptone, but only to the formation of albumoses -which give biuret-reaction. - -The action of venoms upon fibrin may be demonstrated _in vitro_ -by bringing sufficient quantities of venom, 1 centigramme, for -example, into contact with small fragments of non-heated fibrin, -derived from blood clots from an ox, rabbit, or birds, and carefully -washed. These fragments soon separate from each other, and become -dissolved in a space of time which varies according to the venom used. -The VIPERINE-venoms, especially those of _Lachesis_ and -_Ancistrodon_, are the most active. _Viper_-venom is much less so, and -the venoms of COLUBRIDÆ are the slowest. - -This proteolytic action of the various venoms corresponds pretty -exactly to their coagulant and decoagulant action on rabbit- or -horse-plasma, so that, as I have already stated, we must suppose that -the property possessed by VIPERINE-venoms of more or less -rapidly dissolving blood which they have caused to coagulate, results -from the fact that these venoms contain, in addition to a coagulant -substance, another substance which is strongly proteolytic. - -The latter is destroyed by heating. _Lachesis_-venom, when heated to -70° C., no longer has any dissolving action on either gelatine or -fibrin. Moreover, antivenomous serum furnished by horses vaccinated -against heated venoms does not prevent proteolysis by non-heated -venoms. On the other hand, the serum of animals vaccinated against -VIPERINE-venoms, simply filtered by the Chamberland process -and non-heated, affords perfect protection to gelatine and fibrin -against the dissolving action of these venoms. - - -B.--CYTOLYTIC ACTION. - -Simon Flexner and Noguchi[57] have observed that the venoms of -_Naja_, _Ancistrodon_, _Crotalus_, _Vipera russellii_, and _Lachesis -flavoviridis_, contain substances which possess the property of -dissolving a large number of the cells of warm-blooded and cold-blooded -animals, and that these _cytolysins_ are very markedly resistant to -high temperatures. - -They employed for their experiments 5 per cent. emulsions of organs, -spermatozoids, or ova in physiological saline solution. The solution -of venom at a strength of 1 per cent. was kept in contact with the -different kinds of cells for three hours at a temperature of 0° C.; the -liquid was then centrifuged and examined with the naked eye and under -the microscope. - -The venoms experimented upon dissolved more or less rapidly the -parenchymatous cells of the liver, kidney and testicle of the dog, -guinea-pig, rabbit, rat and sheep. The most active venoms in this -respect were those of _Vipera russellii_, _Ancistrodon_ and the -_Cobra_; the venom of _Crotalus_ was the least active. - -With regard to the nerve-cells, spermatozoids and ova of cold-blooded -animals (frogs, fish, arthropods, worms, and echinoderms) _Cobra_-venom -proved to be the most active; then that of _Ancistrodon_, and lastly -that of _Crotalus_. - -These cytolysins are not destroyed by heating for thirty minutes at 85° -C. in a damp medium, nor by dry heating for fifty minutes at 100° C. - - -C.--BACTERIOLYTIC ACTION. - -If we bring into contact with a 1 per cent. solution of _Cobra_-venom, -rendered aseptic by filtration through porcelain, sensitive -micro-organisms, such as the cholera vibrio, or the bacterium -of anthrax in a very young non-sporulated culture, or in its -non-spore-producing variety, we find that these microbes are dissolved -by the solution of venom in varying periods of time. - -On making a direct microscopical examination we see that Koch’s vibrios -become immovable, then break up into granulations and disappear in the -liquid. The bacteriolysis is even more distinct in the case of the -bacterium. The enveloping membrane seems to dissolve, and the microbe -appears as though composed of a series of granulations placed end to -end, which finally disperse and disappear. - -By my instructions this bacteriolytic property of venom with respect -to different species of micro-organisms was studied by Noc. It was -especially clearly seen with the non-spore-producing bacterium of -anthrax, the cholera vibrio, _Staphylococcus aureus_, the bacillus -of diphtheria, and _B. subtilis_ in a young culture; it is less -distinct with _B. pestis_, _B. coli_, and _B. typhi_, is almost _nil_ -with the pyocyanic bacillus and _B. prodigiosus_, and _nil_ with _B. -tuberculosis_. - -Investigations have likewise been made by Noc, and subsequently by -Goebel,[58] in order to determine whether cobra-venom dissolves -Trypanosomes. These hæmatozoa are more resistant than bacteria, but -they nevertheless end by being dissolved after twenty to thirty -minutes’ contact in the 1 per cent. solution. - -The bacteriolytic substance in venom is distinct from that which -produces proteolysis, for the latter is destroyed at 80° C., while -the former only disappears with a temperature of and beyond 85° -C. maintained for half an hour. It is likewise distinct from the -hæmolysin, for this resists temperatures considerably higher than 85° -C. Moreover, venom which has dissolved microbes until the saturation -point has been reached, is found to have preserved in its entirety -its hæmolytic power upon the red corpuscles of the horse. Neither -does it act upon the microbes owing to the presence of a _cytase_ -or _alexin_. The well-known characteristics of alexins are not met -with here--destruction at 55° to 56° C., sensitivity to light, rapid -alteration at ordinary temperatures, &c. - -We cannot, again, compare the bacteriolytic action of venom to that -of rat-serum, which dissolves _B. anthracis_ by aid of a substance -distinct from vibrionicide alexin. According to the researches of -Malvoz and Y. Pirenne, the lysin of rat-serum appears to be a basic -substance, the neutralisation of which destroys its activity. Now -_Cobra_-venom in a very active solution is perfectly neutral to -sensitive litmus papers, while these are turned blue by rat-serum. -Moreover, venom acts not only upon microbes of the same kind, but -also on very different species which are not affected by rat-serum, -especially upon _B. pestis_, for which, on the contrary, this serum, -when fresh, proves a favourable culture medium. The bacteriolytic power -of _Cobra_-venom therefore constitutes a special property of venom. - -“In their work on the cytolysins of venom, S. Flexner and Noguchi have -shown that animal cells, when heated to 55° C. and rendered inactive, -do not undergo complete dissolution under the influence of venoms which -destroy the fresh cells. The authors in question infer the existence -of cellular receptors (_endo-complements_, according to the theory -of Ehrlich), which fix the amboceptors of venom. Pursuing the same -order of ideas, I have observed that bacteria killed by heating for -one hour at 60° C. do not undergo total disintegration as do living -bacteria. But, while Flexner and Noguchi infer the plurality of the -cytolysins in venom for different animal cells, I have not been able -to prove the same thing with regard to the bacteriolysin; venom -saturated with cholera vibrios to such an extent that vibrios added at -repeated intervals are no longer dissolved, is incapable of dissolving -another highly sensitive species of microbe, such as the asporogenous -bacterium, and _vice versâ_. Besides, it would be difficult to -understand the existence in venom of cytolysins specific for a whole -series of species of micro-organisms” (Noc).[59] - -Antivenomous serum, in a dose of 0·01 or 0·05 c.c., neutralizes the -bacteriolytic action of 1 milligramme of _Cobra_-venom, while normal -serum heated, even in larger doses, is without effect. The lysin and -the antivenomous serum appear also to enter into stable combination; by -heating to 80° C., after dilution of the mixture neutral antivenomous -serum + venom, the property of dissolving is not restored to the latter. - -Pursuing his researches upon the bacteriolytic actions, Noc has also -shown that the _fresh_ serums of the rabbit, horse, guinea-pig, rat, -and man are capable of destroying them completely. We must conclude -from this that venom has the property of fixing the alexin of these -fresh serums, and in fact it is easy to show that this fixation takes -place by experimenting with hæmolytic alexin, which is much more -easy to study; it is sufficient to eliminate the intervention of the -hæmolysin proper to _Cobra_-venom. - -With this object, Noc employed horse-corpuscles (which are readily -dissolved by fresh rat-serum), and neutralised the hæmolysin proper -to the venom by antivenomous serum, which has no effect upon fresh -horse-corpuscles and upon the alexin of rat-serum. - -For experimental purposes six tubes are prepared with contents as -follows:-- - -(1) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum. - -(2) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum + 0·5 milligramme of Cobra-venom (0·5 -c.c. of a solution of 1 in 1,000). - -(3) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum + 1 milligramme of venom (after fifteen -minutes’ contact of the venom with the alexin in tubes 2 and 3 the -venom is neutralised by 1 c.c. of antivenomous serum in the case of -tube 2, and by 2 c.c. in that of tube 3). - -(4) 1 milligramme of venom. - -(5) 1 c.c. of antivenomous serum. - -(6) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum + 1 c.c. of antivenomous serum. - -To each tube 2 drops of defibrinated horse-blood are added, and the -tubes are placed in the stove at a temperature of 35° C. - -In tubes 1 and 6, which contain fresh rat-serum alone, and fresh serum -+ antivenomous serum, hæmolysis appears in a few minutes. In tube 4, -which received venom alone, hæmolysis is also produced in one hour. It -is not produced at all in tubes 2 and 3, which received the neutral -mixture of fresh serum and venom, proving that the hæmolytic alexin has -been fixed by the venom. The latter, therefore, here plays the part of -a true fixator or _amboceptor_. - -Venom behaves, in short, after the manner of extracts of organs. The -fixation of hæmolytic alexin by extracts of organs, the tissues, and -animal cells (liver, spleen, spermatozoids, &c., &c.), has already been -demonstrated by V. Dungern, P. Müller, Levaditi, and E. Hoke. The same -fact is also observed with solutions of peptone. The fixation of alexin -is therefore a general property of certain albuminoid molecules. - -It was interesting to endeavour to reproduce, with _Cobra_-venom, J. -Bordet’s experiments upon alexins and anti-alexins. It was to be hoped -that we had in this substance an anti-alexic body capable of being -preserved for an indefinite time and constant in its activity, which -would enable us easily to measure the dose of alexin contained in a -small quantity of a serum, or other liquid of leucocytic origin. - -The experiment proved to Noc that, contrary to the ideas of Ehrlich -and his pupils, and conformably to the results obtained by Bordet -with serums and toxins, the neutralisation of venom takes place in a -variable ratio. - -If a dose A of fresh serum is capable of neutralising exactly 5 -milligrammes of _Cobra_-venom with regard to a sensitive microbe, on -employing a dose of the strength of 2 A we ought to find a bactericidal -dose, 1 A, in the excess of serum, according to the theory of definite -proportions. No such bactericidal action is seen, however; the serum, -on the other hand, acts in the contrary direction by means of its -nutritive substances, and in the mixture 2 A + _venom_ we obtain a -larger number of colonies of micro-organisms than in the mixture A + -venom. - -We see, then, that the property of cells of fixing in excess the active -substance in serums, discovered by Bordet for the hæmolysins (staining -phenomena), is met with again in the case of extracts of organs, at -least with regard to the bacteriolytic substance of _Cobra_-venom. - -It results, then, from the foregoing facts that _Cobra-venom contains a -cytolysin, which acts upon micro-organisms and is capable of fixing the -alexin of normal serums_. - -The application of these data to the living animal is evidently full -of difficulties, by reason of the complexity of the substances that -come into play. Let us see, however, to what extent they are capable -of serving to explain the phenomena that are produced as the result of -poisoning. - -It was observed by Kaufmann that the cadavers of animals which have -died from snake-bite are very rapidly invaded by the bacteria of -putrefaction. Welch and Ewing, referring to these phenomena of rapid -putrefaction in cases of death from venom, explained them as being due -to the loss of the bactericidal power of the serum. In hot countries, -even when snake-bites are not fatal, they are frequently complicated by -local suppuration or gangrene, occasioned by micro-organisms introduced -at the time of the bite. The minute analysis of the phenomena of -poisoning shows, in reality, that the organism undergoes different -modifications according to the quantity of venom injected and its -channel of penetration. - -When the dose of venom is rapidly lethal, whether because it penetrates -into the veins or because a larger amount of it is diffused beneath the -skin, it occasions a transient hypoleucocytosis, which is, moreover, -a reaction common to injections of venom, pro-peptone, extracts of -organs, and microbic toxins (Delezenne, Nolf). It follows that blood -collected a short time after the injection may be totally bereft of -its bactericidal power, in consequence of the disappearance of the -leucocytes, which have migrated into the organs. - -Thus it was observed by S. Flexner and H. Noguchi that the serum of -a rabbit, treated with 10 milligrammes of _Cobra_-venom, showed, -fifty-seven minutes after the injection, a great loss of bactericidal -properties. But it is impossible to conclude, from the diminution of -bactericidal power in this experiment, that the alexin becomes fixed by -the venom. Since the secretion of alexin is connected with the presence -of leucocytes, the hypoleucocytosis due to the venom is sufficient to -explain the loss of bactericidal power. - -Nevertheless, the action of venom is not confined to these -physiological phenomena; in diffusing itself through the organism -it stays more especially in parts where the circulation has become -slower, in the capillaries of the organs where the leucocytes that -have disappeared from the general circulation are already to be found -agglomerated and altered. Here the cytolysins of the venom, continuing -their effects, are capable of neutralising the alexins set at liberty -by the destruction of the leucocytes, and thus the rapid multiplication -of the bacteria of putrefaction, which have come from the intestine or -were carried in with the bite, is easily explained. In the same way, we -can account for the suppuration that is met with as a complication of -non-lethal bites, in spite of the hyperleucocytosis consequent upon the -penetration of a weak dose of venom; immediate neutralisation of the -alexin set at liberty at the level of the wound has sufficed to enable -micro-organisms to multiply. - - -D.--VARIOUS DIASTASIC ACTIONS OF VENOMS. - -So long ago as 1884, de Lacerda, in his “Leçons sur le venin des -serpents du Brésil,” described the results of his researches upon -the diastasic actions of venom. He proved that venom emulsifies -fats, causes milk to curdle, and does not saccharise starch. But the -solutions of venom employed by this author were not sterile, so that -putrefactive phenomena may be believed to have occurred in the course -of his experiments. - -The subject has been studied afresh by Wehrmann[60] in my laboratory, -and afterwards by Lannoy.[61] These two investigators have shown that -venoms do not hydrolyse either starch or inulin. _Cobra_-venom and that -of _Vipera_ change saccharose very slightly. They do not modify the -glucosides (amygdalin, coniferin, salicin, arbutin, and digitalin); -they therefore do not contain emulsin. - -On the other hand, these venoms possess, as I have already stated, -very interesting _kinasic_ properties, which have been pointed out -by Delezenne.[62] They consist in the fact that while venom alone -is incapable of digesting cooked albumin, we have only to add to a -pancreatic juice, in itself devoid of effect upon albumin, a trace of -venom, to see this albumin immediately become digested. - -_Lachesis_-venom is especially active in this respect. In Delezenne’s -experiments it was generally sufficient to add to 1 c.c. of inactive -pancreatic juice, 0·5 to 1 c.c. of a 1 in 1,000 solution, that is 0·5 -to 1 milligramme of venom, to obtain the digestion of a cube of albumin -weighing 0·5 gramme in the space of from ten to twelve hours. Much -weaker doses, ⅕, ⅒, sometimes even 1/80 of a milligramme still gave the -same result, with this sole difference that digestion took twenty-four, -forty-eight, and even seventy-two hours to become complete. - -_Cobra_-venom was found to be a little less active than the foregoing, -but still its action was usually evident enough when it was employed in -a dose of 0·5 milligramme or even 0·1 milligramme. As for the venom of -_Vipera berus_, it was often necessary to employ it in doses from five -to ten times stronger in order to obtain the same result. - -Delezenne has ascertained, on the other hand, that these venoms -entirely lose their kinasic power when they are subjected to ebullition -for fifteen minutes. - -This _kinase_ or diastase, capable of quickening the inert pancreatic -juice, must evidently be of very great utility to the reptile in -enabling it to digest its prey. Venom, therefore, is not, as has long -been believed, a purely defensive secretion; it corresponds to a -physiological necessity, like that of the intestinal or pancreatic -juice. Herein is to be found the explanation of the fact that the -non-poisonous snakes, although destitute of organs of inoculation, -possess supralabial or parotid glands which produce venomous saliva. - -Experiments have been made by Ch. Féré[63] to determine the effect -upon the development of the embryo of the introduction of venom into -the albumen of the egg of the fowl. He found that 83 per cent. of -the embryos, developed in eggs intoxicated with 0·05 milligramme of -viper-venom and opened after being incubated for seventy-two hours, -exhibited various anomalies in development. - - -E.--ACTION OF VARIOUS DIASTASES UPON VENOMS. - -Venoms are modified or destroyed by certain normal diastases of the -organism. It was shown long ago by Lacerda, Weir Mitchell, Sir Joseph -Fayrer, and Lauder Brunton, that it is possible to introduce without -danger into the stomachs of adult animals amounts of venom many times -greater than the lethal dose. I have repeatedly verified this, but have -nevertheless observed that young mammals, while being suckled, readily -absorb venom by their alimentary canal, and succumb to the ingestion -of doses scarcely larger than those which kill when subcutaneously -injected. Here we have a very important fact, which once more proves -how easily the intestinal mucous membrane of young animals is permeated -by toxins. By my instructions Wehrmann[64] and Carrière,[65] in my -laboratory, have studied the modifications undergone by venoms in the -alimentary canal of rabbits. We have seen that these animals can ingest -without inconvenience doses of venom 600 times greater than the lethal -dose, and that, if we cause these ingestions to be repeated several -times, contrary to the assertion of Fraser[66] (of Edinburgh), we -never succeed in obtaining immunity to the subcutaneous injection of a -simple lethal dose, and no antitoxin is formed in the blood. - -The _ptyalin_ of the saliva, _pancreatic juice_, and _bile_ destroy -_Cobra_-venom _in vitro_. We must, therefore, assume that these -diastases are veritable agents of destruction for ingested venom. The -intestinal microbes play no part, any more than the intestinal juice by -itself. The gastric juice has very little effect. Papain is almost as -active as the pancreatic juice. - -It had already been proved by Fraser, so long ago as 1895, that bile, -after prolonged contact and in a sufficient dose, has a strongly -destructive effect upon Cobra-venom; but, contrary to the opinion of -this investigator, it is not antitoxic, for it possesses no preventive -or curative property, and its effects are produced only _in vitro_. - -We see from what has been stated above, that venoms introduced into a -sensitive organism are capable of producing extremely complex effects -upon the various tissues or humours. They act on the nerve-cells -by their _neurotoxin_, on the endothelium of the blood-vessels by -their _hæmorrhagin_ (Flexner and Noguchi), on the red corpuscles by -their _hæmolysin_, on the fibrin of the blood and muscles by their -_proteolytic diastase_, and on the fibrin-ferment itself by their -_thrombase_. - -They also act on the leucocytes, according to the experiments of -Chatenay,[67] performed under the direction of Metschnikoff, and -according to those of Flexner and Noguchi,[68] already cited. - -Thus we understand how complex must likewise be the means of defence -that have to be employed in order to afford an effective protection -against such poisons. - -The slightly intoxicated organism at first reacts by the intervention -of the leucocytes; a _hyperleucocytosis_ is produced, accompanied by -a more or less considerable rise of temperature. After a few hours -everything returns to its normal condition, and if the injection of a -lethal dose of venom is repeated several times, at intervals of a few -days, it is not long before antitoxic substances are found to appear in -the serum. - -When the dose of venom injected is sufficient to cause death, we -observe, a very few moments after the injection, a _lowering of -temperature_ and a _hypoleucocytosis_, which is the more pronounced in -proportion to the nearness of the dose of venom to the minimal lethal -dose. With very strong doses the hypoleucocytosis has not time to -manifest itself. - -It is therefore probable that, in intoxication by venoms as in that by -the toxins of micro-organisms, the protective _rôle_ of the leucocytes -is all-important, not only because these cells are capable of digesting -venoms owing to their protoplasmic digestive juices, but also because -they constitute if not the only, at any rate the principal source of -the _antitoxic substances_ or _amboceptors_. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -_TOXICITY OF THE BLOOD OF VENOMOUS SNAKES._ - - -Several physiologists, among whom it is right to mention Fontana,[69] -Leydig,[70] Reichel,[71] Raphael Blanchard,[72] Phisalix and -Bertrand,[73] and S. Jourdain,[74] have pointed out the presence of -poison-glands in _Tropidonotus natrix_ or other non-venomous snakes, -and have explained the immunity enjoyed by these animals with regard to -venom as being due to the existence of an internal secretion of this -poison. - -We also know, from the writings of Phisalix and Bertrand, that the -blood of the viper, and that of the salamander and toad are toxic. -For my part I have found[75] that the blood of _Naja_, _Bungarus_, -_Lachesis_, and _Cerastes_ possesses the same properties, and a -comparative study has been made by Wehrmann,[76] in my laboratory, of -the toxicity of the blood of the viper and of that of the blood of the -eel, already established by Mosso (of Turin).[77] - -It is remarkable to find that the blood of the various venomous or -non-venomous snakes, like that of certain fishes, such as eels, -produces, when injected beneath the skin or into the peritoneum, local -and general effects very similar to those of venoms. Injections of -0·5 c.c. to 1 c.c. of the blood of the viper or of the common snake, -beneath the skin of the guinea-pig, provoke an intense local reaction, -which always results in the formation of an eschar. The injection of -slightly stronger doses, 1 c.c. to 2 c.c., into the peritoneum, almost -always kills these animals, like venom, with symptoms of respiratory -asphyxia. - -The blood of _Naja tripudians_, injected subcutaneously, is lethal to -the mouse in a dose of 0·25 c.c. - -When this blood is heated, after having been suitably diluted with -three or four parts of distilled water, in order to prevent it from -coagulating, it is found that a temperature of 70° C. maintained for -fifteen minutes is sufficient to cause it to lose all toxic effect. -The same applies to the blood of the other poisonous or non-poisonous -snakes, and to that of the _Murænidæ_. - -Now, since the majority of venoms resist even prolonged heating at -this temperature, it cannot be supposed that the toxicity of the blood -is due to its containing venom derived from the internal secretion of -the poison-glands, as was thought by Phisalix and Bertrand. On the -contrary, it is probable that the toxicity results from the fact that -the blood contains diastasic substances of cellular origin, which -themselves represent certain of the constituent elements of venoms. - -These substances, moreover, possess some of the properties of venoms, -as, for instance, the faculty of producing hæmorrhages and of being -influenced by antivenomous serum, which causes them to lose a large -portion of their toxic qualities. - -I have found that they can even be utilised to vaccinate animals -against venom; by injecting weak, non-lethal, and repeated doses of -dilute _Cobra_-blood into guinea-pigs and rabbits, I have succeeded in -rendering them immune to doses of _Cobra_-venom several times greater -than the lethal dose. - -There is no doubt that it is to these substances that the poisonous -and non-poisonous snakes owe the partial immunity that they -themselves enjoy with respect to venoms. We know, in fact, that -common snakes suffer without danger many bites from vipers (Phisalix -and Bertrand[78]), and that the _Cobra_ is relatively little -affected by inoculation with its own venom or with that of other -COLUBRIDÆ, such as _Bungarus_, or even of VIPERIDÆ, -such as _Vipera russellii_. - -This immunity, however, is far from being absolute; I have killed -common snakes (_Tropidonotus natrix_) with doses of _viper_-venom -ten times greater than the lethal one for the rabbit, and _Lachesis -lanceolatus_ (from Martinique) with 0·02 gramme of the venom of _Naja -tripudians_. - -Phisalix,[79] on his part, has shown that, while it was necessary to -inject from 100 to 200 milligrammes of _viper_-venom into other vipers -or common snakes, beneath the skin or into the peritoneum, in order to -cause death, the introduction of only 2 to 4 milligrammes of this venom -into the brains of these reptiles was sufficient to kill them with the -same symptoms of intoxication. This dose, however, is only twenty-five -to thirty times greater than the lethal one for the guinea-pig. - -The practical lesson to be learnt from the establishment of the -foregoing facts is that poisonous snakes of different species must -never be placed in the same cage, for these animals sometimes bite each -other, and may thus kill one another. - -Simon Flexner and Noguchi[80] have studied the action of the serums of -_Crotalus_, _Ancistrodon_, and a non-poisonous species, the pine snake -(_Pituophis catenifer_), on the venoms of _Naja_, _Ancistrodon_, and -_Crotalus_. They found that the serum of _Crotalus_ rapidly dissolves -the red corpuscles of man, the dog, rabbit, guinea-pig, sheep, rat, -pigeon, and horse. - -The serum of the pine snake affects the same red corpuscles, but in -a lesser degree. Heating to 58° C. suppresses the hæmolytic power of -these serums, but they can be restored to activity by the addition of a -very small quantity of the same serum in a fresh condition, of fresh -serum derived from other snakes, or of fresh serum from the guinea-pig. - -Antivenomous serum also, when added in a suitable dose, entirely -suppresses the hæmolytic action of snake-serums; it has, however, -greater effect upon the hæmolysin of _Cobra_-blood than upon that of -the blood of other snakes. This observation had previously been made by -W. Stephens,[81] and it has been verified by Noc in my laboratory. - -_Crotalus_-serum dissolves the red corpuscles of the mongoose -(_Herpestes ichneumon_) of Jamaica, whose extraordinary resistance to -venom is well known. But if variable doses of _Ancistrodon_-venom and -_Crotalus_-serum be made to act simultaneously upon these corpuscles, -the latter are no longer dissolved. Again, if, instead of red -corpuscles which are but little sensitive, like those of the mongoose, -we employ the highly sensitive corpuscles of the guinea-pig, the result -is the same. These experiments are regarded by Flexner and Noguchi -as proving that the amboceptors of the toxic serum become fixed, in -conformity with Ehrlich’s theory of the lateral chains, upon the -receptors of the sensitive erythrocytes, and leave no more receptors -free for the fixation of the venom. - -The same investigators have endeavoured to determine the respective -toxicity of the tissues of the different organs of _Crotalus_. They -found that the most toxic organs are the spleen and the liver; the -toxicity of the spinal cord, kidney and muscles is much less. It -appears that this toxicity is intimately connected with the quantity of -blood that the tissues retain, for the physiological effects observed -are identical with those that follow the injection of blood or serum -alone. - -They also ascertained that the contents of the eggs of _Crotalus_ are -especially rich in poison, and this poison appears to consist for -the most part of _neurotoxin_, since it does not cause hæmorrhages. -Phisalix has observed that the ovules of the viper exhibit analogous -toxicity.[82] - -Summing up what has been stated above, we find that the blood of -both poisonous and non-poisonous snakes contains toxic substances, -destructible by heating to 68° C., and physiologically distinct from -venoms, but like the latter possessing the property of dissolving -the red corpuscles of the majority of vertebrates and of producing -hæmorrhages. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -_NATURAL IMMUNITY OF CERTAIN ANIMALS WITH RESPECT TO SNAKE-VENOMS._ - - -It was long ago pointed out that certain warm-blooded animals, -including the mongoose (_Herpestes ichneumon_, Family _Viverridæ_), -hedgehog (_Erinaceus europæus_, Family _Erinaceidæ_), pig (_Sus -scrofa_, Family _Suidæ_), and some herons (_Ajaja_, Subfamily -_Plataleinæ_; _Cancroma_, Subfamily _Cancrominæ_; _Botaurus_, Subfamily -_Ardeinæ_; _Mycteria_, Subfamily _Ciconiinæ_), known in Colombia under -the names _Culebrero_ and _Guacabo_, exhibit a natural immunity with -respect to snake-bites. - -Pigs devour vipers with great readiness, and in the region of North -America which adjoins the Mississippi and its tributaries they are even -trained to destroy the young rattle-snakes and other poisonous serpents -with which the valleys of these watercourses are infested. - -During my stay in Indo-China I inoculated a young pig, beneath the skin -of the back, with a dose of _Cobra_-venom (10 milligrammes) capable of -killing a large-sized dog. The animal withstood the injection, but I -am inclined to think that this is not a case of true immunity; it is -probable that the pig owes its resistance to venom to the fact that -its skin is lined with an enormous layer of adipose tissue, which is -but very slightly vascular, and in which absorption takes place very -slowly. This opinion is corroborated by my discovery that the serum -of this animal is entirely destitute of any antitoxic substance. I -mixed a dose of _Cobra_-venom, lethal for the rabbit, with 3·5 and 8 -c.c. of pig-serum. These mixtures killed rabbits in the same time as -the controls that received the venom diluted with equal quantities of -rabbit-serum or physiological saline solution. - -The natural immunity of the mongoose and the hedgehog rests upon more -scientifically established facts. - -My own experiments upon the immunity of the mongoose were made with -six specimens of these little carnivores captured in Guadeloupe -(French West Indies), an island in which no poisonous snakes exist; -consequently their immunity could not have arisen from their having -become accustomed to the bites of venomous reptiles. - -I first introduced a mongoose into a cage containing a _Naja bungarus_ -(_Ophiophagus_) of large size. The snake rose up immediately, dilated -its hood, and struck savagely at the little animal, which, darting -nimbly out of the way, escaped being seized and, frightened for a -moment, took refuge in a corner of the cage. Its stupor, however, was -but of brief duration, for at the very moment when the hamadryad was -preparing to strike at it again, the mongoose, with open mouth and -snarling, sprang upon the reptile’s head, bit it hard in the upper jaw -and crushed its skull in a few seconds. This scene is in every respect -reminiscent of the admirable description given by Rudyard Kipling, in -his celebrated “Jungle Book,” of the great war that _Rikki-tikki_ (the -Mongoose) fought with Nag (the Cobra) “through the bathrooms of the big -bungalow in Segowlee cantonment”:-- - -“Nag was asleep, and Rikki-tikki looked at his big back, wondering -which would be the best place for a good hold. ‘If I don’t break his -back at the first jump,’ said Rikki, ‘he can still fight; and if he -fights--O Rikki!’ He looked at the thickness of the neck below the -hood, but that was too much for him; and a bite near the tail would -only make Nag savage. - -“’It must be the head,’ he said at last; ‘the head above the hood; and -when I am once there, I must not let go.’ - -“Then he jumped. The head was lying a little clear of the water-jar, -under the curve of it; and, as his teeth met, Rikki braced his back -against the bulge of the red earthenware to hold down the head. This -gave him just one second’s purchase, and he made the most of it. Then -he was battered to and fro as a rat is shaken by a dog--to and fro -on the floor, up and down, and round in great circles; but his eyes -were red, and he held on as the body cart-whipped over the floor, -upsetting the tin dipper and the soap-dish and the flesh-brush, and -banged against the tin side of the bath. As he held he closed his jaws -tighter and tighter, for he made sure he would be banged to death, and, -for the honour of his family, he preferred to be found with his teeth -locked. He was dizzy, aching, and felt shaken to pieces, when something -went off like a thunderclap just behind him; a hot wind knocked him -senseless, and red fire singed his fur. The big man had been wakened -by the noise, and had fired both barrels of a shot-gun into Nag just -behind the hood.”[83] - -From the experimental point of view, these stirring battles between -mongooses and cobras only show that a mongoose of the size of a large -squirrel makes a plucky and victorious attack upon a venomous reptile -of the most dangerous species and of very large dimensions; but it is -impossible to tell with certainty whether the mongoose has been bitten. - -I therefore inoculated a second mongoose with 2 milligrammes of -venom, a lethal dose for 4 kilogrammes of rabbit. The animal did not -experience the slightest malaise. - -I then took blood from three other mongooses, by tying a carotid -without killing the animals. This blood, mixed with venom or injected -as a prophylactic into rabbits, exhibited an antitoxic power, which, -though evident, was of little intensity, and insufficient in all cases -as a certain preventative of death. All the rabbits that received a -preventive dose varying from 2 to 7 c.c. of mongoose-serum succumbed to -inoculation with venom, but with a considerable retardation (from two -to five hours) as compared with the controls. - -I endeavoured to determine the limit of tolerance of the mongoose -with respect to venom. Two of these animals, which had never been -inoculated, received doses of venom respectively four times and six -times lethal for the rabbit. The first mongoose remained perfectly -well; the second was ill for two days, and then recovered. A third -mongoose, into which I injected a dose eight times lethal for the -rabbit, succumbed in twelve hours. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--MONGOOSE SEIZED BY A COBRA. - -(For this illustration I am indebted to the kindness of M. Claine, late -French Consul at Rangoon.)] - -It must be concluded from these facts that the West Indian mongoose -is but little sensitive to venom; that it is capable of withstanding, -without malaise, doses which are considerable in proportion to its -size, but that its immunity is far from being absolute. If it is -generally the victor in its combats with poisonous snakes, the result -is mainly due to the extreme agility with which it is endowed. - -A number of experiments have been made by Lewin,[84] and by Phisalix -and Bertrand,[85] upon the immunity of the hedgehog to the venom of -_Vipera berus_. - -It had long been known that hedgehogs are inveterate hunters of vipers, -which they devour with avidity. Thanks to the long and sharp spines by -which their bodies are protected, they avoid being bitten and contrive -to catch the reptiles very cleverly, but it occasionally happens that -they do not escape being struck. However, even in these cases they -rarely succumb. - -Inoculation with fairly large quantities of venom does not make them -ill: the dose of _viper_-venom lethal for these small animals is about -forty times greater than that which kills the guinea-pig. Their power -of resistance is therefore beyond doubt. - -It may be asked whether this is due to their blood normally containing -antitoxic substances. In order to elucidate this question, Phisalix -and Bertrand first proved that the blood of normal hedgehogs is toxic -to laboratory animals, especially to the guinea-pig. A mixture of this -blood with viper-venom cannot therefore be harmless. But it sufficed to -heat hedgehog blood to 58° C. to cause it to lose its toxicity, and it -was found that it then became antitoxic. Guinea-pigs inoculated in the -peritoneum with 8 c.c. of heated hedgehog-serum were able to withstand, -immediately afterwards, twice the lethal dose of viper-venom. - -It really seems, therefore, that the resistance of the hedgehog to -venom is due to the presence of antitoxic substances in its blood. But, -as in the case of the mongoose, there is no question here of genuine -_immunity_. - -The same is probably true with respect to the herons of Colombia, the -_Culebrero_ and _Guacabo_, which eagerly search after young snakes for -food. No investigations, however, have yet been made upon this subject. - -These birds, moreover, are few in number; hunters pursue them for the -sake of their brilliantly coloured plumage, and it is to be regretted -that no attempt is made to prevent their destruction or to acclimatise -them in countries in which poisonous snakes constitute a veritable -calamity, such as Martinique, St. Lucia, or India. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -_SNAKE-CHARMERS._ - - -In all the countries of the globe where poisonous snakes are formidable -to man, there are certain individuals who profess to be secure from all -ill-effects from the bites of these reptiles, whether because they are -immune to venom, or because they possess secrets which enable them to -cure themselves when they happen to have been bitten. Not unnaturally -these secrets are sometimes turned to profitable account, and the -possessors of them generally enjoy considerable popular influence, and -are very highly venerated. Intimate relations with the divinities are -freely attributed to them. - -Among the Romans the jugglers who carried on the profession of -snake-charmers and healers of snake-bites were known as _Psylli_. -Plutarch tells us that Cato, who loved not doctors because they were -Greeks, attached a certain number of them to the army of Libya. They -were accustomed to expose their children to serpents as soon as they -were born, and the mothers, if they had failed in conjugal fidelity, -were infallibly punished by the death of their offspring. If, on the -contrary, the children were lawful, they had nothing to fear from the -bites of the reptiles. “_Recens etiam editos serpentibus offerebant; -si essent partus adulteri, matrum crimina plectabantur interitu -parvulorum; si pudici, probos ortus a morte paterni privilegium -tuebatur_” (Solinus). - -The Libyian Psylli of antiquity still have their representatives in -Tunis and in Egypt. Clot Bey writes as follows with reference to the -Egyptian Psylli:-- - -“The _Ophiogeni_, or Snake-charmers, have been renowned from all -time. Strabo speaks of them, and Prosper Alpinus was a witness of the -singular effects of their art. The majority of modern travellers who -have visited Egypt have been equally struck with the freedom with which -they handle poisonous reptiles and animals. - -“The Psylli go from house to house, calling forth and charming the -snakes that they may happen to contain. They claim to attract them by -means of a particular power. Armed with a short wand, they enter the -chamber to be purged from these venomous guests, make a smacking noise -with their tongue, spit upon the ground, and pronounce the following -incantation: ‘_I adjure you, by God, if you are without or within, to -appear_; _I adjure you, by the greatest of names; if you are obedient, -appear! If you disobey, die! die!_’ The snake, submissive to this -command, departs forthwith, issuing from a crack in the wall or -floor.”[86] - -India is pre-eminently the country of snake-charmers. There exists an -entire caste of Hindus, called _Mal_, who are professional catchers and -vendors of snakes, but do not perform tricks with them. - -The snake-charmers are recruited from among another caste, that of the -_Sangis_ or _Tubriwallahs_ of Bengal. - -These men, who are usually clothed in yellow robes and wear large -turbans, manage the Cobra with really marvellous skill. All travellers -who have had the opportunity of crossing India or of touching at a port -on the coast or on that of Ceylon have witnessed scenes similar to that -described by Natalis Rondot (figs. 90 and 91):-- - -“Towards six o’clock in the evening a Hindu juggler comes on board. -He is poorly clad, and wears a turban decorated with three feathers, -and several necklaces of those amulet-sachets called _gris-gris_ in -Senegal. In a flat basket he carries a spectacled Cobra-di-Capello. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--INDIAN SNAKE-CHARMER AT COLOMBO -(CEYLON).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--INDIAN SNAKE-CHARMER AT COLOMBO -(CEYLON).] - -“This man instals himself on deck; we sit down on the seat provided for -the officer of the watch, and the sailors form a circle. The basket is -placed on the deck and uncovered; the Cobra is coiled up at the bottom -of it. The juggler squats a few paces off and commences to play a slow, -plaintive, and monotonous air, with a kind of small clarinet (fig. 92), -the sounds of which recall those of the Breton _biniou_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--MUSICAL INSTRUMENT USED BY INDIAN -SNAKE-CHARMERS TO CHARM COBRAS. - -(For this figure I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Pineau.)] - -“By degrees the snake moves, extends itself, and then assumes an erect -posture, but without quitting the basket. It begins to appear uneasy -and endeavours to recognise its surroundings; it becomes agitated and -irritated, expands and spreads out its hood, breathes hard rather -than hisses, and frequently and quickly shoots out its slender forked -tongue; several times it makes a violent dart as though to attack the -juggler; it frequently trembles, or rather gives sudden starts. The -juggler keeps his eyes always fastened upon the snake, and gazes at -it with a singular fixed stare. After some time, about ten or twelve -minutes, the Cobra becomes less animated, grows quiet, and then sways -as though influenced by the slow and monotonous rhythm of the musician; -it keeps incessantly darting out its tongue. Little by little it is -brought to a sort of somnolent condition. Its eyes, which at first -watched the juggler as though in order to take him by surprise, are, to -a certain extent, fixed and fascinated by the latter’s gaze. The Hindu -takes advantage of this moment of stupefaction on the part of the snake -by approaching it slowly without ceasing to play, and touches the head -of the Cobra, first with his nose and then with his tongue. Although -this takes but an instant the reptile starts out of its sleep, and the -juggler has barely time to throw himself backwards so as not to be -struck by the snake, which makes a furious dart at him. - -“We doubt whether the Cobra still has it fangs, and whether the Hindu -incurs any real danger in approaching it. Accordingly we promise our -man a Spanish piastre if he will make the snake bite a couple of fowls. -A black hen, which struggles violently, is taken and offered to the -Cobra, which half rises, looks at the bird, bites it, and lets it go. -The fowl is released and runs off terrified. Six-minutes later, by the -watch, it vomits, stretches out its legs, and dies. A second fowl is -placed in front of the snake, which bites it twice, and the bird dies -in eight minutes.”[87] - -Certain jugglers exhibit snakes from which they have taken care to -extract the fangs; they offer the animal a piece of cloth or soft stuff -into which it drives its poison-teeth, and the fabric is then quickly -snatched away in order by this means to break off the poison-fangs that -have penetrated it. This operation is repeated at certain intervals -with a view to preventing the reserve fangs from coming into use, and -the reptiles can then be handled without any danger. - -It is unquestionable, however, and I have personally satisfied -myself of the fact, that many genuine snake-charmers go through -their performances with Cobras whose poison-apparatus is absolutely -intact. That they almost always avoid being bitten is due to a perfect -knowledge of the habits and movements of these reptiles. Nevertheless, -accidents sometimes happen to them, and every year a few of them -succumb in pursuit of their calling (see p. 370). Still, it may be -asserted that some of them really know how to vaccinate themselves -against venom, by making young Cobras bite them from time to time. - -It is stated by E. C. Cotes,[88] formerly of the Calcutta Museum, that -the Indian snake-charmers do not extract the poison-fangs from their -snakes. Even though deprived of its fangs, the snake would still be -dangerous on account of its other teeth, the punctures of which would -provide another channel for the penetration of the venom. - -Snake-charmers pretend that they owe their immunity to graduated -inoculations. This is not yet conclusively proved; what is better -established is that they take the greatest care to avoid being bitten, -and that in so doing they display the most remarkable skill. - -Even in France we are acquainted with professional viper-catchers, -who employ the method of graduated inoculations in order to render -themselves immune to the bites of indigenous reptiles. One of these -men, who lives near Arbois (Jura), takes good care to get himself -bitten, at least once a year, by a young viper; when he forgets this -precaution and happens to be bitten, he always feels the effects much -more severely. - -Fraser[89] (of Edinburgh) thinks that the repeated ingestion of small -quantities of venom may suffice to confer immunity, and he mentions -a certain number of experiments performed by him upon white rats and -kittens, from which it would appear that the ingestion of venom, -continued for a long time, finally renders these animals absolutely -refractory to subcutaneous inoculation with doses of the same venom -several times greater than the lethal one. He therefore concludes -that this process of vaccination may probably be in use among -snake-charmers. - -I have submitted this hypothesis to the test of experiment. I succeeded -in making _adult_ rabbits, guinea-pigs, and pigeons absorb enormous -doses of _Cobra_-venom by way of the alimentary canal. In this manner -I have administered doses as much as a thousand times greater than the -lethal one, yet I have never been able to prove that the serum of these -animals became antitoxic. - -On the other hand, I have succeeded in vaccinating very young -guinea-pigs and young rabbits which were still being suckled, by making -them absorb, every second day, minimal and certainly innocuous doses of -very dilute venom. In the case of young animals, venom is not modified -by the digestive juices, and a portion of it is absorbed by the mucous -membrane of the intestine. When the dose ingested is suitably reduced -they withstand it, and when these ingestions are repeated every second -or third day during the first weeks of life, the animals become -perfectly vaccinated against doses certainly lethal for controls of the -same age and weight. But it is always difficult to push the vaccination -far enough for the serum to acquire antitoxic properties, and I have -never been able to prove the appearance of the latter. - -I think, however, that it ought to be possible to arrive at this result -by experimenting upon animals such as lambs, kids, calves, or foals, -the intestine of which remains permeable to toxins for a sufficiently -long period. - -It may be that certain snake-charmers, who claim to possess family -secrets which they transmit from father to son, employ an analogous -method in order, in their infancy, to confer immunity to venoms upon -those of their male children who are to inherit their strange and -lucrative profession. - -In Mexico, certain Indians called _Curados de Culebras_ know how to -acquire the privilege of being able to be bitten by poisonous snakes -without the least danger to life, by inoculating themselves several -times with the teeth of rattle-snakes. - -Dr. Jacolot,[90] a naval surgeon, while staying at Tuxpan, made -enquiries as to these _Curados de Culebras_, and was able to satisfy -himself that their immunity is an actual fact. - -The process of vaccination employed by the natives of Tuxpan is as -follows:--A preparatory treatment is necessary. On the very day on -which a man is to inoculate himself or get himself inoculated, he takes -from 5 to 15 tubers of a plant known by the name of _Mano de Sapo_ -(_i.e._, Toad’s hand, _Dorstenia contrayerva_, Family _Urticaceæ_). -These tubers must--and this is absolutely necessary--be administered -on a _Friday_, and always in an odd number, 5, 7, 9, &c., up to 15, -according to the tolerance of the subject. - -If the plant be gathered on the first Friday in March it possesses -its marvellous properties in the highest degree; in this case, even -if it be dry, it is still excellent for the preparatory stage of the -inoculation. - -The physiological effects of _mano de sapo_ are not very marked: -the circulation is slightly diminished and a sensation of cold is -experienced, but there are no nervous troubles. The subject frequently -has attacks of vomiting or nausea. The inclination to vomit must be -fought against, for if the plant should happen to be rejected it would -be dangerous to submit to the inoculation. - -The root of the _mano de sapo_ is usually taken fresh. There is another -indispensable precaution: while undergoing this treatment it is -necessary to abstain from all sexual intercourse for three days after -the first inoculation, for two days after the second, and for one day -after the third. - -For the inoculation a large snake’s tooth, that is to say, one of the -fangs, is employed, and the fangs of the most poisonous snakes, such as -the rattle-snake (_cuatro narices_), are selected. The snake must be -killed on a _Friday_, and the fangs extracted the same day. The same -fang may serve for several years! - -The inoculation is commenced on the dorsal surface of the left foot; -care must be taken to avoid coming into contact with a vein. The skin -is torn with the point of the fang, so that it bleeds a little, and the -incision is in the shape of a square. - -From the left foot the operator passes to the right wrist (anterior -surface), then to the right foot (dorsal surface), and left wrist -(anterior surface), always changing from one side of the body to the -other. - -Operations are continued on the left thigh, then on the right arm, -right thigh, and left arm; in this way all the limbs are inoculated. On -the body an inoculation is made in the centre of the sternum; another -is made in the nape, and a final one in the centre of the forehead. The -finishing touch is given with the semblance of a square incision in the -tongue. - -At least seven series of similar inoculations are necessary to protect -a man from the spells of the serpent, and at the same time to confer -upon him the faculty of curing by suction the bites of the venomous -snakes that are most dreaded. - -During the whole of the period in which the Indian thus submits to -successive inoculations, his health shows no noteworthy derangement. -He feels a slight headache and a strange inclination towards alcoholic -drinks. But when the moon is at the full, then indeed, an excitement -which is dangerous in another way takes possession of him. His -cerebral faculties become over-excited, and he feels that his senses -are deserting him; his eyes become bloodshot, and he is pursued and -tormented by an irresistible impulse to bite. He has itching sensations -in his gums, his mouth burns, and salivation is greatly increased. He -feels that he is going to give way to the necessity to bite, and then -he flees to the woods, where he bites the trees viciously, tears their -bark and discharges his venom. His poisonous saliva mingles with the -sap, and, surprising phenomenon, the tree withers and dies! - -Woe to the man or animal who happens to be bitten by a _Curado de -Culebra_ in a fit of passion. The victim will die as quickly as if he -had been bitten by a snake! - -Almost all the semi-savage people of Guiana, and of the valleys of the -Orinoco and the Amazons, as also the tribes of Central Africa and the -races of India, possess witch-doctors, who pretend to be in possession -of means to preserve themselves from snake-bites, which are just as -ridiculous and infallible as the procedure described above. - -The archives of a criminal anthropology contain the story of a Lyonnese -gold-seeker, who had himself immunised against venom by an aboriginal -native of Guiana:[91]-- - -“The Indian took, from a bottle which contained several of them, a -tooth of the _Grage_ (_Lachesis atrox_), an extremely poisonous snake, -and with it made upon my instep three incisions about 3 centimetres -in breadth. He allowed the wounds to bleed for a minute. I then -experienced a fainting sensation, and large drops of sweat rolled from -my forehead. The wounds were next rubbed with a blackish powder. I -have since learnt that this powder was composed of the liver and gall -of the animal, dried in the sun and pounded up with the poison-glands. -The blood immediately ceased to flow. The Indian chewed some leaves -of a tree mixed with this powder, and, applying his lips to the sore, -injected into it as much saliva as he could, making an effort as though -to inflate a balloon. This completed the operation. - -“Since then I have been bitten seven times by different species of -very dangerous snakes, such as the _Grage_, coral-snake, &c., and have -never even had an attack of fever. The Galibi, Boni, and Emerillon -Indians, the Bosse negroes, and all the aboriginal natives of Guiana -employ the same method of procedure. They even pretend that this kind -of vaccination is transmissible to their offspring, and that the -hereditary immunity is maintained through several generations.” - -Some years ago Mons. d’Abbadie communicated to the Académie des -Sciences[92] a note from Colonel Serpa Pinto relating to another method -of vaccination employed by the natives of Mozambique, which the Colonel -himself consented to undergo. - -“I was vaccinated,” writes Colonel Serpa Pinto, “at Inhambane (on -the East Coast of Africa), among the Vatuas. These people extract -the poison of a snake which is known in Portuguese as the _Alcatifa_ -(_i.e._, carpet), and is so called on account of the variegated colour -of its skin, which resembles a carpet. I am not acquainted with the -means employed in order to obtain the poison, which is mixed with -vegetable substances, and forms with the latter a dark brown viscid -paste. - -“Two parallel incisions, 5 millimetres in length, are made in the skin, -and into these is introduced the paste containing the poison. These -incisions are made on the arms, near the junction of the radius and -ulna with the carpal bones, on the back of the hand, on the back, on -the shoulder-blades, and on the feet, near the great toes. After the -operation the natives exact an oath that the vaccinated one will never -kill a poisonous snake, because they say that henceforth the snake is -his intimate friend, and they throw upon him an Alcatifa snake, which -does not bite him. - -“After undergoing this operation my whole body was swollen up for a -week, and I underwent every possible kind of suffering. - -“I have never been bitten by any snake, and cannot vouch for the -infallibility of this remedy. The Vatuas do so, however, and they never -kill a snake. - -“A short time after having been vaccinated, I was stung, when in the -Seychelle Islands, by a scorpion, which did me no harm. Ten years -later, at the time of my journey across Africa, I was stung by another -scorpion which hurt me dreadfully, and for a week I thought that I was -going to die or lose my arm.” - -Mystification and superstitious ideas play, as we see, a very great -part in this preventive treatment, which is undergone by the natives of -certain countries and snake-catchers or charmers. But it is not very -surprising that, thanks to successive and repeated inoculations, a man -can succeed in acquiring sufficient immunity to preserve himself from -snake-bites. - -In ancient times it was even pretended that it was possible for this -immunity to be transmitted in certain cases by heredity, and thus we -can understand how the profession of snake-charmer was hereditary in -certain native families in India or Egypt. - -With reference to this subject, Professor Landouzy, in his fine work -on serum therapeutics, quotes a passage from “The Pharsalia” of Lucan -describing, in the year 60 A.D., the customs of the Psylli, a -people encountered by the army of Cato during its sojourn in Africa. -This passage is so interesting that I cannot refrain from reproducing -it:-- - - “Alone unharmed of all who till the earth - By deadly serpents, dwells the Psyllian race. - Potent as herbs their song; safe is their blood, - Nor gives admission to the poison germ - E’en when the chant has ceased. Their home itself - Placed in such venomous tract and serpent-thronged - Gained them this vantage, and a truce with death, - Else could they not have lived. Such is their trust - In purity of blood, that newly born - Each babe they prove by test of deadly asp - For foreign lineage. So the bird of Jove - Turns his new fledglings to the rising sun, - And such as gaze upon the beams of day - With eyes unwavering, for the use of heaven - He rears; but such as blink at Phœbus’ rays - Casts from the nest. Thus of unmixed descent - The babe who, dreading not the serpent touch, - Plays in his cradle with the deadly snake.”[93] - -The only scientific conclusion to be drawn from the facts and -statements that we have just set before the reader is that, under -certain circumstances, man can unquestionably acquire the faculty of -resisting intoxication by snake-venom, by conferring upon himself a -veritable _active immunity_ by means of repeated inoculations of venom. -We shall shortly see that the case is the same with regard to animals. - - - - -PART III. - -ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM THERAPEUTICS. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - - _VACCINATION AGAINST SNAKE-VENOM--PREPARATION OF ANTIVENOMOUS - SERUM--ITS PREVENTIVE PROPERTIES AS REGARDS INTOXICATION BY - VENOM._ - - -So long ago as the year 1887 it was shown by Sewall, in an important -paper on “Rattlesnake-Venom,”[94] that it is possible to render pigeons -gradually more resistant to the action of this venom by injecting them -with doses at first very small, and certainly incapable of producing -serious effects, and then with stronger and stronger doses. In this -way, although these little animals are very sensitive, he succeeded in -making them withstand doses ten times greater than the minimal lethal -dose. - -A little later Kaufmann[95] obtained the same result with the venom of -French vipers. He did not, however, succeed in producing tolerance of -doses more than two or three times greater than the lethal one. - -In 1892, at the time of my first experiments with cobra-venom at -Saigon,[96] I arrived at the conclusion that it was possible, by means -of successive inoculations with heated venoms, to confer on animals a -certain degree of resistance to doses invariably lethal to the controls. - -From 1894 onwards, the investigations pursued simultaneously at -the Paris Natural History Museum, by Phisalix and Bertrand, upon -viper-venom, and at the Paris Pasteur Institute by myself, upon that of -the cobra, and subsequently upon other venoms of various origins, led -to much more definite results. These investigations show, on the one -hand, that by vaccinating guinea-pigs or rabbits, and taking certain -precautions, it is possible to confer upon these small animals a really -strong immunity to venom; on the other hand, that animals vaccinated -against cobra-venom are perfectly immune to doses of viper-venom -or that of other snakes (_Bungarus_, _Cerastes_, _Naja haje_, -_Pseudechis_) certainly lethal to the controls; and lastly, that _the -serum of the vaccinated animals contains antitoxic substances capable -of transmitting the immunity to other animals_.[97] - -According to Phisalix and Bertrand, who, as we have stated, -experimented only with viper-venom, the best method of vaccinating -the guinea-pig consists in inoculating a dose of 0·4 milligramme of -this venom heated for five minutes at 75° C., and, forty-eight hours -afterwards, the same dose of non-heated venom. The latter is always -lethal to the control guinea-pigs in from six to eight hours. - -Vaccination against cobra-venom, which is much more toxic, is most -surely effected by the method recommended by me, which consists in -at first injecting small doses of this venom mixed with an equal -quantity of a 1 per cent. solution of hypochlorite of lime. By degrees -the quantity of venom is increased and that of the hypochlorite -progressively diminished, and the injections are repeated every three -or four days, while attentively following the variations in the weight -of the animals. The inoculations are suspended as soon as emaciation -supervenes, and resumed when the weight becomes normal again. After -four injections of chloridated venom the chloride is omitted, and a -direct inoculation made with one-half the minimal lethal dose of pure -venom; then, three or four days afterwards, the injection is increased -to three-fourths of the minimal lethal dose; and finally, after the -lapse of another three or four days, a lethal dose is injected. - -If the animals prove resistant, the vaccination can thenceforth be -pushed on rapidly, and the quantity of venom injected each time can be -increased, testing the susceptibility of the organism by the variations -in weight. - -As a rule, three months are necessary for the vaccination of a rabbit -against twenty lethal doses. In six months we can succeed in making it -very easily withstand 100 lethal doses. - -The serum of rabbits thus treated soon, _i.e._, after they have -received from five to six lethal doses, exhibits antitoxic properties -_in vitro_; these, however, are not very pronounced until after -prolonged treatment. They gradually become just as intense as those -observed in the case of animals vaccinated against diphtheria or -tetanus. - -In 1895 Fraser confirmed these results,[98] and on May 15 in that year -exhibited before the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh a rabbit -vaccinated against a dose of cobra-venom fifty times lethal. - -At once considering the possibility of obtaining serums highly -antitoxic against snake-venoms, and of practical utility in the -therapeutics of snake-bites, I prepared to vaccinate a certain number -of large animals, horses and donkeys, in order to procure great -quantities of active serum. I at first experienced some difficulties -in providing myself with a sufficient store of venom. But thanks on -the one hand to the obliging collaboration of some of my old pupils -or colleagues, and on the other to the valuable co-operation of the -Colonial Governments of Indo-China, the French Settlements in India, -and Martinique, I soon received poisonous snakes and dried venom in -abundance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--VACCINATING A HORSE AGAINST VENOM AT THE -PASTEUR INSTITUTE AT LILLE.] - -After this I was not long in pushing the vaccination of a few horses -until I made them resist, in a single injection, 2 _grammes_ of dry -cobra-venom, a dose about _eighty times lethal_; for I was able to -satisfy myself that about 0·025 gramme of cobra-venom was sufficient to -kill fresh horses in from twelve to twenty-four hours. - -The immunisation of horses to this very high degree of tolerance of -venom is not obtained without difficulties; many animals succumb in -course of treatment from endocarditis or acute nephritis; in the case -of others, each injection of venom leads to the formation of enormous -aseptic abscesses, which have to be opened and drained. It may be said -that on an average an interval of _sixteen months_ is necessary in -order to obtain a serum sufficiently antitoxic. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--ASEPTICALLY BLEEDING A HORSE VACCINATED -AGAINST VENOM IN ORDER TO OBTAIN ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM AT THE PASTEUR -INSTITUTE AT LILLE.] - -When a horse is well vaccinated and tolerates without a reaction 2 -_grammes_ of dry cobra-venom in a single subcutaneous injection, it may -be bled on three consecutive occasions in the space of ten days, and in -this way 20 litres of blood may be drawn from it (fig. 94). - -The bleeding is arranged in the following manner: _Twelve days_ after -the last injection of venom the horse is bled for the first time to the -extent of 8 litres; five days later it is bled for the second time to -the extent of 6 litres; five days later still the third bleeding takes -place, when 6 litres are again withdrawn. - -The animal is then allowed to rest for three months and supplied with -strengthening food, and during this period 2 _grammes_ of venom are -again injected on two occasions at the end of a month, followed, a -month and a half later, by the injection of 2 more _grammes_. The -antitoxic power of the serum is thus maintained approximately at the -same standard. - -The serum drawn off at each bleeding must be severely tested, which is -done by gauging its antitoxic power _in vitro_, when mixed with venom, -and also its preventive effect. - -An antivenomous serum may be considered to be utilisable when a mixture -of 1 c.c. of serum with 0·001 gramme of cobra-venom produces no -intoxicating effect in the rabbit, and when a preventive subcutaneous -injection of 2 c.c. of serum into a rabbit of about 2 kilogrammes -enables it to resist, two hours later, subcutaneous inoculation with 1 -milligramme of venom. - -The _preventive power_ may be very quickly tested by injecting a -rabbit, _in the marginal vein of the right ear_ for example, with -2 c.c. of serum, and injecting, _five minutes afterwards_, _in the -marginal vein of the left ear_, 8 milligramme of venom. This dose of -1 milligramme generally kills the control rabbits in less than thirty -minutes when introduced into the veins, and in from two to three hours -when injected beneath the skin. - -This rapid proof by _intravenous injection_ is extremely striking and -demonstrative; it can be effected in public during a class or lecture -in less than an hour, and enables an immediate estimate to be formed -of the value of an antivenomous serum. When it is intended to adopt -this method, it is essential to make use of a recent solution of venom, -for solutions from a week to a fortnight old, although sterile, have -already lost a large portion of their toxicity, and, if these be -employed, the dose of venom calculated to kill the control animals in -thirty minutes, for example, takes an hour or more to do so. - -I always prepare my test solutions of venom in the following manner:-- - -Ten milligrammes of dry cobra-venom are weighed in a delicate balance. -The venom is dissolved in 10 c.c. of 0·8 per cent. physiological salt -solution, which takes a few minutes. When the venom is thoroughly -dissolved it is transferred to a test-tube, which is immersed for -three-quarters of an hour in a water-bath heated to + 72° C. In -this way the non-toxic albumins are coagulated without modifying -the neurotoxic substance. The solution is poured on to a filter -of sterilised paper, and the clear liquid which is collected is -immediately put up in glass phials, which are hermetically sealed, -or in small sterilised bottles. Its toxicity is tested upon control -animals, and it may be kept for five or six days if protected from -light, or for several weeks in a refrigerator at about 0° C. - -_One-tenth of this solution corresponds exactly to 1 milligramme of dry -venom._ - -As for the antivenomous serum, as soon as its antitoxic value has been -ascertained by the methods that I have just described, and it has -been separated from clots and red corpuscles by suitable decantation, -it is portioned out, with the usual aseptic precautions, into small -sterilised bottles of 10 c.c. capacity, without the addition of any -antiseptic. - -In order to ensure that it will keep for a long time, care is then -taken to heat the hermetically sealed bottles in a water-bath at a -temperature of 58° C. for one hour, and this operation is repeated for -three days in succession. - -Serum prepared in this way preserves its antitoxic power unimpaired -for about two years, _in all climates_. I have had occasion at various -times to receive bottles which had been sent eighteen months and two -years previously to India and Indo-China, and I was able to show -that their standard had not perceptibly deteriorated. It was only the -appearance of the contained liquid that was slightly changed; it was -discoloured, and when shaken small white flakes were seen floating -through it. These flakes are not a sign of deterioration; they are -composed of deposits of precipitated albumin. They can be partly -dissolved again by violent shaking, or they may be separated before use -by filtration through sterilised paper. - -In a dry state, antivenomous serum may be kept for an almost indefinite -period, in hermetically sealed glass tubes. In this condition it is -usually divided into doses of 1 gramme, and when it is desired to make -use of it, it is sufficient to dissolve a dose in 10 c.c. of water -which has been boiled and allowed to cool, which takes two or three -minutes. This solution is then injected beneath the skin, as though it -were liquid serum. - -The Pasteur Institute at Lille prepares in this way large quantities -of antivenomous serum, which are sent all over the world to those -countries in which poisonous snakes are most dangerous. - -Recently, special laboratories for the production of this preparation -have been instituted at Bombay and at Kasauli, in the Punjab, by -Drs. G. Lamb and Semple; at Philadelphia, by Professor McFarland; -at São-Paulo, in Brazil, by Dr. Vital Brazil; and at Sydney, by Dr. -Tidswell. - - * * * * * - -_Specificity and Polyvalence of Antivenomous Serums._--By means of a -large number of experiments I have proved that snake-venoms, whatever -their origin, contain two principal substances: _neurotoxin_, which -exerts its effects upon the elements of the nervous system, and -_hæmorrhagin_ (Flexner and Noguchi), or _proteolytic diastase_, the -effects of which remain exclusively local when the venom is introduced -subcutaneously into the cellular tissue, but which produces coagulation -of the blood when the venom is injected directly into the blood stream. - -The venom of COLUBRIDÆ in general is characterised by the -constant predominence of _neurotoxin_, to which it owes its extreme -toxicity, which is especially intense in the case of cobra-venom. It -contains no, or scarcely any _hæmorrhagin_; for this reason the local -symptoms of poisoning by COLUBRINE venom are almost _nil_. -This _neurotoxin_, as we have seen, shows itself very highly resistant -to heat. - -The venom of VIPERIDÆ, on the contrary, especially that -of _Lachesis_, is characterised by the almost total absence of -_neurotoxin_, while its richness in _hæmorrhagin_ is considerable. -Consequently, heating for a few minutes at + 75° C. renders it almost -entirely inactive, since _hæmorrhagin_ is very sensitive to heat. - -Given venom of some kind or other, the origin of which is unknown, it -is therefore possible to ascertain whether the snake from which it was -extracted belonged to the COLUBRIDÆ or VIPERIDÆ, by -determining its richness in _neurotoxin_ resistant to heating at + 85° -C. - -Certain VIPERINE venoms, such as those of the European -_Vipera berus_ and _Vipera aspis_, the African _Cerastes_ and American -_Crotalus_ contain at the same time a small proportion--varying greatly -in amount according to the species--of _neurotoxin_, and a much larger -proportion of _hæmorrhagin_. It is for this reason that these venoms, -although greatly attenuated and deprived of their local action by -heating, still remain toxic when injected in large doses into animals -after having been heated to + 75° C. - -On the other hand, some COLUBRINE venoms, such as those of -_Bungarus cæruleus_, which are very rich in _neurotoxin_, contain a -quantity of hæmorrhagin sufficient to differentiate their effects in -appearance from those produced by cobra-venom, when they are injected, -not beneath the skin, but directly into the veins. In this case their -effects upon the blood are added to those of their neurotoxin. - -It would seem, too, that the venoms of Australian COLUBRIDÆ -(_Hoplocephalus_, _Pseudechis_) form a special group, which is richer -in _hæmorrhagin_ than are those of the COLUBRIDÆ of the Old -World.[99] - -On studying, in the case of these various venoms, the action _in vitro_ -and _in vivo_ of a purely _antineurotoxic_ antivenomous serum, such as, -for example, that of an animal vaccinated against cobra-venom heated -to + 75° C., it is found that this serum has a very decided effect -upon cobra-venom, and likewise upon that of snakes belonging to allied -species (_Naja bungarus_, _Naja haje_), and that its action upon the -other venoms is less in proportion as they contain less _neurotoxin_. -It prevents hæmolysis _in vitro_, and suppresses the effects of -intoxication on the nervous system, but does not modify in any way the -phenomena of coagulation or of proteolysis. - -If this serum be made to act _in vitro_ on those VIPERINE -venoms that, when heated to + 75° C. and deprived of their hæmorrhagin, -remain neurotoxic, like the venom of the common viper, it is found -that it renders them entirely innocuous. Therefore, in the case -of all species of poisonous snakes, and perhaps also in that of -other poisonous animals (such as scorpions), it appears that the -_neurotoxic_ substance is _one and the same_, and always neutralisable -by an _antineurotoxic_ serum like that of animals vaccinated against -cobra-venom. - -_Neurotoxin_ being the essentially active substance in venoms, and that -to which the dangerous properties of poisonous snakes, as regards man -and domestic animals, are especially due, it is the effects of this -that it is most necessary to prevent. Consequently, the first quality -that an antivenomous serum ought to exhibit, in order to be capable -of being used in the therapeutics of poisoning, is the possession of -an _antineurotoxic_ power as high as possible. This antineurotoxic -power is easily obtained by employing cobra-venom for the fundamental -immunisation of the horses destined for the production of the serum. - -_Antineurotoxic_ serum thus prepared shows itself perfectly capable -of preventing all effects of intoxication from cobra-bites, which -are much the most frequent in India. In the same way it shows itself -quite sufficiently efficacious with regard to COLUBRINE -and VIPERINE venoms, the neurotoxic activity of which may -cause death. But it does not possess any preventive action upon the -local effects of _hæmorrhagin_, to which the noxiousness of certain -VIPERINE venoms--such as those of _Lachesis_--are almost -exclusively due. - -In countries in which VIPERIDÆ are very common, we must -therefore not confine ourselves to vaccinating the animals that produce -serum solely against the _neurotoxin_ of cobra-venom, for instance; we -must prepare these animals, after having immunised them to cobra-venom, -by injecting them with progressively increasing doses of the various -venoms derived from the snakes that are most frequently met with in the -district. - -Nothing, moreover, is easier than to train animals vaccinated against -cobra-venom to tolerate strong doses of the venoms of _Lachesis_, -_Vipera russellii_, _Crotalus_, _Hoplocephalus_, or _Pseudechis_. In -a few months we succeed in obtaining serums very active against these -different venoms. - -Utilising the horse as producer of antitoxin, I have prepared by this -method _polyvalent_ serums capable of preventing the local action of -VIPERINE venoms, and of suppressing _in vitro_ their coagulant -and proteolytic effects upon the blood. - -Unfortunately, great as has been the kindness of the many persons -who have most obligingly given me their assistance in the course of -the fifteen years during which I have studied this question, I have -found it impossible to procure sufficient quantities of venoms of -various origins to furnish each country with the polyvalent serums -corresponding to its particular needs. I have therefore been obliged to -confine myself to preparing for the most part _antineurotoxins_, which -I have been able to do, thanks to the abundant provision of _Cobra_- -and _Bungarus_-venoms, for which I am indebted to the liberality of the -Government of the French Settlements in India, and to that of my pupils -and friends who are at the present time in charge of the Colonial -Laboratories of Indo-China. Moreover, the recent foundation of the -Serum-Therapic Institutes of Bombay and Kasauli, Sydney, São-Paulo, and -Philadelphia, to-day renders it very easy for each country to provide -itself with antivenomous serum, either specific or polyvalent. Other -institutes will doubtless be established for the purpose of extending -the benefits of a method, the efficacy of which is sufficiently evident -for its adoption to be incumbent upon all those who are concerned with -safeguarding human existence. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -_NEUTRALISATION OF VENOM BY ANTITOXIN._ - - -It is difficult, in the present state of our knowledge on the subject -of toxins and antitoxins, to determine the precise nature of the -reactions that are produced in the living organism as the result of -serum injected for the purpose of preventing the toxic action of venom. - -I maintained, some years ago,[100] that the phenomenon in this case -was a purely physiological one, which I considered to be proved by the -fact that, if we mix _in vitro_, in determinate proportions, venom and -antivenomous serum, and if we heat this mixture at 68° C. for half an -hour, the injection of the heated mixture kills animals as if they were -inoculated with venom alone, although with a considerable retardation. -I concluded from this that, in all probability, antitoxic serum does -not modify the toxin with which it is mixed, but that it confines -itself to displaying a parallel and opposite action by preventing the -noxious effects. I therefore supposed that no chemical combination -is produced between these two substances, or, at least, that the -combination effected is very unstable. - -My experiments were subsequently repeated by Martin and Cherry,[101] -who showed that the results as stated above were perfectly correct when -the mixture of venom and antitoxin was heated less than ten minutes -after it had been made, but that, if the heating did not take place -until twenty or thirty minutes later, the toxicity of the venom no -longer reappeared. - -On the other hand, the admirable researches of Kyes and Sachs, and -subsequently those of Morgenroth, pursued under the direction of -Ehrlich at the Laboratory of Experimental Therapy at Frankfort, have -proved the readiness of venom to enter into chemical combination with -certain elements of normal serums, in particular with _lecithin_, -a combination which results in the formation of _hæmolysing_ and -non-toxic _lecithides_, the _neurotoxin_ being left free. - -It therefore seemed impossible to deny the existence of a chemical -reaction between the venom and the serum, which was until quite -recently considered as proved. We shall see presently that this is not -the case. But let us first endeavour to determine the laws that govern -the neutralisation of variable quantities of venom by antivenomous -serum. - -If, in a series of test-tubes, we bring the same quantity of -cobra-venom (_e.g._, 0·00005 gramme, a dose which is invariably lethal -to the mouse in two hours) into contact with progressively increasing -quantities of an antivenomous serum (_e.g._, 0·01 c.c., 0·02 c.c., -&c., up to 0·1 c.c.), and, after thirty minutes of contact, inject -these different mixtures subcutaneously into a series of mice, we find -that all those that have received the mixtures containing less than -0·05 c.c. of serum succumb after variable intervals, while all the -rest survive. It is evident that, under these conditions, the serum -experimented upon has shown itself capable of neutralising _in vitro_, -in a dose of 0·05 c.c., 5 centimilligrammes of venom. - -The same serum should therefore neutralise 1 milligramme of venom in a -dose of 1 c.c., that is to say, that this mixture injected into a mouse -ought to be entirely innocuous. Experiments show, however, that in -reality it is necessary to mix 1·2 c.c. of serum with 1 milligramme of -venom in order that the inoculated mouse may not succumb. - -This proves that, in the initial mixture of 0·00005 gramme of venom + -0·05 c.c. of serum, there remained an exceedingly small quantity of -non-neutralised venom, and that this quantity of venom in a free state -was insufficient to cause the death of the animal, or even any apparent -malaise. When multiplied by twenty, however, it becomes capable of -producing toxic effects; it is for this reason that, when it is desired -to inoculate a mouse with twenty times the lethal dose of 0·00005 -gramme _neutralised_, it is necessary to mix with this twenty times -lethal dose a dose of serum _a little larger_ than twenty times that -which renders 0·00005 gramme of venom innocuous to the mouse, that is -to say, 1·2 c.c. - -If, instead of making use of the _mouse_ as test animal, we employ the -_rabbit_, it is found that the same serum, in a dose of 0·75 c.c., -neutralises 0·001 gramme of venom sufficiently for the mixture to be -innocuous when inoculated. It is clear that, in this mixture, the whole -of the venom was not neutralised by the serum, but the small quantity -left free is incapable of producing harmful effects. - -By this method of employing mixtures of the same dose of venom with -variable quantities of antivenomous serum, we are therefore enabled to -determine with the greatest exactness the antitoxic power _in vitro_ of -each specimen of serum. But it must not be forgotten that _the result -obtained applies only to the species of animal into which the mixtures -were injected_. - -I have already stated (Chapter VIII.) that a fairly close parallelism -exists between the _neurotoxic_ action of venoms and their _hæmolytic_ -action, and I have established that, in order that the sensitive red -blood-corpuscles may be dissolved under the influence of venom, it is -indispensable that the reaction take place in the presence of normal -serum, since venoms have no effect upon red corpuscles freed from serum -by several successive washings and centrifugings. - -Preston Kyes has explained this phenomenon very well by showing that -the venom combines with the lecithins in the serum, or with those -contained in the stroma of the corpuscle, so as to constitute a -hæmolysing _lecithide_. - -The knowledge of this fact enables us to determine, by means of a very -neat and simple method, and with a sufficient degree of accuracy for -practical purposes, the antitoxic power of an antivenomous serum by -measuring its _antihæmolytic_ power.[102] - -To this end it is sufficient to cause variable doses of serum to act -on a given quantity of defibrinated horse- or rat-blood, to which a -constant dose of venom is then added. We employ, for example, a 5 per -cent. dilution of defibrinated horse-blood, which is portioned out in -doses of 1 c.c. into a series of test-tubes. To each of these tubes in -succession is added a progressively increasing quantity of the serum -for titration, starting with 0·01 c.c., and continuing with 0·02 c.c., -0·03 c.c., &c., up to 0·1 c.c. A control tube receives no serum. There -are then introduced into all the tubes 1 decimilligramme of venom and -0·2 c.c. of normal horse-serum, deprived of alexin by previous heating -for half an hour at 58° C. At a temperature of about 16° C. hæmolysis -commences to manifest itself in the control tube in from fifteen to -twenty minutes. It takes place in the other tubes with a retardation -which varies with the dose of serum added. Tubes are to be noticed in -which it does not occur even after the lapse of a couple of hours. - -Experience shows that we may consider as good for therapeutic use -serums which, in a dose of 0·05 c.c., completely prevent hæmolysis by -1 decimilligramme of COLUBRINE venom, such as that of Cobra, -Krait, &c., and those that in a dose of 0·7 c.c., prevent hæmolysis by -1 milligramme of the venom of _Lachesis_ or _Vipera berus_. - -By a method calculated upon the foregoing, it is likewise possible -to measure the _antihæmorrhagic_ activity of an antivenomous serum, -for the parallelism existing between the _antineurotoxic_ and -_antihæmolytic_ actions of serums occurs again, as I have been able to -establish in conjunction with Noc, between the _antihæmorrhagic_ and -_antiproteolytic_ action of the same serums. - -Now, the _antiproteolytic_ action is easily determined by means of -a series of test-tubes containing the same quantity of 20 per cent. -gelatinised _bouillon_, rendered imputrescible by the addition of -a small quantity of thymol. The gelatine being kept liquid in the -incubating stove, a progressively increasing quantity of serum is -poured into each tube. The same dose of venom, say 1 milligramme, is -then added in each case. The tubes are placed in the stove for six -hours at 36° C. They are then withdrawn and immersed in a bath of cold -water. Those in which the gelatine solidifies are noted, and thus we -establish the dose of antivenomous serum that inhibits the proteolysis -of this substance. - -These different methods of control enable us to verify the activity -of antivenomous serums with great exactness, without the necessity of -having recourse to experiments upon animals. - - * * * * * - -In a very important memoir on the reconstitution of the toxins from a -mixture of _toxin_ + _antitoxin_, J. Morgenroth[103] has shown that -the venom, after being naturalised by the antivenomous serum, can be -dissociated from its combination by means of a method which consists in -adding to the latter a small quantity of hydrochloric acid. - -Previous experiments by Kyes had established:-- - -(1) That antivenomous serum, the antitoxic action of which is so -manifest when it is mixed _in vitro_ with cobra-venom, remains entirely -inert when brought into contact with the combination _lecithin_ + -_venom_, that is to say, with _cobra-lecithide_. - -(2) That the addition of lecithin to a neutral combination of _venom_ + -_antivenomous_ serum does not set the venom free again, and that under -these conditions no _lecithide_ is formed. - -If, in a neutral mixture of _cobra-hæmolysin_ and _antitoxin_ we could -succeed in dissociating the two constituent elements, and in then -making the _cobra-hæmolysin_ combine with the _lecithin_, we should -have a toxin and antitoxin side by side; for the reasons indicated -above, this toxin (_lecithide_) and antitoxin (_antivenomous_ serum) -would be no longer capable of combining; but the toxin (_lecithide_), -thanks to its hæmolytic properties, could easily be demonstrated. - -It is precisely this desideratum that J. Morgenroth has succeeded in -realising, by means of hydrochloric acid, which renders it possible -to dissociate the neutral mixture, _toxin_ + _antitoxin_, into its -constituent elements, and then to obtain a _lecithide_. - -Experiments show that the quantity of lecithide thus restored -absolutely corresponds to that of the cobra-hæmolysin originally added -to the antitoxin, and that the antitoxin set free is not injured by -the hydrochloric acid, even after twenty-four hours of contact. It is -sufficient to add the quantity of soda or of ammonia necessary for the -neutralisation of the acid, in order to see the antitoxin reappear in -its original strength. - -It is therefore possible, by causing hydrochloric acid (in a solution -not stronger than 3 per cent.) to act on a neutral mixture of -cobra-hæmolysin (toxin) and antitoxin, to set the former at liberty -in the form of _lecithide_, to withdraw the latter from the action of -the antitoxin, and to demonstrate its presence, owing to its hæmolytic -properties. - -It has been found by Kyes and Sachs that, under the influence of -hydrochloric acid, cobra-hæmolysin becomes resistant to heat to such an -extent that it is not destroyed even by prolonged heating at 100° C. - -If to a neutral mixture of toxin + antitoxin we add a small quantity of -hydrochloric acid, and then heat the mixture at 100° C., the antitoxin -being in this case destroyed, we shall recover the whole of the toxin -originally employed. - -Therefore, as was shown by me so long ago as 1894, if the mixture of -toxin + antitoxin produces a chemical combination between the two -substances, this combination is unstable, and can be effectively broken -up into these two constituent elements by various influences. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -_TREATMENT OF POISONOUS SNAKE-BITES IN MAN AND ANIMALS._ - -_OBJECTS OF THE TREATMENT: TECHNIQUE OF ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM-THERAPY._ - - -In all countries the remedies recommended for the bites of poisonous -snakes are innumerable, and native pharmacopœias abound in so-called -infallible recipes. - -Pliny himself wrote on this subject as follows:-- - -“For poisonous bites, it is customary to employ a liniment made of -fresh sheep-droppings, cooked in wine. Rats cut in two are also -applied; these animals possess important properties, especially at the -epoch of the ascension of the stars, seeing that the number of a rat’s -fibres wax and wane with the moon. - -“Of all birds, those that afford most assistance against snakes are -vultures. The black ones are the weaker. The odour of their feathers -when burnt puts snakes to flight. Provided with a vulture’s heart one -need not fear encounters with snakes, and can also defy the wrath of -wild beasts, robbers, and princes. - -“Cock’s flesh, applied while still warm, neutralises the venom of -snakes. The brains of the bird, swallowed in wine, produce the same -effect. The Parthians, for this purpose, make use of chicken’s brains. -The fresh flesh of the pigeon and the swallow, and owls’ feet burned, -are good against snake-bites. - -“If one has been bitten by a snake or by any venomous animal, another -method of cure is to take salt fish and wine from time to time, so as -to vomit in the evening. This remedy is chiefly efficacious against -the bite of the _Chalcis_, _Cerastes_, _Seps_, _Elaps_ and _Dipsas_.” - - * * * * * - -In Equatorial America, and especially in India, a multitude of plants -are credited with marvellous properties, which they possess only in -the imagination of the snake-charmers or medicine-men by whom they are -employed. None of them stand the test of experiment, any more than the -more or less compound drugs, numbers of specimens of which from all -sources have passed through my hands. - -It cannot, however, be denied that certain chemical substances, of -well-defined composition, are very useful, not as physiological -antidotes to venoms, but as agents for their modification or -destruction in the poisoned wounds, when they have not yet been -absorbed. In this way _permanganate of potash_, _chromic acid_, -_chloride of gold_, and the _alkaline hypochlorites_, especially -_hypochlorite of lime_, may be extremely useful under many -circumstances. - -_Permanganate of potash_ was recommended in 1881 by Professor de -Lacerda,[104] of Rio de Janeiro, as the result of experiments made by -him with venoms of Brazilian snakes. When a few cubic centimetres of -a 1 per cent. solution of permanganate of potash are quickly injected -into the actual wound caused by the bite and around the point of -inoculation, there can be no doubt that the venom not yet absorbed is -destroyed. When mixed _in vitro_ with venom, permanganate renders the -latter innocuous. - -Here, however, it is a case of actual destruction by direct contact. If -we inject a lethal dose of venom into the right thigh of an animal, for -example, and several cubic centimetres of permanganate solution into -different parts of the body, or beneath the skin of the left thigh, -neither the general intoxication nor the local effects of the venom are -modified. - -The same may be said with regard to _chromic acid_ (1 per cent. -solution), recommended by Kaufmann[105] for the bite of the common -viper. - -No other effect is produced by a 1 per cent. solution of _chloride of -gold_, or the _alkaline hypochlorites_, which I have shown to possess -a strong oxidising action on the different venoms, even on those that -are most rapidly diffusible, such as cobra-venom (see Chapter V.). They -possess, however, owing to their slight causticity, the advantage of -not producing severe local disorders, and in this respect they are to -be preferred. - -The chemical reagent most to be recommended is _hypochlorite of lime_, -in a fresh solution of 2 grammes per cent., and containing about 90 -c.c. of chlorine per 100 grammes. It immediately and surely destroys -the venom by simple contact, and the chlorine gas that it gives off, -owing to its great diffusibility, acts at a fairly long distance from -the point of inoculation on the venom which is already beginning to be -absorbed. - -Professor Halford, of Melbourne, advises the direct injection into the -patient’s veins of from 10 to 20 drops of ammonia, diluted with an -equal quantity of distilled water. This is a means of reviving nervous -excitability in certain subjects at the commencement of intoxication; -but torpor soon reappears, and, if the dose of venom inoculated is -sufficient to cause death, a fatal ending takes place notwithstanding. -Experimentally the effects of ammonia are _nil_. - -No better results are obtained by injections of strychnine, as -recommended by Dr. Mueller, in Australia. Moreover, the statistics -published by Raston Huxtable[106] positively condemn this therapeutic -method. They show that, in 426 cases of snake-bite, out of 113 treated -by strychnine 15 proved fatal, the ratio of mortality being 13·2 per -cent., while the 313 cases not treated by strychnine only resulted in -13 deaths, or a mortality of 4·1 per cent. - -In the case of animals intoxicated by venom, injections of strychnine, -morphia, nicotine, or curare in small doses always prove ineffective; -they even considerably assist the progress of the intoxication and -hasten death. The use of these drugs in the case of human beings should -therefore be absolutely forbidden. - -It appears, on the other hand, that alcohol and coffee, or tea, -absorbed by ingestion, are very often beneficial. Indeed, it was -long ago observed that the swallowing of alcohol until symptoms of -drunkenness appear retards or diminishes the phenomena of torpor and -paresis that precede the ultimate phase of the intoxication. Its use -may therefore be recommended when it is impossible to have recourse -to the only treatment really specific that modern science places in -our hands--_antivenomous serum-therapy_. It is important, however, to -state that, _when serum is used, alcohol must be forbidden_. The latter -hinders the effects of the former. - -In practice, the rational treatment of the bite of a venomous snake -must be directed towards:-- - -(1) Preventing the absorption of the venom. - -(2) Neutralising, by the injection of a sufficient quantity of -antitoxic serum, the effects of the venom already absorbed. - -In order to prevent the absorption of the venom introduced into the -wound, the first precaution to be taken is to compress the bitten limb -by means of a ligature of some kind, such as a handkerchief, as close -as possible to the bite, and between it and the base of the limb. The -ligature must be tightly twisted, and, by compressing the tissues -around the bite, an attempt should be made to squeeze out the venom -that may have been introduced into them. The expulsion of the poison -should be hastened, either by making an incision 2 or 3 cm. in length -and 1 cm. in depth in the direction taken by the fangs of the reptile -and also parallel to the axis of the bitten member, or by sucking the -wound hard. - -The ligature on the limb should not be applied for more than half an -hour; if it were kept on longer it would interfere with the circulation -to a dangerous degree, and would certainly injure the vitality of the -tissues. The period in question also usually affords sufficient time -for taking the patient to a place where help can be obtained, and for -the preparation of everything necessary for his subsequent treatment. - -The wound should then be freely washed with a fresh 2 _per cent._ -solution of _hypochlorite of lime_, or with a 1 in 1,000 solution of -_chloride of gold_. In default of hypochlorite of lime or chloride of -gold, either _eau de Javel_, diluted with tepid water to a strength -of 1 in 10, or a 1 per cent. solution of permanganate of potash, may -be employed. These reagents should be made to penetrate as deeply as -possible into the tissues, and a few cubic centimetres of them should -even be injected with a Pravaz syringe into the punctures caused by the -bite and all round them. - -The wound being then covered with a damp dressing by means of -compresses saturated with hypochlorite of lime, or at least with -pure alcohol, the next thing to be done is to prepare to apply the -serum-therapic treatment in order to arrest the general intoxication, -if this has already commenced to take effect, or to prevent it from -setting in. - -For the employment of serum it is necessary to be in possession of a -sterilisable syringe of the capacity of 10 c.c., similar to those used -in the treatment of diphtheria. - -If the life of the patient be not immediately in danger, care should -first be taken to have the syringe boiled, or at least to rinse it out -with boiling water, making sure that the piston fits tightly, and that -the syringe itself is in good working order. - -Should a syringe of 10 c.c. not be available, any kind of Pravaz -syringe, previously washed out with boiling water, may be employed, but -in this case the use of so small an instrument renders it necessary to -give several painful injections. - -The entire contents of a bottle of serum (10 c.c. of liquid serum, or -1 gramme of dry serum dissolved in 10 c.c. of boiled water) should be -injected into the subcutaneous areolar tissue of the abdomen, on the -right or left side. There is no advantage in making the injection at -the actual spot bitten; the serum is best and most rapidly absorbed -when injected into the loose tissues of the abdominal wall (fig. 95). - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--TECHNIQUE OF THE INJECTION OF ANTIVENOMOUS -SERUM BENEATH THE SKIN OF THE ABDOMEN.] - -If it has been impossible to apply the treatment until several hours -after the bite, and if the latter has been inflicted by a poisonous -snake of large size or belonging to a very dangerous species, such as -the Cobra or Indian Krait, it is preferable to inject into the patient -three whole doses of serum at once. - -In cases in which the phenomena of serious intoxication have already -appeared, and when asphyxia threatens, one must not hesitate to inject -10 or even 20 c.c. of serum directly _into a vein_. For such an -injection it is most convenient to choose a superficial vein at the -elbow or wrist, or on the back of the hand. - -The introduction of serum into the veins is never dangerous if good -care be taken not to allow either bubbles of air or particles of -precipitated albumin to enter. - -It is not advisable to repeat the injections beneath the skin or into -the veins unless the general symptoms appear to become more acute. - -In most cases the local pain, excitement, and attacks of cramp and -nausea disappear within a few minutes after the first injection. -Improvement progresses very rapidly, and by the following day the -patient has recovered. - -The administration of ammonia, alcohol, morphia, or ether by the mouth -is entirely superfluous. These drugs, as I have already stated, may -even be harmful to the patient and hinder the effects of the serum. All -that should be done is to give copious hot drinks, tea or coffee, and -to cover up the patient warmly in order to induce abundant perspiration. - -The bitten member should not be cauterised with red hot iron or with -chemical agents of any kind, since such cauterisations only lead to -injuries which are too often prejudicial to the normal action of the -affected organs. - -_Treatment of Poisonous Bites in the Case of Domestic Animals._--It -often happens that dogs, horses, or cattle are bitten and succumb to -the poisoning in a few hours or in two or three days. Such accidents -are especially frequent among sporting dogs, even in Europe, in regions -in which _vipers_ are found. - -In most cases, dogs, horses, and cattle are bitten on the nose, and -such bites are immediately followed by a very painful swelling, -which arouses the suspicion of the owners of the animals. It is then -necessary, as soon as possible, to inject subcutaneously in the -right or left flank, or at the base of the neck, one or two doses of -antivenomous serum, according to the gravity of the effects observed. - -The injection of the serum and the dressing of the wound should be -performed as in the case of poisonous bites in human beings. - -_Influence of the Doses of Antivenomous Serum injected, and of the Time -that has elapsed since the Venomous Bite._--I have stated above that -antivenomous serum possesses a preventive and curative power of such -intensity, that it is capable in a few minutes of rendering animals -into which it has been injected absolutely insensible to the most -strongly neurotoxic venoms, such as those of _Naja_ or _Bungarus_. On -the other hand, I have established the fact that, the more sensitive -are the animals to intoxication by venom, the greater is the quantity -of antivenomous serum necessary to immunise them passively or to cure -them. - -In experimenting upon mice, guinea-pigs, and rabbits, it is found -that in order to preserve, let us say, a mouse of 25 grammes -against inoculation with half a milligramme of venom, which is ten -times the lethal dose for this little animal, it is necessary to -give a preventive injection of 1 c.c. of serum; while half a cubic -centimetre of the same serum is sufficient to render the dose of half -a milligramme of venom innocuous, when venom and serum are mixed _in -vitro_ before being injected. - -In the case of the guinea-pig, it is likewise found that the dose of -serum to be injected preventively, in order to protect the animal from -intoxication by ten times the lethal dose of venom, is about _twice as -much_ as the quantity of the same serum that it is sufficient to mix -_in vitro_ with venom, in order to render ten times the lethal dose of -venom innocuous. - -If we inject into animals first venom, in doses calculated to kill -the controls of the same weight in from two to three hours, and the -serum _fifteen minutes afterwards_, it is found that the quantity of -serum that must be injected in order to prevent death is about _thrice -as great_, as that which neutralises _in vitro_ the dose of venom -inoculated. - -It is also found that _the amount of curative serum that an animal -intoxicated by venom must receive is inversely proportional to its -weight_. - -The experiments upon dogs, performed at the Pasteur Institute at -Lille by my collaborator C. Guérin, are highly demonstrative in this -respect.[107] - -A dog of 12 kilogrammes, inoculated with 9 milligrammes of venom (a -dose lethal to controls of the same weight in from five to seven -hours), is completely cured on receiving, _two hours after inoculation -with the poison_, 10 c.c. of serum. - -When the treatment does not take place until _three hours after the -injection of the venom_, it is necessary to inject 20 cc. of serum in -order to prevent the animal from dying. With a longer delay than this, -death is inevitable, since the bulbar centres are already affected, and -paralysis of the respiratory muscles commences to appear. - -These facts show that:-- - -(1) _The more sensitive animals are to venom, the greater is the -quantity of serum necessary in order to prevent their intoxication by a -given dose of venom._ - -(2) _For a given species of animal and a given dose of venom, the -longer the delay in applying the remedy, the greater is the quantity of -serum that must be injected in order to arrest the poisoning._ - -It will be understood from what has been already stated, that a man -weighing 60 kilogrammes, if bitten by a snake which injects, let us -say, what would amount to 20 milligrammes of venom if collected in the -dry state (the mean quantity that a _Naja_ is able to inoculate in a -single bite), would only require, in order to escape death, to receive -the quantity of antivenomous serum sufficient to neutralise the portion -of venom in excess of the amount that he could tolerate without dying. - -Let us suppose, for the sake of example, that the man of 60 kilogrammes -can withstand intoxication by 14 milligrammes of _Naja_-venom. It -follows that, in the case with which we are dealing, we must inject -sufficient serum to neutralise 20-14 (=6) milligrammes of venom; -that is to say, the injection of serum being made immediately after -the bite, 6 _c.c._, if the serum employed neutralises _in vitro_ 1 -milligramme of venom per cubic centimetre. - -Of course, if the serum is more powerful, less of it will be necessary, -while more will be required if the remedy is applied later, or if the -quantity of venom inoculated by the snake is supposed to have been -greater. - -For this reason, in practice, but very little serum is usually -necessary in order to augment the natural resistance of a man of -average weight or of a large animal; it is sufficient in most cases -to give an injection of 10 or 20 c.c. in order to cure human beings -who have been bitten. The clinical proof of this is, moreover, to be -found in the cases, already very numerous, that have been published -in the course of the last few years in the scientific journals of all -countries. I have gathered together a few of these in the concluding -pages of this book, and I would beg the reader to be good enough to -refer to them. - - - - -PART IV. - -VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -1.--_INVERTEBRATES._ - - -Besides reptiles, many other animals possess poison-glands and -inoculatory organs which they employ, either to defend themselves -against their natural enemies, or to capture the living prey upon which -they feed. - -The venoms that they produce are still, for the most part, but little -understood. A few of them, however, have excited the curiosity of -physiologists, especially those secreted by certain batrachians, such -as the _Toad_, and certain fishes, such as the _Weever_. Some of them -exhibit close affinity to snake-venom, and are composed, like the -latter, of proteic substances modifiable by heat and precipitable by -alcohol; others possess altogether special characters, and resemble -alkaloids. - -The lowest animal group in which these secretions begin to be clearly -differentiated is that of the _Coelenterates_. - - -A.--COELENTERATES. - -It has been shown by Charles Richet[108] that the tentacles of -sea-anemones (_Anemone scultata_) contain a toxic substance which has -the carious property of causing intense itching, pruritus, and even -urticaria. This poison is perfectly soluble in alcohol, and can be -prepared in the following manner:-- - -The tentacles are cut off close to the body of the animal, and immersed -for a few days in an equal weight of alcohol at 95° C. The red liquid -that results is decanted, and then filtered. The insoluble material is -compressed, and yields large quantities of fluid, which is filtered and -mixed with the previous liquid. - -The whole is then evaporated _in vacuo_ until there remains a thick -oily liquid, which forms a red deposit. Filtration through paper -is again employed, in order to separate this colouring matter, and -to the filtered liquid is added an equal amount of alcohol at 95° -C. By this means there is precipitated a blackish, gummy matter, -insoluble in alcohol. The remaining liquid is decanted and once more -evaporated until it is reduced to a smaller volume than before. It -is again treated with twice its volume of absolute alcohol, when -it precipitates, in addition to salts and gummy matter, a white -flocculent substance, which is crude _thalassin_. This can be purified -by redissolving it in alcohol at a temperature of 98° C. On cooling -it separates from the fluid in the form of crystals, which are placed -on a filter and can then be redissolved in a small quantity of water. -Absolute alcohol, added to this solution, precipitates the _thalassin_ -in the shape of very pure crystals, which contain 10 per cent. of -azote, and melt at 200° C. - -This substance, in aqueous solutions, rapidly deteriorates owing to -ammoniacal fermentation. When injected intravenously into dogs it -produces pruritus, sneezing, and erythema, with intense congestion of -the mucous membranes; 1 decigramme per kilogramme is a dose sufficient -to produce these symptoms. It is not very toxic, since 1 centigramme is -not lethal. - -One kilogramme of anemones is capable of furnishing about 3 grammes of -pure crystallised poison. - -In addition to _thalassin_, Richet succeeded in isolating from the -tentacles of the same sea-anemones another poison insoluble in alcohol -at 50° C., and richer in azote (14 per cent.), to which he has given -the name _congestin_. This is not destroyed by heating to 107° C. It -is prepared by precipitating, by four times its volume of alcohol, a -solution of anemone-tentacles in 5 per cent. fluoride of sodium. The -solid matter, after being precipitated and dried, is redissolved in -six times its volume of water, and then filtered. On adding to the -filtered and fluorescent liquid its volume of alcohol at 90° C., the -_congestin_ is precipitated. It is purified by redissolving it in -water, and freeing it by dialysis from the fluoride of sodium that -it has retained. In this way there is obtained, after evaporation, a -product sufficiently toxic to kill dogs in twenty-four hours in a dose -of 2 milligrammes per kilogramme. - -_Congestin_ exerts a sensitising or anaphylactic effect upon -animals as regards _thalassin_, and is lethal in a dose of about 5 -milligrammes per kilogramme of animal, and sometimes even in a dose of -7 decimilligrammes. It is therefore a very active poison. - -Dogs, on the other hand, into which is injected first _thalassin_, -and then, some time afterwards, _congestin_, are perfectly resistant -to inoculation by the latter. _Thalassin_ is therefore _antitoxic_ or -antagonistic to _congestin_. - -The latter, on the contrary, if injected first of all in non-lethal -doses, renders animals so sensitive to inoculation with _thalassin_, -that from 4 to 5 milligrammes are sufficient to cause death. - -The tentacles of these anemones therefore contain two toxic substances -antagonistic to each other, which can easily be separated, since one -(_thalassin_) is soluble in concentrated alcohol, while the other is -completely insoluble in this reagent. - -These poisons are not only extremely interesting from a physiological -point of view, but also possess a practical interest, since it is -at the present time almost a matter of certainty that they are the -cause of a malady which specially affects _sponge-divers_ in the -Mediterranean. - -A good description of the disease has been given by Dr. Skévos Zervos, -of Athens.[109] It is observed exclusively in men who dive quite naked, -without a diving-dress. Now, beside the bases of the sponges and -sometimes on their surface there live numbers of anemones which secrete -a viscid substance, which is extremely virulent, especially in the -month of August. - -The first symptoms that supervene after contact with these Cœlenterates -are an intense itching and burning sensation; a papule of a horny -consistency appears at the outset at the spot at which contact took -place; this is soon surrounded by a red zone, which becomes bluish and -then black, and spreads to a greater or lesser extent, according to -the region attacked and the virulence of the venom. After a few days -the skin sloughs and leaves a deep ulcer, which suppurates in spite of -antiseptic treatment. The onset of the disease is marked by a febrile -attack with shivering, which is soon accompanied by cephalalgia, -thirst, and pains in the back and limbs. - -Zervos reproduced these disorders experimentally by rubbing an anemone, -held with forceps, on the shaven abdomen of a dog. In a few minutes the -region affected became quite red and pruriginous; twenty-five minutes -later phlyctenæ full of serum appeared; three days afterwards five -abscesses of different sizes developed, while at the place where it had -been touched by the venom the skin assumed a deep blue colour; on the -fifth day an area 2 cm. in diameter was completely gangrenous. - -When ingested, anemones possess toxic properties which are well known -to the sponge-fishers, for they frequently make use of them for the -purpose of poisoning domestic animals. With this object they cut them -up into small fragments, and mix them with bread or meat, which is -given to the animals to eat; the latter die in convulsions in a few -minutes. - -In order to preserve the divers from the harmful effects produced -by contact with the anemones, they should be advised to cover their -bodies with a layer of grease, a simple artifice which constitutes an -efficient protection. - - -B.--ECHINODERMS. - -The _Echinoidea_ (Sea-urchins) are provided with soft prehensile -organs, the _pedicellariæ_, of which four kinds are distinguished: -gemmiform, tridactyle, trifoliate, and ophiocephalous. - -These pedicellariæ contain a special venom, which causes the paralysis -and death of animals into which it is injected. Uexkull, who was the -first to mention it, considered that the gemmiform pedicellariæ alone -are toxic. - -From this point of view various species of sea-urchins, -_Strongylocentrotus lividus_, _Arbacia æquituberculata_, _Sphærechinus -granularis_ and _Spatangus purpureus_, have recently been studied by V. -Henri and Mdlle. Kayalof.[110] - -The pedicellariæ were removed and pounded up in sea-water, and the -pulp was injected into crabs, holothurians, star-fish, cuttle-fish, -frogs, lizards, and rabbits; in the case of cuttle-fish and rabbits the -injection was made intravenously; in that of the other animals into the -body-cavity. - -For crabs the lethal dose was from 20 to 30 gemmiform pedicellariæ of -_Strongylocentrotus lividus_. - -The holothurians, star-fish, and frogs proved immune. - -In the case of rabbits weighing 1½ kilogrammes, 40 pedicellariæ of -_Sphærechinus granularis_, pounded up in 1 c.c. of water, produce death -by asphyxia and general paralysis in from two to three minutes. The -heart continues to beat after respiration has ceased. - -For lizards and fishes the toxic dose is the same as for the crab. The -cuttle-fish is paralysed and killed in two hours by 50 pedicellariæ. - -This venom resists ebullition for fifteen minutes. - -V. Henri and Mdlle. Kayalof made experiments in immunisation. Rabbits -that receive every third day increasing doses of gemmiform pedicellariæ -of _Sphærechinus granularis_ tolerate well, after four injections, the -toxin of 40 pedicellariæ, a lethal dose. The serum of these rabbits is -not protective for either rabbit, crab, or fishes. - -Frog serum (1 c.c.) injected into the body cavity of a crab, protects -this animal against the pulp of pedicellariæ injected immediately -afterwards. - -The pedicellariæ easily become detached from sea-urchins. They remain -fixed to objects which come into contact with them, and the urchin -abandons them like poisoned arrows. - -On touching a point on the surface of the body of an urchin, the spines -are seen to incline towards the spot touched, and the pedicellariæ -stretch themselves out and lean with their valves open towards the -seat of the stimulus. In _Sphærechinus granularis_ the heads of the -gemmiform pedicellariæ are covered with sticky mucus forming a tiny -drop, visible under the lens. A specimen of this species possesses more -than 450 pedicellariæ. - - -C.--ARTHROPODS. - -(a) =Araneida= (=Spiders=). - -Almost all Arachnids possess poison-glands, which are connected, -in some cases with the buccal apparatus, in others with a special -inoculatory organ situated at the posterior extremity of the body. The -_spiders_ and _scorpions_ belong to this group, and their venom is -particularly active. - -On each side of the mouth of spiders is found an appendage ending in a -fang (_chelicera_), at the extremity of which opens the excretory duct -of a more or less developed poison-gland. The venom produced by these -glands is instantly fatal to all small animals upon which spiders -feed. In man and large mammals their bite produces sensations of pain -accompanied by swelling and muscular contractions as though caused by -localised tetanus. - -The venom of certain species of spiders sometimes causes very serious -and even fatal results. _Latrodectus malmignattus_ (the _malmignatte_ -of the South of France and Italy), and especially _Latrodectus -mactans_, of Chile (fig. 96), are greatly dreaded.[111] The area -of distribution of the latter includes the whole of Tropical and -Sub-tropical America. It is said that it frequently causes the death of -milch cows, and that in man its bite produces tetanic effects, which -last for several days, but are in most cases amenable to treatment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--_Lactrodectus mactans_ (_formidabilis -olim_). - -1, Female, twice natural size; 1_a_, its eyes, greatly enlarged.] - -Another dangerous spider is the _Katipo_ (_Latrodectus scelio_), of New -Zealand. This creature is confined to the sea-shore, and the natives -are often bitten when collecting shell-fish or sea-weed. The Maoris -are so much afraid of the bite of the _Katipo_ that, when one of them -has been bitten in his hut, and the animal cannot be found, they do -not hesitate to burn the dwelling to the ground. Moreover, they are -convinced that the death of the spider is absolutely necessary for the -recovery of the patient.[112] - -Kobert[113] has made an experimental study of the venom of species -of _Latrodectus_ and _Epeira_. That of _Latrodectus erebus_ (the -_Karakurte_ of South Russia) is particularly toxic. - -If a dry extract of these spiders be prepared and injected into -the veins of dogs or cats, it is found that a few milligrammes per -kilogramme are sufficient to cause death, with phenomena of dyspnœa, -convulsions, and progressive paralysis of respiration and the heart. -Rabbits, rats, birds, frogs, and leeches are also sensitive to this -poison, though the hedgehog is almost refractory. The young spiders, -and even the eggs, are more toxic than the adults. - -Spider-venom is destroyed by heating for forty minutes at + 70° C., -and is precipitated by alcohol. When absorbed by ingestion it has no -effect: it is hæmolytic and coagulates blood. - -The study of _arachnolysin_ by Ehrlich’s methods has been undertaken -afresh by Hans Sachs,[114] who has shown that rat’s and rabbit’s blood -are most rapidly dissolved. Twenty-eight milligrammes of extract of -_Epeira_ are capable of completely dissolving 0·05 c.c. of blood. - -By immunising guinea-pigs and rabbits, Sachs succeeded in obtaining a -strongly antitoxic serum, which entirely prevents the hæmolysis of the -sensitive red corpuscles. - - -(b) =Scorpionidea= (=Scorpions=). - -The poison-apparatus of the scorpion is constituted by the last -abdominal segment (_telson_), which is swollen and globular, and -terminated by a hard, curved spine, with a very sharp point, near which -can be distinguished, under the lens, two small oval orifices by which -the poison is enabled to escape (fig. 97). - -The poison-glands are two in number, symmetrically placed in cavities, -each of which is completely filled by the gland. They are separated -from each other by a muscular septum formed of striated fibres inserted -in the chitinous skeleton; by the contraction of this septum the animal -is enabled to eject its venom. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--_Scorpio occitanus._ (After -Joyeux-Laffuie.) - -1, Scorpion seizing a spider, and piercing it with its sting (natural -size); 2, extremity of the abdomen (telson) enlarged, showing the -poison-apparatus; 3, poison-apparatus detached from the abdomen, -showing an isolated poison-gland.] - -The scorpion never stings _backwards_, but always _in front_ of itself. -It delivers stabs with its sting in two distinct ways. For the purpose -of defending itself from attack it elevates its abdomen into a bow, and -then regains its former position by suddenly unbending it. To strike -an animal, such as a spider, which serves it for food, the scorpion -seizes it with its pincers and holds it as in a vice. Then it raises -its abdomen, brings the end of it close to its captive, and, with -a lever-like movement, drives the sting into its body. The victim -immediately becomes paralysed and motionless.[115] - -The poison-glands of a _Scorpio occitanus_ from the South of France -contain about 1 to 10 centigrammes of a toxic liquid, capable of -furnishing 10 to 15 per cent. of dry extract. This liquid is decidedly -acid; it reddens litmus paper and is miscible with water. - -Its physiological effects are especially intense in the case of the -arthropods upon which the scorpion habitually feeds, and in that of -vertebrates in general. Batrachians, fishes, birds, and mammals are -extremely susceptible to this poison. Half a milligramme of dry extract -injected subcutaneously is sufficient to kill a guinea-pig, and 1 -milligramme is lethal to the rabbit. - -In poisoned animals there is first observed a period of violent -excitement, accompanied by very acute pains; these are followed by -muscular contractions, and finally by paralysis of the respiratory -muscles, as in the case of intoxication by cobra-venom. - -The effects of scorpion-poison, which clearly indicate the presence of -a _neurotoxin_, have been very well described by Valentin,[116] Paul -Bert[117] and Joyeux-Laffuie. Kyes[118] has prepared a _lecithide_ from -scorpion-venom, which hæmolyses red corpuscles as do the lecithides -of cobra-venom, and I myself[119] have established the fact that -the antivenomous serum of a horse vaccinated against cobra-venom -effectively protects mice and guinea-pigs against intoxication by the -venom of _Scorpio occitanus_; this has been verified by Metchnikoff. -There is, therefore, a close affinity between this venom and that of -COLUBRINE snakes. - -On the other hand, it has been shown by the investigations of C. -Nicolle and G. Catouillard that the same antivenomous serum has -no effect upon the much weaker venom of the scorpion of Tunis -(_Heterometrus maurus_), which, in the case of man and mammals in -general, scarcely does more than produce a transient œdema at the point -of inoculation. - -The venom of _Heterometrus maurus_ is, however, toxic enough to the -sparrow. When one of these little birds is inoculated in the pectoral -muscles with the contents of the poison-glands of a single scorpion -belonging to this species, the following symptoms are observed: -Immediate rigidity, doubtless connected with the pain, then, after -a few seconds, depression and relaxation of the muscles. The bird -remains upright, but its body sinks down more and more until it comes -into contact with the ground; if on a perch, it soon becomes unsteady -and drops off. There is dyspnœa, which any effort increases, and -death supervenes suddenly; all at once the sparrow falls on its side, -stiffens, sometimes has a few convulsions, and then finally becomes -still. The time occupied by these phenomena is always short, although -it varies from two minutes to half an hour. - -Scorpion-venom is a strong irritant to the mucous membranes. When -dropped into the eye of a rabbit it produces acute ophthalmia. - -It has often been asserted that scorpions kill themselves with their -own venom if enclosed in a circle of fire. This is an absolute myth, -for it is easy to prove by experiment, as was done by Bourne at -Madras,[120] that these animals cannot be intoxicated by their own -poisonous secretion, nor by that of other individuals of the same -species. Moreover, it has been established by Metchnikoff,[121] in very -definite fashion, that the blood of the scorpion is antitoxic. If 0·1 -c.c. of this blood be added to a dose of venom lethal to mice in half -an hour, a mouse injected with this mixture resists indefinitely. This -antitoxic power is exhibited both by _Scorpio afer_ and the Algerian -_Androctonus_. - - -(c) =Myriopods.= - -It has been shown by Phisalix and Bertrand that certain species of -Myriopods, including those of the genus _Julus_ (Order _Chilognatha_, -_e.g._, _Julus terrestris_), secrete throughout the entire extent of -their body a volatile venom, which these authors compared to _quinone_. - -The species of the genus _Scolopendra_ (Order _Chilopoda_; _Scolopendra -cingulata_, found in the South of France, Spain and Italy; _S. -gigantea_ and other forms, common in Africa, India, Indo-China and -Equatorial America), have the second pair of post maxillary appendages -transformed into formidable poison-claws, with which they can inflict -bites which are very painful to human beings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ (S. Europe). - -(After Claus.)] - -The tropical species may attain a length of 10 or even 15 cm. Their -bodies are composed of 21 segments, each provided with a pair of -jointed legs. They live in shady places, such as woods, hidden under -stones, dead leaves, or the bark of old trees. They feed upon small -insects, spiders, and larvæ, which they kill with their venom. The -latter is secreted by a racemose gland situated at the base of the -poison-claws; it escapes by a duct which opens at the apex. - -This venom, the physiological study of which was commenced by Dubosq, -is an acid, opalescent liquid, hardly miscible with water. - -More complete experiments on this subject have been made by A. -Briot,[122] who prepared a solution by sectioning the labium and -poison-claws, and crushing the whole in physiological salt solution. -When injected intravenously into rabbits, it produces immediate -paralysis, with coagulation of the blood; subcutaneously it leads to -the formation of enormous abscesses, with necrosis of the tissues. -Small animals, such as spiders, species of _Scutigera_, beetles, &c., -are very sensitive to it. - -The bite of _Scolopendridæ_ is very painful to human beings. In the -Tropics such bites often cause somewhat serious results: insomnia, -accelerated and intermittent pulse, and local œdema, which usually -disappears after twenty-four hours. Well-authenticated fatal accidents -have never been recorded (Bachelier,[123] Saulie[124]). - - -(d) =Insects.= - -A very large number of insects produce acrid or irritant secretions, -which serve them as a means of defence, but cannot be considered as -true venoms; the species of _Meloë_ (oil-beetles) and _Cantharis_ -(blister-beetles), are the most remarkable in this respect. - -The Order _Hymenoptera_ is the only one that includes a multitude of -species really provided with poison-glands and an inoculatory apparatus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--POISON-APPARATUS OF THE BEE. - -_gl.ac_, Acid gland and its two branches; _V_, poison-sac; _gl.al_, -alkaline gland; _gor_, gorget. - -(After Carlet: figure borrowed from Hommel.)] - -The poison-organs, which have been well studied, especially by -Leuckart,[125] Leydig,[126] Carlet,[127] and more especially by L. -Bordas,[128] Janet,[129] and Seurat,[130] always include two and -sometimes three kinds of glands: the _acid gland_, the _alkaline gland_ -or gland of Dufour, and the _accessory poison-gland_ (fig. 99). - -The acid gland comprises a glandular portion (which sometimes takes the -shape of a long flexuous tube, always bifid at its extremity, sometimes -that of two tubes, simple or ramified, or again is composed of a bundle -of cylindrical, simple or multifid canals), a poison-sac or reservoir, -ovoid or spherical in shape, and an excretory duct, which is usually -short. - -The alkaline gland, or gland of Dufour, exists in all Hymenoptera, and -presents the appearance of an irregular tube, with a striated surface -and a spherical or conical upper extremity. Its excretory duct opens, -beside that of the acid gland, at the enlarged base of the gorget of -the sting (fig. 100). - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--INTERIOR OF THE GORGET OF THE -BEE, SEEN FROM ITS POSTERIOR ASPECT. - -_cv_, Poison chamber; _gor_, gorget; _st_, stylet; _ca_, piston. -Between the two stylets is seen the cleft _fa_, by which the air is -able to enter into the air-chamber _cai_. - -(After Carlet: figure borrowed from Hommel.)] - -The accessory poison-gland, which is lanceolate or ovoid in shape, -consists of a small, granular mass, the extremely narrow excretory duct -of which opens at almost the same point as that of the alkaline gland. -It does not exist in all Hymenoptera. - -The stings of hive bees (_Apis mellifica_), wasps (_Vespa vulgaris_), -violet carpenter bees (_Xylocopa violacea_), and humble bees (_Bombus -lapidarius_) cause considerable discomfort. The venom of the carpenter -bee, which is of some strength, has been studied by P. Bert, and I have -myself made experiments with that of the hive bee (_A. mellifica_). -The venom extracted from a couple of bees, by crushing the posterior -extremity of the body in 1 c.c. of water, is sufficient to kill a mouse -or a sparrow. - -Death supervenes in a few minutes, from respiratory asphyxia, as in the -case of intoxication by the venom of Colubrine snakes (_Cobra_). In the -blood-vessels and in the heart the blood is black and remains fluid. It -therefore appears that this venom contains a very active _neurotoxin_. - -The phenomena of intoxication caused by the venom of these insects are, -as a rule, slight, being limited to an acute pain, accompanied by a -zone of œdema and burning itching. Sometimes however, when the stings -are in the eyelids, lips, or tongue, they produce alarming and even -fatal results, as shown by the following incident:-- - -On September 26, 1890, a young girl of Ville-d’Avray was eating grapes -in the woods of Fausse-Repose, when she inadvertently swallowed a -wasp. The unfortunate girl was stung in the back of the throat, and -the wound became so rapidly inflamed that, in spite of the attentions -of a doctor, she died in an hour from suffocation, in the arms of her -friends. - -Phisalix[131] has studied the physiological action of bee-venom on -sparrows inoculated either by the sting of the insect, or with an -aqueous solution obtained by crushing the glands. In both cases a local -effect, paralysis of the part inoculated, is first produced; this is -followed by convulsions, which may last for several hours; the final -stage is marked by coma and respiratory trouble, which ends in death. - -After being heated for fifteen minutes at 100° C. the venom has no -further local action; the general phenomena are merely diminished. -If heated at 100° C. for thirty minutes, the venom ceases to cause -convulsions, but remains stupefactive. Exposure for fifteen minutes to -a temperature of 150° C. renders it completely inert. - -This venom therefore comprises: (1) A phlogogenic substance, destroyed -by ebullition, contained in the acid gland of the bee; (2) a poison -causing convulsions, which does not resist a temperature of 100° C., -if prolonged, and is probably produced by the alkaline gland; (3) a -stupefactive poison, which is secreted by the acid gland, and is not -entirely destroyed until a temperature of 150° C. is reached. - -The poison-glands can easily be extracted by gently pulling at the -stings of bees anæsthetised by chloroform. - -The eggs of bees, like those of the toad and the viper, contain -the specific venom. The amount, however, is small, since in order -to produce lethal results in the sparrow it was found necessary to -inoculate an emulsion obtained by crushing 926 eggs. - -Phisalix[132] makes the approximate calculation that, in the egg the -weight of the toxic substances amounts to the one hundred and fiftieth -part of the whole. Their effects are similar to those produced by the -venom itself, but the convulsions are not so severe. The predominant -poison in the egg appears to be that causing paralysis. - -I have easily succeeded in vaccinating mice against doses of bee-venom -certainly lethal, by repeatedly inoculating them with very small doses. -Moreover, we find the same thing in the case of human beings, for we -know that those who are in the habit of handling hives become quite -accustomed to bee-stings, and finally feel not the slightest effect -from them. - -It has been shown by J. Morgenroth and U. Carpi,[133] in a paper -recently published, that the venom of bees, like that of the scorpion, -possesses the property of hæmolysing the red corpuscles of several -species of animals (the rabbit, guinea-pig, and goat), and that it is -capable of combining with the lecithin to form a _lecithide_ analogous -to _cobra-lecithide_, the curious properties of which we have studied -in detail. - -This lecithide of bee-venom is from 200 to 500 times more hæmolysing -than the venom itself, and resists ebullition like that of the cobra. -In order to isolate it Morgenroth and Carpi employed the method -recommended by P. Kyes: 1½ c.c. of a solution of pure venom is mixed -with 1½ c.c. of a 5 per cent. solution of lecithin in methylic alcohol. -After being kept for twenty-four hours at 37° C., 22 c.c. of absolute -alcohol are added; the liquid is decanted, and the clear filtrate is -mixed with 150 c.c. of ether. There is slowly formed a somewhat copious -flocculent deposit, which is collected on a filter, washed several -times with ether, and finally dried. The lecithide that remains on the -filter dissolves completely in physiological salt solution. - -It must be remarked that bee-venom, without the addition of lecithin, -gives a scanty precipitate with ether. This precipitate, dissolved -in physiological salt solution, possesses no hæmolysing power. -The lecithide, on the contrary, dissolves red corpuscles almost -instantaneously. - -Normal horse-serum considerably inhibits hæmolysis by bee-venom + -lecithin. This protective action of normal serums has already been -observed by Langer; it is perhaps attributable to the cholesterin that -they contain. - -Among other Hymenoptera capable of inflicting very severe stings may be -mentioned the species of _Polistes_ and certain Pompilids, especially a -species of _Pompilus_ found in Natal, the painful stings of which have -sometimes been experienced and described by travellers (P. Fabre, of -Commentry).[134] - -In the family _Crabronidæ_ the females are provided with a sting and -venom, which usually has little effect upon man, but is toxic to other -insects. Thus, _Cerceris bupresticida_ is remarkable for the stupefying -effect of its venom upon the _Buprestidæ_ destined for the food of its -larvæ. It stings the beetles between the first and second segments of -the thorax, with the result that the victim is paralysed, though in -other respects its bodily functions appear to continue; in fact, its -intestine is seen to empty itself at long intervals. These effects are -attributed by Mons. J. H. Fabre, of Avignon, to the direct action of -the venom upon the ganglia of the thoracic nervous system. - -Instances of Hymenoptera belonging to the tribe _Entomophaga_ actually -depositing their eggs beneath the skin of man are mentioned by Raphaël -Blanchard.[135] - -According to P. Fabre, the best treatment for wasp- or bee-stings -would appear to consist in the application of strong saline solution, -or a liniment of ammonia and olive oil. For my own part, I have tried -_hypochlorite of lime_, in a 1 in 60 solution, or _eau de Javel_ -diluted to 1 per cent., and have always obtained such excellent results -from these remedies that I do not hesitate to advise their use. - - -D.--MOLLUSCS. - -Certain Gastropodous Molluscs, chiefly _Murex brandaris_ and _M. -trunculus_, possess purple glands from which it is possible to extract -a very active venom (Raphaël Dubois)[136] by crushing them up with -sand and alcohol. The alcoholic liquid, filtered and evaporated in a -water-bath, yields a brown oily fluid. The subcutaneous injection of -a few drops of this into a frog is sufficient to produce very decided -toxic effects. Sluggishness and slowness of movement are seen to -supervene fairly quickly; reflex actions are still exhibited, but the -animal is no longer able to jump. - -If the dose be not too strong, this condition of paresis lasts for -several hours, and then disappears. In most cases, however, the -paresis is succeeded by complete paralysis, and the animal appears -as though suffering from curare. Yet the fact is that the venom is -neither curare-like nor cardiac; the heart, muscles, motor endplates, -and motor and sensory nerves are spared; the nervous centres alone -are attacked, especially the encephalon. The animal dies without -convulsions. - -Sea and fresh-water fishes (golden carp) are very sensitive to this -venom; warm-blooded animals are refractory. It is therefore probable -that, in the species of _Murex_, the purple gland is a poison-gland -serving for defence, or for the capture of the prey upon which these -molluscs feed. - -Among the Cephalopods, the Octopods (_Octopus vulgaris_, common -octopus, _Eledone moschata_, musky octopus, of the Mediterranean) -possess two pairs of salivary glands, a small anterior pair, and a -posterior pair of considerable size. - -The Decapods (cuttle-fishes [_Sepia_], &c.), have only posterior -salivary glands, of smaller dimensions in proportion to the size of the -body. - -On being crushed and macerated in water, the anterior glands yield a -limpid and slightly acid juice; the posterior glands produce a viscid, -ropy fluid, filterable with difficulty and neutral. The latter has an -immediate paralysing effect upon Crustacea. It contains a substance -of a diastasic nature, precipitable by alcohol, and destructible by -heating for an hour at 58° C. - -Owing to the poisonous properties of this juice, Octopods succeed -in overpowering large prey, such as lobsters and crabs. Once they -are seized by the tentacles of the octopus, or cuttle-fish, a bite -inoculates these animals with venom that immediately destroys their -power of movement, and the Cephalopod is able to continue its meal in -perfect security, without having to fear the pincers of its prey. - -An experimental study of this venom has been made by A. Briot,[137] who -found that crabs are very sensitive to it, while rats, frogs, rabbits, -and fish do not appear to experience any inconvenience. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -_VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES_ (_continued_). - -2.--_VENOMOUS FISHES._ - - -The means of defence in fishes are extremely varied. Some species -(torpedoes or electric rays, electric eels) destroy their enemies by -electric discharges; others are provided with true poison-glands and -inoculatory organs, usually represented by opercular spines or by -the fin-rays. The species of the genus _Muræna_, however, possess a -poison-apparatus connected with the buccal teeth, as in the case of -snakes. - -It has been clearly established by Bottard[138] that at least three -very distinct types of venomous fishes exist, according as the -venom-apparatus is:-- - -(1) Entirely closed (_Synanceia_ type); (2) half closed -(_Thalassophryne_ type); (3) in more or less direct communication with -the exterior (_Trachinus_ and _Scorpæna_ type). - -The greater part of the following statements has been borrowed from -the excellent work of the author referred to, from the writings of -A. Corre,[139] the fellowship thesis of Henry Coutière,[140] and -the magnificent atlas published at St. Petersburg in 1886 by P. -Savtschenko, of the Russian Imperial Navy. - -Except in the case of the species of _Muræna_, the venom of fishes is -generally found in one or more special glands, situate at the base of -the dorsal or caudal fins, or beneath the opercular spines. When the -animal defends itself it inflicts wounds with these rays, and ejects -from its poison-glands a toxic or irritant liquid, which enters the -sores. - -The flesh of these fishes is not usually poisonous, whereas a fairly -large number of other species, _which do not inflict wounds_, cause -intoxicating effects when eaten. These latter do not come within the -scope of this work; but the reader who may desire to obtain information -with regard to them will find them well described in J. Pellegrin’s -memoir,[141] in that by Dupont, and especially in the papers of A. -Corre. - -_Venomous fishes_ almost all belong to sedentary species, as in the -case of the genera _Trachinus_, _Cottus_, _Scorpæna_, and _Synanceia_. -This fact suggested to Dissard and Noë[142] a very hazardous theory in -order to explain the existence of a poison-apparatus in these animals. -The venomous fishes being sedentary, say these authors, have no need of -a poison-apparatus; their prey offers itself to them without effort on -their part, and, on the other hand, they escape destruction by their -enemies. If, therefore, they possess a poison-apparatus it is because -the conditions under which they live entail the lowest value for the -co-efficient of respiration, diminish the quantity of the ambient -radiations and the oxygenation of the medium, and lead to diminished -hæmatosis. For these reasons the activity of anaerobic life becomes -greater, and the formation of venoms takes place. - -This theory, derived from the conceptions of A. Gautier with regard -to the formation of toxic leucomaines, appears scarcely tenable, for -it is evident that the weever, for example, erects its first dorsal -spine as soon as it is seized, and that _Scorpæna_ and _Synanceia_ -likewise protrude their venomous spines when conscious of danger. The -poison-apparatus of these fishes is therefore of an eminently defensive -character. - -According to Bottard, the spawning season increases the activity of -the poison-glands and at the same time the toxicity of the secreted -product. Several species, such as those of the genus _Cottus_ and the -perch, possess no apparent secreting cells except at this period. -Certain _toxicophorous_ or poisonous fishes, such as the species of -_Tetrodon_, are particularly noxious at the time when their genital -glands are at their maximum activity. - - -A.--TELEOSTEI.--ACANTHOPTERYGII. - -1.--=Triglidæ.= - -The fishes of this family are all repulsively ugly. They have an -elongate and but slightly compressed body, covered with ctenoid scales, -and a large head in which the suborbital bones, which are broad, unite -with the præopercular so as to form an osseous plate in the malar -region. The pectoral fins are large, and provided with a few detached -rays, which perform the function of tactile organs; the ventral fins -are situate on the breast. These fishes are extremely voracious. - -The most interesting type is the _Synanceia_ termed by the Creoles of -Réunion _Crapaud de mer_, and by those of Mauritius _Laffe_. In Java -it is called _Ikan-Satan_ (Devil-fish), and in Tahiti _Nohu_. It is -distributed throughout almost all the warmer regions of the Indian and -Pacific Oceans, and is found in Cochin-China and New Caledonia. - -It is never taken in the open sea, but only among the fringing reefs, -where it lives constantly concealed in holes or buried in the sand. It -does not come out except to make a sudden dart at prey passing within -its reach. When irritated it does not eject venom; for the latter -to be expelled one has either to press hard upon the poison-sacs, -after pushing back with the fingers the membranes covering the dorsal -defensive armature, or the naked foot must be placed on the back of -the fish. The wound is very painful, and is accompanied by a series of -alarming symptoms, which sometimes terminate fatally: fishermen are -consequently much afraid of it. - -There are a large number of species of this fish, peculiar to different -regions. _Synanceia brachio_ (fig. 101), the largest specimens of which -attain the length of 45 cm., is the most common form in the Tropical -Pacific. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--_Synanceia brachio_, var. -_verrucosa_. (After Savtschenko.)] - -The spiny rays of the dorsal fin of _Synanceia_ are sharp-pointed, -stout in the middle, and provided on each side with a small canal -hollowed out in the thickness of the spine. Towards the middle of the -latter there is attached a little double sac, or kind of closed pouch, -which, on being compressed, allows the venom to escape in a thin jet -which flows into the grooves of the spine. The expulsion of the venom -is therefore not a voluntary act on the part of the fish; in order that -it shall take place, pressure must be applied to the sacs in which it -is contained. - -This venom, when extracted from the glands, is limpid, bluish, and -slightly acid. When introduced into the tissues, it produces very acute -local pain, which extends throughout the affected limb. The pain is -excruciating, and sufferers have been observed to become actually -delirious, striking and biting those around them, throwing themselves -from side to side, and beseeching that the limb should be cut off; some -of them have amputated the injured part themselves. - -This condition is accompanied by considerable anxiety, and by attacks -of leipothymia and sometimes of syncope. In some cases syncope has -been followed by death; in others serious phlegmons, complicated by -septicæmia, supervene. The inoculated spot becomes bluish, and then -sphacelates over a larger or smaller area. These gangrenous wounds heal -very slowly, more especially since they are usually produced on the -sole of the foot (Bottard). - -A single drop of the venom is sufficient to kill frogs in about three -hours. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--_Cottus scorpius_ (Sea Scorpion). -(After Savtschenko.)] - -The genus _Cottus_, which also belongs to the family TRIGLIDÆ, -includes some forty venomous species found in the seas of the northern -hemisphere, in Europe, Asia, and America. - -In France the species of _Cottus_ are generally called _chabots_ -(bullheads or miller’s thumbs), _chaboisseaux_ (sea-scorpions), or -_caramassons_. They are abundant on the coast of Normandy, and some of -them (river bullheads) live in fresh water; they do not exceed 25 cm. -in length. They have a liking for holes in rocks, and fishermen are -afraid of being stung by them (fig. 102). - -Their poison-apparatus resembles that of the Weevers, but is less -developed. It is situated in the culs-de-sac formed by the opercular -spines. The culs-de-sac are lined with cells which produce a toxic -secretion only during the spawning season, from November to the end of -January. This fact explains how it is that the species of _Cottus_ are -declared by certain fishermen to be very venomous, while others say -that they are absolutely harmless. - -The genera _Scorpæna_, _Pterois_ and _Pelor_ also belong to the same -group. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--_Scorpæna grandicornis_ (Caribbean -Sea). (After Savtschenko.)] - -In _Scorpæna_ the body is clothed with scales, and the head is large, -slightly compressed, armed with spines, and has a bare pit behind; -the single dorsal fin is provided with eleven spiny rays, and there -are seven branchiostegal rays. _Scorpæna grandicornis_ (fig. 103), -found in the Caribbean Sea, is from 30 to 50 cm. in length, and has -the back red and the eyes and belly yellow; _Scorpæna diabolus_ -(fig. 104), which occurs in the Indian Ocean and Tropical Pacific, -is red and brown, obliquely striped with white and brown; a third -species, _Scorpæna porcus_ (_Scorpène truie_), of smaller size, is met -with in the Mediterranean. The venom of the latter has been studied -by A. Briot,[143] who sectioned the dorsal and opercular spines, -and macerated them either in physiological saline solution, or in -glycerine; he then tested the toxicity of these macerations on certain -animals--frogs, rabbits, and rats. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--_Scorpæna diabolus_ (Indian and -Pacific Oceans). (After Savtschenko.)] - -The frogs alone exhibited, as the result of subcutaneous injection -into a limb, slight transient paralysis. No effect was found to be -produced by the venom when injected intravenously into the rabbit, or -subcutaneously into the rat. - -The poison-apparatus of _Scorpæna_ is situated in the spiny rays of -the dorsal and anal fins. These rays are enveloped in the inter-radial -membrane, which forms a sheath for them, and are scored with a double -cannelure. At the bottom of these grooves are the secreting cells, -which are elongate, pressed one against the other, and supported at the -base by a highly vascular substratum of connective tissue. The venom -flows out between the layer of cells and the ensheathing membrane, -which is capable of being pushed slightly back as the result of the -penetration of the spine into the tissues, and then exerts pressure -upon the reservoir. The latter is formed by the distension of the -sheath under the pressure of the secreted liquid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--_Pterois artemata_ (East Coast of -Africa, Indian and Tropical Pacific Oceans). (After Savtschenko.)] - -There are twelve pairs of dorsal and three pairs of anal glands. The -pairs attached to the second anal spine are, as the direct result of -the size of the latter, more developed than those of the other spines. - -In the _Rascasse_, the opercular spines of which are greatly developed, -there is a rudiment of a poison-apparatus at the bottom of the sheath -formed by the skin of the gills. - -The species of _Pterois_ (fig. 105) are distinguished from those of -_Scorpæna_ by their dorsal fins, the rays of which are very long and -curved backwards, above the membrane by which they are united. They -are found in the Indian and Equatorial Pacific Oceans, and are very -beautiful in colour, varying from reddish-brown to bright rose. - -The poison-apparatus of these fishes is situated in the dorsal fin, and -is precisely similar to that of _Scorpæna_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--_Pelor filamentosum_ (Family -_Triglidæ_, Mauritius).] - -The species of _Pelor_ (fig. 106) present greater resemblance to those -of _Synanceia_, owing to their heads being crushed in in front. Their -eyes stand up above the head and are very close together, which helps -to give them an extremely ugly appearance. The skin is soft and spongy, -and bristles with jagged fleshy shreds. - -Their poison-apparatus is placed in the dorsal fins, as in the case of -_Scorpæna_ and _Pterois_. - - -2.--Trachinidæ. - -Genus _Trachinus_ (Weevers).--Four species of Weevers are found in -European seas: the Greater Weever (_Trachinus draco_), the Lesser -Weever (_T. vipera_), the Striped-headed Weever (_T. radiatus_), and -the Mediterranean Spider Weever (_T. araneus_); other species are met -with on the coast of Chile. - -Weevers possess two sets of poison-apparatus, one of which is situated -on the operculum, the other at the base of the spines of the dorsal fin -(fig. 107). - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--_Trachinus vipera_ (Lesser Weever).] - -The spine surmounting the operculum exhibits a double cannelure -connected with a conical cavity excavated in the thickness of the base -of the opercular bone. This spine is covered with a sheath, beneath -which lie the secreting cells. The gland is an offshoot from the skin, -and appears as a simple follicle invaginated in the opercular bone -(fig. 108). - -The dorsal apparatus is composed of from five to seven spines, to which -the inter-radial membrane forms an adherent sheath which extends almost -to the end of the rays. Each spine exhibits a deep double cannelure. -The venom flows between the layer of cells clothing the cannelures and -the skin, which is distended to allow it to pass. - -Towards the base of the spine, the edges of the cannelure are united, -and form a hollow, bony cone, the walls of which are lined with the -cells that secrete the toxic fluid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--_A_, Operculum and opercular spine -of the Lesser Weever (_Trachinus vipera_); _ar_, articular surface of -the operculum; _c. op_, body of the opercular spine; _c. an_, canal -of the spine; _z_, space occupied by the poison-gland. _B_, Spine -belonging to the first dorsal fin; _c. an_, efferent poison-canal in -the spine.] - -Greater Weevers are usually from 12 to 30 cm. in length, and of a -reddish or yellowish-grey colour, with blue or violet spots. They are -caught in trawls and are fairly common on sandy bottoms. In the month -of June they approach the shore for the purpose of spawning. - -The venom of the Weever has formed the subject of interesting studies -by Günther, Gressin,[144] Bottard, Phisalix,[145] and more recently by -Kobert[146] and A. Briot.[147] - -In order to procure sufficient quantities of it for experimental -purposes, Briot cuts off the venomous spines and the surrounding tissue -with a pair of scissors; he then pounds the whole in a mortar, and -mixes the pulp with pure glycerine. After filtration through paper, a -toxic solution is obtained, which does not deteriorate by keeping, and -is neutral to litmus. - -A few drops of this liquid are sufficient to kill guinea-pigs, which, -immediately after receiving an injection in the thigh, exhibit -paralysis of the leg with tetanic convulsions; twenty-four hours later -an eschar is formed, and death supervenes on the second or third day. - -Two or three drops, introduced into the marginal vein of the ear of -a rabbit, cause death from asphyxia in from four to ten minutes. The -heart continues to beat for a fairly long time after respiration has -entirely ceased; the blood is not coagulated. - -The toxicity of this venom is completely destroyed by heating it to -100° C., by chloride of lime, and by chloride of gold. Antivenomous -serum prepared from horses vaccinated against cobra-venom has -absolutely no effect upon it _in vitro_. There is therefore no affinity -between this venom and that of snakes. - -Weever-venom dissolves the red corpuscles of the horse in the -presence of normal heated horse-serum, but does not dissolve them in -the presence of fresh serum. The non-heated serum, therefore, as I -have shown with reference to the action of cobra-venom on the blood, -contains a natural antihæmolysin. - -Briot succeeded in vaccinating rabbits by accustoming them to the -venom, and in obtaining from them a serum capable of neutralising -the latter _in vitro_, and of immunising fresh rabbits against doses -several times lethal, even when injected intravenously. - -According to Gressin, the following phenomena are produced in man as -the result of Weever-stings:-- - -“At first there is felt an excruciating, shooting, paralysing pain, -which, in the case of nervous persons, may cause attacks of leipothymia -ending in syncope. A kind of painful formication next pervades the -injured limb, which becomes swollen and inflamed, and may even, if -treatment be neglected, form the starting point of a gangrenous -phlegmon. - -“This condition is frequently accompanied by certain general -phenomena--such as fever, delirium, and bilious vomiting, the duration -of which is variable, since they may only last for two or three hours, -or may continue for several days. Fishermen rightly consider this -variability to depend upon the amount of venom that has penetrated -into the wound, and especially upon the season at which the accident -takes place. The most serious results are recorded during the spawning -season, and fishermen regard the Lesser Weever as being the more -poisonous.” - - -3.--Gobiidæ. - -In the fishes belonging to this family the body is elongated and -depressed, while the spines in the anterior dorsal fin and in the -ventral fins are slender, flexible, and seldom very solid. The ventral -fins are inserted on the breast or on the throat, and are either -separated or united together in the shape of a funnel. The skin is -naked or covered with large scales, and the mouth is furnished with -teeth. The males are distinguished by the presence of a long genital -papilla. These fishes are carnivorous. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--_Callionymus lyra_ (Dragonet or -Skulpin. Family _Gobiidæ_).] - -Several species of venomous =Gobiidæ= are met with on the shores -France and in the tropical zone. The most important of these belong to -the genus _Callionymus_ (_C. belennus_, _C. lacertus_, _C. vulsus_, and -_C. lyra_--fig. 109). - -The Dragonet or Skulpin (_Callionymus lyra_), which is common on the -coast of Calvados, may attain the length of 30 cm. In France it is -popularly known as the _Doucet_, _Dragonnet_, _Lavandière_, _Cornaud_, -or _Capouri_. Its colours are very vivid, orange and deep lilac. - -In this fish the præopercular bone ends in three strong, conical, and -very sharp points, diverging like the prongs of a trident. The upper -margin of the opercular bone bears another point, which is directed -upwards. - -The skin of the gills forms a common sheath for this defensive -armature, and the base of the sheath is prolonged into two culs-de-sac, -the surface of which is clothed, during the spawning season, with -cylindrical cells, the secretion of which is poisonous. - -This venom, which is small in amount, does not appear to have any -marked effect upon man (Bottard). - - -4.--Teuthididæ. - -This family of _Acanthopterygii_ includes several species of -brilliantly coloured fishes with elongated and laterally compressed -bodies, provided with a long dorsal fin, and having, on each side of -the tail, a sharp spine placed in front of the anal fin. They are -herbivorous, and are confined to the tropical seas. - -The principal genera are: _Teuthis_ (India), _Acanthurus_ (Tropical -Atlantic), _Prionurus_ (Japan), and _Naseus_ (Red Sea and Indian -Ocean). The fishermen of Réunion are much afraid of the wounds -inflicted by _Acanthurus luridus_, which they call _Marguerite Porc_ -or _Grande Marguerite_. A sting from this fish causes a very acute -smarting pain, which may last for several hours, but usually has no -serious consequences. - -The poison-apparatus of these fishes is situated in the dorsal and anal -fins, as in _Scorpæna_. - - -5.--Batrachiidæ. - -The venomous species belonging to this family are few in number. They -are found in all tropical seas, but have no representatives in Europe. -The best-known species are _Batrachus tau_ (shores of Central America), -and _B. grunniens_, or Grunting Batrachus (fig. 110). - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--_Batrachus grunniens_ (West Indies).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--_Thalassophryne reticulata_ (Panama; -Tropical Pacific). (After Savtschenko.)] - -The Grunting Batrachus, which does not exceed 30 cm. in length, is -especially common in West Indian waters. When taken from the water -it makes a peculiar grunting sound, whence its name is derived. The -pectoral fins are reddish, the back is brown, and the sides are yellow, -marbled with black. It has three spines in the anterior dorsal fin, and -a fourth spine on the top of the operculum, with a small poison-sac at -the base of each. - -Next to this genus come the species of _Thalassophryne_, _T. -reticulata_ (fig. 111), found on the shores of Panama, and _T. -maculosa_, of Bahia (Brazil), which are provided with a precisely -similar poison-apparatus. - -The physiological action of the venom of these two species has not yet -been studied, but it is probable that it does not differ from that of -the venom of the Weevers and the species of _Synanceia_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--_Lophius setigerus_ (China Sea and -Sea of Japan). (After Savtschenko.)] - - -6.--Pediculati. - -The fishes belonging to this family are of large size and compact -shape, with the anterior part of the body greatly expanded. The head, -which is broad, bears venomous spines, and the mouth is furnished with -large teeth. These fishes are voracious, and lie in wait for their -prey at the bottom of the water in the mud of the shore. In order to -attract it, they make use of cutaneous appendages attached to their -spines, which they are able to elevate, and of filaments situated near -the mouth. - -The principal genus is _Lophius_, one species of which, _L. setigerus_ -(fig. 112), is found in the seas of China and Japan. Another species, -_L. piscatorius_ (the Sea Devil or Angler), occurs in the temperate -climates of Europe, North America, Asia and Africa. - -Certain other _Acanthopterygii_ are _capable of inflicting wounds_, -but, although fishermen often believe them to be venomous, or such -properties are frequently attributed to them in stories, it is doubtful -whether they possess poison-glands. The accidents produced by them are -due rather to the fact that the spines in their fins are extremely -sharp, and that their flesh is toxic. Those belonging to the _Percidæ_ -(the Perch family), especially the genus _Serranus_ and _S. ouatabili_ -(fig. 113) in particular, are above all remarkable in this respect. The -last-mentioned fish has two or three spines on its operculum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--_Serranus ouatabili._ (After -Savtschenko.)] - -The same may be said of certain _Squamipinnes_, another family of -_Acanthopterygii_, whose stout bodies are brightly coloured, and have -very sharp, spiny rays in their dorsal and anal fins. The most curious -genus among the fishes belonging to this family is _Holacanthus_, in -which the præoperculum is provided with an enormous spine like that of -the Weever. _Holocanthus imperator_ (fig. 114) is met with fairly often -in the Indian Ocean and Malay Archipelago. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--_Holacanthus imperator_ (Indian -Ocean and Malay Archipelago). (After Savtschenko.)] - - -B.--TELEOSTEI.--PLECTOGNATHI. - -The Order _Plectognathi_ (Family _Gymnodontes_) includes the genera -_Diodon_, _Tetrodon_ and _Triodon_, globular fishes, in which the jaw -is transformed into a beak and furnished with a sharp dentary plate. -Their œsophagus is dilated into a resonant air-pouch. When removed from -the water they swallow air and dilate the pouch, and the expulsion of -this air is accompanied by a loud noise. - -Several species of _Tetrodon_ are armed with spines, which produce -very painful wounds. Their flesh is toxic, but it has not been proved -that poison-glands exist at the base of the spines. - -On the shores of the Cape of Good Hope, Brazil, China, and Japan these -fishes are much feared. The principal species are _Tetrodon stellatus_ -(Indian and Pacific Oceans; fig. 115) and _T. rubripes_ (Japan; fig. -116). - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--_Tetrodon stellatus_ (Indian and -Pacific Oceans). (After Savtschenko.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--_Tetrodon rubripes_ (Japan). (After -Savtschenko.)] - -Closely allied to _Diodon_, and feared like the foregoing on account -of their spines, which are sometimes scattered all over the body, are -the species of the genus _Chilomycterus_, the most important of which -are _C. orbicularis_ (fig. 117), and _C. tigrinus_ (fig. 118), both of -which are found in the Indian Ocean. - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--_Chilomycterus orbicularis_ (Indian -Ocean). (After Savtschenko.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--_Chilomycterus tigrinus_ (Indian -Ocean). (After Savtschenko.)] - - -C.--TELEOSTEI.--PHYSOSTOMI. - -This Order is characterised by the presence of a pneumatic duct to the -air-bladder. It consists of a large, number of families, only two of -which, the _Siluridæ_ and _Murænidæ_, include venomous species. - - -1.--Siluridæ. - -The majority of the very large number of species belonging to this -family live in fresh water, and have the free margin of the lips almost -always furnished with barbules (_Silurus glanis_; fig. 119). A few of -them possess a poison-apparatus, which, however, attains its greatest -development in _Plotosus_, the only genus of Siluridæ found exclusively -in the sea. - -The species of _Plotosus_ frequent the shores of the Indian Ocean, and -are met with in the Seychelles, Réunion, and Mauritius. In shape they -resemble eels, and they bury themselves in the sand or mud, a habit -which renders them very dangerous to fishermen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--_Silurus glanis_ (Rivers of Central -and Eastern Europe).] - -_Plotosus lineatus_, which is of a greenish-brown colour, striped with -from four to six longitudinal whitish bands, is the most common. By -the Creoles of Mauritius and Réunion it is called _Machoiran_, by the -Malays _Sambilang_, and by the Abyssinians _Koomat_. - -Its poison-apparatus is situated at the base of the dorsal and pectoral -spines. These spines are strong, sharp, slightly incurved, and -furnished with hooked denticulations, which cause them to remain in -the wound, in which they break off. Near their extremity there opens a -small canal, which communicates with the culs-de-sac situated at the -base of the spiny rays, which produce a venomous secretion. The dorsal -spine has only a single cul-de-sac, while the pectoral spines have two. - -The contraction of the local muscles, by compressing these culs-de-sac, -can cause the venom to make its way into the canal of the spine, but -the fluid does not spurt forth in a jet as in the case of _Synanceia_. -The poison-apparatus is therefore passively defensive in character. -_Plotosus_ is capable of wounding only when the hand or foot is placed -on its dorsal or pectoral spines. - -Fishermen who are stung immediately feel an excruciating pain, which is -soon accompanied by fever, and lasts for several days. Accidents caused -by this fish are of fairly common occurrence in Réunion. - - -2.--Murænidæ. - -Of the fishes belonging to this family, the species of the genus -_Muræna_ alone concern us. They have an elongated body, without -pectoral fins, and a naked skin, covered with a thick layer of viscid -slime, as in the case of the eels. Their dentition is powerful, formed -of long, recurved fangs, arranged in one or more rows. These fishes -may attain a large size, exceeding 2 metres in length. More than one -hundred species are known, all of which live in tropical or subtropical -seas. _Muræna helena_ is common in the Mediterranean in the vicinity -of Nice and Toulon; _M. moringa_ (fig. 120) is found in the Tropical -Atlantic. - -The species of _Muræna_ live in deep water, and feed upon fishes or -crustaceans. In hot countries they frequently venture into fresh water. -Their skins are adorned with brightly coloured markings, which vary -very greatly according to the species. - -The poison-apparatus in _Muræna_ consists of a pouch situated above -the membrane of the palate, which may contain ½ c.c. of venom, and -three or four conical, curved teeth, with the convex surface in front, -as in the fangs of snakes. The teeth are not pierced by a central -canal, and the venom flows between them and the mucous membrane of -the palate, which forms a sheath. The latter is withdrawn to the base -of the teeth, while they are penetrating the tissues. The teeth are -mobile; they are articulated with the palatine bone, in which they are -inserted in small depressions, and a resistant fibrous tissue serves as -the means of union. They can be deflexed backwards against the mucous -membrane of the palate; in this position the first, second and fourth -tooth (when the latter exists) disappear completely between the folds -of the membrane. The third tooth normally remains erect, and it is this -by which wounds must in most cases be inflicted. None of these teeth -can be protruded beyond the vertical. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--_Muræna moringa_ (Tropical -Atlantic). (After Savtschenko.)] - -In addition to the palatine teeth there are, among the groups of -maxillary teeth, several mobile teeth, which are connected with the -poison-reservoir. - -Besides its toxic action the venom of _Muræna_ has manifest digestive -properties, and, in the case of a fish which has been dead for some -little time the gland is no longer to be found, since its walls have -undergone a rapid autodigestion. - -The venoms of all the fishes of which I have just given a brief -description, as regards their physiological action, present a fairly -close resemblance to the venom of the Weever, and show scarcely any -variation except in the intensity of their effects. They have been but -little studied hitherto, and it is desirable that they should be better -understood. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -_VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES_ (_continued_). - -3.--_BATRACHIANS. LIZARDS. MAMMALS._ - - -A.--Batrachians. - -By the ancients the venom of _salamanders_ and _toads_ was dreaded as -much as the most terrible poisons. These animals, however, are not -very formidable, since they are devoid of inoculatory organs; their -poison-apparatus is localised exclusively in the parotids and the skin. -It is represented simply by more or less confluent glands in the form -of sacs, secreting a viscid mucus, which has a nauseous odour and is -highly toxic, even to animals of large size. - -The salamander belongs to the Order _Urodela_, which is characterised -by the persistence of the tail. Its body is heavy and thickset, and the -flanks and the sides of the tail exhibit a series of glandular crypts, -which secrete venom. - -“The mucus which flows from the mouth, and resembles milk, eats away -human hair,” wrote Pliny; “the spot moistened by it loses its colour, -which subsequently returns. Of all venomous animals the salamander -is the most terrible; it is capable of annihilating whole nations -by poisoning the vegetation over a vast area. When the salamander -climbs a tree all its fruit is poisoned, and those who eat of it die -as surely as if they had taken aconite. Moreover, if bread be baked -with wood touched by the animal, it is dangerous, and may occasion -serious disorders. If the naked foot be defiled with the saliva of -this creature, the beard and hair soon fall out. Sextius says that a -salamander, preserved in honey, after the removal of the entrails, -head, and limbs, acts as a stimulant if taken internally.” - -In ancient Rome, and also in Mediæval France, it was believed that the -most furious fire could be extinguished simply by contact with one of -these animals; charlatans sold the inoffensive salamander, which, if -cast into the most terrible conflagration, was bound, they declared, to -arrest its disastrous progress! - -The explanation of this superstition is furnished by Duméril, who -writes: “On being placed in the middle of burning charcoal, these -victims of so cruel a curiosity, when put to the test, instantly -allowed to exude from the many pores with which their skins are riddled -a slimy humour, sufficiently abundant to form a viscid layer over that -part of the glowing charcoal with which the animals were in contact. -Since this surface, being no longer exposed to the air, immediately -became quite black, it was supposed to be extinguished; but the -salamanders sustained such severe burns that they soon succumbed.”[148] - -The principal species of salamanders are:-- - -_Salamandra atra_ (Black Salamander), which is found in the Alps and -the mountains of Central Europe, close to the snow-line, and up to an -altitude of 3,000 metres. - -_Salamandra maculosa_ (Spotted Salamander, fig. 121), distributed -throughout almost the whole of Europe, and also found in North Africa. - -_Triton cristatus_ (Crested Newt), likewise common all over Europe. - -_Triton marmoratus_ (Marbled Newt, fig. 122), which is met with in damp -and dark places, in Portugal, Spain, South and Central France, and as -far north as the Forest of Fontainebleau. - -_Cryptobranchus japonicus_ (Great Japanese Salamander, fig. 123), which -often exceeds 1 metre in length, and has a clumsy body covered with -large warts, and an enormous head, broad behind and flattened in front. - -This giant salamander is now confined to a few provinces in the centre -of Japan, between long. 34° and 36°, in damp, shady places, from 200 to -800 metres above sea-level. It is eaten by the Japanese, who also use -it as a remedy for, or prophylactic against, contagious disorders. By -nature it is extremely sluggish, but tries to bite when irritated, and -then covers itself copiously with slime. - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--_Salamandra maculosa_ (Europe and -North Africa).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--_Triton marmoratus_ (male). -(Europe.)] - -The venom secreted by salamanders evidently serves to protect these -creatures against their enemies. So long ago as 1866, Zaleski[149] -isolated from it a substance soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether, -and with a very strong alkaline reaction, to which he gave the name -_salamandarin_. This substance, which is better known to-day as -_salamandrine_, has been studied afresh by A. Dutartre,[150] Phisalix -and Langlois,[151] and subsequently by Edwin and S. Faust.[152] - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--_Cryptobranchus japonicus_ (Great -Japanese Salamander).] - -The action of this poison on the frog is characterised by a period -of violent convulsions, with general tetanic crises, followed by a -period of paralysis, with arrest of respiration and complete muscular -relaxation. According to the quantity of poison absorbed, this -paralytic period may be followed by death, with arrest of the heart in -diastole, or else by return to life, with more or less acute recurrence -of convulsions. - -S. Faust prepares salamandrine by pounding up whole salamanders in -a small quantity of physiological saline solution. The thick pulp -obtained in this way is filtered. One cubic centimetre of the filtrate, -taken as a unit, contains about 5 decimilligrammes of active substance, -which can be purified by treating the filtrate with alcohol, which -dissolves the salamandrine and precipitates all the proteic substances -that give biuret reaction. The salamandrine thus freed from proteins -is saturated with sulphuric or phosphoric acid, when there is formed a -crystallisable salt, which is washed and dried. This salt is soluble in -alcohol and in water. Its chemical composition is as follows:-- - -C^{52}H^{80}Az^4O^2 + H^2SO^4. - -The toxicity of this substance is such that from 7 to 9 -decimilligrammes per kilogramme represent the lethal dose for dogs, -when injected subcutaneously. The lethal dose for the rabbit is -still smaller. It produces convulsive phenomena, followed by arrest -of respiration. The administration of chloral to the subjects of the -experiment, either preventively or immediately after the poison, -prevents the latter from taking effect. Besides salamandrine, S. Faust -has isolated a second alkaloid, _salamandridine_, which, as a sulphate, -corresponds to the formula (C^{20}H^{31}AzO)^2 + H^2SO^4, crystallises -in rhombic prisms, and is soluble with difficulty in water. The only -difference between the two alkaloids is formed by a methylpyridic -group, and both are derivatives of quinoline. They must therefore be -considered as identical with the exclusively vegetable alkaloids. - -S. Faust concludes from his physiological investigations that -salamandrine takes effect upon the central nervous system, especially -upon the respiratory centres. It is a convulsion-producing poison, -comparable to picrotoxin, but its effects differ from those of the -latter substance in that the convulsions are accompanied by tetanic -spasms. - -The venom of the Japanese Salamander (_Cryptobranchus japonicus_) has -formed the subject of studies by Phisalix.[153] This investigator -has shown that this venom, which is highly soluble in water and in -glycerine, is very unstable; alcohol and heating for twenty minutes -at 60° C. are sufficient to destroy it. When inoculated into frogs -it produces œdema and hæmorrhage; if injected into warm-blooded -animals it causes necrosis. In sufficiently strong doses it kills by -arresting respiration. Its effects strongly resemble those produced by -VIPERINE venoms. This venom, if attenuated by being heated -at 50° C. and injected into mammals, vaccinates them and leads to the -formation in their blood of antitoxic substances, which are capable of -preventing intoxication by salamander-venom, and, curiously enough, -also confer immunity against viper-venom and the serum of the common -snake. - -_Toads_ are easy to distinguish from frogs owing to their squat and -clumsy shape, and to the mass of glands with which each side of the -neck and a more or less extensive portion of the body is furnished -in these animals. According to G. A. Boulenger, the number of known -species amounts to seventy-six, which are found in the Old and New -Worlds, but have no representatives in Australia. The species that are -the most common, and most interesting from the point of view of their -venoms, are:-- - -The Common Toad (_Bufo vulgaris_), in which the skin, which is very -thick and rugose, is covered on the back with large rounded tubercles -with reddish summits. This species is a great destroyer of insects, -and, as such, is very useful to agriculturists. - -The Natter-Jack (_Bufo calamita_), in which the digits are palmate at -the base. When irritated it contracts its skin and covers itself with a -white frothy exudation, which gives off an odour of burnt powder. - -The Green Toad (_Bufo viridis_), which is especially abundant in -Southern Europe, the Levant, and North Africa. - -The Musical Toad (_Bufo musicus_), a species distributed throughout -North America as far south as Mexico, and in which the back is covered -with pointed conical tubercles resembling spines. - -The Brown Pelobates (_Pelobates fuscus_), common in the neighbourhood -of Paris, the skin of which is almost entirely smooth. Although it -appears to be nearly destitute of glands, this animal secretes a very -active venom, which has a penetrating odour and kills mice in a few -minutes, producing vomiting, convulsions, and tetanic spasms of the -muscles. - -The toxicity of the venom of toads was long ago demonstrated by the -experiments of Gratiolet and Cloëz.[154] It is manifest only in the -case of small animals, and in man merely produces slight inflammation -of the mucous membranes, especially of the conjunctiva. - -That this venom preserves its toxic properties for more than a year in -the dry state was shown by Vulpian, and satisfactory studies of its -composition and physiological action have been made by Fornara,[155] G. -Calmels,[156] Phisalix and Bertrand,[157] Schultz,[158] Pröscher,[159] -and S. Faust.[160] - -Toad-venom was prepared by Phisalix and Bertrand in the following -manner: Holding the head of one of these batrachians under water, they -expressed the contents of the parotid glands with the fingers or with -a pair of forceps. They repeated the same operation with a second, and -then with a third toad, until they had sufficiently impregnated the -water, which serves to dissolve the venom. In this way they obtained an -opalescent, acid liquid, which they filtered with a Chamberland candle -under a pressure of from four to five atmospheres. There remained on -the filter a yellowish substance, with a highly acid reaction and -partly soluble in ether and chloroform, while there passed through -the pores a clear, reddish, and slightly acid liquid, which on being -evaporated left behind a greyish-white precipitate. This precipitate -was separated by filtration, washed in water, and redissolved in -absolute alcohol or chloroform. The albuminoid matters were thus -separated, and the liquid, after being rendered limpid by filtration, -was evaporated away. The substance obtained in this way represents one -of the two active principles of the venom. It acts on the heart of -the frog, and arrests it in systole. It assumes the appearance of a -transparent resin, the composition of which roughly corresponds to the -formula C^{119}H^{117}O^{25}. It is the _bufotalin_ of Phisalix and -Bertrand, and is probably identical with that obtained by S. Faust, -the formula of which, according to the latter author, is said to be -C^{11}H^{23}O^{5}. - -Bufotalin is readily soluble in alcohol, chloroform, acetone, acetate -of ethyl, and acetic acid. When water is added to a solution of it in -alcohol it is precipitated, giving a white emulsion, which has a very -bitter taste. - -From the aqueous extract whence the bufotalin has been separated, it -is possible to separate a second poison, which acts on the nervous -system and causes paralysis. In order to obtain it in a pure state, -the extract is treated with alcohol at 96° C., filtered and distilled; -the residue dissolved in water is defæcated with subacetate of lead -and sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution thus obtained is successively -exhausted with chloroform to extract the cardiac poison, and with -ether, which removes almost the whole of the acetic acid. The second -neurotoxic principle, called _bufotenin_, remains in the residue of the -solution after being evaporated _in vacuo_. - -Toad-venom, therefore, contains two principal toxic substances: -_bufotalin_, which is of a resinoid nature, soluble in alcohol, -but scarcely soluble in water, and is the _cardiac poison_; and -_bufotenin_, which is readily soluble in those two solvents, and is the -_neurotoxic poison_.[161] - -Pröscher, on the other hand, has extracted from the skins of toads a -hæmolytic substance, termed by him _phrynolysin_, which possesses all -the properties of a true toxin and is not dialysable. It is obtained by -pounding the skins with glass powder in physiological serum. - -Phrynolysin dissolves the red corpuscles of the sheep very rapidly, and -(in order of sensitiveness) those of the goat, rabbit, dog, ox, fowl, -and guinea-pig. The red corpuscles of the pigeon, frog, and toad are -scarcely affected. When heated at 56° C. it loses its properties. By -the ordinary methods of immunisation it is possible to obtain a very -active antilysin. - -There is, therefore, a very close analogy between the venoms of _toads_ -and _salamanders_. These highly complex substances are composed of -mixtures of poisons, some of which are in all respects analogous to the -vegetable alkaloids, while others are closely related to the microbic -toxins and snake-venoms. - -In the spawning season the cutaneous glands of the male toad are gorged -with venom, while those of the female are empty. Phisalix[162] has -shown that at this period the venom of the female is accumulated in the -eggs, which, if extracted from the abdomen at the moment of oviposition -and dried _in vacuo_, give off in chloroform a product that has all the -toxic properties of cutaneous venom (bufotalin and bufotenin). No trace -of this poison is to be found in the tadpoles. - - -B.--Lizards. - -The Order LACERTILIA includes only a single venomous -species, which belongs to the family _Lacertidæ_, and is known as the -_Heloderm_ (_Heloderma horridum_, fig. 124). It is a kind of large -lizard, with the head and body covered with small yellow tubercles on -a chestnut-brown ground. It sometimes exceeds a metre in length, and -its habitat is confined to the warm belt extending from the western -slope of the Cordilleras of the Andes to the Pacific. It is met with -especially in the vicinity of Tehuantepec, where it inspires the -natives with very great dread. It is a slow-moving animal, and lives in -dry places on the edges of woods. Its body exhales a strong, nauseous -odour; when it is irritated, there escapes from its jaws a whitish, -sticky slime, secreted by its highly developed salivary glands. Its -food consists of small animals. Its bite is popularly supposed to be -extremely noxious, but, as a rule, the wound, though painful at first, -heals rapidly. Sumichrast caused a fowl to be bitten in the wing by a -young individual, which had not taken any food for a long time. After a -few minutes the parts adjacent to the wound assumed a violet hue; the -bird’s feathers were ruffled; a convulsive trembling seized its entire -body, and it soon sank to the ground. At the end of about half an hour -it lay stretched out as though dead, and from its half-open beak there -flowed a sanguinolent saliva. There was no movement to give any sign -of life, except that from time to time a slight shiver passed through -the hinder part of its body. After two hours, life seemed gradually -to return, and the bird picked itself up and crouched on the ground, -without, however, standing upright, and still keeping its eyes closed. -It remained thus for nearly twelve hours, at the end of which time it -once more collapsed, and expired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--_Heloderma horridum._] - -A large cat which Sumichrast caused to be bitten in the hind leg -did not die, but immediately after being bitten the leg swelled -considerably, and for several hours the cat continued to mew in a way -that showed that it was suffering acute pain. It was unable to stand, -and remained stretched out on the same spot for a whole day, unable to -get up, and completely stupefied. - -Interesting observations on the _Heloderm_ have been made by J. -Van Denburgh and O. B. Wight. The saliva of this lizard was found -to be highly toxic at certain times, and harmless at others. When -injected subcutaneously it produces various effects, such as miction, -defæcation, and abundant salivation, with accelerated respiration -followed by vomiting. The animal drinks with avidity, and remains -lying down, in a very depressed condition. Death finally supervenes, -from arrest of respiration and also of the heart’s action. The poison -likewise acts upon the arterial tension, which falls very rapidly and -very markedly. The sensory nerves are also attacked; irritability is -at first increased, then diminished, and at last entirely lost. These -changes take place from behind forwards, and from the periphery to -the centre. The coagulability of the blood is at first intensified -and then lessened, as when acted upon by VIPERINE venom (H. -Coupin).[163] - - -C.--Mammals. - -The only mammal that can be considered to be provided with a -poison-apparatus belongs to the Order _Monotremata_, and is known as -the Duck-billed Platypus (_Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_ or _O. anatinus_, -fig. 125). The head of this animal is furnished with a kind of flat -duck’s bill, armed with two horny teeth in the upper jaw, while the -body, which is covered with dense fur, resembles that of a beaver. The -tail is broad and flat; the legs are short, and the feet are provided -with five toes, armed with strong claws and webbed. - -This singular animal is found only in Australia and Tasmania. It lives -in burrows near watercourses, entered by holes which it digs in the -bank, one above the other on the water-level. It spends much of its -time in the water, and feeds upon worms and small fishes. - -In the males the hind feet are armed with a spur, having an orifice at -the extremity. At the will of the animal, there is discharged from this -spur a venomous liquid secreted by a gland, which lies along the thigh, -and is in communication with the spur by means of a wide subcutaneous -duct (Patrick Hill).[164] - -It has often been proved in Australia that this liquid, when inoculated -by the puncture of the spur, may give rise to œdema and more or less -intense general malaise. Interesting details with reference to the -effects produced by this secretion have been published by C. J. Martin, -in collaboration with Frank Tidswell.[165] - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--_Ornithorhynchus paradoxus._ (After -Claus.)] - -When a dose greater than 2 centigrammes of dry extract of the venom -of _Ornithorhynchus_ is injected intravenously into the rabbit, it -produces phenomena of intoxication analogous to those observed after -inoculation with VIPERINE venoms.[166] Death supervenes in -from twenty-five to thirty minutes, and at the autopsy hæmorrhagic -patches are found beneath the endocardium of the left ventricle. - -This venom has been studied afresh in my laboratory by Noc, thanks -to the acquisition of a small supply kindly forwarded to me by C. J. -Martin. Noc proved that it possesses _in vitro_ certain properties of -snake-venoms; like the venom of _Lachesis lanceolatus_, it induces -coagulation in citrate-, oxalate-, chloridate-, and fluorate-plasmas. -Heating at 80° C. destroys this coagulant power. - -Contrary, however, to what is found in the case of the venoms of -_Vipera_ and _Lachesis_, the secretion of _Ornithorhynchus_ is devoid -of hæmolytic and proteolytic properties. - -Lastly, its toxicity is very slight, at least five thousand times -less than that of the venoms of Australian snakes. A mouse is not -even killed by 5 centigrammes of dry extract, and in the case of the -guinea-pig 10 centigrammes only produce a slight painful œdema. - -It has been remarked that the volume and structure of the poison-gland -exhibit variations according to the season of the year at which it is -observed. It is therefore possible that these variations also affect -the toxicity of the secretion (Spicer).[167] - -By certain authors the poison of _Ornithorhynchus_ is considered to be -a defensive secretion of the males, which becomes especially active in -the breeding season, and this hypothesis is plausible. In any case it -would seem that as a venom the secretion is but very slightly nocuous. - -It will have been seen from the papers quoted above that the chemical -nature and physiology of the various venoms, other than those of -snakes, are as yet little understood and need further investigation. - -The main outlines of this vast subject have scarcely been traced, -and the study offers a field of interesting investigations, in which -the workers of the future will be able to reap an ample harvest of -discoveries, pregnant with results for biological science. - - - - -PART V. - -DOCUMENTS. - - I.--A FEW NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS RELATING TO BITES - OF POISONOUS SNAKES TREATED BY ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM - THERAPEUTICS. - - -A.--Naja tripudians (India and Indo-China). - -I.--Case published by A. Beveridge, M.B., C.M., Surgeon S. Coorg -Medical Fund (_British Medical Journal_, December 23, 1899, p. 1732). - -“A strong coolie, aged 26, was bitten by a cobra on the right ankle, -just above the internal malleolus. He was brought to the surgery about -one hour after being bitten, in a state of comatose collapse. The pulse -was rapid, and the surface of the body cold. He was given an injection -of 10 c.c. of Calmette’s antivenene deeply into the right flank. He was -kept under observation: the paresis and insensibility were very marked. -On visiting him some hours afterwards I found he could walk without -assistance, but staggered, and complained of weakness and pains in both -legs. Next morning he was much improved, the paresis gradually wore -off, and the pulse steadily gained strength. The patient returned to -work four days later, quite recovered. - -“A few days previously a coolie had died after being bitten by a snake -under the same conditions, but without having been treated. Occurrences -like these point to the necessity that every Government or private -dispensary should be supplied with antivenene, which is certainly the -best remedy for snake-bite available.” - -II.--Case reported by Robert J. Ashton, M.B., Kaschwa Medical Mission, -Mirzapur (N.W.P.). - -“A coolie, aged 27, was bitten in the right foot by a cobra at 5.30 -a.m., on September 16, 1900. Half an hour later 10 c.c. of antivenomous -serum were injected subcutaneously into the left forearm. The patient -experienced great pain in the foot, torpor, and great weakness. -Recovery, without complications.” - -III.--Case reported by Dr. Simond (Saigon). - -“Nguyen-Van-Tranc, an Annamese, aged 25, employed in the Botanical -Gardens at Saigon, was bitten at 10.30 a.m., on March 11, 1899, by a -cobra which had escaped from its cage. The bite was inflicted on the -palmar surface of the index finger of the right hand, and the fangs had -penetrated deeply. - -“This native, to whom a sensible comrade had applied a ligature round -the wrist, was brought to the Pasteur Institute three hours later. He -was drowsy, with drooping eyelids; his speech was difficult and almost -unintelligible. Deglutition was impossible, and ingurgitated liquids -caused vomiting. The hand was greatly swollen at the seat of the bite, -and the œdema extended to the forearm. There was partial anæsthesia of -the skin. As soon as the patient arrived, I gave a single injection, -beneath the skin of the flank, of three doses of serum, that is, 30 -c.c. In the evening I again injected 10 c.c. of serum. At 10 p.m. the -general condition of the patient seemed to be improving. Next morning -he was less depressed, spoke more easily, and was able to swallow. -Convalescence began from this moment; the œdema and numbness of the -hand and arm, however, persisted for several days. - -“Recovery was complete on March 20. I have no doubt that in this very -serious case the antivenomous serum preserved the life of the patient, -since his condition was desperate when I saw him. - -“This is the second instance within four months of the successful -treatment of snake-bites at Saigon by Calmette’s serum. In the former -case two natives were bitten by the same animal. One of them, who -permitted the injection of serum, which was performed by Dr. Sartre, -recovered; the other, who refused it, died within twenty-four hours.” - -IV.--Case reported by the Fathers of the Khurda-Mariapur Mission -(India). - -“At 1 p.m., on October 31, 1905, a woman, aged 35, who had been -bitten by a cobra, was brought to us from Khurda. After being at our -dispensary for about an hour she became drowsy; she paid no attention -to anything that was said to her, and merely replied that she felt -sick. We thereupon injected 10 c.c. of serum. The woman did not even -appear to feel the prick when the needle was driven into her calf. -Immediately after this was done she dozed and went to sleep. The pulse -was feeble, and the entire body cold. We were disposed to give a second -injection, but, since we had only two bottles left, we hesitated to -sacrifice one of them. At last, after sleeping for about half an hour, -the woman awoke of her own accord, sat up, and began to recover her -senses. Bodily heat returned almost immediately, and a few moments -later the patient asked to be allowed to go home; she was, however, -kept at the dispensary. In the evening she continued to complain of -headache, but on the following day she was able to walk, and was quite -well.” - -V.--Case reported by Dr. Brau (Saigon). - -"Nhuong, an Annamese agriculturist, on passing through a piece of waste -ground beside the barracks, at about 5.30 a.m. on Sunday, September 11, -felt himself suddenly bitten behind the right knee. He caught a glimpse -of a large blackish snake, with all the characteristics of a cobra, -including the raised head and dilated hood, gliding hurriedly away, but -was unable to overtake it. - -"The seat of the bite merely showed two small blackish punctures. The -part soon became painfully swollen, and the patient began to feel -giddy. Other natives came to his help; he was lifted into a Malabar -cart and brought to the Military Hospital, whence he was sent to my -house, where he arrived about a quarter past six. - -"I entered the vehicle, and immediately drove with the patient to -the Pasteur Institute. The only treatment that he had received was -a ligature round the middle of the right thigh. The lower leg was -enormously swollen, and the swelling was not stopped by the slight -barrier formed by the ligature, but had already extended to the base of -the limb. - -"The patient lay stretched out between the two seats of the vehicle, -with head thrown back and eye-balls turned up and ghastly. His skin and -extremities were cold, and his pulse was scarcely perceptible. In order -not to lose time, he was not even taken up to the first floor of the -Institute, but was carried to an inoculating table. He was then made to -swallow black coffee and rum, and was given an injection of as much as -six doses of antivenomous serum, which had just been received from the -Pasteur Institute at Lille. - -"Under the stimulus of this injection, somewhat drastic I admit, an -absolute resurrection took place in the sick man. The pulse became -strong and bounding, bodily heat returned, and, although the swelling -did not at once diminish, its progressive extension seemed to be -sharply arrested, while the pain was also greatly lessened. The patient -was able to sit up without assistance, and relate the incidents of his -misadventure. - -"In a few minutes time I thought it possible to have him taken to -the Choquan Hospital, the Director of which Institution, First-class -Surgeon-Major Angier, has been good enough to furnish me with a note of -the subsequent history of this case. - -“’The Annamese Nhuong, who entered the Choquan Hospital on September -11, suffering from snake-bite, was discharged on September 20. - -“’On admission, heat and puffiness were observed in the calf and -thigh. Slight dyspnœa, severe fever, tendency to coma. September 12, -temperature 38°, 39·2° C. September 13, temperature 37·3°, 37·6° C. -September 17, temperature 36·8°, 37° C. - -“’On discharge, slight œdema and puffiness in the region of the bite. -General condition good.’” - -VI.--Case recorded by Dr. Robert Miller, Bengal-Nagpur Railway Company -(_Advocate of India_, Bombay, January 15, 1902). - -“On the evening of October 23 I was called to a coolie woman, who -had been bitten by a large cobra about 7 o’clock; some two hours -had already elapsed since the accident. The woman was, so to speak, -moribund, unconscious, and suffering from paralysis of the throat, -after having exhibited all the characteristic symptoms of poisoning -by cobra-venom. I immediately injected 10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum, -without any hope of a successful result, however, so desperate did -the condition of the patient appear. The effect of the serum was -marvellous; fifteen minutes later she regained consciousness. I gave a -fresh injection of 10 c.c., and three hours after the first the patient -was out of danger. Dr. Sen, my assistant-surgeon, was present. I have -forwarded a note of this case to Dr. L. Rogers, Professor of Pathology -at the Calcutta Medical College.” - -VII.--Case recorded by Captain H. A. L. Howell, R.A.M.C. (_British -Medical Journal_, January 25, 1902). - -"Shortly before 4 p.m. on November 17, 1901, Lance-Corporal G., Royal -Scots, was bitten on the right forefinger by a snake. On being brought -to hospital, Assistant-Surgeon Raymond tied a tight ligature round the -finger, scarified the wound, and applied a strong solution of calcium -chloride. On my arrival I found the patient apparently quite well, and -not at all alarmed. As I could get no information as to the nature of -the snake, I injected into the patient’s flank at 4.30 p.m. 3 c.c. of -Calmette’s serum, and sent for the snake, which was the property of one -of the men in barracks. The snake was brought to me just before 6 p.m., -and I found it to be a cobra about 3½ feet long, of the pale-coloured -variety that natives call Brahmini cobra. I at once injected 7 c.c. of -Calmette’s serum into the other flank. The patient thus received one -full dose of serum. The ligature was removed from the finger, which was -swollen and very painful. - -"Up to half an hour after the bite the patient, a healthy and powerful -man, presented no abnormal symptoms: pulse, respiration, pupils, -temperature, and general appearance, all were normal. His pulse and -respiration began to increase in frequency, and the pulse became very -compressible, but quite regular. After the first injection of serum -his temperature was 98° F., pulse full, high tension, regular, 88, and -respirations greatly increased in frequency. He now became very drowsy, -and had to be roused when the second injection of serum was given. -Soon after this the patient’s general condition and pulse improved.... -He had complete loss of sensation in the bitten finger, in the part -terminal to the site of the puncture, for some days.... The injection -of Calmette’s serum gave rise to no local reaction, and caused no pain. -It did not affect the temperature, but was followed in half an hour by -perspiration, which was very profuse four hours after the injection.... -The patient made a complete recovery.... The serum used in this case -was fresh, having been prepared at Lille in July, 1901.” - -VIII.--Note of case treated by Major Rennie, R.A.M.C., transmitted by -M. Klobukowski, French Consul-General at Calcutta, September 5, 1899:-- - -“A remarkable cure effected by Major Rennie, by means of Calmette’s -method, has just taken place at Meerut. Since the introduction of this -remedy three years ago, its efficacy has been abundantly proved, but -the present case is especially interesting, since it seems to show -that the serum can be successfully employed even in cases apparently -desperate. The well-known symptoms of poisoning by cobra-venom were -already so advanced that the patient, who was insensible, was kept -alive by artificial respiration in order to give time for the serum to -be absorbed and to take effect. - -“The truth of the above statements is attested by six doctors, and is -also vouched for by the Commissioner and Magistrate of the military -cantonment, who, although not medical men, have, nevertheless, had long -experience of Indian matters.” - -IX.--Case recorded by Binode Bihari Ghosal, Assistant-Surgeon, Jangipur -(“A Case of Snake-bite [Cobra?].--Recovery,” _Indian Medical Gazette_, -January, 1905, p. 18). - -“While fastening her door about 10 o’clock one night a Hindu woman -was bitten by a cobra in the left foot, about 1 inch above the -metatarso-phalangeal joints of the second and third toes. About ten -minutes after the bite natives applied three strong ligatures, one -above the ankle, one below, and one above the knee-joint. Four hours -later ‘Fowl’ treatment was applied, which it appears gives marvellous -results. The author arrived about nine hours after the accident, -during the ‘Fowl’ treatment, for which nineteen chickens had already -been sacrificed. In spite of this the patient was pulseless (no radial -pulse--the brachial pulse was thready and flickering); respiration -about six per minute. An injection of strychnine improved her condition -for a few minutes. When the incision, which had been made over the -bite, was crucially enlarged, large quantities of dark blood were -withdrawn by cupping. In spite of this the patient’s condition grew -worse, and her respiration fell to three a minute; she then received -an injection of 10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum in the left buttock. The -pulse immediately became stronger, and respiration increased to ten -per minute. About half an hour after the first, a fresh injection of -10 c.c. of serum was given in the same place. Within five minutes the -appearance of the patient, who had seemed to be dying, became normal. -The pulse grew stronger, and respiration was about fifteen per minute. -One hour after the injections the patient was practically cured. - -“The ‘Fowl’ treatment consists in applying directly to the wound, after -the latter has been slightly enlarged by means of an incision, the anal -apertures of living fowls, from which the surrounding feathers have -been removed. The fowl immediately becomes drowsy, its eyes blink, and -its head falls on its breast with the beak open, after which the bird -rapidly succumbs. Twenty fowls had been employed in the present case, -but in vain.” (The author does not appear to have troubled himself to -ascertain whether the fowls were really dead, or had merely fallen into -a hypnotic condition.) - -X.--Case reported by Major G. Lamb, I.M.S., Plague Research Laboratory, -Parel, Bombay, October 18, 1900. - -“Ten days ago I was bitten by a large cobra, from which I was -collecting venom. I had only some very old serum in the laboratory, but -I immediately gave myself an injection of 18 c.c. Three hours after -being bitten I felt faint, my legs became paralysed, and I was seized -with vomiting. In the meantime, fresh serum had been obtained at a -chemist’s, and I received an injection of 10 c.c. The symptoms improved -very rapidly, and an hour later I felt perfectly well. I applied no -local treatment, relying altogether upon the serum.” - -XI.--Case reported by Dr. Angier, of Pnom-Penh (Cambodia). - -“At 11.30 one night in April, 1901, His Majesty, the second King -of Cambodia brought to me in a carriage one of his wives who, when -crossing the courtyard of the palace at about 8 o’clock, was bitten by -a snake, which she said was a cobra (in Cambodian _Povek_). - -“The bite was situated in the lower third of the leg, in front of -the internal malleolus. The patient complained continually; she was -suffering greatly from the leg, which was swollen as high as the knee. -Great lassitude. An injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum was -given, half in the leg and half in the flank. The wound was washed, -squeezed and dressed. Twenty minutes later the pain had ceased, and the -patient went away, feeling nothing more than a slight dulness in the -injured limb.” - - -B.--Naja haje (Tropical Africa). - -XII.--Cases reported by Dr. P. Lamy, of the Houdaille Expedition. - -“Lamina, a Senegalese, bitten on the outside of the left thigh, on -February 18, 1898. Treated with serum. Recovery. - -“Momo Bolabine, bitten in the heel on April 20, 1898. Ten c.c. of -serum. Recovery.” - -XIII.--Case reported by Dr. Deschamps, of Thiès (Senegal). - -“In the month of October, 1898, I was called to a native, a local -constable, who had just been bitten by a Naja. The Ouoloffs of Senegal -are much afraid of the bites of this reptile, since they are generally -fatal. In this case the man had been bitten in the forehead by a snake, -which was coiled up in his bed, as he was placing his head on the -pillow. Being in the dark, he got up greatly frightened, lit a candle, -and saw the snake glide from his bed and escape through the half-open -door. I arrived a few minutes after the accident; the constable already -felt very weak, and complained of nausea and of pains in the head and -back of the neck. In the middle region of the forehead I found two -adjacent wounds, around which the tissues were œdematous. I washed the -wounds with a solution of permanganate of potash, and had a telegram -sent to St. Louis asking for antivenomous serum. Half an hour after -the bite, the patient was seized with vomiting and cold sweats. At 6 -a.m. on the following day there was considerable œdema of the face and -dyspnœa, while the pulse was small and intermittent. The patient, who -had not slept, was dull and depressed. He vomited a little milk which I -tried to make him take. Forty hours after the bite the patient, who was -already paralysed, became comatose; the face and neck were enormously -swollen. The dyspnœa had increased; it was difficult to hear the -respiratory murmur; the pulse was thready, slow, and intermittent; the -skin was cold; the temperature, taken in the axilla, was 35·8° C. At -this moment the serum asked for arrived from St. Louis. I injected into -the buttock the only dose that I possessed, 10 c.c. The coma persisted -throughout the evening and during part of the night; at 6 a.m. on the -following day, fourteen hours after the injection, the patient awoke -and said that he felt quite well. The œdema of the face and neck had -diminished, that of the eyelids had disappeared. Three days later the -constable returned to duty.” - -XIV.--Case reported by Professors H. P. Keatenje and A. Ruffer (Cairo). - -“A girl named Hamida, aged 13, while picking cotton on October 7, -1896, at Ghizeh, near Cairo, was bitten in the left forearm by a large -Egyptian cobra, which measured 3 feet in length. She cried out, and her -brother and others who were working with her ran up. She was brought -to hospital by the police at 7 p.m. in a state of complete collapse. -She was almost cold, with upturned eyeballs and imperceptible pulse. -The forearm had been bandaged with a dirty cloth, and the entire arm -was covered with a thick layer of Nile mud (a favourite remedy among -the Fellahîn). Above the wrist two deep punctures were clearly visible, -evidently corresponding to the fangs of the reptile. The patient, whose -condition seemed absolutely desperate, had no longer any reflexes; -she was completely insensible; the moderately dilated pupils scarcely -reacted at all to luminous impressions. Dr. Ruffer injected, with the -customary antiseptic precautions, 20 c.c. of Calmette’s antivenomous -serum beneath the skin of the abdomen. The child gave a groan while -this was being done; this was at 7.30 p.m. At 11 o’clock at night her -condition improved; the pulse was 140, and bodily heat returned; the -patient replied to questions that were put to her. A second injection -of 10 c.c. of serum was given in the flank. She slept for the remainder -of the night, and passed her water four times under her. At 8 a.m. on -October 8 she appeared to be out of danger. She took food, and dozed -throughout the day. On the 9th she was convalescent. There were no -complications resulting from the injection, neither eruptions nor pains -in the joints.” - -XV.-Case reported by Dr. Maclaud, of Konakry (French Guinea). - -“At 7.30 p.m., on June 22, 1896, there was brought to the Konakry -Hospital a native soldier, named Demba, who had just been bitten by a -snake. This man, who was employed in the bakery, was stacking firewood, -when he felt an extremely acute pain in the left foot; simultaneously -he saw a large snake making off; he succeeded in killing it, and found -it to be a black Naja. After having applied a stout ligature to the -limb, the injured man hastened to the hospital, where, immediately -afterwards, he fell into a condition verging on coma. The body was -bathed with cold sweat; the temperature was subnormal; the pulse, which -was small and thready, was 140. There was difficulty in breathing, and -severe vomiting. At intervals the patient was aroused by spasms, and -excruciating pains in the injured limb, which exhibited considerable -œdema above and below the ligature. Tendency to asphyxia. I washed -the wounds with 1 per cent. solution of permanganate of potash, and -injected a dose of antivenomous serum into the subcutaneous cellular -tissue of the left flank. In view of the severity of the symptoms I -gave two other injections of serum, an injection of 3 c.c., followed -by one of 2 c.c. The patient dozed all night. Next day the general -symptoms had entirely disappeared. Two days later Demba returned to -duty.” - - -C.--Bungarus fasciatus. - -XVI.--Case reported by Surgeon-Captain Jay Gould (Nowgong, Central -India, _British Medical Journal_, October 10, 1896, p. 1025). - -“On June 11, 1896, a punkah coolie was bitten on the dorsum of the left -foot, between the second and third toes. He had only the distinct mark -of an incisor, a very slight prick, with a stain of blood which marked -the spot. Within ten minutes we had injected 20 c.c. of Calmette’s -serum into the abdominal wall, after which we made a local injection -of a 1 in 60 solution of hyperchlorite of calcium. Two hours after -the injection the temperature was subnormal, the pulse full and slow. -Twelve hours later the patient was perfectly well and walking about. - -“The snake was a Bungarus, full grown, measuring 28 inches. -Unfortunately the syces killed it; it died the very moment I arrived, -so that I was unable to test its virulence.” - - -D.--Bungarus cæruleus. - -XVII.--Case reported by Major S. J. Rennie, R.A.M.C., Meerut, N.W.P., -India. - -“A twelve-year old Hindu boy, named Moraddy, was brought to me at -6 p.m., on July 10, in a semi-comatose condition, with commencing -paralysis of the respiratory muscles. I was told that the child was -sleeping on the ground, when he was bitten in the left hand. He -immediately felt very great pain and giddiness, and his arm began to -swell. Two small wounds were clearly visible, corresponding to the -marks of the fangs of a krait, or _Bungarus cæruleus_. - -“The child had salivation, and ptosis of both eyelids. Respiration was -difficult, and deglutition impossible; the pulse was 110 and dicrotic. -The patient’s breathing was of an abdominal character; the surface of -the body was covered with cold sweat. The child soon became lethargic -and collapsed; his condition appeared absolutely desperate. I gave a -subcutaneous injection of 12 c.c. of antivenomous serum, and commenced -artificial respiration, which I continued for half an hour in order to -give the serum time to take effect. In forty-eight hours the symptoms -gradually disappeared, and the child became quite well. Diplopia of the -left eye persisted for a few days, but this also entirely passed away. - -“This case shows that, in Calmette’s antivenomous serum, we have a -very powerful remedy against snake-bites, which may take effect even -in desperate cases. It further proves that the serum will keep for a -very long time, even when exposed to all the vicissitudes of the Indian -climate, for the serum employed by me had been in my possession for -nearly four years.” - - -E.--Sepedon hæmachates (Berg-Adder). - -XVIII.--Case reported by Mr. W. A. G. Fox, Table Mountain, Cape of Good -Hope. - -“On February 9, 1898, I was summoned to the Town Council’s Camp to -treat a native who had been bitten by a berg-adder in the left leg, -just below the knee. I immediately injected a dose of Calmette’s -antivenomous serum in the left flank, and the wounds were washed. The -injection was given two and a quarter hours after the accident. The -patient was already very ill when I saw him, and I have no doubt that, -without the antivenomous serum, he would have died. - -“On the following day he had recovered, and I saw him again three -months later; since then he has not experienced any functional trouble.” - - -F.--Hydrophiidæ (Sea-Snakes). - -XIX.--Case recorded by Mr. H. W. Peal, Indian Museum, Calcutta (_Indian -Medical Gazette_, July, 1903, p. 276). - -“On April 1, 1903, at 7.30 p.m., a man was bitten at Dhamra, in -Orissa, by a sea-snake which had been caught in a fishing net. He was -not brought to me until 2.30 the next day, when he was in a state of -collapse, semi-unconscious, and unable to speak, with eyes dull and -almost closed. The bite was on the third finger of the left hand, just -above the first joint. The finger was swollen, tense, and stiff. I gave -the man an injection of 5 c.c. of antivenene ten minutes after he was -brought to me. Three or four minutes after the injection the man with -some assistance was able to sit up, and said he felt much better. He -complained of great pain at the back of the neck and also in the lumbar -region. He was able to speak fairly coherently after a little time. His -eyes were brighter and he seemed to be aroused from his lethargy. - -“I had about one hundred living sea-snakes with me, belonging to the -three genera _Enhydrina_, _Hydrus_, and _Distira_. He identified -_Enhydrina valakadien_ as being the snake which bit him; so did the men -who were with him. The snake was said to be about 3½ to 4 feet long. - -“The antivenene did the man so much good, that he himself asked me to -give him a second injection. This I gave him at 2.25 p.m. (5 c.c.). - -“Date on bottle used, May 8, 1900. - -“The pains in the joints had disappeared on the second injection -(which was given in opposite flank). At 5 o’clock the man walked away -with assistance. He was quite well a couple of hours after the second -injection, and when I saw him again on May 8 he was in perfect health.” - - -G.--European Vipers (_Pelias berus_ and _Vipera aspis_). - -XX.--Case published by Dr. Marchand, of des Montils, Loir-et-Cher -(_Anjou médical_, August, 1897). - -“About 11 a.m., on Friday, July 23, Jules Bellier, aged 26, was mowing -in a damp spot, when he was bitten in the heel by a large viper -(_Vipera berus_). The bite, which was deep, was situated on the outside -of the foot, 1 cm. behind the malleolus and 3 cm. above the plantar -margin; at this point there were two punctures in the skin, 1 cm. -apart. Directly after the accident the patient left his work, tied his -hankerchief tightly round the lower third of his leg, made the wound -bleed, and came to me with all speed, hopping on one foot for about a -kilometre. When I saw him scarcely twenty minutes had elapsed since -the accident; his general appearance was altered, and his pulse rapid. -The patient had vomited twice; he complained of pains in the head, and -of general weakness, and ’was afraid,’ he said, ‘of fainting.’ The -foot and leg were painful under pressure; a slight tumefaction was -visible in the peri-malleolar region, around the bites, which bled a -little. Forthwith, after washing the wound freely with a solution of -permanganate of potash, I injected 10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum into -the antero-external region of the middle part of the thigh; then I -enveloped the leg in a damp antiseptic dressing as high as the knee. -The patient breathed more freely and plucked up his spirits. After -lying down for quarter of an hour he went home on foot (he lives a -hundred yards from my house). - -“In the evening I saw my patient again. He was in bed, with a -temperature of 37·2° C.; pulse 60; no malaise, no headache, no further -vomiting; he had taken a little soup, and a small quantity of alcoholic -infusion of lime-tree flowers. He complained of his leg, which was -swollen as high as the knee; the pain was greater in the calf than at -the malleolus. I applied a damp bandage. The patient had a good night, -and slept for several hours, but still had pain in the leg. On the -following morning, July 24, I found him cheerful, with no fever, and -hungry. Around the bite the œdema had become considerable, and had -extended to an equal degree as high as the instep; the calf and thigh -were swollen, but to a much less extent. I gave a second injection of -10 c.c. of antivenomous serum in the cellular tissue of the abdominal -wall. The day was good; indeed, the patient had no fever at any time; -the spots at which the injections were made were but very slightly -sensitive on pressure. In the evening the general condition of the -patient was satisfactory; he complained most of his calf. Thinking that -a contraction was possible, due to his having hopped along quickly on -one leg after the accident, I ordered him a bath. - -“On July 25, the second day after he was bitten, the only symptom still -exhibited by the patient was a somewhat considerable amount of œdema in -the peri-malleolar region and lower third of the leg. This œdema was -slowly and gradually absorbed on the following days. - -“_Remarks._--(1) At this season of the year viper-bites are both -frequent and dangerous in this district of the Loir-et-Cher. A year -never passes without several cases occurring, and it has very often -happened that deaths have had to be recorded in spite of the most -careful treatment. - -“(2) The therapeutic effect of Calmette’s serum was rapid and -efficacious; the injections did not cause any pain or febrile reaction. - -“(3) The œdema resulting from the bite was a long time in being -absorbed; this, indeed, was the only remarkable symptom after the -injection of the serum.” - -XXI.--Case recorded by Dr. D. Paterne, of Blois (Anjou médical, -September, 1897). - -“My _confrère_ and friend Dr. Marchand (des Montils) published in last -month’s _Anjou médical_ an interesting case of viper-bite, cured by -Calmette’s serum. May I send you particulars of another case, which can -only increase the interest of the one that you have already published? -The facts are as follows:-- - -“Léon Bertre, aged 55, living at 17, Rue du Puits-Châtel, Blois, -professes to be a snake-charmer, and really catches and destroys large -numbers of dangerous reptiles in the vicinity of Blois. - -“On Sunday, the 30th of last May, he went among the rocks of the -Chaussée Saint-Victor on his favourite quest, and soon returned with -ten large female vipers, and amused himself by exhibiting them to a -group of interested spectators in an inn. A dog came up and began -to bark. Bertre, whose attention was momentarily distracted, ceased -to fix his gaze on the vipers, one of which, being no longer under -the influence of its fascination, bit him on the back of the right -hand, between the metacarpals of the thumb and index-finger. (I here -reproduce the account of the occurrence as I received it from the -snake-charmer’s own lips.) Bertre immediately felt an acute pain; his -hand swelled up _almost suddenly_, and, since he was perfectly aware -of the seriousness of what had happened, he ran with all speed in the -direction of my consulting-room. The unfortunate man, however, had -hardly gone 200 metres, when he fell insensible on the highway. He -was brought to me, and Dr. Moreau, of Paris, _locum tenens_ for Dr. -Ferrand, of Blois, who was away, rendered first aid. He washed the -wound, dressed it with perchloride of mercury, and injected 10 c.c. of -Calmette’s serum into the right flank. The accident took place a little -before 5 p.m., and the injection was given about 6 o’clock. - -“Dr. Moreau, who was interested in the case, asked me to take charge of -it, which I gladly consented to do. The patient’s general condition was -very grave, since he remained two days and two nights without regaining -consciousness. - -“On Tuesday, June 1, about 11 o’clock, Dr. Moreau gave a second -injection of 20 c.c. Considering the condition of the patient, we -hardly hoped for a successful result. To our great surprise, however, -the patient regained consciousness about 3 p.m., and the improvement -progressed rapidly.” - -XXII.--Case recorded by Dr. Thuau, of Baugé (_Anjou médical_, -September, 1897). - -“X., a young man of Volandry, a parish 10 kilometres from Baugé, -was bitten in the heel at 10 a.m. on the 6th of last August, by an -aspic, about 50 cm. in length, while engaged in harvesting. He at once -had himself taken to Baugé, knowing that there was an antivenomous -serum dispensary there, and about noon he arrived at the house of my -_confrère_ and friend Dr. Boell. The latter, in view of the grave -symptoms exhibited by the patient (nausea, vertigo almost amounting to -syncope, pain in the chest, profuse sweating, &c.), gave him, with all -the customary precautions, a first injection of 10 c.c. of Calmette’s -serum in the flank. After about half an hour, since the alarming -symptoms did not appear to diminish, he did not hesitate to give a -second injection of 10 c.c., and then had him sent to the Baugé Civil -Hospital, where he came under my care about 3 p.m. I then found that -this young man had been bitten in the left foot, a little below the -external malleolus, midway between the latter and the plantar margin. -The snake’s fangs had penetrated rather deeply; the two little wounds -were about a centimetre apart. About this time the patient experienced -great relief, and his general condition continued rapidly to improve. -The axillary temperature was 37·8° C. - -“Locally the patient complained of somewhat acute pain in the entire -foot; the latter was purple and greatly swollen, and the swelling had -affected the whole of the lower leg and extended to a little above -the knee. I made a slight incision in the region of the two wounds -caused by the bite, made the place bleed a little, and washed it with a -solution of permanganate of potash, advising that the dressing should -be changed several times a day. In the evening the temperature was 37° -C., and never varied again from the normal until recovery was complete -on August 25. - -“The two injections of antivenomous serum did not produce any painful -or inflammatory reaction.” - -XXIII.--Case reported by Dr. Clamouse, of Saint-Epain, Indre-et-Loire. - -“Léonie C., a servant at a farm, aged 19, bitten on June 1, 1900, -by a red viper on the dorsal face of the left ring-finger. Somewhat -serious symptoms of intoxication. In default of serum, injection of -Labarraque’s fluid, 1 in 12. Serum obtained from Tours was injected at -11 p.m. on June 2, thirty-eight hours after the accident. - -“On the morning of June 3, very marked improvement. On June 7, general -condition excellent. Recovery.” - -XXIV.--Case reported by Dr. G. Moreau, of Neung-sur-Beuvron, -Loir-et-Cher. - -“A. B., aged 12, living at Villeny, in the canton of Neung-sur-Beuvron -(Loir-et-Cher), was bitten on June 23, 1900, on the left external -malleolus. The parents contented themselves with applying a ligature -above the wound, and did not bring the child to me until 12.15 p.m. - -“Tumefaction of the entire foot. Ecchymosis of the skin extending -half-way up the leg. General condition excellent. I gave antiseptically -an injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum in the right flank, -followed by a draught of acetate of ammonia and syrup of ether. Damp -bandage applied to wound and swollen part. - -“I saw the child again on the following day. Generalised œdema and -tumefaction of the bitten limb. Heart excellent; no vomiting, no -fever. I again gave an injection of 20 c.c. of serum, and ordered a -continuance of damp phenic dressings to be applied to the entire limb. -Condition very good. - -“On June 25, no fever at the time of my visit. Pulse irregular. Ordered -treatment to be continued. - -“I did not see the patient for four days, when I was summoned by -telegram. I found that the child had fever, 39° C. Complete tumefaction -of the left leg, abdomen, and trunk, with ecchymosed patches. -Prescribed quinine. Arhythmia of pulse and heart. Prescribed digitalis -and Jaccoud’s tonic. The febrile condition was due to congestion of the -base of the right lung. I ordered cupping and sinapisms alternately. - -“I saw the child again two days later. The congestion still continued. -Temperature 39° C., but the general tumefaction showed a tendency to -diminish. - -“On July 4 I again saw the child. Now only slight œdema. General -condition very satisfactory. Temperature normal. The child was making -rapid strides towards recovery. The leg was doing well, and the wound -was almost healed. - -“Summary: A very serious bite and, above all, great delay in injecting -serum (injection not given until four hours after the accident); -unforeseen complications in the lung, by which recovery was delayed.” - -XXV.--Case reported by Mons. H. Moindrot, Assistant to Dr. Martel, of -Saint-Étienne (Loire). - -“Claude L., aged 8, living at Ricamarie, was brought, on May 26, 1904, -to the Bellevue Hospital. The parents stated that about 10 o’clock the -same morning, while playing near a stack of faggots, the child was -bitten by a snake in the third finger of the right hand. Since the -wound caused by the bite seemed to them of little importance, they -contented themselves with squeezing the injured finger in order to make -it bleed a little. A few moments later, however, the child began to -complain of a feeling of distension in the region of the bite, caused -by œdema, which soon increased to an alarming extent. A doctor, who was -called in, carefully washed the wound, applied an aseptic dressing, and -at once sent the little sufferer to the Hospital. - -“_On admission_, enormous œdema, including fingers, hand, entire right -arm, cervical region on the same side, and the anterior face of the -thorax, nearly as far as the inner margin of the false ribs. This œdema -was not very painful, though fairly tense, yielding but slightly to -pressure. In the affected region the skin was cold, of a dull livid -colour, with a few ecchymosed patches. In the bitten finger, a small -wound with no special characteristics. - -“General condition bad; the child was unable to stand. He was -indifferent to what was passing around him, merely groaning a little -when examined. The pulse was feeble, thin, and easily compressible; -it was also very irregular. The extremities were cold. Lungs: nothing -abnormal on auscultation, rapidly performed, it is true. Respiration, -however, was distinctly accelerated, 30 per minute. Temperature not -taken on admission. No urine passed since the accident. - -“The patient’s condition being so alarming, not to say desperate, we -thought it almost useless to have recourse to Calmette’s method, more -especially since at least seven hours had already elapsed since the -child was bitten. Nevertheless we gave a hypodermic injection of 20 -c.c. of Calmette’s serum. At the same time the wound was crucially -incised, and bathed with a 1 in 1,000 solution of permanganate of -potash, after which a damp dressing was applied to the whole of the -swollen limb. The patient was put to bed, and kept warm. He was given -an injection of 50 centigrammes of caffeine, and 300 grammes of -artificial serum. In the evening the temperature was 36·8° C. - -“May 27.--General condition more satisfactory; pulse still weak, but -less irregular. Persistence of dyspnœa, explained by a series of small -râles at the bases of both lungs. This morning the little patient -passed his urine, about 200 grammes. He is more lively, and replies -better to any questions addressed to him. - -“May 28.--The improvement continues; the dyspnœa has almost entirely -disappeared; only a few râles are still heard at the extreme base. The -pulse is stronger and remains regular. The secretion of urine gradually -reappears. The temperature of the extremities has become normal. - -“On May 29 and following days the œdema continued to diminish, and had -totally disappeared eight or ten days later. - -“Recovery was complete by about June 15. The child was discharged on -June 23, 1904. - -“It seemed to us worth while to report this case, in order to emphasise -the conclusion that forces itself upon us, namely that in all cases of -bites from poisonous snakes an injection of Calmette’s serum should be -given, without considering the efficacy of this therapeutic agent as -being rendered doubtful by the length of time that may have elapsed -since the bite was inflicted. - -“In the present case, as we have seen, there was extensive -intoxication, which had seriously affected the functions of the various -organs, since we found cardiac arhythmia and pulmonary œdema, and that -the patient was threatened with collapse, algidity, hypothermia, and -anuria. Impregnation by the virus having continued for seven hours, -we might have felt ourselves justified, on the one hand in merely -employing the proper means for the relief of the general condition, on -the other hand in treating the local condition, without having recourse -to the serotherapeutic method, that seems to us in this case, in so -far as it is permissible to make such a statement, to have been the -determining factor in the recovery.” - -XXVI.--Case recorded by Dr. Lapeyre, of Fontainebleau (from _L’Abeille -de Fontainebleau_ of June 27, 1902). - -“M. X., who arrived at Fontainebleau on Sunday morning with a friend, -keeps grass snakes at home, in Paris; he finds his hobby as good a -means as any other to remind him of the forest and its charms. Human -nature includes all kinds of tastes, so that this particular one need -not be further discussed. - -“The journey, therefore, had a twofold object: firstly to spend a whole -day in sunshine and in the open air, and secondly to catch grass snakes -to add to the collection. - -“On leaving the train, our Parisian walked up the Amélie Road, and saw -a snake under a rock. Never doubting that it was one of the kind that -he knew so well, to kneel down, pass his left arm into the hole, and -seize the snake, was the work of a moment; he quickly succeeded, even -better than he intended, for instead of his seizing a grass snake, the -viper bit him so hard in the left forefinger, that he could only make -it let go by pulling it off with his other hand. Well knowing that he -had been dangerously bitten, he went down to the Station Road to get -the wound dressed, after which, thinking that all necessary precautions -had been taken he returned to the forest, but soon felt uncomfortable. -His arm and then his body swelled up, and he was seized with vomiting. -It was time to go to Fontainebleau to seek medical assistance, for he -had acute pain in the abdomen and stomach, his tongue was swollen, and -his body was turning black. - -“Accompanied by his friend he reached the town. His condition becoming -more serious every moment; the injured man was carried into a hotel, -where Dr. Lapeyre administered injections of antivenomous serum. After -three hours--the same period as had elapsed between the accident and -the first treatment--the general condition of the patient, which had -never ceased to be alarming, showed marked improvement. By the end of -the day he appeared to be out of danger, and left for Paris on Tuesday -evening, delighted at having got off so cheaply.” - - -H.--Echis carinata. - -XXVII.--Case recorded by Lieutenant C. C. Murison, I.M.S. (_Indian -Medical Gazette_, May, 1902, p. 171). - -“G. W. R., a Mahomedan, aged about 12, was admitted into hospital on -March 10, 1902, at 9.30 p.m., having been bitten by a snake on the -dorsum of the right foot an hour and a half previously. The snake was -killed by his sister, and was subsequently identified at the Research -Laboratory, Bombay, as an _Echis carinata_ (Phoorsa). - -“I saw the patient at about 9.45. The dorsum of the foot was swollen, -and the swelling extended above the ankle-joint. The knee reflexes -were very exaggerated, and the boy was somewhat drowsy. Since he was -gradually getting worse, I decided to inject 5 c.c. of Calmette’s -antivenene. I got the hospital assistant under my supervision to inject -it into the right calf, to cauterise the bite with silver nitrate, and -to apply a 1 in 40 carbolic poultice. Very soon (fifteen minutes) after -this the pain in the thigh, which had reached to the right groin, began -to disappear. During the night the patient was very sleepy, and the -attendants had great difficulty in keeping him awake. - -“March 12.--This morning the patient is much better; there is still -considerable swelling of the foot, but the pain is much less. All other -symptoms are gone.” - -XXVIII.--Case reported by Surgeon-Captain Sutherland I.M.S., Saugor, -C.P., India. - -Case of a woman bitten on the finger on July 22, 1898, by an _Echis -carinata_. Treated six hours later with 10 c.c. of serum. Recovery. - - -I.--Cerastes. - -XXIX.--Case reported by Dr. Moudon, of Konakry, French Guinea. - -“On December 9, 1898, a Foulah woman, eight months pregnant, was -collecting wood when she was bitten in the heel, behind the internal -malleolus of the right foot, by a snake which, from the description -given, must have been a Horned Viper. When I saw her, four hours after -the accident, the whole of the lower leg was swollen and painful. -The swelling extended to the groin, and the patient complained of -vertigo and nausea. I immediately gave her an injection of 10 c.c. of -antivenomous serum in the right flank, followed by a second injection -at 10 p.m. Ten days later, with the Commandant of the _Fulton_, I -saw her again at her village; she had no symptom of malaise, and the -pregnancy was taking its normal course.” - -XXX.--Case of a bite from a Horned Viper reported by Dr. Mons, in -charge of the Military Hospital of Laghouat, Algeria. - -“Mohamed ben Naouri, a day labourer, aged 26, during the summer catches -Horned Vipers, which he stuffs and sells. - -“On August 3 a _Cerastes_, which he was holding down on the sand with a -forked stick, disengaged itself and fastened on his hand. The snake was -a large one, about 50 cm. in length. - -“The accident happened at 6.30 a.m., 6 kilometres from Laghouat, and -the man was bitten on the joint between the second and third phalanges -of the third finger of the right hand. He applied a ligature to his -wrist, and started to run as fast as he could towards the Military -Hospital, where he arrived an hour later. - -“He was immediately given an injection of antivenomous serum, in -accordance with the instructions, and, around the bite, five or -six injections of permanganate of potash, 1 in 20. On the next and -following days, tense œdema of the arm and left side of the chest. -Extensive purplish ecchymosis of the inner face of the arm; no fever. -The phenomena gradually diminished, and, on August 17, there was merely -a trifling wound where the bite had been inflicted. The patient was -discharged at his own request. - -“Like Dr. Marchand (des Montils), we can certify that the action of -Calmette’s serum was rapid and efficacious. The injection did not cause -any pain or febrile reaction.” - -XXXI.--Case reported by Dr. Blin, of Dahomey. - -“On March 5, 1906, native hospital attendant C., while gathering -vegetables in the hospital garden, was bitten in the right hand by a -_Cerastes_. The bite was inflicted in the tip of the index finger. -Ten minutes later a ligature was applied to the base of the finger -and another to the upper arm, and as soon as we saw the man, which -was after the lapse of about an hour, he was given an injection of 10 -c.c. of antivenomous serum. The patient complained of feeling cold and -vomited. The axillary temperature was 36·1° C.; the pulse was weak, -irregular, and rapid. The finger and hand were swollen. A few minutes -later we gave a second injection of serum. Until evening (the accident -took place at 11 a.m.) the patient suffered from nausea, but sweating -set in, and at 7 o’clock the temperature had risen to 36·7° C. The -feeling of depression was much less. On the following day the symptoms -had disappeared, and forty-eight hours afterwards the patient returned -to duty.” - - -K.--Bitis arietans (Puff Adder). - -XXXII.--Case reported by Dr. P. M. Travers, Chilubula Mission, -North-eastern Rhodesia. - -“On Thursday, September 6, 1906, information was brought to me that a -child, aged 7 or 8, in inserting his hand into a mole’s hole had been -bitten by a _lifwafwa_ (’Death-Death,’ _i.e._, Puff Adder). I set off -in all haste on my bicycle. An accident obliged me to leave the road -when half-way, and, to complete the series of mishaps, I went to a -village with a similar name, a good half-hour distant from that where -the patient lived. The result was that by the time I arrived I should -say that about two hours had elapsed since the child had been bitten. -The snake had been killed, and was, indeed, a puff adder. It had bitten -the child in the middle finger of the right hand, and half the arm -was greatly swollen, and as hard as stone. As quickly as possible I -gave an injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum, and then vainly -endeavoured to make the wound bleed. In a very short time the serum was -absorbed. On the following morning the child was still ill, with wild -eyes resembling those of an epileptic. He yawned continually, and did -not seem altogether conscious; the inflammation, however, had greatly -diminished. A few days later recovery was complete, but a large abscess -formed on the forearm, and the hand became necrosed. I was obliged to -amputate all the phalanges. The natives said the child was going to -die during the night. In my opinion the serum saved the child’s life, -and recovery would have been more rapid had I not been so late in -arriving.” - - -L.--Lachesis ferox (known as the _Grage_, in French Guiana). - -XXXIII.--Case reported by Dr. Lhomme. - -“In May, 1898, A., aged 48, a European convict undergoing sentence, was -admitted to the Penitentiary Infirmary, of Roches de Kouvous (French -Guiana), suffering from a poisonous bite. - -“The man had been bitten while engaged in felling timber, at the place -called Passouva. The locality is one that is infested with snakes, -especially at the end of the wet season. Two venomous species in -particular are found there in considerable numbers, the rattle-snake -and another called the _Grage_ by the blacks, which appears to be a -_Lachesis_. - -“The patient arrived at the Infirmary in the evening, about twelve -hours after the accident. We endeavoured to obtain precise details, -but, owing to special circumstances, A., who was alone, had been unable -to see what animal had bitten him. The clinical signs, however, pointed -to a venomous snake; inflammatory phenomena and pain set in soon after -the wound was inflicted, and in a very short time became acute. - -“_Clinical Signs._--On examining the patient we found that the whole of -the right arm was swollen. The skin, which was of a dark red colour, -was acutely inflamed. The slightest touch or the least movement caused -the patient to cry out. The hand showed traces of the bite, in the -shape of two small red marks, each surrounded by a bluish areola. The -general condition was good. The thermometer, however, indicated a -slight rise of temperature, and the pulse seemed a little soft. The -urine on being examined on the day after the accident contained a small -quantity of albumin. Organs normal. General health before the accident -excellent. Nothing worth mentioning in the previous history. - -“_Progress._--The conditions that we have just described disappeared -very quickly, once the treatment was applied. The pain soon ceased, -the temperature fell, and the patient was able to get a few hours -sleep. By the following day the inflammatory phenomena had noticeably -diminished. The œdema of the forearm and hand, however, persisted for -some time, though there was no formation of pus. On the third day after -the accident the albumin had completely disappeared from the urine. -Finally, after the lapse of a fortnight, the condition became normal, -and the convict, who had recovered the entire use of his arm, was able -to resume work. - -“_Treatment._--On admission to the Infirmary, A. received a hypodermic -injection in the thorax of the contents of a bottle of antivenomous -serum. At the same time he was given tonics (alcoholised coffee). The -injured limb was placed in a hot phenic arm-bath. These baths were -continued on the following days, alternately with damp dressings. Milk -diet, and daily aperients. - -“We saw the patient again more than a year after the accident; his -recovery had been complete; there was no loss of power in the arm -whatsoever, and he had never suffered from the nervous troubles -mentioned by some authors as a complication ensuing after a long -interval, and attributed by them to the antitoxic serum.” - -XXXIV.--Case reported by M. Jean, Veterinary Surgeon of Artillery in -Martinique. - -“C., a negro, aged 26, employed in the artillery quarters at the -Rivière d’Or, was bitten in the right leg by a snake measuring about 1 -metre in length, which he declared was a _Trigonocephalus_. The patient -came to me twenty minutes after the accident. The marks of the bite -were clearly visible a hand’s breadth above the external malleolus. -The wounds were inflamed, and appeared as two small red spots 1·5 cm. -apart, from which a few drops of serum were exuding. I did not notice -any congestion. The patient, however, complained of a feeling of weight -in the leg, and supported himself upon the sound one. After making the -man lie down upon a bed, I applied a tight ligature above the bitten -part, and, with a penknife passed through a flame, I endeavoured to -incise the wounds. The instrument, however, was blunt and I obtained -but little blood. - -“The treatment prescribed in Dr. Calmette’s directions was then -strictly followed. With the usual antiseptic precautions, I made -several hypodermic injections of the solution of hypochlorite of -calcium round the bite, and injected the dose of serum indicated in two -places in the abdominal wall. The patient was then vigorously rubbed -and covered with woollen blankets. He was made to take two cups of a -strong infusion of black coffee. Since he could not be induced to go -to hospital, he was carried half an hour later to his home, where he -placed himself in the hands of a ‘dresser.’ - -“According to information furnished by Captain Martin, who lived on -the spot and was able to follow the course of the case, the patient -remained throughout the day in a state of profound prostration, and had -several attacks of syncope. The injured limb was greatly swollen, and -the swelling, which extended to above the knee, produced a mechanical -difficulty in using the joint, leading to a belief that paralysis was -setting in. During the first five days the condition of the patient was -so alarming as to cause a fatal issue to be apprehended. By degrees -these symptoms diminished, until they disappeared about the fifth day. - -“On the twentieth day, C. returned to his work. I saw him again a -month later, when he was in perfect health; his leg had returned to -its normal size, and all that remained were two small fibrous nodules -showing where the bite had been inflicted.” - -XXXV.--Case reported by Dr. Gries, Fort-de-France, Martinique. - -“On June 21, 1896, a young black, who had just been bitten in the -foot by a _Bothrops_ of large size, was brought to the Fort-de-France -Hospital. The entire limb was swollen and benumbed. - -“Two hours after the accident I gave an injection of 10 c.c. of serum -in the abdomen, and the patient was taken back to his family. I saw -him again ten days later, and found that he was quite cured. His -friends stated that recovery had taken place much more quickly than -could have been hoped after so serious a bite, and without the usual -complications.” - -XXXVI.--Case reported by Dr. Gries, Fort-de-France, Martinique. - -“About 7 a.m., on November 25, 1896, G., aged 23, a fusilier belonging -to the disciplinary battalion, was bitten by a _Bothrops_ at Fort -Desaix under the following circumstances. One of his comrades had just -caught the snake, and was holding its head down on the ground by means -of a forked stick applied to the neck. G. passed a running noose round -the reptile’s neck, but, his comrade having withdrawn the fork too -soon, the snake had time to dart at him and bite him in left thumb. At -the moment when he was bitten the man was squatting, but he quickly -stood up, carrying with him the snake, which remained for a few seconds -suspended from the thumb by its fangs, and did not let go until its -victim had struck it on the head with his fist. G. immediately ran -to one of his officers, who applied a tight ligature to the base of -his thumb, and sent him off to the hospital, where he arrived on foot -and quite out of breath, ten or twelve minutes after the accident. He -was at once given a hypodermic injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous -serum in the left flank; the thumb was washed with a 1 in 60 solution -of hypochlorite of calcium, after which the ligature was removed. A -few moments later, thinking the case a serious one, I caused a second -injection of 10 c.c. of serum to be given in the right flank. - -“Immediately after being bitten the patient experienced complete loss -of sensation in the limb, as far as the middle of the arm. About 9 a.m. -he complained of acute shooting pains in the hand. At 11 o’clock the -limb was still benumbed, but by degrees sensation returned. Profuse -sweating. - -“On November 26 sensation was restored in the whole limb; no -inflammatory phenomena. The patient was perfectly well. - -“The _Bothrops_ on being brought to the hospital measured 1 metre 47 -cm. in length.” - -XXXVII.--Case reported by Dr. Lavigne, Colonial-Surgeon at -Fort-de-France. - -“At 7 a.m. on January 19, 1897, G., aged 22, was going along a footpath -near Trouvaillant, when he was bitten in the left external malleolus by -a _Trigonocephalus_ which was rutting (a circumstance which, according -to the natives, aggravates the character of the bite). - -“After killing one of the reptiles (the other having escaped), the -young man made his way to the detachment of gendarmery stationed close -by. The officer in command applied a ligature to the upper part of -the leg, cupped the man a few times, and sent information to us at -the Military Hospital. On reaching the spot at 9.15 we found, on the -postero-inferior surface of the left external malleolus, two small -wounds resembling those caused by the bite of a snake. The leg was -swollen and painful, and the patient could hardly put his foot to the -ground. - -“At 9.30, after taking the usual antiseptic precautions, we gave -an injection of Calmette’s antivenomous serum, from a bottle dated -December 26, 1896. Not having any hypochlorite of calcium at our -disposal, we washed the wound with a 1 in 60 solution of hyposulphite -of soda, and applied a dressing of carbolic gauze. An hour later the -patient was taken to Saint Pierre in a carriage. Temperature 37·2° C. -No vomiting, or tetanic phenomena. In the afternoon the pain was less -acute, and the œdema seemed to have diminished a little. Mercurial -ointment rubbed in. - -“Four days later the patient, being cured without having had the least -rise of temperature, proceeded to the country. - -“This case is interesting, since a single dose of antivenomous serum -(20 grammes), injected two hours and a half after the accident, -sufficed to cure a young man bitten by a _Trigonocephalus_ measuring 1 -metre 20 cm. in length.” - - -M.--Crotalus horridus. - -XXXVIII.--Case recorded by Dr. P. Renaux, of Piriapolis, Uruguay (_La -Tribuna popular_, Piriapolis, December 14, 1898). - -Silverita, aged 20, bitten in the ankle by a _Crotalus_, on December -7, 1898. Symptoms of serious intoxication. Treated with a dose of -antivenomous serum, injected half in the right flank, half in the left. -Recovery. - - - - -II.--A FEW NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS RELATING TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS -BITTEN BY POISONOUS SNAKES AND TREATED WITH SERUM. - - -A.--Naja haje. - -XXXIX.--Case reported by Dr. Maclaud, of Konakry, French Guinea. - -“A hound belonging to the Governor of Konakry was bitten in the ear -by a black _Naja_. A similar accident happened last year, and the -animal died on the fifth day. In the present case, serious phenomena -had already manifested themselves: depression, convulsions, and great -swelling of the entire head and anterior portion of the trunk. A dose -of 10 c.c. was injected at three different points: in the flank, -neck, and cellular tissue of the injured ear. Improvement was almost -immediate. On the following day the animal recovered its appetite, and -two days later was completely cured.” - -XL.--Case reported by Dr. Marotte, of Konakry. - -“At 10 a.m. on November 1, 1898, a large dog (a German brach), weighing -33 kilogrammes, was running about in some tall grass. It returned -to its master, looking unhappy, with its eyelids swollen. Thinking -that his dog had been bitten by a _Naja_, a snake which swarms round -Konakry, he took it to the hospital. The animal was unable to cover -the distance, which was only 300 metres; it was dragged along, but -collapsed, and had to be carried. Its head was swollen, it panted, and -its breathing was rapid and irregular; there was profuse salivation. -On the inner face of the right ear the marks of the two fangs of the -reptile were distinctly visible. A hypodermic injection of 10 c.c. -of antivenomous serum was immediately given in the right flank: this -was at 10.10 a.m. At 11 o’clock the symptoms appeared to become less -acute; the animal was easier, and its breathing became less rapid and -more regular. At 1 o’clock the animal succeeded in getting on to its -feet; the œdema had somewhat diminished, and it was able to half open -its eyes. At 6 o’clock the dog was taken back to its master’s house; it -seemed just as lively as though nothing had happened. - -“On the following morning there was still a small amount of œdema in -the eyelids, but the appearance of the head had become normal.” - - -B.--Pelias berus (Common Viper). - -XLI.--Case reported by M. de Maupas, of Challay, by Trôô. - -“About 1 p.m., on July 30, 1898, a fairly large pointer was brought -to me, bitten in the right paw. On shaving off the hair the marks of -the two fangs of the snake were clearly visible. The wound had bled -a little, and the injured limb was painful and swollen. I ligatured -the paw above the joint, and injected a bottle of antivenomous serum, -which had been in my possession since September 6, 1897. The effect -was very rapid; after a quarter of an hour the dog reopened its eyes, -which until then had been half closed. Towards 5 o’clock I removed the -ligature. On the next day but one the swelling had almost disappeared, -and the dog took its food of its own accord; it ran about and seemed -lively.” - -XLII.--Case reported by M. de Villiers, Mayor of Villiers-le-Duc, -Côte-d’Or. - -“About 2 p.m., on May 23, 1898, the widow Veillard, of Villiers-le-Duc, -while driving her herd of cows to pasture among the brushwood, saw a -viper which she killed, and then, a few moments later, three others -in succession, which she likewise killed. Madame Veillard thought of -leaving this place, which seemed to her to be too much infested, when -one of her cows, which was quietly feeding, swerved violently and -dashed off through the scrub. With the help of her dog she succeeded in -recovering the cow, which appeared uneasy, ceased to feed, and had a -swollen muzzle. Madame Veillard then decided to return to the village. - -“Towards 6 p.m., that is to say about three hours after the accident, -I was sent for. The head and tongue of the cow were swollen, there -was foam on the mouth, and the animal had difficulty in breathing. I -injected a dose of antivenomous serum, from our first-aid station, -beneath the skin of the shoulder, and gave a second injection a few -moments later. The cow was then led back to her shed. - -“At 9 p.m. she was quiet. The swelling did not increase, and the cow, -which had previously refused all food, ate a handful of hay. - -“On the following morning there was nothing to be seen beyond a little -swelling in the neck. The animal fed as usual, and gave her normal -quantity of milk.” - -XLIII.--Case reported by M. P. Rat, engineer, of -Saint-Rambert-en-Bugey, Ain. - -“About 2 p.m. on Sunday, September 7, 1902, while I was out shooting, -my bitch was bitten in the lower lip by a very large viper. Since I was -a long way from home, I was unable to give the injections until 6 p.m., -by which time the poor beast was in a pitiable condition. Her head was -as large as a saucepan; she had no strength left, trembled, and was -unable to stand. I injected 15 c.c. of serum in the left flank. This -was all that I did. - -“At 7 o’clock on the Monday morning the bitch ate and drank a little. -She began to walk about, and by the evening had completely recovered. -There was nothing but a very little swelling left.” - - -C.--Cerastes. - -XLIV.--Case reported by Dr. Boyé, of Kissidougou, French Soudan. - -“At Kan-Kau, on December 19, 1896, a cow belonging to the post, which -had been bitten by a snake at 8 a.m., seemed about to die. The snake, -which was killed by the herdsman, was a _Cerastes_ (Horned Viper). - -“On going to the cattle-shed I found the animal on her side and -panting, with the limbs completely relaxed. A thick foam was dropping -from the half-open mouth, and asphyxia seemed imminent. The cow had -been bitten in the teats, which were enormously swollen; the œdema -extended over the whole of the belly and inner face of the thighs. Two -doses of serum were injected, one at the base of the teats, the other -in the subcutaneous tissue of the flank. - -“On the following morning the œdema had diminished, and the breathing -was much easier; the animal seemed to be conscious of what was passing -around it. - -“Forty-eight hours later the cow was able to walk and went out to -graze, having apparently entirely recovered from the accident.” - - - - -III.--NOTE ON THE COLLECTION OF VENOM AND THE TREATMENT OF BITES -FROM POISONOUS SNAKES IN THE FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA. - -By Dr. PAUL GOUZIEN. - -Principal Medical Officer of Colonial Troops. - - -From the time of our arrival in India, in February, 1901, we turned our -attention to ensuring the regular collection of snake-venoms, with a -view to satisfying the desire for them that had been expressed by our -friend Professor Calmette, Director of the Pasteur Institute at Lille. - -To gain this end, the moral and financial support of the Administration -was indispensable, and this did not fail us. Acting on our suggestion, -as formulated by letter on May 25, 1901, Governor Rodier, on June 11, -issued an order by the terms of which a sum of 200 rupees was placed -at the disposal of the Chief of the Sanitary Service, “with a view -to encourage the catching of poisonous snakes, and to assist the -collection of snake-venom by the granting of bounties to natives.” - -On the issue of this order, we drew up instructions for the collection -of venom, which we caused to be distributed to all posts in the Colony. -At the same time an appeal in the vernacular was posted up in each of -our sanitary institutions, inviting the Hindus to commence the campaign -forthwith. The notice placarded on the door of the Pondicherry Hospital -ran as follows:-- - - -“Public Notice. - -“For the public good the Governor requests the population to capture -poisonous snakes in all places where they are found; to take them alive -if possible; and to bring them to the Hospital without removing their -fangs. - -“One rupee will immediately be paid for each snake brought in. - -“Those who read this notice are requested to communicate it to their -acquaintances.” - - * * * * * - -The Indian snake-charmers at once responded to this appeal, and the -harvest of snakes was soon abundant. The first provision of 200 -rupees, allotted to us by the Administration in June, 1901, had to -be successively renewed in May and October, 1902. Since then, on the -proposition of our successor, Dr. Camail, this sum of 200 rupees has -been included in the local budget, thus definitively sanctioning the -principle of the collection of venom in our Indian Settlements. - -The venom forwarded by us to France has been exclusively derived -from the cobra, or _Naja tripudians_. Other venomous serpents are -found in the French Settlements in India, especially the species of -_Hydrophis_, or sea-snakes; but the cobra is by far the commonest -species, and our trading stations teem with it. Yanaon is infested by -it at all seasons, but especially at the time when the Godavari is -in flood; the reptiles then make their way towards spots spared by -the inundation, and the natives frequently kill them in their houses. -Thus M. Mariapregassam, the Sanitary Officer in charge of the the -Medical Service of this dependency, was in a position to procure for -us, at the very commencement of our operations, important doses of -venom: it should be added that he acquitted himself of this task with -a perseverance and devotion worthy of the fullest recognition. Of the -653 cobras captured between August 1, 1901, and February 23, 1903, 229, -or more than one-third, were furnished by Yanaon. Moreover, the cost -price of the cobra fell in proportion to its numbers, and Yanaon paid -for its snakes on the average at the rate of 33 centimes apiece; while -at Chandarnagar and Pondicherry the snake-charmers frequently received -1 rupee (1 franc 67 centimes) per reptile, though it is true that even -this was an extremely poor remuneration, when we consider the risk of -the calling. - -Again, owing to the limited amount of our grants, we were obliged to -restrict our expenditure, regulating the purchase-price of the snakes -according to the quantity of venom collected. Thus at Pondicherry, -having observed that each cobra yielded on an average twenty drops of -venom, we fixed the value of two drops at one _fanon_ (one-eighth of a -rupee), never more. In this way it was decidedly to the snake-charmer’s -interest to bring us fresh snakes, and not such as had been previously -deprived of their venom. - -In spite of this new regulation, snakes continued to pour into the -hospital, and several were repeatedly brought to us at the same time; -in October and November, 1902, the figure 9 appears three times in our -statistics. - -The combined results of the snake-harvest at our five settlements, -from August 1, 1901, to February 23, 1903, are shown in the following -table:-- - - Average - weight Average Average - Quantity of dry price price - Number Sum of venom venom of the of 1 gramme - of cobras expended collected per cobra cobra of venom - - 653 R. 446 242 0·37 R. 0.68 R. 1.84 - grammes gramme (1.13 fr.) (3.07 fr.) - -On an average, therefore, nearly three cobras are necessary to furnish -1 gramme of dry venom, since freshly collected venom weighs more, -owing to the proportion of water contained in it, which is greater -than half the total weight. Thus the quantity of fresh venom extracted -from an average cobra may be estimated at about 80 centigrammes. It -may be added that the product of the glands differs considerably in -appearance, according as it is derived from a dead or living snake. -In the former case it takes the form of extremely small, glistening -lamellæ, of a golden-yellow colour, similar in appearance, when in -bulk, to iodoform. Venom extracted from the living snake, on the other -hand, is of an amber-brown colour, and forms much larger lamellæ, which -are translucent and slightly elongate, resembling particles of gum -arabic. When the product is impure and mixed with a small quantity of -blood, it has a dull appearance, and is of a dark, dirty brown, almost -black colour. - -At the Pondicherry Hospital venom is collected in the following -manner;[168] The snake is brought by the snake-charmer in a _chatty_, a -kind of earthern pot, covered with a rag, or half a calabash. Ensconced -at the bottom of this receptacle, the reptile has a difficulty in -making up its mind to emerge, which it does only after having been -stirred up several times. Once it is outside the charmer forces the -cobra to uncoil, and, while the animal is moving slowly along, fastens -it to the ground by placing the end of a bamboo on its neck, quite -close to the head. The Indian then cautiously seizes the head of the -cobra with his forefinger and thumb, and, with a rapid movement, throws -it into a jar prepared for the purpose, containing a few tampons of -absorbent wool impregnated with chloroform. As soon as the snake is -inside, an assistant quickly slips a metal plate over the opening of -the jar and presses his hand firmly down upon it. In a few minutes -the animal is dead; it is then taken out of the jar and its mouth is -swabbed out; next, the fangs having been raised by means of a probe, a -saucer is placed between the jaws, and, by pressure exerted upon the -poison-glands laterally and from behind forwards, the venom is made to -spurt out. The fresh product obtained in this way is of a very pale -yellow colour, and viscid. It is protected from the air and light until -completely desiccated; then, when it is in sufficient quantity and -distributed in flakes round the sides of the saucer, like the colours -on a palette, it is cautiously detached with a spatula, taking care to -protect the eyes against risk from flying particles of venom. After -being placed in well-corked bottles, the product is despatched to -France. - -In spite of the precautions observed in the course of these -proceedings, and although the venom has not been extracted until after -the death of the animal, some regrettable accidents have taken place, -as we shall show further on. - -Cases of bites from poisonous snakes appear but seldom in the -statistics of our settlements in India, and, contrary to what is -the case in the neighbouring English possessions, hardly any deaths -are _officially_ recognised in the annual returns as being due to -this cause. It is true that the death statistics are very badly -authenticated, and that the natives frequently conceal the real cause -of death. - -We have been informed by Dr. Cordier, Surgeon-Major of the Sepoy Corps, -that, during a previous tour of duty in Bengal, he had successfully -treated two cases of cobra-bite with Calmette’s serum. - -At the end of 1901 the following note was forwarded to us by Dr. -Paramananda Mariadassou, Physician to the Karikal Hospital:-- - -“Case I.--In the month of November, 1901, a woman of robust habit was -brought about midnight to the Karikal Hospital, in a semi-comatose -condition. Her husband stated that an hour before, while lying on a -mat stretched on the ground, she felt herself bitten in the shoulder -when in the act of placing her head on the pillow. With a start of -surprise she half rose and then lay down again. It was only on being -bitten for the third time that she made up her mind to seek for the -cause; passing her hand beneath the pillow in the darkness she touched -the body of a snake and cried out. Directly afterwards she pointed out -to her husband, who had at once hastened to her, the snake coiled up -against the wall; the man killed the reptile and burnt it on the spot. -According to him the snake was about a metre in length, and as thick as -all five fingers put together. The woman had barely time to tell her -husband what had happened, for she speedily became unconscious, and was -in this condition when brought to the hospital. - -“On admission the following symptoms were observed: The patient did not -reply to questions put to her, the eyelids remained closed, and the -teeth clenched. On the right shoulder, a little on the inner side of -the deltoid prominence, two or three punctures were distinguishable, -marked by a small spot of coagulated blood. The respiration was normal, -but the pulse was feeble and thready. When a pledget impregnated with -ammonia was held under her nose the woman reacted, but immediately -relapsed into the soporose condition. - -“Two doses of antivenomous serum were at once injected, one in each -flank: the patient seemed scarcely to feel the insertion of the needle. -The wound on the shoulder was then washed with a fresh solution of -hypochlorite of calcium, 1 in 60, and six injections, each of 1 gramme, -of the same solution were given round the wound. The latter was covered -with a pad of cotton-wool saturated with the solution, and two more -doses of serum were injected into the flanks. As the result of this -treatment, which altogether took nearly half an hour, the woman began -to unclench her teeth, and to respond to her name. She was made to -swallow a few mouthfuls of very hot black coffee. A little later she -resisted when a fresh injection of serum was about to be given her. -After having taken a second cup of coffee she sat up, opened her eyes, -and recognised those about her. She immediately asked to go home, -but was detained for some time longer. After being carried from the -operating table to a bed, she was wrapped in a blanket; a few minutes -later profuse perspiration set in, and the patient felt so well that -she was allowed to go. - -“On the following day the husband came to thank us, and stated that his -wife had quite recovered, and that, while she had been unable to sleep -for the remainder of the night, it was rather from fear caused by what -had happened than in consequence of the pain.” - -Case II.--We feel it our duty to relate in detail the following case, -having regard to the peculiar circumstances under which it took place. - -Coupin, the son of Ponnin, aged 25, living at Carouvadicoupom, near -Pondicherry, is a snake-charmer, and one of those who regularly supply -us with venom. In the course of July, 1902, this man pointed out to us -a shrub[169] growing in one of the alleys of the hospital, to which he -attributed so marvellous a power against the bites of poisonous snakes, -that he offered to make a cobra bite him in our presence, little as -we showed any desire to witness such an exhibition. We allowed him to -talk, not wishing to encourage such an act of bravado. - -However, on July 23 he returned to the charge, and, as we were leaving -the hospital accompanied by our colleagues, he showed us a cobra -which he had just caught, and declared himself ready to carry out the -proposed experiment there and then. In the face of so much confidence -and _sang-froid_, and, apart from this, being interested in learning -the justification for the reputation for immunity possessed by Hindu -snake-charmers, we thought we ought not to oppose this voluntary test. - -Coupin then turned out from the chatty in which it was imprisoned a -medium-sized cobra, and amused himself for a few moments by teasing -it. Irritated by this sport, the snake reared itself up, hissed, and -struck at its aggressor several times, as though it would bite him; -but, at each dart, Coupin stopped it with his hand and gaze, and the -snake remained fascinated, with open mouth, hesitating to drive home -its fangs. At one moment the snake even crawled up to the native’s -outstretched hand, and appeared to lick it: it was evident that the -animal’s only intention was to defend itself, not to attack. - -Coupin, however, was bent on getting bitten, and, by dint of exciting -the snake, the latter became so exasperated that, with hood dilated, it -struck at the snake-charmer’s right hand and drove in its fangs. The -man quietly raised his arm, to allow it to be clearly seen that the -cobra had a firm hold; then, forcing the animal to let go, he came to -us to prove that he was really bitten. There were two bleeding spots, 6 -millimetres apart, in the centre of the fourth intermetacarpal space of -the right hand. The time was exactly 4.40 p.m. - -The snake, which was immediately killed, was still able to yield twelve -drops of venom, when lateral pressure was applied to its glands. - -Coupin walked towards a shrub of the kind mentioned above, which he -had planted that very morning in the courtyard of the hospital,[170] -plucked some leaves from it and began to chew them, making rather a -wry face, for he said that they were very bitter. He then seemed to -meditate for a few moments before the shrub. We asked him whether he -was afraid, but he stoutly denied it, declaring that this was not his -first experience, and that indeed he had been bitten by cobras so -often that he could not remember the first occasion. We endeavoured to -discover whether he was not rendered immune, as Indian snake-charmers -are reputed to be, by inoculating themselves subcutaneously with -increasing doses of venom, according to a principle to a certain extent -analagous to that on which the preparation of antivenomous serum -is based. He, however, assured us that he knew nothing about such -practices, and that the properties of the plant in question had always -sufficed to cure him without other treatment. Such was his confidence -in his specific that, before the cobra was killed, he suggested to our -hospital-warder that he should allow himself to be bitten in his turn, -in order to render the experiment still more conclusive, adding that -his own assistant would be the subject at the next demonstration. - -Nevertheless, a slight œdema began to appear round the bite. The -injured man seemed to be suffering a little, but the pain did not -extend above the wrist; a slight trembling appeared in the other arm. -From time to time Coupin gently massaged the affected limb with his -left hand from above downwards, in order, he said, to lessen the pain, -and perhaps also with a view to checking the diffusion of the venom. A -slight perspiration broke out over the body; the pulse was regular, 92, -twenty minutes after the bite. - -Towards 6.15, or about an hour and a half after the experiment, the -man, refusing an injection of serum, prepared to go home, but we -insisted that he should remain at the hospital for at least two hours -longer, so as to enable us to watch his condition. He consented to -this, and asked for something to eat. At this time the back of the hand -was somewhat more swollen, but Coupin seemed to be little disturbed by -it; he even declared that the swelling would increase still further on -the following day, and that, in two or three days, he would make an -incision in order to let out the impure blood collected at the spot; -also that the trouble was now localised, and would not extend higher. -He merely complained of acute thirst, and of a certain difficulty in -swallowing, which was due, he declared, to the extreme bitterness of -the leaves that he had just masticated. Temperature 36·8° C.; pulse -36. After the brief reaction at the outset, there was a certain amount -of hypothermia, but the general condition seemed satisfactory, and -the man remained perfectly calm. We therefore left him under the -supervision of the resident student and the male attendants, giving -orders that we should be sent for immediately in case of any serious -symptoms arising. - -At 7.15 we received a note from the student to the effect that Coupin -had vomited, that his pulse was small, there was difficulty in -breathing, and that he had just received an injection of antivenomous -serum. We hastened to the hospital, where we were speedily joined by -Drs. Cordier and Lhomme. - -On our arrival we found Coupin in a rather prostrate condition. The -pupils were fixed, he was foaming slightly at the mouth, respiration -was regular, the pulse was strong and quite rhythmical at 96; the man -was somewhat chilly. The patient was unable to speak, but had not lost -consciousness, for, when we asked him how he was, he indicated by signs -that he felt very ill. We subsequently learnt, from the student on -duty, that towards 6.45 the condition of the patient became suddenly -worse, after his companion had administered to him some medicine, the -nature of which we have been unable to discover; on swallowing this -drug Coupin was seized with vomiting, and became collapsed. We thought -it more likely, however, that this was a mere coincidence, rather than -the result of a poison adding its effects to those produced by the bite -of the snake. - -While waiting for our arrival a ligature had been applied to the -injured arm, and near the bite there had been made two deep incisions, -from which some dark blood escaped. At the same time the patient -received hypodermically a first injection of 10 c.c. of Dr. Calmette’s -antivenomous serum, and two injections of ether and caffeine. As the -result of this treatment we found a marked increase in pulse-rate. -After a subcutaneous injection of 500 grammes of artificial serum, -there appeared to be a further distinct improvement until about 8.45 -(four hours after the bite). From this moment, however, the patient -gradually sank. A second dose of antivenomous serum was injected -beneath the skin,[171] and, since the respiratory movements gradually -became slower, artificial respiration by Sylvester’s method was -resorted to, while the tongue was rhythmically drawn forward. From -time to time these proceedings were interrupted for a few moments, in -order to observe the condition of the respiration; at the base of the -thorax and in the flanks abrupt, jerky, tetaniform undulations were -observable, but there was no free respiratory movement. The abdominal -aorta, the pulsations of which were visible behind the navel, raising -the anterior wall of the abdomen, was somewhat misleading, simulating -the rhythmical oscillations of the abdominal respiratory type. The -heart, however, continued to beat regularly, without any appreciable -weakness. The radial pulse persisted, although weak and slow: rate 48. - -The patient was kept alive by repeated injections of ether and -artificial serum (1¼ litres in three doses). About 8.30 there appeared -to be a slight improvement; the patient was warmer, and showed some -degree of sensation in the region of the bite. On pinching the -vasculo-nervous bundle in the left axilla reflex movements were -produced in the fingers, which closed convulsively. The pulse, which -had momentarily disappeared in the radial artery, could again be felt, -weak but regular. At the same time, when the epigastric region was -examined, a few faint respiratory movements were just perceptible. -A third injection of antivenomous serum was given and artificial -respiration was continued. - -This factitious amelioration, however, was not maintained, and after -a few scarcely visible movements of the thorax the end soon came. The -eyes were fixed and insensible, the pupils slightly dilated; no sweats, -no urine passed. The body slowly grew cold; the pulse disappeared from -the femoral and carotid arteries, and diminished in the aorta. The -contractions of the heart were once or twice irregular, and its beats -became weaker and gradually The reflexes had disappeared. There were -still a few slight muscular contractions near the base of the chest, -and the patient quietly passed away at 11.5 p.m., as the result of the -progressive arrest of the heart’s action, respiration itself having -virtually disappeared two hours before the heart had ceased to beat. - -Case III.--A week after this sad occurrence, another snake-charmer, -Kingilien by name, aged 25, was bitten in the first phalanx of the -right forefinger, when taking hold of a cobra in the courtyard of -the Pondicherry Hospital. Refusing an injection of antivenomous -serum, the man ran off as fast as he could go, after having a simple -ligature applied to his wrist. Scarcely had he reached his dwelling, -when he fell into a deep coma, in which condition he was carried to -Cottacoupom, to the abode of one Souraire Kramani, a kind of sorcerer, -who administered to him a certain medicament in a betel leaf. After -having vomited a large quantity of bile he was taken home. At this -time, according to the summary investigation that we caused to be made, -the patient was unable to utter a single word; he could only open his -mouth with difficulty, and his eyelids remained closed. Kingilien, -who had partially regained consciousness, seemed to be suffering -from continuous attacks of vertigo; his head, if pushed to one side, -drooped, and the man was incapable of voluntary movement. Respiration -was fairly easy, swallowing painful. The entire hand was greatly -swollen; poultices of leaves were applied to it, after a few incisions -had been made with a knife in the back of the hand, in order to reduce -the congestion. The arm was rubbed from above downwards with the very -bitter leaves of the _Vëmbou_, or mango-tree, and prayers were recited. -This is all the information that I have been able to obtain with -reference to this man, who, after a prolonged convalescence, is said to -have recovered (?). - -Case IV.--One Latchoumanin, aged 25, also a snake-charmer, of -Caradicoupom, was bitten at the Hospital at 10 a.m., on August 2, -while handling a cobra. The bite was situated in the second joint of -the right thumb. After it had bitten the man, ten drops of venom were -extracted from the reptile’s glands. - -A ligature was immediately applied, and the wound was made to bleed -by hard squeezing. Refusing all other treatment, especially injection -of serum, although we repeatedly urged it, the man made off home with -all speed, but on arrival failed to find the specific on which he -was relying. All that was then done was to recite a few prayers over -him, and a Brahmin priest was called to bless him. About 11.30, after -acute suffering, Latchoumanin sank into a comatose condition. At 12.30 -respiration became stertorous, and the patient succumbed at 2 p.m., -four hours after being bitten. Just as the medical officer, deputed by -us, reached the dying man, two chatties containing live snakes were -deposited at his bedside, to ward off ill-luck! - - * * * * * - -On the whole, the evidence collected in the last two cases is as -confused as it is incomplete, and we can scarcely say how much we -regret the obstinacy of these unfortunate victims in refusing to submit -to our treatment, for the serum would undoubtedly have produced its -maximum effect in them, since it would have been possible to make use -of it in good time. These disastrous occurrences, however, will not -cure natives of their exclusive reliance upon empirical practices; -and as regards the inhabitants of the Tamil country, that is to say, -Southern India, it may be foreseen that for a long time to come they -will continue to remain refractory to the serotherapic treatment, -submission to which the English have had less difficulty in securing -from the natives of Bengal, whose intellectual development undoubtedly -stands on a higher plane. - - - - -INDEX. - - - d’Abbadie, M., on inoculation, 238. - - _Acalyptophis_, 133. - - _Acanthophis_, 96. - - “ _antarcticus_ (death adder), 96. - - “ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100. - - _Acanthopterygii_, 290, 301, 304. - - _Acanthurus_, 301. - - “ _luridus_, 301. - - Adder, 25, 26. _See also Vipera berus._ - - Africa, poisonous snakes in, 57-81. - - “ “ “ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 143, 144. - - “ (Central), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237. - - “ (East), Vatuas’ method of inoculation, 239. - - Agglutinins of venoms, 202. - - _Aipysurus_, 140. - - “ _annulatus_, 140. - - “ _australis_, 140. - - “ _lævis_, 140. - - “ _eydouxii_, 140. - - Albuminoid of snake-venom produces hæmorrhages, 162. - - Albumins of venom devoid of toxic power, 164. - - Albumose of snake-venom attacks nerve-cell of respiratory centres, - 162. - - Albumoses of venoms of _Colubridæ_, 162. - - “ “ “ method of separation, 162. - - “ _See also_ Proto-albumoses, Hetero-albumoses. - - Alcatifa, extraction of venom from, for inoculation, 239. - - Alcock, researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. - - Alexins, 198, 209. - - “ characteristics of, 207. - - “ fixation of, 210, 211. - - “ of normal serum, fixation by cobra-venom, 211. - - “ neutralisation of, 212. - - Alkaloids in venom, 160. - - Alps, and mountains of Central Europe, _Salamandra atra_ found in, - 313. - - Amboceptors, 198, 210. - - “ fixation of, 208, 220. - - America, snakes in, geographical distribution of genera of (table), - 146. - - “ venomous snakes in, 100-131. - - America, (Central), _Batrachus tau_ found on shores of, 302. - - “ (North), musical toad found in, 318. - - “ (South), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237. - - “ (Tropical and Sub-tropical), _Latrodectus mactans_ found in, 275. - - Ammonia, injection of, only temporary antidote against snake-venom, - 261. - - _Ancistrodon_, 49, 109, 110. - - “ venom of, precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, 195. - - “ _acutus_, 49. - - “ _bilineatus_, 111. - - “ _blomhoffii_, 50. - - “ _contortrix_, 111. - - “ _himalayanus_, 50. - - “ _hypnale_, 51. - - “ _intermedius_, 50. - - “ _piscivorus_, 110. - - “ _rhodostoma_, 51. - - Anderson, relation of escape from _Naja haje_, 60. - - _Anemone scultata_, 269. - - Aniline colours, action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167. - - Animals, venomous, definition of, 1. - - Arachnolysin, poison from _Latrodectus_ prepared by, 276. - - _Araneida_ (spiders), 274. - - Armstrong, H., chemical analysis of cobra-venom, 159. - - Arrows, poisoned by Hottentots with venom of _Bitis arietans_, 72. - - Arthropods, poisonous species of, 274. - - Asia, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30, 57. - - “ “ “ “ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 142, 143. - - Asp, 27, 28. _See also Vipera aspis_. - - _Aspidelaps_, 64. - - “ _lubricus_, 64. - - “ _scutatus_, 64. - - _Atheris_, 78. - - “ _ceratophorus_, 78. - - “ _chlorechis_, 78. - - “ _squamiger_, 78. - - Atlantic (Tropical), _Acanthurus_ found in, 301. - - “ “ _Muræna moringa_ found in, 309. - - _Atractaspis_, 78. - - “ _aterrima_, 80. - - “ _bibronii_, 80. - - “ _congica_, 79. - - “ _corpulenta_, 80. - - “ _dahomeyensis_, 80. - - “ _hildebrandtii_, 79. - - “ _irregularis_, 79. - - “ _leucomelas_, 81. - - “ _microlepidota_, 81. - - “ _micropholis_, 81. - - “ _rostrata_, 80. - - Australia, health authorities’ notices against venomous reptiles, 100. - - “ mortality from snake-bite in, 100, 261. - - “ poisonous snakes of, 81-100. - - “ snakes of, almost all confined to sub-family _Elapinæ_, 5. - - - Bacteriolytic action of venoms, 206. - - “ “ “ how differing from that of rat-serum, 208. - - Bailey, action of venom on brain, 185. - - Batrachians, 312. - - _Batrachiidæ_, 302. - - _Batrachus grunniens_, 302. - - “ _tau_, 302. - - Bavay on the spitting snake, 63. - - Bee-sting, remedies for, 286. - - Bees, venom of, 282. - - Bertrand, researches of, 147. - - Bertrand and Phisalix, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, - 226. - - “ “ preparation of toad-venom, 319. - - Bettencourt, R., venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, 184. - - Bibron and Duméril on coloration of snakes, 16. - - “ “ _Naja_ worship in Egypt, 61. - - Bile, destructive effect on cobra-venom, 215. - - Birds, symptoms after inoculation with lethal doses of venom, 172. - - _Bitis_, 69. - - “ _arietans_ (puff adder), 69. - - “ “ “ “ bite from, 350. - - “ “ “ “ venom used for poisoning arrows by Hottentots, 72. - - “ _atropos_, 72. - - “ _caudalis_, 73. - - “ _cornuta_, 73. - - “ _gabonica_, 73. - - “ “ does not attack man, 74. - - “ _inornata_, 72. - - “ _peringueyi_, 72. - - Black snake, 88. _See also Pseudechis porphyriacus._ - - Blin, bite from _Cerastes_, 349. - - Blindness following bite of viper, 178. - - Blood, anticoagulant action of venom on, mechanism of, 195. - - “ coagulability, action of venom of _Lachesis lanceolatus_ on, 191. - - “ “ destroyed by venoms of _Colubridæ_, 179, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193. - - “ “ “ “ certain species of _Crotalinæ_, 191, 192, 193. - - “ “ uncertain action of venom of Vipera berus on, in certain animals, - 189, 190. - - “ coagulation of, connected with action of venoms of _Viperidæ_ on - nervous system, 185, 186. - - “ “ produced by venoms of _Viperidæ_, 179, 188, 189. - - “ not coagulated after death caused by venoms of _Colubridæ_, 171, - 188, 189. - - “ of hedgehog toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, 226. - - “ of scorpion antitoxic, 279. - - Blood, toxicity of, in reptiles, 217. - - “ “ “ confers partial immunity to venom, 218, 219. - - “ “ “ destroyed by heating, 218. - - “ “ in venomous snakes, 217. - - Blood-corpuscles, red, agglutination by venoms, 202. - - “ “ dissolution only effected by combination of venom with - blood-serum or lecithin, 197. - - “ “ dissolved by snake-serums, 219, 220. - - “ “ effects of venom upon, 196. - - “ “ resistance to large doses of venom, 199, 200, 201. - - “ “ “ “ “ “ explanation, 200, 201. - - “ “ washing of, important before presentation to action of venom, - 196, 197. - - “ unaltered under action of simultaneous doses of venom and serum, - 220. - - “ white, effects of venom on, 203. - - Bombay, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. - - Bonaparte, Lucien, chemistry of venom of vipers, 160. - - _Bothrops_, bites from, 353, 354. - - Bottard on venomous fishes, 288. - - _Boulengerina_, 58. - - “ _stormsi_, 58. - - _Brachyaspis_, 95. - - “ _curta_, 95. - - Brain, comparative action of venoms of _Colubridæ_ and _Viperidæ_ on, - 185, 186. - - “ substance of, fixation of venom on, 186. - - Brazil, _Thalassophryne maculosa_ found on shores of, 303. - - Brehm, on _Crotalus confluentus_, 125. - - “ the daboia (_Vipera russellii_), 46. - - “ _Echis carinatus_ (efa, viper of the pyramids), 76, 77. - - “ reverence paid by Hindus to _Naja_, 38. - - Broad-headed snake, 94. _See also Hoplocephalus variegatus._ - - Briot, A., experiments with weever-venom, 298, 299. - - “ poison of _Scolopendra_ prepared by, 280. - - Bromized water, saturated, modifies or destroys venoms, 164. - - Brown snake, 87. _See also Diemenia textilis._ - - Brunton, Sir Lauder, on harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal - dose, 214. - - _Bufo calamita_ (natter-jack), 318. - - “ _musicus_ (musical toad), 318. - - “ _viridis_ (green toad), 318. - - “ _vulgaris_ (common toad), 318. - - Bufotalin, 319, 320. - - “ first active principle of toad-venom, and cardiac poison, 319, 320. - - Bufotenin, 320. - - “ second active principle of toad-venom, and neurotoxic poison, 320. - - _Bungarus_, 30. - - “ venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, 199. - - “ _cæruleus_ (common krait), bite, cure of, 337. - - “ “ “ “ venom of, dose lethal for different animals, 174. - - “ _candidus_, 32. - - _Bungarus candidus_, resemblance to _Lycodon aulicus_, 33. - - “ _fasciatus_, 31, 32. - - _Buprestidæ_, food for larvæ of _Cerceris bupresticida_, 285. - - Bushmaster, or surucucu, 112. _See also Lachesis mutus._ - - - _Calamaridæ_, species of _Callophis_ feed only upon, 42. - - _Callionymus_, 301. - - “ _belennus_, 301. - - “ _lacertus_, 301. - - “ _lyra_, 300-301. - - “ _vulsus_, 301. - - _Callophis_, 40. - - “ feeds only on snakes belonging to _Calamaridæ_, 42. - - “ _bibronii_, 41. - - “ _gracilis_, 41. - - “ _maclellandi_, 41. - - “ _maculiceps_, 41. - - “ _trimaculatus_, 41. - - Calmette’s serum, cobra-bites treated with, 363-5. _See also_ Serum, - antivenomous. - - Calvados, _Callionymus lyra_ common on coast of, 301. - - _Cantharis_ (blister-beetles), 281. - - Cantor, on venom of _Naja bungarus_, 39. - - “ vindictiveness of _Naja bungarus_, 39. - - Captivity, poisonous snakes kept in, 61, 62, 125, 156, 223. - - Carawalla. _See Ancistrodon hypnale._ - - Cardiac poison of toad-venom (bufotalin), 319, 320. - - Caribbean Sea, _Scorpæna grandicornis_ found in, 293. - - Carpi and Morgenroth, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, 285. - - Carrière, experiments on ingestion of venom, 214. - - Cascavella (_Crotalus terrificus_), 124. - - Cato, army of, patronage of snake-charmers by, 228. - - _Causus_, 67. - - “ _defilipii_, 67. - - “ _lichtensteinii_, 68. - - “ _resimus_, 67. - - “ _rhombeatus_, 67. - - Cells, dissolution of. _See_ Cytolytic action. - - _Cerastes_, 47, 75. - - “ bites from, 348-350. - - “ “ cured, 358. - - “ secretion of, 150. - - “ venom of, fatal to barefooted pedestrians, 76. - - “ _cornutus_, 47, 75. - - “ _vipera_, 75. - - _Cerceris bupresticida_, 285. - - Ceylon, snake-charmers of, 229. - - Chameleons succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, 172. - - Chelicera (fang of spider), 274. - - Chemical reactions exhibited by venoms, 162. - - Chemical substances modifying or destroying venoms, 164. - - Chemistry of snake-venoms, 159. - - Cherry and Martin on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins, 253. - - _Chilomycterus_, 307. - - “ _orbicularis_, 307. - - “ _tigrinus_, 307. - - China and Japan, _Lophius setigerus_ found in seas of, 304. - - Chloride of gold, antidote to venom before absorption, 261, 263. - - “ “ solution, modifies or destroys venom, 164. - - “ lime solution, modifies or destroys venom, 164. - - Cholesterin, antidote to lecithin, 198. - - Chromic acid, antidote to venom before absorption, 260. - - “ “ solution, modifies or destroys venoms, 164. - - Clamouse, on bites from European vipers, 343. - - Clot Bey on Egyptian snake-charmers, 228-229. - - Clothing protective against dangerous effects of snake-bite, 170. - - Cobra, bite of, clinical symptoms, 169. - - “ “ “ “ exhibit rapid general intoxication, 169. - - “ “ treated with Calmette’s serum, 363. - - “ extraction of venom from, method, 153. - - “ Egyptian (_Naja haje_ or _haie_), 59. - - “ method of carrying after capture, 21. - - “ snake-charmers’ skill with, 229. - - “ venom of, 149. - - “ “ alkaloids in, 160. - - “ “ chemical analysis, 159. - - “ “ comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral injections, 186. - - “ “ destructive action of bile on, 215. - - “ “ dissolution of trypanosomes by, 207. - - “ “ dose lethal for different animals in twenty-four hours, 174. - - “ “ fixation on nervous elements, 186. - - “ “ local effects on serous membranes slight, 179. - - “ “ potency of antineurotoxic antivenomous serum against, 250, 251, - 252. - - “ “ vaccination against, 242, 244, 245. - - Cobra-di-Capello, 33. _See also Naja tripudians._ - - “ “ spectacled, used by Hindu snake-charmer, 229. - - _Cœlenterates_, poisonous species of, 269. - - _Cœlopeltis_, 22. - - “ _moilensis_, 23. - - “ _monspessulana_, 23. - - Cold, intense, toxicity of venom not diminished by, 166. - - Colombia, herons of, probably immune to snake-venom, 227. - - “ “ hunt young snakes for food, 226. - - Coloration of snakes, 15, 16. - - “ “ subject to biological laws of mimicry, 15, 16. - - _Colubridæ_, 3, 30, 57, 82, 100, 101-109. _See also Acanthophis_, - _Aspidelaps_, _Boulengerina_, _Brachyaspis_, _Dendraspis_, - _Denisonia_, _Diemenia_, _Elapechis_, _Elapognathus_, _Furina_, - _Glyphodon_, _Homorelaps_, _Hoplocephalus_, _Micropechis_, - _Notechis_, _Ogmodon_, _Opisthoglypha_, _Proteroglypha_, - _Pseudechis_, _Pseudelaps_, _Rhinhoplocephalus_, _Rhynchelaps_, - _Sepedon_, _Tropidechis_, _Walterinnesia_. - - _Colubridæ_ (sub-family _Elapinæ_). _See also Bungarus_, _Naja_, - _Hemibungarus_, _Callophis_, _Doliophis_. - - “ resemblance to harmless snakes, 3. - - “ species of, bite rapidly produces general intoxication, 168. - - “ venoms of, absorption by digestive tract often without ill-effect, - 180, 181. - - “ “ “ “ “ “ “ cause, 181. - - “ “ action on nervous centres profound, 185. - - “ “ affinity of scorpion poison to, 278. - - “ “ albumoses of, 162. - - “ “ destroy coagulability of blood, 179, 188, 189. - - “ “ dialyse slowly, 161. - - “ “ lethal effects on mammals, 170. - - “ “ minimum doses lethal for guinea-pig in twenty-four hours, 173. - - “ “ precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, 195. - - “ “ recovery rapid after non-lethal doses, 177. - - “ “ resistant to heat, 161. - - “ “ richness in neurotoxin, 249. - - Common rattle-snake, 125. _See also Crotalus durissus._ - - Congestin, poison from _Anemone scultata_, 271. - - Conjunctivitis caused by discharge into eyes of venom of spitting - snake, 63, 64. - - Copperhead, 90. _See also Denisonia superba._ - - Coral-snake, 104. - - “ immunity from bite of, 238. - - “ venomous nature of, 108. - - “ _See also Elaps corallinus._ - - Coral or harlequin snake, 106. _See Elaps fulvius._ - - Cordier, D., cobra-bites treated with Calmette’s serum, 363. - - Cotes, E. C., on extraction of venom by charmers, 234. - - _Cottus_, 289, 290, 292. - - “ poison-apparatus of, 293. - - _Crabronidæ_, 285. - - “ stings of females of, toxic to other insects, nearly harmless to - man, 285. - - _Crotalinæ_ (_Viperidæ_), 101, 109. - - “ characteristics of, 6. - - “ venoms of certain species of, non-coagulant, 191, 192, 193. - - “ _See Ancistrodon_; _Lachesis_. - - _Crotalus_ (rattle-snake), 110, 122. - - “ comparative toxicity of organs, 220. - - “ eggs of, rich in poison, 220. - - “ poison glands of, 148. - - “ venom of, alkaloids in, 160. - - “ “ comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral injections, 186. - - “ “ ingestion causing death, 180. - - “ “ weak hæmolysing power possessed by, 199. - - “ _adamanteus_, venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175. - - “ _cerastes_ (horned rattle-snake), 129. - - “ _confluentus_ (Pacific or mottled rattle-snake), 124. - - “ “ “ “ “ habits, 125. - - “ “ devoured by pigs, 125. - - _Crotalus confluentus_, secretion of, 150. - - “ _durissus_ (common rattle-snake), 125. - - “ _horridus_, 127. - - “ “ bites from, 355. - - “ _lepidus_, 129. - - “ _mitchelli_, 127. - - “ _polystictus_, 129. - - “ _scutulatus_ (Texas rattle-snake), 124. - - “ _terrificus_ (dog-faced rattle-snake or cascavella), 124. - - “ _tigris_, 127. - - “ _triseriatus_, 129. - - _Cryptobranchus japonicus_ (great Japanese salamander), 313-315, 317. - - “ “ venom of, 317. - - “ “ “ action similar to that of viperine venoms, 317. - - _Curados de Culebras_, immunity produced by inoculation by, 235-237. - - Cytolytic action of venoms, 206. - - - Daboia. _See Vipera russellii._ - - Deafness following bite of viper, 178. - - Death adder, 96. _See also Acanthophis antarcticus._ - - Delezenne, establishment of existence of kinase in venoms, 204. - - “ on the kinasic properties of venoms, 204, 213. - - _Dendraspis_, 65. - - “ _angusticeps_, 66. - - “ _antinorii_, 66. - - “ _jamesonii_, 66. - - “ _viridis_, 66. - - _Denisonia_, 88. - - “ _carpentariæ_, 92. - - “ _coronata_, 89. - - “ _coronoides_, 89. - - “ _dæmelii_, 90. - - “ _flagellum_, 91. - - “ _frenata_, 90. - - “ _frontalis_, 91. - - “ _gouldii_, 91. - - “ _maculata_, 91. - - “ _melanura_, 92. - - “ _muelleri_, 90. - - “ _nigrescens_, 92. - - “ _nigrostriata_, 92. - - “ _pallidiceps_, 92. - - “ _par_, 92. - - “ _punctata_, 91. - - “ _ramsayi_, 90. - - “ _signata_, 90. - - “ _superba_ (the copperhead), 89. - - “ _suta_, 90. - - “ _woodfordii_, 93. - - Dialysis, results of, in experiments with venoms of _Colubridæ_ and - _Viperidæ_, 161. - - Diastases, action upon venoms, 214. - - Diastasic actions of venoms, 212. - - _Diemenia_, 86. - - “ _modesta_, 87. - - “ _nuchalis_, 87. - - “ _olivacea_, 87. - - “ _psammophis_, 87. - - “ _textilis_ (brown snake), 87. - - “ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100. - - “ _torquata_, 87. - - Digestion of snakes aided by venoms, 213, 214. - - Digestive tract, absorption of venoms of _Colubridæ_ often without - ill-effect on, 180, 181. - - “ “ “ “ “ “ “ cause, 181. - - _Diodon_, 305. - - _Dipsadomorphinæ_, sub-family of _Opisthoglypha_, 3. - - “ geographical distribution, 4. - - _Dipsas_, teeth of, 8. - - _Distira_, fresh-water genus of _Hydrophiinæ_, 5, 136. - - “ _cyanocincta_, 137. - - “ _jerdonii_, 137. - - “ _ornata_, 136. - - “ _subcincta_, 137. - - Dog, minimal dose of cobra-venom lethal for, 174. - - Dog-faced rattle-snake, 124. _See also Crotalus terrificus._ - - _Doliophis_, 42. - - “ _bilineatus_, 43. - - “ _bivirgatus_, 42. - - “ _intestinalis_, 42. - - “ _philippinus_, 43. - - Domestic animals, treatment of poisonous bites in, 265. - - Duck-billed platypus (_Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_ or _O. anatinus_), - 323. - - Duméril and Bibron, on coloration of snakes, 16. - - “ “ _Naja worship_ in Egypt, 61. - - Dutch Indies, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57. - - Dyer, venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, 184. - - - Eau de Javel, antidote to venom before absorption, 263. - - “ “ in treatment of wasp- or bee-stings, 286. - - Echidnin, chemistry of, 160. - - _Echinoidea_ (sea-urchins), 273. - - _Echinoderms_, poisonous species of, 273. - - _Echis_, 48, 76. - - “ _carinatus_ (_efa_, viper of the pyramids), 48, 76. - - “ “ bite from, 347. - - “ “ dreaded by Egyptians, 77. - - “ “ venom rapid in action, 49. - - “ _coloratus_, 77. - - _Efa_ (_Echis carinatus_), 48, 76. _See also Echis carinatus._ - - Eggs of bees, venom contained in, 284. - - “ fowls, artificial intoxication by venom, effect on embryo, 214. - - “ _Crotalus_ rich in poison, 220. - - Egypt, laboratory researches in, 149, 150. - - “ snake-charmers of, 228-229. - - Egyptians, dread of _Echis carinata_ (_Efa_) shown by, 77. - - “ “ and pursuit of _Naja haje_ among, 60. - - Ehrlich, theory of lateral chains, 208, 220. - - _Elachistodontinæ_, sub-family of _Opisthoglypha_, 3. - - “ geographical distribution, 4. - - _Elapechis_, 58. - - “ _boulengeri_, 59. - - “ _decosteri_, 59. - - “ _hessii_, 59. - - “ _guentheri_, 58. - - “ _niger_, 58, 59. - - “ _sundevallii_, 59. - - _Elapinæ_, sub-family of _Colubridæ_, 30. - - “ geographical distribution, 5. - - _Elapognathus_, 97. - - “ _minor_, 97. - - _Elaps_, 101, 108. - - “ _ancoralis_, 108. - - “ _annellatus_, 103. - - “ _anomalus_, 103. - - “ _buckleyi_, 103. - - “ _corallinus_ (coral snake), 104. _See also_ Coral-snake. - - “ _decoratus_, 104. - - “ _dissoleucus_, 106. - - “ _dumerilii_, 104. - - “ _elegans_, 103. - - “ _euryxanthus_ (Sonoran coral-snake), 102. - - “ _filiformis_, 107. - - “ _fraseri_, 107. - - “ _frontalis_, 106. - - “ _fulvius_ (harlequin or coral-snake), 106. - - “ _gravenhorstii_, 102. - - “ _hemprichii_, 104. - - “ _heterochilus_, 102. - - “ _heterozonus_, 103. - - “ _langsdorffii_, 103. - - “ _lemniscatus_, 107. - - “ _marcgravii_, 106. - - “ _mentalis_, 107. - - “ _mipartitus_, 107. - - “ _narduccii_, 108. - - “ _psyches_, 106. - - “ _spixii_, 106. - - _Elaps surinamensis_, 102. - - “ _tschudii_, 104. - - Electricity passed through solution of venom in form of continuous - electrolytic current destroys toxicity, 165. _See also_ High - frequency currents. - - Embryo, anomalies in development consequent on introduction of venom - into eggs of fowl, 214. - - _Enhydrina_, 139. - - “ venom of, fixation on nervous elements, 186. - - “ _bengalensis_ (syn. _E. valakadien_), 139. - - “ _valakadien_ (syn. _E. bengalensis_), 139. - - “ “ venom of, dose lethal for different animals, 174. - - _Enhydris_, 138. - - “ _curtus_, 138. - - “ “ venom of, dose lethal for rat, 174. - - _Entomophaga_, 286. - - Eosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167. - - _Epeira_, 276. - - Erythrosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, - 167. - - Europe, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 22-29. - - “ “ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 142. - - “ (Central). _See_ Alps. - - “ _Triton cristatus_ and _T. marmoratus_ found in, 313. - - Ewing, action of venom on brain, 185. - - - Facial bones, special arrangements of, characteristic of poisonous - snakes, 6. - - Fasting, prolonged, snake-venom shows greatest activity after, 176. - - Faust, S., salamandrine prepared by, 316. - - Fayrer, Sir J., fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, - 180. - - “ “ on the daboia (_Vipera russellii_), 47. - - “ “ habits of the krait (_Bungarus candidus_), 33. - - “ “ harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. - - “ “ _Naja bungarus_, 39. - - Feeding, artificial, in laboratories for collection of venom, 157. - - “ “ of poisonous snakes, 17, 18. - - Fer-de-lance (_Lachesis lanceolatus_), 112, 113, 114. - - Féré, Ch., experiments on development of embryo after introduction of - venom into fowl’s egg, 214. - - Fishes succumb rapidly to snake-venom, 172. - - “ venomous, 288. - - “ “ poison-apparatus of, 289. - - Flexner and Noguchi, on action of snake-serum on red corpuscles, 219. - - “ “ cytolytic action of venoms, 206. - - “ “ investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, 220. - - Food, abstinence from, by snakes, 149. - - Fowls killed by causing them to ingest venom, 180. - - Fox, W. A., bite from _Sepedon hæmachates_, 337. - - France, mortality from snake-bite in, 3. - - Fraser, on destructive action of bile on cobra-venom, 215. - - Frog-serum, antidote to poison of pedicellariæ, 274. - - Frogs succumb slowly to snake-poisoning, 172. - - _Furina_, 98. - - “ _bimaculata_, 99. - - “ _calonota_, 99. - - “ _occipitalis_, 99. - - - Gaboon viper, 73. _See also Bitis gabonica._ - - Gangrene, produced by venom of _Viperidæ_, 177. - - Gautier, Armand, chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - Geographical distribution of poisonous snakes in Africa, 143, 144. - - “ “ “ “ America, 146. - - “ “ “ “ Asia, 142, 143. - - “ “ “ “ Europe, 142. - - “ “ “ “ Oceania, 145. - - Geracki, collection of venom, 156. - - Gibbs, Wolcott, chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - Glands (acid and alkaline), poison-organs of the hymenoptera, 282. - - “ secretion of venom from, 147. - - Glandular secretions of persons and animals bitten by venomous - snakes, toxic, 181. - - Glycerine, means of preservation of concentrated solution of venom, - 166. - - _Glyphodon_, 83. - - “ _tristis_, 84. - - _Gobiidæ_, 300. - - Gouzien, Paul, collection of venom from poisonous snakes in French - settlements in India, 359. - - “ “ on collection of venom, 156. - - Grage (_Lachesis atrox_), immunity from bite of, 238. - - Grass-snakes, parotid glands of, 147. - - “ “ withstand large doses of venom, 172. - - Gressin on poisoning from weever-stings, 299. - - de Gries on bites from _Bothrops_, 353, 354. - - Ground rattle-snake, 120. _See also Sistrurus miliarius._ - - Grunting batrachus. _See Batrachus grunniens._ - - Guiana, witch-doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237, 238. - - Guinea-pig, minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 173, 174, 175. - - “ vaccination against cobra-venom, 242. - - - Hæmolysins of venom, resistance to heat, 202. - - Hæmolysis, failure of, under exposure of red corpuscles to large - doses of venom, 199, 200, 201. - - “ in venoms, comparative study of, 196. - - “ power of, possessed by various venoms, 199. - - Hæmorrhages produced by albuminoid of snake-venom, 162. - - “ visceral, complicating recovery from bites of _Viperidæ_, 177, 178. - - Hæmorrhagin in venoms, 187. - - “ local effects of, not prevented by antineurotoxic serum, 251. - - “ predominance in venom of _Viperidæ_, 249. - - Hæmorrhagin, present in some species of _Viperidæ_, 249. - - “ sensitive to heat, 249. - - _Hamadryas elaps_, 37. _See also Naja bungarus._ - - Harlequin or coral snake, 106. _See also Elaps fulvius._ - - Heart, action of venom on, 184. - - Heat, comparative effect on venoms of _Colubridæ_, _Hydrophiidæ_ and - _Viperidæ_, 161. - - “ hæmorrhagin sensitive to, 249. - - “ resistance of hæmolysins of venoms to, 202. - - “ sole agent in attenuating venom submitted to alternating high - frequency currents, 165. - - Heating destroys toxicity of blood of reptiles, 218. - - Hedgehog, immunity of, to venom of _Vipera berus_, 226. - - “ “ “ “ proved experimentally, 226. - - “ blood of, toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, 226. - - _Heloderma horridum_, 321. - - “ “ saliva sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, 323. - - “ “ venom of, 321, 322. - - _Hemibungarus_, 39. - - “ _calligaster_, 40. - - “ _collaris_, 40. - - “ _japonicus_, 40. - - “ _nigrescens_, 40. - - Henri, V., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, 273. - - Herons of Colombia hunt young snakes for food, 227. - - “ “ probable immunity to snake-venom, 226, 227. - - Hetero-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, 164. - - “ separation from snake-venom, 162, 163. - - _Heterometrus maurus_, venom of, 279. - - “ “ “ effect upon sparrows, 279. - - High frequency currents, alternating, attenuate venom only by thermic - action, 165. - - Hill, Patrick, on duck-billed platypus, 324. - - Hindus, worship bestowed on _Naja_ by, 38. - - Holbrook on _Crotalus confluentus_, 125. - - _Holocanthus_, 305. - - “ _imperator_, 305. - - _Homalopsinæ_, sub-family of _Opisthoglypha_, 3. - - “ geographical distribution, 4. - - “ aquatic, 4. - - _Homorelaps_, 57. - - _Hoplocephalus_, 93. - - “ _bitorquatus_, 94. - - “ _bungaroides_ (syn. _H. variegatus_, broad-headed snake), 94. - - “ _curtus_ (_Notechis scutatus_, tiger-snake), 95. - - “ “ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100. - - “ “ “ “ “ secretion of, 149. - - “ _stephensii_, 94. - - Horned rattle-snake, 129. _See also Crotalus cerastes._ - - Horse, bleeding, aseptically, after vaccination to obtain - antivenomous serum, 245, 246. - - “ immunisation to venom, difficulties attending, 244, 245. - - Horse, minimal dose of venom lethal for, 176. - - “ polyvalent serum prepared from, 251. - - “ red corpuscles of, reasons for choice of, for exposure to action of - venom, 196, 197. - - “ vaccination of, against cobra-venom, 244, 245. - - Horse-serum must be added to venom to dissolve washed red corpuscles, - 197. - - Hottentots, venom of _Bitis arietans_ employed for poisoning arrows - by, 72. - - _Hydrelaps_, 134. - - _Hydrophiidæ_ (sea-snakes), 100. - - “ bite from, cure, 338. - - “ “ rapidly produces general intoxication, 168. - - “ venoms of, resistant to heat, 161. - - _Hydrophiinæ_ (sea-snakes), 4, 131. - - “ “ habitat and geographical distribution, 4, 5. - - “ “ habits of, 131. - - _Hydrophis_ (sea-snakes), 134. - - “ “ venom from, 360. - - “ _cærulescens_, 135. - - “ _cantoris_, 135. - - “ _elegans_, 135. - - “ _fasciatus_, 136. - - “ _gracilis_, 135. - - “ _leptodira_, 136. - - “ _nigrocinctus_, 135. - - “ _obscurus_ (syn. _H. stricticollis_), 136. - - “ _spiralis_, 135. - - _Hydrus_, 132. - - Hymenoptera, 281. - - “ poison-glands of, 281, 282. - - Hypochloride of calcium solution modifies or destroys venoms, 164. - - Hypochlorite of lime, antidote to venom before absorption, 261, 263. - - “ “ remedy for wasp- or bee-sting, 286. - - Hypochlorites, alkaline, antidotes to venom before absorption, 261. - - Hypoleucocytosis, accompanying snake-bite, in lethal cases, 211, 212. - - “ following fatal dose of venom, 216. - - - Immunity to venom, active, incontestably possible, 240. - - “ “ doubtful, by Vatuas’ method, 239. - - “ “ hereditary, pretended, 238. - - “ “ “ “ in India and Egypt, 240. - - “ “ natural, 222. - - “ “ partial, enjoyed by snakes due to diastasic substances in blood, - 218, 219. - - “ “ in lethal doses not conferred by ingestion of venom, 215. - - India, French Settlements in, collection of venom and treatment of - bites from poisonous snakes in, 359. - - “ legend relating to _Naja_ in, 37. - - “ mortality from snake-bite in, 2, 38, 363. - - “ “ “ “ excessive, due to snake-worship, 2. - - “ “ “ _Naja_ bites, 38. - - India, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57. - - “ snake-charmers in, 229-234. - - “ “ “ remedies for bites, 237. - - “ _Teuthis_ found in, 301. - - Indian Ocean, _Chilomycterus orbiculari_s and _C. tigrinus_, 307. - - “ “ _Naseus_ found in, 301. - - “ “ _Plotosus_ found in, 308. - - “ “ _Pterois_ found in, 296. - - “ “ _Scorpæna diabolus_ found in, 293. - - “ “ _Tetrodon stellatus_ found in, 306. - - Inoculation, experimental, by Fraser, of Edinburgh, 235. - - “ extraction of venom from alcatifa for, 239. - - “ graduated, by French viper-catchers, 234. - - “ immunity incontestable from, 240. - - “ subcutaneous, productive of immunity, 234. - - Insects, venomous species of, 281. - - Invertebrata easily killed by venom inoculation, 173. - - - Jacolot, on Mexicans’ method of immunisation, 255-257. - - Japan, _Cryptobranchus japonicus_ found in, 315. - - “ _Prionurus_ found in, 301. - - “ _Tetrodon rubripes_ found on shores of, 306. - - “ “ “ _See also_ China and Japan. - - Jararacussu (_Lachesis lanceolatus_), 112, 113, 114. - - Jean, bite from _Trigonocephalus_, 352. - - Jugglers called in to expel _efas_ (_echis carinatus_) from Egyptian - houses, 77. - - _Julus_, 280. - - - Kanthack, A. A., on chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - Kasauli, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. - - _Katipo_ (_Latrodectus scelio_), 275. - - Kayalof, Mlle., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, 273. - - Kidney, action of venom on, 183. - - Kinase in snake-venoms, 204. - - Kinasic properties of venom, how produced, 213. - - “ “ “ _See also_ Diastasic actions. - - King cobra. _See Naja bungarus._ - - Kipling, Rudyard, account of battle between mongoose and cobra, 223. - - Kobert, poison from _Latrodectus_ and _Epeira_ prepared by, 276. - - Krait, 30. _See also Bungarus._ - - Krefft, Gerard, on snakes of Australia, 81, 82. - - Kyes, lecithide from scorpion-venom, 278. - - “ on relation of toxins to antitoxins, 254, 255, 257. - - “ the production of lecithides, 197, 199. - - - Labaria (_Lachesis atrox_), 114. - - Labial glands, upper, venomous secretions, 147. - - Laboratories for preparation of antivenomous serum, 248, 252. - - de Lacerda, on diastatic actions of venoms, 212. - - “ _Elaps_, 108. - - “ harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. - - _Lacertidæ_, 321. - - _Lachesis_, 51, 109, 111. - - “ bite of, clinical symptoms, 169. - - “ “ “ primarily local, violent, 169. - - “ classification of species, 52. - - “ venom of, absorption by digestive system, cause of acute - inflammation of gastric mucous membrane, 180. - - “ “ rich in kinase, 204. - - “ _alternatus_, 115. - - “ _ammodytoides_, 117. - - “ _anamallensis_, 56. - - “ _atrox_ (grage), immunity from bite of, 238. - - “ “ (labaria), 114. - - “ _aurifer_, 119. - - “ _bicolor_, 119. - - “ _bilineatus_, 118. - - “ _borneensis_, 57. - - “ _brachystoma_, 118. - - “ _cantoris_, 53. - - “ _castelnaudi_, 117. - - “ _ferox_ (grage), bites from, cure, 351. - - “ _flavomaculatus_, 55. - - “ _flavoviridis_, 53. - - “ _godmani_, 118. - - “ _gramineus_, 55. - - “ “ venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175. - - “ _jerdonii_, 54. - - “ _lanceolatus_ (fer-de-lance, or jararacussu), 112. - - “ “ description and habits, 113, 114. - - “ “ mortality from bite of, 113. - - “ “ secretion of, 150. - - “ “ venom of, 325. - - “ “ “ coagulant action on blood, 191. - - “ “ “ “ “ diminishes when heated, 191. - - “ _lansbergii_, 118. - - “ _lateralis_, 119. - - “ _luteus_, 54. - - “ _macrolepis_, 56. - - “ _microphthalmus_, 114. - - “ _monticola_, 52. - - “ _mucrosquamatus_, 54. - - “ _mutus_ (bushmaster or surucucu), 112. - - “ _neuwiedii_ (urutù), 115. - - “ _nigroviridis_, 119. - - “ _nummifer_, 117. - - “ _okinavensis_, 52. - - “ _pictus_, 115. - - “ _pulcher_, 114. - - “ _puniceus_, 56. - - _Lachesis purpureomaculatus_, 54. - - “ _schlegelii_, 119. - - “ _strigatus_, 53. - - “ _sumatranus_, 56. - - “ _trigonocephalus_, 56. - - “ _undulatus_, 118. - - “ _wagleri_, 57. - - “ _xanthogrammus_, 117. - - Lamb, G., on action of venom on brain, 185. - - “ on coagulant action of venom of _Vipera russellii_, 191. - - Landouzy, Prof., on serum therapeutics, 240. - - Lannoy, on diastasic actions of venoms, 212, 213. - - “ proteolytic action of venoms, 204. - - “ researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. - - Lapeyre, on bites from European vipers, 346. - - _Latrodectus_, 276. - - “ _erebus_, 276. - - “ _mactans_, 275. - - “ _malmignattus_, 275. - - Lavigne, bite from _Trigonocephalus_, 354. - - de Lavison, R., on _Lachesis lanceolatus_, 113. - - Lecithides, production of, 191, 197, 198, 199, 254, 258. - - “ “ from bee-venom, 285. - - “ “ “ scorpion-venom, 278. - - Lecithin, added to venom to dissolve washed red corpuscles, 197. - - “ cholesterin antidote to, 198. - - “ combination with snake-venom, 254. - - Leipothymia following inoculation of venom of _Synanceia brachio_, - 292. - - Le Naour, on the spitting snake, 63. - - Leucocytes, protective _rôle_ against snake-poisoning, 216. - - Leucolysin, mode of producing, 203. - - Lewin, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, 226. - - Leydig, researches of, 147. - - Lhomme, bite from _Lachesis ferox_, 351. - - “ collection of venom, 156. - - Light, destructive effect of, on venom in solution, 165. - - Liver, action of venom on, 182. - - Livingstone, mention of _Naja haje_ by, 60. - - Lizards, 321-323. - - “ only one species venomous, 322. - - “ succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, 172. - - _Lophius_, 304. - - “ _piscatorius_, 301. - - “ _setigerus_, 303-304. - - Lucan, passage from, quoted, on immunity of Psylli, 240. - - Lumière, A., and Nicolas, J., on effect of intense cold on venom, 166. - - Lungs, action of venom on, 184. - - _Lycodon aulicus_, resemblance of _Bungarus candidus_ to, 33. - - - Maclaud, bite from _Naja haje_, 356. - - Madsen, Th., and Noguchi, H., on ratio between dose of venom and time - elapsing till death, 177. - - Mal on Hindu snake-charmers, 229. - - Malaysia, poisonous snakes of, 81. - - _Malmignatte_, 275. - - Mammals, action of _Colubrine_ venom on, symptoms and course, 171. - - “ “ “ “ _post-mortem_ findings, 171. - - “ “ _Viperine_ venoms on, symptoms and course, 171. - - “ “ “ “ _post-mortem_ findings, 171. - - Man, minimal dose of venom lethal for, 176. - - “ not attacked by _Bitis gabonica_ (Gaboon viper), 74. - - Mano de sapo root, eaten by Mexicans during immunisation treatment, - 236. - - Maoris’ fear of _Katipo_, 275. - - Marchand, on bites from European vipers, 339. - - Mariadassou, P., serum treatment, 363-371. - - Mariapregassam, collection of venom, 361. - - Marotte, on _Naja haje_ bite, 356. - - Martin, C. J., chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - “ “ experiments on _Pseudechis_, 162. - - “ “ “ with rats proving harmlessness of ingestion of venom of - _Pseudechis_, 181. - - “ “ on venom of _Ornithorhynchus_, 324. - - “ “ and Cherry, on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins, 253. - - “ “ and Smith, MacGarvie, on local and general effects of albumoses - derived from snake-venom, 163. - - Martinique, mortality from bite of fer-de-lance in, 113. - - Massasanga, 120. _See also Sistrurus catenatus._ - - de Maupas on _Pelias berus_ bite, 357. - - Mediterranean Sea, _Muræna helena_ found in, 309. - - “ “ _Scorpæna porcus_ found in, 294. - - Medulla, substance of, fixation of venom on, 186. - - _Meloë_ (oil-beetles), 281. - - Mexico, inoculation of natives in, successful, 235-237. - - _Micropechis_, 93. - - “ _elapoides_, 93. - - “ _ikaheka_, 93. - - Milk from mother bitten by poisonous snake causing death of young, - 181, 214. - - Mimicry, biological laws of, coloration of snakes subject to, 15, 16. - - Mitchell, S. Weir, on chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - “ “ fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, 180. - - “ “ harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. - - Moindrot, H., bites from European vipers, 345. - - Molluscs, poisonous species of, 286. - - Mongoose, battles with hamadryads and cobras, 223, 224. - - “ “ victory mainly due to natural agility, 225. - - “ immunity to snake-venom, 223. - - “ “ “ not absolute, 225. - - “ “ “ proved by injections, 224, 225. - - _Monotremata. See Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_ or _O. anatinus_. - - Mons on bite from horned viper, 349. - - Morgenroth, on combination of venom with lecithin, 254. - - “ reconstitution of toxins, 257. - - “ and Carpi, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, 285. - - Mortality from bite of _Naja_ in India, 38. - - “ “ _Vipera berus_ (common viper or adder), 27. - - “ “ poisonous snake-bite; localities:-- Australia, 100, 261. France, - 3. India, 2, 38, 363. Martinique, 113. - - Mottled Rattle-snake 124, 125. _See also Crotalus confluentus._ - - Moudon, on bite from _Cerastes_, 348. - - Moult of snake’s skin, 16, 20. - - “ venom shows greatest activity after, 176. - - Mouse, experiments on, demonstrating neutralisation of venom by - antitoxin, 254. - - Mucous membranes, acute inflammation produced by deposit of venoms - on, 180. - - _Muræna_, 309. - - “ poison apparatus in buccal teeth, 288. - - “ “ “ of, 309, 310. - - “ _helena_, 309. - - “ _moringa_, 309. - - _Murænidæ_, 307, 309. - - _Murex brandaris_, 286. - - “ _trunculus_, 286. - - Murison, Lieutenant C. C., on bite from _Echis carinata_, 347. - - Muscles, striated, action of venoms on, 184. - - Muscular apparatus of head of poisonous snakes, 11, 12, 13. - - Myriopods, venomous species of, 280. - - - _Naja_ (cobra), 33, 59. - - “ habits of species of, 37. - - “ legend relating to marks on its neck, 37. - - “ mortality from bite of, in India, 38. - - “ poison-glands of, 148. - - “ venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, 199. - - “ worship bestowed on, by Hindus, 38. - - “ _anchietæ_, 62. - - “ _bungarus_ (_Ophiophagus_ or _Hamadryas elaps_, king cobra or - hamadryad), 37, 38. - - “ “ action of venom, 39. - - “ “ feeds on other snakes, 38. - - “ “ killed by mongoose, 223. - - “ “ method of procuring food, 38, 39. - - “ “ vindictiveness of, 39. - - “ _flava_, 61. - - “ _goldii_, 62. - - “ _haje_ or _haie_ (Egyptian cobra), 59. - - “ “ bites from, 356. - - _Naja haje_, danger extreme from its boldness in pursuit of victims, - 60. - - “ “ dreaded and hunted down in Egypt, 60. - - “ “ employed by Egyptian snake-charmers, 61. - - “ “ secretion of, 149. - - “ “ “ tables, 150. - - “ “ worshipped among ancient Egyptians, 61. - - “ _melanoleuca_, 62. - - “ _nigricollis_, 62. - - “ _samarensis_, 36. - - “ _tripudians_ (Cobra-di-capello), 33-36. - - “ “ collection of venom from, 156, 360. - - “ “ marks produced on skin by bite of, 10. - - “ “ muscular apparatus of head of, 11, 13. - - “ “ poison-gland of, 11, 13. - - “ “ var. _cæca_, 35. - - “ “ “ _fasciata_, 35. - - “ “ “ _miolepsis_, 36. - - “ “ “ _sputatrix_, 35. - - “ “ “ _typica_, 34. - - _Naseus_, 301. - - Natter-jack, 318. - - Neurotoxic and hæmolytic actions of venoms, parallelism between, 255. - - Neurotoxin, 191, 195. - - “ essential active substance in venoms, 187, 250. - - “ highly resistant to heat, 249. - - “ of scorpion-poison, 278. - - “ of toad-venom (bufotenin), 320. - - “ potency of antineurotoxic serum against, 250, 251. - - “ predominance in venom of _Colubridæ_, 249. - - “ present in venoms of some species of _Viperidæ_, 249. - - Neuwied on _Elaps_, 108. - - New Caledonia, terrestrial poisonous snakes unknown in, 100. - - New Guinea, poisonous snakes of, 81-100. - - New Zealand, _Katipo_ found in, 275. - - “ no poisonous snakes in, 100. - - Nicolas, J., and Lumière, A., on effect of intense cold on venom, 166. - - Noc, on action of different venoms, 190, 191. - - “ bacteriolytic property of venom, with respect to different - micro-organisms, 207, 208, 209. - - “ hæmolytic powers of venoms, 196. - - “ study of venom of _Ornithorhynchus_, 324. - - Noguchi, H., on action of aniline colours on venom, 167. - - “ failure of hæmolysis under large doses of venom, 200, 201. - - “ and Flexner, cytolytic action of venoms, 206. - - “ “ “ investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, 220. - - “ “ “ on action of snake-serums on red corpuscles, 219. - - “ “ Madsen, Th., on ratio between dose of venom and time elapsing - till death, 177. - - Normandy, coast of, _Cottus_ abundant on, 292. - - _Notechis_, 95. - - “ _scutatus_ (syn. _Hoplocephalus curtus_, tiger-snake), 95. - - “ “ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100. - - “ “ venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175. - - - Oceania, geographical distribution of genera of poisonous snakes - (tables), 145. - - Octopods, poisonous juice exuded by, a means of overpowering prey, - 287. - - _Ogmodon_, 82. - - “ _vitianus_, 82. - - Oil beetles, 281. _See also Meloë._ - - _Ophiogeni_ in Egypt, 228-229. - - _Ophiophagus_, 37. _See also Naja bungarus._ - - Ophthalmia, purulent, produced by snake-venom experimentally, 180. - - “ “ “ venom of species of _Sepedon_, 180. - - _Opisthoglypha_, group of _Colubridæ_, 3. - - “ sub-families of, 3. _See also Homalopsinæ_, _Dipsadomorphinæ_, - _Elachistodontinæ_. - - “ “ slightly poisonous and not dangerous to man, 4. - - _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_, or _O. anatinus_ (duck-billed platypus), - 323. - - “ “ “ “ “ venom of, 324, 325. - - “ “ “ “ “ action similar to venoms of _Viperidæ_, 324. - - “ “ “ “ “ toxicity very slight, 325. - - - Pacific Ocean (Equatorial), _Pterois_ found in, 296. - - “ “ (Tropical), _Scorpæna diabolus_ found in, 293. - - “ “ “ _Synanceia brachio_ most commonly found in, 291. - - “ rattle-snake, 124, 125. _See also Crotalus confluentus._ - - Pain, severe, after bite of species of _Viperidæ_, 169. - - “ slight from bite of cobra, 169. - - Panama, _Thalassophryne reticulata_ found on shores of, 303. - - Pancreatic juice, addition to venom produces kinasic power, 213. - - Paris, brown _Pelobates_ found near, 318. - - Parotid glands, venomous secretions, 147. - - Pasteur Institute (Lille), poisonous snakes in captivity at, 72. - - “ “ “ preparation of antivenomous serum at, 245-248. - - “ “ “ rattle-snakes in captivity at, 125. - - “ “ “ work and experiments at, 189, 190, 191, 204, 214, 223, 224, - 244-248, 267. - - Paterne, D., bites from European vipers, 341. - - Peal, H. W., on bite from _Hydrophiidæ_ (sea-snakes), 338. - - Pedicellariæ (organs of the _Echinoidea_), poison prepared from, 273. - - _Pediculati_, 303. - - Pedlar on chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - _Pelias berus_ (common viper), bite from, 339. - - “ “ “ “ “ cure, 357. - - _Pelobates fuscus_ (brown _Pelobates_), 318. - - Pelor, 293, 296. - - _Percidæ_, 304. - - Peritoneum, hæmorrhagic injections of, produced by venoms of - _Viperidæ_, 179, 180. - - Permanganate of potash, antidote to venom before absorption, 260. - - “ “ solution, modifies or destroys venoms, 164. - - Philadelphia, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, - 248, 252. - - Philippine Islands, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57. - - Phisalix, experiments of, on venom with alternating currents of high - frequency, 165. - - “ on effects of emanations of radium on venom, 166. - - “ variations in local effects of venoms, 176. - - “ venom of _Cryptobranchus japonicus_, 317. - - “ poison from bee-venom prepared by, 283. - - “ researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. - - “ and Bertrand, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, 226. - - “ “ “ preparation of toad-venom, 319. - - _Phoorsa. See Echis carinatus._ - - Phrynolysin, 320. - - “ extracted from skins of toads, 320. - - Physiology of experimental poisoning, 170. - - _Physostomi_, 307. - - Pig, destruction of vipers and rattle-snakes by, 125, 222, 226. - - “ immunity to snake-venom due to defence provided by adipose tissue, - 222. - - “ serum, devoid of antitoxic substance, 222. - - Pigeons, vaccination against rattle-snake-venom, 241. - - “ killed by causing them to ingest venom, 180. - - Pinto, Col. S., on immunity to inoculation, 238, 239. - - _Platurus_, 140. - - “ _colubrinus_, 141. - - “ _laticaudatus_, 141. - - “ _muelleri_, 141. - - “ _schistorhynchus_, 141. - - _Plectognathi_ (family _Gymnodontes_), 305. - - Pliny on salamanders, 312. - - “ treatment of poisonous snake-bites, 259. - - _Plotosus_, 308. - - “ _lineatus_, 308. - - “ “ poison-apparatus of, 308. - - Plutarch on snake-charmers, 228. - - Poison-apparatus of _Cottus_, 293. - - “ _Muræna_, 309, 310. - - “ _Plotosus lineatus_, 308. - - “ _Scorpæna_, 294. - - “ snakes, 8. - - “ _Synanceia_, 291. - - “ _Trachinus_ (weevers), 297, 298, 299. - - “ venomous fishes, 289. - - Poison-fang, 8. - - “ action of, 148. - - “ of _Proteroglypha_ grooved, 4, - - “ _Viperidæ_ canaliculate, 5. - - Poison-gland of Hymenoptera, 281, 282. - - Poison-gland of non-venomous snakes, 217. - - “ venomous snakes, 10, 11, 12, 13. - - _Polistes_, 285. - - _Pompilus_, 285. - - Pondicherry, collection of venom at, 156-158. - - “ Hospital, collection of venom, method, 362. - - “ public notice in, _re_ capture of poisonous snakes, 360. - - Prairie rattle-snake, 120. _See also Sistrurus catenatus._ - - Pravaz syringe, injection of serum with, 263. - - Precipitins of venoms, 202. - - _Prionurus_, 301. - - Pröscher on extraction of phrynolysin from skins of toads, 320. - - Proteids, extraction from snake-venom, 163. - - Proteolytic action of venoms, 204. - - “ “ “ extent and limitations, 205. - - _Proteroglypha_ (group of _Colubridæ_), 4. - - “ bite rapidly produces general intoxication, 168. - - “ poison-fangs of, grooved, 4. - - “ sub-families of, 4. _See also Hydrophiinæ_; _Elapinæ_. - - Proto-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, 164. - - “ separation from snake-venom, 162, 163. - - _Pseudechis_, 87. - - “ venom of, experiments on, 162. - - “ “ ingestion by rats harmless, 181. - - “ _australis_, 88. - - “ _cupreus_, 88. - - “ _darwiniensis_, 88. - - “ _ferox_, 88. - - “ _microlepidotus_, 88. - - “ _papuanus_, 88. - - “ _porphyriacus_ (black snake), 88. - - “ “ “ “ bite dangerous, 100. - - “ “ “ “ secretion of, 149. - - “ _scutellatus_, 88. - - _Pseudelaps_, 84. - - “ _diadema_, 85. - - “ _harriettæ_, So. - - “ _krefftii_, 85. - - “ _muelleri_, 84. - - “ _squamulosus_, 84. - - “ _sutherlandi_, 86. - - “ _warro_, 86. - - _Pseudocerastes persicus_, 47. - - Psylli, Egyptian charmers and healers, 228-229. - - “ Roman charmers and healers, 228. - - “ “ “ “ “ Lucan on, 240. - - _Pterois_, 293, 295-296. - - Puff adder, 69. _See also Bitis arietans._ - - Putrefaction, rapid, following death from snake-bite, 211, 212. - - Pyramids, viper of (_Echis carinatus_), 76. - - - Queensland, mortality from snake-bite slight in, 100. - - - Rabbit, experiments on, demonstrating neutralisation of venom by - antitoxin, 255. - - “ minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 173, 174, 175. - - “ vaccination against cobra-venom, 243. - - _Rascasse_, 296. - - Rat, P., on common viper’s bite, 358. - - “ ingestion of venom of _Pseudechis_ harmless to, 181. - - “ minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 174. - - Rat-serum, bacteriolytic action of venom not comparable to, 208. - - Rattle-snake, common, 125. _See also Crotalus durissus._ - - “ dog-faced, 124. _See also Crotalus terrificus._ - - “ ground, 120. _See also Sistrurus miliarius._ - - “ horned, 129. _See also Crotalus cerastes._ - - “ Pacific, or mottled, 124. _See also Crotalus confluentus._ - - “ prairie, 120. _See also Sistrurus catenatus._ - - “ Texas, 124. _See also Crotalus scutulatus._ - - “ venom, vaccination of pigeons against, 241. - - Red Sea, _Naseus_ found in, 301. - - Reichert on chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - Renaux, P., on bites from _Crotalus horridus_, 355. - - Rennie, Major S. J., case of bite of _Bungarus cæruleus_, 337. - - Reptiles, toxicity of blood in, 217. - - Respiratory centres, nerve-cell of, attacked by albumose of - snake-venom, 162. - - _Rhinhoplocephalus_, 95. - - “ _bicolor_, 95. - - _Rhynchelaps_, 97. - - “ _australis_, 98. - - “ _bertholdi_, 97. - - “ _fasciolatus_, 98. - - “ _semifasciatus_, 98. - - Richards on fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, 180. - - Richet, C., congestin from _Anemone scultata_ prepared by, 270. - - “ thalassin, from _Anemone scultata_ prepared by, 269. - - Ringhals slang, 63. _See also Sepedon hæmachates._ - - River-jack viper, 73. _See also Bitis gabonica._ - - Rogers, Major L., experiments on action of venom on nervous centres, - 186. - - “ “ researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. - - Romans, snake-charmers’ customs among, 228. - - “ “ “ “ Lucan on, 240. - - Roudot, Natalis, on Hindu snake-charmers, 229. - - Russell, on the venom of _daboia_ (_Vipera russellii_), 46. - - - Sachs, on relation of toxins to antitoxins, 254. - - Salamandarin, 316. _See also_ Salamandrine. - - Salamander, Japanese, 317. _See also Cryptobranchus japonicus._ - - “ venom of, closely analogous to that of toad, 321. - - “ “ potency exaggerated by the ancients, 312. - - Salamanders and toads most dreaded by ancients, 312. - - _Salamandra atra_ (black salamander), 313. - - “ _maculosa_ (spotted salamander), 313, 314. - - Salamandridine prepared from venom of salamanders, 317. - - Salamandrine, prepared from venom of salamanders, 317. - - Saliva of _Heloderma horridum_ sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, - 323. - - “ venomous, of non-poisonous snakes, 214. - - Sangis, name of snake-charmers of Bengal, 229. - - São-Paulo (Brazil), laboratory for production of antivenomous serum - at, 248, 252. - - Scales, arrangement of, on heads of poisonous snakes, 14, 15. - - _Scolopendra_, 280. - - _Scolopendridæ_, bite of, 281. - - _Scorpæna_, 288, 289, 293. - - “ poison-apparatus of, 294. - - “ _diabolus_, 293. - - “ _grandicornis_, 293. - - “ _porcus_, 294. - - _Scorpio occitanus_, 277, 278. - - Scorpion, blood of, antitoxic, 279. - - “ manner of stinging, 277. - - “ poison, 278. - - “ “ affinities with that of _Colubridæ_, 278. - - “ “ neurotoxin of, 278. - - _Scorpionidea_ (scorpions), 276. - - Sea-snakes, 131. See also Hydrophiinæ. - - “ (_Hydrophis_), venom from, 360. - - _Sepedon hæmachates_ (spitting snake or ringhals slang), 63. - - “ “ bite of, cure, 337. - - “ “ venom of, purulent ophthalmia discharged by spitting, 63, 64. - - “ “ “ “ “ caused by projection of, 62, 180. - - Serous membranes, local effects on, of cobra-venom, slight, 179. - - “ “ “ “ venoms of _Viperidæ_, severe, 179. - - Serph, collection of venom. 156. - - _Serranus_, 304. - - “ _ouatabili_, 304. - - Serum, antivenomous, antineurotoxic, 250, 251. - - “ “ “ potency against cobra-venom, 250, 251, 252. - - “ “ in treatment of bites of poisonous snakes, 326. - - “ “ “ yellow fever, 184. - - “ “ method for measuring power of, 256, 257. - - “ “ “ “ “ _in vitro_, 202. - - “ “ neutralisation of snake-venom by, 253-258. - - “ “ “ “ “ experiments showing necessary proportions to effect, 254, - 255. - - “ “ polyvalent, 251. - - “ “ “ prepared from horse, 251. - - “ “ preparation of, 246. - - “ “ “ test-solutions, 217. - - “ “ “ at Pasteur Institute, Lille, 245-248. - - “ “ “ special laboratories, 248, 252. - - Serum, antivenomous, preventive power tested by intravenous - injection, 246. - - “ “ rules respecting proportions of quantity to be administered, 266, - 267, 268. - - “ “ specificity of, 248. - - “ Calmette’s, in treatment of cobra-bites, 363, 364, 365. - - “ therapeutics, antivenomous, 241-252. - - “ “ “ technique of, 262-265. - - “ _See also_ Snake serum. - - Serums, specific against coagulant venoms, 192. - - Sewall on vaccination of pigeons against rattle-snake venom, 241. - - _Siluridæ_, 307, 308. - - _Silurus glanis_, 308. - - _Sistrurus_, 110, 120. - - “ _catenatus_ (prairie rattle-snake, or massasanga), 120. - - “ _miliarius_ (ground rattle-snake), 120. - - “ _ravus_, 120. - - Skin, marks produced on, by bites of different species of snakes - (venomous and non-venomous), 10. - - Smell, loss of, following bite of viper, 178. - - Smith, MacGarvie, researches of, 149. - - “ “ on chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - “ “ and Martin, C. J., on local and general effects of albumoses - derived from snake-venoms, 163. - - Snake-bite, death from, rapid putrefaction following, 211, 212. - - “ hypoleucocytosis accompanying, in lethal cases, 211, 212. - - “ mortality from, 2, 3, 38, 57, 100, 261, 363. - - “ non-lethal, suppuration following, 212. - - “ poisonous, treatment in domestic animals, 265. - - “ “ “ men and animals, 259. - - “ “ “ _See also_ Serum therapeutics, antivenomous. - - Snake-charmers, 228. - - “ deaths from bites, 234. - - “ Egyptian, 228-229. - - “ “ employment of _Naja haje_ for performances, 61. - - “ Indian, 229-234. - - “ Libyan, 228. - - “ Roman, 228. - - “ safety in skill, 234. - - Snake-serum combined with snake-venom does not destroy red - corpuscles, 220. - - “ dissolution of red corpuscles by, 219. - - Snake-venom, action on heart, 184. - - “ “ kidney, 183. - - “ “ liver, 182. - - “ “ lungs, 184. - - “ “ nervous centres, 185. - - “ “ spleen, 183. - - “ “ striated muscles, 184. - - “ activity greatest after prolonged fasting and after moult, 176. - - “ aids digestion of prey, 213, 214. - - Snake-venom, antagonism between coagulant and anticoagulant kinds, - 194. - - “ antidotes to, before absorption, 260, 261. - - “ artificial introduction into egg of fowl, effect on embryo, 214. - - “ bacteriolytic action, 206. - - “ “ substance in, peculiarities of, 207, 208. - - “ chemical study of, 159. - - “ collection of, 147, 152-158. - - “ “ in French Settlements in India, 359. - - “ combination with lecithin, 254. - - “ combined with snake-serum does not dissolve red corpuscles, 220. - - “ complex effects on tissues, 215. - - “ complexity of means of defence against, 215. - - “ cytolytic action, 206. - - “ diastasic action of, 212. - - “ dried, 149. - - “ effects of, in non-lethal doses, 177. - - “ extraction of, by Hindus, 233. - - “ “ from _Alcatifa_, for inoculation, 239. - - “ freshly collected, 149. - - “ hypoleucocytosis following fatal dose, 216. - - “ immunity to, 222. - - “ “ from inoculation, 234-235. - - “ “ of herons to, probable, 226, 227. - - “ ingestion of, fails to secure immunity to lethal dose, 214, 215. - - “ “ harmless, 214. - - “ lethal to snakes of other species, 219. - - “ neutralisation by antitoxin, 253-258. - - “ “ injection of antitoxic serum, second step in treatment after - bite, 262. - - “ no strict ratio between dose inoculated and time elapsing till - death, 177. - - “ parallelism between neurotoxic and hæmolytic action, 255. - - “ prevention of absorption first step in treatment after bite, 262. - - “ produces acute inflammation of mucous membrane, 180. - - “ protective _rôle_ of leucocytes against, 216. - - “ proteolytic action, 204. - - “ reconstitution, method of, 257, 258. - - “ secretion of, 147-152. - - “ temperature lowered after fatal dose, 216. - - “ toxic conditions of, 151. - - “ vaccination against, 241. - - “ variations in local effects of, 176. - - Snakes, coloration of, 15, 16. - - “ “ subject to biological laws of mimicry, 15, 16. - - “ cranial skeleton of, 6. - - “ dentition of, 6. - - “ moulting of skin, 16, 20. - - “ non-poisonous, arrangement of scales on head of, 14. - - “ “ poison-glands in, 217. - - “ “ venomous saliva of, 214. - - Snakes, non-poisonous, withstand large doses of venom, 172. - - “ poisonous, all species carnivorous, 17. - - “ “ arrangement of scales on head of, 15. - - “ “ artificial feeding of, 17, 18. - - “ “ bite of, danger diminished by clothing or other means of - protection, 170. - - “ “ blood of, toxicity, 217. - - “ “ characterised by special arrangement of facial bones, 6. - - “ “ deaths from, in Queensland, 100. - - “ “ devoured by herons, 227. - - “ “ different species should not be placed in same cage, 219. - - “ “ difficult to distinguish from non-venomous, 2. - - “ “ digestion aided by venom, 213, 214. - - “ “ dread of destruction of, cause of excessive mortality from - snake-bite in India, 2. - - “ “ geographical distribution of, 2, 3. - - “ “ habits of, 17. - - “ “ health authorities’ notices respecting, in Australia, 100. - - “ “ kept in captivity, 61, 72, 125, 156, 223. - - “ “ method of capture, 20, 21. - - “ “ “ striking and seizing prey, 17. - - “ “ muscular apparatus of head of, 11, 12, 13. - - “ “ of Africa, 57-81. - - “ “ Asia, Dutch Indies and Philippine Islands, 30-57. - - “ “ Australia, 81-100. - - “ “ Europe, 22-29. - - “ “ Malaysia, 81. - - “ “ New Guinea, 81-100. - - “ “ South Sea Islands, 81-100. - - “ “ Sunda Islands, 81. - - “ “ poison-apparatus of, 8. - - “ “ poison-fangs of, 8. - - “ “ poison-glands of, 10, 11, 12, 13. - - “ “ succumb to venom of other species, 173. - - “ “ teeth of, difference in arrangement and dimensions of various - species, 9. - - “ “ treatment of bites from, in French Settlements in India, 359. - - “ “ unaffected by enormous doses of their own venom, 172. - - “ “ unknown in New Caledonia, 100. - - “ “ "New Zealand, 100. - - “ “ victory of mongooses over, in combat, due mainly to natural - agility, 225. - - “ worship of, 2. - - “ “ extant in India, 2. - - _Solenoglypha_, 109. - - “ bite produces important local disorders, 168. - - “ marks produced on skin by bite of one of, 10. - - Sonoran coral-snake, 102. _See also Elaps euryxanthus._ - - South Sea Islands, poisonous snakes of, 81-100. - - Sparrows, effect of venom of _Heterometrus maurus_ on, 279. - - _Sphærechinus granularis_, poison from pedicellariæ, 273. - - Spinal cord, comparative actions of venoms of _Colubridæ_ and - _Viperidæ_ on, 185, 186. - - Spiders. _See Araneida._ - - Spitting snake, 63. _See also Sepedon hæmachates._ - - Spleen, action of venom on, 183. - - Sponge-divers, malady of, 272. - - _Squamipinnes_, 304. - - Stings (wasp- or bee-), treatment for, 286. - - Stomach, acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane produced by - ingestion of venoms of _Viperidæ_, 180. - - _Strongylocentrotus lividus_, poison from pedicellariæ of, 273. - - Strychnine, injection of, of no value as antidote against - snake-venom, 261. - - Sunda Islands, poisonous snakes of, 81. - - Superstitions, native methods of inoculation full of, 239-240. - - Suppuration following non-lethal snake-bites, 212. - - Surucucu or bushmaster, 112. _See also Lachesis mutus._ - - Sutherland, Surgeon-Captain, bite from _Echis carinatus_, 348. - - Sydney, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. - - _Synanceia_, 288, 289, 290. - - “ poison-apparatus of, 291. - - “ _brachio_, 291. - - Syncope, following inoculation of venom of _Synanceia brachio_, 292. - - - _Teleostei_, 290, 305, 307. - - Temperature, effect of, on venoms, 161. - - _Tetrodon_, 290, 305. - - “ _rubripes_, 306. - - “ _stellatus_, 306. - - _Teuthididæ_, 301. - - _Teuthis_, 301. - - Texas rattle-snake, 124. _See also Crotalus scutulatus._ - - Thalassin, poison from _Anemone scultata_, 270. - - _Thalassophis_, 133. - - _Thalassophryne_, 288, 303. - - “ _maculosa_, 303. - - “ _reticulata_, 302-303. - - Thuau on bites from European vipers, 342. - - Tidswell, F., on venom of _Ornithorhynchus_, 324. - - Tiger-snake, 95. _See also Notechis scutatus_. - - Toad, common, 318. - - “ green, 318. - - “ musical, 318. - - “ and frog, distinctions between, 318. - - “ “ salamander, much dreaded by ancients, 312. - - “ venom of, 318, 319. - - “ “ active principles of, 319, 320. - - “ “ closely analogous to that of salamander, 321. - - “ “ preparation, 319. - - “ “ exaggerated by the ancients, 312. - - _Trachinidæ_, 297. - - _Trachinus_ (weever), 288, 289, 297. - - _Trachinus_ (weever) poison-apparatus of, 297, 298, 299. - - “ _araneus_, 297. - - “ _draco_, 297. - - “ _radiatus_, 297. - - “ _vipera_, 297. - - Travers, P. M., on bite from _Bitis arietans_, 350. - - Trichloride of iodine modifies or destroys venoms, 164. - - _Triglidæ_, 290. - - _Trigonocephalus_, bites from, 352, 355. - - _Trimeresurus gramineus_, 55. _See also Lachesis gramineus._ - - “ _riukianus_, 53. _See also Lachesis flavoviridis._ - - _Triodon_, 305. - - _Triton cristatus_, 313. - - “ _marmoratus_, 313, 314. - - _Tropidechis_, 94. - - “ _carinatus_, 94. - - _Tropidonotus matrix_ (grass-snake), venogen of, 151. - - Trypanosomes, dissolution by cobra-venom, 207. - - Tubriwallahs, snake-charmers of Bengal, 229. - - Tunis, snake-charmers of, 228. - - Tuxpan, natives of, inoculation methods, 235-237. - - - Urodela, salamanders belong to order of, 312. - - _Urutù_, 115. _See also Lachesis neuwiedii._ - - - Vaccination against cobra-venom, 242. - - “ “ snake-venom, 241. - - Van Denburgh, J., observations on _Heloderma horridum_, 323. - - Vatuas, method of inoculation of, 239. - - Venomous secretion, histology, 151. - - de Villiers, on common viper’s bite, 357. - - Viper, common, of Europe. See _Vipera berus_. - - “ horned, bite from, 349. - - “ inoculation of professional catchers of, in France, 234. - - _Vipera_, 43. - - “ zoological characters of, 23, 24. - - “ _ammodytes_, 29, 69. - - “ _aspis_ (asp, or red viper), 27, 28. - - “ “ bite from, cure, 339. - - “ “ poison-cells, 151. - - “ berus (common viper, or adder), 25, 26. - - “ “ devoured by hedgehogs, 222, 226. - - “ “ mortality from bite, 27. - - “ “ venom of, chemical constituency, 149, 160. - - “ “ “ immunity of hedgehog to, 226. - - “ “ “ uncertain coagulant action on blood, 189, 190. - - “ _latastii_, 28, 69. - - “ _lebetina_, 44, 69. - - _Vipera raddii_, 44. - - “ _renardi_, 44. - - “ _russellii_ (_daboia_, or Russell’s viper), 45, 40. - - “ “ muscular apparatus of head of, 11, 12. - - “ “ poison-gland of, 11, 12. - - “ “ protection against, adopted by natives, 46. - - “ “ venom of, coagulant action on blood, diminished when heated, 191. - - “ “ “ extremely potent, 46. - - “ “ “ dose lethal for rabbit, 175. - - “ “ “ ingestion causing death, 180. - - “ _superciliaris_, 69. - - “ _ursinii_, 24, 25, 44. - - _Viperidæ_, 5, 43, 66. - - “ bites of, local gangrene resulting from, 177. - - “ characteristics of, 5. - - “ geographical distribution, 6. - - “ poison-fangs canaliculate, 5. - - “ species of, bite produces grave local disorders, 168. - - “ sub-families of, 6. _See also Viperinæ, Crotalinæ._ - - “ venoms of, absorption by digestive tract sets up acute inflammation - of gastric mucous membrane, 180. - - “ “ action on nervous centres weak, 185, 186. - - “ “ comparison of coagulant action on blood of various species, 190. - - “ “ easily destroyed by heat, 161. - - “ “ hæmolysing power, weak, 199. - - “ “ lethal effects on mammals, 171. - - “ “ neurotoxin present in those of some species, 249. - - “ “ non-dialytic, 161. - - “ “ produce coagulation of blood, 179, 188, 189. - - “ “ “ hæmorrhagic injections of peritoneum, 179, 180. - - “ “ recovery after non-lethal doses, slow, 177. - - “ “ “ “ “ followed by loss of sight, smell, or hearing, 178. - - “ “ recovery after non-lethal doses complicated by visceral - hæmorrhages, 177, 178. - - “ “ resemblance in action of that of Japanese salamander to, 317. - - “ “ “ “ “ _Ornithorhynchus_ to, 324. - - “ “ richness in hæmorrhagin, 249. - - Viperin, chemistry of, 130. - - _Viperinæ_, 43, 66, 101. _See also Atheris_, _Atractaspis_, _Bitis_, - _Causus_, _Cerastes_, _Echis_, _Pseudocerastes_, _Vipera_. - - “ characteristics of, 6. - - Viscera, hæmorrhages from, complicating recovery from bites of - _Viperidæ_, 177, 178. - - “ hyperæmia of, caused by fatal bite of species of _Colubridæ_, 171. - - - Wall, chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - Waller, fatal instance of rapid poisoning from bite of _Naja haje_, - 60. - - _Walterinnesia_, 64. - - _Walterinnesia ægyptia_, 65. - - Wasp, sting of, death from, 283. - - “ “ remedies for, 286. - - Weevers, 297. _See also Trachinus._ - - “ stings of, 298, 299. - - Wehrmann, on diastasic actions of venoms, 212, 213. - - “ experiments on ingestion of venom, 214. - - Wertheimer, Austrian naturalist, fatally bitten by coral snake, 108. - - Witch-doctors, remedies of, 237, 238, 239. - - Wolfenden, Norris, chemical constituents of venom, 160. - - Wright, O. B., observations on _Heloderma horridum_, 323. - - - Yellow fever, treatment by antitoxin of venom, 184. - - - Zervos, Dr. S., malady of sponge-divers, 272. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] As regards the distinctive characters of these various snakes, and -of the majority of those that we shall describe in this book, we have -followed the statements in the “Catalogue of the Snakes in the British -Museum (Natural History),” vol. iii., by George Albert Boulenger, -F.R.S. (London: Printed by order of the Trustees, 1896.) - -[2] _Acad. de médecine_, March 19, 1889. - -[3] _Erpétologie générale_, t. vii. - -[4] “Le serpent cracheur de la côte occidentale d’Afrique,” _Société -Zool. de France_, 1895, p. 210. Bavay thinks that the Spitting Snake -is a _Naja haje_, but the description that he gives of the head of -the reptile, which was sent to him by Le Naour, certainly agrees with -the characters of _Sepedon_. Moreover, I have satisfied myself that -the many specimens of _Naja haje_ that I have kept in captivity in my -laboratory never possessed the faculty of spitting their poison to a -distance. - -[5] “The Snakes of Australia,” Sydney, 1869. - -[6] L. Lannoy, “Thèse de doctorat ès sciences,” Paris, 1903, No. 1,138, -série A, 454. - -[7] “Snake Commission Report,” 1874. - -[8] _Bulletin de l’Académie de Médecine_, t. x., 1883, p. 947. - -[9] _Zeitschrift für Biologie_, xxiii. - -[10] Kühne and Chittenden, “Ueber Albumosen,” _Zeitschrift für -Biologie_, 1884. - -[11] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 29 février, 1896. - -[12] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1896, p. 489. - -[13] _Province médicale_, 21 Septembre, 1901. - -[14] Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, 1906. - -[15] _Proc. Roy. Soc._, London, lxxiv., 1904, pp. 108-109. - -[16] _Ibid._, pp. 104-108. - -[17] “Communication de l’Institut Sérothérapique de l’État danois,” -tome i., Copenhagen, 1906. - -[18] _Indian Annals_, July, 1868. - -[19] _Medical News_, Philadelphia, 1884. - -[20] “Zur Pathologie des Schlangenbisses,” _Forschungen der Medicin_, -Berlin, 1890. - -[21] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, t. xii., 1898, p. 369. - -[22] _Thèse Bordeaux_, 1902. - -[23] _Virchow’s Archiv für Pathologie, Anatomie, und Physiologie_, Band -179, 1905. - -[24] Société de Médecine et de Chirurgie de São Paulo (Brazil), June -15, 1904. - -[25] _Medical Record_, September 15, 1900. - -[26] _Lancet_, January 2, August 20, October 22, 1904, and September -23, 1905. - -[27] _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, vol. lxxi., 1903. - -[28] “The Constitution of Snake-venom and Snake-sera,” _University of -Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin_, vol. xv., 1902, p. 345. - -[29] Fontana, “On Poisons,” translated by J. Skinner: London, 1787. - -[30] _Smithsonian Reports_, 1854. - -[31] _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_, 1860. - -[32] _Medical Times and Gazette_, vol. ii., 1873. - -[33] “On the Physiological Action of the Venom of the Australian Black -Snake,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, July, -1895. - -[34] _Indian Medical Gazette_, December, 1901. - -[35] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, November 4, 1899. - -[36] _Ibid._, October 28, 1899. - -[37] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, June, 1904. - -[38] At the Serum-therapic Laboratory of São Paulo (Brazil), Dr. -Vital, Brazil, is at the present time preparing serum specific against -_Lachesis_-venom. - -[39] _Medical Times and Gazette_, vol. ii., 1873. - -[40] “The Thanatophidia of India.” Churchill, London, 1872. - -[41] “On the Physiological Action of the Venom of the Australian Black -Snake,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, July 3, -1895. - -[42] _Archives biologiques_, 1897 and 1898; _Comptes rendus de la -Société de Biologie_, October 28, 1899. - -[43] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, October 28, 1899; -November 4, 1899; July 26, 1902. - -[44] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, June, 1904. - -[45] _Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology_, 1899-1900. - -[46] _Journal of Experimental Medicine_, March 17, 1902; _University of -Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin_, November, 1902. - -[47] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, June 16, 1902. - -[48] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, No. 27, 1902. - -[49] _Berliner klinische Wochenschrift_, Nos. 38, 39, 1902; Nos. 2-4, -1903; Nos. 42-43, 1903. - -[50] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1904, p. 387. - -[51] _Journal of Experimental Medicine_, 1905, No. 2, pp. 191-222. - -[52] _Lancet_, April 2, 1904, pp. 916-921. - -[53] “The Constitution of Snake-venoms and Snake-sera,” _University of -Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin_, vol. xv., November, 1902, p. 345. - -[54] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, August 11, 1902. - -[55] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, June, 1904. - -[56] “Sur l’action protéolytique des venins,” _Comptes rendus de -l’Académie des Sciences_, September, 1902, and _Thèse Paris_, No. -1,138, 1903. - -[57] “On the Plurality of Cytolysins in Snake-venom,” _University of -Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin_, vol. xvi., 1903, p. 163. - -[58] _Ann. Soc. Méd. de Gand_, 1905, fasc. 3. - -[59] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, April, 1905. - -[60] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1898. - -[61] _Thèse Paris_, No. 1138, 1903. - -[62] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, August 11, 1902. - -[63] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, January 11, 1896. - -[64] Wehrmann, _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1897 and 1898. - -[65] Carrière, “Sur le sort des toxines et des antitoxines dans le tube -digestif,” _ibid._, 1898, p. 435. - -[66] _British Medical Journal_, 1895 and 1897. - -[67] Chatenay, “Les réactions leucocytaires vis-à-vis de certaines -toxines,” _Thèse Paris_, 1894. - -[68] Flexner and Noguchi, “Snake-venom in Relation to Hæmolysis, -Bacteriolysis, and Toxicity,” _Journal of Experimental Medicine_, vol. -vi., March 17, 1902. - -[69] “Trattado del veneno della vipera,” 1787. - -[70] _Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie_, Bd. ix., 1873. - -[71] _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, Bd. viii., 1883. - -[72] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, January 20, 1894. - -[73] _Archives de Physiologie_, 1894. - -[74] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, Paris, January 22, -1894. - -[75] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, January 13, 1894. - -[76] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1897. - -[77] _Archives italiennes de Biologie_, 1888 and 1889. - -[78] _Archives de Physiologie_, 1894. - -[79] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, July 25, 1903. - -[80] _Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology_, May, 1903. - -[81] _Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology_, 1900, p. 273. - -[82] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, July 1, 1905. - -[83] “The Jungle Book,” by Rudyard Kipling. London: Macmillan and Co., -Ltd. Reprint of 1905, pp. 183, 184. - -[84] _Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift_, 1898. - -[85] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 1895, p. 639, and -1899, p. 77; _Bulletin du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle_, 1895, t. i., p. -294, t. ii., p. 100. - -[86] “Aperçu général sur l’Egypte.” Paris, 1840. - -[87] Brehm’s “Thierleben”; French edition, “Les Reptiles,” p. 480. - -[88] _Maclure’s Magazine_, April, 1894. - -[89] _British Medical Journal_, August 17, 1895. - -[90] _Archives de médecine navale_, 1867, p. 390. - -[91] _Revue scientifique_, 1892, p. 254. - -[92] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, February 24, 1896. - -[93] “The Pharsalia of Lucan, translated into blank verse by Edward -Ridley, Q.C., sometime Fellow of All Souls’ College, Oxford.” (London: -Longmans, Green and Co., 1896). Book ix., p. 296, lines 1,046 to 1,065. - -[94] _Journal of Physiology_, vol. viii., 1887, p. 203. - -[95] “Les Vipères de France,” p. 136 (1889). - -[96] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1892, p. 181. - -[97] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, t. 118, February, -1894, p. 356, March, 1894, p. 720; _Comptes rendus de la Société de -Biologie_, February, 1894, pp. 111, 120; _Archives de Physiologie_, -July, 1894; _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, May, 1894, p. 275, April, -1895, p. 225. - -[98] _British Medical Journal_, June 15, 1895. - -[99] _Cf._ papers by George Lamb, _Scientific Memoirs by Officers of -the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India_, -New Series, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 16; L. Rogers, _Proceedings of -the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxxii., and _Lancet_, February 6, -1904; C. J. Martin, _Intercolonial Medical Journal of Australasia_, -August 20, 1897, April 20, 1898; Dr. Hunter, _Lancet_, January 2, -1904; Dr. Tidswell, _Australasian Medical Gazette_, April 21, 1902; A. -Calmette, _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, May 2, 1904; Dr. -Vital Brazil, “Contribution a l’étude de l’intoxication ophidienne” -(separately published pamphlet), Paris, 1905; G. Bill, _Intercolonial -Medical Journal of Australasia_, July 20, 1902. - -[100] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1895, No. 4. - -[101] “The Nature of the Antagonism between Toxins and Antitoxins,” -_Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxiii., 1898, p. 420. - -[102] Calmette, _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, 1902, No. -24; Preston Kyes, _Berliner klinische Wochenschrift_, 1904, No. 19. - -[103] _Berliner klinische Wochenschrift_, 1905, No. 50. - -[104] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, Paris, September, -1881. - -[105] “Le venin de la vipère,” Paris, 1889. - -[106] _Transactions of the Third Intercolonial Congress_, 1892, p. 152. - -[107] “Les morsures de vipères chez les animaux,” _Recueil de médecine -vétérinaire d’Alfort_, May 15, 1897. - -[108] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, December 13, 1902; -June 6, July 25, 1903; February 20, 1904. - -[109] _Semaine médicale_, June 24, 1903. - -[110] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, May 19, 1906. - -[111] “El Latrodectus formidabilis de Chile,” by Fredérico Puga-Borne, -Santiago, 1892; and “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” Arachnida, vol. ii., -pl. 35. - -[112] Blackwell, “Experiments and Observations on the Poison of -Araneida,” _Transactions of the Linnean Society of London_, 1855, p. -31. See also “Insect Life” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1889), vol. -i., parts 7, 8, 9 and 10, and vol. ii., part 5. - -[113] “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Giftspinnen.” Stuttgart, 1901. - -[114] “Zur Kenntniss des Kreuzspinnengiftes,” _Hofm. Beiträge_, ii., p. -125, 1902. - -[115] Joyeux-Laffuie, “Appareil venimeux et venin de scorpion” (Thesis -for the degree of Doctor of Science), Paris, 1883; and _Comptes rendus -de l’Académie des Sciences_, November 6, 1882. - -[116] “Ueber die Giftwirkung des Nordafrikanischen Skorpiones,” -_Zeitschrift für Biologie_, Bd. xii., p. 170, 1876. - -[117] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 1885, p. 574. - -[118] _Berliner klinische Wochenschrift_, 1903, Nos. 42, 43. - -[119] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1895, p. 232. - -[120] _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, vol. xlii., 1887, p. 17. - -[121] “L’immunité dans les maladies infectieuses,” Paris, 1901. - -[122] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, November 15, 1904. - -[123] “La scolopendre et sa piqure,” _Thèse Paris_, 1887. - -[124] “Appareil venimeux et venin de la scolopendre,” _Thèse -Montpellier_, 1885. - -[125] “Lehrbuch der Anatomie der Wirbellosen Tiere,” 1848. - -[126] _Arch für anat. Wissensch._, 1859. - -[127] _Comptes rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences_, 1884. - -[128] “Appareil glandulaire des hyménoptères,” Paris, 1894. - -[129] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, 1898. - -[130] _Annales sc. Anat. Zoologie_, 8^e série, t. x., 1898. - -[131] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, July 25, 1890. - -[132] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, July 24, 1905. - -[133] _Berliner klinische Wochenschrift_, 1906, No. 44. - -[134] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie de Médecine_, t. liii., 1905, p. -498. - -[135] “Traité de zoologie médicale,” t. ii. (Paris). - -[136] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, January 17, 1908. - -[137] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, February 25, 1905. - -[138] “Les poissons venimeux,” _Thèse Paris_, 1889. - -[139] “Poissons venimeux et poissons vénéneux,” _Archives de -Physiologie_, May, 1872; _Archives de médecine navale_, February, 1865, -and January, 1881. - -[140] “Poissons venimeux et poissons vénéneux,” _Thèse Paris_, 1899. - -[141] “Les poissons vénéneux,” Paris, 1900. - -[142] “Sédentarité des poissons venimeux,” _Comptes rendus de la -Société de Biologie_, 1895, p. 86. - -[143] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 1904, p. 666. - -[144] _Thèse Paris_, 1884. - -[145] _Bulletin du Muséum d’histoire naturelle_, 1899. - -[146] “Giftfische und Fischgifte,” _Vorträge im Rostocker -Fischerverein_, 1902, and _Die medizinische Wochenschrift_, 1902. - -[147] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, October 25 and -November 8, 1902, and June 21, 1904; _Journal de Physiologie_, March, -1903. - -[148] Brehm (Sauvage’s translation), “Les Merveilles de la -Nature--Reptiles et Batraciens” (Paris, 1885). - -[149] Hoppe-Seyler’s “Med.-chem. Untersuchungen,” Berlin, 1866. - -[150] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, April 1, 1889, and -January 29, 1890. - -[151] _Ibid._, 1890. - -[152] “Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Salamandarins und -Salamanderalkaloïde,” _Archiv. f. experimentale Pathologie und -Pharmakologie_, Bd. xli., 1898, p. 219, and Bd. xliii., 1900, p. 84. - -[153] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 1897, pp. 723, 823. - -[154] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, April 21, 1851, and -May, 1852. - -[155] _Journal de Thérapeutique_, 1877, p. 929. - -[156] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, February 25, 1884. - -[157] _Archives de Physiologie_, 1893, p. 511. - -[158] _Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie_, Bd. ii., 1889, p. 57. - -[159] “Zur Kenntniss des Krotengiftes,” _Hofm. Beiträge_, Bd. i., 1901, -p. 575. - -[160] “Ueber Bufonin und Bufotalin,” Leipzig, 1902; and _Archiv für -experimentale Pathologie und Pharmakologie_, December, 1902. - -[161] “Rapports des venins avec la biologie générale,” _Revue générale -des Sciences_, December 30, 1903. - -[162] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, December 14, 1903. - -[163] H. Coupin, _La Nature_, September 19, 1903. - -[164] “On the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_, its Venomous Spur and -General Structure,” _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1822, p. 622. - -[165] “Observations on the Femoral Gland of Ornithorhynchus and its -Secretion;” _Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales_, vol. ix., July, 1894. - -[166] “Note sur la sécrétion venimeuse de l’_Ornithorhynchus -paradoxus_,” _Comptés rendus de la Société de Biologie_, March 12, 1904. - -[167] “On the Effects of Wounds Inflicted by the Spurs of the -_Platypus_,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania_, 1876. - -[168] The photographs, by which this note was accompanied, are -reproduced in Chapter IV. of this volume, pp. 155, 157, 158. - -[169] _Polygala telophioides_, Will. - -[170] We subsequently learnt that he had informed his friends of his -intention, but had not said a word about it to his wife. - -[171] The thick and cloudy appearance of the contents of the bottles -made us hesitate to have recourse to intravenous injection. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Venoms, by A. Calmette - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VENOMS *** - -***** This file should be named 51078-0.txt or 51078-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/0/7/51078/ - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/51078-0.zip b/old/51078-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 24d2b8f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h.zip b/old/51078-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9459ac2..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/51078-h.htm b/old/51078-h/51078-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index c5e97a2..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/51078-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18815 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - Venoms Venomous Animals and Antivenomous Serum-therapeutics, - by A. Calmette, M.D.. -- a Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -a { - text-decoration: none} - -#coverpage { - margin: 2em auto} - -body { - padding: 4px; - margin: auto 10%} - -p { - text-align: justify} - -sub, sup { - font-size: x-small; - line-height: 0;} - -.small { - font-size: small} - -.medium { - font-size: medium} - -.large { - font-size: large} - -.xlarge { - font-size: x-large} - -.table { - display: table; - margin: auto} - -.tcell { - display: table-cell} - -.tcell p { - margin: auto 1em} - -.trow { - display: table-row} - -.i2 { - padding-left: 1em} - -.i4 { - padding-left: 2em} - -.s2 { - margin: auto 2em} - -.i20 { - padding-left: 10em} - -.nw { - white-space: nowrap} - -.sq { - padding-left: 1.5em; - padding-right: 2em} - -h1 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto auto auto} - -h2, h3, h4, h5 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - font-weight: normal; - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto auto auto} - -.ph1 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - font-size: xx-large; - font-weight: bold; - margin: 1em auto} - -.hang { - text-indent: -3em; - padding-left: 3em} - -hr { - border-top: 4px double #8c8b8b;} - -hr.tb { - width: 25%; margin: 1.2em 37.5%; clear: both} - -.index { - display: table; - margin-left: 0em; - padding-left: 3em; - text-indent: -3em;} - -table { - margin: auto} - -td { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; - vertical-align: top} - -.tdr { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right;} - -.tdc { - text-align: center;} - -.bbox { - border-collapse: collapse; - border: solid 2px;} - -.bbox td { - vertical-align: middle; - text-indent: -1.8em; - padding: 2px 4px 2px 2em; - border: solid 1px;} - -.bbox th { - padding: 2px; - border: solid 1px;} - -.copy { - font-size: small; - text-align: center} - -.center { - text-align: center;} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps;} - -.caption { - font-size: small; - text-align: center} - -.w50 {width: 50%} -.w100 {width: 100%} - -/* Images */ -img { - border: none; - max-width: 100%} - -.figcenter { - clear: both; - margin: auto; - text-align: center;} - -.figcenter p { - margin: 0.5em 2em;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes { - margin: 2em auto; - border: #ddd solid 1px} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: x-small; - line-height: 0; - text-decoration: none; - white-space: nowrap /* keeps footnote on same line as referenced text */} - -.footnote { - margin: auto} - -.footnote p { - text-indent: -.5em; - padding-left: 2em; - margin: 1em} - -.label { - display: inline-block; - text-indent: -2em; - text-align: right; - text-decoration: none} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - border: silver solid 1px; - color: black; - margin: 2em auto 5em auto; - padding: 1em} - -/* Poetry */ - -.poetry { - margin: auto; - text-align: center} - -.poem { - margin: auto; - display: inline-block; - text-align: left} - -.poem .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - color: silver; - position: absolute; - right: 1em; - font-size: small; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Venoms, by A. Calmette - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Venoms - Venomous Animals and Antivenomous Serum-therapeutics - -Author: A. Calmette - -Translator: Ernest E. Austen - -Release Date: January 30, 2016 [EBook #51078] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VENOMS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div id="coverpage" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" -alt="" /> -<p class="copy">The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">i</span></p> - -<h1> -VENOMS<br /> -<br /> -<span class="xlarge">VENOMOUS ANIMALS<br /> -AND ANTIVENOMOUS<br /> -SERUM-THERAPEUTICS</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="medium">BY</span> -<br /> -<span class="large">A. CALMETTE, M.D.</span> -<br /> -<span class="table"> -<span class="trow medium">Corresponding Member of the French Institute and of the Academy</span> -<span class="trow medium">of Medicine, Director of the Pasteur Institute, Lille</span> -</span> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="medium">TRANSLATED BY ERNEST E. AUSTEN, F.Z.S.</span> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="table"> -<span class="trow large">NEW YORK</span> -<span class="trow large">WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY</span> -<span class="trow large">MDCCCCVIII</span> -</span> -</h1> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> - -<h2 id="PREFACE_TO_ENGLISH_EDITION">PREFACE TO ENGLISH EDITION.</h2> - -<p>Mr. E. E. Austen, of the British Museum, has been -good enough to undertake the translation of my book on -“Venoms.” For the presentation of my work to the -scientific public in an English dress I could not have hoped -to find a more faithful interpreter. To him I express my -liveliest gratitude for the trouble that he has so kindly -taken, and I thank Messrs. John Bale, Sons and Danielsson -for the care they have bestowed upon the preparation of -this edition.</p> - -<p class="table w100"> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell"><i>Institut Pasteur de Lille,</i></span> -<span class="tcell tdr"><span class="smcap">A. Calmette</span>, M.D.</span> -</span> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell i4"><i>June 17, 1908.</i></span> -</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - -<h2 id="INTRODUCTION_TO_FRENCH_EDITION">INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION.</h2> - -<p>In the month of October, 1891, during the rains, a village -in the vicinity of Bac-Lieu, in Lower Cochin-China, was -invaded by a swarm of poisonous snakes belonging to the -species known as <i>Naja tripudians</i>, or Cobra-di-Capello. -These creatures, which were forced by the deluge to enter -the native huts, bit four persons, who succumbed in a few -hours. An Annamese, a professional snake-charmer in the -district, succeeded in catching nineteen of these cobras and -shutting them up alive in a barrel. M. Séville, the administrator -of the district, thereupon conceived the idea of -forwarding the snakes to the newly established Pasteur -Institute at Saigon, to which I had been appointed as -director.</p> - -<p>At this period our knowledge of the physiological action -of venoms was extremely limited. A few of their properties -alone had been brought to light by the works of Weir -Mitchell and Reichard in America, of Wall and Armstrong -in India and England, of A. Gautier and Kaufmann in -France, and especially by Sir Joseph Fayrer’s splendidly -illustrated volume (“The Thanatophidia of India”), published -in London in 1872.</p> - -<p>An excellent opportunity was thus afforded to me of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span> -taking up a study which appeared to possess considerable -interest on the morrow of the discoveries of E. Roux and -Behring, with reference to the toxins of diphtheria and -tetanus, and I could not allow the chance to escape. For -the last fifteen years I have been occupied continuously -with this subject, and I have published, or caused to be -published by my students, in French, English, or German -scientific journals, a fairly large number of memoirs either -on venoms and the divers venomous animals, or on antivenomous -serum-therapeutics. The collation of these -papers is now becoming a matter of some difficulty, and it -appeared to me that the time had arrived for the production -of a monograph, which may, I hope, be of some service to -all who are engaged in biological research.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Antivenomous serum-therapy</i>, which my studies, supplemented -by those of Phisalix and Bertrand, Fraser, -George Lamb, F. Tidswell, McFarland, and Vital Brazil, -have enabled me to establish upon scientific bases, has -now entered into current medical practice. In each of the -countries in which venomous bites represent an important -cause of mortality in the case of human beings and domestic -animals, special laboratories have been officially organised -for the preparation of antivenomous serum. All that -remains to be done is to teach its use to those who are -ignorant of it, especially to the indigenous inhabitants of -tropical countries, where snakes are more especially formidable -and deadly. This book will not reach such people as -these, but the medical men, naturalists, travellers, and -explorers to whom it is addressed will know how to popularise -and apply the information that it will give them. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> - -<p>I firmly believe also that physiologists will read the -book with profit. Its perusal will perhaps suggest to them -the task of investigating a host of questions, which are still -obscure, relating to toxins, their mode of action upon the -different organisms, and their relations to the antitoxins. -There is no doubt that in the study of venoms a multitude -of workers will, for a long time to come, find material for -the exercise of their powers of research.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>At the moment of completing this work I would like to -be allowed to cast a backward glance upon the stage that -it marks in my scientific career, and to express my heartfelt -gratitude to my very dear master and friend, Dr. Émile -Roux, to whom I owe the extreme gratification of having -been able to dedicate my life to the study of experimental -science, and of having caused to germinate, grow, and -ripen a few of the ever fertile seeds that he sows broadcast -around him.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I am especially grateful to those of my pupils, C. Guérin, -A. Deléarde, F. Noc, L. Massol, Bernard, and A. Briot, who -have helped me in my work, while showering upon me the -marks of their confidence, esteem, and attachment; to my -former chiefs, colleagues, and friends of the Colonial Medical -Staff, Drs. G. Treille, Kermorgant, Paul Gouzien, Pineau, -Camail, Angier, Lépinay, Lecorre, Gries, Lhomme, and -Mirville; and to my numerous foreign or French correspondents, -George Lamb, Semple, C. J. Martin, Vital Brazil, -Arnold, de Castro, Simon Flexner, Noguchi, P. Kyes, -Morgenroth, J. Claine, Piotbey, and R. P. Travers, several -of whom have come to work in my laboratory, or have -obligingly procured for me venoms and venomous animals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></p> - -<p>I have experienced at the hands of a large number of -our ministers, consuls, or consular agents abroad the most -cordial reception on repeatedly addressing myself to them -in order to obtain the papers or information of which I was -in need. It is only right for me to thank them for it, -and to acknowledge the trouble that M. Masson has most -kindly taken in publishing this book.</p> - -<p class="table w100"> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell"><i>Institut Pasteur de Lille,</i></span> -<span class="tcell tdr smcap">A. Calmette.</span> -</span> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell i4"><i>March 10, 1907.</i></span> -</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p> - - -<h2 id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="5"><a href="#PART_I">PART I.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdr">Page</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Chap. I.—I.</span></a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#General_Notes_on_Poisonous_Animals">General notes on poisonous animals</a></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td style="padding-left: 6em"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">II.</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#General_Classification_of_Poisonous_Snakes">General classification of poisonous snakes. Their anatomo-physiological characters</a></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">Chap. II.—</span></a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Habits_of_poisonous_snakes_Their_capture">Habits of poisonous snakes. Their capture</a></td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Chap. III.—</span></a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Description_of_the_principal_species_of_poisonous_snakes">Description of the principal species of poisonous snakes. Their geographical distribution</a></td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Europe">A. <i>Europe</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#ASIA_DUTCH_INDIES_AND_PHILIPPINE_ISLANDS">B. <i>Asia, Dutch Indies and Philippine Islands</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Africa">C. <i>Africa</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Australia_and_adjacent_large_islands">D. <i>Australia and adjacent large islands</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#America">E. <i>America</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Hydrophiid_sea_snakes">F. <i>Hydrophiidæ</i> (<i>sea-snakes</i>)</a></td> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Geographical_distribution">G. <i>Geographical distribution of the principal genera of poisonous snakes in the five divisions of the world</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">142</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="5"><a href="#PART_II">PART II.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Chap. IV.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Secretion_and_collection_of_venom_in_snakes">Secretion and collection of venom in snakes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">Chap. V.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Chemical_study_of_snake_venoms">Chemical study of snake-venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="smcap">Chap. VI.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Physiological_action_of_snake_venoms">Physiological action of snake-venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Physiology_of_poisoning">A. Physiology of poisoning in man and in animals bitten by the different species of poisonous snakes (<i>Colubridæ</i>, <i>Viperidæ</i>, <i>Hydrophiidæ</i>)</a></td> - <td class="tdr">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Physiology_of_experimental_poisoning">B. Physiology of experimental poisoning</a></td> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Determination_of_the_lethal_doses_of_venom">C. Determination of the lethal doses of venom for different species of animals</a></td> - <td class="tdr">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Effects_of_venom_in_non_lethal_doses">D. Effects of venom in non-lethal doses</a></td> - <td class="tdr">177<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="smcap">Chap. VII.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Effects_of_the_various_venoms_on_the_different_tissues">Physiology of poisoning (<i>continued</i>). Effects of the various venoms on the different tissues of the organism</a></td> - <td class="tdr">179</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Action_upon_the_Liver">(1) Action upon the liver</a></td> - <td class="tdr">182</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Action_upon_the_Kidney">(2) Action upon the kidney</a></td> - <td class="tdr">183</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Action_upon_the_spleen_heart_and_lungs">(3) Action upon the spleen, heart and lungs</a></td> - <td class="tdr">183</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Action_upon_the_Striated_Muscles">(4) Action upon the striated muscles</a></td> - <td class="tdr">184</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Action_upon_the_nervous_centres">(5) Action upon the nervous centres</a></td> - <td class="tdr">185</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="smcap">Chap. VIII.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Action_of_venoms_on_the_blood">Physiology of poisoning (<i>continued</i>). Action of venoms on the blood</a></td> - <td class="tdr">188</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Effects_of_venom_on_the_coagulation_of_the_blood">A. Effects of venom on the coagulation of the blood</a></td> - <td class="tdr">188</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Coagulant_venoms">I. Coagulant venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">190</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Anticoagulant_venoms">II. Anticoagulant venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">192</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Mechanism_of_the_anticoagulant_action_of_venoms">III. Mechanism of the anticoagulant action of venoms on the blood</a></td> - <td class="tdr">195</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Effects_of_venom_on_the_red_corpuscles">B. Effects of venom on the red corpuscles and on the serum</a></td> - <td class="tdr">196</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Haemolysis">(1) Hæmolysis</a></td> - <td class="tdr">196</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Precipitins_of_venoms">(2) Precipitins of venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">202</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Agglutinins_of_Venoms">(3) Agglutinins of venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">202</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Effects_of_Venom_upon_the_White_Corpuscles">C. Effects of venom upon the white corpuscles: Leucolysin</a></td> - <td class="tdr">203</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="smcap">Chap. IX.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Physiology of poisoning (<i>continued</i>). Proteolytic, cytolytic, bacteriolytic, and various diastasic actions of venoms: diastasic and cellular actions on venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">204</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Proteolytic_Action">A. Proteolytic action</a></td> - <td class="tdr">204</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Cytolytic_action">B. Cytolytic action</a></td> - <td class="tdr">206</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Bacteriolytic_Action">C. Bacteriolytic action</a></td> - <td class="tdr">206</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Various_diastasic_actions_of_venoms">D. Various diastasic actions of venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">212</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Action_of_Various_Diastases_upon_Venoms">E. Action of various diastases upon venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">214</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><span class="smcap">Chap. X.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Toxicity_of_the_blood_of_venomous_snakes">Toxicity of the blood of venomous snakes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">217</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><span class="smcap">Chap. XI.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Natural_immunity_of_certain_animals_with_respect_to_snake_venoms">Natural immunity of certain animals with respect to snake-venoms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">222</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><span class="smcap">Chap. XII.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Snake_charmers">Snake-charmers</a></td> - <td class="tdr">228 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="5"><a href="#PART_III">PART III.<br /> -<span class="medium">ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM-THERAPEUTICS.</span></a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><span class="smcap">Chap. XIII.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Vaccination_against_snake_venom">Vaccination against snake-venom—Preparation of antivenomous serum—Its preventive properties as regards intoxication by venom</a></td> - <td class="tdr">241</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Specificity_and_Polyvalence_of_Antivenomous_Serums">Specificity and polyvalence of antivenomous serums</a></td> - <td class="tdr">248</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><span class="smcap">Chap. XIV.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Neutralisation_of_venom_by_antitoxin">Neutralisation of venom by antitoxin</a></td> - <td class="tdr">253</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><span class="smcap">Chap. XV.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Treatment_of_Poisonous_Snake_bites_in_Man_And_Animals">Treatment of poisonous snake-bites in man and animals. - Objects of the treatment. Technique of antivenomous - serum-therapy</a></td> - <td class="tdr">259</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="5"><a href="#PART_IV">PART IV.<br /> - <span class="medium">VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES.</span></a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><span class="smcap">Chap. XVI.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="4"><a href="#Venoms_in_the_animal_series">Venoms in the animal series.</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1.—</td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#INVERTEBRATES">Invertebrates</a></td> - <td class="tdr">269</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Coelenterates">A. <i>Cœlenterates</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">269</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Echinoderms">B. <i>Echinoderms</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">273</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2"><a href="#Arthropods">C. <i>Arthropods</i>:</a></td> - <td><a href="#Araneids">(<i>a</i>) <i>Araneids</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">274</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"> —</td> - <td><a href="#Scorpions">(<i>b</i>) <i>Scorpions</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">276</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">—</td> - <td><a href="#Myriopods">(<i>c</i>) <i>Myriopods</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">280</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">—</td> - <td><a href="#Insects">(<i>d</i>) <i>Insects</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">281</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Molluscs">D. <i>Molluscs</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">286</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><span class="smcap">Chap. XVII.</span>—</a></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Venoms in the animal series (<i>continued</i>)</a>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2.—</td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Venomous_fishes">Venomous fishes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">288</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="4"><a href="#Teleostei_Acanthopterygii">A. <i>Teleostei.</i> <i>Acanthopterygii</i></a>:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Triglidae">1. <i>Triglidæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">290</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Trachinidae">2. <i>Trachinidæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">297</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Gobiiae">3. <i>Gobiidæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Teuthididae">4. <i>Teuthididæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">301</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Batrachiidae">5. <i>Batrachiidæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">302</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Pediculati">6. <i>Pediculati</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">303</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Teleostei_Plectognathi">B. <i>Teleostei.</i> <i>Plectognathi</i>:</a></td> - <td class="tdr">305</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Teleostei_Physostomi">C. <i>Teleostei.</i> <i>Physostomi</i>:</a></td> - <td class="tdr">307</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Siluridae">1. <i>Siluridæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">308</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="s2">—</span><span class="s2">—</span></td> - <td><a href="#Muraenidae">2. <i>Murænidæ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">309 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5" class="nw"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><span class="smcap">Chap. XVIII.</span>— Venoms in the animal series (<i>continued</i>)</a>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3.—</td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#">Batrachians; Lizards; Mammals</a></td> - <td class="tdr">312</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Batrachians">A. Batrachians</a></td> - <td class="tdr">312</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Lizards">B. Lizards</a></td> - <td class="tdr">321</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="3"><a href="#Mammals">C. Mammals (<i>Ornithorhynchus</i>)</a></td> - <td class="tdr">323</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="5"><a href="#PART_V">PART V.<br /> - <span class="medium">DOCUMENTS.</span></a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"><a href="#I_A_few_Notes_and_Observations_relating_to_Bites_of_Poisonous_Snakes_Treated_by_Antivenomous_Serum_Therapeutics">I.—<i>A few notes and observations relating to bites of poisonous snakes treated by antivenomous serum-therapeutics</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">326</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"><a href="#II_A_Few_Notes_and_Observations_Relating_to_Domestic">II.—<i>A few notes and observations relating to domestic animals bitten by poisonous snakes and treated with serum</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">356</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"><a href="#III_Note_on_the_Collection_of_Venom_and_the_Treatment">III.—<i>Note on the collection of cobra-venom and the treatment of poisonous bites in the French Settlements in India (by Dr. Paul Gouzien)</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">359 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdr small">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1.—</a></td> - <td><span class="small">A.</span> Skull of one of the non-poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Ptyas mucosus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">B.</span> Skull of one of the poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">C.</span> Skull of one of the poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Bungarus fasciatus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">D.</span> Skull of one of the <i>Viperidæ</i> (<i>Vipera russellii</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">E.</span> Skull of one of the <i>Viperidæ Crotalinæ</i> (<i>Crotalus durissus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">F.</span> Skull of one of the <i>Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ</i> (<i>Hydrophis pelamis</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2.—</a></td> - <td><span class="small">A.</span> Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the <i>Viperidæ</i> (<i>Vipera russellii</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">B.</span> Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">C.</span> Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Bungarus</i> <i>fasciatus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">D.</span> Maxillary bone and teeth of one of the non-poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Ptyas mucosus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3.—</a></td> - <td><span class="small">A.</span> Fang of one of the <i>Viperidæ</i> (<i>Vipera russellii</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">D.</span> Transverse section of the fang</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4.—</a></td> - <td><span class="small">B.</span> Fang of one of the <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">E.</span> Transverse section</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5.—</a></td> - <td><span class="small">C.</span> Fang of one of the <i>Hydrophiinæ</i> (<i>Hydrophis pelamis</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><span class="small">F.</span> Transverse section</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6—</a></td> - <td>Three transverse sections of a poison-fang of one of the <i>Colubridæ</i></td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7—</a></td> - <td>Marks produced on the skin by the bites of different species of snakes</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8—</a></td> - <td>Poison-gland and fangs of a venomous snake (<i>Naja tripudians</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9—</a></td> - <td>Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of <i>Vipera russellii</i></td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_10">Fig. 10—</a></td> - <td>Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of <i>Vipera russellii</i></td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11—</a></td> - <td>Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of <i>Naja tripudians</i></td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12—</a></td> - <td>Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of <i>Naja tripudians</i></td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13—</a></td> - <td>Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the non-poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Ptyas mucosus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14—</a></td> - <td>Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15—</a></td> - <td>Feeding a poisonous snake (first stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16—</a></td> - <td>Feeding a poisonous snake (second stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">18 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17—</a></td> - <td>Capture of a <i>Naja tripudians</i> (first stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18—</a></td> - <td>Capture of a <i>Naja tripudians</i> (second stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19—</a></td> - <td>Hindu carrying two captured Cobras in “chatties”</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20—</a></td> - <td>Maxillary bone, mandible, and head of <i>Cœlopeltis monspessulana</i></td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21—</a></td> - <td>(1) <i>Vipera berus</i>; (2) <i>Vipera aspis</i>; (3) <i>Vipera ammodytes</i>; (4) <i>Vipera ammodytes</i></td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22—</a></td> - <td><i>Vipera aspis</i>, from the Forest of Fontainebleau</td> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Bungarus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24—</a></td> - <td><i>Bungarus fasciatus</i> (India)</td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Naja tripudians</i></td> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26—</a></td> - <td><i>Naja tripudians</i> (Cobra-di-Capello) on the defensive, preparing to strike</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27—</a></td> - <td><i>Naja tripudians</i> (Cobra-di-Capello)</td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28—</a></td> - <td><i>Vipera russellii</i> (Daboia)</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29—</a></td> - <td><i>Pseudocerastes persicus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">47</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30—</a></td> - <td><i>Echis carinatus</i> (India)</td> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31—</a></td> - <td><i>Ancistrodon hypnale</i> (Carawalla, of Ceylon)</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32—</a></td> - <td><i>Lachesis okinavensis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33—</a></td> - <td><i>Lachesis flavomaculatus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Dendraspis viridis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Causus rhombeatus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Bitis arietans</i> (Puff Adder)</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37—</a></td> - <td><i>Bitis arietans</i> (Puff Adder)</td> - <td class="tdr">71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38—</a></td> - <td><i>Bitis cornuta</i></td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39—</a></td> - <td><i>Bitis rasicornis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">74</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40—</a></td> - <td><i>Cerastes cornutus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41—</a></td> - <td><i>Echis coloratus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Atractaspis aterrima</i></td> - <td class="tdr">79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Glyphodon tristis</i> (Australian Colubrine)</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44—</a></td> - <td><i>Pseudelaps krefftii</i></td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45—</a></td> - <td><i>Pseudelaps harriettæ</i></td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46—</a></td> - <td><i>Pseudelaps diadema</i></td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47—</a></td> - <td><i>Diemenia psammophis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48—</a></td> - <td><i>Diemenia olivacea</i></td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49—</a></td> - <td><i>Diemenia textilis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50—</a></td> - <td><i>Diemenia nuchalis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51—</a></td> - <td><i>Pseudechis porphyriacus</i> (Black Snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52—</a></td> - <td><i>Denisonia superba</i> (Copperhead)</td> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53—</a></td> - <td><i>Denisonia coronoides</i></td> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54—</a></td> - <td><i>Denisonia ramsayi</i></td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55—</a></td> - <td><i>Denisonia signata</i></td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56—</a></td> - <td><i>Denisonia maculata</i></td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57—</a></td> - <td><i>Denisonia gouldii</i></td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58—</a></td> - <td><i>Hoplocephalus bitorquatus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59—</a></td> - <td><i>Notechis scutatus</i> (Tiger Snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Acanthophis antarcticus</i> (Death Adder)</td> - <td class="tdr">96<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61—</a></td> - <td><i>Acanthophis antarcticus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62—</a></td> - <td><i>Rhynchelaps australis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Furina occipitalis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64—</a></td> - <td><i>Furina occipitalis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Elaps marcgravii</i></td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_66">Fig. 66—</a></td> - <td><i>Elaps fulvius</i> (Harlequin Snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">105</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67—</a></td> - <td>Head and Skull of <i>Crotalus horridus</i> (Horrid Rattle-snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">109</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68—</a></td> - <td><i>Ancistrodon piscivorus</i> (Water Viper)</td> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69—</a></td> - <td><i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> (Fer-de-Lance)</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70—</a></td> - <td><i>Lachesis neuwiedii</i> (Urutù)</td> - <td class="tdr">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71—</a></td> - <td><i>Sistrurus catenatus</i> (Prairie Rattle-snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72—</a></td> - <td>A. Horny appendage (rattle) of a <i>Crotalus horridus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>B. Horny appendage, longitudinal section</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>C. Separated segments of the appendage</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73—</a></td> - <td><i>Crotalus terrificus</i> (Dog-faced Rattle-snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74—</a></td> - <td><i>Crotalus scutulatus</i> (Texas Rattle-snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75—</a></td> - <td><i>Crotalus confluentus</i> (Pacific Rattle-snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">128</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_76">Fig. 76—</a></td> - <td><i>Crotalus cerastes</i> (Horned Rattle-snake)</td> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Hydrus platurus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_78">Fig. 78—</a></td> - <td><i>Hydrus platurus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79—</a></td> - <td><i>Hydrophis coronatus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">134</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80—</a></td> - <td><i>Hydrophis elegans</i></td> - <td class="tdr">135</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Distira</i></td> - <td class="tdr">137</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82—</a></td> - <td><i>Enhydrina valakadien</i> (<i>E. bengalensis</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">138</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83—</a></td> - <td>Skull of <i>Platurus colubrinus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">139</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84—</a></td> - <td><i>Platurus laticaudatus</i> (<i>P. fischeri</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">140</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85—</a></td> - <td>Collecting venom from a <i>Lachesis</i> at the Serotherapeutic Institute of São Paulo (Brazil)</td> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_86">Fig. 86—</a></td> - <td>Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at Pondicherry (first stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">155</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_87">Fig. 87—</a></td> - <td>Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at Pondicherry (second stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88—</a></td> - <td>Collecting Cobra-venom at Pondicherry (third stage)</td> - <td class="tdr">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89—</a></td> - <td>Mongoose seized by a Cobra</td> - <td class="tdr">225</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90—</a></td> - <td>Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon)</td> - <td class="tdr">230</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91—</a></td> - <td>Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon)</td> - <td class="tdr">231</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92—</a></td> - <td>Musical instrument used by Indian snake-charmers to charm Cobras</td> - <td class="tdr">232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93—</a></td> - <td>Vaccinating a horse against venom at the Pasteur Institute, Lille</td> - <td class="tdr">244</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94—</a></td> - <td>Aseptically bleeding a horse, vaccinated against venom, in order to obtain antivenomous serum, at the Pasteur Institute, Lille</td> - <td class="tdr">245</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95—</a></td> - <td>Technique of injecting antivenomous serum beneath the skin of the abdomen</td> - <td class="tdr">264</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96—</a></td> - <td><i>Lactrodectus mactans</i></td> - <td class="tdr">275</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97—</a></td> - <td><i>Scorpio occitanus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">277</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98—</a></td> - <td><i>Scolopendra morsitans</i></td> - <td class="tdr">280<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99—</a></td> - <td>Poison-apparatus of the bee</td> - <td class="tdr">281</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100—</a></td> - <td>Interior of the gorget of the Bee</td> - <td class="tdr">282</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_101">Fig. 101—</a></td> - <td><i>Synanceia brachio</i> var. <i>Verrucosa</i></td> - <td class="tdr">291</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_102">Fig. 102—</a></td> - <td><i>Cottus scorpius</i> (Sea Scorpion, or Father Lasher)</td> - <td class="tdr">292</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_103">Fig. 103—</a></td> - <td><i>Scorpæna grandicornis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">293</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_104">Fig. 104—</a></td> - <td><i>Scorpæna diabolus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">294</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105—</a></td> - <td><i>Pterois artemata</i></td> - <td class="tdr">295</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106—</a></td> - <td><i>Pelor filamentosum</i></td> - <td class="tdr">296</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107—</a></td> - <td><i>Trachinus vipera</i> (Lesser Weever)</td> - <td class="tdr">297</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108—</a></td> - <td>Operculum and opercular spine of the Lesser Weever</td> - <td class="tdr">298</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109—</a></td> - <td><i>Callionymus lyra</i> (Dragonet)</td> - <td class="tdr">300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_110">Fig. 110—</a></td> - <td><i>Batrachus grunniens</i></td> - <td class="tdr">302</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 111—</a></td> - <td><i>Thalassophryne reticulata</i></td> - <td class="tdr">302</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_112">Fig. 112—</a></td> - <td><i>Lophius setigerus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">303</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_113">Fig. 113—</a></td> - <td><i>Serranus ouatabili</i></td> - <td class="tdr">304</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_114">Fig. 114—</a></td> - <td><i>Holacanthus imperator</i></td> - <td class="tdr">305</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_115">Fig. 115—</a></td> - <td><i>Tetrodon stellatus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">306</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116—</a></td> - <td><i>Tetrodon rubripes</i></td> - <td class="tdr">306</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117—</a></td> - <td><i>Chilomycterus orbicularis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">307</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_118">Fig. 118—</a></td> - <td><i>Chilomycterus tigrinus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">307</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119—</a></td> - <td><i>Silurus glanis</i></td> - <td class="tdr">308</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120—</a></td> - <td><i>Muræna moringa</i></td> - <td class="tdr">310</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121—</a></td> - <td><i>Salamandra maculosa</i> (Spotted Salamander)</td> - <td class="tdr">314</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122—</a></td> - <td><i>Triton marmoratus</i> (Marbled Newt)</td> - <td class="tdr">314</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123—</a></td> - <td><i>Cryptobranchus japonicus</i> (Great Japanese Salamander)</td> - <td class="tdr">315</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124—</a></td> - <td><i>Heloderma horridum</i></td> - <td class="tdr">322</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125—</a></td> - <td><i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i> (Duck-billed Platypus)</td> - <td class="tdr">324</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<p class="ph1" id="VENOMS">VENOMS.</p> - -<h2 id="PART_I">PART I.<br /> - -<br /><span id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</span><br /> - -<br /><i>GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS—POISONOUS -SNAKES: GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND -ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS.</i></h2> - -<h3 id="General_Notes_on_Poisonous_Animals">I.—<span class="smcap">General Notes on Poisonous Animals.</span></h3> - -<p>A large number of animals possess special glandular organs -capable of secreting toxic substances called <i>venoms</i>.</p> - -<p>Sometimes these substances are simply discharged into the -surrounding medium, and serve to keep off enemies (<i>toad</i>, <i>salamander</i>); -sometimes they mingle with the fluids and digestive -juices, and then play an important part in the nourishment of the -animal that produces them (<i>snakes</i>); in other cases, again, they -are capable of being inoculated by means of <i>stings</i> or <i>teeth</i> specially -adapted for this purpose, and then they serve at once as a means -of attack or defence, and as a digestive ferment (<i>snakes</i>, <i>spiders</i>, -<i>scorpions</i>, <i>bees</i>).</p> - -<p>An animal is said to be <i>venomous</i> when it possesses the power -of <i>inoculating</i> its venom.</p> - -<p>Venomous species are met with in almost all the lower zoological -groups, in the <i>Protozoa</i>, <i>Cœlenterates</i>, <i>Arthropods</i>, <i>Molluscs</i>, and in -a large number of <i>Vertebrates</i> (fishes, amphibians, and reptiles).</p> - -<p>The <i>reptiles</i> are best endowed in this respect, and it is in this -class of creatures that we meet with the species most dangerous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -to man and to mammals in general. The study of their venom, -too, is of considerable interest, since it should lead to the quest -of means of protection sufficiently efficacious to preserve us from -their attacks.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Venomous reptiles are not always easy to distinguish from -those devoid of any inoculatory apparatus. For this reason both -classes alike have at all times inspired mankind with a lively dread, -which is displayed among the various races in legends and religious -beliefs.</p> - -<p>In ancient days the cult of the snake occupied a prominent -place. In <i>Genesis</i> the serpent is the incarnation of the Evil One, -tempting and deceitful. In Greece it was the symbol of wisdom -and prudence. In Egypt it was associated with the Sacred -Scarabæus and the flowers of the lotus to represent Immortality!</p> - -<p>At Rome epidemics ceased when the snake sacred to Æsculapius -was brought from Epidaurus.</p> - -<p>According to Kraff, the Gallas of Central Africa consider the -snake as the ancestor of the human race, and hold it in great -respect.</p> - -<p>In India the cult of the Seven-headed <i>Naja</i>, or serpent-god, -was formerly almost as flourishing as that of Buddha. It is still -regarded as a crime to kill a Cobra when it enters a hut; prayers -are addressed and food is offered to it. Its presence is an omen -of happiness and prosperity; it is believed that its death would -bring down the most terrible calamities on whomsoever should -have brought it about, and on his family.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, in the Indian Peninsula alone, the Cobra, the -Krait, and a few other extremely poisonous species of snakes cause -every year an average of <i>25,000</i> deaths. The number of fatalities -from the same cause is likewise considerable in Burma, Indo-China, -the Dutch Indies, Australia, Africa, the West Indies and -Tropical America generally.</p> - -<p>The temperate regions of the globe are less severely affected; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -but in North America the Rattle-snake and the Moccasin are -especially deadly.</p> - -<p>In France the Common Viper abounds in Jura, Isère, Ardèche, -Auvergne, Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau. <i>Three -hundred thousand</i> have been killed in twenty-seven years in the -Department of Haute-Saône alone. Every year this snake causes -the death of some sixty persons. Cow-herds, shepherds, and -sportsmen fear it greatly, since it is very dangerous to cattle, -sheep, and dogs.</p> - -<h3 id="General_Classification_of_Poisonous_Snakes">II.—<span class="smcap">General Classification of Poisonous Snakes. Their -Anatomo-physiological Characters.</span></h3> - -<p>Poisonous snakes are divided by naturalists into two great -Families, the <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, distinguished from each -other by certain anatomical characters, and especially by the -dentition.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> resemble harmless snakes, which renders them -all the more dangerous.</p> - -<p>They are divided into two groups: <span class="smcap">Opisthoglypha</span> (ὄπισθεν, -behind; γλυφὴ, a groove) and <span class="smcap">Proteroglypha</span> (πρότερον, before; -γλυφὴ, a groove).</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Opisthoglypha</span> have the upper jaws furnished in front -with smooth or non-grooved teeth, but <i>behind</i> with one or several -rows of long, canaliculate teeth.</p> - -<p>This group includes three <i>Sub-families</i>:—</p> - -<p>A. The <i>Homalopsinæ</i>, having valved nostrils, placed above the -snout.</p> - -<p>B. The <i>Dipsadomorphinæ</i>, in which the nostrils are lateral in -position, and the dentition is highly developed.</p> - -<p>C. The <i>Elachistodontinæ</i>, which have but rudimentary teeth -only on the posterior portion of the maxillary, on the palatine -and on the pterygoid bones.</p> - -<p>Almost all the snakes belonging to these three sub-families are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -poisonous, but only slightly so. They are not dangerous to man. -Their venom merely serves to paralyse their prey before deglutition -takes place; it does not afford them an effective means of defence -or attack.</p> - -<p>All the <i>Homalopsinæ</i> are aquatic; they bring forth their young -in the water, and are met with commonly in the Indian Ocean, -starting from Bombay, and especially in the Bay of Bengal, on -the shores of Indo-China and Southern China, from Singapore to -Formosa, in the Dutch Indies, in Borneo, the Philippines, New -Guinea and the Papuan Archipelago, and as far as the north of -Australia.</p> - -<p>The <i>Dipsadomorphinæ</i> comprise a large number of highly -cosmopolitan genera and species, found in all the regions of the -earth except the northerly portions of the Northern Hemisphere. -None of these reptiles is capable of causing serious casualties among -human beings, owing to the peculiarly defective arrangement of -their poison-apparatus. I therefore do not think it worth while -to linger here over their description.</p> - -<p>The <i>Elachistodontinæ</i> are of even less importance; at the -present time only two species are known, both of small size and -confined to Bengal.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Proteroglypha</span> group of the <i>Colubridæ</i> is of much greater -interest to us, since all the snakes belonging to it are armed with -powerful fangs, in front of the upper maxillaries. These fangs, -which are provided with a channel in the shape of a deep groove, -communicate at the base with the efferent duct of poison glands, -which are often of very large size.</p> - -<p>The group is composed of two <i>Sub-families</i>:—</p> - -<p>A. The <i>Hydrophiinæ</i> (sea-snakes), provided with a flattened -<i>oar-shaped</i> tail. The body is more or less laterally compressed; -the eyes are usually small, with circular pupils; the scales of the -nose have two notches on the upper labial border.</p> - -<p>The normal habitat of all the members of this sub-family is the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -sea, near the shore, with the exception of the genus <i>Distira</i>, which -is met with in the fresh water of a lake in the Island of Luzon, -in the Philippines. They are frequently found in very large -numbers in the Indian seas and throughout the tropical zone of -the Pacific Ocean, from the Persian Gulf to the west coast of the -American Continent, but they are entirely absent from the West -Coast of Africa.</p> - -<p>B. The <i>Elapinæ</i> (land-snakes), with a cylindrical tail, and -covered with smooth or carinate scales. These serpents are frequently -adorned with brilliant colours. Some of them (belonging -to the genus <i>Naja</i>) have the faculty of expanding the neck in the -shape of a parachute, by spreading out the first pairs of ribs when -they are alarmed or excited: the breadth of the neck then greatly -exceeds that of the head. They are distributed throughout Africa, -Asia, and North and South America, and are also found in Australia, -where almost all the snakes that are known belong to this sub-family.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Family <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> is characterised by a triangular head, -which is widened posteriorly, and by the general aspect of the -body, which is usually thick-set and terminated by a short tail. -The bones of the face are movable. The præfrontal bone is not -in contact with the nasal; the maxillary is greatly shortened and -may be articulated perpendicularly to the ectopterygoid; it bears -a pair of large poison-fangs, one on each side, and these are always -accompanied by several teeth to replace them, folded back in the -gum; these latter teeth come in succession to take the place of -the principal tooth, when this is broken or falls out of itself when -the snake sheds its skin.</p> - -<p>The poison-fangs are not <i>grooved</i>, as in the <i>Proteroglyphous -Colubridæ</i>; they are pierced by a perfectly formed canal, the upper -end of which inosculates with the efferent duct of the corresponding -poison-gland, while its lower extremity opens to the exterior a little -above and in front of the tip. The latter is always very sharp. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - -<p>The palate and lower jaw are furnished with small hooked teeth, -which are solid and non-venomous.</p> - -<p>With the exception of the species of <i>Atractaspis</i>, these snakes -are all ovoviviparous. The majority are terrestrial; a few lead a -semi-aquatic existence, while others are arboreal.</p> - -<p>Their distribution includes Europe, Asia, Africa (with the exception -of Madagascar), and North and South America. They do not -exist in Australia.</p> - -<p>They are divided into two <i>Sub-families</i>:—</p> - -<p>A. The <i>Viperinæ</i>, in which the head, which is very broad and -covered with little plates and scales, has no pit between the nose -and the eyes;</p> - -<p>B. The <i>Crotalinæ</i> (κρὁταλον, a rattle), in which the head is -incompletely covered with scales, and exhibits a deep pit on each -side, between the eye and the nostril.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Among snakes, the characters that serve as a basis for the -determination of genera and species are the general shape of the -body, especially that of the head, the arrangement of the cephalic -scales, the cranial skeleton, and the dentition.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Cranial Skeleton.</i>—The cranium is composed of a certain number -of bones, the homologues of which are found in the mammalian -skeleton; but the bones are complex, and subject to modifications -according to the structure and habitat of each species.</p> - -<p>The special arrangement of the bones of the face is above all -characteristic of the poisonous snakes. Those forming the upper -jaw, the palate and the mandibles or “inter-maxillaries” are movable -upon each other and on the cranium. The upper and lower -maxillaries are united by an extensile ligament and articulated -with the tympanic bone, which permits the mouth to be opened -very widely when the animal swallows its prey.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Dentition.</i>—The <i>non-poisonous</i> snakes have two rows of teeth in -the upper jaw—one external, the <i>maxillary</i>, usually composed of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -from 35-40 small, backwardly curved teeth; the other internal, -the <i>palatine</i>, which only numbers from 20-22 teeth, having the -same curvature (<a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>, <span class="small">A</span>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_1" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_1.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap"> Fig. 1.</span>—<span class="small">A</span>, Cranial skeleton of one of the non-poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Ptyas mucosus</i>); -<span class="small">B</span>, cranial skeleton of one of the poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>); <span class="small">C</span>, cranial -skeleton of one of the poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Bungarus fasciatus</i>); <span class="small">D</span>, cranial skeleton of -one of the <i>Viperidæ</i> (<i>Vipera russellii</i>); <span class="small">E</span>, cranial skeleton of one of the <i>Viperidæ -Crotalinæ</i> (<i>Crotalus durissus</i>); <span class="small">F</span>, cranial skeleton of one of the <i>Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ</i> -(<i>Hydrophis pelamis</i>).</p> -</div> - -<p>In the <i>poisonous</i> snakes -the maxillary bones are -shorter, and the <i>outer</i> row -is represented by a single -long and tubular or -grooved tooth (the fang), -fused with the maxillary -bone, which is itself movable -(<a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>, <span class="small">B</span>, <span class="small">C</span>, <span class="small">D</span>, <span class="small">E</span>, <span class="small">F</span>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_2" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_2.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—<span class="small">A</span>, Maxillary bone and fangs of one of -the <i>Viperidæ</i> (<i>Vipera russellii</i>); <span class="small">B</span>, maxillary bone -and fangs of one of the <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>); -<span class="small">C</span>, maxillary bone and fangs of one of -the <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Bungarus fasciatus</i>); <span class="small">D</span>, maxillary -bone and teeth of one of the non-poisonous <i>Colubridæ</i> -(<i>Ptyas mucosus</i>). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Certain species (<i>Dipsas</i>) -have maxillary teeth -which increase in size -from front to rear; the -longest teeth are <i>grooved</i> -and serve for the better -retention of prey, and also -to impregnate it with -saliva; but they are not -in communication with the poison-glands.</p> - -<p>The <i>poison-fangs</i> are normally covered -with a fold or capsule of mucous membrane, -in which they are sheathed. This fold conceals -a whole series of <i>reserve</i> teeth in -different degrees of development, which -eventually become attached to the extremity -of the maxillary when the principal tooth -falls out or is broken (<a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_3" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_3.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—<span class="small">A</span>, Fang of one -of the <i>Viperidæ</i> (<i>Vipera -russellii</i>); <span class="small">D</span>, transverse section -of the fang.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Poison Apparatus.</i>—The grooved or furrowed -teeth in the <i>Proteroglypha</i> and the -canaliculate teeth in the <i>Solenoglypha</i> are -arranged, not for the purpose of seizing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -prey, but in order to deal it a mortal blow by injecting the venom -into its flesh.</p> - -<p>In the normal position they lie almost -horizontally, and exhibit no mobility of their -own. But, when the animal prepares to -bite, their erection is effected by the snake -throwing its jaw back; and this movement, -which is always very sudden, enables it at -the same time to compress its poison-glands, -by the aid of special constrictor -muscles.</p> - -<p>On examining the various species of -poisonous snakes, we observe very sharply -marked differences in the arrangement and -dimensions of the teeth. Thus, in the -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> they are long, extraordinarily -sharp, and capable of producing deep wounds -(<a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>, <span class="small">A</span>, and <a href="#Fig_3">fig. 3</a>). They are traversed -by an almost completely closed canal, from -the base, which communicates with the -poison-duct, to the neighbourhood of the -point, where it opens very obliquely on the -convex surface (<a href="#Fig_3">fig. 3</a>, <span class="small">A</span> and <span class="small">D</span>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_4" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_4.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—<span class="small">B</span>, Fang of one -of the <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja -tripudians</i>); <span class="small">E</span>, transverse -section.</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_5" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_5.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—<span class="small">C</span>, Fang of one -of the <i>Hydrophiinæ</i> (<i>Hydrophis pelamis</i>); -<span class="small">F</span>, transverse -section.</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_6" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_6.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Three transverse -sections of a poison-fang -of one of the <i>Colubridæ</i>, -through <span class="small">A A</span>, <span class="small">B B</span>, <span class="small">C C</span>; <span class="small">P P</span>, -pulp cavity; <span class="small">V V V</span>, poison-canal -(groove). (After C. J. -Martin.)</p> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In the <i>Elapinæ</i> sub-family of the <i>Colubridæ</i>, -and especially in the <i>Hydrophiinæ</i>, -the teeth are much shorter and simply -grooved or canaliculate; that is to say, the -canal communicates with the exterior -throughout its extent by a narrow slit, -which traverses the entire convex surface -of the tooth (figs. 4, 5, and 6).</p> - -<p>It does not follow from this that the -bites of these reptiles are less dangerous; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -the contrary, indeed, is the case, for their venom is infinitely more -active.</p> - -<p>These differences, as well as the particular mode of arrangement -of the other little non-poisonous teeth in both jaws, enable us in -many cases to recognise, by the mere appearance of the bite, the -species of snake by which the bite has been inflicted.</p> - -<div id="Fig_7" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_7.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—<span class="smcap">Marks produced on the Skin by the Bites of different Species of -Snakes.</span></p> - -<p>I. <i>Non-venomous Colubrine.</i>—The bite is marked only by the imprint of from -35-40 small palatine or pterygoid teeth, and 20-22 upper maxillary teeth (on the -outside of the foregoing) on each side.</p> - -<p>II. <i>Venomous Colubrine</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>, <span class="smcap">Proteroglypha</span>).—The bite exhibits -25 or 26 punctures from the pterygoid or palatine teeth, and, on each side, one or two, -rarely three, circular wounds produced by the principal poison-fangs and by the -reserve teeth.</p> - -<p>III. <i>Viperidæ</i> (<span class="smcap">Solenoglypha</span>).—The sole indication of the bite consists of 8 or 10 -punctures from the palatine or pterygoid teeth, and one little round wound, on each -side, produced by the poison-fangs.</p> - -<p class="center">(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Fig. 7, above, shows how it is possible to distinguish the marks -left by a <i>non-venomous</i> reptile, and by one of the <i>Proteroglypha</i> or -<i>Solenoglypha</i> respectively.</p> - -<p><i>Poison-glands.</i>—The poison-glands occupy an extensive inter-muscular -space behind the eyes, on each side of the upper jaw. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -They are oval in shape, and may, in <i>Naja tripudians</i> for example, -attain the size of a large almond (<a href="#Fig_8">fig. 8</a>).</p> - -<p>Their structure is the same as that of the salivary glands of the -larger animals. The poison that they secrete accumulates in their -<i>acini</i> and in the efferent duct that opens at the base of the corresponding -fang.</p> - -<p>Each gland is surrounded by a capsule, to which are partly -attached the fibres of the masseter muscle, which violently compresses -it and drives -the poison, just as -the piston of a -syringe would do, into -the canaliculi or -groove of the fang.</p> - -<div id="Fig_8" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_8.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—<span class="smcap">Poison-gland and Fangs of a Venomous -Snake</span> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>, <i>Colubridæ</i>). (Natural size.)</p> - -<p><span class="small">L</span>, Lobe of the gland; <span class="small">D</span>, poison-duct; <span class="small">F</span>, fang attached -to the maxillary bone; <span class="small">G G</span>, gland; <span class="small">M</span>, capsule of mucous -membrane surrounding the fangs; <span class="small">R</span>, reserve fangs; -<span class="small">A A</span>, muscular fascia covering the gland.</p> - -<p class="center">(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In a few venomous -snakes the gland -is developed to such -an extent that it extends -as far as the -first ribs.</p> - -<p>The species, on -the contrary, that -have the poison-teeth -placed in the -hinder part of the mouth (<i>Opisthoglypha</i>) have glands but little -developed.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Muscular Apparatus of the Head.</i>—Figs. 9 and 10, 11 and 12 -show the arrangement of the principal muscles that work the jaws -and glandular organs in <i>Vipera russellii</i> and <i>Naja tripudians</i>, which -respectively represent the most formidable types of <i>Viperidæ</i> and -venomous <i>Colubridæ</i>.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary to give a detailed description of each of these -muscles. Let it suffice to point out that all contribute in giving -the greatest elasticity to the jaws, and at the same time strength -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -sufficient to retain the prey and to cause it to pass from front to -rear towards the œsophagus, by a series of alternate antero-posterior -movements and analogous lateral ones. By means of these movements, -which are participated in by the upper and lower maxillary -bones, the palatines, mandibles or inter-maxillaries, and the pterygoids, -the animal in a manner <i>draws itself</i> over its prey <i>like a -glove</i>, since the arrangement of its dentition does not admit of -<i>mastication</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<div id="Fig_9"> -<img src="images/fig_9.jpg" alt="" /> -<p><span class="small">A A</span>, Fascia covering -the anterior and -posterior temporal -muscles; <span class="small">B</span>, small -gland; <span class="small">C</span>, tendinous -insertion of the -fascia; <span class="small">D</span>, poison-duct; -<span class="small">E</span>, poison-fang; -<span class="small">F</span>, reserve -fangs; <span class="small">G</span>, mandible; -<span class="small">H</span>, ectopterygoid muscle; <span class="small">J</span>, poison-gland covered by the masseter; <span class="small">K</span>, masseter inserted -in the mandible; <span class="small">L</span>, insertion of the temporal muscle; <span class="small">M</span>, digastric muscle.</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_10"> -<img src="images/fig_10.jpg" alt="" /> -<p><span class="small">A A</span>, Ectopterygoid muscle; <span class="small">B</span>, -præ-spheno-pterygoid muscle; <span class="small">C</span>, -intermandibular muscle; <span class="small">D</span>, præ-spheno-palatine -muscle; <span class="small">E</span> præ-spheno-vomerine -muscle; <span class="small">F</span>, capsule -of mucous membrane surrounding -the fangs; <span class="small">G</span>, long -muscle of the neck.</p> -</div> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 9 and 10.</span>—<span class="smcap">Muscular Apparatus and Poison-gland of</span> <i>Vipera russellii</i><br /> -(<i>Viperidæ</i>). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<div id="Fig_11"> -<img src="images/fig_11.jpg" alt="" /> -<p><span class="small">A</span>, Tracheo·mastoid muscle; <span class="small">B B</span>, digastric muscle; <span class="small">C C</span>, posterior temporal muscle; -<span class="small">D D</span>, anterior temporal muscle; <span class="small">E E</span>, masseter; <span class="small">F</span>, poison-gland, covered by the masseter -and fascia; <span class="small">G</span>, poison-duct; <span class="small">H</span>, maxillary bone; <span class="small">I</span>, neuro-mandibular muscle; <span class="small">J</span>, costo-mandibular -muscle.</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_12"> -<img src="images/fig_12.jpg" alt="" /> -<p><span class="small">A</span>, Entopterygoid muscle; <span class="small">B</span>, -poison-gland; <span class="small">C</span>, poison-duct; -<span class="small">D</span>, poison-fangs; <span class="small">E</span>, præ-spheno-palatine -muscle; <span class="small">F</span>, præ-spheno-vomerine -muscle; <span class="small">G</span>, -capsule of mucous membrane -surrounding the fangs; <span class="small">H</span>, præ-spheno-pterygoid -muscle (which -erects the fangs); <span class="small">J</span>, inter-mandibular -muscle; <span class="small">K</span>, ectopterygoid -muscle; <span class="small">L</span>, long muscle -of the neck (<i>longus colli</i>).</p> -</div> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 11 and 12.</span>—<span class="smcap">Muscular Apparatus and Poison-gland of</span> <i>Naja tripudians</i><br /> -(<i>Colubridæ</i>). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_13" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_13.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—<span class="smcap">Arrangement of the Scales of the Head in one of -the Non-poisonous</span> <i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Ptyas mucosus</i>). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> - -<p><span class="small">A</span>, Rostral scale; <span class="small">B</span>, anterior frontals; <span class="small">B</span><sup>1</sup>, posterior frontals; <span class="small">C</span>, vertical; <span class="small">D</span>, occipitals; -<span class="small">E</span>, supra-ciliaries; <span class="small">F</span>, temporals; <span class="small">L</span>, <span class="small">M</span>, nasals; <span class="small">N</span>, loreals, or frenals; <span class="small">O</span>, anterior -oculars, or præ-orbitals; P, posterior oculars, or post-orbitals; Q, supralabials; G, -median infralabial; <span class="small">H H</span>, lateral infralabials; <span class="small">I K</span>, mentals.</p> -</div> - -<p>The enormous extensile power of the mouth and œsophagus -thus enables snakes to swallow animals, the size of which is several -times in excess of their own diameter.</p> - -<p>Deglutition is slow and painful, but the gastric and intestinal -juices are so speedy in action, that the digestion of the most -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -resistant substances rapidly takes place. The very bones are dissolved, -and the fæces, which are voided some days later, contain -only a few osseous remains and a felt-like material composed of -hair or feathers.</p> - -<p><i>Scales.</i>—The skin of snakes, which is very elastic and extensile, -is covered with scales, small on the back, and in great transverse -plates on the entire ventral surface.</p> - -<div id="Fig_14" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_14.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—<span class="smcap">Arrangement of the Scales of the Head in one of the Poisonous</span> -<i>Colubridæ</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>, <span class="small">OR</span> <i>Cobra-di-Capello</i>). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The shape and dimensions of the scales of the head are highly -characteristic in each species. It is therefore necessary to know -their names and the arrangement that they exhibit: these details -are shown with sufficient clearness in figs. 13 and 14.</p> - -<p><i>Coloration.</i>—The colouring exhibited by the scales of snakes -is governed generally by the biological laws of <i>mimicry</i>. It is -therefore not a character of specific value, and may be modified -several times in the course of the existence of the same reptile, -according to the surroundings in which it is obliged to live. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span></p> - -<p>“Nature,” write Dumeril and Bibron, “seems to have caused -the tints and colours of snakes to vary in accordance with their -habits and modes of life. Generally speaking, the colours are -greyish or dull in species that are wont to live among sand, or -which bury themselves in loose earth, as also in those that lie -in wait on the trunks or large boughs of trees; while these hues -are of a bluish-green, resembling the tint of the leaves and young -shoots of plants, in snakes that climb among bushes or balance -themselves at the end of branches. It would be difficult to describe -all the modifications revealed by a general study of the colours of -their skins. Let us imagine all the effects of the decomposition of -light, commencing with white and the purest black, and passing on -to blue, yellow, and red; associating and mixing them together, -and toning them down so as to produce all shades, such as those -of green, of violet, with dull or brilliant tints more or less pronounced, -and of iridescent or metallic reflections modified by spots, -streaks, and straight, oblique, undulating, or transverse lines. Such -is the range of colours to be found in the skin of snakes.”</p> - -<p>This skin is covered by a thick epidermis, which is periodically -detached in its entirety, most frequently in a single piece. Before -effecting its <i>moult</i>, the reptile remains in a state of complete repose -for several weeks, as if asleep, and does not eat. Its scales grow -darker and its skin becomes wrinkled. Then one day its epidermis -tears at the angle of the lips. The animal thereupon wakes up, -rubs itself among stones or branches, divests itself entirely of its -covering as though it were emerging from a sheath, and proceeds -forthwith in quest of food.</p> - -<p>The <i>moult</i> is repeated in this way three or four times every year. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> - -<span id="Habits_of_poisonous_snakes_Their_capture"><i>HABITS OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR CAPTURE.</i></span></h2> - -<p>All poisonous snakes are <i>carnivorous</i>. They feed on small -mammals (rats, mice), birds, batrachians, other reptiles or fish, -which they kill by poisoning them by means of their fangs.</p> - -<p>They almost always wait until their prey is dead before -swallowing it.</p> - -<p>Some of them are very fond of eggs, which they well know how -to find in the nests of birds, and swallow whole.</p> - -<p>When a poisonous snake wishes to seize its prey, or strike an -enemy, it raises its head, and depresses the lower and elevates the -upper jaw in such a way that the <i>fangs</i> are directed straight -forward. Then, with the quickness of a spring when it is released, -the reptile makes a sudden dart and strikes its victim. After -inflicting the wound it draws back, doubles up its neck and head, -and remains prepared to strike again.</p> - -<p>So rapid is the action of the venom, that the wounded animal -falls to the ground almost immediately; it is forthwith stricken -with paralysis, and dies in a few moments. In most cases the -snake holds it in its mouth until death ensues; the reptile then -sets to work to swallow its victim, an operation which is always -slow and painful.</p> - -<p>In captivity poisonous snakes almost always refuse to take any -food whatever. If it be desired to keep them for a long time, it -is often necessary to resort to artificial feeding. For this purpose -the snake is seized by the head by means of a strong pair of long -forceps; it is then grasped by the neck with the left hand without -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -squeezing too hard (<a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>), taking care at the same time not to -give the body a chance of coiling itself round anything. Next, -one or more lumps of beef or horse-flesh are introduced into the -jaws, and gently forced down deep into the œsophagus by means -of a glass rod, which is polished in order not to injure the mucous -membrane. The œsophagus is then gently massaged in a downward -direction, in order to cause the bolus of food to descend into -the stomach (<a href="#Fig_16">fig. 16</a>). This operation is repeated every fortnight.</p> - -<div id="Fig_15" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_15.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—<span class="smcap">Feeding a Poisonous Snake, First Stage.</span></p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_16" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_16.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—<span class="smcap">Feeding a Poisonous Snake, Second Stage.</span></p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_17" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_17.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—<span class="smcap">Catching a</span> <i>Cobra-di-Capello</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>), <span class="smcap">First Stage</span>. -(At the French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In this way, at my laboratory, I have been able to preserve, -in perfect condition for more than two years, Indian <i>Cobras</i> and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -<i>Fers-de-lance</i> from Martinique, taking care to keep them in a hothouse, -at a temperature of about 82° to 86° F.</p> - -<p>It is also very important to place inside the cases a vessel full -of water, which should be frequently changed, for almost all snakes -drink often and like to bathe for whole days at a time.</p> - -<div id="Fig_18" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_18.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—<span class="smcap">Catching a</span> <i>Cobra-di-Capello</i> (<i>Naja tripudians</i>), <span class="smcap">Second Stage</span>. -(At the French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Within their reach should be placed in addition branches and -rockwork, against which they rub at the <i>moulting</i> times, in order -periodically to rid themselves of their scarf-skin.</p> - -<p>While moulting, snakes must neither be touched nor fed, since -to force them to take food at such a time would be fatal.</p> - -<p><i>Snake-catching.</i>—The capture of poisonous snakes, in order to -keep them alive, can only be performed without danger by skilful -persons, who are possessed of much coolness. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span></p> - -<p>The best way of securing them is suddenly to pin the neck to -the ground by means of a stick held horizontally, or a small two-pronged -fork of wood or metal (<a href="#Fig_17">fig. 17</a>).</p> - -<p>The stick is rolled along -until close to the occiput -(<a href="#Fig_18">fig. 18</a>). The animal can -then be seized with the -hand immediately behind -the head, in such a way -that it is impossible for it -to turn and bite. It is -then put into a wire cage, -provided with a small movable -trapdoor, with the fastening -on the outside.</p> - -<p>In this way poisonous -snakes can be sent to a -distance, and left without -food for one or even two -months, provided that they -be kept in a place which is -somewhat moist and sufficiently -warm.</p> - -<p>Fig. 19 shows how captured -cobras are carried in -India, in the environs of -Pondicherry. They are enclosed -in earthern <i>chatties</i>, -or in baskets of plaited -bamboo, which are provided -with covers, and are -very convenient for carrying -snakes short distances.</p> - -<div id="Fig_19" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_19.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—<span class="smcap">Hindu carrying Two Captured -Cobras in “Chatties.”</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> - -<span id="Description_of_the_principal_species_of_poisonous_snakes"><i>DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF -POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL -DISTRIBUTION.</i></span></h2> - -<p>Poisonous snakes are especially common in the tropical zones -of the Old and New Worlds. The species found in Europe are -but of small size and not very formidable. In hot countries, on -the other hand, they attain large dimensions, their venom is much -more active, and, although they hardly ever attack man, and in -most cases avoid him, they cause a considerable number of fatal -accidents.</p> - -<p>It is sometimes a rather difficult matter to recognise from the -mere appearance of a snake whether it is poisonous or not. Naturalists -themselves are occasionally deceived. It is therefore useful -to learn to distinguish the most dangerous species by their external -characters, and to know in what countries there is a risk of their -being encountered.</p> - -<h3 id="Europe"><i>A.—EUROPE.</i></h3> - -<p>Of the continents of the Old World, the poorest in poisonous -snakes is Europe. The only species found there are a <span class="smcap">Cœlopeltis</span> -(belonging to the Sub-family <i>Dipsadomorphinæ</i> of the <i>Opisthoglypha</i>), -and certain <span class="smcap">Viperinæ</span>, which rarely exceed 75 centimetres -in length.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cœlopeltis</span>, the cranial skeleton and head of which are represented -in <a href="#Fig_20">fig. 20</a>, is characterised by a narrow, concave frontal shield, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -projecting supraciliaries, short snout, large eyes, with round pupils, -two poison-fangs at the back of the upper maxillaries, and a -cylindrical body. The scales of the back are finely grooved, and -in the adult slightly concave.</p> - -<div id="Fig_20" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_20.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—<span class="smcap">Maxillary, Mandible, and -Head of</span> <i>Cœlopeltis monspessulana</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p>The coloration, olivaceous-brown, -or deep red on the -back, becomes on the ventral -surface pale yellow with brown -streaks, and from five to seven -longitudinal series of small -spots, which are blackish and -edged with yellow on the sides.</p> - -<p>The mean total length is -1,800 millimetres. The tail is -somewhat tapering, and about -350 millimetres long.</p> - -<p>The only European species -is <i>Cœlopeltis monspessulana</i>, -which is met with pretty commonly -in France, in the -neighbourhood of Montpellier, -and Nice, near Valencia in -Spain, and in Dalmatia. It -is likewise found throughout -North Africa, and in Asia -Minor.</p> - -<p>A second species, <i>Cœlopeltis -moilensis</i>, occurs in Southern -Tunis, Egypt, and Arabia.</p> - -<p>The European <span class="smcap">Viperinæ</span> -belong exclusively to the Genus <span class="smcap">Vipera</span>, the principal zoological -characters of which are as follows:—</p> - -<p>Head distinct from the neck, covered with small scales, with or -without frontal and parietal shields; eyes small, with vertically -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -elongate pupils, separated from the labials by scales; nostrils -lateral. Body cylindrical. Scales keel-shaped, with an apical pit, -in from 19-31 rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; subcaudal -scales in two rows.</p> - -<p>The Genus <i>Vipera</i> is represented in Europe by several species, -which are likewise found in Western Asia and North Africa.</p> - -<p>These species are:—</p> - -<p><i>V. ursinii</i>, <i>V. berus</i>, <i>V. aspis</i>, <i>V. latastii</i>, and <i>V. ammodytes</i>. -<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> - -<h4><b>Vipera ursinii.</b></h4> - -<p>Snout obtuse, soft on its upper surface, with the frontal and -parietal shields distinct, the former about one and a half times -as long as broad, and almost always longer than the parietals. -A single series of scales between the eyes and the free margin of -the lips.</p> - -<p>Temporal shields smooth. Body scales in from 19 to 21 rows, -strongly keeled on the back, less strongly on the sides.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish or pale brown above, grey or dark brown on the -sides, sometimes uniform brown; spots more or less regular on the -vertebral column, oval, elliptic or rhomboidal, dark brown or flecked -with white, sometimes forming an undulous or zigzag band; two or -three longitudinal series of dark brown or black spots on the sides; -small dark dots running obliquely from the eye to the angle of the -mouth; nose and lips white, and one or two dark angular streaks -on the head; chin and throat yellowish; belly black, with transverse -series of white or grey dots. No sexual differences in -coloration.</p> - -<p>Total length from 420-500 millimetres; tail 50-55. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-east France (Basses-Alpes); Italy (Abruzzi); -Istria; Mountains of Bosnia; Plains of Lower Austria; Hungary -(environs of Buda-Pesth).</p> - -<h4><b>Vipera berus</b> (<i>Common Viper</i>, or <i>Adder</i>).</h4> - -<p>Snout rounded, short and truncate; pupil vertically elongate; -vertical diameter of the eyes equal to or greater than the distance -separating them from the mouth; frontal and parietal shields distinct, -the former as long as broad, usually shorter than the space -separating it from the rostral shield; 6-13 scales round the eyes; -one or rarely two series of scales between the eyes and the lips; -nasal shield single, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral -shield; temporal scales smooth. Body scales in 21 rows (exceptionally -19 or 23), strongly keeled; 132-150 ventral shields; -38-36 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_21" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_21.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—(<i>1</i>) <i>Vipera berus</i>; (<i>2</i>) <i>Vipera aspis</i>; (<i>3</i>, <i>4</i>) <i>Vipera ammodytes</i>.<br /> - -(Natural size.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Colour very variable, grey, yellowish, olive, brown, or red above, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -generally with an undulating or zigzag band along the vertebral -column, and a series of lateral spots. A black spot shaped like -a <b>V</b>, an <b>X</b>, or a circumflex accent, on the head. The tip of the tail -is yellow or reddish. Some specimens are entirely black.</p> - -<p>Total length from 350 to 700 millimetres; tail 75 to 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Northern Europe, and especially the mountains of -Central Europe; irregularly distributed in Southern Europe; -Northern Spain and Portugal, Northern Italy, Bosnia, Caucasus.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>This viper, which is very common in France, ranges as far as -the Scandinavian Peninsula to about the 65th parallel of North -Latitude. It is sometimes met with among the mountains at an -altitude of about 6,500 feet (2,000 metres). It is found on heaths, in -grass-lands, vineyards, and forests. Certain parts of the sandy -moors of North Germany are literally infested with it. It abounds -in the Jura, Isère, Ardèche, Auvergne, Brittany, Vendée, and the -Forest of Fontainebleau.</p> - -<p>It seeks its prey by night, and feeds on voles, small birds, frogs, -lizards, and small fish. During the summer it shows a preference -for moist places, often even remaining in the water, in which it -swims with ease.</p> - -<p>Light and fire attract it. It does not climb trees, but is -frequently found coiled up on boughs of dead wood scattered on -the ground.</p> - -<p>When on the defensive, and preparing to bite, it throws its -head back, and makes a sudden dart of from a foot to sixteen inches. -If irritated it makes a sort of hissing noise.</p> - -<p>To pass the winter it retires into the crevices of rocks or into -old tree-trunks, where it entwines itself closely with a number of -its congeners. In this way ten or fifteen vipers are frequently -found together in the same hole.</p> - -<p>In April, the whole company awakes, and copulation then takes -place. The eggs are laid in August and September, and the young -immediately crawl out of the shell, already prepared to bite, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -capable of finding their own food. Their length at birth amounts -to 230 millimetres.</p> - -<p>The two glands of an adult adder contain about 10 centigrammes -of poison. This small quantity is sometimes sufficient to cause -death; out of 610 persons bitten, Rollinger returns 59 deaths, or -about 10 per cent.</p> - -<p>In the departments of Vendée and Loire-Inférieure alone, Viaud -Grand Marais has noted during a period of six years 321 cases of -bites from adders, 62 of which were followed by death. In -Auvergne, Dr. Fredet<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> (of Royat) returns 14 cases, which caused 6 -deaths.</p> - -<h4><b>Vipera aspis</b> (<i>Asp</i>, or <i>Red Viper</i>).</h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, <i>2</i>, and <a href="#Fig_22">fig. 22</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Snout slightly turned up, soft and squarely truncate; vertical -diameter of the eyes equal to the space separating them from the -mouth; upper surface of the head usually covered with small, -imbricate, smooth or feebly keeled scales, in 4-7 series, between -the supraocular shields, which are prominent. The frontal and -parietal shields are usually wanting; sometimes they are distinct, -but small and irregular; the former are separated from the supraoculars -by two series of scales; 8-13 scales round the eyes; two -(rarely three) series of scales between the eyes and the labials; -nasal shield single, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral -shield. Body scales in 21-23 rows, strongly keeled; 134-158 -ventrals; 32-49 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable, grey, yellowish, brown, or red above, -with a zigzag band as in <i>V. berus</i>. Usually a black <b>U</b>-shaped -mark on the hinder part of the head, with a longitudinal black -streak behind the eyes; upper lip white, or yellowish. Ventral -surface yellow, white, grey, or black, with lighter or darker markings.</p> - -<p>Total length, 620-675 millimetres; tail 75-95. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: France (especially Vendée, the Forest of Fontainebleau, -and the South), Pyrenees, Alsace-Lorraine, the Black Forest, -Switzerland, Italy and Sicily, and the Tyrol.</p> - -<p>This viper especially frequents -dry, rocky, and arid -hillsides, which are exposed -to the sun. Like the adder, -it hibernates in tree-trunks -and old walls. It lays from -6 to 15 eggs, from which -the living young immediately -issue, provided with poison. -It feeds upon small rodents, -worms, insects, and young -birds. Raptorial birds, -storks, and hedgehogs pursue -it and devour it in large -numbers.</p> - -<div id="Fig_22" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_22.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—<i>Vipera aspis.</i> (Natural size.) -(From the Forest of Fontainebleau.)</p> -</div> - -<h4><b>Vipera latastii.</b></h4> - -<p>Intermediate between <i>V. aspis</i> and <i>V. ammodytes</i>. Snout less -turned up into a corneous appendage than in the latter. Head -covered with small, smooth, or feebly keeled, subimbricate scales, -among which an enlarged frontal shield may sometimes be distinguished; -5-7 longitudinal series of scales between the supraocular -shields; 9-13 scales round the eyes; 2 or 3 series between -the eyes and the labials; nasal shield entire, separated from the -rostral by a naso-rostral. Body scales in 21 rows, strongly keeled; -125-147 ventrals; 32-43 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration grey or brown above, with a longitudinal zigzag -band, usually spotted with white; head with or without spots on -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -the vertex; black streak behind the eyes; ventral surface grey, -spotted with black and white; tip of the tail usually yellow or -with yellow spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 550-610 millimetres; tail 80-85.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Spain and Portugal.</p> - -<h4><b>Vipera ammodytes.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, <i>3</i> and <i>4</i>).</h5> - -<p>Snout terminated in front by a horny appendage covered with -10-20 small scales; vertical diameter of the eyes less than the -distance separating them from the mouth; upper surface of the -head covered with small, smooth, or feebly keeled scales, among -which an enlarged frontal and a pair of parietal shields are sometimes -distinguishable; 5-7 longitudinal series of scales between -the supraoculars; 10-13 scales round the eyes; two series between -the eyes and the labials; nasal shield entire, separated from the -rostral by a naso-rostral. Body scales in 21-23 rows, strongly -keeled; 133-162 ventrals; 24-38 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration grey, brown, or reddish above, with a zigzag dorsal -band, usually spotted with white; black streak behind the eyes; -belly grey or violaceous; end of the tail yellow, orange, or coral-red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 550-640 millimetres; tail 70-80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, Hungary, Danubian -principalities and kingdoms, Turkey. Does not pass beyond the -48th parallel of North Latitude.</p> - -<p>This viper loves very sunny places, and hillsides planted with -vines. It rarely hibernates.</p> - -<p>In districts in which it is plentiful, it is only necessary to light -a fire at night in order to attract this species in swarms; this is -the best method of taking it.</p> - -<p>Its food consists of small rodents, lizards, and birds. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p> - -<h3 id="ASIA_DUTCH_INDIES_AND_PHILIPPINE_ISLANDS"><i>B.—ASIA, DUTCH INDIES, AND PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.</i></h3> - -<p>The species of snakes most dangerous to man are found in the -warmer regions of Asia. India especially is infested by the famous -Cobra-di-Capello (<i>Naja tripudians</i>), which possesses the highly -remarkable faculty of dilating its neck in the form of a hood -when irritated, and whose sculptured image appears on almost -all the Hindu monuments.</p> - -<p>We shall describe in a separate section (see below, F.) the -<span class="smcap">Hydrophiinæ</span>, or <i>Sea-snakes</i>, a large number of species of which -frequent the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, -the China Sea, the Moluccas, Celebes, and North Australia. -In the case of certain species the area of distribution includes -the whole of the tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Pacific -Ocean, as far as the West Coast of America. It is therefore -preferable to group them together for the purpose of comprehensive -study.</p> - -<p>Besides the above, the continent of Asia harbours a multitude of -poisonous snakes belonging to the two Families <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>.</p> - -<p>The genera and species belonging to these are so diverse, that -we must confine ourselves to mentioning the essential characters -of those that present most interest.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">I.—<span class="smcap">Family Colubridæ.</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="6" style="vertical-align: middle">Subfamily <span class="smcap">Elapinæ</span>: Genera </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>{ (a) <i>Bungarus</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>{ (b) <i>Naja</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>{ (c) <i>Hemibungarus</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>{ (d) <i>Callophis</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>{ (e) <i>Doliophis</i>.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p class="caption">(a) Bungarus.</p> - -<p>Head hardly distinct from the neck; eyes small, with round or -vertically elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Two -large poison-fangs followed by one or two small, slightly grooved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -teeth (<a href="#Fig_23">fig. 23</a>). Scales smooth, oblique, in 13-17 rows, enlarged -and hexagonal in shape on the vertebral column; ventral scales -round. Tail relatively short; subcaudal scales in one or two rows.</p> - -<p>Two very dangerous snakes found in India and Indo-China -belong to this genus, <i>B. fasciatus</i> and <i>B. candidus</i> (var. <i>cæruleus</i>). -Both are fairly common. In Ceylon <i>B. ceylonicus</i> is met with, -and in South China <i>B. candidus</i> (var. <i>multicinctus</i>). The length -of these snakes is from 1,000-1,500 millimetres. The back is -compressed in the shape of a keel. The neck is not dilatable.</p> - -<div id="Fig_23" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_23.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Bungarus</i>. (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<h4>1. <i>B. fasciatus</i> (<i>Banded Krait</i>).</h4> - -<p>Colour bright yellow, ringed with black, with a black band -commencing between the eyes, and broadening behind upon the -nape and neck (<a href="#Fig_24">fig. 24</a>). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span></p> - -<p>Especially abundant on the Coromandel Coast, in Bengal, and in -Burma. In the North-west Provinces of India it is known as the -<i>Koclia-Krait</i>. Its bite is very serious, but does not cause nearly so -many fatalities as that of the <i>Cobra</i>, since its fangs are smaller.</p> - -<p>Dogs bitten by <i>B. fasciatus</i> die in from four to five hours.</p> - -<div id="Fig_24" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_24.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—<i>Bungarus fasciatus</i> (India). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<h4>2. <i>B. candidus.</i></h4> - -<p>Blackish-brown or bluish, with narrow transverse white streaks, -or small white spots, or alternate rings of yellow and dark brown; -belly white. Smaller than the foregoing, scarcely exceeding 1,000 -millimetres in length. It is known as the “Krait” in India, where, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -after the Cobra, the variety <i>cæruleus</i> causes most deaths among -human beings. It is found in jungles and rice-fields, and commonly -secretes itself in old trees and old walls. It frequently penetrates -into houses, verandahs, bathrooms, and even beds. Sir Joseph -Fayrer relates the story of a lady, who, when travelling in -a palanquin, found on arriving at her destination a “Krait” coiled -up in her luggage, the snake having thus made the journey with -her throughout a whole night.</p> - -<p>The Krait may easily be confused with <i>Lycodon aulicus</i>, -a harmless snake which closely resembles it, though it can at -once be distinguished by examining its mouth.</p> - -<h4>(b) <b>Naja.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Head scarcely distinct from the neck; eyes with round pupils; -nostril between two nasal shields and an internasal. A pair of solid -grooved poison-fangs. Body elongate, cylindrical, terminated by -a conical and pointed tail. Scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in -15-25 rows. Ventral scales round.</p> - -<h4><i>N. tripudians</i> (<i>Cobra-di-Capello</i>). (<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>.)</h4> - -<p>Head small, covered with large shields, a frontal as long as -broad, a supraocular, a præocular, 3 postoculars, 2 + 3 or 3 + 3 -temporals, 7 upper labials, 4 lower labials. Neck dilatable by the -separation of the first cervical ribs; 21-35 scales round the neck, -17-25 round the middle of the body; 163-205 ventrals; 42-75 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,500-1,900 millimetres; tail 230.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable, usually cinereous grey or almost black -with a bluish sheen; belly lighter, sometimes tinted with red. The -head is frequently tinged with golden-yellow; it is spotted with -yellowish-white above, and is pure white underneath. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span></p> - -<p>This species is distributed throughout the whole of Southern -Asia, from the south of the Caspian Sea to South China and the -Malay Archipelago.</p> - -<div id="Fig_25" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_25.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Skull of <i>Naja tripudians</i>. (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>Several varieties occur, and of these the principal are:—</p> - -<p>(1) Var. <i>Typica</i> (<a href="#Fig_27">fig. 27</a>), with a black-and-white spectacle-shaped -mark on the middle of the dorsal surface of the most -dilatable portion of the neck, and one or more dark transverse -bands on the ventral surface, behind the head.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: India, Ceylon. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> - -<p>(2) Var. <i>Cæca</i>.—Colour, pale brown or uniform dark grey, -without mark on the neck, and with one or more dark transverse -bands on the anterior part of the belly.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Transcaspian region, India, Java.</p> - -<div id="Fig_26" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_26.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—<i>Naja tripudians</i> (<i>Cobra-di-Capello</i>) <span class="smcap">on the -Defensive, preparing to Strike</span>.</p> -</div> - -<p>(3) Var. <i>Fasciata</i>.—Colour, -brown, olive, -or black, with more or -less distinct light transverse -bands. White -spot edged with black -in the shape of a ring -or of a U on the neck, -behind; a black spot -on each side in front.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: India, -Indo-China and South -China, Hainan, Cambodia, -Siam, Malay -Peninsula.</p> - -<p>(4) Var. <i>Sputatrix</i>.—Black -or dark brown, -with yellow or orange-coloured -spots on the -sides of the head and -neck. The young have -a pale spot in the -shape of a U or an O -on the middle of the -dorsal surface of the neck, and the throat is whitish.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Chusan Islands and South China, Burma, Malay -Peninsula, Sumatra, Java.</p> - -<p>(5) Var. <i>Leucodira</i>.—Brown or black, without mark on the neck. -Throat yellowish-white, followed by a black transverse band.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Sumatra, Malay Peninsula. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span></p> - -<p>(6) Var. <i>Miolepis</i>.—Brown or black; sides of the head and -throat yellowish, no mark on the neck. Young with white rings -completely encircling the body and tail.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Sarawak, Labuan, Borneo.</p> - -<div id="Fig_27" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_27.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—<i>Naja tripudians</i> (<i>Cobra-di-Capello</i>). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<h4><i>Naja samarensis.</i></h4> - -<p>Internasal shields shorter than the præfrontals, and in contact -with the præoculars; 1-3 large occipital shields behind the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -parietals; 1 præocular and 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 temporals; -7 supralabials, 4 infralabials; 21-23 scales across the neck, -17-19 across the middle of the body; 159-175 ventrals; 45-50 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration black or sometimes yellowish above; pale brown or -yellowish on the belly; neck black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 160.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Philippine Islands.</p> - -<h4><i>Naja bungarus</i> (<i>Ophiophagus</i> or <i>Hamadryas elaps</i>).</h4> - -<h4>(King Cobra or Hamadryad.)</h4> - -<p>A pair of large occipital shields; 1 præocular; 3 postoculars; -2 + 2 temporals; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials; 19-21 scales across -the neck, 15 across the middle of the body; 215-262 ventral scales, -80-117 subcaudals. Neck dilatable.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable, yellowish, brown, olive, or black, with -or without dark transverse bands.</p> - -<p>Total length, 3,900 millimetres; tail 630.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: India, Burma, Indo-China, Siam, Southern China, -Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The species of <i>Naja</i> are oviparous, and usually lay some twenty -eggs, elliptical in shape and as large as those of a pigeon, with a -soft shell.</p> - -<p>These snakes do not fear the proximity of man, and feed upon -rats, mice, and birds; they seek their prey chiefly in the evening, -after sunset.</p> - -<p>They swim extremely well, and frequent the neighbourhood of -water-courses.</p> - -<p>Indian legends relate that Brahma, having descended on earth -and fallen asleep one day at high noon, a <i>Naja</i> placed itself in -front of him and, dilating its broad neck, procured for him kindly -shade. In order to repay it for the service rendered, Brahma gave -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -<i>Naja</i> the marks that it bears on its neck, intended to frighten the -kites and other birds of prey, which are implacable enemies of -this snake.</p> - -<p>When a native of the Malabar Coast finds a <i>Naja</i> in his dwelling, -he begs it in a friendly way to depart; if the request be without -avail, he offers it food in order to attract it outside; if the snake -still does not move, the Hindu goes in search of the pious servitors -of one of his divinities, who, procuring an offering, address the most -touching supplications to it (<i>Brehm</i>).</p> - -<p>The mortality due to the bite of this snake, which is by far -the most common in India, is considerable. In the course of a -period of eight years, from 1880 to 1887, it amounted on the -average to 19,880 human beings and 2,100 head of cattle every -year.</p> - -<p>In 1889, 22,480 persons and 3,793 head of cattle perished from -snake-bite. Since then, the annual tale of fatalities always -fluctuates between 16,000 and 22,000, in spite of the rewards for -the destruction of snakes which the Indian Government has been -obliged to institute, which represent an expenditure of about -£10,000 per annum.</p> - -<p>For every 100 persons bitten, it is estimated that on an average -from 25 to 30 die, and in most cases death supervenes in from two -to twelve hours after the bite.</p> - -<p><i>Naja bungarus</i>, or the Hamadryad, is the largest and most -formidable of poisonous snakes. It is very vigorous and very -aggressive, but is more rarely met with than <i>Naja tripudians</i>. It -loves the vicinity of rivers and streams, lives in forests and jungles, -and climbs trees with facility. It feeds upon other snakes (whence -its name <i>Ophiophagus</i>), and also on birds, fish, and small mammals.</p> - -<p>Hindu snake-charmers assert that it is very difficult to capture, -and dangerous owing to its strength; they handle it only after -having extracted its poison-fangs.</p> - -<p>A very intelligent Hindu told Torrens how he had seen the way -in which the Hamadryad procures the snakes that form its favourite -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -food. The Hindu in question happened to be on the flat roof of -his house, when a young Hamadryad appeared quite close to him. -The snake raised its head, expanded its neck, and emitted a shrill -hissing noise. Thereupon a dozen snakes came crawling up from -all directions and assembled round the Hamadryad, when the -latter made a dart at one of them and hastened to devour it -(<i>Fayrer</i>).</p> - -<p>The Hamadryad is dreaded with good reason, for not only is -it aggressive, and hurls itself boldly upon its adversary, but it also -pursues him, a trait exhibited by no other poisonous snake.</p> - -<p>Cantor relates that in Assam an officer met with several young -Hamadryads which were being watched over by their mother. The -latter turned towards its enemy, who took to his heels with all -speed, pursued by the terrible reptile. The course taken led to a -river, which the fugitive did not hesitate to swim in order to gain -the opposite bank, hoping thus to make good his escape; all, -however, to no purpose. The snake still pursued him, and the -officer saved himself only by a stratagem. He dashed his turban -on the ground; the snake threw itself upon it and savagely bit -it several times, thus giving the officer time to reach a place of -safety.</p> - -<p>Cantor’s experiments show that the venom of the Hamadryad -is extremely rapid in its action. A dog usually dies a quarter of an -hour after being bitten, and Nicholson states that he has seen an -elephant bitten by a snake of this species die in three hours.</p> - -<h4>(c) <b>Hemibungarus.</b></h4> - -<p>This genus includes several species of snakes of somewhat small -size, rarely exceeding 700 millimetres in length, with an elongate, -cylindrical body; the head is scarcely distinct from the neck, the -pupil round, and the tail short, while the nostril is situate between -two nasal shields. The temporal shields are arranged in a single -row. The poison-glands sometimes extend into the abdominal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -cavity. Scales in 13 or 15 rows; 190-260 ventrals, 12-44 subcaudals -in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>Four species belonging to this genus are known:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>H. calligaster.</i>—2 + 3 temporal scales, 6 supralabials.</p> - -<p>Colour purple, with black transverse bands separated by narrow -white bars; belly and end of tail red; snout yellow, with a black -band on the upper lip below the eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Philippine Islands.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>H. collaris.</i>—No anterior temporal scales.</p> - -<p>Colour black on the back, with black and red bands on the belly; -a yellow collar on the occiput.</p> - -<p>Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 15.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Philippine Islands.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>H. nigrescens.</i>—Scales in 13 rows. A single temporal scale; -218-251 ventrals; 33-44 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Belly uniformly red; upper lip yellow in front of and behind -the eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 115.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Hills of Western India, from Bombay to Travancore.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>H. japonicus.</i>—Scales in 13 rows; 190-216 ventrals; 28-29 -subcaudals; temporals 1 + 1.</p> - -<p>Colour red on the back, with 1-5 black bands crossed by other -black bands edged with yellow. Snout and sides of head black. -Belly yellow, with large black spots alternating with black transverse -bands.</p> - -<p>Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Loo Choo Islands.</p> - -<h4>(d) <b>Callophis.</b></h4> - -<p>This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending -forwards beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs, -but without other teeth. Head and eyes small, pupils round; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical, greatly -elongate. Scales smooth, in 13 rows; ventrals rounded; subcaudals -in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>Five species are known:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>C. gracilis.</i>—Red or pale brown, with three longitudinal -black lines passing through brown, or black spots; the lateral spots -alternating with the vertebræ. Black and yellow bands under the -tail and on the belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 35.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Malay Peninsula, Sumatra.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>C. trimaculatus.</i>—Head and nape black, with a yellow spot -on each side of the occiput; belly uniform red; tail with two black -rings.</p> - -<p>Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 21.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: India and Burma.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>C. maculiceps.</i>—Head and nape black, with one or two -yellow bands on each side. Belly red, two black rings on the tail. -Diameter of the eyes equal to two-thirds of the space separating -them from the mouth.</p> - -<p>Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>C. macclellandii.</i>—Head and neck black, with a yellow -transverse band behind the eyes. The space separating the eyes -equal to that separating them from the mouth. Colour reddish-brown -on the back, with regular and equi-distant black streaks; -belly yellow, with black bands or quadrangular spots. The head -exhibits two black transverse bands separated by a yellow band.</p> - -<p>Total length, 620 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma, Southern China.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>C. bibronii.</i>—Met with by Beddome in the forests of Malabar, -at an altitude of 3,280 feet. Back purplish-brown, with a pearly -lustre, and about forty irregular black transverse bands, extending -to the tip of the tail. Head black in front, cherry-red on the -occiput. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Malabar.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>All the snakes belonging to the genus <i>Callophis</i> are remarkable -for their bright and varied colours, whence the generic name, which -signifies “<i>beautiful snakes</i>.”</p> - -<p>They feed exclusively on other snakes belonging to the Family -<i>Calamaridæ</i>; consequently they are not found in regions where -<i>Calamaridæ</i> do not occur, as, for instance, in Ceylon.</p> - -<p>They are essentially terrestrial, and live in old tree-trunks, or -clefts in rocks. They are sluggish, slow-moving, and chiefly -nocturnal.</p> - -<p>As a rule they do not seek either to defend themselves or to bite; -consequently fatal accidents caused by them are scarcely known in -the case of human beings. Their venom, however, is very toxic -to animals.</p> - -<h4>(e) <b>Doliophis.</b></h4> - -<p>This genus exhibits the same characters as <i>Callophis</i>, except -that the poison-glands, instead of being confined to the temporal -region, extend a very long way on each side of the body, to about -one-third of its length, gradually growing thicker and terminating -at the base of the heart.</p> - -<p>It includes four species:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>D. bivirgatus.</i>—Colour reddish-purple or black on the back, -red on the head, tail, and belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,610 millimetres; tail 190.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, -and Borneo.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>D. intestinalis.</i>—Brown or black on the back, with darker -or lighter longitudinal streaks; tail red beneath; belly red, crossed -with black streaks.</p> - -<p>Total length, 580 millimetres; tail 45. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, -Celebes.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>D. bilineatus.</i>—Black on the back, with two white streaks -along the whole length of the body. Snout white; belly striped -with black and white bands. Tail orange, with two or three black -rings or spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 45.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Philippine Islands.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>D. philippinus.</i>—Back with dark brown cross-bands, merging -into black transverse ventral streaks, which are separated by yellow -or red interspaces. Head brown, with small yellow spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Philippine Islands.</p> - -<h4>II.—<span class="smcap">Family Viperidæ.</span></h4> - -<p>The Family <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> is represented in Asia by a considerable -number of snakes belonging to the two Subfamilies <span class="smcap">Viperinæ</span> -and <span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span>.</p> - -<p>The Asiatic <span class="smcap">Viperinæ</span> belong to the genera:—</p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow">(a) <i>Vipera.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(b) <i>Pseudocerastes.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(c) <i>Cerastes.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(d) <i>Echis.</i></span> -</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span> consist of only two genera:—</p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow">(e) <i>Ancistrodon.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(f) <i>Lachesis.</i></span> -</p> - -<h4>1.—VIPERINÆ.</h4> - -<h5>(a) <b>Vipera.</b></h5> - -<p>We shall not recapitulate here the characters of the Genus -<i>Vipera</i>, which we described in dealing with the vipers of Europe. -The genus is represented by several species, the geographical range -of which is chiefly confined to Eastern and Central Asia. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>(1) <i>Vipera renardi.</i>—Resembles <i>V. berus</i>, but the snout is -pointed and soft, with a turned-up tip; a single series of scales -between the eyes and the lips; nostril pierced in the lower half -of a single nasal shield; 8-9 supralabial shields; 4 infralabials. -Body scales in 21 rows; 130-150 ventrals; 24-37 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration the same as in the European <i>V. ursinii</i>, but the -snout and lips are spotted with black or brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 395-620 millimetres; tail 40-75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat:</i> Central Asia, Turkestan.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>(2) <i>V. raddii.</i>—Snout rounded; supraocular shields erectile; -eyes surrounded by a complete circle of 14-17 scales; 9-10 -supralabials; body scales in 23 rows; 150-180 ventrals; 23-32 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration pale brown or grey on the back, with a dorsal series -of small reddish spots arranged in alternating pairs. A black mark -like a circumflex accent on the occiput, and a black band behind -the eyes. Belly yellow, speckled with black and white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Armenia.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>(3) <i>V. lebetina.</i>—Snout rounded and obtuse, with a well-marked -prominence; 7-12 longitudinal series of scales between the eyes; -supraocular shields well developed or narrow, or broken up into -several small portions; 12-18 scales round the eyes; 9-12 supralabials; -4-5 infralabials; body scales in 23-27 rows; 147-180 -ventrals; 29-51 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration variable, grey or pale brown on the back, with a -series of large dark spots. Large brown mark like a circumflex -accent on the crown of the head and another on the occiput. Belly -whitish, speckled with grey-brown; end of tail yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 960 millimetres; tail 120. The female may attain -the length of 1,350 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Cyprus, Galilee, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaspia, -Persia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Cashmir. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>(4) <i>V. russellii</i> (Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). (<a href="#Fig_28">fig. 28</a>.)—This -viper, which may attain a length of as much as 2,000 millimetres, -is magnificently coloured. Its dorsal surface is brownish-yellow, -marked with large oval spots of blackish-brown, edged with yellow -or white. The belly is covered with transverse bands, with beautiful -triangular black spots, bordered with white. The head, which is -long, ends in front in a thick, rounded snout; it is covered above -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -with small keeled scales. The nostril, which is large and laterally -placed, is surrounded by three shields and soft smooth skin.</p> - -<div id="Fig_28" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_28.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—<i>Vipera russellii</i> (Syn. <i>Vipera elegans</i>. Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). India.<br /> - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The species is found throughout India, from Bombay to Bengal, -in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. It is particularly common in Burma, -around Rangoon. For walking in the jungle and rice-fields, the -natives of this region encase their feet and legs in a special kind of -jack-boots made of coarse jute-cloth, in order to protect themselves -from the bites of this snake, which cause a large number of fatal -accidents.</p> - -<p>The Daboia ascends the Himalayas to an altitude of 5,250 feet. -It lives in thickets, under stones, and in the clefts of rocks. When -disturbed it makes a terrible hissing, but bites only when attacked -or irritated.</p> - -<p>It feeds upon small vertebrates, such as mice, rats, birds, and -frogs, and often enters houses in pursuit of rats.</p> - -<p>“Schrott had the opportunity of observing a Daboia on the -defensive. A lady carrying a child on her arm was returning home -towards evening; she had almost reached her house when a bulldog -accompanying her began to bark furiously. Although the lady -saw nothing, she was, nevertheless, frightened and called for help. -Schrott, who was not far away, ran to the spot, and saw a Daboia -lying across the path by which the lady had to proceed. The -reptile had its neck thrown back and its head in a horizontal -position; its bright eyes followed all the movements of the dog, to -whose barks it replied by shrill hisses. It was only waiting for an -opportunity to strike. Schrott called off the dog, and the snake -at once disappeared among the high grass close by. Next day it -was killed at the same spot” (<i>Brehm</i>).</p> - -<p>The venom of this viper is terribly potent. According to Russell, -a large dog exhibited symptoms of poisoning five minutes after -being bitten. At the end of a quarter of an hour it lay down, uttering -heartrending cries, began to breathe with difficulty and noisily, was -seized with spasms of the jaws and cramps, and died in frightful -agony less than half an hour after the wound was inflicted. Fowls -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -in most cases die in less than two minutes. A horse succumbed -in half an hour, and another in eleven hours.</p> - -<p>It appears that in India many cattle are killed by Daboias while -grazing (<i>Fayrer</i>).</p> - -<h4>(b) <b>Pseudocerastes.</b></h4> - -<h4>(<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>.)</h4> - -<p>This genus is represented by a single species (<i>Pseudocerastes -persicus</i>), which appears to be exclusively confined to Persia.</p> - -<p>The head is very distinct from the neck, and covered with small -imbricate scales; the eyes, which are small, have vertical pupils; -they are separated from the lips by -small scales. The nostrils are -directed upwards and outwards. -The snout is very short and rounded. -The cylindrical body has 23-25 -rows of scales; 151-156 ventrals; -43-49 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_29" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_29.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—<i>Pseudocerastes persicus.</i><br /> -(After Duméril and Bibron.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The coloration is gray or brown, -with four series of large black spots, -and the head exhibits two longitudinal -black streaks behind the eyes. The belly is whitish, dotted -with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 110.</p> - -<h4>(c) <b>Cerastes.</b></h4> - -<p>The vipers belonging to this genus are much more common -in North Africa, and we shall therefore study them in conjunction -with the African snakes. <i>Cerastes cornutus</i> alone, the special -habitat of which is Egypt, is sometimes met with in Arabia and -on the eastern bank of the Suez Canal. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p> - -<h4>(d) <b>Echis.</b></h4> - -<p><i>Echis carinatus</i> (the Phoorsa). (<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>).—This viper is characterised -by the subcaudal shields being arranged in a single row. -It is savage and very aggressive, being always ready to attack. Its -length does not exceed 600 millimetres at the most. The colour -of the body is grey, more or less dark and adorned with streaks, -spots, and dots of blackish-brown. The back displays yellowish-white -wavy lines, forming X-shaped markings. The upper side -of the head exhibits a yellow spot surrounded by brown, and other -small black spots, the whole arrangement forming a fairly good -representation of a cross.</p> - -<div id="Fig_30" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_30.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—<i>Echis carinatus.</i> India. -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>This species is found in India, Persia, Baluchistan, Arabia, and -Palestine; while, as we shall see, it also occurs in Africa. It is -fairly common in the environs of Aden. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span></p> - -<p>In moving over the ground a peculiar sound is produced by the -friction of its scales. It is capable of springing with great agility -a fairly long distance on to its prey. When it believes itself in -danger it coils up, doubling its body twice in the shape of a -crescent, in the middle of which it places its head, ready to -strike. Its venom is very rapid in taking effect.</p> - -<h4>2.—CROTALINÆ.</h4> - -<h4>(e) <b>Ancistrodon.</b></h4> - -<p>The snakes belonging to this genus of <i>Crotalinæ</i> are found in -Central and Eastern Asia, but three important species occur in the -New World, in the United States and Central America. The head -is covered with nine large symmetrical shields, but the internasals -and præfrontals are sometimes broken up into scales. The body -is cylindrical; the tail rather short; the subcaudal scales are -arranged in one or two rows.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>A. acutus.</i>—The snout of this snake is prolonged into an appendage -directed forwards. The head-shields are finely granulate. Body -scales arranged in 21 rows; 162-166 ventrals; 58-60 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration brown on the back, with blackish-brown X-shaped -spots; head dark brown, yellow on the cheeks, with a black band -running from the eye to the angle of the jaw; belly yellowish, -spotted with brown, with a series of large black transverse blotches.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 200.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Upper Yang-tse, China.</p> - -<p><i>A. halys.</i>—Snout prolonged into an upturned appendage, blunt -at the tip; 7-8 supralabial scales, the third of which forms part -of the margin of the eye; body scales in 23 rows; 149-174 -ventrals; 31-44 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration yellowish, grey, red, or pale brown above, with darker -spots or cross-bars. A black spot on the snout; two black spots -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -on the vertex; a dark, light-edged band -on the temple; belly whitish, more or -less speckled with grey or brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 65.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From the borders of the -Caspian Sea and the Ural River to the -Upper Yenisei; Turkestan.</p> - -<p><i>A. intermedius.</i>—Resembles the foregoing -very closely, but the snout is not -turned up at the end.</p> - -<p>Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 85.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central Asia, Eastern -Siberia, Mongolia, and Japan.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>A. blomhoffii.</i>—Similar to <i>A. halys</i>, -but the snout is not turned up at the -end, and the body scales are in 21 rows; -137-166 ventral scales; 29-55 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable; grey, brown, -or red above, with large black-edged spots -arranged in pairs; black, light-edged -band on the temple; upper lip uniformly -yellow or red; belly yellow or reddish, -more or less spotted with black, or almost -entirely black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 720 millimetres; tail -100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, -China, Japan, Siam.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>A. himalayanus.</i>—Snout scarcely -turned up, with a hard tip; 5-7 supralabial -shields. Body scales in 21 (rarely -23) rows; 144-166 ventrals; subcaudals -in 35-51 pairs.</p> - -<div id="Fig_31" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_31.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—<i>Ancistrodon hypnale.</i></p> - -<p class="caption">(The <i>Carawalla</i> of Ceylon.)<br /> - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Coloration brown, with black spots or transverse bands; black, -light-edged band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly -dark brown, or more or less whitish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Himalayas (5,000 to 10,000 feet), especially in the -North-west; Khasi Hills.</p> - -<p>This snake feeds chiefly on mice.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>A. rhodostoma.</i>—Snout pointed, somewhat turned up at the -tip: 7-9 supralabial shields; body scales in 21 rows; 138-157 -ventrals; 34-54 subcaudal pairs.</p> - -<p>Coloration reddish, grey, or pale brown above, with large -angular, dark brown, black-edged spots arranged in pairs or alternating. -Vertebral line almost black; lips yellow, speckled with -brown; brown, black-edged band, running from the eye to the -angle of the mouth. Belly yellowish, spotted with greyish-brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Java.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>A. hypnale</i> (<a href="#Fig_31">fig. 31</a>).—Snout more or less turned up, with -a hard, pointed end; 7-8 supralabial shields; body scales in -17 rows; 125-155 ventrals; 28-45 subcaudal pairs.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable; brown, yellowish, or greyish above, -sometimes with dark brown spots or transverse bands. Cheeks -brown, with a longitudinal, white, black-edged streak on each side -of the neck. Belly more or less speckled with dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 65.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Ceylon, and Western Ghats of India as far north as -Bombay.</p> - -<p>In Ceylon this snake is known as the <i>Carawalla</i>. It is much -dreaded, but its bite is not rapidly fatal.</p> - -<h4>(f) <b>Lachesis.</b></h4> - -<p>This genus has many representatives in Asia and the New -World. The American species are for the most part of larger -size and more formidable. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span></p> - -<p>They are characterised by a triangular head, covered with small -scales or small shields, and by a cylindrical or compressed body. -The Asiatic species have the subcaudal scales in two rows and the -tail short, and often prehensile, which enables them to climb trees -or bushes, where they lie in wait for their prey.</p> - -<p>Their classification is based upon the following characters:—</p> - -<p>A. First infralabial scale in contact with its fellow.</p> - -<p>I. Scales in 21-25 (rarely 27) rows; 129-158 ventrals; 21-57 -subcaudals; 5-9 series of scales between the supraocular -shields; tail <i>non-prehensile</i>.</p> - -<div id="Fig_32" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_32.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—<i>Lachesis okinavensis.</i> (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>(1) <i>L. monticola.</i>—Supraocular shields large, separated by 5-8 -scales; snout obtuse.</p> - -<p>Colour brown or yellowish above, brown or pale yellow on the -sides, with a brown temporal streak. Belly white, spotted with -brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 115.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tibet, Himalayas (2,000 to 8,000 feet), Hills of Assam, -Burma, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>L. okinavensis</i> (<a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a>).—Supraocular shields large, separated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -by a transverse series of 6-9 scales; end of snout pointed -and turned up.</p> - -<p>Colour brown above, with dark transverse bands and a light -temporal streak. Belly brown, spotted with black, especially on -the sides.</p> - -<p>Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Okinawa, Loo Choo Islands.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>L. strigatus.</i>—Supraocular shields small, sometimes broken -up, separated by 8-11 convex scales in juxtaposition.</p> - -<p>Colour brown above, with black spots often forming a median -zigzag band; temporal band black; belly whitish, spotted with -grey or black; end of tail yellow or reddish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Hills near Bombay, Deccan, Anamallays and Nilgherries.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>II. Scales in 27-37 rows; 174-231 ventrals; 54-90 subcaudals; -tail <i>non-prehensile</i>.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>L. flavoviridis.</i>—Scales in 33-37 rows; 222-231 ventrals; -75-90 subcaudals; 8-9 supralabials.</p> - -<p>Coloration pale brown or greenish-yellow above, marbled with -black; longitudinal black streaks symmetrically disposed on the -head; belly yellow or greenish, with darker spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,215 millimetres; tail 220.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Loo Choo Islands.</p> - -<p>This snake is not infrequently termed by naturalists <i>Trimeresurus -riukianus</i>.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>L. cantoris.</i>—Scales in 27-31 rows; 174-184 ventrals; -55-76 subcaudals; 13 supralabials.</p> - -<p>Coloration pale brown or dull green, with small black spots; -a whitish streak along the sides of the body; belly white or -greenish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 140.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>III. Scales in 21-27 rows; 160-218 ventrals; 54-92 subcaudals; -tail <i>not or scarcely prehensile</i>.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>L. jerdonii.</i>—7-9 scales in a line between the supraocular -shields; scales in 21 or 23 rows; 164-188 ventrals; 54-67 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration greenish-yellow or olive above, mixed with black, -a dorsal series of reddish-brown transverse rhomboidal spots; -upper lip yellow, with one or two black spots; belly yellow, more -or less marbled with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 930 millimetres; tail 145.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Assam, Tibet, Upper Yang-tse.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>L. mucrosquamatus.</i>—10-15 scales in a line between the -supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; 183-218 ventrals; -72-92 subcaudals. Colour brownish-grey above, with a series -of large black median spots and smaller ones on the sides; a black -streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly brownish, -spotted with white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,050 millimetres; tail 210.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Formosa, Assam.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>L. luteus.</i>—12 or 13 scales in a line between the supraocular -shields; scales in 23-25 rows; 182-186 ventrals; 72-74 subcaudals; -supraocular shields large.</p> - -<p>Colour yellow above, with a series of dark rhomboidal spots, -and a dorsal, black-spotted zigzag band; a black streak on each -side of the head behind the eyes; belly yellowish, spotted with grey.</p> - -<p>Total length, 945 millimetres; tail 164.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Loo Choo Islands.</p> - -<p>(9) <i>L. purpureomaculatus.</i>—12-15 scales in a line between the -supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; ventrals 160-182; -subcaudals 55-76; supraocular shield very narrow, sometimes -broken up.</p> - -<p>Coloration purplish-black above, sometimes variegated with pale -green; flanks pale green; belly olive or greenish-white, uniform -or spotted with black. Some specimens are entirely green. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Himalayas, Bengal, Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula, -Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Pulo-Pinang, Sumatra.</p> - -<p>IV. Scales in 21 rows (rarely -19 or 23); 7-13 series of scales -between the supraoculars; tail -<i>more or less prehensile</i>.</p> - -<p>(10) <i>L. gramineus</i> (Syn. <i>Trimeresurus -gramineus</i>. The Green -Pit Viper).—145-175 ventral -scales; 53-75 subcaudals; snout -slightly projecting; supraocular -shield narrow.</p> - -<p>Colour bright green, rarely -olive or yellowish, with or without -darker transverse bands; end -of tail yellow or red; belly green, -yellow, or white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 870 millimetres; -tail 150.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-eastern Asia, -Darjeeling, Himalayas, Ganges -Delta, Siam, Southern China, -Hong Kong, Formosa, Java, -Sumatra, Timor.</p> - -<div id="Fig_33" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_33.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—<i>Lachesis flavomaculatus.</i><br /> -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>(11) <i>L. flavomaculatus</i> (fig. -33).—170-187 ventral scales; -53-73 subcaudals; snout projecting, -obliquely truncate; supraocular shield narrow.</p> - -<p>Colour bright green or olive, sometimes barred with reddish-brown; -belly green, olive, or greenish-yellow; end of tail sometimes -red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,060 millimetres; tail 160.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Philippine Islands. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p> - -<p>(12) <i>L. sumatranus.</i>—180-191 ventral scales; 58-82 subcaudals; -supraocular shield large.</p> - -<p>Coloration bright green, with or without black transverse -bands; yellowish band on each side; belly yellow or green, with -or without black speckles; end of tail red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 180.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Palawan.</p> - -<p>(13) <i>L. anamallensis.</i>—138-158 ventral scales; 44-58 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour green, olive, yellowish, or reddish-brown; a black -temporal band; belly pale green, olive, or yellow; tail usually -black and yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 110.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Anamallay and Nilgherry Hills, South India.</p> - -<p>(14) <i>L. trigonocephalus.</i>—Scales in 17-19 rows, 145-170 -ventrals; 53-67 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration green, with or without black transverse bands or -spots; a black temporal streak; belly green or yellow; end of tail -usually black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 130.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Ceylon.</p> - -<p>(15) <i>L. macrolepis.</i>—Scales in 13-15 rows; 134-143 ventrals; -48-56 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour bright green or olive; belly pale green.</p> - -<p>Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 120.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern India.</p> - -<p>B. First lower labial shield divided; the portion separated off -forms a pair of small supplementary dental shields; 144-176 -ventral scales; 38-57 subcaudals; tail <i>prehensile</i>.</p> - -<p>(16) <i>L. puniceus.</i>—Scales in 21-23 rows; 12-14 series of -scales between the supraocular shields.</p> - -<p>Colour grey, brown, or red; belly spotted with brown; end of -tail red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 90. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Natuna Islands.</p> - -<p>(17) <i>L. borneensis.</i>—Scales in 19-21 rows; 10-11 series of -scales between the supraocular shields; 152-168 ventrals; 43-65 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 105.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Borneo, Sumatra.</p> - -<p>C. (18) <i>L. wagleri.</i>—Scales in 19-27 rows, 127-154 ventrals; -45-55 subcaudals; tail <i>prehensile</i>.</p> - -<p>Colour green, with darker or lighter markings, black and yellow, -or nearly entirely black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.</p> - -<h3 id="Africa"><i>C.—AFRICA.</i></h3> - -<p>In Africa, poisonous snakes abound throughout the whole of the -tropical and sub-tropical zones. The fatal accidents to human -beings caused by them in this continent are fewer than in India, -since the population of Africa is less dense, but several species -occur, the venom of which is especially dangerous to life.</p> - -<p>These species belong in nearly equal numbers to the Families -<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>.</p> - -<h4>I.—<span class="smcap">Colubridæ.</span></h4> - -<p>The poisonous <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> of Africa are all included in the -Subfamily <i>Elapinæ</i>, of which the following are the eight principal -genera:—</p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow">(a) <i>Boulengerina.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(b) <i>Elapechis.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(c) <i>Naja.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(d) <i>Sepedon.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(e) <i>Aspidelaps.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(f) <i>Walterinnesia.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(g) <i>Homorelaps.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(h) <i>Dendraspis.</i></span> -</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span></p> - -<h4>(a) <b>Boulengerina.</b></h4> - -<p>A small snake 240 millimetres in length, the principal characters -of which are as follows:—</p> - -<p>Maxillary bones equal to the palatines in length, with a pair of -relatively large poison-fangs, followed by three or four small teeth.</p> - -<p>Head hardly distinct from the neck. Eye small, with round -pupil; nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales -smooth, in 21 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal -scales in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>The only known species, <i>B. stormsi</i>, is brown, with black -transverse bars on the neck; tail black; belly white in front, -brown behind, with a black border to the scales.</p> - -<p>It is found in the region of Lake Tanganyika.</p> - -<h4>(b) <b>Elapechis.</b></h4> - -<p>This genus is characterised by the size of the maxillary bones, -which is equal to that of the palatines; a pair of large poison-fangs -followed by two to four small teeth; head not distinct from the -neck; eye small with round pupil; nostril between two nasal -shields. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth, in 13 or 15 -rows; ventrals rounded. Tail very short, subcaudal shields in 2 -rows.</p> - -<p>Six species are known:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>E. guentheri.</i>—Scales in 13 rows. Snout short, rounded; first -lower labial shield in contact with its neighbour behind the -symphysis. Internasal shorter than the præfrontals; length of -frontal three-fourths of that of the parietals.</p> - -<p>Coloration whitish or grey above, with black, white-edged cross-bands. -Belly dirty white, brownish, or grey.</p> - -<p>Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Gaboon, Congo, Angola, Central Africa.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>E. niger.</i>—Snout and arrangement of scales as before. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -Internasal shields three-fourths of the length of the præfrontals; -frontal two-thirds of the length of the parietals.</p> - -<p>Colour, black all over.</p> - -<p>Total length, 420 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Zanzibar.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>E. hessii.</i>—Snout as in foregoing. Symphysial shield of the -lower lip in contact with the anterior chin-shields.</p> - -<p>Colour grey, with black cross-bars; a series of black spots on -the sides, between the bars; large black blotch on nape; belly -white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 160 millimetres; tail 12.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Congo.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>E. decosteri.</i>—Snout obtusely pointed.</p> - -<p>Colour, dark grey, each scale edged with black; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 38.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Delagoa Bay.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>E. sundevallii.</i>—Snout obtusely pointed.</p> - -<p>Colour reddish-brown, with yellow transverse bands, the scales -in which are edged with reddish-brown; upper lip and belly yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 43.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Caffraria.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>E. boulengeri.</i>—Scales in 15 rows.</p> - -<p>Colour black on the back, with narrow white transverse bands; -head white, with a black streak along the parietal suture; belly -blackish-grey.</p> - -<p>Total length, 170 millimetres; tail 14.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Zambesi.</p> - -<h4>(c) <b>Naja.</b></h4> - -<h5>(For the characters of this genus, see Asia, p. 33.)</h5> - -<p>Six species of <i>Naja</i> are found in Africa:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>N. haje</i> or <i>haie</i>.—Scales in 21-23 rows on the neck, which -is dilatable, although slightly less so than that of <i>N. tripudians</i>, -the Cobra-di-Capello of India. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p> - -<p>Six or seven large supralabial shields, sixth or seventh in contact -with the lower postocular. Eyes separated from the labial -shields by the suboculars. 191-214 ventral scales; 53-64 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish, olive, or uniform black; belly yellowish; black -or brown band on the neck; head sometimes blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,180 millimetres; tail 290.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Borders of the Sahara, Egypt, Southern Palestine, -East Africa as far south as Mozambique.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Naja haje</i> (the Egyptian Cobra) is common throughout the Nile -Basin, the Sudan and Central Africa. Livingstone mentions it -several times. In Egypt it is met with in the vicinity of ruined -monuments, under the large blocks of stone or among brushwood.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians are greatly in dread of it, and hunt it down as -often as possible. When pursued, <i>N. haje</i> turns bravely and faces -its adversary, raising itself upon its tail, puffing out its neck and -hissing fiercely. If too hard pressed it strikes at its enemy.</p> - -<p>“A friend of mine,” writes Anderson, “had great difficulty in -escaping from one of these snakes. While botanising one day a -<i>Naja</i> passed quite close to him. My friend darted backwards with -all speed, but the <i>Naja</i> pursued and was about to attack him, when -he stumbled against an ant-hill and fell flat on his back. This, no -doubt, frightened the snake, which disappeared in a twinkling.”</p> - -<p>Another case of the same kind is narrated by Waller, who -writes: “A young girl met with her death in a truly dramatic -fashion. She was walking behind some porters on a narrow path, -when suddenly an Aspic came out of a thick bush, attacked and bit -her in the thigh; in spite of all efforts to save her the unfortunate -girl died in less than ten minutes.” This instance, which is absolutely -authentic, proves the truth of the statements made by various -travellers. Natives assert that a full-grown <i>Naja</i> invariably pursues -either a man or an animal, however large, when either passes -within its range (Brehm). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span></p> - -<p>Snake-charmers, of whom there are many in Egypt, always -employ <i>Naja haje</i> for their performances. They know how to -capture it, and tear out its fangs by making it bite a bundle of rags.</p> - -<p>This species rarely lives more than six or eight months in -captivity, and is quite untamable. It is fond of bathing, and -remains in the water for hours together.</p> - -<p>“The Ancient Egyptians,” write Duméril and Bibron,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> “are -known to have worshipped the <i>Naja</i>, which they regarded as the -protector of their crops. They allowed it to live and multiply -among the cultivated lands, which they apparently entrusted to -the care of their tutelary guardian, recognising that this snake freed -them from the ravages of the rats, the immense number of which -otherwise caused terrible destruction and even actual famine. It was, -therefore, from motives of gratitude that the Egyptian Cobra was -venerated in this way; that its image was hung up in the temples; -that its skin was embalmed; and that its effigy, so easy to recognise -and to reproduce roughly, was graven or sculptured on the stones -of their monuments. This is the explanation of the fact that paintings -representing <i>N. haje</i> are frequently reproduced in hieroglyphics -and on Egyptian sarcophagi.”</p> - -<p>The <i>Naja</i> was the tutelary deity of the temples, whose duty was -to prevent the profane from entering. Thus, in one of the crypts -of Denderah we find represented <i>Serpent-genie</i>, figures with a head -like that of a <i>Naja</i> supported by the body of a man, with the hands -armed with enormous cutlasses (Mariette, <i>Dendérah</i>, p. 91, 1875).</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>(2) <i>N. flava.</i>—Same arrangement of scales. Neck dilatable. -200-227 ventrals; 50-67 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour very variable, yellowish, reddish, brown, or black, uniform -or with light spots; sometimes a black transverse band on the neck.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,470 millimetres; tail 230.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South Africa. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p> - -<p>(3) <i>N. melanoleuca.</i>—Coloration very variable. Sides of the -head yellow or whitish; labial shields tinged with black on the -posterior edge.</p> - -<p>Total length, 2,400 millimetres; tail 400.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tropical Africa.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>N. nigricollis.</i>—Third supralabial shield the deepest, sixth -and seventh not in contact with the postoculars; 183-228 ventral -scales; 55-68 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable; lower surface of the neck with a black -transverse bar.</p> - -<p>Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 300.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From Senegambia and Upper Egypt to Angola and -the Transvaal.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>N. anchietæ.</i>—Scales in 17 rows on the neck and on the -body; 181-192 ventrals; 52-62 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour blackish or brown above; end of snout and cheeks -yellow; belly yellow or pale brown, with or without black cross-bar -under the neck.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,800 millimetres; tail 340.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Angola and Ovamboland.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>N. goldii.</i>—Eyes large, two-thirds the length of the snout -in adults. Scales in 15 rows on the neck and on the body; -194—195 ventrals; 88 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour black, uniform, or with transverse series of small whitish -spots; cheeks and end of snout white, with a black border at the -margin of the shields; belly white in front, black behind; subcaudal -scales black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,750 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Lower Niger.</p> - -<h4>(d) <b>Sepedon.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones projecting considerably beyond the palatines, -with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head -not distinct from neck; eyes of moderate size, with round pupils; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -nostril between two nasal shields and an internasal. Body cylindrical; -scales oblique, keeled, in 19 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail -moderate; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.</p> - -<p><i>S. hæmachates</i> (The Spitting Snake, or Ring Hals Slang).—This -snake, which is about 700 millimetres in length, is of a bluish-brown -colour, with numerous narrow, undulating and denticulate -cross-bands of yellow or yellowish-white. The throat is black or -dark red; the belly grey.</p> - -<p>It is met with throughout West, East, and South Africa, as far -as the Cape of Good Hope, where it is very common. It lives -among bushes in sandy places, where the ground is full of the holes -of rats, moles, and small rodents, upon which it feeds. It is very -active and exhibits great ferocity.</p> - -<p>Natives at the Cape declare that this snake is able to project its -venom to a distance of more than a yard, especially if the wind is -blowing in the same direction, and that, if the poison happens to -enter the eye, the inflammation that results therefrom often leads -to loss of sight (Smith).</p> - -<p>As to this, a very definite statement is given by Bavay,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> on the -authority of Le Naour:—</p> - -<p>“While hunting in Dahomey,” wrote Le Naour to Bavay, -“I thrice met with the snake called the <i>Spitter</i>. On two occasions -my dog was struck in both eyes by the liquid projected -by the reptile. Immediately (less than two minutes afterwards), -symptoms of conjunctivitis manifested themselves, with considerable -swelling of the pupils; the conjunctivitis seemed as though -it were going to be very serious, and yielded only after twelve -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -days’ treatment with boracic lotion, aided by a few cauterisations -with sulphate of copper.</p> - -<p>“During my sojourn at Porto-Novo, a store-keeper at the Dogba -trading station was a victim of the <i>Spitter</i>. While working at his -store he received in his eye a jet of liquid, which produced violent -conjunctivitis.”</p> - -<h4>(e) <b>Aspidelaps.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, as in -<i>Sepedon</i>, with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary -teeth. Head slightly distinct from the neck. Eyes of moderate -size, with round or vertically elliptic pupils. Rostral shield very -large, detached on the sides. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, -smooth or keeled, in 19-23 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short, -obtuse; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>A. lubricus.</i>—146-167 ventral scales; 20-28 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour orange or red, with black rings; a black bar below the -eyes; upper surface of head sometimes entirely black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Cape Colony and Namaqualand.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>A. scutatus</i> (Fula-fula of Mozambique).—115-135 ventrals; -24-38 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale grey, with black spots or cross-bars, and a black -mark shaped like a circumflex accent on the head. A black collar -encircling the neck, and a black vertical streak below the eye. -Belly whitish.</p> - -<p>The total length may be as much as 520 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Natal, Delagoa Bay, Mozambique.</p> - -<h4>(f) <b>Walterinnesia.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones prolonged forwards beyond the palatines, with -a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head -distinct from the neck; eyes rather small, with round pupils; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -nostril between two or three nasal shields and the internasal. -Body cylindrical; scales smooth or feebly keeled, in 23 rows; -ventrals rounded. Tail rather short; subcaudal scales for the most -part in 2 rows.</p> - -<p><i>W. ægyptia.</i>—Colour blackish-brown on the back, paler on the -belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,170 millimetres; tail 170.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Egypt.</p> - -<div id="Fig_34" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_34.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Dendraspis viridis</i> (Poisonous West African Colubrine). -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<h4>(g) <b>Dendraspis.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Maxillary bone curved upwards, bearing a pair of powerful -poison-fangs, not fissured, and not followed by other teeth; a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -long tooth at the end of each ramus of the mandible. Head -narrow, elongate; eye moderate, with round pupil; nostril between -two shields. Body slightly compressed; scales smooth, narrow, -very oblique, in 13-23 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail long; subcaudals -in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>D. viridis.</i>—211-225 ventral scales; 107-119 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform olive-green. Shields on the head edged with -black; lips yellow; belly and tail yellow, with scales and shields -bordered with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,830 millimetres; tail 460.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, from the Senegal to the Niger; St. -Thome Island.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>D. jamesonii.</i>—Coloration as before. Scales in 15-19 rows -(19-21 on the neck); 210-235 ventrals; 99-121 subcaudals. -Tail sometimes black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 2,100 millimetres; tail 560.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, from the Niger to Angola; Central -Africa.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>D. angusticeps</i> (The Mamba).—202-270 ventral scales; -99-121 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour green, olive, or blackish, uniform; belly yellowish or pale -green; caudal scales and shields not bordered with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 430.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, south of the Congo; Central Africa, -East Africa, Transvaal, Natal.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>D. antinorii.</i>—Scales in 21-23 rows; 248 ventrals; 117 -subcaudals. Colour olive on the back, yellowish on the belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 2,690 millimetres; tail 545.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Abyssinia.</p> - -<h4>II.—<span class="smcap">Viperidæ.</span></h4> - -<p>The African <i>Viperidæ</i> all belong to the Subfamily <i>Viperinæ</i>, of -which the following are the seven principal genera:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow">(a) <i>Causus</i>.</span> -<span class="trow">(b) <i>Vipera</i>.</span> -<span class="trow">(c) <i>Bitis.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(d) <i>Cerastes.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(e) <i>Echis.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(f) <i>Atheris.</i></span> -<span class="trow">(g) <i>Atractaspis.</i></span> -</p> - -<h4>(a) <b>Causus.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Head distinct from the neck, covered with symmetrical shields; -nostril between two nasal shields, and the internasal; eyes -moderate, with round pupils, separated from the lips by subocular -shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth or keeled, oblique on -the sides, in 15-22 rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; -subcaudals in 2 rows or single.</p> - -<p>Four species:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>C. rhombeatus.</i>—Snout obtuse, moderately prominent. -Scales in 17-21 rows; 120-155 ventrals; 15-29 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour olive or pale brown, usually with a series of V-shaped -brown spots bordered with white, and a large spot in the form -of a circumflex accent at the back of the head; lips bordered with -black; belly yellowish or grey.</p> - -<p>Total length, 700 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tropical and South Africa, from the Gambia to the -Cape.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>C. resimus.</i>—Snout prominent, more or less turned up; -scales in 19-22 rows; 134-152 ventrals; 17-25 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour greyish-olive on the back; uniform white on the belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 470 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central and East Africa, Angola.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>C. defilipii.</i>—Snout prominent, more or less turned up. -Scales in 17 rows; 113-125 ventrals; 10-18 subcaudals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span></p> - -<p>Colour grey or pale brown above, with a series of large rhomboidal -or V-shaped blackish-brown spots; a large A-shaped dark -brown mark on the occiput; an oblique dark streak behind the -eye; supralabial shields edged with black; belly yellowish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 22.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central and East Africa, Transvaal.</p> - -<div id="Fig_35" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_35.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Causus rhombeatus.</i> (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit</i>.)</p> -</div> - -<p>(4) <i>C. lichtensteinii.</i>—Snout obtuse; scales in 15 rows; 142-144 -ventrals; subcaudals 15-21, single.</p> - -<p>Colour greyish, with rather indistinct darker chevron-shaped -cross-bands.</p> - -<p>Total length, 413 millimetres; tail 35.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa (Gold Coast), Congo. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span></p> - -<h4>(b) <b>Vipera.</b></h4> - -<h5>(For the characters of this genus, see p. 23,—Europe.)</h5> - -<p>In North Africa are found <i>Vipera latastii</i>, <i>V. ammodytes</i>, and -especially <i>V. lebetina</i>, the range of which extends from Morocco to -Northern India. <i>Vipera superciliaris</i>, which occurs on the coast -of Mozambique, has the snout rounded, and the head covered with -small, imbricate, keeled scales, with a large supraocular shield; -nostril very large, between two nasal shields; scales on the body -strongly keeled, in 27 rows; 142 ventrals; 40 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>The colour is pale reddish-brown or orange, with blackish transverse -bars broken by a longitudinal yellow band on each side; the -belly is white, spotted with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 570 millimetres; tail 77.</p> - -<h4>(c) <b>Bitis.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>.)</h5> - -<p>The <i>Viperidæ</i> belonging to this genus have the head very -distinct from the neck, covered with small imbricate scales; the -eyes rather small, with vertical pupils, separated from the lips -by small scales; the nostrils directed upwards and outwards, -usually pierced in a single nasal shield, with a rather deep pit -above, closed by a valvular supranasal. The postfrontal bones -are very large, in contact with the ectopterygoids. Scales keeled, -with apical pits, in 22-41 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail very -short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>B. arietans</i> (the Puff Adder; <a href="#Fig_37">fig. 37</a>).—This viper has -the nostrils on the upper surface of the snout, and two series of -scales between the supranasal shields; 12-16 supralabials; 3-5 -lower labials. The scales on the body are in 29-41 rows, and -strongly keeled; ventrals 131-145; subcaudals 16-34.</p> - -<p>The body is thick, the head large and triangular, and the tail -very short. The colour is dirty yellow or orange, with large, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -transverse or oblique, chevron-shaped black bands; an oblique -black band extends behind the eye. The belly is dirty yellow, -uniform, or marked with small black spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,350 millimetres, sometimes more; tail 160.</p> - -<div id="Fig_36" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_36.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull</span> of <i>Bitis arietans</i> (the Puff Adder). -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: This snake is met with throughout Africa, from -Southern Morocco, Kordofan, and Somaliland, to the Cape of Good -Hope, and also in Southern Arabia. It is especially common near -the Niger and on the Congo.</p> - -<p>When irritated, it puffs itself out to such an extent that its -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -body becomes twice the ordinary size. It then doubles back its -head and neck in the shape of an S, and emits a loud and -prolonged hiss. Before biting, it first strikes a blow with its head -as with a battering-ram, thus justifying its French name, <i>vipère -heurtante</i> (Striking Viper).</p> - -<div id="Fig_37" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_37.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—<i>Bitis arietans</i> (the Puff Adder). (After Duméril and Bibron.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The natives of South Africa assert that this Viper is able to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -spring high enough to strike a rider on horseback. It feeds upon -rats and mice, in search of which it often approaches habitations.</p> - -<p>The Hottentots hunt it in order to obtain its venom; they -pound its head between stones, and mix the pulp with the juice -of certain plants for the purpose of poisoning their arrows.</p> - -<p>It lives for a fairly long time in captivity. At the Pasteur -Institute at Lille I have succeeded in keeping one of these snakes -for two years, feeding it by forcing milk and eggs down its throat.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>B. peringueyi.</i>—Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. -Head covered with small, strongly keeled scales, which are smallest -on the vertex; 11 scales round the eye; 3 series of scales between -the eye and the lip; 11-14 supralabials. Scales on the body -in 25-27 rows, strongly keeled; 130-132 ventrals; 19-28 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour greyish-olive, with 3 longitudinal series of grey or -blackish spots; head sometimes with a trident-shaped dark mark, -followed by a cross; under surface whitish, with small dark spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 325 millimetres; tail 26.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Angola and Damaraland.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>B. atropos.</i>—Nostrils opening upwards and outwards, 13-16 -scales round the eye; 2-5 series of scales between the supranasals; -10-12 supralabials; 3-4 infralabials. Scales on the body -in 29-31 rows, all strongly keeled; 124-145 ventrals; 18-29 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown or grey-brown, with 4 longitudinal series of dark -spots, edged with black and white; two large black marks on the -head; belly grey or brown, with darker spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 25.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Cape of Good Hope.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>B. inornata.</i>—Eyes smaller than in <i>B. atropos</i>, and separated -from the lips by 4 series of scales; supraorbital region raised, -but without erect horn-like scales; 15-17 scales across the head; -13-14 supralabials; 3 lower labials. Scales on the body in 27-29 -rows, all keeled; 126-140 ventrals; 19-26 subcaudals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Cape of Good Hope.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>B. cornuta</i> (<a href="#Fig_38">fig. 38</a>).—Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. -Head covered with small, imbricate, strongly keeled scales; -2-5 raised scales, like horns, above each eye; 12-14 scales round -the eye; 12-15 supralabials; 2-3 infralabials. Scales on the body -keeled, in 25-29 rows; 120-152 -ventrals; 18-36 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour grey or reddish-brown, -with black spots, edged with white -and arranged in 3 or 4 longitudinal -series; a dark, oblique streak from -the eye to the mouth; belly yellow -or brown, uniform or spotted.</p> - -<p>Total length, 510 millimetres; -tail 35.</p> - -<div id="Fig_38" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_38.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—<i>Bitis cornuta.</i><br /> -(After Duméril and Bibron.)</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Cape Colony, Namaqualand, Damaraland.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>B. caudalis.</i>—Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. -12-16 scales from one eye to the other across the head; above -each eye a single, erect, horn-like scale; 10-16 scales round the -eye; 10-13 supralabials; 2-3 infralabials. Scales on the body -in 22-29 rows, strongly keeled; 112-153 ventrals; 18-33 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour reddish or sandy-grey, with 2 series of brown spots with -light centres, and frequently a vertebral series of narrow spots; -belly dull yellow, uniform, or with small black spots on the sides.</p> - -<p>Total length, 360 millimetres; tail 25.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-west Africa, from Angola to Namaqualand.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>B. gabonica</i> (Gaboon Viper, or River Jack Viper).—Nostrils -directed upwards and outwards. Head covered with small, -moderately keeled scales, smallest on the vertex, 13-16 from eye -to eye; 15-19 scales round the eye; a pair of erectile, triangular, -nasal “horns,” consisting of sometimes tricuspid shields, between -the supranasals; 13-16 supralabials; 4-5 infralabials. Scales -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -on the body in 33-41 rows, strongly keeled; lateral scales slightly -oblique; 125-140 ventrals; 17-33 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>This viper, which often attains a length of 1,200 millimetres, is -brown, with a vertebral series of quadrangular, yellowish, or light -brown spots connected by black markings; the belly is dull yellow, -with small brown or blackish spots.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tropical Africa (West Africa, from Liberia to Damaraland; -Zanzibar, Mozambique).</p> - -<p>This species, which is nocturnal, is often met with on the -Gaboon, and in the forests near the banks of the Ogowai. Its -head is enormous, triangular in shape, and wider above; it has -a bulky body, and a very short tail, terminating abruptly in a -point.</p> - -<p>The Gaboon Viper is a savage snake, with very active venom, -and its poison-glands are of the size of large almonds. It lives -in virgin forests, among dead wood and rocks. I have several -times met with it in manioc plantations on the edge of the woods. -In broad daylight it is sluggish, moves somewhat slowly, and never -attacks man. It bites only when surprised.</p> - -<div id="Fig_39" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_39.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—<i>Bitis nasicornis.</i><br /> -(After Duméril and Bibron.)</p> -</div> - -<p>(8) <i>B. nasicornis</i> (<a href="#Fig_39">fig. 39</a>).—Nostrils -opening upwards -and outwards. Head covered -with small strongly keeled -scales, smaller on the vertex, -14-16 from one eye to the -other; 2 or 3 pairs of compressed, -erectile, horn-like -shields between the supranasals, -usually separated in -the middle by 1 or 2 series of -small scales; 15-18 supralabials; -4-6 infralabials. Scales on the body in 35-41 rows, -strongly keeled; 124-140 ventrals; 16-32 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour purple or reddish-brown above, with pale olive or dark -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -brown spots; a vertebral series of brown, black-edged spots, which -assume a rhomboidal form; sides of head dark brown, with a -triangular light mark in front of the eye, and an oblique light -streak from behind the eye to the mouth; belly pale olive, spotted -with black or yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,250 millimetres; tail 125.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, from Liberia to the Gaboon.</p> - -<h4>(d) <b>Cerastes.</b></h4> - -<p>Head very distinct from the neck, covered with small juxtaposed -or slightly imbricate scales; eyes small, with vertical pupils, -separated from the lips by small scales; nostrils opening upwards -and outwards. Body cylindrical; scales keeled, with apical pits, -in 23-35 rows. Tail short; subcaudals in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>C. cornutus</i> (<a href="#Fig_40">fig. 40</a>).—Snout very short and broad; two -erectile horns above the eyes, which are separated by 15-21 scales -and surrounded by 14-18; 4-5 series -of scales between the eyes and the lips; -12-15 supralabials; 3 infralabials; -scales on the body in 27-35 rows; -130-165 ventrals; 25-42 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_40" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_40.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—<i>Cerastes cornutus.</i><br /> -(After Duméril and Bibron.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Colour yellowish-brown or grey, -with or without brown spots, forming -4-6 regular series, the two middle ones -sometimes forming cross-bars; an oblique -dark streak behind the eye; belly white; end of tail sometimes -black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Northern border of the Sahara, Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, -and Southern Palestine.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>C. vipera.</i>—Snout very short and broad; head covered with -small, tubercularly keeled scales, to the number of 9-13 from eye -to eye; no “horns”; 9-14 scales round the eye; nostril between -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -two small shields, separated from their neighbours by 5-6 series -of scales; 10-12 supralabials; 3 infralabials. Scales on the body -in 23-27 rows; 102-122 ventrals, rather strongly keeled at the -sides; 18-26 subcaudals. Colour dull yellow, pale brown or reddish, -with or without black spots; end of tail often black above; -ventral surface white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 340 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Northern border of the Sahara, from Algeria to Egypt.</p> - -<p>The snakes belonging to this genus live constantly hidden in the -sand, lying in wait for small birds, which alight beside them without -suspicion, mistaking their horns for insects or larvæ; they also -feed upon mice. Their poison-fangs are of relatively large size.</p> - -<p>These small and exceedingly active vipers, whose colour harmonises -marvellously with their surroundings, are very dangerous -to the Arabs and blacks, who walk barefooted; they frequently -cause fatal accidents.</p> - -<p>They are able to exist for a very long time without drinking. -They are attracted by the fires which are lighted at night round -caravan encampments.</p> - -<h4>(e) <b>Echis.</b></h4> - -<h5>(See Asia, p. 48.)</h5> - -<p>(1) <i>E. carinatus</i> (Efa, Viper of the Pyramids).—The same as -met with in Persia, Arabia, and India. Very common in the -environs of Cairo, and throughout Egypt and Abyssinia. It often -makes its way into towns and villages. Brehm records that he -more than once found an <i>Efa</i> in his house at Khartoum, and that -on one occasion he discovered one of these vipers coiled up beneath -the covering of his bed. At another time, getting up in the night, -he put his foot on one of these animals and was not bitten, the -reptile being very fortunately just at that moment in the act of -devouring a tame bird which it had seized.</p> - -<p>It hardly ever happens that a native of Egypt can bring -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -himself to destroy an <i>Efa</i>, of which he has the greatest dread. -If, as often occurs, he finds one of these reptiles in his house, he -addresses himself to the <i>Hani</i> or juggler, in order that, by his -magic art, he may expel the dangerous visitor. From this custom -the juggler evidently derives no small advantage, for, as is only -right, he does not ply his craft for nothing. In many cases, -indeed, the juggler releases a snake in a house, and then goes and -informs the owner that he knows that a reptile is concealed in his -dwelling, and that, in consideration of a stipulated reward, he will -rid him of it (Brehm).</p> - -<div id="Fig_41" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_41.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—<i>Echis coloratus.</i> (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>(2) <i>E. coloratus</i> (<a href="#Fig_41">fig. 41</a>).—Scales on the snout and vertex -convex, smooth or bluntly keeled, 13-15 from eye to eye; no -supraocular shield; 17-22 scales round the eye; 12-15 supralabials; -scales on the body in 31-35 rows; 174-205 ventrals; -42-52 subcaudals. No cruciform mark on the head.</p> - -<p>Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Palestine, Arabia, Socotra. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span></p> - -<h4>(f) <b>Atheris.</b></h4> - -<p>Head very distinct from neck, covered with imbricate scales; -eyes large, with vertical pupils, usually separated from the labial -shields by small scales; nostrils lateral. Body slightly compressed; -scales keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate, <i>prehensile</i>; subcaudal -scales in a single row.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>A. chlorechis.</i>—No supraciliary horn-like scales; 9-11 scales -from eye to eye; 25-36 rows of scales in the middle of the body, -strongly keeled; 154-165 ventrals; 53-62 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour green, uniform or with small yellow spots; end of tail -yellowish or blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 85.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, from Liberia to the Ogowai.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>A. squamiger.</i>—No supraciliary horn-like scales; 7-8 scales -from eye to eye; 15-25 rows of scales in the middle of the body, -strongly keeled; 153-173 ventrals; 51-95 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour olive, uniform or with more or less regular, narrow -yellow cross-bands, or yellow with green spots; belly pale olive, -marbled with black or yellow, or uniform yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 550 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, from the Cameroons to Angola.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>A. ceratophorus.</i>—Several erect, supraciliary horn-like scales; -9-10 scales from eye to eye; 25 rows of scales in the middle of -the body, strongly keeled; 142 ventrals; 55 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark olive, with black spots forming cross-bands; belly -pale olive, speckled with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 210 millimetres; tail 65.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: East Africa.</p> - -<h4>(g) <b>Atractaspis.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>.)</h5> - -<p>This genus is characterised by enormous poison-fangs, a few -teeth on the palatines, and none on the pterygoids. The mandible, -which is edentulous in front, has only two or three small teeth in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -the middle of the dentary bone. Head small, not distinct from the -neck, covered with large symmetrical shields; nostril between -two nasal shields; eyes minute, with round pupils; postfrontal -bone absent. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 17-37 rows; -ventrals rounded. Tail short; subcaudals in 1 or 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>A. hildebrandtii.</i>—Six supralabials; no præocular shields; -frontal shorter than the parietals; scales on the body in 17 rows; -ventrals 167-174.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform -dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 450 -millimetres; tail 53.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: East -Africa.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>A. congica.</i>—Five -supralabials, of -which the fourth is -the larger; postocular -in contact with a -large temporal; one -præocular; frontal -as long as or slightly -shorter than the -parietals. Scales on -the body in 19-21 -rows; 209-230 ventrals; -19-23 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_42" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_42.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Atractaspis aterrima</i> (African -Viperine). (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>Colour uniform dark brown or black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 450 millimetres; tail 35.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Congo, Angola.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>A. irregularis.</i>—Characters as before, but scales on the -body in 25-27 rows; 220-257 ventrals, subcaudals 22-28 pairs.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform black or dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 560 millimetres; tail 35. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Africa, from the Gold Coast to the Congo; -Central Africa.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>A. corpulenta.</i>—Postocular shield in contact with a large -temporal; second lower labial very large, fused with the chin-shields. -Scales on the body in 23-27 rows; 178-193 ventrals; -23-27 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform blackish-brown; tail sometimes white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 345 millimetres; tail 33.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Habitat</span>: West Africa, from Liberia to the Gaboon.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>A. rostrata.</i>—Snout very prominent, cuneiform. Third -lower labial very large; first lower labial in contact with its fellow, -behind the symphysial. Scales on the body in 19-23 rows; ventrals -227-248.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform dark brown, or blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 37.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: East and Central Africa.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>A. bibronii.</i>—Characters as before. Snout prominent, subcuneiform. -Ventral scales, 221-260.</p> - -<p>Colour dark purplish-brown above, dull yellow or pale brown -on the belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 25.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern districts of Cape Colony, Natal, Namaqualand, -Angola.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>A. aterrima.</i>—Characters as before. Snout rounded; -251-300 ventral scales.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform dark brown or black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 650 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West and Central Africa.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>A. dahomeyensis.</i>—Characters as before. Symphysial shield -in contact with the chin-shields. Scales on the body in 31 rows; -240 ventrals; 24 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour black above, brown on the belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 32.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Dahomey. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span></p> - -<p>(9) <i>A. micropholis.</i>—Temporal shields small, 2 + 3 or 4; fourth -or fifth infralabial larger; scales on the body in 25 rows; 210-215 -ventrals; 29-30 subcaudals. Frontal shield slightly longer than -broad, much longer than the parietals.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 330 millimetres; tail 28.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Cape Verd.</p> - -<p>(10) <i>A. leucomelas.</i>—Characters as before. Frontal one and -two-fifths as long as broad, as long as the parietals.</p> - -<p>Colour black, with a vertebral white line, occupying one row -and two half rows of scales; ventrals and subcaudals white; -neck black, head white, with a black spot covering the nasals and -upper head-shields.</p> - -<p>Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Somaliland.</p> - -<p>(11) <i>A. microlepidota.</i>—Characters as before. Scales on the -body in 29-37 rows; 212-245 ventrals; 26-37 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 540 millimetres; tail 45.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central and East Africa.</p> - -<h3 id="Australia_and_adjacent_large_islands"><i>D.—AUSTRALIA AND THE LARGE ADJACENT ISLANDS.</i></h3> - -<p>The Sunda Islands and the whole of Malaysia are rich in -poisonous snakes. Those that are found there belong for the most -part to species that we have already met with in India or the -Malay Peninsula. We shall therefore not describe them again -here.</p> - -<p>All those that inhabit Australia are included in the great Family -<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and the Subfamily <i>Elapinæ</i>. There are no <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>; -but certain genera of poisonous <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> are peculiar to this -continent.</p> - -<p>These reptiles have been particularly well studied by Gérard -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -Krefft, formerly Director of the Australian Museum at Sydney, -from whose work<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> we shall borrow a considerable portion of the -following notes, and the figures accompanying them.</p> - -<p>The genera represented in Australia are:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>(a)</td> - <td><i>Ogmodon.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(b)</td> - <td><i>Glyphodon.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(c)</td> - <td><i>Pseudelaps.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(d)</td> - <td><i>Diemenia.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(e)</td> - <td><i>Pseudechis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(f)</td> - <td><i>Denisonia.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(g)</td> - <td><i>Micropechis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(h)</td> - <td><i>Hoplocephalus.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(i)</td> - <td><i>Tropidechis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(j)</td> - <td><i>Notechis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(k)</td> - <td><i>Rhinhoplocephalus.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(l)</td> - <td><i>Brachyaspis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(m)</td> - <td><i>Acanthophis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(n)</td> - <td><i>Elapognathus.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(o)</td> - <td><i>Rhynchelaps.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(p)</td> - <td><i>Furina.</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4>(a) <b>Ogmodon.</b></h4> - -<p>This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending -forwards as far as the palatines, and bearing, in addition to the -poison-fangs, 6-7 grooved teeth. The head is not distinct from -the neck; the eyes are very small. The body is cylindrical, and -covered with smooth scales in 17 rows. Tail short; subcaudal -scales in 2 rows.</p> - -<p><i>O. vitianus.</i>—Snout elongate, pointed; 139-152 ventral scales; -27-38 subcaudals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span></p> - -<p>Colour dark brown, lighter on the sides; belly brown or white, -more or less spotted with black; tail black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 360 millimetres; tail 45.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Fiji Islands.</p> - -<div id="Fig_43" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_43.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Glyphodon tristis</i> (Australian Colubrine).<br /> - -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<h4>(b) <b>Glyphodon.</b></h4> - -<p>General characters the same; snout rounded; poison-fangs -followed, after a wide interspace, by 6 small grooved teeth; -anterior mandibular teeth strongly developed (<a href="#Fig_43">fig. 43</a>). Head and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -eyes small; pupils round or vertically subelliptic; nostrils pierced -between 2 nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 17 -rows; tail short; subcaudals in 2 rows.</p> - -<p><i>G. tristis.</i>—Ventral scales 165-179; subcaudals 38-52.</p> - -<p>Colour dark brown; occiput often yellowish, or pale reddish-brown; -belly yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 900 millimetres; tail 125.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: North-eastern Australia and South-eastern New -Guinea.</p> - -<h4>(c) <b>Pseudelaps.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillaries extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a -pair of large grooved poison-fangs, and, after a wide interval, -8-12 small grooved teeth. The anterior mandibular teeth are -of large size, almost like fangs. Head hardly distinct from the -neck; eyes small, with vertically elliptic pupils. Body cylindrical; -scales smooth, in 15-17 rows. Tail moderate or short; subcaudal -scales in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>P. muelleri.</i>—Scales in 15 rows. Nasal shield divided, in -contact with the præocular; 2 + 2 temporals; 139-176 ventral -scales; 21-35 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, with a light vertebral line; a more or less distinct -dark, light-edged streak on each side of the head, passing through -the eye; belly yellowish or coral-red; uniform or spotted with -black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 500 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>P. squamulosus</i>.—Scales in 15 rows. Nasal shield divided, -in contact with the præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 170-183 ventrals; -34-52 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, with a yellowish streak round the snout and -through the eyes to the nape; belly whitish, with confluent black -spots forming lines on each side. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 375 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>P. krefftii</i> (<a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a>).—Nasal shield entire, in contact with the -præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 146-156 ventrals; 26-38 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark brown, with a light longitudinal line on each scale; -a yellowish cross-band on the occiput, connected with another -yellow band which encircles the snout.</p> - -<p>Belly yellowish in front, black -behind; subcaudals white, with a -longitudinal black band running between -them.</p> - -<div id="Fig_44" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_44.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—<i>Pseudelaps krefftii.</i></p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_45" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_45.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—<i>Pseudelaps harriettæ.</i></p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_46" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_46.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—<i>Pseudelaps diadema.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 255 millimetres; -tail 33.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>P. harriettæ</i> (<a href="#Fig_45">fig. 45</a>).—Nasal -shield entire, in contact with or -narrowly separated from the præocular; -1 + 2 temporals; 176-193 -ventrals; 29-35 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark brown, with a light -longitudinal line on each scale; a -long yellow blotch on the nape, and, -connected with this, a yellow ring -round the snout; ventrals and subcaudals -brown or black, edged with white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 415 millimetres; tail 45.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>P. diadema</i> (<a href="#Fig_46">fig. 46</a>).—Nasal shield entire, widely separated -from the præocular; 2 + 2 temporals; third and fourth upper labials -entering the eye; 164-203 ventrals; 40-62 subcaudals. Colour -pale brown or reddish, with a brown edging to each scale forming -a reticulate pattern; a yellow cross-band on the occiput; belly -uniformly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 80. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern, Northern, and Western Australia.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>P. warro.</i>—Characters the same as in the previous species; -143 ventrals. Colour brown; a broad lunate black collar on the -nape; head black above, but paler than the collar.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Port Curtis, Queensland.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>P. sutherlandi.</i>—Characters as before. Scales on the body -in 17 rows; 160 ventrals; 40 subcaudals. Colour red-brown on -the back, yellow on the belly; a broad lunate black collar on the -nape, with a lighter edging; light bars across the head, body, and -tail.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Norman River, Queensland.</p> - -<h4>(d) <b>Diemenia.</b></h4> - -<div id="Fig_47" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_47.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—<i>Diemenia psammophis.</i></p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_48" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_48.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—<i>Diemenia olivacea.</i> (Northern -Australia and New Guinea).<br /> - -(After Krefft.)</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_49" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_49.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—<i>Diemenia textilis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending -forwards as far as the palatines, -with a pair of large -grooved poison-fangs, followed, -after an interspace, by 7-15 -small grooved teeth; anterior -mandibular teeth much elongated, -resembling poison-fangs. -Head scarcely distinct from the -neck; eyes rather large, with -round pupils; nasal shield entire -or divided; frontal elongate.</p> - -<p>Body cylindrical; scales smooth, -in 15-19 rows (more on the -neck). Tail moderate or long; -subcaudals all or for the most -part in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable, -orange-yellow, olive, red-brown, -or pale brown.</p> - -<p>Average length, 1,000-1,700 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-eastern New Guinea, and Australia. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p> - -<p>Seven species of this genus are known, divided into two groups -as follows:—</p> - -<p>(1) Scales on the body in 15 rows.</p> - -<p><i>D. psammophis.</i> (<a href="#Fig_47">fig. 47</a>).—Internasal shields at least half as -long as the præfrontals.</p> - -<p><i>D. torquata.</i>—Internasals -more than half as long as the -præfrontals.</p> - -<p><i>D. olivacea.</i> (<a href="#Fig_48">fig. 48</a>).—Internasals -not more than half -as long as the præfrontals; -snout broad.</p> - -<div id="Fig_50" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_50.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50.—<i>Diemenia nuchalis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>(2) Scales in 17 or 19 rows.</p> - -<p><i>D. modesta.</i>—154-165 ventrals.</p> - -<p><i>D. textilis</i> (Brown Snake, <a href="#Fig_49">fig. 49</a>).—190-232 ventrals.</p> - -<p><i>D. nuchalis</i> (<a href="#Fig_50">fig. 50</a>).—184-224 ventrals.</p> - -<h4>(e) <b>Pseudechis.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, -with a pair of large grooved poison-fangs followed by 2-5 small -solid teeth; anterior mandibular teeth long. Head distinct from -the neck; eyes rather small, -with round pupils; nostril between -two nasal shields. Body -cylindrical. Scales smooth, in -17-23 rows (more on the -neck). Tail moderate; subcaudals -in 2 rows, or partly -single, partly in 2 rows.</p> - -<div id="Fig_51" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_51.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—<i>Pseudechis porphyriacus.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 1,500-2,000 -millimetres, sometimes more.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Australia and New Guinea.</p> - -<p>This genus includes eight species. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span></p> - -<p>(1) <i>P. porphyriacus</i> (Black Snake; <a href="#Fig_51">fig. 51</a>).—Frontal shield -longer than broad; 180-200 ventrals; 50-60 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour black on the back; outer row of scales red at the base; -ventrals red, edged with black.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>P. cupreus.</i>—199-210 ventrals; 57-72 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour coppery above, brown or orange below, all the scales and -shields edged with brown.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>P. australis.</i>—199-220 ventrals; 57-70 subcaudals; frontal -shield once and two-thirds to twice as long as broad.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown on the back, yellowish on the belly.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>P. darwiniensis.</i>—Frontal as broad as long; 212 ventrals; -54-64 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour reddish-brown; head pale brown; belly yellowish-white.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>P. papuanus.</i>—Scales in 19-21 rows (26 or 27 on the -neck); 221-224 ventrals; 49-55 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform black; chin white.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>P. scutellatus.</i>—Subcaudal shields in 2 rows; scales on -the body in 23 rows (25-30 on the neck); 230-233 ventrals; -61-78 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown or dark brown; snout and cheeks pale brown -or yellowish; belly yellow.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>P. microlepidotus.</i>—30-36 scales across the neck, 23 across -the middle of the body; 232-237 ventrals; 61-66 pairs of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark brown on the back, yellowish-grey on the belly; -head sometimes blackish.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>P. ferox.</i>—Snout very broadly rounded. Scales on the body -in 23 rows; 235 ventrals; 60 pairs of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour black above, yellowish beneath.</p> - -<h4>(f) <b>Denisonia.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones prolonged as far as the palatines, with a pair of -large grooved poison-fangs, followed by 3-5 small solid teeth; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -anterior mandibular teeth greatly developed. Head fairly distinct -from the body; eyes small, with round or vertically elliptic pupils; -nasal shield entire or divided. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in -15-19 rows; tail moderate or short; subcaudals in a single row, -except in one species.</p> - -<p>According to the British -Museum Catalogue, the genus -<i>Denisonia</i> includes twenty-one -species, the principal -characters of which are as -follows:—</p> - -<div id="Fig_52" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_52.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—<i>Denisonia superba</i> (The Copperhead).</p> -</div> - -<p>(1) <i>D. superba</i> (The Copperhead. -Fig. 52).—Scales in -15-17 rows; nasal shield -entire, in contact with the -præocular; ventral scales 145-160; subcaudals 41-50.</p> - -<p>Colour brownish to dark olive on the back, often yellow or -salmon-red on the sides; belly yellowish or greyish-olive.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,010 millimetres; tail 160.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales, Southern Australia, Tasmania.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>D. coronata.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 138-151 ventrals; 38-51 -subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_53" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_53.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—<i>Denisonia coronoides.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour olive, with a black streak on -each side of the head; belly yellowish -or pale olive.</p> - -<p>Total length, 480 millimetres; -tail 95.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western Australia and -New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>D. coronoides</i> (<a href="#Fig_53">fig. 53</a>).—Scales in 15 rows; 136-151 -ventrals; 39-57 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, lips yellow; belly salmon-red to dark olive-grey; -end of tail salmon-red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 440 millimetres; tail 80. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern Australia and Tasmania.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>D. muelleri.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 118 ventrals; 38 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour grey-brown; lips and chin with yellow spots; belly grey.</p> - -<p>Total length, 292 millimetres; tail 52.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>D. frenata.</i>—Scales in 19 rows; 167 ventrals; 35 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour olive-brown; upper lip yellow; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 390 millimetres; tail 54.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Lake Elphinstone, Queensland.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>D. ramsayi</i> (<a href="#Fig_54">fig. 54</a>).—Scales in -15 rows; 164 ventrals; 51 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_54" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_54.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—<i>Denisonia ramsayi.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour dark olive-green above, -yellow beneath; subcaudals nearly -black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 265 millimetres; -tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(7) D. signata (<a href="#Fig_55">fig. 55</a>).—Scales in -17 rows; 153-170 ventrals; 41-56 -subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_55" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_55.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—<i>Denisonia signata.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour dark olive or black, head -brown; belly dark grey or black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 120.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland, New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>D. daemelii.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 147-168 ventrals; 33-45 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour olive, head darker; belly yellowish-white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(9) <i>D. suta.</i>—Scales in 19 rows; 157-164 ventrals; 25-30 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale olive-brown, head dark brown, nape black; upper -lip and belly yellow. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 200 millimetres; tail 23.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern Australia.</p> - -<p>(10) <i>D. frontalis.</i>—Scales in 19 rows; 154 ventrals; 30 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour light brown, with a vertebral black line; belly pearly-white, -with a median bronze-coloured band.</p> - -<p>Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(11) <i>D. flagellum.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 132-138 ventrals; 25-27 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown; vertex, occiput, and nape black; upper -lip and belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Victoria.</p> - -<p>(12) <i>D. maculata.</i> (<a href="#Fig_56">fig. 56</a>).—Scales -in 17 rows; 121-136 ventrals; 20-30 -subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_56" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_56.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—<i>Denisonia maculata.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour dark grey-brown, or brown; -a large dark olive-green or brown blotch -on the head, with two or three unequal -light grey spots; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 400 millimetres; -tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(13) <i>D. punctata.</i>—Scales in 15 -rows; 160 ventrals; 25 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown; head and nape -orange; upper lip and belly yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 36.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: North-Western Australia.</p> - -<p>(14) <i>D. gouldii</i> (<a href="#Fig_57">fig. 57</a>).—Scales in 15 rows; 140-170 ventrals; -22-23 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_57" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_57.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—<i>Denisonia gouldii.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour brownish-yellow; nape black; head covered with a broad -greenish-blue blotch, extending from the nose to the neck; upper -lip and belly yellow. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 435 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western and Southern Australia.</p> - -<p>(15) <i>D. nigrescens.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 170-200 ventrals; -30-46 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark olive; head black; belly yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 545 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales and Queensland.</p> - -<p>(16) <i>D. nigrostriata.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 180-184 ventrals; -50-64 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellow, streaked with black; head dark brown; upper -lip and belly yellowish-white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 52.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(17) <i>D. carpentariæ.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 166-183 ventrals; -31-43 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown; upper lip and belly yellowish-white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 285 millimetres; tail 47.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Northern Queensland.</p> - -<p>(18) <i>D. pallidiceps.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 170-178 ventrals; -37-38 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark olive-brown; head somewhat paler; belly yellowish. -Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Northern Australia.</p> - -<p>(19) <i>D. melanura.</i>—Scales in 15 or 17 rows; 165-171 ventrals; -38-48 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark brown; head and sides usually reddish; belly -yellow; tail black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 140.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Solomon Islands.</p> - -<p>(20) <i>D. par.</i>—Scales in 16 rows; 164-166 ventrals; 40-49 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour reddish-brown, in broad bands with white intervals; -head blackish-brown; belly white; tail with red rings.</p> - -<p>Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 110. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span></p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Faro and Howla Islands, Bougainville Straits, -Solomon Islands.</p> - -<p>(21) <i>D. woodfordii.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 166-172 ventrals; -41-45 subcaudal pairs.</p> - -<p>Colour brownish-white, with a reticulate pattern; head dark -brown; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 670 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New Georgia, Solomon Islands.</p> - -<h4>(g) <b>Micropechis.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forward as far as the palatines, with -a pair of large grooved poison-fangs, followed by three small solid -teeth; mandibular teeth longer in front. Head distinct from the -neck; eyes very small, with round pupils; nostril between two -nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 or 17 rows. -Tail short; subcaudals in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>M. ikaheka.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 180-223 ventrals; 39-55 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellow and black, in irregular cross-bars; head and tail -black above; belly yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,550 millimetres; tail 180.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New Guinea.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>M. elapoides.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 208 ventrals; 35 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour cream, with 22 black bands, broader than the interspaces -between them; snout and ocular region black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Florida Island, Solomon Group.</p> - -<h4>(h) <b>Hoplocephalus.</b></h4> - -<p>Characters the same as in <i>Micropechis</i>. Scales in 21 rows; -ventrals angulate and notched laterally. Tail moderate; subcaudals -in a single row. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p> - -<p>(1) <i>H. bungaroides</i> (Syn. <i>H. variegatus</i>. The Broad-headed -Snake).—204-221 ventrals; 40-56 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour black on the back, with yellow spots forming more or -less regular cross-bands on the body; upper lip yellow, margined -with black; belly blackish, yellow on the sides.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,620 millimetres; tail 210.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>H. bitorquatus</i> (<a href="#Fig_58">fig. 58</a>).—Ventral scales strongly angulate -laterally, 191-227; subcaudals 44-59.</p> - -<div id="Fig_58" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_58.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—<i>Hoplocephalus bitorquatus.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour olive-green; head pale -olive, with a bright yellow occipital -blotch, and a large black blotch on -each side of the nape; a pair of -small spots in front of and between -the eyes; three black transverse -blotches on the vertex; belly greyish-olive -or brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 95.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland, New South Wales.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>H. stephensii.</i>—239 ventrals; 60 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Body barred alternately with black and white; the black bars -are twice as broad as the white ones; head dark, spotted with -yellow; a W-shaped yellow mark on the back of the head.</p> - -<p>Total length, 760 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Port Macquarie, New South Wales.</p> - -<h4>(i) <b>Tropidechis.</b></h4> - -<p>Same general characters; nasal shield entire; scales on the -body strongly keeled, in 23 rows. Tail moderate; subcaudals in -a single row.</p> - -<p><i>T. carinatus.</i>—Colour dark olive, with darker cross-bands; -belly yellow, more or less tinged with olive-green.</p> - -<p>Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 120.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: New South Wales, Queensland. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> - -<h4>(j) <b>Notechis.</b></h4> - -<p>Same general characters; pupil round; nasal shield entire. -Body cylindrical; scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in 15-19 -rows, the lateral scales shorter than the dorsals. Tail moderate; -subcaudals in a single row.</p> - -<p><i>N. scutatus</i> (Syn. <i>Hoplocephalus -curtus</i>. The Tiger Snake. -Fig. 59).—Colour dark olive; -belly yellow or olive; the shields -often dark-edged.</p> - -<div id="Fig_59" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_59.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—<i>Notechis scutatus</i> (The Tiger -Snake.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 1,280 millimetres; -tail 170.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Australia and Tasmania.</p> - -<h4>(k) <b>Rhinhoplocephalus.</b></h4> - -<p>Dentition as in <i>Hoplocephalus</i>. Head but little distinct from -the neck; eyes small, with round pupils; no internasal shields. -Body cylindrical, rigid. Scales smooth, in 15 rows. Tail short; -subcaudals in a single row.</p> - -<p><i>R. bicolor.</i>—Colour greyish-olive on the back, yellowish-white -on the belly; tongue white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 395 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Australia.</p> - -<h4>(l) <b>Brachyaspis.</b></h4> - -<p>Characters the same, but head distinct from the neck; eyes -small, with vertically elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal -shields. Body stout, cylindrical; scales smooth, slightly oblique, -in 19 rows. Tail short; subcaudals in a single row.</p> - -<p><i>B. curta.</i>—Colour uniform olive-brown; belly yellowish. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western Australia.</p> - -<h4>(m) <b>Acanthophis</b> (<i>Death Adder</i>).</h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_60">Figs. 60</a>, <a href="#Fig_61">61</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, -with a pair of large grooved poison-fangs, followed by two or three -small teeth; anterior mandibular teeth elongate, fang-like. Head -distinct from the neck; eyes small, with vertically elliptic pupils; -nostril in the upper part of a single nasal shield. Body stout, -cylindrical. Scales more or less distinctly keeled, in 21-23 rows. -Tail short, compressed at the end and terminating in a sort of -long spine, turned upwards; anterior subcaudals in a single row, -posterior in 2 rows.</p> - -<div id="Fig_60" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_60.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull</span> of <i>Acanthophis antarcticus</i>. (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p><i>A. antarcticus</i> (The Death Adder; <a href="#Fig_61">fig. 61</a>).—Supraocular shields -often raised and angular, assuming the shape of little horns; scales -on the crown of the head rugose and striated; 113-130 ventrals; -41-51 subcaudals (the last 5-27 are divided). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p> - -<p>Colour yellow-brown or reddish, with more or less distinct dark -cross-bands; black spots or -small dark bars on the lips; -belly yellowish-white; end of -tail yellow or black, covered -with spiny scales.</p> - -<div id="Fig_61" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_61.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—<i>Acanthophis antarcticus</i> (The -Death Adder).</p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 850 millimetres; -tail 150.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Moluccas, New -Guinea, Australia.</p> - -<h4>(n) <b>Elapognathus.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, -with a pair of moderately large grooved poison-fangs; no other -maxillary teeth; mandibular teeth subequal. Eyes moderate, with -round pupils; nasal shield entire. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, -in 15 rows; ventrals rounded; tail moderate; subcaudals in a -single row.</p> - -<p><i>E. minor.</i>—Colour dark olive, with a black occipital blotch in -the young; belly yellow or greenish-grey.</p> - -<p>Total length, 460 millimetres; tail 95.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-west Australia.</p> - -<h4>(o) <b>Rhynchelaps.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, -with a pair of moderately large grooved poison-fangs, and two -small teeth near the posterior extremity of the bone; anterior -mandibular teeth the longest. Head small, not distinct from the -neck; eyes small, with vertically elliptic pupils; nostril in a single -nasal shield. Body short, cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-17 -rows. Tail very short; subcaudals in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>R. bertholdi.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 112-126 ventrals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p> - -<p>Colour yellow, with 19-40 black annuli, usually narrower than -the interspaces; head brown, with a large black blotch on the -nape, and another on the vertex and temples.</p> - -<p>Total length, 270 millimetres; tail 22.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern and Western Australia.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>R. australis</i> (<a href="#Fig_62">fig. 62</a>).—Scales in 17 rows; 152-163 ventrals; -18-20 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_62" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_62.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—<i>Rhynchelaps australis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour red on the body, with ill-defined -cross-bars formed of yellowish -black-edged scales; a black blotch on -the head, covering the vertex and -temples, and surrounding the eyes; -another large blotch on the nape; -snout and occiput yellow; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 290 millimetres; tail 25.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Queensland.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>R. semifasciatus.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 143-170 ventrals; -17-25 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellow, with brown cross-bands; large brown blotches -on the head and nape; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 300 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Australia.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>R. fasciolatus.</i>—Scales in 17 rows; 145-161 ventrals; -22-27 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour red, with numerous blackish-brown cross-bands; large -blackish-brown blotches on the head and nape; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Australia.</p> - -<h4>(p) <b>Furina.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_63">Figs. 63</a> and <a href="#Fig_64">64</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, bearing -a pair of moderately large grooved poison-fangs, and one or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -two small teeth near their posterior extremities; mandibular teeth -subequal. Head small, not distinct from neck; eyes very small, -with round pupils; nostril in a single nasal shield. Body cylindrical; -scales smooth, in 15 rows. Tail very short, obtuse; subcaudals -in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>F. calonota.</i>—Six supralabial -shields; 126-131 -ventrals; 29-30 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellow, with a -black vertebral stripe; a -black bar across the end of -the snout; a large black -blotch covering the vertex -and the parietals; belly -white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 215 millimetres; -tail 33.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Australia.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>F. bimaculata.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 181-200 ventrals; -21-25 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_63" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_63.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Furina occipitalis</i>. -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_64" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_64.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—<i>Furina occipitalis.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour yellow, with large black blotches on the snout, middle -of head, and occiput; belly white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 330 millimetres; tail 25.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: West Australia.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>F. occipitalis</i> (<a href="#Fig_64">fig. 64</a>).—Scales in 15 rows; 180-234 ventrals; -14-25 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Entire body ringed with black and white, annuli narrower on -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -belly; head black, with a broad white band across the occiput, and -another narrower and irregular one across the snout; nose black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 36.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Australia.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>There are no poisonous snakes in New Zealand. In New -Caledonia no <i>terrestrial</i> poisonous snakes are known, but <i>Hydrophiidæ</i> -abound on its shores, as on those of the majority of the -islands of the Pacific.</p> - -<p>In Australia, especially in New South Wales and farther to the -north, fatalities due to the bites of poisonous snakes are not rare. -The most dangerous species are: <i>Acanthophis antarcticus</i> (the -Death Adder), <i>Diemenia textilis</i> (the Brown Snake), <i>Pseudechis -porphyriacus</i> (the Black Snake), and <i>Notechis scutatus</i> or <i>Hoplocephalus -curtus</i> (the Tiger Snake).</p> - -<p>The health authorities of this country have accordingly taken -the wise precaution of circulating very widely among the public -coloured placards bearing illustrations of these four species, with -a description of the essential anatomical details by which they may -be recognised. Similar placards are exhibited in all the schools, -and a generous distribution is made of instructions, printed on -handkerchiefs, indicating the most effective method of treating -poisonous bites.</p> - -<p>In Queensland, according to information furnished to me by -Mr. C. W. De Vis, late Director of the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, -the number of deaths resulting from the bites of poisonous -snakes has been only twenty-seven in ten years.</p> - -<h3 id="America"><i>E.—AMERICA.</i></h3> - -<p>The fauna of the New World includes only a very small number -of poisonous snakes belonging to the family <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>. The -Genus <i>Elaps</i> alone is represented there by twenty-eight species, -scattered over Mexico, Central America, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, -Colombia, and Brazil. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, on the other hand, are extremely numerous, and -belong exclusively to the subfamily <span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span>; there are no -<span class="smcap">Viperinæ</span>.</p> - -<h4>I.—COLUBRIDÆ.</h4> - -<h4>(a) <b>Elaps.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65</a>.)</h5> - -<div id="Fig_65" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_65.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Elaps marcgravii</i>. (After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>The characters of this genus are: Maxillary bones very short, -extending beyond the palatines, and bearing a pair of large poison-fangs; -pterygoid teeth few or absent; mandibular teeth all of -equal length. No postfrontal bones; præfrontals meeting, or -narrowly separated on the median line. Head small, not distinct -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -from neck; eyes small, with vertically elliptic or sub-elliptic -pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales -smooth, in 15 rows. Tail short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows, or -partly single, partly in 2 rows.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>E. surinamensis.</i>—Seven supralabials, of which the fourth -enters the eye; frontal shield very narrow; 167-182 ventrals.</p> - -<p>Colour red, with black annuli disposed in threes (the middle one -broader), separated by narrow yellow interspaces; 7 or 8 sets of -annuli on the body; the red scales dotted with black; head red -above, with the shields black-edged, followed by a black cross-band -behind the parietals.</p> - -<p>Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 95. Grows to 1,900 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Venezuela, Guianas, Northern Brazil, North-east Peru.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>E. heterochilus.</i>—Six supralabials, second and third entering -the eye; snout narrow; 209 ventrals.</p> - -<p>Colour red, with black annuli, as in <i>E. marcgravii</i>.</p> - -<p>Total length, 553 millimetres; tail 43.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Brazil.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>E. euryxanthus</i> (Sonoran Coral Snake).—Seven supralabials, -third and fourth entering the eye; internasals nearly as long as the -præfrontals; 215-241 ventrals; 21-29 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour red, with 11 black annuli edged with yellow; head black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 33.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Arizona, Colorado, North-western Mexico. It is found -in Arizona up to an altitude of nearly 6,000 feet (1,800 metres).</p> - -<p>(4) <i>E. gravenhorstii.</i>—First lower labial in contact with its -fellow; posterior nasal not reaching the præocular: 191 ventrals; -23 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Seven sets of black annuli disposed in threes, median -annulus the broadest; head black, with a yellow transverse band -behind the eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 550 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Brazil. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span></p> - -<p>(5) <i>E. langsdorffii.</i>—Ventrals 204-225; subcaudals 37-54; -1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour dark brown, with 63 transverse series of cream-coloured -spots, each occupying one scale; belly yellow, with red cross-bands.</p> - -<p>Total length, 300 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Upper Amazons.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>E. buckleyi.</i>—203-211 ventrals; 39-43 subcaudals; 1 + 2 -temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour orange, with 48-60 black annuli edged with small -yellow spots; head black; temples yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 505 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Northern Brazil, Eastern Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>E. anomalus.</i>—227 ventrals; 29 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with 55 black annuli separated by narrow -brownish-white bands; belly yellowish; anterior half of head black, -posterior half yellow; tail yellow or red, with 4 black rings.</p> - -<p>Total length, 280 millimetres; tail 23.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Colombia.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>E. heterozonus.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 210-219 ventrals; -16-23 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour red or brown, with 17 to 23 black rings, mostly narrower -than the interspaces; a black band on the head across the eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 900 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern Ecuador, Eastern Peru, Bolivia.</p> - -<p>(9) <i>E. elegans.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 189-221 ventrals; 29-47 -subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Black annuli in sets of three, separated by reddish-brown -interspaces; 12-17 sets; head black, with yellow blotches.</p> - -<p>Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Mexico and Guatemala.</p> - -<p>(10) <i>E. annellatus.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 200-211 ventrals; -30-45 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour black, with 41-49 narrow white rings on the body, -4-7 on the tail; a white ring on the head. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern Peru.</p> - -<p>(11) <i>E. decoratus.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 196-213 ventrals: 29-37 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour red, with 15-16 sets of black annuli disposed in threes; -head yellow, with end of snout black, and a black band across the -eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 625 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Brazil.</p> - -<p>(12) <i>E. dumerilii.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 197-204 ventrals; 50-53 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: 8-9 sets of three black annuli on red and yellow; -head black, with a yellow band on the occiput.</p> - -<p>Total length, 410 millimetres; tail 65.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Colombia.</p> - -<p>(13) <i>E. corallinus</i> (The Coral Snake).—Scales in 15 rows; -179-231 ventrals; 30-47 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with black annuli, separated by red interspaces -edged with yellow; head bluish-black; temples yellow; a blue line -from behind the eye to the lower jaw; tail white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tropical South America and Lesser Antilles (St. -Thomas, St. Vincent, Martinique).</p> - -<p>(14) <i>E. hemprichii.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 168-181 ventrals; -22-29 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Black, with red or yellow annuli, a broad annulus -between the narrow ones; occiput, upper lip, and temples yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 65.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Guianas, Colombia, Peru.</p> - -<p>(15) <i>E. tschudii.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 207-221 ventrals; 21-28 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with black annuli broader than the interspaces, -disposed in sets; interspaces red and yellow; snout and occiput -black. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span></p> - -<div id="Fig_66" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_66.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—<i>Elaps fulvius</i> (The Harlequin Snake, or Coral Snake). (After L. Stejneger.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Peru.</p> - -<p>(16) <i>E. dissoleucus.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 200 ventrals; 19 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Coloration as in foregoing species.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,070 millimetres; tail 35.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Venezuela.</p> - -<p>(17) <i>E. fulvius</i> (Harlequin, or Coral Snake, <a href="#Fig_66">fig. 66</a>).—Scales in -15 rows; 180-237 ventrals; 30-59 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with black, red, and yellow annuli; tail with -black and yellow annuli; snout black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 990 millimetres; tail 85.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern North America, from Southern Virginia, the -Ohio River, and the Missouri to the Rio Grande, Mexico. Central -America.</p> - -<p>(18) <i>E. psyches.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 188-214 ventrals; 32-47 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with alternate black and brown annuli, and 48-52 -narrow yellow rings; head black, blotched with yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 495 millimetres; tail 80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Guianas.</p> - -<p>(19) <i>E. spixii.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 201-219 ventrals; 22-29 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: red, with 20-38 black rings disposed in threes; a black -occipital collar, followed by a wide red space.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,400 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Venezuela and Northern Brazil.</p> - -<p>(20) <i>E. frontalis.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 197-230 ventrals; -15-26 subcaudals. Tail ending very obtusely.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with black annuli disposed in threes, with red and -yellow interspaces; head black, spotted with yellow or red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,350 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina.</p> - -<p>(21) <i>E. marcgravii.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 210-240 ventrals; -23-42 subcaudals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span></p> - -<p>Colour: Body with black annuli in 6-10 sets of three, separated -by broad red interspaces, the middle annulus usually wider; snout -yellow, the end usually black; back of head red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,120 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tropical South America.</p> - -<p>(22) <i>E. lemniscatus.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 241-262 ventrals; -30-39 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with 11-14 sets of black annuli disposed in -threes, separated by red interspaces; head yellow; end of snout -and a band across the middle of the head black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Guianas, Brazil.</p> - -<p>(23) <i>E. filiformis.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 290-308 ventrals; -35-45 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with black annuli disposed in threes, with red -interspaces; head yellow; end of snout black; a black band across -the eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Amazons, Colombia.</p> - -<p>(24) <i>E. mipartitus.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 210-278 ventrals; -24-34 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: black, with 40-68 narrow white annuli; head black to -between the eyes, elsewhere yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 610 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central America and Tropical South America.</p> - -<p>(25) <i>E. fraseri.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 303 ventrals; 25 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: black, with 75 narrow whitish rings with broken outlines; -head black in front, yellow behind.</p> - -<p>Total length, 780 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(26) <i>E. mentalis.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 255-268 ventrals; 30-31 -subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body black, with 58-70 narrow white annuli, which become -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -wider on the belly; snout black, occiput yellow; tail annulate, -black and orange.</p> - -<p>Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 30.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat.</i>—Colombia and Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(27) <i>E. ancoralis.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 258 ventrals; 31 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: Body with 16 sets of black annuli disposed in threes, -the middle one of each set a little wider; head light in front, -spotted with black; an anchor-shaped black mark on the occiput -and nape.</p> - -<p>Total length, 780 millimetres; tail 57.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(28) <i>E. narduccii.</i>—Scales in 15 rows; 240-315 ventrals; -15-33 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour: black, beneath with yellow or red cross-bands or transversely -oval spots, sometimes extending as triangular blotches up -the sides; head with a yellow cross-band.</p> - -<p>Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern Ecuador, North-eastern Peru, Bolivia.</p> - -<p>The species of the genus <i>Elaps</i>, which are remarkable for the -brightness and beauty of their colours, are generally found in -forests.</p> - -<p>“The traveller,” says Neuwied, “who ventures into the great -Brazilian forests, where the ground is covered with leafy plants, -is astonished to see shining through the verdure the black and red -rings of the beautiful Coral Snake. Uncertainty as to whether -the creature is dangerous alone prevents him from seizing it. The -body of the snake is not lithe enough to enable it to climb trees. -Its food consists of small animals.”</p> - -<p>Dr. Lacerda relates that the Austrian naturalist Wertheimer, -when in the Brazilian settlement of Philadelphia, was bitten by -a Coral Snake in the back of the hand. The usual symptoms of -poisoning manifested themselves immediately, and the unfortunate -man died twelve hours later. Nevertheless, the small size and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -slenderness of the fangs, the narrowness of their canals, and the -considerable distance between the fangs and the anterior opening -of the mouth, must necessarily render the bites of these snakes less -serious and of rarer occurrence.</p> - -<h4>II.—VIPERIDÆ.—CROTALINÆ.</h4> - -<p>The <i>Solenoglypha</i> -are infinitely more formidable -in the two -divisions of the New -World. They are represented -by a large -number of species, some -of which are feared in -consequence of their size -and ferocity, even more -than on account of the -deadliness of their -venom (<a href="#Fig_67">fig. 67</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_67" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_67.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—<span class="smcap">Head and Skull of</span> <i>Crotalus horridus</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p>The American <span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span> -are divided into -two groups:—</p> - -<p>The first of these -comprises snakes not -provided with the caudal -appendage, which is -characteristic of the -Rattle-Snakes. It consists -of two genera:—</p> - -<p>(a) <i>Ancistrodon.</i></p> - -<p>(b) <i>Lachesis.</i></p> - -<p>The second group includes only those snakes the tails of which -are terminated by the scaly appendage known as the “rattle.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p> - -<p>These are likewise divided into -two genera:—</p> - -<p>(c) <i>Sistrurus.</i></p> - -<p>(d) <i>Crotalus.</i></p> - -<h4>(a) <b>Ancistrodon.</b></h4> - -<p>Usually with 9 shields on the -head, or internasals and præfrontals -broken up into scales. Body -cylindrical: scales smooth or -keeled, with apical pits. Tail -moderate or short; subcaudals -single or in 2 rows.</p> - -<div id="Fig_68" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_68.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—<i>Ancistrodon piscivorus</i> (Water Viper). (After Stejneger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>(1) <i>A. piscivorus</i> (Water Viper, -or Cotton-mouth; <a href="#Fig_68">fig. 68</a>).—Snout -rounded, soft above. Scales on -the body strongly keeled, in 25 -(rarely 27) rows; 130-147 ventrals; -33-51 subcaudals, all single -or the posterior divided.</p> - -<p>Colour pale reddish-brown to -dark brown above, with more or -less distinct dark brown cross-bands, -or with alternating -C-shaped dark markings each enclosing -a central spot. Belly dull -yellow spotted with black, or almost -black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,170 millimetres; -tail 200.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern North -America, from North Carolina -and Indiana to Florida and Texas. -The Water Viper lives for the most part in the vicinity of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -rivers, and feeds upon fish, but also devours small warm-blooded -animals. The Creoles call it the Congo Snake. It is fairly -common in the environs of New Orleans. In summer time it -conceals itself in the branches of trees at the edge of the water. -It frequents inundated rice-fields, and is a terror to the blacks. It -attacks readily, and opens its jaws some seconds before it bites.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>A. bilineatus.</i>—Snout obtusely pointed. Scales more or -less strongly keeled, in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 135-141 ventrals; -52-64 subcaudals, anterior single, posterior divided.</p> - -<p>Colour dull yellow or reddish-brown, with more or less distinct -darker cross-bands, or alternating transverse blotches, with yellow -edges; a vertical yellow line on the rostral shield, and a fine -yellow line round the snout; belly brownish or blackish, with -white spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 200.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>A. contortrix</i> (The Copperhead).—Snout rounded or truncate. -Scales strongly keeled, in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 145-155 -ventrals; 31-52 subcaudals, anterior single, posterior divided.</p> - -<p>Colour dull yellow or reddish-brown, with dark brown or -brick-red cross-bars; these bars are sometimes interrupted on the -vertebral line, and form alternating triangles; belly yellow or -reddish, more or less spotted with grey or brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 990 millimetres; tail 110.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: North America, from Massachusetts and Kansas to -Northern Florida and Texas.</p> - -<p>This snake is often more dreaded than a Rattle-Snake.</p> - -<h4>(b) <b>Lachesis.</b></h4> - -<p>In <i>Lachesis</i> the caudal rattle is represented by a series of 10 -or 12 rows of spiny scales, which are slightly hooked at the tips. -The head is covered with small shields or smooth or keeled scales, -with or without apical pits. The maxillary is much reduced; the -transverse or pterygoid bone, on the contrary, is greatly developed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span></p> - -<p>The name is derived from one of the Parcæ, daughters of Night, -who placed the thread on the spindle, and upon whom depended -the fate of men.</p> - -<p>In addition to the 19 Asiatic species, of which we have already -given descriptions, the genus <i>Lachesis</i> includes 21 American species.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>L. mutus</i> (Bushmaster, or Surucucu).—Two or three scales -separating the internasals in front; 10 to 15 scales on a line between -the supraoculars; 9 or 10 supralabials. Scales tubercularly -keeled, feebly imbricate, in 35 or 37 rows; 200-230 ventrals; -32-50 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_69" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_69.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—<i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> (<i>Fer-de-lance</i> <span class="smcap">of Martinique</span>). -(After Stejneger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Colour yellow or pinkish on the back, with a series of large -rhomboidal brown or black spots enclosing smaller light spots; -a black streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,995 millimetres; tail 170.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central and Tropical South America.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>L. lanceolatus</i> (known as the Fer-de-lance in Martinique, -and Jararacussu in Brazil; <a href="#Fig_69">fig. 69</a>).—Snout obtuse, slightly turned -up; upper head-scales small, imbricate, more or less strongly -keeled, in 5-10 longitudinal series between the supraoculars, -which are large; 7 or 8 supralabials. Scales in 23-33 rows, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -sharply keeled; 180-240 ventrals; 46-70 subcaudals, all or the -greater part in two rows.</p> - -<p>Coloration very variable, grey, brown, yellow, olive, or reddish; -uniform or with more or less distinct dark spots, or cross-bands, -or with dark triangles on the sides enclosing pale rhombs; a dark -streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly yellowish, -uniform, or spotted with brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,600 millimetres; tail 190.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tropical America; Mexico, Martinique, St. Lucia, -Bequia Island near St. Vincent, Venezuela, Guianas, Rio de Janeiro.</p> - -<p>This snake does not exist in Guadeloupe. “In the islands in -which it is found,” says Dr. Rufz de Lavison, “its presence makes -itself felt even where man has built his dwelling and cultivates -the soil. Because of it no one can carelessly lie down to rest in -the shade of a tree; no one can walk in the woods or enter unconcernedly -into the pleasures of the chase.” It is especially -abundant in coffee and sugar plantations, and is met with from the -sea-level up to the summits of the highest mountains in Martinique -and St. Lucia. It not infrequently makes its way into human -habitations, and is not uncommon in gardens, even entering those -of the town of Fort-de-France.</p> - -<p>It does not seek its prey by day, but remains on the alert, -always ready to bite. With open mouth, and fangs projecting forwards, -it strikes with the rapidity of lightning. It swims in the -rivers and moves over the ground with great speed. Oviposition -takes place in July, and the young are hatched forthwith, the -usual number being from about 50-60.</p> - -<p>It feeds upon lizards and rats, but also destroys a certain number -of fowls and turkeys. All the large animals are afraid of it. Its -bite is extremely dangerous, and causes about a hundred deaths -in Martinique every year.</p> - -<p>In striking at its prey or at a man, the <i>Fer-de-lance</i> throws -back its head and opens its jaws widely, with the fangs directed -forwards. It drives in its poison-teeth as with the blow of a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -hammer, and quickly draws back again. When very excited, it -resumes its position and strikes afresh. It never becomes tame, -but is capable of living a fairly long time in captivity. I have kept -a number of specimens of it for more than two years, caged in my -laboratory.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>L. atrox</i> (Labaria).—Closely resembling <i>L. lanceolatus</i>, -but bulkier; the enormous head is armed with powerful fangs, -which are often more than a centimetre in length; 7 supralabial -shields; scales in 25-29 rows, strongly keeled; 161-216 ventrals; -47-73 pairs of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, with dark cross-bands or triangular blotches, with -the apices adjacent on the vertebral line; a dark streak from the -eye to the angle of the mouth; belly yellowish-white, speckled with -brown, or brown spotted with yellowish-white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,110 millimetres; tail 180.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: from Central America to Peru and Northern Brazil.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>L. pulcher.</i>—Two postocular shields and a subocular, -separated from the labials by one series of scales; 7 supralabials; -scales in 21 or 23 rows, strongly and tubercularly keeled; 156-172 -ventrals; 58-64 pairs of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour olive-grey, with brown, light-edged cross-bands, which -are continuous or broken on the vertebral line; a light streak -from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly covered with minute -confluent brown markings, with darker and lighter spots on the -sides.</p> - -<p>Total length, 685 millimetres; tail 115.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Andes of Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>L. microphthalmus.</i>—Snout short, rounded; eyes very small; -7 supralabials, of which the third and the sixth or seventh are -the largest; scales in 23 rows, dorsals tubercularly keeled; 159-161 -ventrals; 52-55 subcaudal pairs.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish-brown or pale olive on the back, with dark -brown triangles on the sides; posteriorly, the united triangles -form cross-bands; a yellowish band from the eye to the side of -the neck; belly dark brown with yellowish spots. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 630 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Peru, Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>L. pictus.</i>—Snout obliquely truncate; two series of scales -between the eye and the labials; scales in 21-23 rows, strongly -keeled; 157-172 ventrals; 40-74 pairs of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown, with a dorsal series of large black-edged -brown spots, which may form a vertebral zigzag band; a black -streak behind the eye, and a vertical bar below the eye; belly -yellowish, spotted with brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 310 millimetres; tail 43.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Peru.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>L. alternatus.</i>—Head narrow, elongate; 8-9 supralabials; -scales in 29-35 rows, very strongly keeled; 167-181 ventrals; -34-51 pairs of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, very elegantly marked with opposite or alternating -pairs of large C-shaped markings, which are dark brown, -edged with black and yellow, and separated by narrow interspaces -of the ground colour; head dark·brown above, with a ⅄̅-shaped -light marking, the transverse bar between the eyes; belly whitish, -spotted with brown or black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,190 millimetres; tail 110.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>L. neuwiedii</i> (known as the <i>Urutù</i> in Brazil; <a href="#Fig_70">fig. 70</a>).—Snout -obtusely pointed; supraocular large, separated from its -fellow by 6-9 longitudinal series of scales; 8 or 9 supralabials; -scales very strongly keeled, in 21-27 rows; 168-182 ventrals; -41-53 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish or pale brown, with dark brown black-edged -spots; the spots on the back form a single series or a double -alternating series; a dark spot on the snout; a pair of dark bands -from the vertex to the nape, and another from the eye to the angle -of the mouth; belly yellowish, more or less powdered with brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 120.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p> - -<div id="Fig_70" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_70.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—<i>Lachesis neuwiedii</i> (known as the <i>Urutù</i> in Brazil). -(After Lacerda.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span></p> -</div> - -<p>(9) <i>L. ammodytoides.</i>—Snout turned up, in the shape of a wart; -two series of scales between the eye and the labials; scales in 23 -or 25 rows, very strongly keeled; 149-160 ventrals; 30-38 pairs -of subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown, with large brown black-edged spots or -cross-bands, which may alternate and form a zigzag band; a dark -streak behind the eye; belly yellowish, spotted with brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 460 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: North-eastern Patagonia and Argentina.</p> - -<p>(10) <i>L. xanthogrammus.</i>—Head elongate, snout short; scales -in 27 rows, feebly keeled; 196 ventrals; 54 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour very dark olive, with a yellow zigzag line on each side -from the head to the base of the tail; the angular parts enclose -rhombic spaces and lateral triangles; top of head black, with a -pair of undulating yellow bands from the nape to the vertex; -a bright golden band round the snout; labials bright yellow; -ventral shields black, paler in the middle, with yellow triangular -spots at their extremities.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,530 millimetres; tail 190.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Eastern Ecuador, Andes of Colombia.</p> - -<p>(11) <i>L. castelnaudi.</i>—Head narrow and elongate; scales on the -head smooth or feebly keeled, small; body-scales strongly keeled, -in 25 or 27 rows; 230-253 ventrals; 72-83 subcaudals, all or -majority in a single row.</p> - -<p>Colour greyish or brown, with dark or light-edged spots or -cross-bands; head with dark spots, one of which occupies the -middle of the snout; a dark band from the eye to the angle of the -mouth; belly brown or blackish, spotted with yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,220 millimetres; tail 180.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Brazil, Ecuador, Eastern Peru.</p> - -<p>(12) <i>L. nummifer.</i>—Snout broad, rounded; 10 or 11 supralabials; -scales in 23-27 rows, strongly keeled; 121-134 ventrals; 26-36 -subcaudals, all or the majority single.</p> - -<p>Colour pale brown, with a dorsal series of rhomboidal spots, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -which may form a zigzag band; belly whitish, uniform or spotted -with dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 800 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Mexico and Central America.</p> - -<p>(13) <i>L. godmani.</i>—Snout broad, rounded; 9 or 10 supralabials; -scales in 21 rows, strongly keeled; 135-142 ventrals; 22-34 -subcaudals in a single row.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, with or without a dorsal series of large darker -spots; belly yellowish, more or less spotted with grey or blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 610 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Guatemala.</p> - -<p>(14) <i>L. lansbergii.</i>—Snout pointed, turned up at the end, as in -Vipera aspis; scales in 25-27 rows, strongly keeled; 152-159 -ventrals; 29-35 subcaudals in a single row.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish-brown, pale brown, or grey, with a dorsal -series of large rhomboidal or squarish spots, usually divided by a -narrow yellow or orange vertebral line; cheeks blackish; belly -powdered with brown, with or without whitish spots.</p> - -<p>Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: from Southern Mexico to Colombia, Venezuela, -and Brazil.</p> - -<p>(15) <i>L. brachystoma.</i>—Similar to the foregoing species; scales -in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 132-150 ventrals; 27-38 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Total length, 500 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern Mexico and Central America.</p> - -<p>(16) <i>L. bilineatus.</i>—Snout rounded; 7 or 8 supralabials; scales -in 27-35 rows, strongly keeled; 198-218 ventrals; 59-71 -subcaudals, all or majority in two rows. <i>Tail prehensile.</i></p> - -<p>Colour green, uniform or spotted with black; a lateral yellow -streak; belly white; end of tail reddish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 840 millimetres; tail 125.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(17) <i>L. undulatus.</i>—Snout short, rounded; 11 supralabials; -scales in 21 rows, the dorsals strongly or very strongly keeled; -149-171 ventrals; 41-49 pairs of subcaudals. <i>Tail prehensile.</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span></p> - -<p>Colour olive or brown, sometimes speckled with black, with a -dorsal series of rhomboidal dark spots or an undulous or zigzag -band; belly yellowish or brownish, powdered with blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 570 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Mexico.</p> - -<p>(18) <i>L. lateralis.</i>—Snout rounded; 9 supralabials; scales in 21 -or 23 rows, rather strongly keeled; 171 ventrals; 59 subcaudals, in -a single row. <i>Tail prehensile.</i></p> - -<p>Colour green, with a yellow line on each side of the body.</p> - -<p>Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Costa Rica.</p> - -<p>(19) <i>L. bicolor.</i>—Very similar to the foregoing; scales in 21 -rows; 164-167 ventrals; 62-67 subcaudals, in a single row.</p> - -<p>Colour uniform green, yellowish on the belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 375 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Guatemala.</p> - -<p>(20) <i>L. schlegelii.</i>—Snout rounded; 8 or 9 supralabials; scales -in 19-25 rows, more or less strongly keeled; 138-162 ventrals; -47-62 subcaudals, in a single row. <i>Tail prehensile.</i></p> - -<p>Coloration very variable, green or olive, spotted with black, or -with pinkish, reddish, or purplish black-edged spots or cross-bars; -belly yellow, spotted with green, or variegated; end of tail generally -red.</p> - -<p>Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 115.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Central America, Colombia, Ecuador.</p> - -<p>(21) <i>L. nigroviridis.</i>—Snout short, rounded; 9-11 supralabials; -19 rows of scales, rather feebly keeled; 134-146 ventrals; 49-54 -subcaudals, in a single row. <i>Tail prehensile.</i></p> - -<p>Colour green or olive, spotted with black; head with a black -streak on each side; belly yellowish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 535 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Costa Rica.</p> - -<p>(22) <i>L. aurifer.</i>—Snout short and broad; 9 or 10 supralabials; -scales in 19 rows, rather strongly keeled; 154-158 ventrals; -53-61 subcaudals, single. <i>Tail prehensile.</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> - -<p>Colour green, spotted with yellow; a black streak on the temple; -belly greenish-yellow.</p> - -<p>Total length, 825 millimetres; tail 145.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Guatemala.</p> - -<h4>(c) <b>Sistrurus.</b></h4> - -<p>Head very distinct from neck, covered above with nine large -symmetrical shields; eyes rather small, with vertical pupils. Body -cylindrical; scales keeled, with apical pits; tail short, ending in -a segmented horny apparatus (rattle), producing a special sound; -subcaudals all or the majority in a single row.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>S. miliarius</i> (Ground Rattle-Snake).—9-11 supralabials; -scales in 21 or 23 rows, strongly keeled; 127-139 ventrals; 27-36 -subcaudals; rattle short, consisting at the most of 10 segments.</p> - -<p>Colour greyish, yellowish, or brown, the vertebral line often -orange; two undulating dark stripes from between the eyes to the -occiput, the enclosed space usually orange; belly whitish, spotted -with dark brown or black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 70.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-eastern North America, from North Carolina -to Texas.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>S. catenatus</i> (Prairie Rattle-Snake, or Massasanga, <a href="#Fig_71">fig. 71</a>).—Two -or three series of scales between the eye and the labials; -11-14 supralabials; scales in 23 or 25 rows; 136-153 ventrals; -20-31 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour the same as in <i>S. miliarius</i>: a dark spot on the parietal -shields.</p> - -<p>Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Great Lakes district; United States east of the -Rocky Mountains and west of the Mississippi; Northern Mexico.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>S. ravus.</i>—11 or 12 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 rows; -147 ventrals; 26 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish-brown, with a dorsal series of dark brown -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -spots, longer than broad, and a series of transverse dark bars on -each side; belly yellowish, spotted with blackish-brown.</p> - -<div id="Fig_71" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_71.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—<i>Sistrurus catenatus</i> (Prairie Rattle-Snake, or Massasanga). -(After Holbrook and Stejneger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 200 millimetres; tail 22.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Vera Cruz, Mexico.</p> - -<h4>(d) <b>Crotalus</b> (Rattle-Snakes).</h4> - -<p>These snakes differ from all others in that the end of the tail -bears a series of large conical scales, forming rattles, each fitting -into the next and movable in such a manner that when the reptile -causes them to move they produce a strident sound (<a href="#Fig_72">fig. 72</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_72" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_72.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—A, Horny appendage (rattle) of <i>Crotalus -horridus</i> (three-quarters natural size. After Garman). -B, longitudinal section of the same. C, separated -segments of the appendage: <i>a</i>, terminal point; <i>h</i>, -basal segment (after Czermak).</p> -</div> - -<p>The length of -these animals often -exceeds 2,000 millimetres. -The head -is flat, very large -and expanded posteriorly, -and terminated -in front by -a short, truncate -snout; it is covered -above with scales or -small shields.</p> - -<p>Rattle-Snakes -are armed with enormous -fangs enclosing -a complete canal, -which extends -throughout almost -their entire length. -The poison-glands -are of the size of a large almond.</p> - -<p>The number of segments in the rattle is variable, but rarely -exceeds 18 or 20. At the time of the shedding of the skin these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -segments fall off and are at once replaced. Contrary to the belief -which was long entertained, their number bears no relation to the -age of the snake.</p> - -<div id="Fig_73" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_73.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—<i>Crotalus terrificus</i> (Dog-faced Rattle-Snake, Cascavella in Brazil). -(After Stejneger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Rattle-Snakes are met with especially in stony and arid -localities, or among brushwood near water. They hardly ever bite -except when surprised or attacked.</p> - -<p>(1) <i>C. terrificus</i> (Dog-faced Rattle-Snake, <i>Cascavella</i> in Brazil; -<a href="#Fig_73">fig. 73</a>).—Snout very short; three or four series of scales between -the eye and the supralabial shields; body-scales in 23-31 rows, -dorsals very strongly keeled; 160-199 ventrals; 18-30 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown, with a series of darker, light-edged rhombs, -often lighter in the centre; a dark streak from the eye to the -angle of the mouth; belly yellowish-white, uniform or spotted with -brown; tail generally brown or blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,320 millimetres; tail 130.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas to Southern Brazil, -and Northern Argentina.</p> - -<p>(2) <i>C. scutulatus</i> (Texas Rattle-Snake; <a href="#Fig_74">fig. 74</a>).—13-16 supralabials; -scales in 25 or 27 rows; dorsals striated and strongly -keeled; 167-170 ventrals; 18-20 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish or greyish-brown, with a series of large dark -brown light-edged rhomboidal spots; an oblique dark streak below -the eye; belly uniform yellowish-white.</p> - -<p>Total length, 760 millimetres; tail 65.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, North Mexico.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>C. confluentus</i> (Pacific or Mottled Rattle-Snake; <a href="#Fig_75">fig. 75</a>).—Upper -head-scales small, striated; 13-18 supralabials; body -scales in 25-29 rows, striated and strongly keeled; 168-197 -ventrals; 17-34 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish, greyish, or pale brown, with a dorsal series -of large brown or red spots, usually rhomboidal or transversely -elliptic in shape; a light streak or triangular marking across the -supraocular shields; belly yellowish, uniform or spotted with -brown. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 1,520 millimetres; tail 140.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western North America, from British Columbia to -South California, eastwards to Assiniboia, Dakota, Nebraska, -Kansas, and Western and Southern Texas; Northern Mexico.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>According to Holbrook, this reptile feeds upon young rabbits, -squirrels, rats and other small mammals. It lays its eggs in -August, and the young are hatched at once, and are capable of -seeking their own food.</p> - -<p>In captivity as well as under natural conditions the Mottled -Rattle-Snake is an excessively irritable species. “The noise of -the wind,” says Brehm, “or even the distant view of a man or -animal, are sufficient to irritate it. It then coils itself up in a -spiral, and places its head and tail in the centre of the disc thus -formed, in a state of absolute immobility. After a short interval -the creature raises its head to a height of about 8 to 12 inches -above the ground, curves its neck in the shape of an S, and -elevates its tail into a vertical position and shakes it vigorously, -whereupon the strident noise caused by the rattle is heard. So -rapid are the movements communicated by the <i>Crotalus</i> to its tail -that they can scarcely be distinguished. So long as the <i>Crotalus</i> -believes itself menaced it remains in the position that we have -just described, and continues to sound its rattle. If one withdraws -from the irritated snake, the sound gradually lessens and ceases, -to begin again more vigorously when the reptile is once more -approached.”</p> - -<p>The bite of these snakes is exceedingly dangerous. Pigs wage -an inveterate war against them and devour them.</p> - -<p>At the Pasteur Institute at Lille, I have kept several of these -reptiles in captivity for eighteen months and longer. They -invariably refused their food, and I always had to resort to -artificial feeding. They are easily capable of withstanding a -prolonged fast.</p> - -<p>(4) <i>C. durissus</i> (Common Rattle-Snake).—7 or 8 longitudinal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -series of scales between the supraoculars, 3 or 4 series of scales -between the eye and the labials; 13-16 supralabials; scales in -25-29 rows, dorsals strongly keeled; ventrals 169-181; 24-32 -subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_74" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_74.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—<i>Crotalus scutulatus</i> (Texas Rattle-Snake). -(After Baird and Stejneger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Colour pale greyish or brownish, with a dorsal series of large -blackish rhomboidal spots; a yellowish cross-line between the -eyes; snout blackish; end of tail usually black; belly yellowish, -more or less spotted with brown or black.</p> - -<p>Total length may be as much as 8 feet (2,400 millimetres).</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: South-eastern United States, from North Carolina -to Florida and the mouths of the Mississippi.</p> - -<p>(5) <i>C. horridus.</i>—Supraoculars considerably narrower than the -space between them, which is covered by 3-8 longitudinal series -of small scales; 12-16 supralabials; body scales in 23-29 rows, -dorsals very strongly keeled; 165-178 ventrals; 19-29 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour greyish-brown, usually with a rusty vertebral stripe, -and <b>V-</b> or <b>M-</b>shaped blackish cross-bands; head uniform above, -with a dark band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; usually -a pair of roundish or triangular dark spots on the nape; belly -yellowish, uniform or spotted with blackish; end of tail blackish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,340 millimetres; tail 135.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: United States, from Massachusetts and Iowa to -Northern Florida and Texas.</p> - -<p>(6) <i>C. tigris.</i>—13-15 supralabials; scales in 23 or 25 rows, -dorsals strongly keeled; 166-181 ventrals; 26-46 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish or pale brown, with a dorsal series of brown -spots and cross-bands posteriorly; sides with smaller dark spots; -belly yellowish, spotted with brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 50.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Southern California, Lower California, Nevada, -Colorado, Arizona, and Northern Mexico.</p> - -<p>(7) <i>C. mitchelli.</i>—14-16 supralabials; scales in 25 rows, -striated, dorsals strongly keeled; 178-198 ventrals; 24-26 -subcaudals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> - -<div id="Fig_75" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_75.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—<i>Crotalus confluentus</i> (Pacific or Mottled Rattle-Snake). -(After Baird and Stejneger.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Colour greyish-yellow to salmon-red, finely punctulated with -brown, with a dorsal series of transverse darker spots; belly -yellowish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Desert regions of Southern California, Lower California, -and Arizona.</p> - -<p>(8) <i>C. triseriatus.</i>—9-13 supralabials; scales in 21-25 rows, -dorsals strongly keeled; 142-184 ventrals; 22-30 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour olive or brown, with a vertebral series of rather small -dark brown spots edged with black and white; belly yellowish, -spotted with dark brown, or dark grey-brown powdered with -whitish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 530 millimetres; tail 55.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Mexico.</p> - -<p>(9) <i>C. polystictus.</i>—Closely allied to the foregoing, but 4 internasals, -14 or 15 supralabials, and scales in 27-30 rows; 123-151 -ventrals; 18-23 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour yellowish-brown, beautifully marked with 6 or 7 longitudinal -series of alternating, elongate, dark brown, black- and white-edged -spots, separated by narrow interspaces of the ground-colour; -a pair of diverging dark bands on the top of the head, separated -by a narrow pinkish-white streak; belly pinkish or yellowish, -spotted with dark brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Tableland of Mexico.</p> - -<p>(10) <span class="smcap">C. lepidus.</span>—12 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 rows, dorsals -strongly keeled; 153-169 ventrals; 24-31 subcaudals.</p> - -<p>Colour brown or greenish-grey, with dark brown or jet-black -light-edged cross-bands, narrowing on the sides; two dark spots, -or a <b>V-</b> or heart-shaped black marking on the nape; belly dirty -white, spotted with brown.</p> - -<p>Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, North Mexico.</p> - -<p>(11) <i>C. cerastes</i> (Horned Rattle-Snake; <a href="#Fig_76">fig. 76</a>).—Supraocular -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -transformed into a raised horn-like process; 11-13 supralabials; -scales in 21 or 23 rows; dorsals feebly keeled, each scale along the -middle of the back with a central tubercular swelling; 146 ventrals; -17 subcaudals.</p> - -<div id="Fig_76" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_76.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—<i>Crotalus cerastes</i> (Horned Rattle-Snake.) -(After Baird and Stejneger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Colour yellowish, with a dorsal series of rather indistinct brown -blotches; a narrow brown streak from the eye to the angle of the -mouth.</p> - -<p>Total length, 250 millimetres; tail 20.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Desert regions of Southern California, Nevada, -Arizona, and Utah.</p> - -<h3 id="Hydrophiid_sea_snakes"><i>F.—HYDROPHIINÆ (SEA-SNAKES).</i></h3> - -<p>The Sea-Snakes, which are found in great numbers on the -shores of the Indian Ocean, are common throughout the whole -of the tropical zone of the China Sea and the Pacific. They are -met with from the Persian Gulf to the west coast of Equatorial -America, but are entirely absent from the east coast of the same -continent and the west and east coasts of Africa.</p> - -<p>They often travel in companies. All are poisonous, and very -savage. They never come to land, and move with difficulty if -taken out of the water, although they are excellent swimmers. It -is impossible to keep them in captivity in aquariums, and they die -in two or three days. Their food consists of fishes and crustacea. -Their tail is prehensile, and they make use of it as an anchor to -attach themselves to coral reefs when they wish to rest. They -generally float on the surface of the waves, but can dive to great -depths, thanks to the extreme dilatability of their lungs, which -enables them to store up large reserves of air. They are viviparous.</p> - -<p>In these snakes, the head, which is always very small, is -scarcely distinct from the body. It is often covered with nine -large shields. The body is laterally compressed, and the tail, -which serves as a fin, is similarly flattened. The nostrils open -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -on the upper surface of the snout, between the nasal shields. The -eyes are always very small.</p> - -<p>The number of species at present known is considerable; they -are divided into <i>ten</i> genera. We shall confine ourselves here to -mentioning the principal diagnostic characters of these genera, -and to describing the most common species.</p> - -<div id="Fig_77" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_77.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Hydrus platurus</i>. -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<h4>(1) <b>Hydrus.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Maxillaries longer than the ectopterygoids, not extending -forwards as far as the palatines; poison-fangs grooved, rather -short, followed, after an interspace, by 7 or 8 solid, backwardly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -curved teeth. Snout long, bearing the nostrils on its upper -surface; head-shields large, nasals in contact with each other. -Body rather short; scales hexagonal or squarish, juxtaposed; no -distinct ventral scales.</p> - -<div id="Fig_78" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_78.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—<i>Hydrus platurus</i> (syn. -<i>Pelamis bicolor</i>).<br /> - -(After Krefft.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The principal species of this genus -is <i>H. platurus</i> (syn. <i>Pelamis bicolor</i>, -<a href="#Fig_78">fig. 78</a>).</p> - -<p>Coloration black or brown and -yellow, with very variable markings.</p> - -<p>Total length, 700 millimetres; tail -80.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Indian Ocean, Tropical -and Sub-tropical Pacific.</p> - -<h4>(2) <b>Thalassophis.</b></h4> - -<p>Poison-fangs followed by 5 small teeth. Snout short; nostrils -superior, horizontal, between two nasal shields and an internasal; -frontal and parietal shields large; præocular present. Body rather -elongate; scales hexagonal, juxtaposed; no distinct ventral scales.</p> - -<p><i>T. anomalus.</i>—Body with dark annuli, wider on the back.</p> - -<p>Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 84.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Java.</p> - -<h4>(3) <b>Acalyptophis.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillaries longer than the ectopterygoids; frontal and parietal -shields broken up into scales. Body rather elongate; scales subimbricate; -no distinct ventrals.</p> - -<p><i>A. peronii.</i>—Greyish or pale olive, with dark cross-bands; belly -whitish.</p> - -<p>Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 115.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western Tropical Pacific. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> - -<h4>(4) <b>Hydrelaps.</b></h4> - -<p>Snout short; 6 teeth behind the poison-fangs; nostril in a -single nasal shield; head-shields large. Body feebly compressed; -scales imbricate; ventral scales small, but well developed.</p> - -<p><i>H. darwiniensis.</i>—Body -with yellowish-white -and blackish -annuli, the black rings -narrower on the belly; -head dark olive spotted -with black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 435 -millimetres; tail 43.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: North -Australia.</p> - -<h4>(5) <b>Hydrophis.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>.</span>)</h5> - -<div id="Fig_79" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_79.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—<i>Hydrophis coronatus.</i> -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Poison-fangs large, -followed by a series of -7-18 solid teeth. Head -small; nostrils on the -upper surface of the -snout, pierced in a -single nasal shield; -head-shields large; -præocular present. -Body long, often very -slender anteriorly; -scales on the anterior -part of the body imbricate, rectangular, keeled or tubercular; -ventrals more or less distinct, very small.</p> - -<p>A considerable number of (at least 22) species of <span class="smcap">Hydrophis</span> -are known. Those most frequently met with are the following:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span></p> - -<p><i>H. spiralis.</i>—Olive above, yellowish beneath, with black rings; -head black above, with a horse-shoe-shaped yellow mark, the -convexity of which rests on the præfrontal shields; end of tail -black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 400 millimetres. Grows to 1,800 millimetres.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Coasts of India, and the Malay Archipelago.</p> - -<p><i>H. cærulescens.</i>—Grey above, with black cross-bands, which -form complete rings, or are interrupted on the belly; head uniform -black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 665 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Bombay Coast, Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca.</p> - -<p><i>H. nigrocinctus.</i>—Pale olive on the back, yellowish on the belly, -with black annuli, which are broader on the back.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Bay of Bengal and Straits of Malacca.</p> - -<div id="Fig_80" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_80.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 80.—<i>Hydrophis elegans.</i> -(After Krefft.)</p> -</div> - -<p><i>H. elegans</i> (<a href="#Fig_80">fig. 80</a>).—Yellowish-white, -back with transverse rhomboidal black -spots, separated by a series of small black -spots; belly with black spots or cross-bars; -head blackish, with a more or less -distinct light crescentic marking across -the snout, from above the eyes.</p> - -<p>Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 60.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: North coast of Australia.</p> - -<p><i>H. gracilis.</i>—Bluish-black or greyish, -olive above in the adult, with more or less -distinct lighter cross-bands anteriorly. -Young sometimes with rhombic black -cross-bands extending to the belly, or sub-interrupted on the sides.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Coasts of Persia, India, and Ceylon; Malay Archipelago.</p> - -<p><i>H. cantoris.</i>—Body dark olive or blackish anteriorly, with -yellowish cross-bands above; posterior part of body olive above, -yellowish on the sides; tail with olive vertical bars; a blackish -streak along the belly. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> - -<p>Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Bay of Bengal.</p> - -<p><i>H. fasciatus.</i>—Head and neck black, the latter with yellowish -cross-bands; body pale, with black annuli, which are broader on -the back.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 85.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From the coasts of India to China and New Guinea.</p> - -<p><i>H. obscurus</i> (syn. <i>H. stricticollis</i>).—Olive or dark green above, -with yellowish cross-bars, which form complete rings round the -slender anterior part of the body; a yellow spot on the snout, and -a yellow streak on each side of the upper surface of the head.</p> - -<p>Total length, 970 millimetres; tail 105.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Bay of Bengal, Malay Archipelago.</p> - -<p><i>H. leptodira.-</i>-Black, with yellow cross-bars on the neck, and -complete annuli on the body, the bars and annuli numbering 77.</p> - -<p>Total length, 525 millimetres; tail 40.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Mouths of the Ganges.</p> - -<h4>(6) <b>Distira.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Poison-fangs large, followed by 4-10 grooved teeth. Head -larger than in <span class="smcap">Hydrophis</span>; body more or less elongate; scales on -the anterior part of the body imbricate; ventrals more or less -distinct, and always very small.</p> - -<p>The species of this genus, 18 in number according to the British -Museum Catalogue, are found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, -from the Persian Gulf to Japan and New Caledonia.</p> - -<p>The most important are:—</p> - -<p><i>D. ornata.</i>—Uniform blackish-olive on the back, whitish on the -belly.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,200 millimetres; tail 130. -<i> -Habitat</i>: From the Mouth of Persian Gulf, and the coasts of -India and Ceylon to New Guinea, and North Australia. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p> - -<p><i>D. subcincta.</i>—Trunk with 41 broad dark cross-bands, about as -broad as the interspaces, not extending downwards to the middle -of the side; a series of small roundish, blackish spots along the -lower part of the sides.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,070 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Indian Ocean.</p> - -<div id="Fig_81" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_81.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Distira</i>.<br /> - -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p><i>D. cyanocincta.</i>—Greenish-olive above, with dark olive or black -cross-bars or annuli, broader on the back, and sometimes joined by -a black band along the belly, or yellowish, with a black vertebral -stripe and a few bars on the neck.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 140.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From the Persian Gulf and the coasts of India to -China, Japan, and Papuasia.</p> - -<p><i>D. jerdonii.</i>—Olive above, yellowish on the belly, with black -cross-bands forming complete rings in young and half-grown -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -specimens; a black spot sometimes present between each pair of -annuli.</p> - -<p>Total length, 910 millimetres; tail 100.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca, Borneo.</p> - -<h4>(7) <b>Enhydris.</b></h4> - -<p>Two large poison-fangs, and 2-4 small feebly grooved teeth. -Body short and stout; scales hexagonal or squarish, juxtaposed, -disappearing almost completely on the belly.</p> - -<p><i>E. curtus.</i>—Above with dark transverse bands, broadest in the -middle; end of tail black.</p> - -<p>Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 75.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i> Coasts of India and Ceylon.</p> - -<div id="Fig_82" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_82.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—<i>Enhydrina valakadien</i> (syn. <i>E. bengalensis</i>). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span></p> -</div> - -<h4>(8) <b>Enhydrina.</b></h4> - -<p>Two large poison-fangs, followed by 4 solid non-grooved teeth. -Body moderately elongate; scales imbricate; ventrals distinct but -very small.</p> - -<p><i>E. valakadien</i> (syn. <i>E. bengalensis</i>; <a href="#Fig_82">fig. 82</a>).—Colour olive or -grey, with black transverse bands, usually less distinct in the adult; -sides and belly whitish.</p> - -<div id="Fig_83" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_83.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—<span class="smcap">Skull of</span> <i>Platurus olubrinus</i>.<br /> - -(After G. A. Boulenger, <i>op. cit.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>Total length, 1,300 millimetres; tail 190.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From the Persian Gulf along the coasts of India and -Burma, to the Malay Archipelago and Papuasia. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span></p> - -<h4>(9) <b>Aipysurus.</b></h4> - -<p>Maxillaries a little longer -than the ectopterygoids; -poison-fangs moderate, followed, -after a short interval, -by 8-10 grooved teeth; -anterior mandibular teeth -feebly grooved. Snout -short; head shields large, -or broken up into scales. -Body moderate; scales imbricate; -ventrals large, -keeled in the middle.</p> - -<p><i>A. australis.</i>—Brown, or -cream-colour, with brown -spots forming more or less -distinct cross-bars.</p> - -<p>Total length, 930 millimetres; -tail 110.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Coasts of New -Guinea and Australia.</p> - -<p>Other species of <span class="smcap">Aipysurus</span> -(<i>A. eydouxii</i>, <i>annulatus</i>, -and <i>lævis</i>) are found -on the coasts of Singapore, -Java, Celebes, and the -Philippine and Loyalty -Islands.</p> - -<div id="Fig_84" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_84.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—<i>Platurus laticaudatus</i> (syn. <i>P. fischeri</i>).<br /> - -(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)</p> -</div> - -<h4>(10) <b>Platurus.</b></h4> - -<h5>(<a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a>, <a href="#Fig_84">84</a>.)</h5> - -<p>Two large poison-fangs, and only one or two small solid teeth -near the posterior extremity of the maxillary. Head shields large; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -nostrils lateral, the nasal shields separated by the internasals. -Body greatly elongate; scales smooth and imbricate; ventrals and -subcaudals large.</p> - -<p>Four species, distributed in the eastern parts of the Indian -Ocean and in the Western Pacific.</p> - -<p><i>P. laticaudatus</i> (syn. <i>P. fischeri;</i> <a href="#Fig_84">fig. 84</a>).—Olive above, -yellowish on the belly, with 29-48 black annuli.</p> - -<p>Total length: 970 millimetres; tail 90.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea and the -Western South Pacific Ocean.</p> - -<p><i>P. colubrinus</i> (<a href="#Fig_83">fig. 83</a>).—Olive above, yellowish on the belly, -with 28-54 black annuli, some or all of which may be interrupted -below.</p> - -<p>Total length, 1,270 millimetres; tail 125.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: From the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea and the -Western South Pacific Ocean.</p> - -<p><i>P. muelleri.</i>—62 black annuli, some of which are interrupted -on the belly.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Only found in the South Pacific Ocean (subtropical -zone), as far as the New Hebrides and the shores of Tasmania.</p> - -<p><i>P. schistorhynchus.</i>—Coloration and size as in <i>P. colubrinus</i>: -body with 25-45 annuli.</p> - -<p><i>Habitat</i>: Western Tropical Pacific. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p> - -<h3 id="Geographical_distribution"><i>G.—GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRINCIPAL -GENERA OF POISONOUS SNAKES IN THE FIVE DIVISIONS -OF THE WORLD.</i></h3> - - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th colspan="4">(1) <i>EUROPE.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th><span class="smcap">Families</span></th> - <th><span class="smcap">Sub-Families</span></th> - <th><span class="smcap">Genera</span></th> - <th><span class="smcap">Geographical Area</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span></td> - <td><i>Dipsadomorphinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Cœlopeltis</i></td> - <td>Borders of the Mediterranean in France and Spain; Italy (only in Liguria).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span></td> - <td><i>Viperinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Vipera</i></td> - <td>France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Belgium, Sweden and Norway, Gt. Britain, Spain and Portugal, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Southern Russia, Turkey and Greece.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="4">(2) <i>ASIA.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="7"><span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span></td> - <td><i>Hydrophiinæ</i></td> - <td style="padding-left: 2px; text-indent: 0"> - <i>Hydrus</i><br /> - <i>Thalassophis</i><br /> - <i>Acalyptophis</i><br /> - <i>Hydrelaps</i><br /> - <i>Hydrophis</i><br /> - <i>Distira</i><br /> - <i>Enhydris</i><br /> - <i>Enhydrina</i><br /> - <i>Aipysurus</i><br /> - <i>Platurus</i><br /></td> - <td>Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca, China Sea, Philippines, and Malay Archipelago.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="6"><i>Elapinæ</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Bungarus</i></td> - <td>India, Ceylon, Burma, Indo-China, Southern China, Dutch Indies, Borneo.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Naja</i></td> - <td>India, Ceylon, Burma, Indo-China, Dutch Indies, Philippines.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Hemibungarus</i></td> - <td>South-eastern Asia, India, Japan, Philippines.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Callophis</i></td> - <td>South-eastern Asia, India, Burma, Indo-China, Formosa, Southern China.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Doliophis</i></td> - <td>Indo-China, Malay Peninsula.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="6"><span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span></td> - <td rowspan="4"><i>Viperinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Vipera</i></td> - <td>Turkestan, Ural, Siberia, Caucasus, Persia, Armenia, Western China, India, Ceylon, Himalayas.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Pseudocerastes</i></td> - <td>Persia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Cerastes</i></td> - <td>Arabia, Palestine.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Echis</i></td> - <td>Persia, Arabia, India, Baluchistan, Afghanistan.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2"><i>Crotalinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Ancistrodon</i></td> - <td>Transcaspia, Turkestan, Himalayas, Southern China, Formosa, Japan, Ceylon, Java.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lachesis</i></td> - <td>South-eastern Asia, India, Southern China, Indo-China, Formosa, Sumatra.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="4">(3) <i>AFRICA.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="8"><span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span></td> - <td rowspan="8"><i>Elapinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Boulengerina</i></td> - <td>Central Africa.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Elapechis</i></td> - <td>Central and South Africa.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Naja</i></td> - <td>Egypt, Central and West Africa, Morocco, Congo, Angola.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Sepedon</i></td> - <td>South Africa, Cape of Good Hope.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Aspidelaps</i></td> - <td>South and South-east Africa, Mozambique.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Walterinnesia</i></td> - <td>Egypt.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Homorelaps</i></td> - <td>South Africa, Cape of Good Hope.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Dendraspis</i></td> - <td>Central and South Africa, Angola, Great Lakes, Congo, Transvaal. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="7"><span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span></td> - <td rowspan="7"><i>Viperinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Causus</i></td> - <td>West Africa, Gambia, Great Lakes, Congo, Angola, Transvaal.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Vipera</i></td> - <td>Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Egypt, Mozambique.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Bitis</i></td> - <td>Zanzibar, Zambesia, Cape, Transvaal, Congo, the Gaboon, Benguella, Angola, Senegal, Nigeria.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Cerastes</i></td> - <td>North Africa, the Sahara.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Echis</i></td> - <td>North Africa, Lake Chad, Soudan, Egypt, Somaliland, Socotra.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Atheris</i></td> - <td>Tropical Africa, Dahomey, Lagos, the Cameroons, the Gaboon, Congo.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Atractaspis</i></td> - <td>Tropical and South Africa, Congo, Angola, Lake Chad, the Gaboon, Dahomey, Gold Coast, Zanzibar, Somaliland, Natal, and the Cape. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="4">(4) <i>OCEANIA.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="17"><span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span></td> - <td><i>Hydrophiinæ</i></td> - <td style="padding-left: 2px; text-indent: 0"> - <i>Hydrus</i><br /> - <i>Thalassophis</i><br /> - <i>Hydrelaps</i><br /> - <i>Hydrophis</i><br /> - <i>Distira</i><br /> - <i>Enhydris</i><br /> - <i>Enhydrina</i><br /> - <i>Aipysurus</i><br /> - <i>Platurus</i> -</td> - <td>Equatorial and Sub-tropical Pacific Ocean, the Moluccas, Papuasia, New Guinea, Celebes, Timor, Australia, Tasmania, New Caledonia, New Hebrides.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="16"><i>Elapinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Ogmodon</i></td> - <td>Fiji Islands.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Glyphodon</i></td> - <td>Northern Australia, New Guinea.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Pseudelaps</i></td> - <td>Australia, the Moluccas, Papuasia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Diemenia</i></td> - <td>Australia, New Guinea.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Pseudechis</i></td> - <td>Australia, New Guinea.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Denisonia</i></td> - <td>Australia, Solomon Islands, Tasmania.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Micropechis</i></td> - <td>New Guinea, Solomon Islands.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Hoplocephalus</i></td> - <td>Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Tropidechis</i></td> - <td>Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Notechis</i></td> - <td>Australia, Tasmania.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Rhinhoplocephalus</i></td> - <td>Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Brachyaspis</i></td> - <td>Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Acanthophis</i></td> - <td>Moluccas, Papuasia, Northern Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Elapognathus</i></td> - <td>Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Rhynchelaps</i></td> - <td>Australia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Furina</i></td> - <td>Australia. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="4">(5) <i>AMERICA.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span></td> - <td><i>Elapinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Elaps</i></td> - <td>Mexico, Central America, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Brazil.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span></td> - <td rowspan="4"><i>Crotalinæ</i></td> - <td><i>Ancistrodon</i></td> - <td>North America, Florida, Texas, Mexico, Guatemala.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lachesis</i></td> - <td>Central and South America, Martinique, St. Lucia.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Sistrurus</i></td> - <td>North America east of the Rocky Mountains, Mexico.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Crotalus</i></td> - <td>Southern Canada, British Columbia, Central America, Guiana, Venezuela, Brazil, Uruguay, Northern Argentina.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p> - -<h2 id="PART_II">PART II.<br /> - -<span id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</span><br /> - -<span id="Secretion_and_collection_of_venom_in_snakes"><i>SECRETION AND COLLECTION OF VENOM IN -SNAKES.</i></span></h2> - -<p><i>Non-poisonous</i> as well as <i>poisonous</i> snakes possess <i>parotid</i> and -<i>upper labial</i> glands capable of secreting venom. In the former the -organs of inoculation are wanting, but we shall see later on that -the toxic secretion of their glands is just as indispensable to them -as to the snakes of the second category for the purpose of enabling -them to digest their prey.</p> - -<p>For the morphological, histological, and physiological demonstration -of the existence of these glands in harmless reptiles we -are indebted to Leydig (1873), whose discovery has since been -confirmed and extended by the researches of Phisalix and Bertrand, -Alcock, L. Rogers, and L. Lannoy.</p> - -<p>The parotids of Grass Snakes are mixed glands of the sero-mucous -type. The serous tubes are situate almost exclusively in -the posterior portion of the gland. As we proceed towards the -anterior portion, we find that these serous tubes are interspersed -with others which are exclusively mucous or sero-mucous, and they -become entangled with those of the upper labial gland, properly -so-called. The substance of the gland is divided into several lobes -by bands of connective tissue; the tubes are separated by <i>septa</i> of -the same tissue, in extremely delicate layers (Lannoy).</p> - -<p>In poisonous snakes these glands are much more developed, -especially in their hinder portions, which sometimes assume -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -enormous dimensions. They may attain the size of a large -almond (<i>Crotalus</i>, <i>Naja</i>), and they then occupy the spacious -chamber already described (Chap. I., p. 10), which is situated -behind the eye on each side of the skull.</p> - -<p>Each gland is surrounded by a thick capsule of fibrous tissue, -two prolongations of which, the one anterior, the other posterior, -keep it in its place beneath the <i>masseter</i> muscle. A portion of -the latter is inserted in the capsule itself, in such a way that -when the snake closes its jaws to bite, the gland is forcibly compressed -and the contained liquid is squeezed into its excretory duct.</p> - -<p>Between the muscle and the envelope of the gland there is -a serous pouch, which enables the one to slide over the other.</p> - -<p>The excretory duct runs along the outer side of the upper jaw, -and opens by a slit at the base of the poison-fang, with which -it inosculates at right angles in a little muscular mass forming a -<i>sphincter</i>.</p> - -<p>In the normal position of repose, the poison-fang is always -concealed by a gingival fold of mucous membrane, in the substance -of which are buried a few fibres of the tendon of the -internal pterygoid muscle. When the latter contracts, the tooth -is almost completely exposed, and the efferent duct of the gland -then assumes an oblique position, which allows of the direct discharge -of the venom through the canal which runs along the -greater portion of the length of the tooth.</p> - -<p>When the poison-fangs are folded back in their sheath, the -poisonous secretion can escape freely into the buccal cavity by -the slit situated at the base of the fangs.</p> - -<p>At the moment when the animal is about to bite, when it -throws back its head and opens its jaws, directing its fangs forwards, -the muscles that come into action (<i>masseters</i>, <i>temporals</i>, -and <i>pterygoids</i>) compress the glands on each side, and cause the -venom to be expelled in a sudden jet, as if by a sort of ejaculatory -process. In the case of certain species the venom may be projected -to a distance of more than a yard. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p> - -<p>The quantity of venom secreted by the glands varies greatly, -according to the length of time which has elapsed since the animal -took its last meal, and in accordance with a number of other conditions -not very easy to determine.</p> - -<p>The Common Viper of Europe yields scarcely 10 centigrammes -of poison, while an adult Indian Cobra may excrete more than 1 -gramme.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Freshly collected venom is a syrupy liquid, citron-yellow or -slightly opalescent white in colour.</p> - -<p>When dried rapidly <i>in vacuo</i> or in a desiccator over calcium -chloride, it concretes in cracked translucent lamellæ like albumin -or gum arabic, and thus assumes a crystalloid aspect. In this -condition it may be kept indefinitely, if protected from light, air, -and moisture. It dissolves again in water just as readily as -albumin or dried serums.</p> - -<p>I regularly weighed the dry residue from eleven bites made -on a watch-glass by two <i>Naja haje</i>, received at my laboratory from -Egypt at the same time, and placed in the same case. Both snakes -were approximately of equal length, 1,070 millimetres. Throughout -the entire course of the experiment, which lasted <i>one hundred -and two days</i>, neither of them took any food, but they drank water -and frequently bathed.</p> - -<p>The results that I obtained are shown in the table on next page.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that in one hundred and two days, an adult <i>Naja -haje</i> is capable of producing on an average 0·632 gramme of liquid -venom, equal to a mean weight of 0·188 gramme of dry extract; -and we may conclude that 1 gramme of <i>liquid</i> gives 0·336 gramme -of <i>dry</i> venom.</p> - -<p>In Australia it has been found by MacGarvie Smith, of Sydney, -that <i>Pseudechis porphyriacus</i> yields at each bite a quantity of -venom varying from 0·100 gramme to 0·160 gramme (equal to 0·024 -gramme to 0·046 gramme of dry venom), and that a <i>Hoplocephalus -curtus</i> (Tiger Snake) yields 0·065 gramme to 0·150 gramme of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -liquid venom, with 0·017 gramme to 0·055 gramme of dry residue. -In all the experiments of this physiologist, the proportion of dry -residue varied from 9 to 38 per cent. of the liquid venom excreted -by the reptile.</p> - -<p>A <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> (Fer-de-lance) from Martinique, of -medium size, when both of its glands were squeezed, furnished -me with 0·320 gramme of liquid venom, and 0·127 gramme of dry -extract.</p> - -<table class="bbox center"> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Number<br />of bite</th> - <th rowspan="2">Date</th> - <th colspan="2"><i>NAJA HAJE</i> I.<br /><span class="smcap">Weight of Venom</span></th> - <th colspan="2"><i>NAJA HAJE</i> II.<br /><span class="smcap">Weight of Venom</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Fresh</th> - <th>Dry</th> - <th>Fresh</th> - <th>Dry</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td>Gramme</td> - <td>Gramme</td> - <td>Gramme</td> - <td>Gramme</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1</td> - <td>April 20</td> - <td>0·119</td> - <td>0·031</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2</td> - <td>April 23</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>0·151</td> - <td>0·043</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>3</td> - <td>May 14</td> - <td>0·124</td> - <td>0·035</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>4</td> - <td>May 21</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>0·132</td> - <td>0·037</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>5</td> - <td>May 28</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>0·091</td> - <td>0·019</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6</td> - <td>June 2</td> - <td>0·127</td> - <td>0·039</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>7</td> - <td>June 19</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>0·121</td> - <td>0·043</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8</td> - <td>July 1</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>0·078</td> - <td>0·026</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>9</td> - <td>July 2</td> - <td>0·122</td> - <td>0·048</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>10</td> - <td>July 25</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>0·111</td> - <td>0·034</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>11</td> - <td>July 26</td> - <td>0·079</td> - <td>0·021</td> - <td>—</td> - <td>—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>Totals ...</td> - <td>0·581</td> - <td>0·174</td> - <td>0·684</td> - <td>0·202</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Two large <i>Cerastes</i> vipers, from Egypt, yielded me, one -0·123 gramme, the other 0·085 gramme of liquid venom, which, -after desiccation, left respectively 0·027 gramme and 0·019 gramme -of dry residue.</p> - -<p>Under the same conditions, a magnificent <i>Crotalus confluentus</i> -(Mottled Rattle-Snake), for which I was indebted to the kindness -of Mr. Retlie, of New York, yielded, two months after reaching -my laboratory, 0·370 gramme of liquid venom and 0·105 gramme -of dry extract in <i>a single bite</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span></p> - -<p>The total quantity of liquid venom that I found contained in -the two glands of the same reptile, when extirpated after death, -and after the snake had been in the laboratory for five months, -amounted to 1·136 gramme, which gave 0·480 gramme of dry -extract.</p> - -<p>We see, therefore, that the proportion of dry residue, including -albumin, salts, the <i>débris</i> of leucocytes, and the toxic substance, -oscillates between 20 and 38 per cent. Its strength varies with -the length of time that has elapsed since the snake’s last bite or -last meal.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>From the <i>histological standpoint</i>, the process of the secretion -of venom, in the cells of the glands, may be divided into two -stages:—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) A stage of nuclear elaboration.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) A stage of cytoplasmic elaboration.</p> - -<p>These two stages are superposed and successive.</p> - -<p>In addition to the passive exchanges between the nucleus and -the cytoplasm, the nuclear mass actively participates in the secretion. -This participation is rendered evident:—</p> - -<p>(1) By the difference of chromaticity in the granules of -chromatin.</p> - -<p>(2) By the emission of formed granules into the cytoplasm, -granules which are spherical and of equal bulk, with the chromatic -reactions of differentiated intranuclear chromatin.</p> - -<p>(3) By the exosmosis of the dissolved nuclear substance, accessorily -formed in an ergastoplasmic shape.</p> - -<p>These formations constitute, on the one hand, the granules -of <i>venogen</i>; on the other, the ergastoplasmic venogen. In the -poison-cell of <i>Vipera aspis</i>, and in the serous cell of the parotid -glands of <i>Tropidonotus natrix</i> (Grass Snake) the venogen is -elaborated chiefly in granular form.</p> - -<p>On entering the perinuclear cytoplasm, the granule of venogen -and the ergastoplasmic venogen may either disappear immediately, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -as happens in periods of cellular stimulation, or else -continue to exist for some time within the cell, indicating a period -of saturation by the elaborated material.</p> - -<p>During cytoplasmic activity the granule of venogen and the -ergastoplasmic venogen disappear.</p> - -<p>Nuclear elaboration and cytoplasmic elaboration constitute two -different cycles of secretion. The effect of the nuclear cycle is to -furnish the cytoplasm with the elements necessary for the work -of secretion properly so-called. Cytoplasmic elaboration is not -confined to the basal protoplasm, but takes place throughout the -entire cell: it is especially active in the perinuclear cytoplasm.</p> - -<p>The granule of venogen is distinguished from the granule of -elaborated venom by its affinity for Unna’s blue, safranin, and -fuchsin. The granule of venom has an affinity for eosin; it is -never excreted in granular form, but after intracellular dissolution.</p> - -<p>Venogen is never met with in the lumen of the gland-tube.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> - -<h4><span class="smcap">Collection of Venom.</span></h4> - -<p>Venom can be extracted from the poison-glands of either freshly -killed or living snakes.</p> - -<p>In cases in which the venom of dead snakes has to be collected, -the best method of extraction consists in fixing the head of the -animal to a sheet of cork and carefully dissecting out the gland on -each side. The reptile being placed on its back, the lower jaw -is removed with a pair of scissors; two strong pins or two tacks -are thrust through the skull, in the median line, in order to keep -the head from moving. The poison-fangs are next drawn out of -their sheaths, and, without injuring them, the two poison-ducts, -which open at their bases, are isolated and tied with a thread in -order to prevent the poison from running out.</p> - -<p>The dissection of the glands is then very easy; they are lifted -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -out and placed in a saucer. The end of the duct is cut between -the gland and the ligature, and with a pair of fenestrated or -polypus forceps the whole of the glandular mass is gently squeezed -from behind forwards, the liquid which flows out being received in -a large watch-glass.</p> - -<p>If pressed for time, a more simple method of operating is to -hold the head of the snake in the left hand, with the mouth open -and the lower jaw directed downwards. A watch-glass, capsule, -or receptacle of some sort, such as a cup or plate, is then introduced -by an assistant between the jaws, and, with the index finger and -thumb of the right hand, the whole of the region occupied by the -glands on each side of the upper jaw is forcibly compressed from -behind forwards; the poison flows out by the fangs.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The extraction of the venom from living snakes is effected in -the same manner. The animal being firmly held by the neck, -as close as possible to the head, so that it cannot turn and bite; -it can be made to eject the greater portion of the liquid contained -in its two glands by compressing the latter with force from -behind forwards, as one would squeeze out the juice from a quarter -of an orange (<a href="#Fig_85">fig. 85</a>).</p> - -<p>It is necessary to take care that the reptile cannot coil itself -round furniture or other objects in the vicinity of the operator, for -if this should happen there would be the greatest difficulty in -making it let go, especially if dealing with a strong animal such -as a Cobra, Rattle-Snake, or Fer-de-lance.</p> - -<p>Snakes of the last-mentioned kind are especially difficult to -manage. In order to avoid the risk of being bitten, it is always -wise to begin by pinning down the head of the animal in a corner -of its cage by means of a stick, and to seize it with a pair of long -fenestrated tongs shaped like forceps. The operator then easily -draws the reptile towards him and grasps it firmly by the neck with -his left hand, always as close to the head as possible, at the same -time raising the body quickly in order to prevent it from taking -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -hold of anything. In this way the most powerful snake is perfectly -under control.</p> - -<div id="Fig_85" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_85.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—<span class="smcap">Collecting Venom from a</span> <i>Lachesis</i> <span class="smcap">at the Serotherapeutic Institute -at São Paulo</span> (<span class="smcap">Brazil</span>).</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_86" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_86.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—<span class="smcap">Chloroforming a Cobra in order to Collect Venom, at the French -Settlement of Pondicherry, in India</span> (<span class="smcap">Stage I.</span>).</p> -</div> - -<p>At Pondicherry, where is collected the greater portion of the -venom of <i>Naja tripudians</i> used by me for the vaccination of the -horses that produce antivenomous serum, it is customary to chloroform -the snakes in order to render them easier to manipulate.</p> - -<p>The reptile is placed in a large covered jar, containing a pad -of absorbent wool impregnated with chloroform (figs. 86, 87), and -in a few minutes it is stupefied. It is then grasped by the neck -with the hands, and the edge of a plate is slipped between its jaws. -On compressing the two poison-glands with the fingers, the venom -dribbles out on to the plate.</p> - -<p>A detailed description of this technique will be found in a note -kindly drawn up for me by my friend Dr. Gouzien, late head of the -Medical Staff of the French Settlements in India, and reproduced -further on in the section of this book devoted to documents. -The note in question was accompanied by figs. 17, 18, 19, 86, 87, -and 88, which are reproduced from photographs, for which I am -indebted to the kindness of M. Geracki, Engineer of the Savanna -Spinning Mill at Pondicherry, Dr. Lhomme, and M. Serph, Assistant -Surgeon-Dispenser.</p> - -<p>The collection of the venom having been completed, the snake -is put back into its cage again, the tail and the body being introduced -first, and then the head. The lid or trap-door is half closed -with the left hand, and, with a quick forward thrust, the right hand -releases its grasp of the reptile and is immediately withdrawn; -at the same time the left hand completes the closure of the cage. -The snake is temporarily dazed, as though stunned, and it is only -after the lapse of a moment that it thinks of darting open-mouthed -at the walls of its prison.</p> - -<p>When it is desired to procure large quantities of venom, as is -indispensable in laboratories where antivenomous serum is prepared, -the endeavour must be made to keep the snakes alive for -the longest possible time. It then becomes necessary to resort -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -to artificial feeding in the manner previously described (see p. 17), -for they very often refuse to feed themselves.</p> - -<div id="Fig_87" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_87.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.—Chloroforming a Cobra in order to Collect Venom, at the French -Settlement of Pondicherry, in India</span> (<span class="smcap">Stage II.</span>).</p> -</div> - -<p>Except when a snake is <i>moulting</i>, the venom can be extracted -from its glands about every fortnight; and it is better that the -extraction be not performed concurrently with artificial feeding, -since, owing to the fact that the venom serves the animal as -digestive juice, the reptile will soon perish if deprived of the means -of digesting the food that it is obliged to receive. It is best, -therefore, to select one day of the week for artificial feeding, and -the corresponding day of the following week for the extraction of -the venom.</p> - -<p>When the venom has been collected, it must immediately be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -placed in a desiccator over calcium chloride or sulphuric acid, in -order to dry it rapidly. In hot countries, and where no laboratory -specially equipped for the purpose exists, it will suffice to dry the -venom in a current of air, or even in the sun. It then concretes in -scales of a citrin colour, more or less dark, according to the concentration -of the liquid. In this dry condition, placed in well-corked -bottles, protected from damp air, it may be kept almost indefinitely -without losing anything of its original toxic power. On the contrary, -if the desiccation be imperfect it undergoes a somewhat rapid -change, and assumes a disagreeable odour of meat peptone. I have -kept samples of various venoms, dried as described, for <i>fifteen</i> years -without any sensible diminution of their activity.</p> - -<div id="Fig_88" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_88.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.—Collecting Cobra Venom at Pondicherry</span> (<span class="smcap">Stage III.</span>). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p> -</div> - - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> - -<span id="Chemical_study_of_snake_venoms"><i>THE CHEMICAL STUDY OF SNAKE-VENOMS.</i></span></h2> - -<p>In the condition in which they are received on issuing from -the glands, venoms always present the appearance of a thick -saliva, of an oily consistency and more or less tinged with yellow, -according to the species of snake by which the poison has been -produced. They are entirely soluble in water, the addition of -which renders them opalescent. Tested with litmus they exhibit -a slightly acid reaction; this acidity, which is due to the presence -of a very small quantity of an indeterminate volatile acid, disappears -on desiccation, so that solutions of dried venom are -neutral. The taste of venoms is very bitter. Their density, which -is slightly greater than that of water, varies from 1030 to 1050.</p> - -<p>Venoms are composed of a mixture, in variable proportions, -of proteid substances, mucus and epithelial <i>débris</i>, fatty matters -and salts (chlorides and phosphates of lime, ammonia and -magnesia), with from 65 to 80 per cent. of water.</p> - -<p>The elementary analysis of Cobra-venom made by H. Armstrong<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> -gave the following results:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Carbon</td> - <td class="tdr">43·04</td> - <td>per cent.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hydrogen</td> - <td class="tdr">7·00</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nitrogen</td> - <td class="tdr">12·45</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">2·50</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Residue</td> - <td colspan="2">Small quantities.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Not much is to be learnt from these figures; it would be of -far greater importance to know the exact constitution of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -proteid substances to which venom owes its physiological properties. -Unfortunately, our knowledge of the chemistry of the -albuminoid matters is still too imperfect for it to be possible for -us to determine their nature.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>As early as 1843 it was pointed out by Lucien Bonaparte that -in the venom of <i>Vipera berus</i> the most important principle is -a proteid substance to which he gave the name of <i>viperin</i> or -<i>echidnin</i>, and which he compared to the digestive ferments. -Later on Weir Mitchell and Reichert, and subsequently Norris -Wolfenden, Pedlar, Wall, Kanthack, C. J. Martin, and MacGarvie -Smith, showed that venoms, like diastases, exhibit a great complexity -in composition; that all their characteristic toxic constituents -are precipitable by absolute alcohol, and that the precipitate, -when redissolved in water, recovers the properties possessed by -the venom before precipitation.</p> - -<p>According to Armand Gautier,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> venoms contain alkaloids. The -latter may be obtained, in very small amounts, however, by finely -pulverizing dried venom with carbonate of soda, and systematically -exhausting the mixture with alcoholic ether at a temperature of -50° C. These alkaloids have yielded crystallized chloraurates and -chloroplatinates, and slightly deliquescent crystallized chlorhydrates. -The latter produce Prussian blue when treated with very -dilute ferric salts, and mixed with a little red prussiate. They -therefore represent reductive bodies analogous to ptomaines.</p> - -<p>Norris Wolfenden did not succeed in extracting these alkaloids -from Cobra-venom, whence they had nevertheless been isolated -by Armand Gautier. Wolcott Gibbs, and afterwards Weir -Mitchell and Reichert, likewise failed to find them in <i>Crotalus</i>-venom. -The toxicity of these bases is, moreover, but very slight, -for the totality of the alkaloids extracted by A. Gautier from -0·3 gramme of Cobra-venom did not kill a small bird.</p> - -<p>It is therefore to the <i>toxalbumins</i> that the toxic properties of -venoms are essentially due. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span></p> - -<p>All venoms are not equally affected by heat. The venoms of -<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> (<i>Naja</i>, <i>Bungarus</i>, <i>Hoplocephalus</i>, <i>Pseudechis</i>) and those -of the <span class="smcap">Hydrophiidæ</span> are entirely uninjured by temperatures -approaching 100° C., and even boiling for a short time. When -the boiling is prolonged, or when venoms are heated beyond -100° C., their toxic power at first diminishes, and then disappears -altogether. At 120° C. it is always destroyed.</p> - -<p>The venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> (<i>Lachesis</i>, <i>Crotalus</i>, <i>Vipera</i>) are -much less resistant. By heating to the coagulating point of -albumin, <i>i.e.</i>, to about 70° C., their toxic properties become -attenuated, and they are entirely suppressed between 80° and 85° C. -<i>Lachesis</i>-venoms are the most sensitive; their toxicity is lost -if they be heated beyond 65° C.</p> - -<p>On separating the coagulable albumins of the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, -by heating to 72° C., followed by filtration, we obtain a -perfectly limpid liquid, which is no longer injured by boiling, and -in which the toxic substance remains wholly in solution. The -albuminous precipitate, when separately collected and washed, -is no longer toxic. The clear liquid, after being filtered, is again -precipitated by absolute alcohol, and the precipitate, redissolved -in an equal quantity of water, is just as toxic as the original -filtered liquid.</p> - -<p>The venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, when coagulated, by heating them -to a temperature of 72° C., and filtered, are almost always inert. -The albuminous coagula, if washed, redissolved in water, and -injected into the most sensitive animals, produce no harmful effect -whatever.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The results of dialysis likewise differ when we experiment with -the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>. The former pass -slowly through vegetable membranes, and with greater difficulty -through animal parchment. The latter do not dialyse.</p> - -<p>Filtration through porcelain (Chamberland candle F) does -not sensibly modify the toxicity of the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -on the contrary, it diminishes that of the venom of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> by -nearly one-half.</p> - -<p>By using a special filter at a pressure of 50 atmospheres, C. J. -Martin has succeeded in separating from the venom of an Australian -<i>Pseudechis</i> two substances: a non-diffusible <i>albuminoid</i>, coagulable -at 82° C., and a diffusible, non-coagulable <i>albumose</i>. The former -produces hæmorrhages; the second attacks the nerve-cell of the -respiratory centres.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>All venoms exhibit most of the chemical reactions characteristic -of the proteids:—</p> - -<p><i>Millon’s reaction.</i></p> - -<p><i>Xantho-proteic reaction</i> (heating with nitric acid and subsequent -addition of ammonia = orange coloration).</p> - -<p><i>Biuret reaction</i> (caustic potash and traces of sulphate of copper).</p> - -<p><i>Precipitation by picric acid</i>, disappearing on being heated, reappearing -when cooled.</p> - -<p><i>Precipitation by</i> saturation with <i>chloride of sodium</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Precipitation by</i> saturation with <i>sulphate of magnesium</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Precipitation by</i> saturation with <i>ammonium sulphate</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Precipitation by a 5 per cent. solution of sulphate of copper.</i></p> - -<p><i>Precipitation by alcohol.</i></p> - -<p>According to C. J. Martin and MacGarvie Smith, the albumoses -of the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> are <i>hetero-albumoses</i>, <i>proto-albumoses</i>, -and perhaps <i>deutero-albumoses</i> in small quantities. They can be -separated in the following manner:—</p> - -<p>The solution of venom is heated to 90° C., and filtered in order -to separate the albumins coagulable by heat. The filtrate, saturated -with sulphate of magnesium, is shaken for twelve hours. By this -means there is obtained a flocculent precipitate, which is placed -upon a filter and washed with a saturated solution of sulphate of -magnesium. The filtrate is dialysed for twenty-four hours in a -stream of distilled water, and then concentrated, likewise by dialysis, -in absolute alcohol. Thus we obtain a few cubic centimetres -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -of liquid, which contains a small quantity of <i>proteids</i> in solution. -These <i>proteids</i> can be nothing but a mixture of <i>proto-</i> and <i>deutero</i>-albumoses -with peptones. That there is actually no trace of the -latter can easily be ascertained.</p> - -<p>Neumeister<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> has shown that it is impossible to precipitate all -the <i>proto-albumoses</i> of a solution by saturation with neutral salts, -and, since the filtrate becomes slightly turbid when a few drops -of a 5 per cent. solution of sulphate of copper are added to it, we -must conclude that it contains a small proportion of these <i>proto-albumoses</i>.</p> - -<p>The deposit retained upon the filter after washing with sulphate -of magnesium is redissolved in distilled water, and dialysed for three -days. An abundant precipitate then becomes collected in the -dialyser. This is centrifuged. The clear liquid is decanted with -a pipette, then concentrated by dialysis in absolute alcohol, and -finally evaporated at 40° C. until completely desiccated. The solid -residue is washed and centrifuged several times in distilled water, -after which it is dried on chloride of sodium.</p> - -<p>This method enables us to separate two albumoses, both precipitable -by saturation with sulphate of magnesium, and belonging -to the class of <i>primary albumoses</i>: one of these, <i>proto-albumose</i>, -is soluble in distilled water, the other, <i>hetero-albumose</i>, is insoluble; -but the latter can be dissolved in dilute solutions of neutral salts. -These bodies are respectively identical with those obtained by the -pepsic digestion of proteids.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> - -<p>In order to study separately the local and general effects of -these different albumoses, C. J. Martin and MacGarvie Smith -performed the following experiment:—</p> - -<p>They introduced beneath the skin of the belly of a guinea-pig, -previously shaved and rendered aseptic, two small pieces of -sterilized sponge, about 2 c.mm., one of which was impregnated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -with the solution of proteid, while the other served as control. -The two small incisions, one on either side of the median line, -were then sutured and covered with collodion. In this way the -maximum of local effect and the minimum of general effects -was obtained. The solutions of albumoses introduced by this -method into the organism produced an enormous œdema, which, -in from six to eight hours, extended along the whole side of the -abdomen containing the sponge charged with poison.</p> - -<p>To test the general toxic effects, the solutions were injected -into a vein or into the peritoneal cavity. It was thus found that -the <i>proto-</i> and <i>hetero-albumoses</i> killed the animals in a few hours.</p> - -<p>It must therefore be concluded from these facts that the active -principles of venom are <i>proto-</i> and <i>hetero-albumoses</i>, the albumins -that it contains being devoid of all toxic power.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Many chemical substances modify or destroy venoms, and we -shall see in another chapter that several of them, by reason of -their properties, may be very usefully employed for the destruction, -in the actual wound resulting from a venomous bite, of the venom -that has not yet been absorbed in the circulation.</p> - -<p>Among these substances the most important are:—</p> - -<p>A 1 per cent. solution of <i>permanganate of potash</i> (Lacerda).</p> - -<p>A 1 per cent. solution of <i>chloride of gold</i> (Calmette).</p> - -<p><i>Chloride of lime</i> or even <i>hypochloride of calcium</i> (Calmette), -in a solution of 1 in 12, which is augmented, at the moment of -use, by 5 to 6 volumes of distilled water, so as to bring it to -the standard strength of about 850 cubic centimetres of active -<i>chlorine</i> per litre of solution.</p> - -<p>A 1 per cent. solution of <i>chromic acid</i> (Kaufmann).</p> - -<p>Saturated <i>bromized water</i> (Calmette).</p> - -<p>A 1 per cent. solution of <i>trichloride of iodine</i> (Calmette).</p> - -<p>All these chemical bodies also modify or destroy the diastases -and the microbic toxins. The venoms, although more resistant -to the influence of heat, behave, therefore, like these latter, and -exhibit the closest affinity with them. Moreover, like all the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -normal glandular juices, they possess very manifest zymotic properties, -which singularly complicate their physiological action, and -upon which we shall dwell later on.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Electricity</i>, employed in the form of continuous electrolytic -currents passing through a solution of venom, destroys the toxicity -of the latter, because under these conditions there is always formed, -at the expense of the salts accompanying the venom, a sufficient -quantity of chlorinated products (hypochlorites, chlorates, &c.), and -a small amount of ozone, the oxidizing action of which is extremely -powerful.</p> - -<p>With alternating currents of high frequency, Phisalix, repeating -the experiments that Arsonval and Charrin had performed upon -diphtheria toxin, thought that he had succeeded in attenuating -venom to the point of transforming it into vaccine.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> But it has -been shown by Marmier that this attenuation was simply the result -of thermic actions. When, by means of a suitable arrangement, -any rise of temperature was carefully avoided, no modification of -toxicity was obtained.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The influence of <i>light</i>, which has no effect upon venom preserved -in a dry state, is, on the contrary, very marked upon venom -in solution. Solutions of venom that are destined for physiological -experiments should therefore not be employed without controls, if -they be several days old. Apart from the fact that, if care be not -taken to render them aseptic, they very soon become contaminated -with the germs of all kinds of microbes, it is found that -they gradually lose a large part of their activity, especially when -they remain in contact with the air. By filtering them through -a Chamberland candle and keeping them in the dark, in a refrigerator, -in perfectly closed phials, they may be kept unimpaired -for several months. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span></p> - -<p>The addition of <i>glycerine</i> in equal parts to a concentrated -solution of venom is also an excellent means of preservation.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Phisalix has shown that the emanations from <i>radium</i> attenuate -and then destroy the virulence of Cobra- and also of Viper-venom.</p> - -<p>“Dry Viper-venom, dissolved in <i>aqua chloroformi</i> in the proportion -of 1 in 1,000, is put up in four tubes, three of which are -irradiated, the first for six hours, the second for twenty hours, and -the third for thirty-six hours. Three guinea-pigs, of equal weight, -are inoculated with equal quantities of the irradiated venom; a -control receives the non-irradiated venom. The latter dies in ten -hours; the animal inoculated from the first tube dies in twelve -hours; the one inoculated from the second tube in twenty hours, -and the third proves resistant without any symptom of poisoning. -A second inoculation produces a transitory lowering of the animal’s -temperature by half a degree. At the end of four days it dies after -inoculation with a lethal dose.”</p> - -<p>The nature of the solvent exerts a great influence upon the -action of the emanations from radium: if the same experiment -be performed with venom dissolved in a 50 per cent. mixture of -glycerine and water, the attenuation is merely relative after six -hours.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Auguste Lumière and Joseph Nicolas, of Lyons, conceived the -idea of studying the effect upon venom of the prolonged action of -the intense <i>cold</i> produced by the evaporation of liquid air.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> The -Cobra-venom employed by these investigators was in solution at -a strength of 1 in 1,000. It was submitted to the action of liquid -air, partly for twenty-four hours and partly for nine days at -191° C. -Its toxicity was in no way diminished.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Lastly, I must mention the recent researches of Hideyo -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -Noguchi,<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> with reference to the photodynamic action of <i>eosin</i> and -<i>erythrosin</i> upon the venoms of the Cobra, <i>Vipera russellii</i>, and -<i>Crotalus</i>. It was found by the scientist in question that the -toxicity of these various venoms is more or less diminished in -the presence of these aniline colours, when the mixtures are -insolated. Cobra-venom is the most resistant, just as it is in -regard to the other physical or chemical agents. That of <i>Crotalus</i>, -on the contrary, is the least stable. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> - -<span id="Physiological_action_of_snake_venoms"><i>THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF SNAKE-VENOMS.</i></span></h2> - -<h3 id="Physiology_of_poisoning">A.—<span class="smcap">Physiology of Poisoning in Man and in Animals Bitten -by the Different Species of Poisonous Snakes.</span><br /> - -<span class="medium">(<i>Colubridæ; Viperidæ; Hydrophiidæ.</i>)</span></h3> - -<p>The bites of poisonous snakes produce very different effects -according to the species of snake, the species to which the animal -bitten belongs, and according to the situation of the bite. It is -therefore necessary to take these various factors into account, in -describing the symptoms of poisoning in different animals.</p> - -<p>When the quantity of venom introduced into the tissues by -the bite of the reptile is sufficient to produce fatal results—which -is happily not always the case—the venom manifests its toxic action -in two series of phenomena: the first of these is local and affects -only the seat and surroundings of the bite; the second, or general -series, is seen in the effects produced upon the circulation and -nervous system.</p> - -<p>It is remarkable to find how great is the importance of the local -disorders when the venomous reptile belongs to the <i>Solenoglypha</i> -group (<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>), while it is almost <i>nil</i> in the case of the <i>Proteroglypha</i> -(<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and <span class="smcap">Hydrophiidæ</span>).</p> - -<p>The effects of general intoxication, on the contrary, are much -more intense and more rapid with the venom of <i>Proteroglypha</i>, -than with that of <i>Solenoglypha</i>.</p> - -<p>In considering the usual phenomena of snake-poisoning in man, -we must therefore take this essential difference into account, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -draw up separately a clinical description of the symptoms observed -after a bite from a <i>Cobra</i> (<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>), for instance, and another -list of those that accompany a bite from <i>Lachesis</i> or <i>Vipera berus</i> -(<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>).</p> - -<p>The bite of a <i>Cobra</i>, even of large size, is not very painful; it -is characterized especially by numbness, that supervenes in the -bitten part, rapidly extends throughout the body, and produces -attacks of syncope and fainting. The patient soon experiences a -kind of lassitude and irresistible desire to sleep; his legs scarcely -support him; he breathes with difficulty and his respiration becomes -of the diaphragmatic type.</p> - -<p>By degrees the drowsiness and the difficulty of breathing become -greater; the pulse, which at first is more rapid, becomes slower -and gradually weaker, the mouth contracts, and there is profuse -salivation, the tongue appears swollen, the eyelids remain drooping, -and, after a few hiccoughs frequently accompanied by vomiting -and involuntary emissions of urine or fæcal matter, the unfortunate -victim falls into the most profound coma and dies. The pupils -react to luminous impressions up to the last moment, and the heart -continues to beat sometimes for two hours after respiration has -ceased.</p> - -<p>All this takes but a few hours, most frequently from two to -six or seven, rarely more.</p> - -<p>When the reptile by which the bite is inflicted is one of the -<i>Solenoglypha</i>, such as a <i>Lachesis</i> for example, the seat of the bite -immediately becomes very painful and red, then purple. The -surrounding tissues are soon infiltrated with sanguinolent serosity. -Sharp pains, accompanied by attacks of cramp, extend towards -the base of the limb. The patient complains of intense thirst, and -extreme dryness of the mouth and throat; the mucous membranes -of the eyes, mouth, and genitalia become congested.</p> - -<p>These phenomena often continue for a very long period, even -for more than twenty-four hours, and are sometimes accompanied -by hæmorrhages from the eyes, mouth, stomach, intestines, or -bladder, and by more or less violent delirium. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span></p> - -<p>If the quantity of venom absorbed be sufficient to cause death, -the patient exhibits, a few hours after being bitten, stupor, insensibility, -and then somnolence, with increasing difficulty of respiration, -which ends by becoming stertorous. Loss of consciousness -seems complete a good while before coma appears. Asphyxia then -ensues, and the heart continues to beat for nearly a quarter of an -hour after respiratory movements have entirely ceased.</p> - -<p>In certain exceptional cases death is very rapid; it may supervene -suddenly in a few minutes, even before the local phenomena -have had time to manifest themselves; in this case the venom, -having penetrated directly into a vein, has produced almost immediate -coagulation of the blood, thus causing the formation of a -generalized embolism.</p> - -<p>If the venom be introduced in a highly vascular region, or -directly into a vein, the result is almost invariably fatal. On the -contrary, if the derm be scarcely broken, or if the clothing has -acted as a protection, scarcely any absorption will take place. We -are here confronted with the same factors of gravity as in the -case of bites inflicted upon human beings by animals suffering from -<i>rabies</i>.</p> - -<p>In experiments we are able to eliminate all these factors, and -to follow in an animal inoculated with a known quantity of venom -the whole series of phenomena of poisoning, the intensity of which -can be graduated. Let us see, then, how the various animals that -it is possible to make use of in laboratories behave with regard to -venoms of different origins.</p> - -<h3 id="Physiology_of_experimental_poisoning">B.—<span class="smcap">The Physiology of Experimental Poisoning.</span></h3> - -<p>In the monkey, the first apparent sign of the absorption of -<i>Cobra</i>-venom, or of the venom of any other species of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, -is a sort of general lassitude; the eyelids next become half closed. -The animal appears to be seeking a suitable spot in which to rest; -it gets up again immediately, and walks with a jerky action; its -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -limbs have a difficulty in supporting it. It is soon attacked by -nausea, vomiting and dyspnœa; it rests its head upon the ground, -raises it, trying to get breath, and carries its hand to its mouth as -if in order to pluck a foreign body from its throat. It totters upon -its limbs, and lies down upon its side with its face against the -ground. Ptosis increases, and complete asphyxia soon supervenes. -The heart continues to beat for some time after respiration has -ceased, and then stops in diastole.</p> - -<p>Cadaveric rigidity very rapidly sets in, and persists for a long -time, even after putrefaction has commenced. During the last -moments of life the pupil remains very sensitive; the animal -appears to retain unimpaired its sense of hearing and sensibility -to pain. The electric excitability of the muscles of the face persists, -but that of those of the limbs and body almost entirely -disappears. The application of volta-faradic currents from the -nape to the diaphragm produces no respiratory movement when -asphyxia begins to manifest itself. The sphincters of the bladder -and anus relax after a few spasms, which, in case of males, frequently -provoke the ejaculation of semen; the urine and fæces -immediately escape.</p> - -<p>The autopsy reveals slight hæmorrhagic œdema at the point of -inoculation, and hyperæmia of all the viscera, especially of the liver -and spleen, with, very frequently, small hæmorrhagic patches on -the surface of these organs, and on that of the intestine and -kidneys. The serous membranes, especially the meninges, endocardium, -pleuræ, and peritoneum, exhibit ecchymoses; the lungs -are besprinkled with small infarcts, the more numerous the slower -the intoxication. The blood remains fluid and laccate.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In poisoning by the venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, the hæmorrhagic -phenomena appear at the outset, and are more intense. Death is -always preceded by a period of asphyxia, indicating that the bulbar -nuclei of the pneumogastric nerve have become affected. At the -autopsy, however, the blood, instead of remaining fluid, is always -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -found to be coagulated into a mass in all the vessels; it afterwards -gradually becomes redissolved in six or eight hours, and then -appears laccate, as after poisoning by <i>Cobra</i>-venom, but darker.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>All mammals exhibit the same symptoms after inoculation with -lethal doses of venom. The same applies to birds; but in the -latter the period of asphyxia is much longer, probably on account -of the reserves of air accumulated in their air-sacs and pneumatic -bones. They gape like pigeons that are being suffocated, rest the -tip of the beak on the floor of the cage, and frequently have convulsive -spasms of the pharynx, accompanied by flapping of the -wings. Small birds and even pigeons are extremely sensitive to -venom; fowls are more resistant.</p> - -<p>Frogs, thanks to their cutaneous respiration, succumb very -slowly. I have seen some survive for thirty hours after being -inoculated with a quantity of venom which, when subcutaneously -injected into a rabbit, causes death in ten minutes.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Lizards and chameleons succumb very rapidly. Grass Snakes -and non-venomous snakes in general withstand doses of venom -that in proportion to their weight are fairly large; nevertheless, -as indeed we shall see in the sequel, they do not possess any -real immunity. It is only poisonous snakes that are unaffected -by enormous doses of their own venom, as has already been shown -by Fontana, Weir Mitchell, and Viaud Grand Marais. They are, -however, quite capable of being poisoned by snakes belonging to -altogether different species; strong doses of <i>Crotalus</i>- or <i>Lachesis</i>-venom -are fatal to Cobras or Kraits, and, when several poisonous -snakes are shut up together in the same cage, they are not infrequently -seen to kill each other as the result of repeated bites.</p> - -<p>Fishes, which are particularly sensitive to the venom of <span class="smcap">Hydrophiidæ</span>, -readily succumb to inoculation with other venoms, such -as that of the Cobra. At Saigon, in 1891, I made experiments -upon the action of this latter venom on two specimens of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -fighting fishes, that the natives of Annam rear in aquariums in -order to witness their combats and make bets on them. The -fishes died five hours after intramuscular inoculation with a dose -which kills a pigeon in twenty minutes.</p> - -<p>Many invertebrates, such as leeches, crayfish, and gastropod -molluscs (snails), are killed by inoculation with very small quantities -of venom.</p> - -<h3 id="Determination_of_the_lethal_doses_of_venom">C.—<span class="smcap">Determination of the Lethal Doses of Venom for -Different Species of Animals.</span></h3> - -<p>It is very difficult to specify, even within broad limits, the dose -of venom necessary to kill a human being. The quantity of poison -introduced by the bite of a venomous snake depends, as has already -been stated, upon a large number of factors, and, very fortunately, -this quantity is not always sufficient to cause death. Thus in -India, that is to say in the region in which snakes are most -numerous and most dangerous, the mean mortality seems scarcely -to exceed 35 to 40 per cent., so far as it is possible to judge from -official statistics. But, by experimenting upon animals, and commencing -with known doses of venom, which has first been dried -and then dissolved again in always the same quantity of physiological -saline solution or sterile distilled water, we can determine -exactly, <i>for each kind of venom, and for each species of animal</i>, -the minimum lethal dose <i>per kilogramme of animal</i>.</p> - -<p>The entire series of data collected by investigators who have -devoted themselves to this study may be summed up as follows:—</p> - -<p>Minimal doses lethal in twenty-four hours for a <i>guinea-pig</i> -weighing from 600 to 700 grammes:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="4"><i>Colubridæ.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Venom of</td> - <td><i>Naja tripudians</i></td> - <td>0·0002</td> - <td>gramme</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Bungarus cæruleus</i></td> - <td>0·0006</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Naja haje</i></td> - <td>0·003</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="4"><i>VIPERIDÆ.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Venom of </td> - <td><i>Vipera berus</i></td> - <td>0·04</td> - <td>gramme</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Vipera russellii</i> (<i>Daboia</i>)</td> - <td>0·001</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i></td> - <td>0·02</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Lachesis mutus</i> (<i>Surucucu</i>)</td> - <td>0·02</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Lachesis neuwiedii</i> (<i>Urutù</i>)</td> - <td>0·02</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Lachesis flavoviridis</i></td> - <td>0·007</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td><i>Ancistrodon contortrix</i></td> - <td>0·015</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>Cobra</i>-venom. Dose lethal in twenty-four hours for different -animals:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Dog</td> - <td>0·0008</td> - <td>gramme per</td> - <td colspan="2">kilogramme</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit</td> - <td>0·0005</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Guinea-pig</td> - <td>0·0004</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rat</td> - <td>0·0001</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - <td>grammes</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mouse</td> - <td>0·000003</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Frog</td> - <td>0·0003</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Venom of <i>Bungarus cæruleus</i> (Common Krait), according to -Elliot, Sillar, and Carmichael.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> Minimal lethal doses for:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Frog</td> - <td>0·0005</td> - <td>gramme</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rat</td> - <td>0·001</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit (by subcutaneous injection)</td> - <td>0·00008</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td>per kilogramme</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit (by intravenous injection, according to G. Lamb)</td> - <td>0·00004</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Venom of <i>Enhydrina valakadien</i> (according to Elliot and -Fraser).<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> Minimal lethal doses per kilogramme:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Rat</td> - <td>0·00009</td> - <td>gramme</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit</td> - <td>0·00006</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cat</td> - <td>0·0002</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Venom of <i>Enhydris curtus</i>:—</p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow">Rat 0·0005 to 0·0006 gramme per kilogramme</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span></p> - -<p>Venom of <i>Notechis scutatus</i> (syn. <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>; the -Tiger Snake of Australia):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit (by intravenous injection, according to Tidswell)</td> - <td>0·00006 gramme per kilogramme</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Venom of <i>Vipera russellii</i> (Daboia):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit (by intravenous injection, according to G. Lamb)</td> - <td>0·00005 gramme per kilogramme</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Venom of <i>Lachesis gramineus</i> (Green Pit-Viper, India):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Rabbit (by intravenous injection, according to G. Lamb)</td> - <td>0·002 gramme per kilogramme</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Venom of <i>Crotalus adamanteus</i> (Californian Rattle-Snake):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="w50">Rabbit (by intravenous injection, according to McFarland, G. Lamb, and Flexner and Noguchi)</td> - <td>0·00025 gramme per kilogramme</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>It will have been seen from the foregoing figures, that the -respective sensitiveness of the dog, cat, rabbit, guinea-pig, rat, -mouse, and frog, with regard to the same venom, is in no way -proportional to the weight of these animals.</p> - -<p>The species mentioned are, per unit of weight, more or less -resistant to intoxication; and, on experimenting with other animals, -as for instance the monkey, pig, ass, and horse, we find that -the monkey is much more susceptible to intoxication than the dog, -and that the ass is extremely sensitive (0·010 gramme of Cobra-venom -is sufficient to kill it), while the horse is less so, and the pig -is by far the most resistant.</p> - -<p>The same weight of dry Cobra-venom, let us say 1 gramme to -be precise, will enable us to kill 1,250 kilogrammes of dog, 2,000 -kilogrammes of rabbit, 2,500 kilogrammes of guinea-pig, 1,430 -kilogrammes of rat, or 8,333 kilogrammes of mouse. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p> - -<p>The lethal dose for a horse being, as I have ascertained by my -own experiments, about 0·025 gramme, 1 gramme of dry Cobra-venom -will therefore suffice to kill 20,000 kilogrammes of horse.</p> - -<p>Assuming that man, in proportion to his weight, possesses -a resistance intermediate between that of the dog and that of the -horse, we may consider that the lethal dose for a human being is -about 0·015 gramme. It follows, therefore, that 1 gramme of venom -would kill 10,000 kilogrammes of man, or, let us say, 165 persons of -an average weight of 60 kilogrammes.</p> - -<p>Another extremely important fact, which must not be lost sight -of, is that differences of toxicity, which are often considerable, are -exhibited by the venoms of different specimens of the same species -of snake, or by the venom of the same snake collected at different -times. I have found, for instance, in the case of the specimens -of <i>Naja</i> and <i>Lachesis</i> reared in my laboratory, that, according to -the length of time that the animals had been without food, and -to the nearness or otherwise of the moulting period, the venom -was more or less active, and that on evaporation it left behind -a more or less considerable quantity of dry extract. In certain -cases, immediately after the moult and after a prolonged fast, the -venom was <i>ten times</i> more active than after a plentiful meal or -before the moult.</p> - -<p>The figures given above must therefore not be regarded as -determining the minimal lethal doses of the different venoms, -except in a purely comparative way, and they must be considered -only as data useful to know when it is desired to experiment upon -animals with these substances.</p> - -<p>Variations of this kind are observed in the case of all species -of snakes. Thus Phisalix rightly insists upon the necessity of -always noting, besides the species of snake, the place of origin and -the season; for he has himself seen that, as regards French vipers, -those of the Jura, for example, produce in the spring a venom -almost devoid of local phlogogenic action; while vipers from the -vicinity of Clermont-Ferrand, though less toxic, produce much -more serious local effects. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p> - -<p>On the other hand, it has been shown by Th. Madsen and -H. Noguchi, in a very interesting study of venoms and anti-venoms,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> -that, when we examine the relation between dose and toxicity, we -find that the interval separating the moment of inoculation from -that of death diminishes only up to a certain point in proportion -as the dose is increased. In the case of the guinea-pig, with -0·0005 gramme of Cobra-venom the interval is 3 hours 75 seconds; -but after this, an increase in the dose produces only a relatively -inconsiderable acceleration of death. There is therefore no strict -ratio between the dose inoculated and the time that elapses until -death supervenes.</p> - -<h3 id="Effects_of_venom_in_non_lethal_doses">D.—<span class="smcap">Effects of Venom in Non-Lethal Doses.</span></h3> - -<p>When the quantity of venom introduced into the organism is -insufficient to cause death, the phenomena that precede and -accompany recovery differ very greatly according as the snake -from which the venom was derived belongs to the <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> -or <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>.</p> - -<p>After a non-lethal bite from a Cobra or Krait, for example, -convalescence usually takes place very rapidly, and, apart from the -local œdema of the subcutaneous tissue surrounding the wound, -which in very many cases leads to the formation of a suppurating -abscess, no lasting injury to health is observed. The venom -is eliminated by the kidneys, without even causing albuminuria, -and sensation gradually returns, in twenty-four or forty-eight hours, -in the part affected by the original lesion.</p> - -<p>If the bite has been inflicted by a Viperine snake, the local -lesion, which is much more extensive, almost always results in the -formation of a patch of gangrene. Hæmorrhages from the mucous -membranes, and sanguineous suffusions into the serous cavities, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -such as the pleura or pericardium, may supervene more or less -slowly. Pulmonary infarcts are sometimes produced, as well as -desquamation and hæmorrhage from the kidneys, albuminuria, or -hæmaturia. These lesions, which are more or less severe, last for -several days, and then slowly disappear after a period of true convalescence. -In many cases they leave behind them traces which -last for months and even years, and they then more or less affect -the health of the subjects according to the organs that were most -seriously affected.</p> - -<p>In certain cases, in domestic animals such as dogs, and more -rarely in man, after recovery from the bite of a viper, total or -partial loss of sight, smell, or hearing, has been observed. Such -results, however, are fortunately exceptional. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> - -<i>PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING</i> (<i>continued</i>).</h2> - -<h3 id="Effects_of_the_various_venoms_on_the_different_tissues"><span class="smcap">Effects of the Various Venoms on the Different Tissues -of the Organism.</span></h3> - -<p>The physiological effects of the various venoms are very -different from those that we have just described, when these -toxic substances are introduced into the organism otherwise than -subcutaneously.</p> - -<p>Their direct penetration into the blood-stream, whether by -the bite of the snake itself or by experimental intravenous injection, -always produces immediate results. With the venoms of -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, coagulation of the blood and, consequently, death are -almost instantaneous. With the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, which, -on the contrary, destroy the coagulability of the blood, the toxic -effects are less rapid, but after the lapse of only a few minutes -asphyxia ensues and the death-struggle is very short.</p> - -<p>Absorption by the serous membranes is slower, but is nevertheless -effected much more quickly than when it takes place in -the subcutaneous cellular tissue. When cobra-venom is injected -into the peritoneal cavity of a rabbit or a guinea-pig, the local -effects upon the serous membrane are almost <i>nil</i>. No leucocytic -exudation is observed; death supervenes before this has had -time to take place. The venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, on the contrary, -produce, directly after their introduction into the peritoneum, an -enormous afflux of sanguinolent serosity; the capillary vessels -of the serous membrane, immediately becoming distended, allow -the blood to filter through their walls, and the animal succumbs -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -after a few minutes, or a few hours, according to the dose injected, -with the peritoneum full of blood.</p> - -<p>When deposited upon the mucous membranes of the eye, vagina, -or urethra, all venoms, those of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> like those of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>—but -the latter with greater intensity—cause very acute inflammation, -comparable to that produced by jequirity; the capillaries -become distended, allow leucocytes to exude <i>en masse</i>, and, as for -instance upon the eye of the rabbit, a purulent ophthalmia soon -establishes itself.</p> - -<p>Certain species of <i>Sepedon</i> (<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>), common on the West -Coast of Africa, especially in Senegambia and in the hinterland -of Dahomey, and to which the name <i>Spitting Snakes</i> has been -given, possess the faculty of projecting little drops of venom to -a distance by forcibly expelling the air from their lungs, and the -natives assert that this venom, when it happens to come into -contact with the eyes, causes blindness. This is true to a certain -extent, in so far as it produces attacks of purulent ophthalmia -which are often serious; but these attacks, like those provoked -experimentally in animals, can be cured in a few days when -properly treated.</p> - -<p>When absorbed by the <i>digestive</i> tract, the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> -often produce no ill-effects. It is otherwise with those -of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>. The venom of <i>Lachesis</i>, for example, if administered -in sufficient doses, sets up acute inflammation of the gastric -mucous membrane, and the animals speedily succumb with attacks -of gastro-intestinal hæmorrhage, even before it has been possible -for the toxic effects upon the nerve-cells to become apparent.</p> - -<p>These facts explain the contradictions that are to be found -in the works of different investigators upon this subject. It is -affirmed by some writers that venom can be swallowed without -danger, and they even advise the sucking of venomous wounds in -order to hinder its absorption. Others, including Sir Joseph -Fayrer, Richards, and Weir Mitchell, have killed pigeons and -fowls by making them ingest venom of <i>Vipera russellii</i>, or <i>Crotalus</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -C. J. Martin, in experimenting upon rats with the venom of -<i>Pseudechis</i> (<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>), has succeeded in keeping these animals -alive for a whole week by providing them every day with a ration -of bread and milk mixed with a dose of venom one hundred -times greater than the lethal dose for a subcutaneous injection. -This innocuousness of the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, which I have -frequently been able to establish by causing them to be ingested by -different animals, is explained by the fact that the pancreatic juice -and the ptyalin of the saliva very rapidly modify the proteic substances -to which these venoms owe their toxicity, so that this -disappears. No trace of them is found in the fæces.</p> - -<p>The glandular secretions of persons bitten by venomous snakes, -and those of animals inoculated with doses of venom calculated -to kill only after a few hours, are not infrequently found to be -toxic. In the case of the urine in particular this has been shown -to be so.</p> - -<p>Observations have also been recorded by C. Francis<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> and Sir -Joseph Fayrer with reference to the passage of venom through the -mammary gland. In the year 1893 a poor Mussulman woman died -at Madras from the bite of a Cobra. She was nursing her child -at the time, and the latter succumbed in its turn a few hours later, -with all the symptoms of poisoning, although it had not itself been -bitten, and had been suckled by its mother only once since the -bite.</p> - -<p>The <i>histological lesions</i> produced by snake poisoning have been -particularly well studied by Hindale,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> Karlinski,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Nowak,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> Louis -Vaillant-Hovius,<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> and Zeliony.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span></p> - -<h4 id="Action_upon_the_Liver">(1) <span class="smcap">Action upon the Liver.</span></h4> - -<p>Whether we are dealing with the venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> or -<span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, the anatomo-pathological processes are alike, and the -changes produced are more or less profound, according to the -degree or the slowness of the intoxication.</p> - -<p>The liver is more affected than any other organ. In cases in -which death has quickly followed the injection of the venom, the -protoplasm of the cells is merely cloudy, or granular, and the -granulations readily take a stain in their periphery, though the -interior remains uncoloured. If, on the contrary, the animal has -survived for some hours, the protoplasm becomes condensed in -certain parts of the cell, leaving vacuoles, the limits of which -are not well defined. A portion of the cellular protoplasm is -necrosed and destroyed. In these cases the nuclei have already -undergone a change; although their contours may be well defined, -we discover in their interior only a very little chromatin in the -form of small granulations, and the nuclear fluid takes a feeble -stain with basic colours, since it contains a little chromatin in -solution.</p> - -<p>When the protoplasm of the hepatic cells has suffered more -pronounced lesions, the changes in the nuclei are also more marked; -the quantity of nuclear chromatin diminishes and slowly loses -its property of taking stains, in proportion as the protoplasm of -the hepatic cells undergoes necrosis; finally, in the hepatic cell, -there remains nothing more than a small quantity of granular protoplasm -without a nucleus (Nowak).</p> - -<p>In certain cases we find extensive areas of fatty degeneration, -or small foci in which the hepatic tissue is absolutely destroyed. -In the case of the dog it may even happen that the microscopic -structure of the parenchyma has entirely disappeared. The arrangement -of the hepatic cells in lobules can no longer be distinguished; -the trabeculæ are ruptured and broken asunder, and we find nothing -more than a confused agglomeration of cells floating in the extravasated -blood. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p> - -<p>In animals which have lived for a long time after being poisoned, -lesions of the bile-ducts are also found. The epithelial cells have -undergone fatty degeneration, or else, in the case of small animals, -the ducts appear infiltrated with small mononuclear cells, which -penetrate between the epithelial cells of the canaliculi. Sometimes -also the latter cells are distended, and enclose large vacuoles.</p> - -<p>Venom thus produces in the liver lesions of <i>fatty degeneration</i>, -or <i>necrosis</i>, and an infiltration of the bile-ducts by lymphatic cells.</p> - -<h4 id="Action_upon_the_Kidney">(2) <span class="smcap">Action upon the Kidney.</span></h4> - -<p>The changes in the kidney are also very extensive. The three -portions of the glomerulus often exhibit lesions; the vessels of -the tuft show ectasia; their walls are sometimes ruptured, and -the blood is extravasated into the capsular cavity. The latter -is filled with a granular exudation, which varies in amount with -the slowness of the intoxication. The epithelial lining of <i>Bowman’s -capsule</i> is swollen; the nucleus stains badly (Vaillant-Hovius).</p> - -<p>In the <i>tubuli contorti</i> the lesions in the cells greatly resemble -those seen in the liver. Granulations and vacuoles appear, and -the nucleus becomes diffuse. The lumens of the tubules are filled -with necrosed cells, and the <i>branches of Henle</i> are found to be -similarly obliterated.</p> - -<p>In the <i>straight tubes</i> and in the <i>collecting tubes</i> the epithelium -is sometimes detached in its entirety. Some of these canals are -obliterated by granular cylinders or by accumulations of epithelial -cells.</p> - -<p>The vessels met with in the parenchyma of the kidney are -always greatly distended, and sometimes they are torn, whence -there results the formation of small foci of interstitial hæmorrhage. -In many cases the extravasated blood also destroys the parenchyma.</p> - -<h4 id="Action_upon_the_spleen_heart_and_lungs">(3) <span class="smcap">Action upon the Spleen, Heart, and Lungs.</span></h4> - -<p>In the spleen, Nowak merely found a little fatty degeneration, -and only in cases in which the lesions in the liver and kidneys -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -were very far advanced. The same applies to the muscular fibres -of the heart. This organ exhibits, above all, hæmorrhagic infiltrations -in its peripheral portion, rarely in its substance.</p> - -<p>The lungs are the seat of more important lesions. We find in -them a multitude of little infarcts. Around these the capillary -vessels are extremely dilated, and the pulmonary vesicles have -become very small.</p> - -<p>All these lesions of the visceral organs strangely resemble those -observed in the case of individuals who have died from <i>yellow fever</i>. -This observation has been made by several scientists, among others -by Sanarelli, and it is this perhaps that has suggested to some -(Dyer, of St. Louis, R. Bettencourt, of São-Paulo<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a>) the idea of -treating—without much success, however—yellow fever by the -antitoxin of venom.</p> - -<h4 id="Action_upon_the_Striated_Muscles">(4) <span class="smcap">Action upon the Striated Muscles.</span></h4> - -<p>The changes in the <i>striated muscles</i> in places at which venom -has been injected do not present any specific character. The -muscular fibres already become necrosed half an hour after the -injection; the diseased tissue becomes permeated with an albuminous -mass rich in fibrin, and the blood is extravasated. A few -hours later we observe, between the bundles of degenerate muscle -fibres, polymorphous leucocytes. The number of these latter constantly -increases, and attains its maximum after one or two days. -The muscular nuclei become distorted, appear long or angular, and -assume the aspect of myoblasts (sarcoblastic muscle cells). In the -protoplasm of the myoblasts we frequently find particles of broken-down -muscle, and globules of fat.</p> - -<p>All these changes resemble those observed as the result of the -action of a host of other muscle poisons, especially the irritant or -caustic chemical substances. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - -<h4 id="Action_upon_the_nervous_centres">(5) <span class="smcap">Action upon the Nervous Centres.</span></h4> - -<p>It is extremely difficult to determine with any degree of precision -the nature of the lesions produced by venoms in the <i>nervous -system</i>. The intensity of these lesions depends in the first place -upon the length of time that has elapsed between the introduction -of the venom into the organism and death. It depends, secondarily, -in a large measure, upon the origin of the venom. That of the -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> acts almost exclusively upon the blood by coagulation, -and exhibits only a very slight degree of toxicity as regards the -nerve-cell. That of the <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, on the contrary, produces -manifest changes in the chromatic substance. Nissl’s bodies are -completely disintegrated, and transformed into a granular mass. -In the majority of the stichochromes neither the form of the bodies -nor even the reticulum is distinguishable. The nuclei are opaque, -the nucleoli swollen and broken up. The dendrites often become -irregular and contracted (Ewing and Bailey,<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> G. Lamb<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>).</p> - -<p>It was found by Bailey that the majority of the cells of the -anterior cornua of the medulla are normal, but that a small number -of them exhibit indications of acute granular degeneration; a few -cells were found to have lost almost all their chromatic substance.</p> - -<p>From the physiological point of view it is perfectly clear that -Cobra-venom especially affects the bulbar centres, and particularly -the nuclei of origin of the pneumogastric nerve. We observe in -the first instance the gradual suppression of the functions vested -in the nerve-cells that are found in connection with the vagus -nerve, the spinal accessory, and the hypoglossal. Later on the -excitability of the nerve-endings in the muscles is found to have -been destroyed, and this action presents great similarity to that -of curare.</p> - -<p>The venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, when injected in very weak doses, -exercise a paralysing action upon the reflex excitability of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -medulla. But it is open to question whether these effects are not -exclusively due to the lesions of the blood, which are here all-predominant; -for no histological modification is observed in the -cells of the central nervous system.</p> - -<p>I have made a number of experiments with a view to discovering -whether the cerebral, bulbar, or medullary substance of animals -susceptible to the action of Cobra-venom (rabbit, guinea-pig, fowl) -possesses the property of <i>fixing</i> this venom as it fixes the toxin of -tetanus (Wassermann and Takaki). I found that, on pounding up -a little of the pulp of the cerebral hemispheres or bulb with doses -of venom lethal in two hours for the control animals, the injection -of the mixture, well washed and centrifuged in order to free it from -all excess of non-fixed venom, always caused death, but with a -retardation of from four to ten <i>hours</i>. We see, therefore, that -partial fixation of the venom upon the nervous elements really -takes place, but we cannot conclude from this that these elements -exercise an antitoxic function, any more than in the case of tetanus, -for animals that receive cerebral emulsions in one thigh and the -dose of venom lethal in two hours in the other thigh, succumb at -the same time as the controls.</p> - -<p>Major Rogers has made similar experiments with the venom -of <i>Enhydrina</i> (<span class="smcap">Hydrophiidæ</span>), and has obtained the same result -on employing the cerebral hemispheres of the pigeon.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p> - -<p>Flexner and Noguchi,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> on their part, have compared, by aid -of the method of intra-cerebral injections, the toxicity of the -venom of <i>Crotalus</i> with that of the venom of the <i>Cobra</i>. On -employing Cobra-venom heated to 75° C., they found that the -convulsive and paralytic effects were immediate, contrary to what -takes place after subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injections, but -that the dose of venom necessary to produce death was the same -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -(0·1 milligramme for the guinea-pig) as when the injection is made -in the peritoneum or beneath the skin.</p> - -<p>With the venom of <i>Crotalus</i> heated for half an hour at 75° C., -which contains but very little <i>neurotoxin</i> and has lost all its -hæmorrhagic properties, 0·5 milligramme introduced directly into -the brain of the guinea-pig only produces transitory and non-lethal -effects; while, if fresh venom be employed, 0·05 milligramme is -sufficient to cause death in three hours, with severe hæmorrhagic -lesions. Now this dose is twenty times smaller than the minimal -lethal dose for a subcutaneous injection.</p> - -<p>It is evident that the harmful matter, in the particular case -of <i>Crotalus</i>-venom, is not the <i>neurotoxin</i>, but an altogether different -substance, termed by Flexner and Noguchi <i>hæmorrhagin</i>, which -acts upon the elements of the blood and upon the endothelium -of the blood-vessels.</p> - -<p>We shall meet with this substance again in almost all <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> -venoms, and shall study it further on. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> - -<i>PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING</i> (<i>continued</i>).</h2> - -<h3 id="Action_of_venoms_on_the_blood"><span class="smcap">Action of Venoms on the Blood.</span></h3> - -<p>On making an autopsy of an animal which has succumbed to -intoxication by snake-venom, we find that the blood in the heart -and large vessels is sometimes coagulated into a mass, sometimes -entirely fluid, and that, in certain cases, it is as black as prune-juice, -while in others it is of a fine transparent red colour.</p> - -<p>These differences in the effects of venom upon the blood are -due to the fact that the various venoms contain in variable proportions, -besides the <i>neurotoxic</i> substance which represents the -true venomous <i>toxin</i>, other substances which act, some upon the -plasmasia or fibrin-ferment, or upon the fibrin, others upon the -red corpuscles, others on the leucocytes, and others again on the -endothelium of the blood-vessels.</p> - -<h3 id="Effects_of_venom_on_the_coagulation_of_the_blood">A.—<span class="smcap">Effects of Venom on the Coagulation of the Blood.</span></h3> - -<p>It was observed long ago by Fontana<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> that after viper-bites -the blood remains fluid, and Brainard<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> on the contrary, pointed -out that, in the case of animals that succumb very rapidly after -having been bitten by a <i>Crotalus</i>, the blood was always found -coagulated into a mass, while, when a certain interval of time -had elapsed since the bite, it remained fluid. Weir Mitchell<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -explained these differences by the hypothesis that, in cases of -rapid death, the blood had not had time to become modified by -the venom.</p> - -<p>Later on it was found by Sir Joseph Fayrer, and subsequently -by Halford,<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> in Melbourne, C. J. Martin,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> in Sydney, G. Lamb,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> -in Bombay, and recently by Noc, in my laboratory, that the -venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, especially those of <i>Naja tripudians</i> and -<span class="smcap">Australian</span> species of this family, always leave the blood fluid -after death, while the venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, on the contrary, are -usually coagulant.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, it was observed by Phisalix,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> and at an -earlier date by Mosso, of Turin, that the venom of <i>Vipera berus</i> -causes the blood of the dog to lose its coagulability, while, on the -contrary, the same venom is actively coagulant as regards the -blood of the rabbit.</p> - -<p>How are these differences of action to be explained? It was -found by Delezenne,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> who made an excellent study of the -phenomena following the injection of peptone, extracts of organs, -and other anticoagulant substances into the organism, that those -of these substances that render the blood non-coagulable always -dissolve the leucocytes, and thus set at liberty two antagonistic -bodies which they contain. One of these substances is coagulant -and is found retained by the liver, while the other remains in -solution in the plasma, and keeps the blood fluid after issuing -from the vessels.</p> - -<p>Now, certain extracts of organs, ricin, abrin and certain venoms -in weak doses, retard coagulation, while in large doses, on the -contrary, they produce partial or general intravascular clotting.</p> - -<p>It is believed by Delezenne that the explanation of this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -phenomenon may be that the doses, which are weak but sufficient -to produce the disintegration of the leucocytes, injure the red -corpuscle in only a slight degree, while the stronger doses are -equally destructive to the two kinds of blood corpuscles.</p> - -<p>It follows that we must understand that there are two phases -in the action of venoms: one <i>negative</i>, when the dose absorbed -does not injure the leucocytes; the other <i>positive</i>, when the leucocytes -are destroyed.</p> - -<p>If the blood of the dog remains non-coagulable when mixed -with doses of venom which, on the contrary, are actively coagulant -for the blood of the rabbit, the reason would be that the leucocytes -of these animals are not equally resistant to venom.</p> - -<p>This conception, however, does not conform to the facts that -I have myself observed. I have always found that viper-venom, -mixed with citrate- or oxalate-plasma of the dog, rabbit, or horse, -coagulates these various plasmas when the venom is in weak doses, -while with strong doses coagulation is not produced. To be quite -accurate, it should be stated that the quantity of venom necessary -to render the plasma of the dog, or of the horse, non-coagulable -is less than that which must be employed in the case of the plasma -of the rabbit.</p> - -<p>I have caused Noc to take up anew the study of this question -in my laboratory, with venoms of nine different origins, and -I here give a <i>résumé</i> of the results of his researches.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> - -<h4 id="Coagulant_venoms">I. <span class="smcap">Coagulant Venoms.</span></h4> - -<p>The venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> studied range themselves as follows -according to their coagulant power:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span>:</td> - <td><i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> (Fer-de-lance, Martinique).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lachesis neuwiedii</i> (Urutù, Brazil).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lachesis mutus</i> (Bushmaster, or Surucucu, Brazil).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lachesis flavoviridis</i> (Japan).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Viperinæ</span>:</td> - <td><i>Vipera russellii</i> (Daboia, India).</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span></p> - -<p>The venoms of <i>Ancistrodon contortrix</i> and <i>A. piscivorus</i> (<span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span>) -proved entirely inactive.</p> - -<p>No <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span> venom exhibited coagulant power, whatever the -dose employed.</p> - -<p>There is, therefore, a very decided difference between venoms -of divers origins as regards their effects upon the coagulation of -the blood.</p> - -<p>Noc has determined more especially the coagulant action of -the venom of <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> (Fer-de-lance of Martinique) -upon 1 per cent. citrate-plasmas, 1 per cent. oxalate-plasmas, 4 per -cent. chloridate-plasmas, and upon blood rendered non-coagulable -by extract of leeches’ heads. He found that, while weak doses of -venom (1 milligramme per cubic centimetre of horse- or rabbit-plasma) -produce coagulation in a few minutes in the citrate-plasmas, -chloridate-plasmas, or those treated with extract of -leeches, the doses of the same venom greater than 4 milligrammes -on the contrary suppress the coagulability of these plasmas, even -when there be added to them doses of chloride of calcium (for the -citrate- and oxalate-plasmas), or of distilled water (for the chloridate-plasma), -or of fibrin-ferment (for the plasma treated with -leech-extract) sufficient to cause rapid coagulation in the control -tubes that do not contain venom.</p> - -<p>Noc also observed that the venom of the same species of snake -(<i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i>), when heated to 75° C., entirely loses its -coagulant properties; and that, with a temperature of 58° C., its -coagulant power already commences to diminish. When heated -for thirty minutes at a temperature of 65° C., a dose of 1 milligramme -does not coagulate more than 1 c.c. of citrate-plasma -in one hour. G. Lamb has likewise found that the venom of -<i>Vipera russellii</i> loses its coagulant power when heated to 75° C.</p> - -<p>The coagulant substance in these venoms is precipitable by -alcohol at the same time as the <i>neurotoxin</i> and other active substances. -The precipitate, when dissolved again in physiological -water, preserves all the properties of the original solution. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p> - -<p>Antivenomous <i>anticolubrine</i> serum, that is to say, that furnished -by horses vaccinated against the venoms of the <i>Cobra</i> and -the <i>Krait</i>, does not prevent coagulation by coagulant venoms. -This need not surprise us, since the coagulant substances in venoms -are destroyed by heating, and the animals vaccinated in order to -obtain antitoxic serum are usually inoculated exclusively with -heated venoms.</p> - -<p>It is easy, however, to obtain active serums specific against -the coagulant venoms; it is sufficient to treat these animals by -inoculation with progressively increasing doses of the same venoms -unheated. I have had no difficulty in achieving this result with -small laboratory animals (guinea-pigs and rabbits) and also with -the horse, but I have never had at my disposal a sufficient amount -of the venoms of <i>Lachesis</i> or <i>Vipera russellii</i> to undertake with -them the regular acquisition of large quantities of horse-serum, -at once <i>antineurotoxic</i> and <i>anticoagulant</i>. The preparation of such -a serum, nevertheless, presents much interest for certain countries, -such as Burma, where the Daboia (<i>Vipera russellii</i>) is almost as -common as the Cobra, and Brazil, where nearly all the casualties -due to venomous snakes are produced by <i>Lachesis</i>.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p> - -<h4 id="Anticoagulant_venoms">II.—<span class="smcap">Anticoagulant Venoms.</span></h4> - -<p>Contrary to what is observed with the venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> in -general, all the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and, as exceptions to the -rule, the venoms of some North American <span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span> (<i>Ancistrodon -contortrix</i> and <i>A. piscivorus</i>) suppress the coagulability of the -blood <i>in vivo</i> and <i>in vitro</i>. It is, however, important to observe -that, <i>in vivo</i>, the blood remains fluid after death only if the dose of -venom absorbed has been sufficient. <i>In vitro</i> this phenomenon is -easier to study, and has been the subject of several important -memoirs. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span></p> - -<p>Halford,<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> Sir Joseph Fayrer,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> C. J. Martin,<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> Delezenne,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> Phisalix,<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> -and lastly Noc,<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> have shown that the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> exert -a manifestly anticoagulant action upon citrate-, chloridate-, or oxalate-plasmas, -and also upon blood mixed with venom on issuing from -the vessels.</p> - -<p>On adding 1 milligramme of <i>Cobra</i>-, <i>Bungarus</i>-, Australian -<i>Pseudechis</i>-, or <i>Ancistrodon</i>-venom to 1 c.c. of citrate-, oxalate-, -or chloridate-plasma, and supplementing the mixture, after varying -periods of contact, with a quantity of chloride of calcium (for the -citrate- or oxalate-plasmas), or distilled water (for the saline -plasma) sufficient to produce coagulation in a few minutes in the -control tubes without venom, we find that coagulation no longer -takes place after one hour in the tubes containing <i>Cobra</i>- or -<i>Bungarus</i>-venom, and after ten minutes in those that contain the -venom of <i>Ancistrodon</i>.</p> - -<p>In doses less than 1 milligramme for 1 c.c. of plasma, these -venoms by themselves never produce coagulation as do those of -<i>Lachesis</i> or <i>Vipera russellii</i>. They are thus sharply differentiated -in this respect.</p> - -<p>If fresh blood issuing from the arteries of an animal be received -in a vessel containing a sufficient quantity of <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span>-venom -(that of the Cobra for example), and steps be immediately taken to -ensure the perfect mixture of the venom and the blood, we find that -the latter has entirely lost its coagulability, just as though it had -been mixed with peptone or extract of leeches’ heads.</p> - -<p>Again, if a mixture be made <i>in vitro</i> of coagulant venoms, such -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> -as that of the <i>Lachesis</i>, with anticoagulant venoms such as that of -the <i>Cobra</i> or of <i>Ancistrodon</i>, it is found that these mixtures, when -properly effected, become neutral, so that the respective effects of -the component venoms are entirely destroyed. Assuming, for -instance, that 1 milligramme of <i>Lachesis</i>-venom coagulates in two -minutes 1 c.c. of 1 per cent. citrate rabbit-plasma, if we add to the -plasma firstly 1 milligramme of <i>Ancistrodon</i>-, or 1 milligramme of -<i>Cobra</i>-venom, and then 1 milligramme of <i>Lachesis</i>-venom, the -plasma remains non-coagulated, yet coagulates perfectly on the -subsequent addition of 1 c.c. of a ½ per cent. solution of chloride -of calcium.</p> - -<p>There is, therefore, a real antagonism between the actively -coagulant substance contained in certain <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms and -the anticoagulant substance comprised in the venoms of certain -other <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> (<i>Ancistrodon</i>), belonging to the subfamily <span class="smcap">Crotalinæ</span>, -and in those of all the <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>.</p> - -<p>The conclusion to be deduced from the foregoing facts is that -the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and those of certain <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> are -decidedly <i>anticoagulant</i>, while the majority of the venoms of -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, on the contrary, possess strong <i>coagulant</i> properties, -even when mixed with blood in infinitesimal doses.</p> - -<p>The question therefore arises why these <i>coagulant</i> <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> -venoms suppress the coagulability of the blood when mixed with it -<i>in vitro</i> in strong doses (for example, in doses beginning from -4 milligrammes of <i>Lachesis</i>-venom, or 7 milligrammes of the venom -of <i>Vipera russellii</i> for 1 c.c. of 1 per cent. citrate rabbit-plasma).</p> - -<p>The explanation of this apparently contradictory phenomenon -is furnished by the intense proteolysis that these <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms -exert upon fibrin, in solution or coagulated. This proteolysis -actually manifests itself with weak coagulant doses, for the compact -clots formed at the outset soon become soft and then dissolve, -like a cube of egg-albumen in an experiment in artificial digestion -by trypsin. We shall revert to the subject later on. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p> - -<h4 id="Mechanism_of_the_anticoagulant_action_of_venoms">III.—<span class="smcap">Mechanism of the Anticoagulant Action of Venoms on -the Blood.</span></h4> - -<p>The anticoagulant action of the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and of -<i>Ancistrodon</i> upon the blood appears to take effect in the first place -upon the fibrin-ferment, and afterwards upon the fibrin by proteolysis. -The action on the fibrin-ferment seems manifest when we -experiment with anticoagulant venoms which are feebly proteolytic, -like the venom of the <i>Cobra</i>.</p> - -<p>I have already stated that a mixture of fresh blood with a sufficient -dose of <i>Cobra</i>-venom is non-coagulable, as though the blood -on issuing from the animal had been mixed with peptone or leech-extract. -But, while blood when peptonised or mixed with leech-extract -coagulates readily on the subsequent addition of fibrin-ferment, -blood mixed with venom remains positively non-coagulable. -It is the same with citrate- or oxalate-plasmas, which no longer -coagulate when chloride of calcium is added to them, and with -4 per cent. saline plasma on the addition of distilled water.</p> - -<p>The anticoagulant substance in the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> and -<i>Ancistrodon</i> is precipitable by alcohol, like the coagulant substance -in the venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> and like the <i>neurotoxins</i>, from which -it is difficult to separate them. The separation can nevertheless -be effected by the aid of heat, if we make use of certain venoms -that are particularly resistant to high temperatures, such as those -of the <i>Cobra</i> or the <i>Krait</i>. These latter venoms, when heated for -one hour at 70° C., cease to be anticoagulant, and <i>preserve their -toxicity unimpaired</i>. It is, however, impossible to suppress the -toxicity without at the same time destroying the anticoagulant -substance.</p> - -<p><i>Antivenomous serum</i> completely protects citrate- or chloridate-plasmas -against the anticoagulant action of venoms. It is -sufficient to mix ½ c.c. of 4 per cent. saline antivenomous serum -with 1 c.c. of 4 per cent. saline plasma to ensure that the subsequent -addition of 1 milligramme of <i>Cobra</i>-venom to this mixture -remains without effect upon the coagulability of the latter. If, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -after a contact of two hours or more, 2 c.c. of distilled water be -added, coagulation is produced just as in saline plasma without -venom.</p> - -<h3 id="Effects_of_venom_on_the_red_corpuscles">B.—<span class="smcap">Effects of Venom upon the Red Corpuscles.</span></h3> - -<p id="Haemolysis">(1) <i>Hæmolysis.</i>—The hæmolytic properties of venoms, that is -to say, their faculty of dissolving the red corpuscles, have been -the subject of very important researches on the part of a number -of investigators during the last few years (W. Stephens,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> Flexner -and Noguchi,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Calmette,<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Phisalix,<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> Preston Kyes and Hans Sachs,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> -Noc<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a>).</p> - -<p>The different venoms are all hæmolytic, but in very variable -doses. It is possible to make a very precise comparative study of -them from this special point of view by taking as a base for each -venom, as was done by Noc, the unital dose of 1 milligramme -(or one-tenth of a cubic centimetre of a 1 per cent. solution freshly -prepared and not filtered, the filtration through porcelain retaining -an appreciable part of the active substance), and noting the time -strictly necessary for this dose of 1 milligramme to dissolve completely, -<i>in vitro</i>, 1 c.c. of a 5 per cent. dilution of red corpuscles of -the horse in physiological saline solution.</p> - -<p>It is very important, before allowing the venom to act on the -red corpuscles, to first wash the latter by means of several successive -centrifugings with 8 per 1,000 physiological saline solution.</p> - -<p>It is also better to choose the corpuscles of the horse in -preference to those of other species of animals, since they exhibit -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -a nearly constant mean sensitivity. The corpuscles of the ox, -goat, sheep, and rabbit are less sensitive. Those of man, the -guinea-pig, and the rat, on the contrary, are more so.</p> - -<p>On experimenting with <i>washed</i> corpuscles, it is found that -venom alone is incapable of dissolving them. In order that dissolution -may take place, we are obliged to add to the mixture -either a small quantity of normal horse-serum, preferably <i>heated</i>, -and, consequently, deprived of alexin (Calmette), or ½ c.c. of a 1 in -10,000 solution of <i>lecithin</i> in physiological saline water (P. Kyes).</p> - -<p>Venom, therefore, is capable of hæmolysing red corpuscles only -when it is <i>quickened</i>, either by heated normal serum, or by lecithin. -The solution of lecithin employed for this purpose should be prepared -by dissolving 1 gramme of lecithin in 100 grammes of pure -methylic alcohol. Taking 1 c.c. of this dilution we add it to 9 c.c. -of 8 in 1,000 saline solution, and make a second dilution of 1 c.c. of -the foregoing mixture in 9 c.c. of saline water. This latter dilution -of 1 in 10,000 is utilised as the reagent.</p> - -<p>Let us now see how the serum or lecithin acts. It has been -shown by P. Kyes that with either of these substances the mechanism -of the hæmolytic action is the same, for the serum quickens -the venom only through the agency of the free lecithin it contains. -The lecithin takes part in the reaction by combining with the -venom to form a hæmolysing <i>lecithide</i> more resistant to heat than -its two components, for it may be heated for several hours at a -temperature of 100° C., without the loss of any of its properties.</p> - -<p>When venom is brought into contact with certain kinds of -highly sensitive red corpuscles, those of the rat for example, these -corpuscles, although washed and freed from serum, may undergo -hæmolysis. This result is due to the fact that these corpuscles -contain sufficient quantities of lecithin, which becomes liberated -from their protoplasm and, uniting with the venom, constitutes -the active <i>lecithide</i>.</p> - -<p>It was already known that lecithin is capable of combining -with various albuminoid matters and with sugars to form <i>lecithides</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -We must not, therefore, be surprised to find that such a combination -may take place with the proteic substances in venom. The combination -in this case is a truly chemical one. Lecithin in its -natural state, or that which is normally found in serums which -quicken venom, such as horse-serum, even when heated to 65° C., -therefore plays the part of <i>complement</i> according to Ehrlich’s -theory, or that of <i>alexin</i> according to the theory of Bordet, while -venom itself would be an <i>amboceptor</i> or <i>sensitiser</i>.</p> - -<p>This is not, however, the way in which the phenomenon should -be understood, for it is impossible to admit the identification of -heated serum or lecithin with the complementary substances or -alexins, seeing that the essential characteristic of the latter is that -they are intolerant of heat and become entirely inactive on being -raised to a temperature of 58° C., or even by simply being kept -for a few days exposed to the air and light. We must therefore -suppose, with P. Kyes and H. Sachs, that the red corpuscles themselves -contain substances capable of playing the part of complements -(<i>endo-complements</i>), and that it is with these that the venom -combines when quickened by the presence of lecithin or heated -serum, the latter only acting because it contains free lecithin.</p> - -<p>All substances that contain lecithin, such as bile, hot milk, or -cephalin, are capable of exerting the same quickening action, but -do not themselves possess any inherent hæmolytic power.</p> - -<p><i>Cholesterin</i>, on the contrary, represents a kind of antidote -to lecithin, as also to normal serums. It prevents hæmolysis of -the red corpuscles in a mixture of washed corpuscles and venom, -yet it does not in any way modify the properties of true alexins or -complements.</p> - -<p>Moreover, no correlation exists between <i>lecithides</i> and the <i>neurotoxin</i> -in venoms. The combination lecithin + venom possesses <i>hæmolytic</i> -action, but is in no way <i>neurotoxic</i>. Conversely, venom can -be freed from its groups of molecules combinable with lecithin, -and remain <i>neurotoxic</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Lecithide</i> is insoluble in ether and acetone, but soluble in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> -chloroform, alcohol, toluene, and water. Its properties are therefore -entirely distinct from those of its two components. It precipitates -slowly from its aqueous solutions, without losing its -hæmolytic power; it does not show <i>biuret</i>-reaction; it dissolves -with equal readiness the red corpuscles of all species of animals, -and its effects, like those of venom, are impeded by cholesterin.</p> - -<p>Kyes has succeeded in obtaining lecithides with all the hæmolytic -venoms that he was able to study: thus he has prepared -lecithides from <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i>, <i>Naja haje</i>, <i>Bungarus</i>, <i>Lachesis -flavoviridis</i>, and <i>Crotalus</i>. It is therefore probable that the <i>lecithinophile</i> -group exists in all venoms, even when these differ as regards -their other properties.</p> - -<p>A wide range of difference is exhibited by the various venoms, -as regards their hæmolysing power in the presence of normal heated -serum or lecithin. The venom of <i>Naja</i> and that of <i>Bungarus</i> are -the most active. The action of the venoms of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, and -especially of those of <i>Crotalus</i>, is very weak. For example, while -1 milligramme of <i>Cobra</i>-venom dissolves in from five to ten -minutes 1 c.c. of a 5 per cent. dilution of red corpuscles in the -presence of lecithin or normal heated serum, the same dose of -the venom of <i>Vipera russellii</i> takes thirty minutes to effect the -dissolution, and the venom of <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> takes three -hours.</p> - -<p>P. Kyes and H. Sachs have discovered the apparently paradoxical -fact that, if to the red corpuscles of certain species of -animals <i>Cobra</i>-venom be added in increasing doses, hæmolysis -augments up to a certain point, beyond which the destruction -of the corpuscles shows progressive diminution. In a large dose -<i>Cobra</i>-venom no longer produces any effect upon the corpuscles -of the horse, for example, even when the venom is added in -presence of a great excess of lecithin or heated serum. It would -seem, then, that, according to the theory of Ehrlich, under the -influence of an exaggerated amount of venom-amboceptor there -is produced a deviation on the part of the complement (serum or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -lecithin), and that the latter, instead of fixing itself upon the -corpuscles, becomes united with the surplus fraction of the amboceptors, -which has remained free in the liquid.</p> - -<p>Noguchi,<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> resuming the study of this extremely curious action -of strong doses of venom, observed that the red corpuscles of -certain species of animals (such as the horse for example), when -previously washed and held in suspension in a physiological -solution of sea-salt containing 4 per cent. of <i>Cobra</i>-venom, acquire -a considerable augmentation of resisting power with regard to -various physical and chemical agents. In consequence of this they -are no longer hæmolysed by distilled water, ether, or saponin.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, acids or alkalies, except ammonia, destroy corpuscles -treated with venom more easily than those in their normal -condition.</p> - -<p>If corpuscles, previously treated with a strong dose of venom, -are subjected to repeated washings in physiological saline solution, -the special resistance acquired by them in the presence of the -venom disappears; they even become more sensitive to the action -of destructive agents, such as water, ether, or saponin.</p> - -<p>The principle contained in venom, to which must be attributed -the protective action, is not destroyed by heating to 95° C., although -at this temperature <i>Cobra</i>-venom becomes partially coagulated. -Moreover, the protective substance is contained in the coagulum, -while the <i>hæmolysin</i> remains entirely in the filtrate. The agglutinin -of venom, on the other hand, is destroyed at a temperature of -75° C. The protective substance, therefore, can be identified -neither with the hæmolysin nor with the agglutinin.</p> - -<p>It follows that it is impossible to accept the hypothesis of the -“deviation of the complement” suggested by Kyes and Sachs to -explain the innocuousness of strong doses of venom. Besides, it -would be difficult to reconcile this hypothesis with the fact, -observed by Noguchi, that venom in a strong dose protects corpuscles, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -not only against the action of lecithin (complement), -but also against distilled water, ether, &c.</p> - -<p>Noguchi, seeking more thoroughly to elucidate the mechanism -of this protective action, finds that <i>Cobra</i>-venom forms a precipitate -with blood-serum, when the latter is relatively poor in salts or -when it is dilated with water. It likewise forms a precipitate with -the aqueous extract of red corpuscles, and precipitates the globulins, -hæmoglobin, or globin of the corpuscle, when treated separately. -The precipitates are insoluble in water, but dissolve with the -assistance of a small quantity of acid or alkali, and also in a great -excess of saline solution.</p> - -<p>Noguchi supposes that red corpuscles, when treated with strong -solutions of venom, are protected against destructive agents on -account of the formation by the venom and certain constituents -of the corpuscle (chiefly hæmoglobin) of a compound insoluble -in water. When this compound is removed by repeated washings -in physiological solution, the corpuscles can easily be hæmolysed -afresh by the ordinary destructive agents. Venom, none the less, -exerts a noxious influence upon the corpuscles in all cases; but -when strong solutions are employed, this effect is masked by the -protective action.</p> - -<p>All kinds of red blood corpuscles are not equally sensitive to -the protective action of strong doses of venom. In this respect -all degrees are observed in the action of venom. Thus the corpuscles -of the dog are not protected at all by <i>Cobra</i>-venom. But -it is interesting to observe that this venom in no way precipitates -either the aqueous extract of dog’s corpuscles, or the hæmoglobin, -or the globin of this animal.</p> - -<p>The venom of <i>Crotalus</i> and that of <i>Ancistrodon</i> likewise possess -protective power, which is, however, less marked than in the case -of <i>Cobra</i>-venom.</p> - -<p>Noguchi finally points out that corpuscles treated with venom -are not hæmolysed by fluorescent substances such as eosin. They -are also refractory to the hæmolysing action of tetanolysin. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p> - -<p>The resistance of the hæmolysins of venom to heat (which, -according to Morgenroth, may extend to heating for thirty minutes -at a temperature of 100° C.) explains how it is that the serum -of horses immunised by means of venoms heated to 72° C. is -distinctly antihæmolysing, and capable of perfectly protecting the -red corpuscles <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i>.</p> - -<p>I have been able to prove that the <i>antineurotoxic</i> property of -antitoxic serums with regard to the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> is -pretty much on a par with their antihæmolysing property, so that -it is possible to measure <i>in vitro</i> the antitoxic activity of a serum -by establishing the degree of its antihæmolysing activity. Thus -we see that a serum, which is antitoxic and antihæmolytic with -respect to the venom of <i>Naja</i>, is likewise antihæmolytic as -regards the other <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span>-venoms, and even certain venoms -of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>. Here we have a very important fact, for it enables -us to measure <i>in vitro</i> the activity of antivenomous serums.</p> - -<p id="Precipitins_of_venoms">(2) <i>Precipitins of Venoms.</i>—The serum of rabbits treated with -increasing doses of <i>Cobra</i>-venom precipitates the latter in more -or less concentrated solution. It has no effect as regards other -venoms. On the other hand, the serum of a strongly immunised -horse, the antivenomous power of which was pretty considerable, -gave no precipitate with <i>Cobra</i>-venom; the formation of precipitate -is therefore entirely independent of that of antitoxins (G. Lamb).<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p> - -<p id="Agglutinins_of_Venoms">(3) <i>Agglutinins of Venoms.</i>—Besides their hæmolytic action, -it is easy to observe that certain venoms, especially those of -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, agglutinate the red corpuscles, and that the substance -that produces this agglutination is different from the hæmolysing -substance; for it acts rapidly at a temperature of O° C., at which -hæmolysin manifests its effects only with extreme slowness. -Heating to 75° C. destroys this agglutinant property (Flexner and -Noguchi). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p> - -<h3 id="Effects_of_Venom_upon_the_White_Corpuscles">C.—<span class="smcap">Effects of Venom upon the White Corpuscles: Leucolysin.</span></h3> - -<p>The white corpuscles themselves do not escape the action of -venom. It is possible <i>in vitro</i> to prove this action upon leucocytic -exudations obtained, <i>e.g.</i>, by injecting sterilised cultures of <i>Bacillus -megatherium</i> into the pleura or peritoneum of the rabbit. After -a few hours this exudation is removed by means of capillary tubes, -and, on mixing these with weak doses of venom, we see, in the -course of a microscopic examination, that the large mononuclear -cells are the first to be dissolved, then the polynuclears, and lastly -the lymphocytes. The leucolysis is much more intense and more -rapid with <i>Cobra</i>-venom than with that of <i>Crotalus</i> (Flexner and -Noguchi, Noc). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> - -<i>PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING</i> (<i>continued</i>).</h2> - -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Proteolytic, Cytolytic, Bacteriolytic and various Diastasic -Actions of Venoms: Diastasic and Cellular -Action on Venoms.</span></p> - -<h3 id="Proteolytic_Action">A.—<span class="smcap">Proteolytic Action.</span></h3> - -<p>The proteolytic action of venoms on gelatine, fibrin, and egg-albumen -has been studied by Flexner and Noguchi,<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> Delezenne,<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> -and subsequently by Noc<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> in my laboratory. It was already known -that <i>in vivo</i> certain venoms exert a manifestly dissolving action on -the endothelium of blood-vessels and on the muscular tissues -themselves.</p> - -<p>Delezenne, on his part, has established the existence in snake-venoms -of a <i>kinase</i> analogous to the kinase of leucocytes and -enterokinase. Venom alone does not attack egg-albumen coagulated -by heat, but it confers an exceedingly strong digestive power -on inert pancreatic juices.</p> - -<p><i>Lachesis</i>-venom has been found to be much the richest in -kinase. It digests gelatine perfectly, and when this substance -has been subjected to its action it is no longer capable of being -solidified.</p> - -<p><i>Lannoy</i>,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> on the other hand, experimenting upon albuminoid -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -substances (casein, albumins of ox-serum) in solution, has shown -that <i>Cobra</i>-venom and that of <i>Vipera</i> disintegrate the albuminoid -molecule; but the latter remains soluble after the addition of -formol and is no longer precipitable by acetic acid. The hydrolysis -never leads to the stage of peptone, but only to the formation -of albumoses which give biuret-reaction.</p> - -<p>The action of venoms upon fibrin may be demonstrated <i>in vitro</i> -by bringing sufficient quantities of venom, 1 centigramme, for -example, into contact with small fragments of non-heated fibrin, -derived from blood clots from an ox, rabbit, or birds, and carefully -washed. These fragments soon separate from each other, and -become dissolved in a space of time which varies according to the -venom used. The <span class="smcap">Viperine</span>-venoms, especially those of <i>Lachesis</i> -and <i>Ancistrodon</i>, are the most active. <i>Viper</i>-venom is much less -so, and the venoms of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> are the slowest.</p> - -<p>This proteolytic action of the various venoms corresponds pretty -exactly to their coagulant and decoagulant action on rabbit- or -horse-plasma, so that, as I have already stated, we must suppose -that the property possessed by <span class="smcap">Viperine</span>-venoms of more or less -rapidly dissolving blood which they have caused to coagulate, -results from the fact that these venoms contain, in addition to a -coagulant substance, another substance which is strongly proteolytic.</p> - -<p>The latter is destroyed by heating. <i>Lachesis</i>-venom, when -heated to 70° C., no longer has any dissolving action on either -gelatine or fibrin. Moreover, antivenomous serum furnished by -horses vaccinated against heated venoms does not prevent proteolysis -by non-heated venoms. On the other hand, the serum of -animals vaccinated against <span class="smcap">Viperine</span>-venoms, simply filtered by -the Chamberland process and non-heated, affords perfect protection -to gelatine and fibrin against the dissolving action of these -venoms. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span></p> - -<h3 id="Cytolytic_action">B.—<span class="smcap">Cytolytic Action.</span></h3> - -<p>Simon Flexner and Noguchi<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> have observed that the venoms -of <i>Naja</i>, <i>Ancistrodon</i>, <i>Crotalus</i>, <i>Vipera russellii</i>, and <i>Lachesis -flavoviridis</i>, contain substances which possess the property of dissolving -a large number of the cells of warm-blooded and cold-blooded -animals, and that these <i>cytolysins</i> are very markedly -resistant to high temperatures.</p> - -<p>They employed for their experiments 5 per cent. emulsions -of organs, spermatozoids, or ova in physiological saline solution. -The solution of venom at a strength of 1 per cent. was kept -in contact with the different kinds of cells for three hours at -a temperature of 0° C.; the liquid was then centrifuged and -examined with the naked eye and under the microscope.</p> - -<p>The venoms experimented upon dissolved more or less rapidly -the parenchymatous cells of the liver, kidney and testicle of -the dog, guinea-pig, rabbit, rat and sheep. The most active -venoms in this respect were those of <i>Vipera russellii</i>, <i>Ancistrodon</i> -and the <i>Cobra</i>; the venom of <i>Crotalus</i> was the least active.</p> - -<p>With regard to the nerve-cells, spermatozoids and ova of -cold-blooded animals (frogs, fish, arthropods, worms, and echinoderms) -<i>Cobra</i>-venom proved to be the most active; then that -of <i>Ancistrodon</i>, and lastly that of <i>Crotalus</i>.</p> - -<p>These cytolysins are not destroyed by heating for thirty minutes -at 85° C. in a damp medium, nor by dry heating for fifty minutes -at 100° C.</p> - -<h3 id="Bacteriolytic_Action">C.—<span class="smcap">Bacteriolytic Action.</span></h3> - -<p>If we bring into contact with a 1 per cent. solution of <i>Cobra</i>-venom, -rendered aseptic by filtration through porcelain, sensitive -micro-organisms, such as the cholera vibrio, or the bacterium -of anthrax in a very young non-sporulated culture, or in its -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -non-spore-producing variety, we find that these microbes are dissolved -by the solution of venom in varying periods of time.</p> - -<p>On making a direct microscopical examination we see that -Koch’s vibrios become immovable, then break up into granulations -and disappear in the liquid. The bacteriolysis is even more distinct -in the case of the bacterium. The enveloping membrane -seems to dissolve, and the microbe appears as though composed -of a series of granulations placed end to end, which finally disperse -and disappear.</p> - -<p>By my instructions this bacteriolytic property of venom with -respect to different species of micro-organisms was studied by Noc. -It was especially clearly seen with the non-spore-producing bacterium -of anthrax, the cholera vibrio, <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, the -bacillus of diphtheria, and <i>B. subtilis</i> in a young culture; it is less -distinct with <i>B. pestis</i>, <i>B. coli</i>, and <i>B. typhi</i>, is almost <i>nil</i> with the -pyocyanic bacillus and <i>B. prodigiosus</i>, and <i>nil</i> with <i>B. tuberculosis</i>.</p> - -<p>Investigations have likewise been made by Noc, and subsequently -by Goebel,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> in order to determine whether cobra-venom -dissolves Trypanosomes. These hæmatozoa are more resistant -than bacteria, but they nevertheless end by being dissolved after -twenty to thirty minutes’ contact in the 1 per cent. solution.</p> - -<p>The bacteriolytic substance in venom is distinct from that -which produces proteolysis, for the latter is destroyed at 80° C., -while the former only disappears with a temperature of and beyond -85° C. maintained for half an hour. It is likewise distinct from the -hæmolysin, for this resists temperatures considerably higher than -85° C. Moreover, venom which has dissolved microbes until the -saturation point has been reached, is found to have preserved in its -entirety its hæmolytic power upon the red corpuscles of the horse. -Neither does it act upon the microbes owing to the presence of -a <i>cytase</i> or <i>alexin</i>. The well-known characteristics of alexins are -not met with here—destruction at 55° to 56° C., sensitivity to light, -rapid alteration at ordinary temperatures, &c. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span></p> - -<p>We cannot, again, compare the bacteriolytic action of venom to -that of rat-serum, which dissolves <i>B. anthracis</i> by aid of a substance -distinct from vibrionicide alexin. According to the researches of -Malvoz and Y. Pirenne, the lysin of rat-serum appears to be a basic -substance, the neutralisation of which destroys its activity. Now -<i>Cobra</i>-venom in a very active solution is perfectly neutral to sensitive -litmus papers, while these are turned blue by rat-serum. -Moreover, venom acts not only upon microbes of the same kind, -but also on very different species which are not affected by rat-serum, -especially upon <i>B. pestis</i>, for which, on the contrary, this -serum, when fresh, proves a favourable culture medium. The -bacteriolytic power of <i>Cobra</i>-venom therefore constitutes a special -property of venom.</p> - -<p>“In their work on the cytolysins of venom, S. Flexner and -Noguchi have shown that animal cells, when heated to 55° C. and -rendered inactive, do not undergo complete dissolution under the -influence of venoms which destroy the fresh cells. The authors -in question infer the existence of cellular receptors (<i>endo-complements</i>, -according to the theory of Ehrlich), which fix the amboceptors -of venom. Pursuing the same order of ideas, I have -observed that bacteria killed by heating for one hour at 60° C. -do not undergo total disintegration as do living bacteria. But, -while Flexner and Noguchi infer the plurality of the cytolysins -in venom for different animal cells, I have not been able to prove -the same thing with regard to the bacteriolysin; venom saturated -with cholera vibrios to such an extent that vibrios added at repeated -intervals are no longer dissolved, is incapable of dissolving another -highly sensitive species of microbe, such as the asporogenous bacterium, -and <i>vice versâ</i>. Besides, it would be difficult to understand -the existence in venom of cytolysins specific for a whole series -of species of micro-organisms” (Noc).<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p> - -<p>Antivenomous serum, in a dose of 0·01 or 0·05 c.c., neutralizes -the bacteriolytic action of 1 milligramme of <i>Cobra</i>-venom, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -while normal serum heated, even in larger doses, is without effect. -The lysin and the antivenomous serum appear also to enter into -stable combination; by heating to 80° C., after dilution of the -mixture neutral antivenomous serum + venom, the property of -dissolving is not restored to the latter.</p> - -<p>Pursuing his researches upon the bacteriolytic actions, Noc has -also shown that the <i>fresh</i> serums of the rabbit, horse, guinea-pig, -rat, and man are capable of destroying them completely. -We must conclude from this that venom has the property of -fixing the alexin of these fresh serums, and in fact it is easy to -show that this fixation takes place by experimenting with hæmolytic -alexin, which is much more easy to study; it is sufficient -to eliminate the intervention of the hæmolysin proper to <i>Cobra</i>-venom.</p> - -<p>With this object, Noc employed horse-corpuscles (which are -readily dissolved by fresh rat-serum), and neutralised the hæmolysin -proper to the venom by antivenomous serum, which has no -effect upon fresh horse-corpuscles and upon the alexin of rat-serum.</p> - -<p>For experimental purposes six tubes are prepared with contents -as follows:—</p> - -<p>(1) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum.</p> - -<p>(2) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum + 0·5 milligramme of Cobra-venom -(0·5 c.c. of a solution of 1 in 1,000).</p> - -<p>(3) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum + 1 milligramme of venom (after -fifteen minutes’ contact of the venom with the alexin in tubes 2 -and 3 the venom is neutralised by 1 c.c. of antivenomous serum -in the case of tube 2, and by 2 c.c. in that of tube 3).</p> - -<p>(4) 1 milligramme of venom.</p> - -<p>(5) 1 c.c. of antivenomous serum.</p> - -<p>(6) 0·5 c.c. of fresh rat-serum + 1 c.c. of antivenomous serum.</p> - -<p>To each tube 2 drops of defibrinated horse-blood are added, and -the tubes are placed in the stove at a temperature of 35° C.</p> - -<p>In tubes 1 and 6, which contain fresh rat-serum alone, and fresh -serum + antivenomous serum, hæmolysis appears in a few minutes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -In tube 4, which received venom alone, hæmolysis is also produced -in one hour. It is not produced at all in tubes 2 and 3, which -received the neutral mixture of fresh serum and venom, proving that -the hæmolytic alexin has been fixed by the venom. The latter, -therefore, here plays the part of a true fixator or <i>amboceptor</i>.</p> - -<p>Venom behaves, in short, after the manner of extracts of organs. -The fixation of hæmolytic alexin by extracts of organs, the tissues, -and animal cells (liver, spleen, spermatozoids, &c., &c.), has already -been demonstrated by V. Dungern, P. Müller, Levaditi, and E. -Hoke. The same fact is also observed with solutions of peptone. -The fixation of alexin is therefore a general property of certain -albuminoid molecules.</p> - -<p>It was interesting to endeavour to reproduce, with <i>Cobra</i>-venom, -J. Bordet’s experiments upon alexins and anti-alexins. It was to -be hoped that we had in this substance an anti-alexic body capable -of being preserved for an indefinite time and constant in its activity, -which would enable us easily to measure the dose of alexin contained -in a small quantity of a serum, or other liquid of leucocytic -origin.</p> - -<p>The experiment proved to Noc that, contrary to the ideas of -Ehrlich and his pupils, and conformably to the results obtained -by Bordet with serums and toxins, the neutralisation of venom -takes place in a variable ratio.</p> - -<p>If a dose A of fresh serum is capable of neutralising exactly -5 milligrammes of <i>Cobra</i>-venom with regard to a sensitive microbe, -on employing a dose of the strength of 2 A we ought to find a -bactericidal dose, 1 A, in the excess of serum, according to the -theory of definite proportions. No such bactericidal action is seen, -however; the serum, on the other hand, acts in the contrary direction -by means of its nutritive substances, and in the mixture 2 A + -<i>venom</i> we obtain a larger number of colonies of micro-organisms -than in the mixture A + venom.</p> - -<p>We see, then, that the property of cells of fixing in excess the -active substance in serums, discovered by Bordet for the hæmolysins -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -(staining phenomena), is met with again in the case of extracts -of organs, at least with regard to the bacteriolytic substance of -<i>Cobra</i>-venom.</p> - -<p>It results, then, from the foregoing facts that <i>Cobra-venom contains -a cytolysin, which acts upon micro-organisms and is capable of -fixing the alexin of normal serums</i>.</p> - -<p>The application of these data to the living animal is evidently -full of difficulties, by reason of the complexity of the substances -that come into play. Let us see, however, to what extent they are -capable of serving to explain the phenomena that are produced as -the result of poisoning.</p> - -<p>It was observed by Kaufmann that the cadavers of animals -which have died from snake-bite are very rapidly invaded by the -bacteria of putrefaction. Welch and Ewing, referring to these -phenomena of rapid putrefaction in cases of death from venom, -explained them as being due to the loss of the bactericidal power of -the serum. In hot countries, even when snake-bites are not fatal, -they are frequently complicated by local suppuration or gangrene, -occasioned by micro-organisms introduced at the time of the bite. -The minute analysis of the phenomena of poisoning shows, in -reality, that the organism undergoes different modifications according -to the quantity of venom injected and its channel of penetration.</p> - -<p>When the dose of venom is rapidly lethal, whether because it -penetrates into the veins or because a larger amount of it is diffused -beneath the skin, it occasions a transient hypoleucocytosis, which -is, moreover, a reaction common to injections of venom, pro-peptone, -extracts of organs, and microbic toxins (Delezenne, Nolf). It -follows that blood collected a short time after the injection may -be totally bereft of its bactericidal power, in consequence of the disappearance -of the leucocytes, which have migrated into the organs.</p> - -<p>Thus it was observed by S. Flexner and H. Noguchi that -the serum of a rabbit, treated with 10 milligrammes of <i>Cobra</i>-venom, -showed, fifty-seven minutes after the injection, a great loss -of bactericidal properties. But it is impossible to conclude, from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -the diminution of bactericidal power in this experiment, that the -alexin becomes fixed by the venom. Since the secretion of alexin -is connected with the presence of leucocytes, the hypoleucocytosis -due to the venom is sufficient to explain the loss of bactericidal -power.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the action of venom is not confined to these -physiological phenomena; in diffusing itself through the organism -it stays more especially in parts where the circulation has become -slower, in the capillaries of the organs where the leucocytes that -have disappeared from the general circulation are already to be -found agglomerated and altered. Here the cytolysins of the venom, -continuing their effects, are capable of neutralising the alexins -set at liberty by the destruction of the leucocytes, and thus the -rapid multiplication of the bacteria of putrefaction, which have -come from the intestine or were carried in with the bite, is easily -explained. In the same way, we can account for the suppuration -that is met with as a complication of non-lethal bites, in spite of the -hyperleucocytosis consequent upon the penetration of a weak dose -of venom; immediate neutralisation of the alexin set at liberty at -the level of the wound has sufficed to enable micro-organisms to -multiply.</p> - -<h3 id="Various_diastasic_actions_of_venoms">D.—<span class="smcap">Various Diastasic Actions of Venoms.</span></h3> - -<p>So long ago as 1884, de Lacerda, in his “Leçons sur le venin des -serpents du Brésil,” described the results of his researches upon -the diastasic actions of venom. He proved that venom emulsifies -fats, causes milk to curdle, and does not saccharise starch. But -the solutions of venom employed by this author were not sterile, -so that putrefactive phenomena may be believed to have occurred -in the course of his experiments.</p> - -<p>The subject has been studied afresh by Wehrmann<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> in my -laboratory, and afterwards by Lannoy.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> These two investigators -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -have shown that venoms do not hydrolyse either starch or inulin. -<i>Cobra</i>-venom and that of <i>Vipera</i> change saccharose very slightly. -They do not modify the glucosides (amygdalin, coniferin, salicin, -arbutin, and digitalin); they therefore do not contain emulsin.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, these venoms possess, as I have already -stated, very interesting <i>kinasic</i> properties, which have been pointed -out by Delezenne.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> They consist in the fact that while venom -alone is incapable of digesting cooked albumin, we have only to -add to a pancreatic juice, in itself devoid of effect upon albumin, -a trace of venom, to see this albumin immediately become digested.</p> - -<p><i>Lachesis</i>-venom is especially active in this respect. In Delezenne’s -experiments it was generally sufficient to add to 1 c.c. of -inactive pancreatic juice, 0·5 to 1 c.c. of a 1 in 1,000 solution, that -is 0·5 to 1 milligramme of venom, to obtain the digestion of a cube -of albumin weighing 0·5 gramme in the space of from ten to twelve -hours. Much weaker doses, ⅕, ⅒, sometimes even <sup>1</sup>/<sub>80</sub> of a milligramme -still gave the same result, with this sole difference that -digestion took twenty-four, forty-eight, and even seventy-two hours -to become complete.</p> - -<p><i>Cobra</i>-venom was found to be a little less active than the foregoing, -but still its action was usually evident enough when it was -employed in a dose of 0·5 milligramme or even 0·1 milligramme. -As for the venom of <i>Vipera berus</i>, it was often necessary to employ -it in doses from five to ten times stronger in order to obtain the -same result.</p> - -<p>Delezenne has ascertained, on the other hand, that these venoms -entirely lose their kinasic power when they are subjected to ebullition -for fifteen minutes.</p> - -<p>This <i>kinase</i> or diastase, capable of quickening the inert pancreatic -juice, must evidently be of very great utility to the -reptile in enabling it to digest its prey. Venom, therefore, is not, -as has long been believed, a purely defensive secretion; it corresponds -to a physiological necessity, like that of the intestinal or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -pancreatic juice. Herein is to be found the explanation of the fact -that the non-poisonous snakes, although destitute of organs of -inoculation, possess supralabial or parotid glands which produce -venomous saliva.</p> - -<p>Experiments have been made by Ch. Féré<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> to determine the -effect upon the development of the embryo of the introduction of -venom into the albumen of the egg of the fowl. He found that -83 per cent. of the embryos, developed in eggs intoxicated with -0·05 milligramme of viper-venom and opened after being incubated -for seventy-two hours, exhibited various anomalies in development.</p> - -<h3 id="Action_of_Various_Diastases_upon_Venoms">E.—<span class="smcap">Action of Various Diastases upon Venoms.</span></h3> - -<p>Venoms are modified or destroyed by certain normal diastases -of the organism. It was shown long ago by Lacerda, Weir Mitchell, -Sir Joseph Fayrer, and Lauder Brunton, that it is possible to -introduce without danger into the stomachs of adult animals -amounts of venom many times greater than the lethal dose. I have -repeatedly verified this, but have nevertheless observed that young -mammals, while being suckled, readily absorb venom by their -alimentary canal, and succumb to the ingestion of doses scarcely -larger than those which kill when subcutaneously injected. Here -we have a very important fact, which once more proves how easily -the intestinal mucous membrane of young animals is permeated -by toxins. By my instructions Wehrmann<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> and Carrière,<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> in my -laboratory, have studied the modifications undergone by venoms -in the alimentary canal of rabbits. We have seen that these -animals can ingest without inconvenience doses of venom 600 times -greater than the lethal dose, and that, if we cause these ingestions -to be repeated several times, contrary to the assertion of Fraser<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> (of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -Edinburgh), we never succeed in obtaining immunity to the subcutaneous -injection of a simple lethal dose, and no antitoxin is -formed in the blood.</p> - -<p>The <i>ptyalin</i> of the saliva, <i>pancreatic juice</i>, and <i>bile</i> destroy -<i>Cobra</i>-venom <i>in vitro</i>. We must, therefore, assume that these -diastases are veritable agents of destruction for ingested venom. -The intestinal microbes play no part, any more than the intestinal -juice by itself. The gastric juice has very little effect. Papain is -almost as active as the pancreatic juice.</p> - -<p>It had already been proved by Fraser, so long ago as 1895, that -bile, after prolonged contact and in a sufficient dose, has a strongly -destructive effect upon Cobra-venom; but, contrary to the opinion -of this investigator, it is not antitoxic, for it possesses no preventive -or curative property, and its effects are produced only <i>in vitro</i>.</p> - -<p>We see from what has been stated above, that venoms introduced -into a sensitive organism are capable of producing extremely -complex effects upon the various tissues or humours. They act on -the nerve-cells by their <i>neurotoxin</i>, on the endothelium of the -blood-vessels by their <i>hæmorrhagin</i> (Flexner and Noguchi), on the -red corpuscles by their <i>hæmolysin</i>, on the fibrin of the blood and -muscles by their <i>proteolytic diastase</i>, and on the fibrin-ferment -itself by their <i>thrombase</i>.</p> - -<p>They also act on the leucocytes, according to the experiments -of Chatenay,<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> performed under the direction of Metschnikoff, and -according to those of Flexner and Noguchi,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> already cited.</p> - -<p>Thus we understand how complex must likewise be the means -of defence that have to be employed in order to afford an effective -protection against such poisons.</p> - -<p>The slightly intoxicated organism at first reacts by the intervention -of the leucocytes; a <i>hyperleucocytosis</i> is produced, accompanied -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> -by a more or less considerable rise of temperature. After -a few hours everything returns to its normal condition, and if the -injection of a lethal dose of venom is repeated several times, at -intervals of a few days, it is not long before antitoxic substances -are found to appear in the serum.</p> - -<p>When the dose of venom injected is sufficient to cause death, -we observe, a very few moments after the injection, a <i>lowering of -temperature</i> and a <i>hypoleucocytosis</i>, which is the more pronounced -in proportion to the nearness of the dose of venom to the minimal -lethal dose. With very strong doses the hypoleucocytosis has not -time to manifest itself.</p> - -<p>It is therefore probable that, in intoxication by venoms as in -that by the toxins of micro-organisms, the protective <i>rôle</i> of the -leucocytes is all-important, not only because these cells are capable -of digesting venoms owing to their protoplasmic digestive juices, -but also because they constitute if not the only, at any rate the -principal source of the <i>antitoxic substances</i> or <i>amboceptors</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> - -<span id="Toxicity_of_the_blood_of_venomous_snakes"><i>TOXICITY OF THE BLOOD OF VENOMOUS SNAKES.</i></span></h2> - -<p>Several physiologists, among whom it is right to mention -Fontana,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> Leydig,<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> Reichel,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> Raphael Blanchard,<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> Phisalix and -Bertrand,<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> and S. Jourdain,<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> have pointed out the presence of -poison-glands in <i>Tropidonotus natrix</i> or other non-venomous snakes, -and have explained the immunity enjoyed by these animals with -regard to venom as being due to the existence of an internal -secretion of this poison.</p> - -<p>We also know, from the writings of Phisalix and Bertrand, that -the blood of the viper, and that of the salamander and toad are -toxic. For my part I have found<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> that the blood of <i>Naja</i>, -<i>Bungarus</i>, <i>Lachesis</i>, and <i>Cerastes</i> possesses the same properties, -and a comparative study has been made by Wehrmann,<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> in my -laboratory, of the toxicity of the blood of the viper and of that of -the blood of the eel, already established by Mosso (of Turin).<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p> - -<p>It is remarkable to find that the blood of the various venomous -or non-venomous snakes, like that of certain fishes, such as eels, -produces, when injected beneath the skin or into the peritoneum, -local and general effects very similar to those of venoms. Injections -of 0·5 c.c. to 1 c.c. of the blood of the viper or of the common -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -snake, beneath the skin of the guinea-pig, provoke an intense local -reaction, which always results in the formation of an eschar. The -injection of slightly stronger doses, 1 c.c. to 2 c.c., into the peritoneum, -almost always kills these animals, like venom, with symptoms -of respiratory asphyxia.</p> - -<p>The blood of <i>Naja tripudians</i>, injected subcutaneously, is lethal -to the mouse in a dose of 0·25 c.c.</p> - -<p>When this blood is heated, after having been suitably diluted -with three or four parts of distilled water, in order to prevent it -from coagulating, it is found that a temperature of 70° C. maintained -for fifteen minutes is sufficient to cause it to lose all toxic effect. -The same applies to the blood of the other poisonous or non-poisonous -snakes, and to that of the <i>Murænidæ</i>.</p> - -<p>Now, since the majority of venoms resist even prolonged heating -at this temperature, it cannot be supposed that the toxicity of the -blood is due to its containing venom derived from the internal -secretion of the poison-glands, as was thought by Phisalix and -Bertrand. On the contrary, it is probable that the toxicity results -from the fact that the blood contains diastasic substances of cellular -origin, which themselves represent certain of the constituent -elements of venoms.</p> - -<p>These substances, moreover, possess some of the properties -of venoms, as, for instance, the faculty of producing hæmorrhages -and of being influenced by antivenomous serum, which causes -them to lose a large portion of their toxic qualities.</p> - -<p>I have found that they can even be utilised to vaccinate animals -against venom; by injecting weak, non-lethal, and repeated doses -of dilute <i>Cobra</i>-blood into guinea-pigs and rabbits, I have succeeded -in rendering them immune to doses of <i>Cobra</i>-venom several times -greater than the lethal dose.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that it is to these substances that the -poisonous and non-poisonous snakes owe the partial immunity -that they themselves enjoy with respect to venoms. We know, -in fact, that common snakes suffer without danger many bites from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -vipers (Phisalix and Bertrand<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a>), and that the <i>Cobra</i> is relatively -little affected by inoculation with its own venom or with that -of other <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span>, such as <i>Bungarus</i>, or even of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, -such as <i>Vipera russellii</i>.</p> - -<p>This immunity, however, is far from being absolute; I have -killed common snakes (<i>Tropidonotus natrix</i>) with doses of <i>viper</i>-venom -ten times greater than the lethal one for the rabbit, and -<i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> (from Martinique) with 0·02 gramme of the -venom of <i>Naja tripudians</i>.</p> - -<p>Phisalix,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> on his part, has shown that, while it was necessary -to inject from 100 to 200 milligrammes of <i>viper</i>-venom into other -vipers or common snakes, beneath the skin or into the peritoneum, -in order to cause death, the introduction of only 2 to 4 milligrammes -of this venom into the brains of these reptiles was sufficient to kill -them with the same symptoms of intoxication. This dose, however, -is only twenty-five to thirty times greater than the lethal one -for the guinea-pig.</p> - -<p>The practical lesson to be learnt from the establishment of the -foregoing facts is that poisonous snakes of different species must -never be placed in the same cage, for these animals sometimes bite -each other, and may thus kill one another.</p> - -<p>Simon Flexner and Noguchi<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> have studied the action of the -serums of <i>Crotalus</i>, <i>Ancistrodon</i>, and a non-poisonous species, the -pine snake (<i>Pituophis catenifer</i>), on the venoms of <i>Naja</i>, <i>Ancistrodon</i>, -and <i>Crotalus</i>. They found that the serum of <i>Crotalus</i> -rapidly dissolves the red corpuscles of man, the dog, rabbit, guinea-pig, -sheep, rat, pigeon, and horse.</p> - -<p>The serum of the pine snake affects the same red corpuscles, -but in a lesser degree. Heating to 58° C. suppresses the hæmolytic -power of these serums, but they can be restored to activity by the -addition of a very small quantity of the same serum in a fresh -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -condition, of fresh serum derived from other snakes, or of fresh -serum from the guinea-pig.</p> - -<p>Antivenomous serum also, when added in a suitable dose, -entirely suppresses the hæmolytic action of snake-serums; it has, -however, greater effect upon the hæmolysin of <i>Cobra</i>-blood than -upon that of the blood of other snakes. This observation had -previously been made by W. Stephens,<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> and it has been verified -by Noc in my laboratory.</p> - -<p><i>Crotalus</i>-serum dissolves the red corpuscles of the mongoose -(<i>Herpestes ichneumon</i>) of Jamaica, whose extraordinary resistance -to venom is well known. But if variable doses of <i>Ancistrodon</i>-venom -and <i>Crotalus</i>-serum be made to act simultaneously upon -these corpuscles, the latter are no longer dissolved. Again, if, -instead of red corpuscles which are but little sensitive, like those -of the mongoose, we employ the highly sensitive corpuscles of the -guinea-pig, the result is the same. These experiments are regarded -by Flexner and Noguchi as proving that the amboceptors of the -toxic serum become fixed, in conformity with Ehrlich’s theory of -the lateral chains, upon the receptors of the sensitive erythrocytes, -and leave no more receptors free for the fixation of the venom.</p> - -<p>The same investigators have endeavoured to determine the -respective toxicity of the tissues of the different organs of <i>Crotalus</i>. -They found that the most toxic organs are the spleen and the -liver; the toxicity of the spinal cord, kidney and muscles is much -less. It appears that this toxicity is intimately connected with the -quantity of blood that the tissues retain, for the physiological effects -observed are identical with those that follow the injection of blood -or serum alone.</p> - -<p>They also ascertained that the contents of the eggs of <i>Crotalus</i> -are especially rich in poison, and this poison appears to consist for -the most part of <i>neurotoxin</i>, since it does not cause hæmorrhages. -Phisalix has observed that the ovules of the viper exhibit analogous -toxicity.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span></p> - -<p>Summing up what has been stated above, we find that the -blood of both poisonous and non-poisonous snakes contains toxic -substances, destructible by heating to 68° C., and physiologically -distinct from venoms, but like the latter possessing the property -of dissolving the red corpuscles of the majority of vertebrates and -of producing hæmorrhages. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> - -<span id="Natural_immunity_of_certain_animals_with_respect_to_snake_venoms"><i>NATURAL IMMUNITY OF CERTAIN ANIMALS WITH -RESPECT TO SNAKE-VENOMS.</i></span></h2> - -<p>It was long ago pointed out that certain warm-blooded animals, -including the mongoose (<i>Herpestes ichneumon</i>, Family <i>Viverridæ</i>), -hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europæus</i>, Family <i>Erinaceidæ</i>), pig (<i>Sus -scrofa</i>, Family <i>Suidæ</i>), and some herons (<i>Ajaja</i>, Subfamily <i>Plataleinæ</i>; -<i>Cancroma</i>, Subfamily <i>Cancrominæ</i>; <i>Botaurus</i>, Subfamily -<i>Ardeinæ</i>; <i>Mycteria</i>, Subfamily <i>Ciconiinæ</i>), known in Colombia -under the names <i>Culebrero</i> and <i>Guacabo</i>, exhibit a natural immunity -with respect to snake-bites.</p> - -<p>Pigs devour vipers with great readiness, and in the region of -North America which adjoins the Mississippi and its tributaries -they are even trained to destroy the young rattle-snakes and other -poisonous serpents with which the valleys of these watercourses -are infested.</p> - -<p>During my stay in Indo-China I inoculated a young pig, beneath -the skin of the back, with a dose of <i>Cobra</i>-venom (10 milligrammes) -capable of killing a large-sized dog. The animal withstood the -injection, but I am inclined to think that this is not a case of true -immunity; it is probable that the pig owes its resistance to venom -to the fact that its skin is lined with an enormous layer of adipose -tissue, which is but very slightly vascular, and in which absorption -takes place very slowly. This opinion is corroborated by my discovery -that the serum of this animal is entirely destitute of any -antitoxic substance. I mixed a dose of <i>Cobra</i>-venom, lethal for -the rabbit, with 3·5 and 8 c.c. of pig-serum. These mixtures killed -rabbits in the same time as the controls that received the venom -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -diluted with equal quantities of rabbit-serum or physiological saline -solution.</p> - -<p>The natural immunity of the mongoose and the hedgehog rests -upon more scientifically established facts.</p> - -<p>My own experiments upon the immunity of the mongoose were -made with six specimens of these little carnivores captured in -Guadeloupe (French West Indies), an island in which no poisonous -snakes exist; consequently their immunity could not have arisen -from their having become accustomed to the bites of venomous -reptiles.</p> - -<p>I first introduced a mongoose into a cage containing a <i>Naja -bungarus</i> (<i>Ophiophagus</i>) of large size. The snake rose up immediately, -dilated its hood, and struck savagely at the little animal, -which, darting nimbly out of the way, escaped being seized and, -frightened for a moment, took refuge in a corner of the cage. Its -stupor, however, was but of brief duration, for at the very moment -when the hamadryad was preparing to strike at it again, the -mongoose, with open mouth and snarling, sprang upon the reptile’s -head, bit it hard in the upper jaw and crushed its skull in a few -seconds. This scene is in every respect reminiscent of the admirable -description given by Rudyard Kipling, in his celebrated “Jungle -Book,” of the great war that <i>Rikki-tikki</i> (the Mongoose) fought -with Nag (the Cobra) “through the bathrooms of the big bungalow -in Segowlee cantonment”:—</p> - -<p>“Nag was asleep, and Rikki-tikki looked at his big back, -wondering which would be the best place for a good hold. ‘If I -don’t break his back at the first jump,’ said Rikki, ‘he can still -fight; and if he fights—O Rikki!’ He looked at the thickness -of the neck below the hood, but that was too much for him; and -a bite near the tail would only make Nag savage.</p> - -<p>“’It must be the head,’ he said at last; ‘the head above the -hood; and when I am once there, I must not let go.’</p> - -<p>“Then he jumped. The head was lying a little clear of the -water-jar, under the curve of it; and, as his teeth met, Rikki braced -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -his back against the bulge of the red earthenware to hold down -the head. This gave him just one second’s purchase, and he made -the most of it. Then he was battered to and fro as a rat is shaken -by a dog—to and fro on the floor, up and down, and round in great -circles; but his eyes were red, and he held on as the body cart-whipped -over the floor, upsetting the tin dipper and the soap-dish -and the flesh-brush, and banged against the tin side of the bath. -As he held he closed his jaws tighter and tighter, for he made sure -he would be banged to death, and, for the honour of his family, he -preferred to be found with his teeth locked. He was dizzy, aching, -and felt shaken to pieces, when something went off like a thunderclap -just behind him; a hot wind knocked him senseless, and red -fire singed his fur. The big man had been wakened by the noise, -and had fired both barrels of a shot-gun into Nag just behind the -hood.”<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p> - -<p>From the experimental point of view, these stirring battles -between mongooses and cobras only show that a mongoose of the -size of a large squirrel makes a plucky and victorious attack upon -a venomous reptile of the most dangerous species and of very -large dimensions; but it is impossible to tell with certainty whether -the mongoose has been bitten.</p> - -<p>I therefore inoculated a second mongoose with 2 milligrammes -of venom, a lethal dose for 4 kilogrammes of rabbit. The animal -did not experience the slightest malaise.</p> - -<p>I then took blood from three other mongooses, by tying a -carotid without killing the animals. This blood, mixed with -venom or injected as a prophylactic into rabbits, exhibited an -antitoxic power, which, though evident, was of little intensity, and -insufficient in all cases as a certain preventative of death. All the -rabbits that received a preventive dose varying from 2 to 7 c.c. -of mongoose-serum succumbed to inoculation with venom, but -with a considerable retardation (from two to five hours) as compared -with the controls. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span></p> - -<p>I endeavoured to determine the limit of tolerance of the mongoose -with respect to venom. Two of these animals, which had -never been inoculated, received doses of venom respectively four -times and six times lethal for the rabbit. The first mongoose -remained perfectly well; the second was ill for two days, and then -recovered. A third mongoose, into which I injected a dose eight -times lethal for the rabbit, succumbed in twelve hours.</p> - -<div id="Fig_89" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_89.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.—Mongoose seized by a Cobra.</span><br /> - -(For this illustration I am indebted to the kindness of M. Claine, late French Consul -at Rangoon.)</p> -</div> - -<p>It must be concluded from these facts that the West Indian -mongoose is but little sensitive to venom; that it is capable of -withstanding, without malaise, doses which are considerable in proportion -to its size, but that its immunity is far from being absolute. -If it is generally the victor in its combats with poisonous snakes, -the result is mainly due to the extreme agility with which it is -endowed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span></p> - -<p>A number of experiments have been made by Lewin,<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> and by -Phisalix and Bertrand,<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> upon the immunity of the hedgehog to the -venom of <i>Vipera berus</i>.</p> - -<p>It had long been known that hedgehogs are inveterate hunters -of vipers, which they devour with avidity. Thanks to the long and -sharp spines by which their bodies are protected, they avoid being -bitten and contrive to catch the reptiles very cleverly, but it -occasionally happens that they do not escape being struck. However, -even in these cases they rarely succumb.</p> - -<p>Inoculation with fairly large quantities of venom does not make -them ill: the dose of <i>viper</i>-venom lethal for these small animals -is about forty times greater than that which kills the guinea-pig. -Their power of resistance is therefore beyond doubt.</p> - -<p>It may be asked whether this is due to their blood normally -containing antitoxic substances. In order to elucidate this question, -Phisalix and Bertrand first proved that the blood of normal -hedgehogs is toxic to laboratory animals, especially to the guinea-pig. -A mixture of this blood with viper-venom cannot therefore -be harmless. But it sufficed to heat hedgehog blood to 58° C. to -cause it to lose its toxicity, and it was found that it then became -antitoxic. Guinea-pigs inoculated in the peritoneum with 8 c.c. -of heated hedgehog-serum were able to withstand, immediately -afterwards, twice the lethal dose of viper-venom.</p> - -<p>It really seems, therefore, that the resistance of the hedgehog -to venom is due to the presence of antitoxic substances in its -blood. But, as in the case of the mongoose, there is no question -here of genuine <i>immunity</i>.</p> - -<p>The same is probably true with respect to the herons of -Colombia, the <i>Culebrero</i> and <i>Guacabo</i>, which eagerly search after -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -young snakes for food. No investigations, however, have yet been -made upon this subject.</p> - -<p>These birds, moreover, are few in number; hunters pursue them -for the sake of their brilliantly coloured plumage, and it is to be -regretted that no attempt is made to prevent their destruction -or to acclimatise them in countries in which poisonous snakes -constitute a veritable calamity, such as Martinique, St. Lucia, or -India. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> - -<span id="Snake_charmers"><i>SNAKE-CHARMERS.</i></span></h2> - -<p>In all the countries of the globe where poisonous snakes are -formidable to man, there are certain individuals who profess to be -secure from all ill-effects from the bites of these reptiles, whether -because they are immune to venom, or because they possess -secrets which enable them to cure themselves when they happen -to have been bitten. Not unnaturally these secrets are sometimes -turned to profitable account, and the possessors of them generally -enjoy considerable popular influence, and are very highly venerated. -Intimate relations with the divinities are freely attributed to them.</p> - -<p>Among the Romans the jugglers who carried on the profession -of snake-charmers and healers of snake-bites were known as <i>Psylli</i>. -Plutarch tells us that Cato, who loved not doctors because they -were Greeks, attached a certain number of them to the army of -Libya. They were accustomed to expose their children to serpents -as soon as they were born, and the mothers, if they had failed in -conjugal fidelity, were infallibly punished by the death of their -offspring. If, on the contrary, the children were lawful, they had -nothing to fear from the bites of the reptiles. “<i>Recens etiam editos -serpentibus offerebant; si essent partus adulteri, matrum crimina -plectabantur interitu parvulorum; si pudici, probos ortus a morte -paterni privilegium tuebatur</i>” (Solinus).</p> - -<p>The Libyian Psylli of antiquity still have their representatives -in Tunis and in Egypt. Clot Bey writes as follows with -reference to the Egyptian Psylli:—</p> - -<p>“The <i>Ophiogeni</i>, or Snake-charmers, have been renowned from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -all time. Strabo speaks of them, and Prosper Alpinus was a -witness of the singular effects of their art. The majority of -modern travellers who have visited Egypt have been equally -struck with the freedom with which they handle poisonous reptiles -and animals.</p> - -<p>“The Psylli go from house to house, calling forth and charming -the snakes that they may happen to contain. They claim to attract -them by means of a particular power. Armed with a short wand, -they enter the chamber to be purged from these venomous guests, -make a smacking noise with their tongue, spit upon the ground, -and pronounce the following incantation: ‘<i>I adjure you, by God, if -you are without or within, to appear</i>; <i>I adjure you, by the greatest -of names; if you are obedient, appear!</i> <i>If you disobey, die! die!</i>’ -The snake, submissive to this command, departs forthwith, issuing -from a crack in the wall or floor.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p> - -<p>India is pre-eminently the country of snake-charmers. There -exists an entire caste of Hindus, called <i>Mal</i>, who are professional -catchers and vendors of snakes, but do not perform tricks with -them.</p> - -<p>The snake-charmers are recruited from among another caste, -that of the <i>Sangis</i> or <i>Tubriwallahs</i> of Bengal.</p> - -<p>These men, who are usually clothed in yellow robes and wear -large turbans, manage the Cobra with really marvellous skill. All -travellers who have had the opportunity of crossing India or of -touching at a port on the coast or on that of Ceylon have -witnessed scenes similar to that described by Natalis Rondot -(figs. 90 and 91):—</p> - -<p>“Towards six o’clock in the evening a Hindu juggler comes -on board. He is poorly clad, and wears a turban decorated with -three feathers, and several necklaces of those amulet-sachets called -<i>gris-gris</i> in Senegal. In a flat basket he carries a spectacled Cobra-di-Capello. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span></p> - -<div id="Fig_90" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_90.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.—Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon).</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span></p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_91" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_91.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.—Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon).</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span></p> -</div> - -<p>“This man instals himself on deck; we sit down on the seat -provided for the officer of the watch, and the sailors form a circle. -The basket is placed on the deck and uncovered; the Cobra -is coiled up at the bottom of it. The juggler squats a few paces -off and commences to play a slow, plaintive, and monotonous air, -with a kind of small clarinet (<a href="#Fig_92">fig. 92</a>), the sounds of which recall -those of the Breton <i>biniou</i>.</p> - -<div id="Fig_92" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_92.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.—Musical Instrument used by Indian Snake-charmers to Charm Cobras.</span><br /> - -(For this figure I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Pineau.)</p> -</div> - -<p>“By degrees the snake moves, extends itself, and then assumes -an erect posture, but without quitting the basket. It begins to -appear uneasy and endeavours to recognise its surroundings; it -becomes agitated and irritated, expands and spreads out its hood, -breathes hard rather than hisses, and frequently and quickly shoots -out its slender forked tongue; several times it makes a violent dart -as though to attack the juggler; it frequently trembles, or rather -gives sudden starts. The juggler keeps his eyes always fastened -upon the snake, and gazes at it with a singular fixed stare. After -some time, about ten or twelve minutes, the Cobra becomes less -animated, grows quiet, and then sways as though influenced by -the slow and monotonous rhythm of the musician; it keeps incessantly -darting out its tongue. Little by little it is brought to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -a sort of somnolent condition. Its eyes, which at first watched -the juggler as though in order to take him by surprise, are, to -a certain extent, fixed and fascinated by the latter’s gaze. The -Hindu takes advantage of this moment of stupefaction on the -part of the snake by approaching it slowly without ceasing to -play, and touches the head of the Cobra, first with his nose and -then with his tongue. Although this takes but an instant the -reptile starts out of its sleep, and the juggler has barely time to -throw himself backwards so as not to be struck by the snake, -which makes a furious dart at him.</p> - -<p>“We doubt whether the Cobra still has it fangs, and whether -the Hindu incurs any real danger in approaching it. Accordingly -we promise our man a Spanish piastre if he will make the snake -bite a couple of fowls. A black hen, which struggles violently, -is taken and offered to the Cobra, which half rises, looks at the -bird, bites it, and lets it go. The fowl is released and runs off -terrified. Six-minutes later, by the watch, it vomits, stretches out -its legs, and dies. A second fowl is placed in front of the snake, -which bites it twice, and the bird dies in eight minutes.”<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a></p> - -<p>Certain jugglers exhibit snakes from which they have taken -care to extract the fangs; they offer the animal a piece of cloth -or soft stuff into which it drives its poison-teeth, and the fabric is -then quickly snatched away in order by this means to break off -the poison-fangs that have penetrated it. This operation is repeated -at certain intervals with a view to preventing the reserve fangs -from coming into use, and the reptiles can then be handled -without any danger.</p> - -<p>It is unquestionable, however, and I have personally satisfied -myself of the fact, that many genuine snake-charmers go through -their performances with Cobras whose poison-apparatus is absolutely -intact. That they almost always avoid being bitten is due to a -perfect knowledge of the habits and movements of these reptiles. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -Nevertheless, accidents sometimes happen to them, and every year -a few of them succumb in pursuit of their calling (see p. 370). -Still, it may be asserted that some of them really know how to -vaccinate themselves against venom, by making young Cobras bite -them from time to time.</p> - -<p>It is stated by E. C. Cotes,<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> formerly of the Calcutta Museum, -that the Indian snake-charmers do not extract the poison-fangs -from their snakes. Even though deprived of its fangs, the snake -would still be dangerous on account of its other teeth, the punctures -of which would provide another channel for the penetration -of the venom.</p> - -<p>Snake-charmers pretend that they owe their immunity to -graduated inoculations. This is not yet conclusively proved; what -is better established is that they take the greatest care to avoid -being bitten, and that in so doing they display the most remarkable -skill.</p> - -<p>Even in France we are acquainted with professional viper-catchers, -who employ the method of graduated inoculations in -order to render themselves immune to the bites of indigenous -reptiles. One of these men, who lives near Arbois (Jura), takes -good care to get himself bitten, at least once a year, by a young -viper; when he forgets this precaution and happens to be bitten, -he always feels the effects much more severely.</p> - -<p>Fraser<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> (of Edinburgh) thinks that the repeated ingestion of -small quantities of venom may suffice to confer immunity, and he -mentions a certain number of experiments performed by him upon -white rats and kittens, from which it would appear that the ingestion -of venom, continued for a long time, finally renders these -animals absolutely refractory to subcutaneous inoculation with -doses of the same venom several times greater than the lethal one. -He therefore concludes that this process of vaccination may probably -be in use among snake-charmers. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span></p> - -<p>I have submitted this hypothesis to the test of experiment. -I succeeded in making <i>adult</i> rabbits, guinea-pigs, and pigeons absorb -enormous doses of <i>Cobra</i>-venom by way of the alimentary canal. -In this manner I have administered doses as much as a thousand -times greater than the lethal one, yet I have never been able to -prove that the serum of these animals became antitoxic.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, I have succeeded in vaccinating very young -guinea-pigs and young rabbits which were still being suckled, by -making them absorb, every second day, minimal and certainly innocuous -doses of very dilute venom. In the case of young animals, -venom is not modified by the digestive juices, and a portion of it -is absorbed by the mucous membrane of the intestine. When -the dose ingested is suitably reduced they withstand it, and when -these ingestions are repeated every second or third day during the -first weeks of life, the animals become perfectly vaccinated against -doses certainly lethal for controls of the same age and weight. But -it is always difficult to push the vaccination far enough for the -serum to acquire antitoxic properties, and I have never been able -to prove the appearance of the latter.</p> - -<p>I think, however, that it ought to be possible to arrive at this -result by experimenting upon animals such as lambs, kids, calves, -or foals, the intestine of which remains permeable to toxins for -a sufficiently long period.</p> - -<p>It may be that certain snake-charmers, who claim to possess -family secrets which they transmit from father to son, employ an -analogous method in order, in their infancy, to confer immunity -to venoms upon those of their male children who are to inherit -their strange and lucrative profession.</p> - -<p>In Mexico, certain Indians called <i>Curados de Culebras</i> know -how to acquire the privilege of being able to be bitten by poisonous -snakes without the least danger to life, by inoculating themselves -several times with the teeth of rattle-snakes.</p> - -<p>Dr. Jacolot,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> a naval surgeon, while staying at Tuxpan, made -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> -enquiries as to these <i>Curados de Culebras</i>, and was able to satisfy -himself that their immunity is an actual fact.</p> - -<p>The process of vaccination employed by the natives of Tuxpan -is as follows:—A preparatory treatment is necessary. On the very -day on which a man is to inoculate himself or get himself inoculated, -he takes from 5 to 15 tubers of a plant known by the name -of <i>Mano de Sapo</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, Toad’s hand, <i>Dorstenia contrayerva</i>, Family -<i>Urticaceæ</i>). These tubers must—and this is absolutely necessary—be -administered on a <i>Friday</i>, and always in an odd number, 5, 7, -9, &c., up to 15, according to the tolerance of the subject.</p> - -<p>If the plant be gathered on the first Friday in March it -possesses its marvellous properties in the highest degree; in this -case, even if it be dry, it is still excellent for the preparatory stage -of the inoculation.</p> - -<p>The physiological effects of <i>mano de sapo</i> are not very marked: -the circulation is slightly diminished and a sensation of cold is -experienced, but there are no nervous troubles. The subject -frequently has attacks of vomiting or nausea. The inclination to -vomit must be fought against, for if the plant should happen to -be rejected it would be dangerous to submit to the inoculation.</p> - -<p>The root of the <i>mano de sapo</i> is usually taken fresh. There -is another indispensable precaution: while undergoing this treatment -it is necessary to abstain from all sexual intercourse for -three days after the first inoculation, for two days after the second, -and for one day after the third.</p> - -<p>For the inoculation a large snake’s tooth, that is to say, one -of the fangs, is employed, and the fangs of the most poisonous -snakes, such as the rattle-snake (<i>cuatro narices</i>), are selected. The -snake must be killed on a <i>Friday</i>, and the fangs extracted the -same day. The same fang may serve for several years!</p> - -<p>The inoculation is commenced on the dorsal surface of the left -foot; care must be taken to avoid coming into contact with a -vein. The skin is torn with the point of the fang, so that it bleeds -a little, and the incision is in the shape of a square. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></p> - -<p>From the left foot the operator passes to the right wrist -(anterior surface), then to the right foot (dorsal surface), and left -wrist (anterior surface), always changing from one side of the -body to the other.</p> - -<p>Operations are continued on the left thigh, then on the right -arm, right thigh, and left arm; in this way all the limbs are inoculated. -On the body an inoculation is made in the centre of the -sternum; another is made in the nape, and a final one in the centre -of the forehead. The finishing touch is given with the semblance -of a square incision in the tongue.</p> - -<p>At least seven series of similar inoculations are necessary to -protect a man from the spells of the serpent, and at the same -time to confer upon him the faculty of curing by suction the -bites of the venomous snakes that are most dreaded.</p> - -<p>During the whole of the period in which the Indian thus submits -to successive inoculations, his health shows no noteworthy -derangement. He feels a slight headache and a strange inclination -towards alcoholic drinks. But when the moon is at the full, then -indeed, an excitement which is dangerous in another way takes -possession of him. His cerebral faculties become over-excited, and -he feels that his senses are deserting him; his eyes become bloodshot, -and he is pursued and tormented by an irresistible impulse -to bite. He has itching sensations in his gums, his mouth burns, -and salivation is greatly increased. He feels that he is going to -give way to the necessity to bite, and then he flees to the woods, -where he bites the trees viciously, tears their bark and discharges -his venom. His poisonous saliva mingles with the sap, and, surprising -phenomenon, the tree withers and dies!</p> - -<p>Woe to the man or animal who happens to be bitten by a -<i>Curado de Culebra</i> in a fit of passion. The victim will die as -quickly as if he had been bitten by a snake!</p> - -<p>Almost all the semi-savage people of Guiana, and of the valleys -of the Orinoco and the Amazons, as also the tribes of Central -Africa and the races of India, possess witch-doctors, who pretend -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -to be in possession of means to preserve themselves from snake-bites, -which are just as ridiculous and infallible as the procedure -described above.</p> - -<p>The archives of a criminal anthropology contain the story of -a Lyonnese gold-seeker, who had himself immunised against venom -by an aboriginal native of Guiana:<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a>—</p> - -<p>“The Indian took, from a bottle which contained several of -them, a tooth of the <i>Grage</i> (<i>Lachesis atrox</i>), an extremely poisonous -snake, and with it made upon my instep three incisions about -3 centimetres in breadth. He allowed the wounds to bleed for -a minute. I then experienced a fainting sensation, and large drops -of sweat rolled from my forehead. The wounds were next rubbed -with a blackish powder. I have since learnt that this powder was -composed of the liver and gall of the animal, dried in the sun and -pounded up with the poison-glands. The blood immediately ceased -to flow. The Indian chewed some leaves of a tree mixed with this -powder, and, applying his lips to the sore, injected into it as much -saliva as he could, making an effort as though to inflate a balloon. -This completed the operation.</p> - -<p>“Since then I have been bitten seven times by different species -of very dangerous snakes, such as the <i>Grage</i>, coral-snake, &c., and -have never even had an attack of fever. The Galibi, Boni, and -Emerillon Indians, the Bosse negroes, and all the aboriginal natives -of Guiana employ the same method of procedure. They even -pretend that this kind of vaccination is transmissible to their offspring, -and that the hereditary immunity is maintained through -several generations.”</p> - -<p>Some years ago Mons. d’Abbadie communicated to the Académie -des Sciences<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> a note from Colonel Serpa Pinto relating to another -method of vaccination employed by the natives of Mozambique, -which the Colonel himself consented to undergo. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span></p> - -<p>“I was vaccinated,” writes Colonel Serpa Pinto, “at Inhambane -(on the East Coast of Africa), among the Vatuas. These -people extract the poison of a snake which is known in Portuguese -as the <i>Alcatifa</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, carpet), and is so called on account of the -variegated colour of its skin, which resembles a carpet. I am not -acquainted with the means employed in order to obtain the poison, -which is mixed with vegetable substances, and forms with the -latter a dark brown viscid paste.</p> - -<p>“Two parallel incisions, 5 millimetres in length, are made in -the skin, and into these is introduced the paste containing the -poison. These incisions are made on the arms, near the junction -of the radius and ulna with the carpal bones, on the back of the -hand, on the back, on the shoulder-blades, and on the feet, near -the great toes. After the operation the natives exact an oath that -the vaccinated one will never kill a poisonous snake, because they -say that henceforth the snake is his intimate friend, and they throw -upon him an Alcatifa snake, which does not bite him.</p> - -<p>“After undergoing this operation my whole body was swollen -up for a week, and I underwent every possible kind of suffering.</p> - -<p>“I have never been bitten by any snake, and cannot vouch for -the infallibility of this remedy. The Vatuas do so, however, and -they never kill a snake.</p> - -<p>“A short time after having been vaccinated, I was stung, when -in the Seychelle Islands, by a scorpion, which did me no harm. -Ten years later, at the time of my journey across Africa, I was -stung by another scorpion which hurt me dreadfully, and for a -week I thought that I was going to die or lose my arm.”</p> - -<p>Mystification and superstitious ideas play, as we see, a very -great part in this preventive treatment, which is undergone by the -natives of certain countries and snake-catchers or charmers. But -it is not very surprising that, thanks to successive and repeated -inoculations, a man can succeed in acquiring sufficient immunity -to preserve himself from snake-bites.</p> - -<p>In ancient times it was even pretended that it was possible for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> -this immunity to be transmitted in certain cases by heredity, and -thus we can understand how the profession of snake-charmer was -hereditary in certain native families in India or Egypt.</p> - -<p>With reference to this subject, Professor Landouzy, in his fine -work on serum therapeutics, quotes a passage from “The Pharsalia” -of Lucan describing, in the year 60 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, the customs of the Psylli, -a people encountered by the army of Cato during its sojourn in -Africa. This passage is so interesting that I cannot refrain from -reproducing it:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Alone unharmed of all who till the earth<br /></span> -<span class="i0">By deadly serpents, dwells the Psyllian race.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Potent as herbs their song; safe is their blood,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Nor gives admission to the poison germ<br /></span> -<span class="i0">E’en when the chant has ceased. Their home itself<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Placed in such venomous tract and serpent-thronged<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Gained them this vantage, and a truce with death,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Else could they not have lived. Such is their trust<br /></span> -<span class="i0">In purity of blood, that newly born<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Each babe they prove by test of deadly asp<br /></span> -<span class="i0">For foreign lineage. So the bird of Jove<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Turns his new fledglings to the rising sun,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And such as gaze upon the beams of day<br /></span> -<span class="i0">With eyes unwavering, for the use of heaven<br /></span> -<span class="i0">He rears; but such as blink at Phœbus’ rays<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Casts from the nest. Thus of unmixed descent<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The babe who, dreading not the serpent touch,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Plays in his cradle with the deadly snake.”<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a><br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The only scientific conclusion to be drawn from the facts and -statements that we have just set before the reader is that, under -certain circumstances, man can unquestionably acquire the faculty -of resisting intoxication by snake-venom, by conferring upon himself -a veritable <i>active immunity</i> by means of repeated inoculations -of venom. We shall shortly see that the case is the same with -regard to animals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - - -<h2 id="PART_III">PART III.<br /> - -<br /><span class="ph1">ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM THERAPEUTICS.</span><br /> - - -<br /><span id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</span><br /> - -<br /><span id="Vaccination_against_snake_venom"><i>VACCINATION AGAINST SNAKE-VENOM—PREPARATION -OF ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM—ITS PREVENTIVE -PROPERTIES AS REGARDS INTOXICATION -BY VENOM.</i></span></h2> - -<p>So long ago as the year 1887 it was shown by Sewall, in an -important paper on “Rattlesnake-Venom,”<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> that it is possible to -render pigeons gradually more resistant to the action of this venom -by injecting them with doses at first very small, and certainly -incapable of producing serious effects, and then with stronger and -stronger doses. In this way, although these little animals are very -sensitive, he succeeded in making them withstand doses ten times -greater than the minimal lethal dose.</p> - -<p>A little later Kaufmann<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> obtained the same result with the -venom of French vipers. He did not, however, succeed in producing -tolerance of doses more than two or three times greater -than the lethal one.</p> - -<p>In 1892, at the time of my first experiments with cobra-venom -at Saigon,<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> I arrived at the conclusion that it was possible, by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -means of successive inoculations with heated venoms, to confer on -animals a certain degree of resistance to doses invariably lethal to -the controls.</p> - -<p>From 1894 onwards, the investigations pursued simultaneously -at the Paris Natural History Museum, by Phisalix and Bertrand, -upon viper-venom, and at the Paris Pasteur Institute by myself, -upon that of the cobra, and subsequently upon other venoms of -various origins, led to much more definite results. These investigations -show, on the one hand, that by vaccinating guinea-pigs -or rabbits, and taking certain precautions, it is possible to confer -upon these small animals a really strong immunity to venom; on -the other hand, that animals vaccinated against cobra-venom are -perfectly immune to doses of viper-venom or that of other snakes -(<i>Bungarus</i>, <i>Cerastes</i>, <i>Naja haje</i>, <i>Pseudechis</i>) certainly lethal to the -controls; and lastly, that <i>the serum of the vaccinated animals -contains antitoxic substances capable of transmitting the immunity -to other animals</i>.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></p> - -<p>According to Phisalix and Bertrand, who, as we have stated, -experimented only with viper-venom, the best method of vaccinating -the guinea-pig consists in inoculating a dose of 0·4 milligramme -of this venom heated for five minutes at 75° C., and, -forty-eight hours afterwards, the same dose of non-heated venom. -The latter is always lethal to the control guinea-pigs in from six -to eight hours.</p> - -<p>Vaccination against cobra-venom, which is much more toxic, -is most surely effected by the method recommended by me, which -consists in at first injecting small doses of this venom mixed with -an equal quantity of a 1 per cent. solution of hypochlorite of -lime. By degrees the quantity of venom is increased and that of -the hypochlorite progressively diminished, and the injections are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -repeated every three or four days, while attentively following the -variations in the weight of the animals. The inoculations are -suspended as soon as emaciation supervenes, and resumed when the -weight becomes normal again. After four injections of chloridated -venom the chloride is omitted, and a direct inoculation made with -one-half the minimal lethal dose of pure venom; then, three or -four days afterwards, the injection is increased to three-fourths of -the minimal lethal dose; and finally, after the lapse of another -three or four days, a lethal dose is injected.</p> - -<p>If the animals prove resistant, the vaccination can thenceforth -be pushed on rapidly, and the quantity of venom injected each time -can be increased, testing the susceptibility of the organism by the -variations in weight.</p> - -<p>As a rule, three months are necessary for the vaccination of -a rabbit against twenty lethal doses. In six months we can -succeed in making it very easily withstand 100 lethal doses.</p> - -<p>The serum of rabbits thus treated soon, <i>i.e.</i>, after they have -received from five to six lethal doses, exhibits antitoxic properties -<i>in vitro</i>; these, however, are not very pronounced until after -prolonged treatment. They gradually become just as intense as -those observed in the case of animals vaccinated against diphtheria -or tetanus.</p> - -<p>In 1895 Fraser confirmed these results,<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> and on May 15 in that -year exhibited before the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh -a rabbit vaccinated against a dose of cobra-venom fifty times lethal.</p> - -<p>At once considering the possibility of obtaining serums highly -antitoxic against snake-venoms, and of practical utility in the therapeutics -of snake-bites, I prepared to vaccinate a certain number of -large animals, horses and donkeys, in order to procure great quantities -of active serum. I at first experienced some difficulties in -providing myself with a sufficient store of venom. But thanks on -the one hand to the obliging collaboration of some of my old pupils -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> -or colleagues, and on the other to the valuable co-operation of the -Colonial Governments of Indo-China, the French Settlements in -India, and Martinique, I soon received poisonous snakes and dried -venom in abundance.</p> - -<div id="Fig_93" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_93.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.—Vaccinating a Horse against Venom at the Pasteur Institute at Lille.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>After this I was not long in pushing the vaccination of a few -horses until I made them resist, in a single injection, 2 <i>grammes</i> of -dry cobra-venom, a dose about <i>eighty times lethal</i>; for I was able -to satisfy myself that about 0·025 gramme of cobra-venom was -sufficient to kill fresh horses in from twelve to twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>The immunisation of horses to this very high degree of tolerance -of venom is not obtained without difficulties; many animals succumb -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -in course of treatment from endocarditis or acute nephritis; -in the case of others, each injection of venom leads to the formation -of enormous aseptic abscesses, which have to be opened -and drained. It may be said that on an average an interval of -<i>sixteen months</i> is necessary in order to obtain a serum sufficiently -antitoxic.</p> - -<div id="Fig_94" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_94.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.—Aseptically Bleeding a Horse Vaccinated against Venom in order -to obtain Antivenomous Serum at the Pasteur Institute at Lille.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>When a horse is well vaccinated and tolerates without a reaction -2 <i>grammes</i> of dry cobra-venom in a single subcutaneous injection, -it may be bled on three consecutive occasions in the space of ten -days, and in this way 20 litres of blood may be drawn from it -(<a href="#Fig_94">fig. 94</a>). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p> - -<p>The bleeding is arranged in the following manner: <i>Twelve days</i> -after the last injection of venom the horse is bled for the first time -to the extent of 8 litres; five days later it is bled for the second -time to the extent of 6 litres; five days later still the third bleeding -takes place, when 6 litres are again withdrawn.</p> - -<p>The animal is then allowed to rest for three months and supplied -with strengthening food, and during this period 2 <i>grammes</i> -of venom are again injected on two occasions at the end of a -month, followed, a month and a half later, by the injection of -2 more <i>grammes</i>. The antitoxic power of the serum is thus -maintained approximately at the same standard.</p> - -<p>The serum drawn off at each bleeding must be severely tested, -which is done by gauging its antitoxic power <i>in vitro</i>, when -mixed with venom, and also its preventive effect.</p> - -<p>An antivenomous serum may be considered to be utilisable -when a mixture of 1 c.c. of serum with 0·001 gramme of cobra-venom -produces no intoxicating effect in the rabbit, and when -a preventive subcutaneous injection of 2 c.c. of serum into a rabbit -of about 2 kilogrammes enables it to resist, two hours later, subcutaneous -inoculation with 1 milligramme of venom.</p> - -<p>The <i>preventive power</i> may be very quickly tested by injecting -a rabbit, <i>in the marginal vein of the right ear</i> for example, with -2 c.c. of serum, and injecting, <i>five minutes afterwards</i>, <i>in the -marginal vein of the left ear</i>, 8 milligramme of venom. This -dose of 1 milligramme generally kills the control rabbits in less -than thirty minutes when introduced into the veins, and in from -two to three hours when injected beneath the skin.</p> - -<p>This rapid proof by <i>intravenous injection</i> is extremely striking -and demonstrative; it can be effected in public during a class or -lecture in less than an hour, and enables an immediate estimate -to be formed of the value of an antivenomous serum. When it -is intended to adopt this method, it is essential to make use of -a recent solution of venom, for solutions from a week to a fortnight -old, although sterile, have already lost a large portion of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -their toxicity, and, if these be employed, the dose of venom -calculated to kill the control animals in thirty minutes, for -example, takes an hour or more to do so.</p> - -<p>I always prepare my test solutions of venom in the following -manner:—</p> - -<p>Ten milligrammes of dry cobra-venom are weighed in a delicate -balance. The venom is dissolved in 10 c.c. of 0·8 per cent. physiological -salt solution, which takes a few minutes. When the venom -is thoroughly dissolved it is transferred to a test-tube, which is -immersed for three-quarters of an hour in a water-bath heated to -+ 72° C. In this way the non-toxic albumins are coagulated -without modifying the neurotoxic substance. The solution is -poured on to a filter of sterilised paper, and the clear liquid -which is collected is immediately put up in glass phials, which -are hermetically sealed, or in small sterilised bottles. Its toxicity -is tested upon control animals, and it may be kept for five or -six days if protected from light, or for several weeks in a refrigerator -at about 0° C.</p> - -<p><i>One-tenth of this solution corresponds exactly to 1 milligramme -of dry venom.</i></p> - -<p>As for the antivenomous serum, as soon as its antitoxic value -has been ascertained by the methods that I have just described, and -it has been separated from clots and red corpuscles by suitable -decantation, it is portioned out, with the usual aseptic precautions, -into small sterilised bottles of 10 c.c. capacity, without -the addition of any antiseptic.</p> - -<p>In order to ensure that it will keep for a long time, care is -then taken to heat the hermetically sealed bottles in a water-bath -at a temperature of 58° C. for one hour, and this operation is -repeated for three days in succession.</p> - -<p>Serum prepared in this way preserves its antitoxic power -unimpaired for about two years, <i>in all climates</i>. I have had -occasion at various times to receive bottles which had been sent -eighteen months and two years previously to India and Indo-China, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> -and I was able to show that their standard had not perceptibly -deteriorated. It was only the appearance of the contained liquid -that was slightly changed; it was discoloured, and when shaken -small white flakes were seen floating through it. These flakes -are not a sign of deterioration; they are composed of deposits -of precipitated albumin. They can be partly dissolved again by -violent shaking, or they may be separated before use by filtration -through sterilised paper.</p> - -<p>In a dry state, antivenomous serum may be kept for an almost -indefinite period, in hermetically sealed glass tubes. In this condition -it is usually divided into doses of 1 gramme, and when it -is desired to make use of it, it is sufficient to dissolve a dose in -10 c.c. of water which has been boiled and allowed to cool, which -takes two or three minutes. This solution is then injected beneath -the skin, as though it were liquid serum.</p> - -<p>The Pasteur Institute at Lille prepares in this way large -quantities of antivenomous serum, which are sent all over the -world to those countries in which poisonous snakes are most -dangerous.</p> - -<p>Recently, special laboratories for the production of this preparation -have been instituted at Bombay and at Kasauli, in the Punjab, -by Drs. G. Lamb and Semple; at Philadelphia, by Professor -McFarland; at São-Paulo, in Brazil, by Dr. Vital Brazil; and -at Sydney, by Dr. Tidswell.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p id="Specificity_and_Polyvalence_of_Antivenomous_Serums"><i>Specificity and Polyvalence of Antivenomous Serums.</i>—By means -of a large number of experiments I have proved that snake-venoms, -whatever their origin, contain two principal substances: <i>neurotoxin</i>, -which exerts its effects upon the elements of the nervous -system, and <i>hæmorrhagin</i> (Flexner and Noguchi), or <i>proteolytic -diastase</i>, the effects of which remain exclusively local when the -venom is introduced subcutaneously into the cellular tissue, but -which produces coagulation of the blood when the venom is -injected directly into the blood stream. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span></p> - -<p>The venom of <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> in general is characterised by the -constant predominence of <i>neurotoxin</i>, to which it owes its extreme -toxicity, which is especially intense in the case of cobra-venom. -It contains no, or scarcely any <i>hæmorrhagin</i>; for this reason the -local symptoms of poisoning by <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span> venom are almost <i>nil</i>. -This <i>neurotoxin</i>, as we have seen, shows itself very highly resistant -to heat.</p> - -<p>The venom of <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, on the contrary, especially that of -<i>Lachesis</i>, is characterised by the almost total absence of <i>neurotoxin</i>, -while its richness in <i>hæmorrhagin</i> is considerable. Consequently, -heating for a few minutes at + 75° C. renders it almost -entirely inactive, since <i>hæmorrhagin</i> is very sensitive to heat.</p> - -<p>Given venom of some kind or other, the origin of which is -unknown, it is therefore possible to ascertain whether the snake -from which it was extracted belonged to the <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> or -<span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span>, by determining its richness in <i>neurotoxin</i> resistant to -heating at + 85° C.</p> - -<p>Certain <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms, such as those of the European <i>Vipera -berus</i> and <i>Vipera aspis</i>, the African <i>Cerastes</i> and American <i>Crotalus</i> -contain at the same time a small proportion—varying greatly in -amount according to the species—of <i>neurotoxin</i>, and a much larger -proportion of <i>hæmorrhagin</i>. It is for this reason that these venoms, -although greatly attenuated and deprived of their local action by -heating, still remain toxic when injected in large doses into animals -after having been heated to + 75° C.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, some <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span> venoms, such as those of -<i>Bungarus cæruleus</i>, which are very rich in <i>neurotoxin</i>, contain a -quantity of hæmorrhagin sufficient to differentiate their effects in -appearance from those produced by cobra-venom, when they are -injected, not beneath the skin, but directly into the veins. In this -case their effects upon the blood are added to those of their -neurotoxin.</p> - -<p>It would seem, too, that the venoms of Australian <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -(<i>Hoplocephalus</i>, <i>Pseudechis</i>) form a special group, which is richer in -<i>hæmorrhagin</i> than are those of the <span class="smcap">Colubridæ</span> of the Old World.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p> - -<p>On studying, in the case of these various venoms, the action <i>in -vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i> of a purely <i>antineurotoxic</i> antivenomous serum, -such as, for example, that of an animal vaccinated against cobra-venom -heated to + 75° C., it is found that this serum has a very -decided effect upon cobra-venom, and likewise upon that of snakes -belonging to allied species (<i>Naja bungarus</i>, <i>Naja haje</i>), and that its -action upon the other venoms is less in proportion as they contain -less <i>neurotoxin</i>. It prevents hæmolysis <i>in vitro</i>, and suppresses the -effects of intoxication on the nervous system, but does not modify -in any way the phenomena of coagulation or of proteolysis.</p> - -<p>If this serum be made to act <i>in vitro</i> on those <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> -venoms that, when heated to + 75° C. and deprived of their -hæmorrhagin, remain neurotoxic, like the venom of the common -viper, it is found that it renders them entirely innocuous. Therefore, -in the case of all species of poisonous snakes, and perhaps -also in that of other poisonous animals (such as scorpions), it -appears that the <i>neurotoxic</i> substance is <i>one and the same</i>, and -always neutralisable by an <i>antineurotoxic</i> serum like that of -animals vaccinated against cobra-venom.</p> - -<p><i>Neurotoxin</i> being the essentially active substance in venoms, and -that to which the dangerous properties of poisonous snakes, as -regards man and domestic animals, are especially due, it is the -effects of this that it is most necessary to prevent. Consequently, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -the first quality that an antivenomous serum ought to exhibit, -in order to be capable of being used in the therapeutics of -poisoning, is the possession of an <i>antineurotoxic</i> power as high -as possible. This antineurotoxic power is easily obtained by -employing cobra-venom for the fundamental immunisation of the -horses destined for the production of the serum.</p> - -<p><i>Antineurotoxic</i> serum thus prepared shows itself perfectly -capable of preventing all effects of intoxication from cobra-bites, -which are much the most frequent in India. In the same way -it shows itself quite sufficiently efficacious with regard to <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span> -and <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms, the neurotoxic activity of which may -cause death. But it does not possess any preventive action upon -the local effects of <i>hæmorrhagin</i>, to which the noxiousness of -certain <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms—such as those of <i>Lachesis</i>—are almost -exclusively due.</p> - -<p>In countries in which <span class="smcap">Viperidæ</span> are very common, we must -therefore not confine ourselves to vaccinating the animals that -produce serum solely against the <i>neurotoxin</i> of cobra-venom, for -instance; we must prepare these animals, after having immunised -them to cobra-venom, by injecting them with progressively increasing -doses of the various venoms derived from the snakes that are -most frequently met with in the district.</p> - -<p>Nothing, moreover, is easier than to train animals vaccinated -against cobra-venom to tolerate strong doses of the venoms of -<i>Lachesis</i>, <i>Vipera russellii</i>, <i>Crotalus</i>, <i>Hoplocephalus</i>, or <i>Pseudechis</i>. -In a few months we succeed in obtaining serums very active -against these different venoms.</p> - -<p>Utilising the horse as producer of antitoxin, I have prepared by -this method <i>polyvalent</i> serums capable of preventing the local -action of <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms, and of suppressing <i>in vitro</i> their -coagulant and proteolytic effects upon the blood.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, great as has been the kindness of the many -persons who have most obligingly given me their assistance in the -course of the fifteen years during which I have studied this question, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -I have found it impossible to procure sufficient quantities of -venoms of various origins to furnish each country with the polyvalent -serums corresponding to its particular needs. I have therefore -been obliged to confine myself to preparing for the most part -<i>antineurotoxins</i>, which I have been able to do, thanks to the -abundant provision of <i>Cobra</i>- and <i>Bungarus</i>-venoms, for which I am -indebted to the liberality of the Government of the French Settlements -in India, and to that of my pupils and friends who are at the -present time in charge of the Colonial Laboratories of Indo-China. -Moreover, the recent foundation of the Serum-Therapic Institutes -of Bombay and Kasauli, Sydney, São-Paulo, and Philadelphia, -to-day renders it very easy for each country to provide itself with -antivenomous serum, either specific or polyvalent. Other institutes -will doubtless be established for the purpose of extending the benefits -of a method, the efficacy of which is sufficiently evident for -its adoption to be incumbent upon all those who are concerned -with safeguarding human existence. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> - -<span id="Neutralisation_of_venom_by_antitoxin"><i>NEUTRALISATION OF VENOM BY ANTITOXIN.</i></span></h2> - -<p>It is difficult, in the present state of our knowledge on the -subject of toxins and antitoxins, to determine the precise nature -of the reactions that are produced in the living organism as the -result of serum injected for the purpose of preventing the toxic -action of venom.</p> - -<p>I maintained, some years ago,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> that the phenomenon in this -case was a purely physiological one, which I considered to be -proved by the fact that, if we mix <i>in vitro</i>, in determinate proportions, -venom and antivenomous serum, and if we heat this mixture -at 68° C. for half an hour, the injection of the heated mixture kills -animals as if they were inoculated with venom alone, although -with a considerable retardation. I concluded from this that, in all -probability, antitoxic serum does not modify the toxin with which -it is mixed, but that it confines itself to displaying a parallel and -opposite action by preventing the noxious effects. I therefore -supposed that no chemical combination is produced between these -two substances, or, at least, that the combination effected is very -unstable.</p> - -<p>My experiments were subsequently repeated by Martin and -Cherry,<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> who showed that the results as stated above were perfectly -correct when the mixture of venom and antitoxin was heated less -than ten minutes after it had been made, but that, if the heating -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -did not take place until twenty or thirty minutes later, the toxicity -of the venom no longer reappeared.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the admirable researches of Kyes and Sachs, -and subsequently those of Morgenroth, pursued under the direction -of Ehrlich at the Laboratory of Experimental Therapy at Frankfort, -have proved the readiness of venom to enter into chemical -combination with certain elements of normal serums, in particular -with <i>lecithin</i>, a combination which results in the formation of -<i>hæmolysing</i> and non-toxic <i>lecithides</i>, the <i>neurotoxin</i> being left free.</p> - -<p>It therefore seemed impossible to deny the existence of a -chemical reaction between the venom and the serum, which was -until quite recently considered as proved. We shall see presently -that this is not the case. But let us first endeavour to determine -the laws that govern the neutralisation of variable quantities of -venom by antivenomous serum.</p> - -<p>If, in a series of test-tubes, we bring the same quantity of cobra-venom -(<i>e.g.</i>, 0·00005 gramme, a dose which is invariably lethal to the -mouse in two hours) into contact with progressively increasing -quantities of an antivenomous serum (<i>e.g.</i>, 0·01 c.c., 0·02 c.c., &c., up -to 0·1 c.c.), and, after thirty minutes of contact, inject these different -mixtures subcutaneously into a series of mice, we find that all -those that have received the mixtures containing less than 0·05 c.c. -of serum succumb after variable intervals, while all the rest survive. -It is evident that, under these conditions, the serum experimented -upon has shown itself capable of neutralising <i>in vitro</i>, in -a dose of 0·05 c.c., 5 centimilligrammes of venom.</p> - -<p>The same serum should therefore neutralise 1 milligramme of -venom in a dose of 1 c.c., that is to say, that this mixture injected -into a mouse ought to be entirely innocuous. Experiments show, -however, that in reality it is necessary to mix 1·2 c.c. of serum with -1 milligramme of venom in order that the inoculated mouse may -not succumb.</p> - -<p>This proves that, in the initial mixture of 0·00005 gramme of -venom + 0·05 c.c. of serum, there remained an exceedingly small -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> -quantity of non-neutralised venom, and that this quantity of venom -in a free state was insufficient to cause the death of the animal, or -even any apparent malaise. When multiplied by twenty, however, -it becomes capable of producing toxic effects; it is for this reason -that, when it is desired to inoculate a mouse with twenty times the -lethal dose of 0·00005 gramme <i>neutralised</i>, it is necessary to mix -with this twenty times lethal dose a dose of serum <i>a little larger</i> -than twenty times that which renders 0·00005 gramme of venom -innocuous to the mouse, that is to say, 1·2 c.c.</p> - -<p>If, instead of making use of the <i>mouse</i> as test animal, we employ -the <i>rabbit</i>, it is found that the same serum, in a dose of 0·75 c.c., -neutralises 0·001 gramme of venom sufficiently for the mixture to be -innocuous when inoculated. It is clear that, in this mixture, the -whole of the venom was not neutralised by the serum, but the -small quantity left free is incapable of producing harmful effects.</p> - -<p>By this method of employing mixtures of the same dose of -venom with variable quantities of antivenomous serum, we are -therefore enabled to determine with the greatest exactness the -antitoxic power <i>in vitro</i> of each specimen of serum. But it must -not be forgotten that <i>the result obtained applies only to the species -of animal into which the mixtures were injected</i>.</p> - -<p>I have already stated (Chapter VIII.) that a fairly close parallelism -exists between the <i>neurotoxic</i> action of venoms and their -<i>hæmolytic</i> action, and I have established that, in order that the -sensitive red blood-corpuscles may be dissolved under the influence -of venom, it is indispensable that the reaction take place in the -presence of normal serum, since venoms have no effect upon red -corpuscles freed from serum by several successive washings and -centrifugings.</p> - -<p>Preston Kyes has explained this phenomenon very well by -showing that the venom combines with the lecithins in the serum, -or with those contained in the stroma of the corpuscle, so as to -constitute a hæmolysing <i>lecithide</i>.</p> - -<p>The knowledge of this fact enables us to determine, by means -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> -of a very neat and simple method, and with a sufficient degree of -accuracy for practical purposes, the antitoxic power of an antivenomous -serum by measuring its <i>antihæmolytic</i> power.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p> - -<p>To this end it is sufficient to cause variable doses of serum to -act on a given quantity of defibrinated horse- or rat-blood, to which -a constant dose of venom is then added. We employ, for example, -a 5 per cent. dilution of defibrinated horse-blood, which is portioned -out in doses of 1 c.c. into a series of test-tubes. To each of these -tubes in succession is added a progressively increasing quantity of -the serum for titration, starting with 0·01 c.c., and continuing with -0·02 c.c., 0·03 c.c., &c., up to 0·1 c.c. A control tube receives no serum. -There are then introduced into all the tubes 1 decimilligramme of -venom and 0·2 c.c. of normal horse-serum, deprived of alexin by -previous heating for half an hour at 58° C. At a temperature of -about 16° C. hæmolysis commences to manifest itself in the control -tube in from fifteen to twenty minutes. It takes place in the other -tubes with a retardation which varies with the dose of serum -added. Tubes are to be noticed in which it does not occur even -after the lapse of a couple of hours.</p> - -<p>Experience shows that we may consider as good for therapeutic -use serums which, in a dose of 0·05 c.c., completely prevent hæmolysis -by 1 decimilligramme of <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span> venom, such as that of -Cobra, Krait, &c., and those that in a dose of 0·7 c.c., prevent -hæmolysis by 1 milligramme of the venom of <i>Lachesis</i> or <i>Vipera -berus</i>.</p> - -<p>By a method calculated upon the foregoing, it is likewise -possible to measure the <i>antihæmorrhagic</i> activity of an antivenomous -serum, for the parallelism existing between the <i>antineurotoxic</i> -and <i>antihæmolytic</i> actions of serums occurs again, as -I have been able to establish in conjunction with Noc, between -the <i>antihæmorrhagic</i> and <i>antiproteolytic</i> action of the same serums. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></p> - -<p>Now, the <i>antiproteolytic</i> action is easily determined by means -of a series of test-tubes containing the same quantity of 20 per -cent. gelatinised <i>bouillon</i>, rendered imputrescible by the addition -of a small quantity of thymol. The gelatine being kept liquid in -the incubating stove, a progressively increasing quantity of serum -is poured into each tube. The same dose of venom, say 1 milligramme, -is then added in each case. The tubes are placed in the -stove for six hours at 36° C. They are then withdrawn and -immersed in a bath of cold water. Those in which the gelatine -solidifies are noted, and thus we establish the dose of antivenomous -serum that inhibits the proteolysis of this substance.</p> - -<p>These different methods of control enable us to verify the -activity of antivenomous serums with great exactness, without -the necessity of having recourse to experiments upon animals.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In a very important memoir on the reconstitution of the toxins -from a mixture of <i>toxin</i> + <i>antitoxin</i>, J. Morgenroth<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> has shown -that the venom, after being naturalised by the antivenomous -serum, can be dissociated from its combination by means of a -method which consists in adding to the latter a small quantity -of hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<p>Previous experiments by Kyes had established:—</p> - -<p>(1) That antivenomous serum, the antitoxic action of which is -so manifest when it is mixed <i>in vitro</i> with cobra-venom, remains -entirely inert when brought into contact with the combination -<i>lecithin</i> + <i>venom</i>, that is to say, with <i>cobra-lecithide</i>.</p> - -<p>(2) That the addition of lecithin to a neutral combination of -<i>venom</i> + <i>antivenomous</i> serum does not set the venom free again, -and that under these conditions no <i>lecithide</i> is formed.</p> - -<p>If, in a neutral mixture of <i>cobra-hæmolysin</i> and <i>antitoxin</i> we -could succeed in dissociating the two constituent elements, and -in then making the <i>cobra-hæmolysin</i> combine with the <i>lecithin</i>, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> -we should have a toxin and antitoxin side by side; for the -reasons indicated above, this toxin (<i>lecithide</i>) and antitoxin (<i>antivenomous</i> -serum) would be no longer capable of combining; but -the toxin (<i>lecithide</i>), thanks to its hæmolytic properties, could easily -be demonstrated.</p> - -<p>It is precisely this desideratum that J. Morgenroth has succeeded -in realising, by means of hydrochloric acid, which renders -it possible to dissociate the neutral mixture, <i>toxin</i> + <i>antitoxin</i>, -into its constituent elements, and then to obtain a <i>lecithide</i>.</p> - -<p>Experiments show that the quantity of lecithide thus restored -absolutely corresponds to that of the cobra-hæmolysin originally -added to the antitoxin, and that the antitoxin set free is not -injured by the hydrochloric acid, even after twenty-four hours of -contact. It is sufficient to add the quantity of soda or of ammonia -necessary for the neutralisation of the acid, in order to see the -antitoxin reappear in its original strength.</p> - -<p>It is therefore possible, by causing hydrochloric acid (in a -solution not stronger than 3 per cent.) to act on a neutral mixture -of cobra-hæmolysin (toxin) and antitoxin, to set the former at -liberty in the form of <i>lecithide</i>, to withdraw the latter from the -action of the antitoxin, and to demonstrate its presence, owing to -its hæmolytic properties.</p> - -<p>It has been found by Kyes and Sachs that, under the influence -of hydrochloric acid, cobra-hæmolysin becomes resistant to heat to -such an extent that it is not destroyed even by prolonged heating -at 100° C.</p> - -<p>If to a neutral mixture of toxin + antitoxin we add a small -quantity of hydrochloric acid, and then heat the mixture at 100° C., -the antitoxin being in this case destroyed, we shall recover the -whole of the toxin originally employed.</p> - -<p>Therefore, as was shown by me so long ago as 1894, if the -mixture of toxin + antitoxin produces a chemical combination -between the two substances, this combination is unstable, and can -be effectively broken up into these two constituent elements by -various influences. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> - -<span id="Treatment_of_Poisonous_Snake_bites_in_Man_And_Animals"><i>TREATMENT OF POISONOUS SNAKE-BITES IN MAN -AND ANIMALS.</i></span><br /> - -<i>OBJECTS OF THE TREATMENT: TECHNIQUE OF -ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM-THERAPY.</i></h2> - -<p>In all countries the remedies recommended for the bites of -poisonous snakes are innumerable, and native pharmacopœias -abound in so-called infallible recipes.</p> - -<p>Pliny himself wrote on this subject as follows:—</p> - -<p>“For poisonous bites, it is customary to employ a liniment made -of fresh sheep-droppings, cooked in wine. Rats cut in two are -also applied; these animals possess important properties, especially -at the epoch of the ascension of the stars, seeing that the number -of a rat’s fibres wax and wane with the moon.</p> - -<p>“Of all birds, those that afford most assistance against snakes -are vultures. The black ones are the weaker. The odour of their -feathers when burnt puts snakes to flight. Provided with a -vulture’s heart one need not fear encounters with snakes, and can -also defy the wrath of wild beasts, robbers, and princes.</p> - -<p>“Cock’s flesh, applied while still warm, neutralises the venom -of snakes. The brains of the bird, swallowed in wine, produce the -same effect. The Parthians, for this purpose, make use of chicken’s -brains. The fresh flesh of the pigeon and the swallow, and owls’ -feet burned, are good against snake-bites.</p> - -<p>“If one has been bitten by a snake or by any venomous animal, -another method of cure is to take salt fish and wine from time -to time, so as to vomit in the evening. This remedy is chiefly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> -efficacious against the bite of the <i>Chalcis</i>, <i>Cerastes</i>, <i>Seps</i>, <i>Elaps</i> and -<i>Dipsas</i>.”</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In Equatorial America, and especially in India, a multitude -of plants are credited with marvellous properties, which they -possess only in the imagination of the snake-charmers or medicine-men -by whom they are employed. None of them stand the test of -experiment, any more than the more or less compound drugs, -numbers of specimens of which from all sources have passed -through my hands.</p> - -<p>It cannot, however, be denied that certain chemical substances, -of well-defined composition, are very useful, not as physiological -antidotes to venoms, but as agents for their modification or destruction -in the poisoned wounds, when they have not yet been absorbed. -In this way <i>permanganate of potash</i>, <i>chromic acid</i>, <i>chloride of -gold</i>, and the <i>alkaline hypochlorites</i>, especially <i>hypochlorite of -lime</i>, may be extremely useful under many circumstances.</p> - -<p><i>Permanganate of potash</i> was recommended in 1881 by Professor -de Lacerda,<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> of Rio de Janeiro, as the result of experiments made -by him with venoms of Brazilian snakes. When a few cubic -centimetres of a 1 per cent. solution of permanganate of potash are -quickly injected into the actual wound caused by the bite and -around the point of inoculation, there can be no doubt that the -venom not yet absorbed is destroyed. When mixed <i>in vitro</i> with -venom, permanganate renders the latter innocuous.</p> - -<p>Here, however, it is a case of actual destruction by direct -contact. If we inject a lethal dose of venom into the right thigh -of an animal, for example, and several cubic centimetres of permanganate -solution into different parts of the body, or beneath the -skin of the left thigh, neither the general intoxication nor the local -effects of the venom are modified.</p> - -<p>The same may be said with regard to <i>chromic acid</i> (1 per cent. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> -solution), recommended by Kaufmann<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> for the bite of the common -viper.</p> - -<p>No other effect is produced by a 1 per cent. solution of <i>chloride -of gold</i>, or the <i>alkaline hypochlorites</i>, which I have shown to -possess a strong oxidising action on the different venoms, even on -those that are most rapidly diffusible, such as cobra-venom (see -Chapter V.). They possess, however, owing to their slight causticity, -the advantage of not producing severe local disorders, and -in this respect they are to be preferred.</p> - -<p>The chemical reagent most to be recommended is <i>hypochlorite -of lime</i>, in a fresh solution of 2 grammes per cent., and containing -about 90 c.c. of chlorine per 100 grammes. It immediately and -surely destroys the venom by simple contact, and the chlorine gas -that it gives off, owing to its great diffusibility, acts at a fairly long -distance from the point of inoculation on the venom which is -already beginning to be absorbed.</p> - -<p>Professor Halford, of Melbourne, advises the direct injection -into the patient’s veins of from 10 to 20 drops of ammonia, diluted -with an equal quantity of distilled water. This is a means of -reviving nervous excitability in certain subjects at the commencement -of intoxication; but torpor soon reappears, and, if the dose -of venom inoculated is sufficient to cause death, a fatal ending takes -place notwithstanding. Experimentally the effects of ammonia -are <i>nil</i>.</p> - -<p>No better results are obtained by injections of strychnine, as -recommended by Dr. Mueller, in Australia. Moreover, the -statistics published by Raston Huxtable<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> positively condemn this -therapeutic method. They show that, in 426 cases of snake-bite, -out of 113 treated by strychnine 15 proved fatal, the ratio of -mortality being 13·2 per cent., while the 313 cases not treated -by strychnine only resulted in 13 deaths, or a mortality of 4·1 -per cent. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span></p> - -<p>In the case of animals intoxicated by venom, injections of -strychnine, morphia, nicotine, or curare in small doses always -prove ineffective; they even considerably assist the progress of -the intoxication and hasten death. The use of these drugs in the -case of human beings should therefore be absolutely forbidden.</p> - -<p>It appears, on the other hand, that alcohol and coffee, or tea, -absorbed by ingestion, are very often beneficial. Indeed, it was -long ago observed that the swallowing of alcohol until symptoms -of drunkenness appear retards or diminishes the phenomena of -torpor and paresis that precede the ultimate phase of the intoxication. -Its use may therefore be recommended when it is impossible -to have recourse to the only treatment really specific that modern -science places in our hands—<i>antivenomous serum-therapy</i>. It is -important, however, to state that, <i>when serum is used, alcohol must -be forbidden</i>. The latter hinders the effects of the former.</p> - -<p>In practice, the rational treatment of the bite of a venomous -snake must be directed towards:—</p> - -<p>(1) Preventing the absorption of the venom.</p> - -<p>(2) Neutralising, by the injection of a sufficient quantity of -antitoxic serum, the effects of the venom already absorbed.</p> - -<p>In order to prevent the absorption of the venom introduced -into the wound, the first precaution to be taken is to compress -the bitten limb by means of a ligature of some kind, such as a -handkerchief, as close as possible to the bite, and between it and -the base of the limb. The ligature must be tightly twisted, and, -by compressing the tissues around the bite, an attempt should be -made to squeeze out the venom that may have been introduced -into them. The expulsion of the poison should be hastened, either -by making an incision 2 or 3 cm. in length and 1 cm. in depth in -the direction taken by the fangs of the reptile and also parallel to -the axis of the bitten member, or by sucking the wound hard.</p> - -<p>The ligature on the limb should not be applied for more than -half an hour; if it were kept on longer it would interfere with the -circulation to a dangerous degree, and would certainly injure the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> -vitality of the tissues. The period in question also usually affords -sufficient time for taking the patient to a place where help can be -obtained, and for the preparation of everything necessary for his -subsequent treatment.</p> - -<p>The wound should then be freely washed with a fresh 2 <i>per cent.</i> -solution of <i>hypochlorite of lime</i>, or with a 1 in 1,000 solution of -<i>chloride of gold</i>. In default of hypochlorite of lime or chloride of -gold, either <i>eau de Javel</i>, diluted with tepid water to a strength -of 1 in 10, or a 1 per cent. solution of permanganate of potash, may -be employed. These reagents should be made to penetrate as -deeply as possible into the tissues, and a few cubic centimetres of -them should even be injected with a Pravaz syringe into the -punctures caused by the bite and all round them.</p> - -<p>The wound being then covered with a damp dressing by means -of compresses saturated with hypochlorite of lime, or at least with -pure alcohol, the next thing to be done is to prepare to apply the -serum-therapic treatment in order to arrest the general intoxication, -if this has already commenced to take effect, or to prevent it from -setting in.</p> - -<p>For the employment of serum it is necessary to be in possession -of a sterilisable syringe of the capacity of 10 c.c., similar to those -used in the treatment of diphtheria.</p> - -<p>If the life of the patient be not immediately in danger, care -should first be taken to have the syringe boiled, or at least to rinse -it out with boiling water, making sure that the piston fits tightly, -and that the syringe itself is in good working order.</p> - -<p>Should a syringe of 10 c.c. not be available, any kind of Pravaz -syringe, previously washed out with boiling water, may be employed, -but in this case the use of so small an instrument renders -it necessary to give several painful injections.</p> - -<p>The entire contents of a bottle of serum (10 c.c. of liquid serum, -or 1 gramme of dry serum dissolved in 10 c.c. of boiled water) -should be injected into the subcutaneous areolar tissue of the -abdomen, on the right or left side. There is no advantage in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -making the injection at the actual spot bitten; the serum is best -and most rapidly absorbed when injected into the loose tissues of -the abdominal wall (<a href="#Fig_95">fig. 95</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_95" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_95.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.—Technique of the Injection of Antivenomous Serum beneath the -Skin of the Abdomen.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If it has been impossible to apply the treatment until several -hours after the bite, and if the latter has been inflicted by a -poisonous snake of large size or belonging to a very dangerous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -species, such as the Cobra or Indian Krait, it is preferable to inject -into the patient three whole doses of serum at once.</p> - -<p>In cases in which the phenomena of serious intoxication have -already appeared, and when asphyxia threatens, one must not -hesitate to inject 10 or even 20 c.c. of serum directly <i>into a vein</i>. -For such an injection it is most convenient to choose a superficial -vein at the elbow or wrist, or on the back of the hand.</p> - -<p>The introduction of serum into the veins is never dangerous if -good care be taken not to allow either bubbles of air or particles -of precipitated albumin to enter.</p> - -<p>It is not advisable to repeat the injections beneath the skin or -into the veins unless the general symptoms appear to become more -acute.</p> - -<p>In most cases the local pain, excitement, and attacks of cramp -and nausea disappear within a few minutes after the first injection. -Improvement progresses very rapidly, and by the following day the -patient has recovered.</p> - -<p>The administration of ammonia, alcohol, morphia, or ether by -the mouth is entirely superfluous. These drugs, as I have already -stated, may even be harmful to the patient and hinder the effects -of the serum. All that should be done is to give copious hot drinks, -tea or coffee, and to cover up the patient warmly in order to induce -abundant perspiration.</p> - -<p>The bitten member should not be cauterised with red hot iron -or with chemical agents of any kind, since such cauterisations only -lead to injuries which are too often prejudicial to the normal action -of the affected organs.</p> - -<p><i>Treatment of Poisonous Bites in the Case of Domestic Animals.</i>—It -often happens that dogs, horses, or cattle are bitten and -succumb to the poisoning in a few hours or in two or three days. -Such accidents are especially frequent among sporting dogs, even -in Europe, in regions in which <i>vipers</i> are found.</p> - -<p>In most cases, dogs, horses, and cattle are bitten on the nose, -and such bites are immediately followed by a very painful swelling, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> -which arouses the suspicion of the owners of the animals. It is -then necessary, as soon as possible, to inject subcutaneously in the -right or left flank, or at the base of the neck, one or two doses -of antivenomous serum, according to the gravity of the effects -observed.</p> - -<p>The injection of the serum and the dressing of the wound should -be performed as in the case of poisonous bites in human beings.</p> - -<p><i>Influence of the Doses of Antivenomous Serum injected, and of -the Time that has elapsed since the Venomous Bite.</i>—I have stated -above that antivenomous serum possesses a preventive and curative -power of such intensity, that it is capable in a few minutes of -rendering animals into which it has been injected absolutely insensible -to the most strongly neurotoxic venoms, such as those of -<i>Naja</i> or <i>Bungarus</i>. On the other hand, I have established the -fact that, the more sensitive are the animals to intoxication -by venom, the greater is the quantity of antivenomous serum -necessary to immunise them passively or to cure them.</p> - -<p>In experimenting upon mice, guinea-pigs, and rabbits, it is -found that in order to preserve, let us say, a mouse of 25 grammes -against inoculation with half a milligramme of venom, which is -ten times the lethal dose for this little animal, it is necessary to -give a preventive injection of 1 c.c. of serum; while half a cubic -centimetre of the same serum is sufficient to render the dose of -half a milligramme of venom innocuous, when venom and serum -are mixed <i>in vitro</i> before being injected.</p> - -<p>In the case of the guinea-pig, it is likewise found that the dose -of serum to be injected preventively, in order to protect the -animal from intoxication by ten times the lethal dose of venom, -is about <i>twice as much</i> as the quantity of the same serum that -it is sufficient to mix <i>in vitro</i> with venom, in order to render ten -times the lethal dose of venom innocuous.</p> - -<p>If we inject into animals first venom, in doses calculated to -kill the controls of the same weight in from two to three hours, -and the serum <i>fifteen minutes afterwards</i>, it is found that the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -quantity of serum that must be injected in order to prevent death -is about <i>thrice as great</i>, as that which neutralises <i>in vitro</i> the dose -of venom inoculated.</p> - -<p>It is also found that <i>the amount of curative serum that an -animal intoxicated by venom must receive is inversely proportional -to its weight</i>.</p> - -<p>The experiments upon dogs, performed at the Pasteur Institute -at Lille by my collaborator C. Guérin, are highly demonstrative -in this respect.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p> - -<p>A dog of 12 kilogrammes, inoculated with 9 milligrammes of -venom (a dose lethal to controls of the same weight in from five -to seven hours), is completely cured on receiving, <i>two hours after -inoculation with the poison</i>, 10 c.c. of serum.</p> - -<p>When the treatment does not take place until <i>three hours after -the injection of the venom</i>, it is necessary to inject 20 cc. of serum -in order to prevent the animal from dying. With a longer delay -than this, death is inevitable, since the bulbar centres are already -affected, and paralysis of the respiratory muscles commences to -appear.</p> - -<p>These facts show that:—</p> - -<p>(1) <i>The more sensitive animals are to venom, the greater is the -quantity of serum necessary in order to prevent their intoxication -by a given dose of venom.</i></p> - -<p>(2) <i>For a given species of animal and a given dose of venom, -the longer the delay in applying the remedy, the greater is the -quantity of serum that must be injected in order to arrest the -poisoning.</i></p> - -<p>It will be understood from what has been already stated, that -a man weighing 60 kilogrammes, if bitten by a snake which -injects, let us say, what would amount to 20 milligrammes of -venom if collected in the dry state (the mean quantity that a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> -<i>Naja</i> is able to inoculate in a single bite), would only require, -in order to escape death, to receive the quantity of antivenomous -serum sufficient to neutralise the portion of venom in excess of -the amount that he could tolerate without dying.</p> - -<p>Let us suppose, for the sake of example, that the man of 60 -kilogrammes can withstand intoxication by 14 milligrammes of -<i>Naja</i>-venom. It follows that, in the case with which we are -dealing, we must inject sufficient serum to neutralise 20-14 (=6) -milligrammes of venom; that is to say, the injection of serum -being made immediately after the bite, 6 <i>c.c.</i>, if the serum employed -neutralises <i>in vitro</i> 1 milligramme of venom per cubic centimetre.</p> - -<p>Of course, if the serum is more powerful, less of it will be -necessary, while more will be required if the remedy is applied -later, or if the quantity of venom inoculated by the snake is -supposed to have been greater.</p> - -<p>For this reason, in practice, but very little serum is usually -necessary in order to augment the natural resistance of a man -of average weight or of a large animal; it is sufficient in most -cases to give an injection of 10 or 20 c.c. in order to cure human -beings who have been bitten. The clinical proof of this is, moreover, -to be found in the cases, already very numerous, that have -been published in the course of the last few years in the scientific -journals of all countries. I have gathered together a few of these -in the concluding pages of this book, and I would beg the reader -to be good enough to refer to them. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p> - -<h2 id="PART_IV">PART IV.</h2> - -<p class="ph1" id="Venoms_in_the_animal_series">VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES.</p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</h2> - -<h3 id="INVERTEBRATES">1.—<i>INVERTEBRATES.</i></h3> - -<p>Besides reptiles, many other animals possess poison-glands -and inoculatory organs which they employ, either to defend themselves -against their natural enemies, or to capture the living prey -upon which they feed.</p> - -<p>The venoms that they produce are still, for the most part, but -little understood. A few of them, however, have excited the -curiosity of physiologists, especially those secreted by certain -batrachians, such as the <i>Toad</i>, and certain fishes, such as the -<i>Weever</i>. Some of them exhibit close affinity to snake-venom, and -are composed, like the latter, of proteic substances modifiable by -heat and precipitable by alcohol; others possess altogether special -characters, and resemble alkaloids.</p> - -<p>The lowest animal group in which these secretions begin to be -clearly differentiated is that of the <i>Coelenterates</i>.</p> - -<h3 id="Coelenterates">A.—<span class="smcap">Coelenterates.</span></h3> - -<p>It has been shown by Charles Richet<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> that the tentacles of sea-anemones -(<i>Anemone scultata</i>) contain a toxic substance which has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -the carious property of causing intense itching, pruritus, and even -urticaria. This poison is perfectly soluble in alcohol, and can be -prepared in the following manner:—</p> - -<p>The tentacles are cut off close to the body of the animal, and -immersed for a few days in an equal weight of alcohol at 95° C. -The red liquid that results is decanted, and then filtered. The -insoluble material is compressed, and yields large quantities of fluid, -which is filtered and mixed with the previous liquid.</p> - -<p>The whole is then evaporated <i>in vacuo</i> until there remains a -thick oily liquid, which forms a red deposit. Filtration through -paper is again employed, in order to separate this colouring matter, -and to the filtered liquid is added an equal amount of alcohol at -95° C. By this means there is precipitated a blackish, gummy -matter, insoluble in alcohol. The remaining liquid is decanted -and once more evaporated until it is reduced to a smaller volume -than before. It is again treated with twice its volume of absolute -alcohol, when it precipitates, in addition to salts and gummy -matter, a white flocculent substance, which is crude <i>thalassin</i>. -This can be purified by redissolving it in alcohol at a temperature -of 98° C. On cooling it separates from the fluid in the form of -crystals, which are placed on a filter and can then be redissolved in -a small quantity of water. Absolute alcohol, added to this solution, -precipitates the <i>thalassin</i> in the shape of very pure crystals, which -contain 10 per cent. of azote, and melt at 200° C.</p> - -<p>This substance, in aqueous solutions, rapidly deteriorates owing -to ammoniacal fermentation. When injected intravenously into -dogs it produces pruritus, sneezing, and erythema, with intense -congestion of the mucous membranes; 1 decigramme per kilogramme -is a dose sufficient to produce these symptoms. It is not -very toxic, since 1 centigramme is not lethal.</p> - -<p>One kilogramme of anemones is capable of furnishing about -3 grammes of pure crystallised poison.</p> - -<p>In addition to <i>thalassin</i>, Richet succeeded in isolating from the -tentacles of the same sea-anemones another poison insoluble in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> -alcohol at 50° C., and richer in azote (14 per cent.), to which -he has given the name <i>congestin</i>. This is not destroyed by -heating to 107° C. It is prepared by precipitating, by four times -its volume of alcohol, a solution of anemone-tentacles in 5 per -cent. fluoride of sodium. The solid matter, after being precipitated -and dried, is redissolved in six times its volume of water, -and then filtered. On adding to the filtered and fluorescent -liquid its volume of alcohol at 90° C., the <i>congestin</i> is precipitated. -It is purified by redissolving it in water, and freeing it -by dialysis from the fluoride of sodium that it has retained. In -this way there is obtained, after evaporation, a product sufficiently -toxic to kill dogs in twenty-four hours in a dose of 2 milligrammes -per kilogramme.</p> - -<p><i>Congestin</i> exerts a sensitising or anaphylactic effect upon -animals as regards <i>thalassin</i>, and is lethal in a dose of about -5 milligrammes per kilogramme of animal, and sometimes even -in a dose of 7 decimilligrammes. It is therefore a very active -poison.</p> - -<p>Dogs, on the other hand, into which is injected first <i>thalassin</i>, -and then, some time afterwards, <i>congestin</i>, are perfectly resistant -to inoculation by the latter. <i>Thalassin</i> is therefore <i>antitoxic</i> or -antagonistic to <i>congestin</i>.</p> - -<p>The latter, on the contrary, if injected first of all in non-lethal -doses, renders animals so sensitive to inoculation with <i>thalassin</i>, -that from 4 to 5 milligrammes are sufficient to cause death.</p> - -<p>The tentacles of these anemones therefore contain two toxic -substances antagonistic to each other, which can easily be separated, -since one (<i>thalassin</i>) is soluble in concentrated alcohol, while the -other is completely insoluble in this reagent.</p> - -<p>These poisons are not only extremely interesting from a physiological -point of view, but also possess a practical interest, since it -is at the present time almost a matter of certainty that they are -the cause of a malady which specially affects <i>sponge-divers</i> in the -Mediterranean. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span></p> - -<p>A good description of the disease has been given by Dr. -Skévos Zervos, of Athens.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> It is observed exclusively in men -who dive quite naked, without a diving-dress. Now, beside the -bases of the sponges and sometimes on their surface there live -numbers of anemones which secrete a viscid substance, which is -extremely virulent, especially in the month of August.</p> - -<p>The first symptoms that supervene after contact with these -Cœlenterates are an intense itching and burning sensation; a papule -of a horny consistency appears at the outset at the spot at which -contact took place; this is soon surrounded by a red zone, which -becomes bluish and then black, and spreads to a greater or lesser -extent, according to the region attacked and the virulence of the -venom. After a few days the skin sloughs and leaves a deep ulcer, -which suppurates in spite of antiseptic treatment. The onset of -the disease is marked by a febrile attack with shivering, which is -soon accompanied by cephalalgia, thirst, and pains in the back and -limbs.</p> - -<p>Zervos reproduced these disorders experimentally by rubbing an -anemone, held with forceps, on the shaven abdomen of a dog. In -a few minutes the region affected became quite red and pruriginous; -twenty-five minutes later phlyctenæ full of serum appeared; -three days afterwards five abscesses of different sizes developed, -while at the place where it had been touched by the venom the -skin assumed a deep blue colour; on the fifth day an area 2 cm. -in diameter was completely gangrenous.</p> - -<p>When ingested, anemones possess toxic properties which are -well known to the sponge-fishers, for they frequently make use of -them for the purpose of poisoning domestic animals. With this -object they cut them up into small fragments, and mix them with -bread or meat, which is given to the animals to eat; the latter die -in convulsions in a few minutes.</p> - -<p>In order to preserve the divers from the harmful effects produced -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -by contact with the anemones, they should be advised to cover -their bodies with a layer of grease, a simple artifice which constitutes -an efficient protection.</p> - -<h3 id="Echinoderms">B.—<span class="smcap">Echinoderms.</span></h3> - -<p>The <i>Echinoidea</i> (Sea-urchins) are provided with soft prehensile -organs, the <i>pedicellariæ</i>, of which four kinds are distinguished: -gemmiform, tridactyle, trifoliate, and ophiocephalous.</p> - -<p>These pedicellariæ contain a special venom, which causes the -paralysis and death of animals into which it is injected. Uexkull, -who was the first to mention it, considered that the gemmiform -pedicellariæ alone are toxic.</p> - -<p>From this point of view various species of sea-urchins, <i>Strongylocentrotus -lividus</i>, <i>Arbacia æquituberculata</i>, <i>Sphærechinus granularis</i> -and <i>Spatangus purpureus</i>, have recently been studied by -V. Henri and Mdlle. Kayalof.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> - -<p>The pedicellariæ were removed and pounded up in sea-water, -and the pulp was injected into crabs, holothurians, star-fish, cuttle-fish, -frogs, lizards, and rabbits; in the case of cuttle-fish and rabbits -the injection was made intravenously; in that of the other animals -into the body-cavity.</p> - -<p>For crabs the lethal dose was from 20 to 30 gemmiform pedicellariæ -of <i>Strongylocentrotus lividus</i>.</p> - -<p>The holothurians, star-fish, and frogs proved immune.</p> - -<p>In the case of rabbits weighing 1½ kilogrammes, 40 pedicellariæ -of <i>Sphærechinus granularis</i>, pounded up in 1 c.c. of water, produce -death by asphyxia and general paralysis in from two to three -minutes. The heart continues to beat after respiration has ceased.</p> - -<p>For lizards and fishes the toxic dose is the same as for the crab. -The cuttle-fish is paralysed and killed in two hours by 50 -pedicellariæ. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span></p> - -<p>This venom resists ebullition for fifteen minutes.</p> - -<p>V. Henri and Mdlle. Kayalof made experiments in immunisation. -Rabbits that receive every third day increasing doses of -gemmiform pedicellariæ of <i>Sphærechinus granularis</i> tolerate well, -after four injections, the toxin of 40 pedicellariæ, a lethal dose. -The serum of these rabbits is not protective for either rabbit, -crab, or fishes.</p> - -<p>Frog serum (1 c.c.) injected into the body cavity of a crab, -protects this animal against the pulp of pedicellariæ injected -immediately afterwards.</p> - -<p>The pedicellariæ easily become detached from sea-urchins. -They remain fixed to objects which come into contact with them, -and the urchin abandons them like poisoned arrows.</p> - -<p>On touching a point on the surface of the body of an urchin, -the spines are seen to incline towards the spot touched, and the -pedicellariæ stretch themselves out and lean with their valves open -towards the seat of the stimulus. In <i>Sphærechinus granularis</i> the -heads of the gemmiform pedicellariæ are covered with sticky mucus -forming a tiny drop, visible under the lens. A specimen of this -species possesses more than 450 pedicellariæ.</p> - -<h3 id="Arthropods">C.—<span class="smcap">Arthropods.</span></h3> - -<h4 id="Araneids">(a) <b>Araneida</b> (<b>Spiders</b>).</h4> - -<p>Almost all Arachnids possess poison-glands, which are connected, -in some cases with the buccal apparatus, in others with -a special inoculatory organ situated at the posterior extremity of -the body. The <i>spiders</i> and <i>scorpions</i> belong to this group, and -their venom is particularly active.</p> - -<p>On each side of the mouth of spiders is found an appendage -ending in a fang (<i>chelicera</i>), at the extremity of which opens the -excretory duct of a more or less developed poison-gland. The -venom produced by these glands is instantly fatal to all small -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> -animals upon which spiders feed. In man and large mammals -their bite produces sensations of pain accompanied by swelling -and muscular contractions as though caused by localised tetanus.</p> - -<p>The venom of certain species of spiders -sometimes causes very serious and even -fatal results. <i>Latrodectus malmignattus</i> -(the <i>malmignatte</i> of the South of France -and Italy), and especially <i>Latrodectus -mactans</i>, of Chile (<a href="#Fig_96">fig. 96</a>), are greatly -dreaded.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> The area of distribution of the -latter includes the whole of Tropical and -Sub-tropical America. It is said that it -frequently causes the death of milch cows, -and that in man its bite produces tetanic -effects, which last for several days, but -are in most cases amenable to treatment.</p> - -<div id="Fig_96" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_96.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—<i>Lactrodectus -mactans</i> (<i>formidabilis olim</i>).<br /> - -1, Female, twice natural size; -1<i>a</i>, its eyes, greatly enlarged.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another dangerous spider is the <i>Katipo</i> -(<i>Latrodectus scelio</i>), of New Zealand. -This creature is confined to the sea-shore, -and the natives are often bitten when -collecting shell-fish or sea-weed. The -Maoris are so much afraid of the bite of -the <i>Katipo</i> that, when one of them has -been bitten in his hut, and the animal -cannot be found, they do not hesitate to -burn the dwelling to the ground. Moreover, -they are convinced that the death of -the spider is absolutely necessary for the recovery of the patient.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p> - -<p>Kobert<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> has made an experimental study of the venom of -species of <i>Latrodectus</i> and <i>Epeira</i>. That of <i>Latrodectus erebus</i> -(the <i>Karakurte</i> of South Russia) is particularly toxic.</p> - -<p>If a dry extract of these spiders be prepared and injected into -the veins of dogs or cats, it is found that a few milligrammes -per kilogramme are sufficient to cause death, with phenomena of -dyspnœa, convulsions, and progressive paralysis of respiration -and the heart. Rabbits, rats, birds, frogs, and leeches are also -sensitive to this poison, though the hedgehog is almost refractory. -The young spiders, and even the eggs, are more toxic than the -adults.</p> - -<p>Spider-venom is destroyed by heating for forty minutes at -+ 70° C., and is precipitated by alcohol. When absorbed by -ingestion it has no effect: it is hæmolytic and coagulates blood.</p> - -<p>The study of <i>arachnolysin</i> by Ehrlich’s methods has been -undertaken afresh by Hans Sachs,<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> who has shown that rat’s and -rabbit’s blood are most rapidly dissolved. Twenty-eight milligrammes -of extract of <i>Epeira</i> are capable of completely dissolving -0·05 c.c. of blood.</p> - -<p>By immunising guinea-pigs and rabbits, Sachs succeeded in -obtaining a strongly antitoxic serum, which entirely prevents the -hæmolysis of the sensitive red corpuscles.</p> - -<h4 id="Scorpions">(b) <b>Scorpionidea</b> (<b>Scorpions</b>).</h4> - -<p>The poison-apparatus of the scorpion is constituted by the last -abdominal segment (<i>telson</i>), which is swollen and globular, and -terminated by a hard, curved spine, with a very sharp point, near -which can be distinguished, under the lens, two small oval orifices -by which the poison is enabled to escape (<a href="#Fig_97">fig. 97</a>).</p> - -<p>The poison-glands are two in number, symmetrically placed in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -cavities, each of which is completely filled by the gland. They are -separated from each other by a muscular septum formed of striated -fibres inserted in the chitinous skeleton; by the contraction of this -septum the animal is enabled to eject its venom.</p> - -<div id="Fig_97" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_97.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—<i>Scorpio occitanus.</i> (After Joyeux-Laffuie.)</p> - -<p>1, Scorpion seizing a spider, and piercing it with its sting (natural size); 2, -extremity of the abdomen (telson) enlarged, showing the poison-apparatus; 3, poison-apparatus -detached from the abdomen, showing an isolated poison-gland.</p> -</div> - -<p>The scorpion never stings <i>backwards</i>, but always <i>in front</i> of -itself. It delivers stabs with its sting in two distinct ways. For -the purpose of defending itself from attack it elevates its abdomen -into a bow, and then regains its former position by suddenly unbending -it. To strike an animal, such as a spider, which serves it for -food, the scorpion seizes it with its pincers and holds it as in a vice. -Then it raises its abdomen, brings the end of it close to its captive, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -and, with a lever-like movement, drives the sting into its body. -The victim immediately becomes paralysed and motionless.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a></p> - -<p>The poison-glands of a <i>Scorpio occitanus</i> from the South of -France contain about 1 to 10 centigrammes of a toxic liquid, -capable of furnishing 10 to 15 per cent. of dry extract. This liquid -is decidedly acid; it reddens litmus paper and is miscible with -water.</p> - -<p>Its physiological effects are especially intense in the case of the -arthropods upon which the scorpion habitually feeds, and in that -of vertebrates in general. Batrachians, fishes, birds, and mammals -are extremely susceptible to this poison. Half a milligramme of -dry extract injected subcutaneously is sufficient to kill a guinea-pig, -and 1 milligramme is lethal to the rabbit.</p> - -<p>In poisoned animals there is first observed a period of violent -excitement, accompanied by very acute pains; these are followed -by muscular contractions, and finally by paralysis of the respiratory -muscles, as in the case of intoxication by cobra-venom.</p> - -<p>The effects of scorpion-poison, which clearly indicate the -presence of a <i>neurotoxin</i>, have been very well described by Valentin,<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> -Paul Bert<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> and Joyeux-Laffuie. Kyes<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> has prepared a <i>lecithide</i> -from scorpion-venom, which hæmolyses red corpuscles as do the -lecithides of cobra-venom, and I myself<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> have established the fact -that the antivenomous serum of a horse vaccinated against cobra-venom -effectively protects mice and guinea-pigs against intoxication -by the venom of <i>Scorpio occitanus</i>; this has been verified by -Metchnikoff. There is, therefore, a close affinity between this -venom and that of <span class="smcap">Colubrine</span> snakes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span></p> - -<p>On the other hand, it has been shown by the investigations of -C. Nicolle and G. Catouillard that the same antivenomous serum -has no effect upon the much weaker venom of the scorpion of -Tunis (<i>Heterometrus maurus</i>), which, in the case of man and -mammals in general, scarcely does more than produce a transient -œdema at the point of inoculation.</p> - -<p>The venom of <i>Heterometrus maurus</i> is, however, toxic enough -to the sparrow. When one of these little birds is inoculated in -the pectoral muscles with the contents of the poison-glands of a -single scorpion belonging to this species, the following symptoms -are observed: Immediate rigidity, doubtless connected with the -pain, then, after a few seconds, depression and relaxation of the -muscles. The bird remains upright, but its body sinks down more -and more until it comes into contact with the ground; if on a -perch, it soon becomes unsteady and drops off. There is dyspnœa, -which any effort increases, and death supervenes suddenly; all at -once the sparrow falls on its side, stiffens, sometimes has a few -convulsions, and then finally becomes still. The time occupied by -these phenomena is always short, although it varies from two -minutes to half an hour.</p> - -<p>Scorpion-venom is a strong irritant to the mucous membranes. -When dropped into the eye of a rabbit it produces acute ophthalmia.</p> - -<p>It has often been asserted that scorpions kill themselves with -their own venom if enclosed in a circle of fire. This is an absolute -myth, for it is easy to prove by experiment, as was done by Bourne -at Madras,<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> that these animals cannot be intoxicated by their own -poisonous secretion, nor by that of other individuals of the same -species. Moreover, it has been established by Metchnikoff,<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> in -very definite fashion, that the blood of the scorpion is antitoxic. -If 0·1 c.c. of this blood be added to a dose of venom lethal to mice -in half an hour, a mouse injected with this mixture resists indefinitely. -This antitoxic power is exhibited both by <i>Scorpio afer</i> -and the Algerian <i>Androctonus</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> - -<h4 id="Myriopods">(c) <b>Myriopods.</b></h4> - -<p>It has been shown by Phisalix and Bertrand that certain -species of Myriopods, including those of the genus <i>Julus</i> (Order -<i>Chilognatha</i>, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Julus terrestris</i>), secrete throughout the entire -extent of their body a volatile venom, which these authors compared -to <i>quinone</i>.</p> - -<p>The species of the genus <i>Scolopendra</i> (Order <i>Chilopoda</i>; <i>Scolopendra -cingulata</i>, found in the South of France, Spain and Italy; -<i>S. gigantea</i> and other forms, common in Africa, India, Indo-China -and Equatorial -America), -have the second -pair of post maxillary -appendages -transformed into -formidable poison-claws, -with which -they can inflict bites which are very painful to human beings.</p> - -<div id="Fig_98" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_98.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—<i>Scolopendra morsitans</i> (S. Europe).<br /> - -(After Claus.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The tropical species may attain a length of 10 or even 15 cm. -Their bodies are composed of 21 segments, each provided with a -pair of jointed legs. They live in shady places, such as woods, -hidden under stones, dead leaves, or the bark of old trees. -They feed upon small insects, spiders, and larvæ, which they -kill with their venom. The latter is secreted by a racemose -gland situated at the base of the poison-claws; it escapes by a -duct which opens at the apex.</p> - -<p>This venom, the physiological study of which was commenced -by Dubosq, is an acid, opalescent liquid, hardly miscible with water.</p> - -<p>More complete experiments on this subject have been made by -A. Briot,<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> who prepared a solution by sectioning the labium and -poison-claws, and crushing the whole in physiological salt solution. -When injected intravenously into rabbits, it produces immediate -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -paralysis, with coagulation of the blood; subcutaneously it leads -to the formation of enormous abscesses, with necrosis of the tissues. -Small animals, such as spiders, species -of <i>Scutigera</i>, beetles, &c., are very sensitive -to it.</p> - -<p>The bite of <i>Scolopendridæ</i> is very -painful to human beings. In the -Tropics such bites often cause somewhat -serious results: insomnia, accelerated -and intermittent pulse, and -local œdema, which usually disappears -after twenty-four hours. Well-authenticated -fatal accidents have -never been recorded (Bachelier,<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> -Saulie<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a>).</p> - -<h4 id="Insects">(d) <b>Insects.</b></h4> - -<p>A very large number of insects -produce acrid or irritant secretions, -which serve them as a means of defence, -but cannot be considered as true -venoms; the species of <i>Meloë</i> (oil-beetles) -and <i>Cantharis</i> (blister-beetles), -are the most remarkable in this respect.</p> - -<p>The Order <i>Hymenoptera</i> is the only -one that includes a multitude of species -really provided with poison-glands and an inoculatory apparatus.</p> - -<div id="Fig_99" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_99.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.—Poison-apparatus -of the Bee.</span></p> - -<p><i>gl.ac</i>, Acid gland and its two -branches; <i>V</i>, poison-sac; <i>gl.al</i>, -alkaline gland; <i>gor</i>, gorget.<br /> - -(After Carlet: figure borrowed -from Hommel.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The poison-organs, which have been well studied, especially by -Leuckart,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> Leydig,<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> Carlet,<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> and more especially by L. Bordas,<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> -Janet,<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> and Seurat,<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> always include two and sometimes three kinds -of glands: the <i>acid gland</i>, the <i>alkaline gland</i> or gland of Dufour, -and the <i>accessory poison-gland</i> (<a href="#Fig_99">fig. 99</a>).</p> - -<p>The acid gland comprises a glandular -portion (which sometimes takes the shape -of a long flexuous tube, always bifid at its -extremity, sometimes that of two tubes, -simple or ramified, or again is composed of -a bundle of cylindrical, simple or multifid -canals), a poison-sac or reservoir, ovoid or -spherical in shape, and an excretory duct, -which is usually short.</p> - -<p>The alkaline gland, or gland of Dufour, -exists in all Hymenoptera, and presents the -appearance of an irregular tube, with a -striated surface and a spherical or conical -upper extremity. Its excretory duct opens, -beside that of the acid gland, at the enlarged -base of the gorget of the sting (<a href="#Fig_100">fig. 100</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_100" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_100.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—<span class="smcap">Interior of -the Gorget of the Bee, -seen from its Posterior -Aspect.</span></p> - -<p><i>cv</i>, Poison chamber; <i>gor</i>, -gorget; <i>st</i>, stylet; <i>ca</i>, -piston. Between the two -stylets is seen the cleft <i>fa</i>, -by which the air is able -to enter into the air-chamber -<i>cai</i>.</p> - -<p>(After Carlet: figure borrowed -from Hommel.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The accessory poison-gland, which is -lanceolate or ovoid in shape, consists of a -small, granular mass, the extremely narrow -excretory duct of which opens at almost the -same point as that of the alkaline gland. -It does not exist in all Hymenoptera.</p> - -<p>The stings of hive bees (<i>Apis mellifica</i>), -wasps (<i>Vespa vulgaris</i>), violet carpenter bees -(<i>Xylocopa violacea</i>), and humble bees (<i>Bombus -lapidarius</i>) cause considerable discomfort. -The venom of the carpenter bee, which is of some strength, -has been studied by P. Bert, and I have myself made experiments -with that of the hive bee (<i>A. mellifica</i>). The venom extracted -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -from a couple of bees, by crushing the posterior extremity of -the body in 1 c.c. of water, is sufficient to kill a mouse or a sparrow.</p> - -<p>Death supervenes in a few minutes, from respiratory asphyxia, -as in the case of intoxication by the venom of Colubrine snakes -(<i>Cobra</i>). In the blood-vessels and in the heart the blood is black -and remains fluid. It therefore appears that this venom contains a -very active <i>neurotoxin</i>.</p> - -<p>The phenomena of intoxication caused by the venom of these -insects are, as a rule, slight, being limited to an acute pain, accompanied -by a zone of œdema and burning itching. Sometimes -however, when the stings are in the eyelids, lips, or tongue, they -produce alarming and even fatal results, as shown by the following -incident:—</p> - -<p>On September 26, 1890, a young girl of Ville-d’Avray was -eating grapes in the woods of Fausse-Repose, when she inadvertently -swallowed a wasp. The unfortunate girl was stung in the -back of the throat, and the wound became so rapidly inflamed that, -in spite of the attentions of a doctor, she died in an hour from -suffocation, in the arms of her friends.</p> - -<p>Phisalix<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> has studied the physiological action of bee-venom on -sparrows inoculated either by the sting of the insect, or with an -aqueous solution obtained by crushing the glands. In both cases -a local effect, paralysis of the part inoculated, is first produced; -this is followed by convulsions, which may last for several hours; -the final stage is marked by coma and respiratory trouble, which -ends in death.</p> - -<p>After being heated for fifteen minutes at 100° C. the venom -has no further local action; the general phenomena are merely -diminished. If heated at 100° C. for thirty minutes, the venom -ceases to cause convulsions, but remains stupefactive. Exposure -for fifteen minutes to a temperature of 150° C. renders it completely -inert. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span></p> - -<p>This venom therefore comprises: (1) A phlogogenic substance, -destroyed by ebullition, contained in the acid gland of the bee; -(2) a poison causing convulsions, which does not resist a temperature -of 100° C., if prolonged, and is probably produced by the -alkaline gland; (3) a stupefactive poison, which is secreted by the -acid gland, and is not entirely destroyed until a temperature of -150° C. is reached.</p> - -<p>The poison-glands can easily be extracted by gently pulling at -the stings of bees anæsthetised by chloroform.</p> - -<p>The eggs of bees, like those of the toad and the viper, contain -the specific venom. The amount, however, is small, since in order -to produce lethal results in the sparrow it was found necessary to -inoculate an emulsion obtained by crushing 926 eggs.</p> - -<p>Phisalix<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> makes the approximate calculation that, in the egg the -weight of the toxic substances amounts to the one hundred and -fiftieth part of the whole. Their effects are similar to those produced -by the venom itself, but the convulsions are not so severe. -The predominant poison in the egg appears to be that causing -paralysis.</p> - -<p>I have easily succeeded in vaccinating mice against doses of -bee-venom certainly lethal, by repeatedly inoculating them with -very small doses. Moreover, we find the same thing in the case of -human beings, for we know that those who are in the habit of -handling hives become quite accustomed to bee-stings, and finally -feel not the slightest effect from them.</p> - -<p>It has been shown by J. Morgenroth and U. Carpi,<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> in a -paper recently published, that the venom of bees, like that of the -scorpion, possesses the property of hæmolysing the red corpuscles -of several species of animals (the rabbit, guinea-pig, and goat), and -that it is capable of combining with the lecithin to form a <i>lecithide</i> -analogous to <i>cobra-lecithide</i>, the curious properties of which we -have studied in detail. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p> - -<p>This lecithide of bee-venom is from 200 to 500 times more -hæmolysing than the venom itself, and resists ebullition like that of -the cobra. In order to isolate it Morgenroth and Carpi employed -the method recommended by P. Kyes: 1½ c.c. of a solution of pure -venom is mixed with 1½ c.c. of a 5 per cent. solution of lecithin -in methylic alcohol. After being kept for twenty-four hours at -37° C., 22 c.c. of absolute alcohol are added; the liquid is decanted, -and the clear filtrate is mixed with 150 c.c. of ether. There is slowly -formed a somewhat copious flocculent deposit, which is collected -on a filter, washed several times with ether, and finally dried. The -lecithide that remains on the filter dissolves completely in physiological -salt solution.</p> - -<p>It must be remarked that bee-venom, without the addition of -lecithin, gives a scanty precipitate with ether. This precipitate, -dissolved in physiological salt solution, possesses no hæmolysing -power. The lecithide, on the contrary, dissolves red corpuscles -almost instantaneously.</p> - -<p>Normal horse-serum considerably inhibits hæmolysis by bee-venom -+ lecithin. This protective action of normal serums has -already been observed by Langer; it is perhaps attributable to -the cholesterin that they contain.</p> - -<p>Among other Hymenoptera capable of inflicting very severe -stings may be mentioned the species of <i>Polistes</i> and certain -Pompilids, especially a species of <i>Pompilus</i> found in Natal, the -painful stings of which have sometimes been experienced and -described by travellers (P. Fabre, of Commentry).<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a></p> - -<p>In the family <i>Crabronidæ</i> the females are provided with a -sting and venom, which usually has little effect upon man, but -is toxic to other insects. Thus, <i>Cerceris bupresticida</i> is remarkable -for the stupefying effect of its venom upon the <i>Buprestidæ</i> destined -for the food of its larvæ. It stings the beetles between the first -and second segments of the thorax, with the result that the victim -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> -is paralysed, though in other respects its bodily functions appear -to continue; in fact, its intestine is seen to empty itself at long -intervals. These effects are attributed by Mons. J. H. Fabre, of -Avignon, to the direct action of the venom upon the ganglia of the -thoracic nervous system.</p> - -<p>Instances of Hymenoptera belonging to the tribe <i>Entomophaga</i> -actually depositing their eggs beneath the skin of man are mentioned -by Raphaël Blanchard.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p> - -<p>According to P. Fabre, the best treatment for wasp- or bee-stings -would appear to consist in the application of strong saline -solution, or a liniment of ammonia and olive oil. For my own -part, I have tried <i>hypochlorite of lime</i>, in a 1 in 60 solution, or <i>eau -de Javel</i> diluted to 1 per cent., and have always obtained such -excellent results from these remedies that I do not hesitate to -advise their use.</p> - -<h3 id="Molluscs">D.—<span class="smcap">Molluscs.</span></h3> - -<p>Certain Gastropodous Molluscs, chiefly <i>Murex brandaris</i> and -<i>M. trunculus</i>, possess purple glands from which it is possible to -extract a very active venom (Raphaël Dubois)<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> by crushing them -up with sand and alcohol. The alcoholic liquid, filtered and evaporated -in a water-bath, yields a brown oily fluid. The subcutaneous -injection of a few drops of this into a frog is sufficient to produce -very decided toxic effects. Sluggishness and slowness of movement -are seen to supervene fairly quickly; reflex actions are still -exhibited, but the animal is no longer able to jump.</p> - -<p>If the dose be not too strong, this condition of paresis lasts for -several hours, and then disappears. In most cases, however, the -paresis is succeeded by complete paralysis, and the animal appears -as though suffering from curare. Yet the fact is that the venom -is neither curare-like nor cardiac; the heart, muscles, motor endplates, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> -and motor and sensory nerves are spared; the nervous -centres alone are attacked, especially the encephalon. The animal -dies without convulsions.</p> - -<p>Sea and fresh-water fishes (golden carp) are very sensitive to -this venom; warm-blooded animals are refractory. It is therefore -probable that, in the species of <i>Murex</i>, the purple gland is a poison-gland -serving for defence, or for the capture of the prey upon which -these molluscs feed.</p> - -<p>Among the Cephalopods, the Octopods (<i>Octopus vulgaris</i>, -common octopus, <i>Eledone moschata</i>, musky octopus, of the -Mediterranean) possess two pairs of salivary glands, a small -anterior pair, and a posterior pair of considerable size.</p> - -<p>The Decapods (cuttle-fishes [<i>Sepia</i>], &c.), have only posterior -salivary glands, of smaller dimensions in proportion to the size of -the body.</p> - -<p>On being crushed and macerated in water, the anterior glands -yield a limpid and slightly acid juice; the posterior glands produce -a viscid, ropy fluid, filterable with difficulty and neutral. The -latter has an immediate paralysing effect upon Crustacea. It -contains a substance of a diastasic nature, precipitable by alcohol, -and destructible by heating for an hour at 58° C.</p> - -<p>Owing to the poisonous properties of this juice, Octopods -succeed in overpowering large prey, such as lobsters and crabs. -Once they are seized by the tentacles of the octopus, or cuttle-fish, -a bite inoculates these animals with venom that immediately -destroys their power of movement, and the Cephalopod is able to -continue its meal in perfect security, without having to fear the -pincers of its prey.</p> - -<p>An experimental study of this venom has been made by A. Briot,<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> -who found that crabs are very sensitive to it, while rats, frogs, -rabbits, and fish do not appear to experience any inconvenience. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span></p> - - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br /> - -<br /><i>VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES</i> (<i>continued</i>).</h2> - -<h3 id="Venomous_fishes">2.—<i>VENOMOUS FISHES.</i></h3> - -<p>The means of defence in fishes are extremely varied. Some -species (torpedoes or electric rays, electric eels) destroy their enemies -by electric discharges; others are provided with true poison-glands -and inoculatory organs, usually represented by opercular spines or -by the fin-rays. The species of the genus <i>Muræna</i>, however, -possess a poison-apparatus connected with the buccal teeth, as in -the case of snakes.</p> - -<p>It has been clearly established by Bottard<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> that at least three -very distinct types of venomous fishes exist, according as the venom-apparatus -is:—</p> - -<p>(1) Entirely closed (<i>Synanceia</i> type); (2) half closed (<i>Thalassophryne</i> -type); (3) in more or less direct communication with the -exterior (<i>Trachinus</i> and <i>Scorpæna</i> type).</p> - -<p>The greater part of the following statements has been borrowed -from the excellent work of the author referred to, from the writings -of A. Corre,<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> the fellowship thesis of Henry Coutière,<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> and the -magnificent atlas published at St. Petersburg in 1886 by P. Savtschenko, -of the Russian Imperial Navy.</p> - -<p>Except in the case of the species of <i>Muræna</i>, the venom of fishes -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> -is generally found in one or more special glands, situate at the -base of the dorsal or caudal fins, or beneath the opercular spines. -When the animal defends itself it inflicts wounds with these rays, -and ejects from its poison-glands a toxic or irritant liquid, which -enters the sores.</p> - -<p>The flesh of these fishes is not usually poisonous, whereas a -fairly large number of other species, <i>which do not inflict wounds</i>, -cause intoxicating effects when eaten. These latter do not come -within the scope of this work; but the reader who may desire to -obtain information with regard to them will find them well described -in J. Pellegrin’s memoir,<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> in that by Dupont, and especially in the -papers of A. Corre.</p> - -<p><i>Venomous fishes</i> almost all belong to sedentary species, as in the -case of the genera <i>Trachinus</i>, <i>Cottus</i>, <i>Scorpæna</i>, and <i>Synanceia</i>. -This fact suggested to Dissard and Noë<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> a very hazardous theory -in order to explain the existence of a poison-apparatus in these -animals. The venomous fishes being sedentary, say these authors, -have no need of a poison-apparatus; their prey offers itself to them -without effort on their part, and, on the other hand, they escape -destruction by their enemies. If, therefore, they possess a poison-apparatus -it is because the conditions under which they live entail -the lowest value for the co-efficient of respiration, diminish the -quantity of the ambient radiations and the oxygenation of the -medium, and lead to diminished hæmatosis. For these reasons the -activity of anaerobic life becomes greater, and the formation of -venoms takes place.</p> - -<p>This theory, derived from the conceptions of A. Gautier with regard -to the formation of toxic leucomaines, appears scarcely tenable, -for it is evident that the weever, for example, erects its first dorsal -spine as soon as it is seized, and that <i>Scorpæna</i> and <i>Synanceia</i> likewise -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -protrude their venomous spines when conscious of danger. The -poison-apparatus of these fishes is therefore of an eminently defensive -character.</p> - -<p>According to Bottard, the spawning season increases the activity -of the poison-glands and at the same time the toxicity of the secreted -product. Several species, such as those of the genus <i>Cottus</i> and the -perch, possess no apparent secreting cells except at this period. -Certain <i>toxicophorous</i> or poisonous fishes, such as the species of -<i>Tetrodon</i>, are particularly noxious at the time when their genital -glands are at their maximum activity.</p> - -<h3 id="Teleostei_Acanthopterygii">A.—<span class="smcap">Teleostei.—Acanthopterygii.</span></h3> - -<h4 id="Triglidae">1.—<b>Triglidæ.</b></h4> - -<p>The fishes of this family are all repulsively ugly. They have an -elongate and but slightly compressed body, covered with ctenoid -scales, and a large head in which the suborbital bones, which are -broad, unite with the præopercular so as to form an osseous plate -in the malar region. The pectoral fins are large, and provided -with a few detached rays, which perform the function of tactile -organs; the ventral fins are situate on the breast. These fishes are -extremely voracious.</p> - -<p>The most interesting type is the <i>Synanceia</i> termed by the Creoles -of Réunion <i>Crapaud de mer</i>, and by those of Mauritius <i>Laffe</i>. In -Java it is called <i>Ikan-Satan</i> (Devil-fish), and in Tahiti <i>Nohu</i>. It is -distributed throughout almost all the warmer regions of the Indian -and Pacific Oceans, and is found in Cochin-China and New Caledonia.</p> - -<p>It is never taken in the open sea, but only among the fringing -reefs, where it lives constantly concealed in holes or buried in the -sand. It does not come out except to make a sudden dart at prey -passing within its reach. When irritated it does not eject venom; -for the latter to be expelled one has either to press hard upon the -poison-sacs, after pushing back with the fingers the membranes -covering the dorsal defensive armature, or the naked foot must be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -placed on the back of the fish. The wound is very painful, and is -accompanied by a series of alarming symptoms, which sometimes -terminate fatally: fishermen are consequently much afraid of it.</p> - -<p>There are a large number of species of this fish, peculiar to -different regions. <i>Synanceia brachio</i> (<a href="#Fig_101">fig. 101</a>), the largest specimens -of which attain the length of 45 cm., is the most common form in -the Tropical Pacific.</p> - -<div id="Fig_101" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_101.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 101.—<i>Synanceia brachio</i>, var. <i>verrucosa</i>. (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The spiny rays of the dorsal fin of <i>Synanceia</i> are sharp-pointed, -stout in the middle, and provided on each side with a small canal -hollowed out in the thickness of the spine. Towards the middle of -the latter there is attached a little double sac, or kind of closed pouch, -which, on being compressed, allows the venom to escape in a thin -jet which flows into the grooves of the spine. The expulsion of the -venom is therefore not a voluntary act on the part of the fish; in -order that it shall take place, pressure must be applied to the sacs in -which it is contained.</p> - -<p>This venom, when extracted from the glands, is limpid, bluish, -and slightly acid. When introduced into the tissues, it produces very -acute local pain, which extends throughout the affected limb. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -pain is excruciating, and sufferers have been observed to become -actually delirious, striking and biting those around them, throwing -themselves from side to side, and beseeching that the limb should be -cut off; some of them have amputated the injured part themselves.</p> - -<p>This condition is accompanied by considerable anxiety, and by -attacks of leipothymia and sometimes of syncope. In some cases -syncope has been followed by death; in others serious phlegmons, -complicated by septicæmia, supervene. The inoculated spot becomes -bluish, and then sphacelates over a larger or smaller area. -These gangrenous wounds heal very slowly, more especially since -they are usually produced on the sole of the foot (Bottard).</p> - -<p>A single drop of the venom is sufficient to kill frogs in about -three hours.</p> - -<div id="Fig_102" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_102.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 102.—<i>Cottus scorpius</i> (Sea Scorpion). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The genus <i>Cottus</i>, which also belongs to the family <span class="smcap">Triglidæ</span>, -includes some forty venomous species found in the seas of the -northern hemisphere, in Europe, Asia, and America.</p> - -<p>In France the species of <i>Cottus</i> are generally called <i>chabots</i> -(bullheads or miller’s thumbs), <i>chaboisseaux</i> (sea-scorpions), or -<i>caramassons</i>. They are abundant on the coast of Normandy, -and some of them (river bullheads) live in fresh water; they -do not exceed 25 cm. in length. They have a liking for holes -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> -in rocks, and fishermen are afraid of being stung by them -(<a href="#Fig_102">fig. 102</a>).</p> - -<p>Their poison-apparatus resembles that of the Weevers, but is -less developed. It is situated in the culs-de-sac formed by the -opercular spines. The culs-de-sac are lined with cells which produce -a toxic secretion only during the spawning season, from -November to the end of January. This fact explains how it is that -the species of <i>Cottus</i> are declared by certain fishermen to be very -venomous, while others say that they are absolutely harmless.</p> - -<p>The genera <i>Scorpæna</i>, <i>Pterois</i> and <i>Pelor</i> also belong to the -same group.</p> - -<div id="Fig_103" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_103.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 103.—<i>Scorpæna grandicornis</i> (Caribbean Sea). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In <i>Scorpæna</i> the body is clothed with scales, and the head is -large, slightly compressed, armed with spines, and has a bare pit -behind; the single dorsal fin is provided with eleven spiny rays, -and there are seven branchiostegal rays. <i>Scorpæna grandicornis</i> -(<a href="#Fig_103">fig. 103</a>), found in the Caribbean Sea, is from 30 to 50 cm. in -length, and has the back red and the eyes and belly yellow; -<i>Scorpæna diabolus</i> (<a href="#Fig_104">fig. 104</a>), which occurs in the Indian Ocean -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -and Tropical Pacific, is red and brown, obliquely striped with -white and brown; a third species, <i>Scorpæna porcus</i> (<i>Scorpène -truie</i>), of smaller size, is met with in the Mediterranean. -The venom of the latter has been studied by A. Briot,<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> who -sectioned the dorsal and opercular spines, and macerated them -either in physiological saline solution, or in glycerine; he then -tested the toxicity of these macerations on certain animals—frogs, -rabbits, and rats.</p> - -<div id="Fig_104" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_104.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 104.—<i>Scorpæna diabolus</i> (Indian and Pacific Oceans). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The frogs alone exhibited, as the result of subcutaneous injection -into a limb, slight transient paralysis. No effect was found -to be produced by the venom when injected intravenously into -the rabbit, or subcutaneously into the rat.</p> - -<p>The poison-apparatus of <i>Scorpæna</i> is situated in the spiny rays -of the dorsal and anal fins. These rays are enveloped in the inter-radial -membrane, which forms a sheath for them, and are scored -with a double cannelure. At the bottom of these grooves are the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> -secreting cells, which are elongate, pressed one against the other, -and supported at the base by a highly vascular substratum of -connective tissue. The venom flows out between the layer of cells -and the ensheathing membrane, which is capable of being pushed -slightly back as the result of the penetration of the spine into the -tissues, and then exerts pressure upon the reservoir. The latter is -formed by the distension of the sheath under the pressure of the -secreted liquid.</p> - -<div id="Fig_105" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_105.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 105.—<i>Pterois artemata</i> (East Coast of Africa, Indian and Tropical Pacific Oceans). -(After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>There are twelve pairs of dorsal and three pairs of anal glands. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> -The pairs attached to the second anal spine are, as the direct result -of the size of the latter, more developed than those of the other -spines.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Rascasse</i>, the opercular spines of which are greatly -developed, there is a rudiment of a poison-apparatus at the bottom -of the sheath formed by the skin of the gills.</p> - -<p>The species of <i>Pterois</i> (<a href="#Fig_105">fig. 105</a>) are distinguished from those of -<i>Scorpæna</i> by their dorsal fins, the rays of which are very long and -curved backwards, above the membrane by which they are united. -They are found in the Indian and Equatorial Pacific Oceans, and are -very beautiful in colour, varying from reddish-brown to bright rose.</p> - -<p>The poison-apparatus of these fishes is situated in the dorsal fin, -and is precisely similar to that of <i>Scorpæna</i>.</p> - -<div id="Fig_106" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_106.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 106.—<i>Pelor filamentosum</i> (Family <i>Triglidæ</i>, Mauritius).</p> -</div> - -<p>The species of <i>Pelor</i> (<a href="#Fig_106">fig. 106</a>) present greater resemblance to -those of <i>Synanceia</i>, owing to their heads being crushed in in front. -Their eyes stand up above the head and are very close together, -which helps to give them an extremely ugly appearance. The skin -is soft and spongy, and bristles with jagged fleshy shreds. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span></p> - -<p>Their poison-apparatus is placed in the dorsal fins, as in the case -of <i>Scorpæna</i> and <i>Pterois</i>.</p> - -<h4 id="Trachinidae">2.—<b>Trachinidæ.</b></h4> - -<p>Genus <i>Trachinus</i> (Weevers).—Four species of Weevers are -found in European seas: the Greater Weever (<i>Trachinus draco</i>), -the Lesser Weever (<i>T. vipera</i>), the Striped-headed Weever (<i>T. -radiatus</i>), and the Mediterranean Spider Weever (<i>T. araneus</i>); -other species are met with on the coast of Chile.</p> - -<p>Weevers possess two sets of poison-apparatus, one of which is -situated on the operculum, the other at the base of the spines of -the dorsal fin (<a href="#Fig_107">fig. 107</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_107" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_107.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 107.—<i>Trachinus vipera</i> (Lesser Weever).</p> -</div> - -<p>The spine surmounting the operculum exhibits a double cannelure -connected with a conical cavity excavated in the thickness of -the base of the opercular bone. This spine is covered with a sheath, -beneath which lie the secreting cells. The gland is an offshoot from -the skin, and appears as a simple follicle invaginated in the opercular -bone (<a href="#Fig_108">fig. 108</a>).</p> - -<p>The dorsal apparatus is composed of from five to seven spines, to -which the inter-radial membrane forms an adherent sheath which -extends almost to the end of the rays. Each spine exhibits a deep -double cannelure. The venom flows between the layer of cells clothing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> -the cannelures and the skin, which is distended to allow it to -pass.</p> - -<p>Towards the base of the spine, the edges of the cannelure are -united, and form a hollow, bony cone, the walls of which are lined -with the cells that secrete the toxic fluid.</p> - -<div id="Fig_108" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_108.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 108.—<i>A</i>, Operculum and opercular spine -of the Lesser Weever (<i>Trachinus vipera</i>); <i>ar</i>, -articular surface of the operculum; <i>c. op</i>, body -of the opercular spine; <i>c. an</i>, canal of the -spine; <i>z</i>, space occupied by the poison-gland. -<i>B</i>, Spine belonging to the first dorsal fin; <i>c. an</i>, -efferent poison-canal in the spine.</p> -</div> - -<p>Greater Weevers are -usually from 12 to 30 cm. in -length, and of a reddish or -yellowish-grey colour, with -blue or violet spots. They -are caught in trawls and are -fairly common on sandy -bottoms. In the month of -June they approach the shore -for the purpose of spawning.</p> - -<p>The venom of the Weever -has formed the subject of -interesting studies by Günther, -Gressin,<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> Bottard, -Phisalix,<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> and more recently -by Kobert<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> and A. Briot.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a></p> - -<p>In order to procure sufficient -quantities of it for experimental -purposes, Briot -cuts off the venomous spines and the surrounding tissue with a pair -of scissors; he then pounds the whole in a mortar, and mixes the -pulp with pure glycerine. After filtration through paper, a toxic -solution is obtained, which does not deteriorate by keeping, and is -neutral to litmus. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span></p> - -<p>A few drops of this liquid are sufficient to kill guinea-pigs, which, -immediately after receiving an injection in the thigh, exhibit paralysis -of the leg with tetanic convulsions; twenty-four hours later an -eschar is formed, and death supervenes on the second or third day.</p> - -<p>Two or three drops, introduced into the marginal vein of the ear -of a rabbit, cause death from asphyxia in from four to ten minutes. -The heart continues to beat for a fairly long time after respiration -has entirely ceased; the blood is not coagulated.</p> - -<p>The toxicity of this venom is completely destroyed by heating it -to 100° C., by chloride of lime, and by chloride of gold. Antivenomous -serum prepared from horses vaccinated against cobra-venom -has absolutely no effect upon it <i>in vitro</i>. There is therefore -no affinity between this venom and that of snakes.</p> - -<p>Weever-venom dissolves the red corpuscles of the horse in the -presence of normal heated horse-serum, but does not dissolve them -in the presence of fresh serum. The non-heated serum, therefore, as -I have shown with reference to the action of cobra-venom on the -blood, contains a natural antihæmolysin.</p> - -<p>Briot succeeded in vaccinating rabbits by accustoming them to -the venom, and in obtaining from them a serum capable of neutralising -the latter <i>in vitro</i>, and of immunising fresh rabbits against -doses several times lethal, even when injected intravenously.</p> - -<p>According to Gressin, the following phenomena are produced in -man as the result of Weever-stings:—</p> - -<p>“At first there is felt an excruciating, shooting, paralysing -pain, which, in the case of nervous persons, may cause attacks of -leipothymia ending in syncope. A kind of painful formication next -pervades the injured limb, which becomes swollen and inflamed, -and may even, if treatment be neglected, form the starting point -of a gangrenous phlegmon.</p> - -<p>“This condition is frequently accompanied by certain general -phenomena—such as fever, delirium, and bilious vomiting, the -duration of which is variable, since they may only last for two or -three hours, or may continue for several days. Fishermen rightly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> -consider this variability to depend upon the amount of venom that -has penetrated into the wound, and especially upon the season -at which the accident takes place. The most serious results are -recorded during the spawning season, and fishermen regard the -Lesser Weever as being the more poisonous.”</p> - -<h4 id="Gobiiae">3.—<b>Gobiidæ.</b></h4> - -<p>In the fishes belonging to this family the body is elongated and -depressed, while the spines in the anterior dorsal fin and in the -ventral fins are slender, flexible, and seldom very solid. The ventral -fins are inserted on the breast or on the throat, and are either -separated or united together in the shape of a funnel. The skin is -naked or covered with large scales, and the mouth is furnished with -teeth. The males are distinguished by the presence of a long -genital papilla. These fishes are carnivorous.</p> - -<div id="Fig_109" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_109.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—<i>Callionymus lyra</i> (Dragonet or Skulpin. Family <i>Gobiidæ</i>).</p> -</div> - -<p>Several species of venomous <b>Gobiidæ</b> are met with on the shores -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> -of France and in the tropical zone. The most important of these -belong to the genus <i>Callionymus</i> (<i>C. belennus</i>, <i>C. lacertus</i>, <i>C. vulsus</i>, -and <i>C. lyra</i>—<a href="#Fig_109">fig. 109</a>).</p> - -<p>The Dragonet or Skulpin (<i>Callionymus lyra</i>), which is common -on the coast of Calvados, may attain the length of 30 cm. In -France it is popularly known as the <i>Doucet</i>, <i>Dragonnet</i>, <i>Lavandière</i>, -<i>Cornaud</i>, or <i>Capouri</i>. Its colours are very vivid, orange and deep -lilac.</p> - -<p>In this fish the præopercular bone ends in three strong, conical, -and very sharp points, diverging like the prongs of a trident. The -upper margin of the opercular bone bears another point, which is -directed upwards.</p> - -<p>The skin of the gills forms a common sheath for this defensive -armature, and the base of the sheath is prolonged into two culs-de-sac, -the surface of which is clothed, during the spawning season, -with cylindrical cells, the secretion of which is poisonous.</p> - -<p>This venom, which is small in amount, does not appear to have -any marked effect upon man (Bottard).</p> - -<h4 id="Teuthididae">4.—<b>Teuthididæ.</b></h4> - -<p>This family of <i>Acanthopterygii</i> includes several species of brilliantly -coloured fishes with elongated and laterally compressed -bodies, provided with a long dorsal fin, and having, on each side of -the tail, a sharp spine placed in front of the anal fin. They are -herbivorous, and are confined to the tropical seas.</p> - -<p>The principal genera are: <i>Teuthis</i> (India), <i>Acanthurus</i> (Tropical -Atlantic), <i>Prionurus</i> (Japan), and <i>Naseus</i> (Red Sea and Indian -Ocean). The fishermen of Réunion are much afraid of the wounds -inflicted by <i>Acanthurus luridus</i>, which they call <i>Marguerite Porc</i> or -<i>Grande Marguerite</i>. A sting from this fish causes a very acute -smarting pain, which may last for several hours, but usually has no -serious consequences.</p> - -<p>The poison-apparatus of these fishes is situated in the dorsal and -anal fins, as in <i>Scorpæna</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span></p> - -<h4 id="Batrachiidae">5.—<b>Batrachiidæ.</b></h4> - -<p>The venomous species belonging to this family are few in -number. They are found in all tropical seas, but have no representatives -in Europe. The best-known species are <i>Batrachus tau</i> -(shores of Central America), and <i>B. grunniens</i>, or Grunting Batrachus -(<a href="#Fig_110">fig. 110</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_110" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_110.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—<i>Batrachus grunniens</i> (West Indies).</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_111" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_111.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—<i>Thalassophryne reticulata</i> (Panama; Tropical Pacific). -(After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The Grunting Batrachus, which does not exceed 30 cm. in -length, is especially common in West Indian waters. When taken -from the water it makes a peculiar grunting sound, whence its name -is derived. The pectoral fins are reddish, the back is brown, and -the sides are yellow, marbled with black. It has three spines in the -anterior dorsal fin, and a fourth spine on the top of the operculum, -with a small poison-sac at the base of each. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></p> - -<p>Next to this genus come the species of <i>Thalassophryne</i>, <i>T. -reticulata</i> (fig. 111), found on the shores of Panama, and <i>T. -maculosa</i>, of Bahia (Brazil), which are provided with a precisely -similar poison-apparatus.</p> - -<p>The physiological action of the venom of these two species -has not yet been studied, but it is probable that it does not -differ from that of the venom of the Weevers and the species -of <i>Synanceia</i>.</p> - -<div id="Fig_112" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_112.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—<i>Lophius setigerus</i> (China Sea and Sea of Japan). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<h4 id="Pediculati">6.—<b>Pediculati.</b></h4> - -<p>The fishes belonging to this family are of large size and compact -shape, with the anterior part of the body greatly expanded. The -head, which is broad, bears venomous spines, and the mouth is -furnished with large teeth. These fishes are voracious, and lie -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> -in wait for their prey at the bottom of the water in the mud -of the shore. In order to attract it, they make use of cutaneous -appendages attached to their spines, which they are able to elevate, -and of filaments situated near the mouth.</p> - -<p>The principal genus is <i>Lophius</i>, one species of which, <i>L. setigerus</i> -(<a href="#Fig_112">fig. 112</a>), is found in the seas of China and Japan. Another species, -<i>L. piscatorius</i> (the Sea Devil or Angler), occurs in the temperate -climates of Europe, North America, Asia and Africa.</p> - -<p>Certain other <i>Acanthopterygii</i> are <i>capable of inflicting wounds</i>, -but, although fishermen often believe them to be venomous, or such -properties are frequently attributed to them in stories, it is doubtful -whether they possess poison-glands. The accidents produced -by them are due rather to the fact that the spines in their fins -are extremely sharp, and that their flesh is toxic. Those belonging -to the <i>Percidæ</i> (the Perch family), especially the genus <i>Serranus</i> -and <i>S. ouatabili</i> (<a href="#Fig_113">fig. 113</a>) in particular, are above all remarkable -in this respect. The last-mentioned fish has two or three spines -on its operculum.</p> - -<div id="Fig_113" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_113.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—<i>Serranus ouatabili.</i> (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The same may be said of certain <i>Squamipinnes</i>, another family -of <i>Acanthopterygii</i>, whose stout bodies are brightly coloured, and -have very sharp, spiny rays in their dorsal and anal fins. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> -most curious genus among the fishes belonging to this family is -<i>Holacanthus</i>, in which the præoperculum is provided with an -enormous spine like that of the Weever. <i>Holocanthus imperator</i> -(<a href="#Fig_114">fig. 114</a>) is met with fairly often in the Indian Ocean and Malay -Archipelago.</p> - -<div id="Fig_114" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_114.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—<i>Holacanthus imperator</i> (Indian Ocean and Malay Archipelago). -(After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="Teleostei_Plectognathi">B.—<span class="smcap">Teleostei.—Plectognathi.</span></h3> - -<p>The Order <i>Plectognathi</i> (Family <i>Gymnodontes</i>) includes the -genera <i>Diodon</i>, <i>Tetrodon</i> and <i>Triodon</i>, globular fishes, in which -the jaw is transformed into a beak and furnished with a sharp -dentary plate. Their œsophagus is dilated into a resonant air-pouch. -When removed from the water they swallow air and -dilate the pouch, and the expulsion of this air is accompanied -by a loud noise.</p> - -<p>Several species of <i>Tetrodon</i> are armed with spines, which produce -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> -very painful wounds. Their flesh is toxic, but it has not been -proved that poison-glands exist at the base of the spines.</p> - -<p>On the shores of the Cape of Good Hope, Brazil, China, and -Japan these fishes are much feared. The principal species are -<i>Tetrodon stellatus</i> (Indian and Pacific Oceans; <a href="#Fig_115">fig. 115</a>) and -<i>T. rubripes</i> (Japan; <a href="#Fig_116">fig. 116</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_115" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_115.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—<i>Tetrodon stellatus</i> (Indian and Pacific Oceans). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_116" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_116.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—<i>Tetrodon rubripes</i> (Japan). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>Closely allied to <i>Diodon</i>, and feared like the foregoing on account -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> -of their spines, which are sometimes scattered all over the body, are -the species of the genus <i>Chilomycterus</i>, the most important of which -are <i>C. orbicularis</i> (<a href="#Fig_117">fig. 117</a>), and <i>C. tigrinus</i> (<a href="#Fig_118">fig. 118</a>), both of -which are found in the Indian Ocean.</p> - -<div id="Fig_117" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_117.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—<i>Chilomycterus orbicularis</i> (Indian Ocean). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_118" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_118.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—<i>Chilomycterus tigrinus</i> (Indian Ocean). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="Teleostei_Physostomi">C.—<span class="smcap">Teleostei.—Physostomi.</span></h3> - -<p>This Order is characterised by the presence of a pneumatic duct to -the air-bladder. It consists of a large, number of families, only two -of which, the <i>Siluridæ</i> and <i>Murænidæ</i>, include venomous species. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></p> - -<h4 id="Siluridae">1.—<b>Siluridæ.</b></h4> - -<p>The majority of the very large number of species belonging to this -family live in fresh water, and have the free margin of the lips -almost always furnished with barbules (<i>Silurus glanis</i>; <a href="#Fig_119">fig. 119</a>). -A few of them possess a poison-apparatus, which, however, attains -its greatest development in <i>Plotosus</i>, the only genus of <b>Siluridæ</b> -found exclusively in the sea.</p> - -<p>The species of <i>Plotosus</i> frequent the shores of the Indian Ocean, -and are met with in the Seychelles, Réunion, and Mauritius. In -shape they resemble eels, and they bury themselves in the sand or -mud, a habit which renders them very dangerous to fishermen.</p> - -<div id="Fig_119" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_119.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—<i>Silurus glanis</i> (Rivers of Central and Eastern Europe).</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Plotosus lineatus</i>, which is of a greenish-brown colour, striped -with from four to six longitudinal whitish bands, is the most -common. By the Creoles of Mauritius and Réunion it is called -<i>Machoiran</i>, by the Malays <i>Sambilang</i>, and by the Abyssinians -<i>Koomat</i>.</p> - -<p>Its poison-apparatus is situated at the base of the dorsal and -pectoral spines. These spines are strong, sharp, slightly incurved, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> -and furnished with hooked denticulations, which cause them to -remain in the wound, in which they break off. Near their extremity -there opens a small canal, which communicates with the culs-de-sac -situated at the base of the spiny rays, which produce a venomous -secretion. The dorsal spine has only a single cul-de-sac, while the -pectoral spines have two.</p> - -<p>The contraction of the local muscles, by compressing these culs-de-sac, -can cause the venom to make its way into the canal of the -spine, but the fluid does not spurt forth in a jet as in the case of -<i>Synanceia</i>. The poison-apparatus is therefore passively defensive in -character. <i>Plotosus</i> is capable of wounding only when the hand -or foot is placed on its dorsal or pectoral spines.</p> - -<p>Fishermen who are stung immediately feel an excruciating pain, -which is soon accompanied by fever, and lasts for several days. -Accidents caused by this fish are of fairly common occurrence in -Réunion.</p> - -<h4 id="Muraenidae">2.—<b>Murænidæ.</b></h4> - -<p>Of the fishes belonging to this family, the species of the genus -<i>Muræna</i> alone concern us. They have an elongated body, without -pectoral fins, and a naked skin, covered with a thick layer of viscid -slime, as in the case of the eels. Their dentition is powerful, formed -of long, recurved fangs, arranged in one or more rows. These fishes -may attain a large size, exceeding 2 metres in length. More -than one hundred species are known, all of which live in tropical or -subtropical seas. <i>Muræna helena</i> is common in the Mediterranean -in the vicinity of Nice and Toulon; <i>M. moringa</i> (<a href="#Fig_120">fig. 120</a>) is found -in the Tropical Atlantic.</p> - -<p>The species of <i>Muræna</i> live in deep water, and feed upon fishes or -crustaceans. In hot countries they frequently venture into fresh -water. Their skins are adorned with brightly coloured markings, -which vary very greatly according to the species.</p> - -<p>The poison-apparatus in <i>Muræna</i> consists of a pouch situated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> -above the membrane of the palate, which may contain ½ c.c. -of venom, and three or four conical, curved teeth, with the convex -surface in front, as in the fangs of snakes. The teeth are not -pierced by a central canal, and the venom flows between them and -the mucous membrane of the palate, which forms a sheath. The -latter is withdrawn to the base of the teeth, while they are penetrating -the tissues. The teeth are mobile; they are articulated -with the palatine bone, in which they are inserted in small depressions, -and a resistant fibrous tissue serves as the means of union. -They can be deflexed backwards against the mucous membrane of -the palate; in this position the first, second and fourth tooth (when -the latter exists) disappear completely between the folds of the -membrane. The third tooth normally remains erect, and it is this -by which wounds must in most cases be inflicted. None of these -teeth can be protruded beyond the vertical.</p> - -<div id="Fig_120" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_120.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—<i>Muræna moringa</i> (Tropical Atlantic). (After Savtschenko.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In addition to the palatine teeth there are, among the groups of -maxillary teeth, several mobile teeth, which are connected with the -poison-reservoir.</p> - -<p>Besides its toxic action the venom of <i>Muræna</i> has manifest -digestive properties, and, in the case of a fish which has been dead for -some little time the gland is no longer to be found, since its walls -have undergone a rapid autodigestion. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></p> - -<p>The venoms of all the fishes of which I have just given a brief -description, as regards their physiological action, present a fairly -close resemblance to the venom of the Weever, and show scarcely -any variation except in the intensity of their effects. They have -been but little studied hitherto, and it is desirable that they should -be better understood. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> - -<i>VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES</i> (<i>continued</i>).</h2> - -<h3>3.—<i>BATRACHIANS.</i> <i>LIZARDS.</i> <i>MAMMALS.</i></h3> - -<h4 id="Batrachians">A.—<b>Batrachians.</b></h4> - -<p>By the ancients the venom of <i>salamanders</i> and <i>toads</i> was dreaded -as much as the most terrible poisons. These animals, however, are -not very formidable, since they are devoid of inoculatory organs; -their poison-apparatus is localised exclusively in the parotids and -the skin. It is represented simply by more or less confluent glands -in the form of sacs, secreting a viscid mucus, which has a nauseous -odour and is highly toxic, even to animals of large size.</p> - -<p>The salamander belongs to the Order <i>Urodela</i>, which is characterised -by the persistence of the tail. Its body is heavy and thickset, -and the flanks and the sides of the tail exhibit a series of -glandular crypts, which secrete venom.</p> - -<p>“The mucus which flows from the mouth, and resembles milk, -eats away human hair,” wrote Pliny; “the spot moistened by it loses -its colour, which subsequently returns. Of all venomous animals -the salamander is the most terrible; it is capable of annihilating -whole nations by poisoning the vegetation over a vast area. When -the salamander climbs a tree all its fruit is poisoned, and those who -eat of it die as surely as if they had taken aconite. Moreover, if -bread be baked with wood touched by the animal, it is dangerous, -and may occasion serious disorders. If the naked foot be defiled -with the saliva of this creature, the beard and hair soon fall out. -Sextius says that a salamander, preserved in honey, after the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> -removal of the entrails, head, and limbs, acts as a stimulant if taken -internally.”</p> - -<p>In ancient Rome, and also in Mediæval France, it was believed -that the most furious fire could be extinguished simply by contact -with one of these animals; charlatans sold the inoffensive salamander, -which, if cast into the most terrible conflagration, was -bound, they declared, to arrest its disastrous progress!</p> - -<p>The explanation of this superstition is furnished by Duméril, -who writes: “On being placed in the middle of burning charcoal, -these victims of so cruel a curiosity, when put to the test, instantly -allowed to exude from the many pores with which their skins are -riddled a slimy humour, sufficiently abundant to form a viscid layer -over that part of the glowing charcoal with which the animals were -in contact. Since this surface, being no longer exposed to the -air, immediately became quite black, it was supposed to be extinguished; -but the salamanders sustained such severe burns that -they soon succumbed.”<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a></p> - -<p>The principal species of salamanders are:—</p> - -<p><i>Salamandra atra</i> (Black Salamander), which is found in the -Alps and the mountains of Central Europe, close to the snow-line, -and up to an altitude of 3,000 metres.</p> - -<p><i>Salamandra maculosa</i> (Spotted Salamander, <a href="#Fig_121">fig. 121</a>), distributed -throughout almost the whole of Europe, and also found in North -Africa.</p> - -<p><i>Triton cristatus</i> (Crested Newt), likewise common all over -Europe.</p> - -<p><i>Triton marmoratus</i> (Marbled Newt, <a href="#Fig_122">fig. 122</a>), which is met with -in damp and dark places, in Portugal, Spain, South and Central -France, and as far north as the Forest of Fontainebleau.</p> - -<p><i>Cryptobranchus japonicus</i> (Great Japanese Salamander, fig. -123), which often exceeds 1 metre in length, and has a clumsy -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> -body covered with large warts, and an enormous head, broad -behind and flattened in front.</p> - -<p>This giant salamander is now confined to a few provinces in the -centre of Japan, between long. 34° and 36°, in damp, shady places, -from 200 to 800 metres above sea-level. It is eaten by the Japanese, -who also use it as a remedy for, or prophylactic against, contagious -disorders. By nature it is extremely sluggish, but tries to bite -when irritated, and then covers itself copiously with slime.</p> - -<div id="Fig_121" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_121.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—<i>Salamandra maculosa</i> (Europe and North Africa).</p> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_122" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_122.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—<i>Triton marmoratus</i> (male). (Europe.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The venom secreted by salamanders evidently serves to protect -these creatures against their enemies. So long ago as 1866, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> -Zaleski<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> isolated from it a substance soluble in alcohol, insoluble -in ether, and with a very strong alkaline reaction, to which he gave -the name <i>salamandarin</i>. This substance, which is better known -to-day as <i>salamandrine</i>, has been studied afresh by A. Dutartre,<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> -Phisalix and Langlois,<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> and subsequently by Edwin and S. Faust.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_123" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_123.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—<i>Cryptobranchus japonicus</i> (Great Japanese Salamander).</p> -</div> - -<p>The action of this poison on the frog is characterised by a period -of violent convulsions, with general tetanic crises, followed by a -period of paralysis, with arrest of respiration and complete muscular -relaxation. According to the quantity of poison absorbed, this -paralytic period may be followed by death, with arrest of the heart -in diastole, or else by return to life, with more or less acute -recurrence of convulsions.</p> - -<p>S. Faust prepares salamandrine by pounding up whole salamanders -in a small quantity of physiological saline solution. The -thick pulp obtained in this way is filtered. One cubic centimetre -of the filtrate, taken as a unit, contains about 5 decimilligrammes of -active substance, which can be purified by treating the filtrate with -alcohol, which dissolves the salamandrine and precipitates all the -proteic substances that give biuret reaction. The salamandrine -thus freed from proteins is saturated with sulphuric or phosphoric -acid, when there is formed a crystallisable salt, which is washed -and dried. This salt is soluble in alcohol and in water. Its -chemical composition is as follows:—</p> - -<p class="table">C<sup>52</sup>H<sup>80</sup>Az<sup>4</sup>O<sup>2</sup> + H<sup>2</sup>SO<sup>4</sup>.</p> - -<p>The toxicity of this substance is such that from 7 to 9 decimilligrammes -per kilogramme represent the lethal dose for dogs, -when injected subcutaneously. The lethal dose for the rabbit is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> -still smaller. It produces convulsive phenomena, followed by arrest -of respiration. The administration of chloral to the subjects of -the experiment, either preventively or immediately after the poison, -prevents the latter from taking effect. Besides salamandrine, -S. Faust has isolated a second alkaloid, <i>salamandridine</i>, which, as -a sulphate, corresponds to the formula (C<sup>20</sup>H<sup>31</sup>AzO)<sup>2</sup> + H<sup>2</sup>SO<sup>4</sup>, crystallises -in rhombic prisms, and is soluble with difficulty in water. -The only difference between the two alkaloids is formed by a -methylpyridic group, and both are derivatives of quinoline. They -must therefore be considered as identical with the exclusively -vegetable alkaloids.</p> - -<p>S. Faust concludes from his physiological investigations that -salamandrine takes effect upon the central nervous system, especially -upon the respiratory centres. It is a convulsion-producing -poison, comparable to picrotoxin, but its effects differ from those -of the latter substance in that the convulsions are accompanied by -tetanic spasms.</p> - -<p>The venom of the Japanese Salamander (<i>Cryptobranchus -japonicus</i>) has formed the subject of studies by Phisalix.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a> This -investigator has shown that this venom, which is highly soluble in -water and in glycerine, is very unstable; alcohol and heating for -twenty minutes at 60° C. are sufficient to destroy it. When -inoculated into frogs it produces œdema and hæmorrhage; if -injected into warm-blooded animals it causes necrosis. In sufficiently -strong doses it kills by arresting respiration. Its effects -strongly resemble those produced by <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms. This -venom, if attenuated by being heated at 50° C. and injected into -mammals, vaccinates them and leads to the formation in their -blood of antitoxic substances, which are capable of preventing -intoxication by salamander-venom, and, curiously enough, also -confer immunity against viper-venom and the serum of the -common snake. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span></p> - -<p><i>Toads</i> are easy to distinguish from frogs owing to their squat -and clumsy shape, and to the mass of glands with which each -side of the neck and a more or less extensive portion of the body is -furnished in these animals. According to G. A. Boulenger, the -number of known species amounts to seventy-six, which are found -in the Old and New Worlds, but have no representatives in -Australia. The species that are the most common, and most -interesting from the point of view of their venoms, are:—</p> - -<p>The Common Toad (<i>Bufo vulgaris</i>), in which the skin, which is -very thick and rugose, is covered on the back with large rounded -tubercles with reddish summits. This species is a great destroyer -of insects, and, as such, is very useful to agriculturists.</p> - -<p>The Natter-Jack (<i>Bufo calamita</i>), in which the digits are -palmate at the base. When irritated it contracts its skin and covers -itself with a white frothy exudation, which gives off an odour of -burnt powder.</p> - -<p>The Green Toad (<i>Bufo viridis</i>), which is especially abundant in -Southern Europe, the Levant, and North Africa.</p> - -<p>The Musical Toad (<i>Bufo musicus</i>), a species distributed throughout -North America as far south as Mexico, and in which the back is -covered with pointed conical tubercles resembling spines.</p> - -<p>The Brown Pelobates (<i>Pelobates fuscus</i>), common in the neighbourhood -of Paris, the skin of which is almost entirely smooth. -Although it appears to be nearly destitute of glands, this animal -secretes a very active venom, which has a penetrating odour and -kills mice in a few minutes, producing vomiting, convulsions, and -tetanic spasms of the muscles.</p> - -<p>The toxicity of the venom of toads was long ago demonstrated -by the experiments of Gratiolet and Cloëz.<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> It is manifest only in -the case of small animals, and in man merely produces slight -inflammation of the mucous membranes, especially of the conjunctiva. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p> - -<p>That this venom preserves its toxic properties for more than a -year in the dry state was shown by Vulpian, and satisfactory -studies of its composition and physiological action have been made -by Fornara,<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> G. Calmels,<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> Phisalix and Bertrand,<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> Schultz,<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> -Pröscher,<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> and S. Faust.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a></p> - -<p>Toad-venom was prepared by Phisalix and Bertrand in the -following manner: Holding the head of one of these batrachians -under water, they expressed the contents of the parotid glands with -the fingers or with a pair of forceps. They repeated the same -operation with a second, and then with a third toad, until they had -sufficiently impregnated the water, which serves to dissolve the -venom. In this way they obtained an opalescent, acid liquid, which -they filtered with a Chamberland candle under a pressure of from -four to five atmospheres. There remained on the filter a yellowish -substance, with a highly acid reaction and partly soluble in ether -and chloroform, while there passed through the pores a clear, -reddish, and slightly acid liquid, which on being evaporated left -behind a greyish-white precipitate. This precipitate was separated -by filtration, washed in water, and redissolved in absolute alcohol -or chloroform. The albuminoid matters were thus separated, and -the liquid, after being rendered limpid by filtration, was evaporated -away. The substance obtained in this way represents one of the -two active principles of the venom. It acts on the heart of the -frog, and arrests it in systole. It assumes the appearance of a -transparent resin, the composition of which roughly corresponds -to the formula C<sup>119</sup>H<sup>117</sup>O<sup>25</sup>. It is the <i>bufotalin</i> of Phisalix and -Bertrand, and is probably identical with that obtained by S. Faust, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> -the formula of which, according to the latter author, is said to be -C<sup>11</sup>H<sup>23</sup>O<sup>5</sup>.</p> - -<p>Bufotalin is readily soluble in alcohol, chloroform, acetone, -acetate of ethyl, and acetic acid. When water is added to a -solution of it in alcohol it is precipitated, giving a white emulsion, -which has a very bitter taste.</p> - -<p>From the aqueous extract whence the bufotalin has been -separated, it is possible to separate a second poison, which acts -on the nervous system and causes paralysis. In order to obtain -it in a pure state, the extract is treated with alcohol at 96° C., -filtered and distilled; the residue dissolved in water is defæcated -with subacetate of lead and sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution -thus obtained is successively exhausted with chloroform to extract -the cardiac poison, and with ether, which removes almost the -whole of the acetic acid. The second neurotoxic principle, called -<i>bufotenin</i>, remains in the residue of the solution after being -evaporated <i>in vacuo</i>.</p> - -<p>Toad-venom, therefore, contains two principal toxic substances: -<i>bufotalin</i>, which is of a resinoid nature, soluble in alcohol, but -scarcely soluble in water, and is the <i>cardiac poison</i>; and <i>bufotenin</i>, -which is readily soluble in those two solvents, and is the <i>neurotoxic -poison</i>.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a></p> - -<p>Pröscher, on the other hand, has extracted from the skins of -toads a hæmolytic substance, termed by him <i>phrynolysin</i>, which -possesses all the properties of a true toxin and is not dialysable. -It is obtained by pounding the skins with glass powder in physiological -serum.</p> - -<p>Phrynolysin dissolves the red corpuscles of the sheep very -rapidly, and (in order of sensitiveness) those of the goat, rabbit, -dog, ox, fowl, and guinea-pig. The red corpuscles of the pigeon, -frog, and toad are scarcely affected. When heated at 56° C. it -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> -loses its properties. By the ordinary methods of immunisation -it is possible to obtain a very active antilysin.</p> - -<p>There is, therefore, a very close analogy between the venoms -of <i>toads</i> and <i>salamanders</i>. These highly complex substances are -composed of mixtures of poisons, some of which are in all -respects analogous to the vegetable alkaloids, while others are -closely related to the microbic toxins and snake-venoms.</p> - -<p>In the spawning season the cutaneous glands of the male toad -are gorged with venom, while those of the female are empty. -Phisalix<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> has shown that at this period the venom of the female -is accumulated in the eggs, which, if extracted from the abdomen -at the moment of oviposition and dried <i>in vacuo</i>, give off in -chloroform a product that has all the toxic properties of cutaneous -venom (bufotalin and bufotenin). No trace of this poison is to be -found in the tadpoles.</p> - -<h4 id="Lizards">B.—<b>Lizards.</b></h4> - -<p>The Order <span class="smcap">Lacertilia</span> includes only a single venomous species, -which belongs to the family <i>Lacertidæ</i>, and is known as the -<i>Heloderm</i> (<i>Heloderma horridum</i>, <a href="#Fig_124">fig. 124</a>). It is a kind of large -lizard, with the head and body covered with small yellow tubercles -on a chestnut-brown ground. It sometimes exceeds a metre in -length, and its habitat is confined to the warm belt extending -from the western slope of the Cordilleras of the Andes to the -Pacific. It is met with especially in the vicinity of Tehuantepec, -where it inspires the natives with very great dread. It is a slow-moving -animal, and lives in dry places on the edges of woods. -Its body exhales a strong, nauseous odour; when it is irritated, -there escapes from its jaws a whitish, sticky slime, secreted by -its highly developed salivary glands. Its food consists of small -animals. Its bite is popularly supposed to be extremely noxious, -but, as a rule, the wound, though painful at first, heals rapidly. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> -Sumichrast caused a fowl to be bitten in the wing by a young -individual, which had not taken any food for a long time. After -a few minutes the parts adjacent to the wound assumed a violet -hue; the bird’s feathers were ruffled; a convulsive trembling -seized its entire body, and it soon sank to the ground. At the -end of about half an hour it lay stretched out as though dead, -and from its half-open beak there flowed a sanguinolent saliva. -There was no movement to give any sign of life, except that -from time to time a slight shiver passed through the hinder part -of its body. After two hours, life seemed gradually to return, -and the bird picked itself up and crouched on the ground, without, -however, standing upright, and still keeping its eyes closed. It -remained thus for nearly twelve hours, at the end of which time -it once more collapsed, and expired.</p> - -<div id="Fig_124" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_124.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—<i>Heloderma horridum.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>A large cat which Sumichrast caused to be bitten in the hind -leg did not die, but immediately after being bitten the leg swelled -considerably, and for several hours the cat continued to mew in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> -a way that showed that it was suffering acute pain. It was -unable to stand, and remained stretched out on the same spot -for a whole day, unable to get up, and completely stupefied.</p> - -<p>Interesting observations on the <i>Heloderm</i> have been made by -J. Van Denburgh and O. B. Wight. The saliva of this lizard was -found to be highly toxic at certain times, and harmless at others. -When injected subcutaneously it produces various effects, such as -miction, defæcation, and abundant salivation, with accelerated -respiration followed by vomiting. The animal drinks with avidity, -and remains lying down, in a very depressed condition. Death -finally supervenes, from arrest of respiration and also of the heart’s -action. The poison likewise acts upon the arterial tension, which -falls very rapidly and very markedly. The sensory nerves are also -attacked; irritability is at first increased, then diminished, and at -last entirely lost. These changes take place from behind forwards, -and from the periphery to the centre. The coagulability of the -blood is at first intensified and then lessened, as when acted upon -by <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venom (H. Coupin).<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a></p> - -<h4 id="Mammals">C.—<b>Mammals.</b></h4> - -<p>The only mammal that can be considered to be provided with -a poison-apparatus belongs to the Order <i>Monotremata</i>, and is known -as the Duck-billed Platypus (<i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i> or <i>O. -anatinus</i>, <a href="#Fig_125">fig. 125</a>). The head of this animal is furnished with -a kind of flat duck’s bill, armed with two horny teeth in the upper -jaw, while the body, which is covered with dense fur, resembles that -of a beaver. The tail is broad and flat; the legs are short, and the -feet are provided with five toes, armed with strong claws and webbed.</p> - -<p>This singular animal is found only in Australia and Tasmania. -It lives in burrows near watercourses, entered by holes which it -digs in the bank, one above, the other on the water-level. It spends -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> -much of its time in the water, and feeds upon worms and small -fishes.</p> - -<p>In the males the hind feet are armed with a spur, having an -orifice at the extremity. At the will of the animal, there is discharged -from this spur a venomous liquid secreted by a gland, -which lies along the thigh, and is in communication with the spur -by means of a wide subcutaneous duct (Patrick Hill).<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a></p> - -<p>It has often been proved in Australia that this liquid, when -inoculated by the puncture of the spur, may give rise to œdema -and more or less intense general malaise. Interesting details with -reference to the effects produced by this secretion have been -published by C. J. Martin, in collaboration with Frank Tidswell.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_125" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_125.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—<i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus.</i> (After Claus.)</p> -</div> - -<p>When a dose greater than 2 centigrammes of dry extract of the -venom of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> is injected intravenously into the rabbit, -it produces phenomena of intoxication analogous to those observed -after inoculation with <span class="smcap">Viperine</span> venoms.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> Death supervenes in -from twenty-five to thirty minutes, and at the autopsy hæmorrhagic -patches are found beneath the endocardium of the left ventricle.</p> - -<p>This venom has been studied afresh in my laboratory by Noc, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> -thanks to the acquisition of a small supply kindly forwarded to me -by C. J. Martin. Noc proved that it possesses <i>in vitro</i> certain -properties of snake-venoms; like the venom of <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i>, -it induces coagulation in citrate-, oxalate-, chloridate-, and fluorate-plasmas. -Heating at 80° C. destroys this coagulant power.</p> - -<p>Contrary, however, to what is found in the case of the venoms -of <i>Vipera</i> and <i>Lachesis</i>, the secretion of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> is devoid -of hæmolytic and proteolytic properties.</p> - -<p>Lastly, its toxicity is very slight, at least five thousand times -less than that of the venoms of Australian snakes. A mouse is not -even killed by 5 centigrammes of dry extract, and in the case of -the guinea-pig 10 centigrammes only produce a slight painful -œdema.</p> - -<p>It has been remarked that the volume and structure of the -poison-gland exhibit variations according to the season of the year -at which it is observed. It is therefore possible that these -variations also affect the toxicity of the secretion (Spicer).<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a></p> - -<p>By certain authors the poison of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> is considered -to be a defensive secretion of the males, which becomes especially -active in the breeding season, and this hypothesis is plausible. -In any case it would seem that as a venom the secretion is but very -slightly nocuous.</p> - -<p>It will have been seen from the papers quoted above that the -chemical nature and physiology of the various venoms, other than -those of snakes, are as yet little understood and need further -investigation.</p> - -<p>The main outlines of this vast subject have scarcely been traced, -and the study offers a field of interesting investigations, in which -the workers of the future will be able to reap an ample harvest of -discoveries, pregnant with results for biological science. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p> - -<h2 id="PART_V">PART V.<br /> - -<br /><span class="ph1">DOCUMENTS.</span><br /> - -<br /><span id="I_A_few_Notes_and_Observations_relating_to_Bites_of_Poisonous_Snakes_Treated_by_Antivenomous_Serum_Therapeutics">I.—<span class="smcap">A few Notes and Observations relating to Bites of -Poisonous Snakes Treated by Antivenomous Serum -Therapeutics.</span></span></h2> - -<h3>A.—<b>Naja tripudians</b> (India and Indo-China).</h3> - -<p>I.—Case published by A. Beveridge, M.B., C.M., Surgeon S. -Coorg Medical Fund (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, December 23, 1899, -p. 1732).</p> - -<p>“A strong coolie, aged 26, was bitten by a cobra on the right -ankle, just above the internal malleolus. He was brought to the -surgery about one hour after being bitten, in a state of comatose -collapse. The pulse was rapid, and the surface of the body cold. -He was given an injection of 10 c.c. of Calmette’s antivenene deeply -into the right flank. He was kept under observation: the paresis -and insensibility were very marked. On visiting him some hours -afterwards I found he could walk without assistance, but staggered, -and complained of weakness and pains in both legs. Next morning -he was much improved, the paresis gradually wore off, and the -pulse steadily gained strength. The patient returned to work four -days later, quite recovered.</p> - -<p>“A few days previously a coolie had died after being bitten -by a snake under the same conditions, but without having been -treated. Occurrences like these point to the necessity that every -Government or private dispensary should be supplied with antivenene, -which is certainly the best remedy for snake-bite available.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p> - -<p id="II">II.—Case reported by Robert J. Ashton, M.B., Kaschwa -Medical Mission, Mirzapur (N.W.P.).</p> - -<p>“A coolie, aged 27, was bitten in the right foot by a cobra at -5.30 a.m., on September 16, 1900. Half an hour later 10 c.c. of -antivenomous serum were injected subcutaneously into the left -forearm. The patient experienced great pain in the foot, torpor, -and great weakness. Recovery, without complications.”</p> - -<p id="III">III.—Case reported by Dr. Simond (Saigon).</p> - -<p>“Nguyen-Van-Tranc, an Annamese, aged 25, employed in the -Botanical Gardens at Saigon, was bitten at 10.30 a.m., on -March 11, 1899, by a cobra which had escaped from its cage. The -bite was inflicted on the palmar surface of the index finger of the -right hand, and the fangs had penetrated deeply.</p> - -<p>“This native, to whom a sensible comrade had applied a ligature -round the wrist, was brought to the Pasteur Institute three hours -later. He was drowsy, with drooping eyelids; his speech was -difficult and almost unintelligible. Deglutition was impossible, -and ingurgitated liquids caused vomiting. The hand was greatly -swollen at the seat of the bite, and the œdema extended to the -forearm. There was partial anæsthesia of the skin. As soon as -the patient arrived, I gave a single injection, beneath the skin of -the flank, of three doses of serum, that is, 30 c.c. In the evening -I again injected 10 c.c. of serum. At 10 p.m. the general condition -of the patient seemed to be improving. Next morning he was less -depressed, spoke more easily, and was able to swallow. Convalescence -began from this moment; the œdema and numbness of the -hand and arm, however, persisted for several days.</p> - -<p>“Recovery was complete on March 20. I have no doubt that -in this very serious case the antivenomous serum preserved the life -of the patient, since his condition was desperate when I saw him.</p> - -<p>“This is the second instance within four months of the successful -treatment of snake-bites at Saigon by Calmette’s serum. In the -former case two natives were bitten by the same animal. One of -them, who permitted the injection of serum, which was performed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> -by Dr. Sartre, recovered; the other, who refused it, died within -twenty-four hours.”</p> - -<p>IV.—Case reported by the Fathers of the Khurda-Mariapur -Mission (India).</p> - -<p>“At 1 p.m., on October 31, 1905, a woman, aged 35, who had been -bitten by a cobra, was brought to us from Khurda. After being -at our dispensary for about an hour she became drowsy; she paid -no attention to anything that was said to her, and merely replied -that she felt sick. We thereupon injected 10 c.c. of serum. The -woman did not even appear to feel the prick when the needle was -driven into her calf. Immediately after this was done she dozed -and went to sleep. The pulse was feeble, and the entire body cold. -We were disposed to give a second injection, but, since we had -only two bottles left, we hesitated to sacrifice one of them. At -last, after sleeping for about half an hour, the woman awoke of her -own accord, sat up, and began to recover her senses. Bodily heat -returned almost immediately, and a few moments later the patient -asked to be allowed to go home; she was, however, kept at the -dispensary. In the evening she continued to complain of headache, -but on the following day she was able to walk, and was quite well.”</p> - -<p>V.—Case reported by Dr. Brau (Saigon).</p> - -<p>“Nhuong, an Annamese agriculturist, on passing through a piece -of waste ground beside the barracks, at about 5.30 a.m. on Sunday, -September 11, felt himself suddenly bitten behind the right knee. -He caught a glimpse of a large blackish snake, with all the characteristics -of a cobra, including the raised head and dilated hood, -gliding hurriedly away, but was unable to overtake it.</p> - -<p>“The seat of the bite merely showed two small blackish -punctures. The part soon became painfully swollen, and the patient -began to feel giddy. Other natives came to his help; he was lifted -into a Malabar cart and brought to the Military Hospital, whence -he was sent to my house, where he arrived about a quarter past six.</p> - -<p>“I entered the vehicle, and immediately drove with the patient -to the Pasteur Institute. The only treatment that he had received -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> -was a ligature round the middle of the right thigh. The lower -leg was enormously swollen, and the swelling was not stopped by -the slight barrier formed by the ligature, but had already extended -to the base of the limb.</p> - -<p>“The patient lay stretched out between the two seats of the -vehicle, with head thrown back and eye-balls turned up and ghastly. -His skin and extremities were cold, and his pulse was scarcely -perceptible. In order not to lose time, he was not even taken up -to the first floor of the Institute, but was carried to an inoculating -table. He was then made to swallow black coffee and rum, and -was given an injection of as much as six doses of antivenomous -serum, which had just been received from the Pasteur Institute at -Lille.</p> - -<p>“Under the stimulus of this injection, somewhat drastic I admit, -an absolute resurrection took place in the sick man. The pulse -became strong and bounding, bodily heat returned, and, although -the swelling did not at once diminish, its progressive extension -seemed to be sharply arrested, while the pain was also greatly -lessened. The patient was able to sit up without assistance, and -relate the incidents of his misadventure.</p> - -<p>“In a few minutes time I thought it possible to have him taken -to the Choquan Hospital, the Director of which Institution, First-class -Surgeon-Major Angier, has been good enough to furnish me -with a note of the subsequent history of this case.</p> - -<p>“’The Annamese Nhuong, who entered the Choquan Hospital -on September 11, suffering from snake-bite, was discharged on -September 20.</p> - -<p>“’On admission, heat and puffiness were observed in the calf -and thigh. Slight dyspnœa, severe fever, tendency to coma. -September 12, temperature 38°, 39·2° C. September 13, temperature -37·3°, 37·6° C. September 17, temperature 36·8°, 37° C.</p> - -<p>“’On discharge, slight œdema and puffiness in the region of the -bite. General condition good.’”</p> - -<p>VI.—Case recorded by Dr. Robert Miller, Bengal-Nagpur Railway -Company (<i>Advocate of India</i>, Bombay, January 15, 1902). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span></p> - -<p>“On the evening of October 23 I was called to a coolie woman, -who had been bitten by a large cobra about 7 o’clock; some two -hours had already elapsed since the accident. The woman was, -so to speak, moribund, unconscious, and suffering from paralysis -of the throat, after having exhibited all the characteristic symptoms -of poisoning by cobra-venom. I immediately injected 10 c.c. of -Calmette’s serum, without any hope of a successful result, however, -so desperate did the condition of the patient appear. The effect -of the serum was marvellous; fifteen minutes later she regained -consciousness. I gave a fresh injection of 10 c.c., and three hours -after the first the patient was out of danger. Dr. Sen, my assistant-surgeon, -was present. I have forwarded a note of this case to -Dr. L. Rogers, Professor of Pathology at the Calcutta Medical -College.”</p> - -<p>VII.—Case recorded by Captain H. A. L. Howell, R.A.M.C. -(<i>British Medical Journal</i>, January 25, 1902).</p> - -<p>“Shortly before 4 p.m. on November 17, 1901, Lance-Corporal -G., Royal Scots, was bitten on the right forefinger by a snake. On -being brought to hospital, Assistant-Surgeon Raymond tied a tight -ligature round the finger, scarified the wound, and applied a strong -solution of calcium chloride. On my arrival I found the patient -apparently quite well, and not at all alarmed. As I could get no -information as to the nature of the snake, I injected into the -patient’s flank at 4.30 p.m. 3 c.c. of Calmette’s serum, and sent for -the snake, which was the property of one of the men in barracks. -The snake was brought to me just before 6 p.m., and I found it to -be a cobra about 3½ feet long, of the pale-coloured variety that -natives call Brahmini cobra. I at once injected 7 c.c. of Calmette’s -serum into the other flank. The patient thus received one full -dose of serum. The ligature was removed from the finger, which -was swollen and very painful.</p> - -<p>“Up to half an hour after the bite the patient, a healthy and -powerful man, presented no abnormal symptoms: pulse, respiration, -pupils, temperature, and general appearance, all were normal. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> -His pulse and respiration began to increase in frequency, and the -pulse became very compressible, but quite regular. After the first -injection of serum his temperature was 98° F., pulse full, high -tension, regular, 88, and respirations greatly increased in frequency. -He now became very drowsy, and had to be roused when the second -injection of serum was given. Soon after this the patient’s general -condition and pulse improved.... He had complete loss of -sensation in the bitten finger, in the part terminal to the site of -the puncture, for some days.... The injection of Calmette’s -serum gave rise to no local reaction, and caused no pain. It did -not affect the temperature, but was followed in half an hour by -perspiration, which was very profuse four hours after the injection.... -The patient made a complete recovery.... The -serum used in this case was fresh, having been prepared at Lille -in July, 1901.”</p> - -<p>VIII.—Note of case treated by Major Rennie, R.A.M.C., transmitted -by M. Klobukowski, French Consul-General at Calcutta, -September 5, 1899:—</p> - -<p>“A remarkable cure effected by Major Rennie, by means of -Calmette’s method, has just taken place at Meerut. Since the -introduction of this remedy three years ago, its efficacy has been -abundantly proved, but the present case is especially interesting, -since it seems to show that the serum can be successfully employed -even in cases apparently desperate. The well-known symptoms -of poisoning by cobra-venom were already so advanced that the -patient, who was insensible, was kept alive by artificial respiration -in order to give time for the serum to be absorbed and to take effect.</p> - -<p>“The truth of the above statements is attested by six doctors, -and is also vouched for by the Commissioner and Magistrate of -the military cantonment, who, although not medical men, have, -nevertheless, had long experience of Indian matters.”</p> - -<p>IX.—Case recorded by Binode Bihari Ghosal, Assistant-Surgeon, -Jangipur (“A Case of Snake-bite [Cobra?].—Recovery,” <i>Indian -Medical Gazette</i>, January, 1905, p. 18). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></p> - -<p>“While fastening her door about 10 o’clock one night a Hindu -woman was bitten by a cobra in the left foot, about 1 inch above -the metatarso-phalangeal joints of the second and third toes. -About ten minutes after the bite natives applied three strong -ligatures, one above the ankle, one below, and one above the -knee-joint. Four hours later ‘Fowl’ treatment was applied, which -it appears gives marvellous results. The author arrived about -nine hours after the accident, during the ‘Fowl’ treatment, for -which nineteen chickens had already been sacrificed. In spite of -this the patient was pulseless (no radial pulse—the brachial pulse -was thready and flickering); respiration about six per minute. An -injection of strychnine improved her condition for a few minutes. -When the incision, which had been made over the bite, was -crucially enlarged, large quantities of dark blood were withdrawn -by cupping. In spite of this the patient’s condition grew worse, -and her respiration fell to three a minute; she then received an -injection of 10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum in the left buttock. The -pulse immediately became stronger, and respiration increased to -ten per minute. About half an hour after the first, a fresh injection -of 10 c.c. of serum was given in the same place. Within five -minutes the appearance of the patient, who had seemed to be -dying, became normal. The pulse grew stronger, and respiration -was about fifteen per minute. One hour after the injections the -patient was practically cured.</p> - -<p>“The ‘Fowl’ treatment consists in applying directly to the -wound, after the latter has been slightly enlarged by means of an -incision, the anal apertures of living fowls, from which the surrounding -feathers have been removed. The fowl immediately -becomes drowsy, its eyes blink, and its head falls on its breast with -the beak open, after which the bird rapidly succumbs. Twenty -fowls had been employed in the present case, but in vain.” (The -author does not appear to have troubled himself to ascertain -whether the fowls were really dead, or had merely fallen into -a hypnotic condition.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span></p> - -<p>X.—Case reported by Major G. Lamb, I.M.S., Plague Research -Laboratory, Parel, Bombay, October 18, 1900.</p> - -<p>“Ten days ago I was bitten by a large cobra, from which I was -collecting venom. I had only some very old serum in the laboratory, -but I immediately gave myself an injection of 18 c.c. Three -hours after being bitten I felt faint, my legs became paralysed, -and I was seized with vomiting. In the meantime, fresh serum -had been obtained at a chemist’s, and I received an injection of -10 c.c. The symptoms improved very rapidly, and an hour later -I felt perfectly well. I applied no local treatment, relying -altogether upon the serum.”</p> - -<p>XI.—Case reported by Dr. Angier, of Pnom-Penh (Cambodia).</p> - -<p>“At 11.30 one night in April, 1901, His Majesty, the second -King of Cambodia brought to me in a carriage one of his -wives who, when crossing the courtyard of the palace at about -8 o’clock, was bitten by a snake, which she said was a cobra (in -Cambodian <i>Povek</i>).</p> - -<p>“The bite was situated in the lower third of the leg, in front -of the internal malleolus. The patient complained continually; -she was suffering greatly from the leg, which was swollen as high -as the knee. Great lassitude. An injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous -serum was given, half in the leg and half in the flank. -The wound was washed, squeezed and dressed. Twenty minutes -later the pain had ceased, and the patient went away, feeling -nothing more than a slight dulness in the injured limb.”</p> - -<h4>B.—<b>Naja haje</b> (Tropical Africa).</h4> - -<p>XII.—Cases reported by Dr. P. Lamy, of the Houdaille -Expedition.</p> - -<p>“Lamina, a Senegalese, bitten on the outside of the left thigh, -on February 18, 1898. Treated with serum. Recovery.</p> - -<p>“Momo Bolabine, bitten in the heel on April 20, 1898. Ten c.c. -of serum. Recovery.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span></p> - -<p>XIII.—Case reported by Dr. Deschamps, of Thiès (Senegal).</p> - -<p>“In the month of October, 1898, I was called to a native, a -local constable, who had just been bitten by a Naja. The Ouoloffs -of Senegal are much afraid of the bites of this reptile, since they -are generally fatal. In this case the man had been bitten in the -forehead by a snake, which was coiled up in his bed, as he was -placing his head on the pillow. Being in the dark, he got up -greatly frightened, lit a candle, and saw the snake glide from his -bed and escape through the half-open door. I arrived a few -minutes after the accident; the constable already felt very weak, -and complained of nausea and of pains in the head and back of -the neck. In the middle region of the forehead I found two -adjacent wounds, around which the tissues were œdematous. I -washed the wounds with a solution of permanganate of potash, -and had a telegram sent to St. Louis asking for antivenomous -serum. Half an hour after the bite, the patient was seized with -vomiting and cold sweats. At 6 a.m. on the following day there -was considerable œdema of the face and dyspnœa, while the pulse -was small and intermittent. The patient, who had not slept, was -dull and depressed. He vomited a little milk which I tried to -make him take. Forty hours after the bite the patient, who -was already paralysed, became comatose; the face and neck were -enormously swollen. The dyspnœa had increased; it was difficult -to hear the respiratory murmur; the pulse was thready, slow, and -intermittent; the skin was cold; the temperature, taken in the -axilla, was 35·8° C. At this moment the serum asked for arrived -from St. Louis. I injected into the buttock the only dose that -I possessed, 10 c.c. The coma persisted throughout the evening -and during part of the night; at 6 a.m. on the following day, -fourteen hours after the injection, the patient awoke and said -that he felt quite well. The œdema of the face and neck had -diminished, that of the eyelids had disappeared. Three days -later the constable returned to duty.”</p> - -<p>XIV.—Case reported by Professors H. P. Keatenje and A. -Ruffer (Cairo). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span></p> - -<p>“A girl named Hamida, aged 13, while picking cotton on -October 7, 1896, at Ghizeh, near Cairo, was bitten in the -left forearm by a large Egyptian cobra, which measured 3 feet -in length. She cried out, and her brother and others who were -working with her ran up. She was brought to hospital by the -police at 7 p.m. in a state of complete collapse. She was almost -cold, with upturned eyeballs and imperceptible pulse. The -forearm had been bandaged with a dirty cloth, and the entire -arm was covered with a thick layer of Nile mud (a favourite -remedy among the Fellahîn). Above the wrist two deep punctures -were clearly visible, evidently corresponding to the fangs of the -reptile. The patient, whose condition seemed absolutely desperate, -had no longer any reflexes; she was completely insensible; the -moderately dilated pupils scarcely reacted at all to luminous -impressions. Dr. Ruffer injected, with the customary antiseptic -precautions, 20 c.c. of Calmette’s antivenomous serum beneath the -skin of the abdomen. The child gave a groan while this was -being done; this was at 7.30 p.m. At 11 o’clock at night her -condition improved; the pulse was 140, and bodily heat returned; -the patient replied to questions that were put to her. A second -injection of 10 c.c. of serum was given in the flank. She slept -for the remainder of the night, and passed her water four times -under her. At 8 a.m. on October 8 she appeared to be out of -danger. She took food, and dozed throughout the day. On the -9th she was convalescent. There were no complications resulting -from the injection, neither eruptions nor pains in the joints.”</p> - -<p>XV.-Case reported by Dr. Maclaud, of Konakry (French -Guinea).</p> - -<p>“At 7.30 p.m., on June 22, 1896, there was brought to the -Konakry Hospital a native soldier, named Demba, who had just -been bitten by a snake. This man, who was employed in the -bakery, was stacking firewood, when he felt an extremely acute -pain in the left foot; simultaneously he saw a large snake making -off; he succeeded in killing it, and found it to be a black Naja. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> -After having applied a stout ligature to the limb, the injured -man hastened to the hospital, where, immediately afterwards, he -fell into a condition verging on coma. The body was bathed -with cold sweat; the temperature was subnormal; the pulse, -which was small and thready, was 140. There was difficulty in -breathing, and severe vomiting. At intervals the patient was -aroused by spasms, and excruciating pains in the injured limb, -which exhibited considerable œdema above and below the ligature. -Tendency to asphyxia. I washed the wounds with 1 per cent. -solution of permanganate of potash, and injected a dose of antivenomous -serum into the subcutaneous cellular tissue of the left -flank. In view of the severity of the symptoms I gave two other -injections of serum, an injection of 3 c.c., followed by one of 2 c.c. -The patient dozed all night. Next day the general symptoms had -entirely disappeared. Two days later Demba returned to duty.”</p> - -<h4>C.—<b>Bungarus fasciatus.</b></h4> - -<p>XVI.—Case reported by Surgeon-Captain Jay Gould (Nowgong, -Central India, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, October 10, 1896, -p. 1025).</p> - -<p>“On June 11, 1896, a punkah coolie was bitten on the dorsum -of the left foot, between the second and third toes. He had only -the distinct mark of an incisor, a very slight prick, with a stain -of blood which marked the spot. Within ten minutes we had -injected 20 c.c. of Calmette’s serum into the abdominal wall, after -which we made a local injection of a 1 in 60 solution of hyperchlorite -of calcium. Two hours after the injection the temperature -was subnormal, the pulse full and slow. Twelve hours later the -patient was perfectly well and walking about.</p> - -<p>“The snake was a Bungarus, full grown, measuring 28 inches. -Unfortunately the syces killed it; it died the very moment I -arrived, so that I was unable to test its virulence.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span></p> - -<h4>D.—<b>Bungarus cæruleus.</b></h4> - -<p>XVII.—Case reported by Major S. J. Rennie, R.A.M.C., Meerut, -N.W.P., India.</p> - -<p>“A twelve-year old Hindu boy, named Moraddy, was brought to -me at 6 p.m., on July 10, in a semi-comatose condition, with -commencing paralysis of the respiratory muscles. I was told that -the child was sleeping on the ground, when he was bitten in the -left hand. He immediately felt very great pain and giddiness, and -his arm began to swell. Two small wounds were clearly visible, -corresponding to the marks of the fangs of a krait, or <i>Bungarus -cæruleus</i>.</p> - -<p>“The child had salivation, and ptosis of both eyelids. Respiration -was difficult, and deglutition impossible; the pulse was 110 and -dicrotic. The patient’s breathing was of an abdominal character; -the surface of the body was covered with cold sweat. The child -soon became lethargic and collapsed; his condition appeared -absolutely desperate. I gave a subcutaneous injection of 12 c.c. -of antivenomous serum, and commenced artificial respiration, which -I continued for half an hour in order to give the serum time to take -effect. In forty-eight hours the symptoms gradually disappeared, -and the child became quite well. Diplopia of the left eye persisted -for a few days, but this also entirely passed away.</p> - -<p>“This case shows that, in Calmette’s antivenomous serum, we -have a very powerful remedy against snake-bites, which may take -effect even in desperate cases. It further proves that the serum -will keep for a very long time, even when exposed to all the vicissitudes -of the Indian climate, for the serum employed by me had -been in my possession for nearly four years.”</p> - -<h4>E.—<b>Sepedon hæmachates</b> (Berg-Adder).</h4> - -<p>XVIII.—Case reported by Mr. W. A. G. Fox, Table Mountain, -Cape of Good Hope.</p> - -<p>“On February 9, 1898, I was summoned to the Town Council’s -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> -Camp to treat a native who had been bitten by a berg-adder in the -left leg, just below the knee. I immediately injected a dose of -Calmette’s antivenomous serum in the left flank, and the wounds -were washed. The injection was given two and a quarter hours -after the accident. The patient was already very ill when I saw -him, and I have no doubt that, without the antivenomous serum, -he would have died.</p> - -<p>“On the following day he had recovered, and I saw him again -three months later; since then he has not experienced any -functional trouble.”</p> - -<h4>F.—<b>Hydrophiidæ</b> (Sea-Snakes).</h4> - -<p>XIX.—Case recorded by Mr. H. W. Peal, Indian Museum, -Calcutta (<i>Indian Medical Gazette</i>, July, 1903, p. 276).</p> - -<p>“On April 1, 1903, at 7.30 p.m., a man was bitten at Dhamra, -in Orissa, by a sea-snake which had been caught in a fishing net. -He was not brought to me until 2.30 the next day, when he was -in a state of collapse, semi-unconscious, and unable to speak, with -eyes dull and almost closed. The bite was on the third finger of -the left hand, just above the first joint. The finger was swollen, -tense, and stiff. I gave the man an injection of 5 c.c. of antivenene -ten minutes after he was brought to me. Three or four minutes -after the injection the man with some assistance was able to sit -up, and said he felt much better. He complained of great pain at -the back of the neck and also in the lumbar region. He was able -to speak fairly coherently after a little time. His eyes were brighter -and he seemed to be aroused from his lethargy.</p> - -<p>“I had about one hundred living sea-snakes with me, belonging -to the three genera <i>Enhydrina</i>, <i>Hydrus</i>, and <i>Distira</i>. He identified -<i>Enhydrina valakadien</i> as being the snake which bit him; so did -the men who were with him. The snake was said to be about -3½ to 4 feet long.</p> - -<p>“The antivenene did the man so much good, that he himself -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> -asked me to give him a second injection. This I gave him at -2.25 p.m. (5 c.c.).</p> - -<p>“Date on bottle used, May 8, 1900.</p> - -<p>“The pains in the joints had disappeared on the second injection -(which was given in opposite flank). At 5 o’clock the man walked -away with assistance. He was quite well a couple of hours -after the second injection, and when I saw him again on May 8 -he was in perfect health.”</p> - -<h4>G.—<b>European Vipers</b> (<i>Pelias berus</i> and <i>Vipera aspis</i>).</h4> - -<p>XX.—Case published by Dr. Marchand, of des Montils, Loir-et-Cher -(<i>Anjou médical</i>, August, 1897).</p> - -<p>“About 11 a.m., on Friday, July 23, Jules Bellier, aged 26, was -mowing in a damp spot, when he was bitten in the heel by a large -viper (<i>Vipera berus</i>). The bite, which was deep, was situated on -the outside of the foot, 1 cm. behind the malleolus and 3 cm. above -the plantar margin; at this point there were two punctures in the -skin, 1 cm. apart. Directly after the accident the patient left his -work, tied his hankerchief tightly round the lower third of his leg, -made the wound bleed, and came to me with all speed, hopping on -one foot for about a kilometre. When I saw him scarcely twenty -minutes had elapsed since the accident; his general appearance was -altered, and his pulse rapid. The patient had vomited twice; he -complained of pains in the head, and of general weakness, and -’was afraid,’ he said, ‘of fainting.’ The foot and leg were painful -under pressure; a slight tumefaction was visible in the peri-malleolar -region, around the bites, which bled a little. Forthwith, -after washing the wound freely with a solution of permanganate -of potash, I injected 10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum into the antero-external -region of the middle part of the thigh; then I enveloped -the leg in a damp antiseptic dressing as high as the knee. The -patient breathed more freely and plucked up his spirits. After -lying down for quarter of an hour he went home on foot (he lives a -hundred yards from my house). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span></p> - -<p>“In the evening I saw my patient again. He was in bed, with a -temperature of 37·2° C.; pulse 60; no malaise, no headache, no -further vomiting; he had taken a little soup, and a small quantity -of alcoholic infusion of lime-tree flowers. He complained of his -leg, which was swollen as high as the knee; the pain was greater -in the calf than at the malleolus. I applied a damp bandage. -The patient had a good night, and slept for several hours, but still -had pain in the leg. On the following morning, July 24, I found -him cheerful, with no fever, and hungry. Around the bite the -œdema had become considerable, and had extended to an equal -degree as high as the instep; the calf and thigh were swollen, but -to a much less extent. I gave a second injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous -serum in the cellular tissue of the abdominal wall. The -day was good; indeed, the patient had no fever at any time; the -spots at which the injections were made were but very slightly -sensitive on pressure. In the evening the general condition of the -patient was satisfactory; he complained most of his calf. Thinking -that a contraction was possible, due to his having hopped along -quickly on one leg after the accident, I ordered him a bath.</p> - -<p>“On July 25, the second day after he was bitten, the only -symptom still exhibited by the patient was a somewhat considerable -amount of œdema in the peri-malleolar region and lower third -of the leg. This œdema was slowly and gradually absorbed on the -following days.</p> - -<p>“<i>Remarks.</i>—(1) At this season of the year viper-bites are both -frequent and dangerous in this district of the Loir-et-Cher. A year -never passes without several cases occurring, and it has very often -happened that deaths have had to be recorded in spite of the most -careful treatment.</p> - -<p>“(2) The therapeutic effect of Calmette’s serum was rapid and -efficacious; the injections did not cause any pain or febrile reaction.</p> - -<p>“(3) The œdema resulting from the bite was a long time in being -absorbed; this, indeed, was the only remarkable symptom after the -injection of the serum.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span></p> - -<p>XXI.—Case recorded by Dr. D. Paterne, of Blois (Anjou médical, -September, 1897).</p> - -<p>“My <i>confrère</i> and friend Dr. Marchand (des Montils) published -in last month’s <i>Anjou médical</i> an interesting case of viper-bite, -cured by Calmette’s serum. May I send you particulars of another -case, which can only increase the interest of the one that you have -already published? The facts are as follows:—</p> - -<p>“Léon Bertre, aged 55, living at 17, Rue du Puits-Châtel, Blois, -professes to be a snake-charmer, and really catches and destroys -large numbers of dangerous reptiles in the vicinity of Blois.</p> - -<p>“On Sunday, the 30th of last May, he went among the rocks of -the Chaussée Saint-Victor on his favourite quest, and soon returned -with ten large female vipers, and amused himself by exhibiting -them to a group of interested spectators in an inn. A dog came up -and began to bark. Bertre, whose attention was momentarily -distracted, ceased to fix his gaze on the vipers, one of which, being -no longer under the influence of its fascination, bit him on the -back of the right hand, between the metacarpals of the thumb and -index-finger. (I here reproduce the account of the occurrence as I -received it from the snake-charmer’s own lips.) Bertre immediately -felt an acute pain; his hand swelled up <i>almost suddenly</i>, and, -since he was perfectly aware of the seriousness of what had -happened, he ran with all speed in the direction of my consulting-room. -The unfortunate man, however, had hardly gone -200 metres, when he fell insensible on the highway. He was -brought to me, and Dr. Moreau, of Paris, <i>locum tenens</i> for Dr. -Ferrand, of Blois, who was away, rendered first aid. He washed -the wound, dressed it with perchloride of mercury, and injected -10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum into the right flank. The accident -took place a little before 5 p.m., and the injection was given about -6 o’clock.</p> - -<p>“Dr. Moreau, who was interested in the case, asked me to -take charge of it, which I gladly consented to do. The patient’s -general condition was very grave, since he remained two days and -two nights without regaining consciousness. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span></p> - -<p>“On Tuesday, June 1, about 11 o’clock, Dr. Moreau gave a -second injection of 20 c.c. Considering the condition of the patient, -we hardly hoped for a successful result. To our great surprise, -however, the patient regained consciousness about 3 p.m., and the -improvement progressed rapidly.”</p> - -<p>XXII.—Case recorded by Dr. Thuau, of Baugé (<i>Anjou médical</i>, -September, 1897).</p> - -<p>“X., a young man of Volandry, a parish 10 kilometres from -Baugé, was bitten in the heel at 10 a.m. on the 6th of last August, -by an aspic, about 50 cm. in length, while engaged in harvesting. -He at once had himself taken to Baugé, knowing that -there was an antivenomous serum dispensary there, and about noon -he arrived at the house of my <i>confrère</i> and friend Dr. Boell. The -latter, in view of the grave symptoms exhibited by the patient -(nausea, vertigo almost amounting to syncope, pain in the chest, -profuse sweating, &c.), gave him, with all the customary precautions, -a first injection of 10 c.c. of Calmette’s serum in the flank. -After about half an hour, since the alarming symptoms did not -appear to diminish, he did not hesitate to give a second injection of -10 c.c., and then had him sent to the Baugé Civil Hospital, where -he came under my care about 3 p.m. I then found that this -young man had been bitten in the left foot, a little below the -external malleolus, midway between the latter and the plantar -margin. The snake’s fangs had penetrated rather deeply; the two -little wounds were about a centimetre apart. About this time -the patient experienced great relief, and his general condition -continued rapidly to improve. The axillary temperature was -37·8° C.</p> - -<p>“Locally the patient complained of somewhat acute pain in the -entire foot; the latter was purple and greatly swollen, and the -swelling had affected the whole of the lower leg and extended to -a little above the knee. I made a slight incision in the region of -the two wounds caused by the bite, made the place bleed a little, -and washed it with a solution of permanganate of potash, advising -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> -that the dressing should be changed several times a day. In the -evening the temperature was 37° C., and never varied again from -the normal until recovery was complete on August 25.</p> - -<p>“The two injections of antivenomous serum did not produce any -painful or inflammatory reaction.”</p> - -<p>XXIII.—Case reported by Dr. Clamouse, of Saint-Epain, -Indre-et-Loire.</p> - -<p>“Léonie C., a servant at a farm, aged 19, bitten on June 1, 1900, -by a red viper on the dorsal face of the left ring-finger. Somewhat -serious symptoms of intoxication. In default of serum, injection of -Labarraque’s fluid, 1 in 12. Serum obtained from Tours was -injected at 11 p.m. on June 2, thirty-eight hours after the -accident.</p> - -<p>“On the morning of June 3, very marked improvement. On -June 7, general condition excellent. Recovery.”</p> - -<p>XXIV.—Case reported by Dr. G. Moreau, of Neung-sur-Beuvron, -Loir-et-Cher.</p> - -<p>“A. B., aged 12, living at Villeny, in the canton of Neung-sur-Beuvron -(Loir-et-Cher), was bitten on June 23, 1900, on the -left external malleolus. The parents contented themselves with -applying a ligature above the wound, and did not bring the child -to me until 12.15 p.m.</p> - -<p>“Tumefaction of the entire foot. Ecchymosis of the skin -extending half-way up the leg. General condition excellent. I -gave antiseptically an injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum -in the right flank, followed by a draught of acetate of ammonia -and syrup of ether. Damp bandage applied to wound and swollen -part.</p> - -<p>“I saw the child again on the following day. Generalised -œdema and tumefaction of the bitten limb. Heart excellent; no -vomiting, no fever. I again gave an injection of 20 c.c. of serum, -and ordered a continuance of damp phenic dressings to be applied -to the entire limb. Condition very good.</p> - -<p>“On June 25, no fever at the time of my visit. Pulse irregular. -Ordered treatment to be continued. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span></p> - -<p>“I did not see the patient for four days, when I was summoned -by telegram. I found that the child had fever, 39° C. Complete -tumefaction of the left leg, abdomen, and trunk, with ecchymosed -patches. Prescribed quinine. Arhythmia of pulse and heart. -Prescribed digitalis and Jaccoud’s tonic. The febrile condition -was due to congestion of the base of the right lung. I ordered -cupping and sinapisms alternately.</p> - -<p>“I saw the child again two days later. The congestion still -continued. Temperature 39° C., but the general tumefaction -showed a tendency to diminish.</p> - -<p>“On July 4 I again saw the child. Now only slight œdema. -General condition very satisfactory. Temperature normal. The -child was making rapid strides towards recovery. The leg was -doing well, and the wound was almost healed.</p> - -<p>“Summary: A very serious bite and, above all, great delay in -injecting serum (injection not given until four hours after the -accident); unforeseen complications in the lung, by which recovery -was delayed.”</p> - -<p>XXV.—Case reported by Mons. H. Moindrot, Assistant to Dr. -Martel, of Saint-Étienne (Loire).</p> - -<p>“Claude L., aged 8, living at Ricamarie, was brought, on May 26, -1904, to the Bellevue Hospital. The parents stated that about 10 -o’clock the same morning, while playing near a stack of faggots, the -child was bitten by a snake in the third finger of the right hand. -Since the wound caused by the bite seemed to them of little importance, -they contented themselves with squeezing the injured finger in -order to make it bleed a little. A few moments later, however, the -child began to complain of a feeling of distension in the region -of the bite, caused by œdema, which soon increased to an alarming -extent. A doctor, who was called in, carefully washed the wound, -applied an aseptic dressing, and at once sent the little sufferer to the -Hospital.</p> - -<p>“<i>On admission</i>, enormous œdema, including fingers, hand, entire -right arm, cervical region on the same side, and the anterior -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> -face of the thorax, nearly as far as the inner margin of the false -ribs. This œdema was not very painful, though fairly tense, -yielding but slightly to pressure. In the affected region the skin -was cold, of a dull livid colour, with a few ecchymosed patches. -In the bitten finger, a small wound with no special characteristics.</p> - -<p>“General condition bad; the child was unable to stand. He -was indifferent to what was passing around him, merely groaning -a little when examined. The pulse was feeble, thin, and easily -compressible; it was also very irregular. The extremities were -cold. Lungs: nothing abnormal on auscultation, rapidly performed, -it is true. Respiration, however, was distinctly accelerated, 30 -per minute. Temperature not taken on admission. No urine -passed since the accident.</p> - -<p>“The patient’s condition being so alarming, not to say desperate, -we thought it almost useless to have recourse to Calmette’s method, -more especially since at least seven hours had already elapsed since -the child was bitten. Nevertheless we gave a hypodermic injection -of 20 c.c. of Calmette’s serum. At the same time the wound was -crucially incised, and bathed with a 1 in 1,000 solution of permanganate -of potash, after which a damp dressing was applied to the -whole of the swollen limb. The patient was put to bed, and kept -warm. He was given an injection of 50 centigrammes of caffeine, -and 300 grammes of artificial serum. In the evening the temperature -was 36·8° C.</p> - -<p>“May 27.—General condition more satisfactory; pulse still weak, -but less irregular. Persistence of dyspnœa, explained by a series -of small râles at the bases of both lungs. This morning the little -patient passed his urine, about 200 grammes. He is more lively, -and replies better to any questions addressed to him.</p> - -<p>“May 28.—The improvement continues; the dyspnœa has almost -entirely disappeared; only a few râles are still heard at the extreme -base. The pulse is stronger and remains regular. The secretion -of urine gradually reappears. The temperature of the extremities -has become normal. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span></p> - -<p>“On May 29 and following days the œdema continued to diminish, -and had totally disappeared eight or ten days later.</p> - -<p>“Recovery was complete by about June 15. The child was -discharged on June 23, 1904.</p> - -<p>“It seemed to us worth while to report this case, in order to -emphasise the conclusion that forces itself upon us, namely that -in all cases of bites from poisonous snakes an injection of Calmette’s -serum should be given, without considering the efficacy of this -therapeutic agent as being rendered doubtful by the length of time -that may have elapsed since the bite was inflicted.</p> - -<p>“In the present case, as we have seen, there was extensive -intoxication, which had seriously affected the functions of the -various organs, since we found cardiac arhythmia and pulmonary -œdema, and that the patient was threatened with collapse, algidity, -hypothermia, and anuria. Impregnation by the virus having -continued for seven hours, we might have felt ourselves justified, -on the one hand in merely employing the proper means for the -relief of the general condition, on the other hand in treating the -local condition, without having recourse to the serotherapeutic -method, that seems to us in this case, in so far as it is permissible -to make such a statement, to have been the determining factor in -the recovery.”</p> - -<p>XXVI.—Case recorded by Dr. Lapeyre, of Fontainebleau (from -<i>L’Abeille de Fontainebleau</i> of June 27, 1902).</p> - -<p>“M. X., who arrived at Fontainebleau on Sunday morning with -a friend, keeps grass snakes at home, in Paris; he finds his hobby -as good a means as any other to remind him of the forest and its -charms. Human nature includes all kinds of tastes, so that this -particular one need not be further discussed.</p> - -<p>“The journey, therefore, had a twofold object: firstly to spend -a whole day in sunshine and in the open air, and secondly to -catch grass snakes to add to the collection.</p> - -<p>“On leaving the train, our Parisian walked up the Amélie Road, -and saw a snake under a rock. Never doubting that it was one -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> -of the kind that he knew so well, to kneel down, pass his left -arm into the hole, and seize the snake, was the work of a moment; -he quickly succeeded, even better than he intended, for instead of -his seizing a grass snake, the viper bit him so hard in the left -forefinger, that he could only make it let go by pulling it off with -his other hand. Well knowing that he had been dangerously -bitten, he went down to the Station Road to get the wound dressed, -after which, thinking that all necessary precautions had been taken -he returned to the forest, but soon felt uncomfortable. His arm -and then his body swelled up, and he was seized with vomiting. -It was time to go to Fontainebleau to seek medical assistance, for -he had acute pain in the abdomen and stomach, his tongue was -swollen, and his body was turning black.</p> - -<p>“Accompanied by his friend he reached the town. His condition -becoming more serious every moment; the injured man was -carried into a hotel, where Dr. Lapeyre administered injections of -antivenomous serum. After three hours—the same period as had -elapsed between the accident and the first treatment—the general -condition of the patient, which had never ceased to be alarming, -showed marked improvement. By the end of the day he appeared -to be out of danger, and left for Paris on Tuesday evening, delighted -at having got off so cheaply.”</p> - -<h4>H.—<b>Echis carinata.</b></h4> - -<p>XXVII.—Case recorded by Lieutenant C. C. Murison, I.M.S. -(<i>Indian Medical Gazette</i>, May, 1902, p. 171).</p> - -<p>“G. W. R., a Mahomedan, aged about 12, was admitted into -hospital on March 10, 1902, at 9.30 p.m., having been bitten by -a snake on the dorsum of the right foot an hour and a half -previously. The snake was killed by his sister, and was subsequently -identified at the Research Laboratory, Bombay, as an -<i>Echis carinata</i> (Phoorsa).</p> - -<p>“I saw the patient at about 9.45. The dorsum of the foot was -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> -swollen, and the swelling extended above the ankle-joint. The -knee reflexes were very exaggerated, and the boy was somewhat -drowsy. Since he was gradually getting worse, I decided to inject -5 c.c. of Calmette’s antivenene. I got the hospital assistant under -my supervision to inject it into the right calf, to cauterise the bite -with silver nitrate, and to apply a 1 in 40 carbolic poultice. Very -soon (fifteen minutes) after this the pain in the thigh, which had -reached to the right groin, began to disappear. During the night -the patient was very sleepy, and the attendants had great difficulty -in keeping him awake.</p> - -<p>“March 12.—This morning the patient is much better; there -is still considerable swelling of the foot, but the pain is much less. -All other symptoms are gone.”</p> - -<p>XXVIII.—Case reported by Surgeon-Captain Sutherland -I.M.S., Saugor, C.P., India.</p> - -<p>Case of a woman bitten on the finger on July 22, 1898, by -an <i>Echis carinata</i>. Treated six hours later with 10 c.c. of serum. -Recovery.</p> - -<h4>I.—<b>Cerastes.</b></h4> - -<p>XXIX.—Case reported by Dr. Moudon, of Konakry, French -Guinea.</p> - -<p>“On December 9, 1898, a Foulah woman, eight months pregnant, -was collecting wood when she was bitten in the heel, behind -the internal malleolus of the right foot, by a snake which, from the -description given, must have been a Horned Viper. When I saw -her, four hours after the accident, the whole of the lower leg was -swollen and painful. The swelling extended to the groin, and the -patient complained of vertigo and nausea. I immediately gave her -an injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum in the right flank, -followed by a second injection at 10 p.m. Ten days later, with the -Commandant of the <i>Fulton</i>, I saw her again at her village; she -had no symptom of malaise, and the pregnancy was taking its -normal course.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span></p> - -<p>XXX.—Case of a bite from a Horned Viper reported by Dr. -Mons, in charge of the Military Hospital of Laghouat, Algeria.</p> - -<p>“Mohamed ben Naouri, a day labourer, aged 26, during the -summer catches Horned Vipers, which he stuffs and sells.</p> - -<p>“On August 3 a <i>Cerastes</i>, which he was holding down on the -sand with a forked stick, disengaged itself and fastened on his -hand. The snake was a large one, about 50 cm. in length.</p> - -<p>“The accident happened at 6.30 a.m., 6 kilometres from Laghouat, -and the man was bitten on the joint between the second -and third phalanges of the third finger of the right hand. He -applied a ligature to his wrist, and started to run as fast as he -could towards the Military Hospital, where he arrived an hour -later.</p> - -<p>“He was immediately given an injection of antivenomous serum, -in accordance with the instructions, and, around the bite, five or -six injections of permanganate of potash, 1 in 20. On the next -and following days, tense œdema of the arm and left side of the -chest. Extensive purplish ecchymosis of the inner face of the -arm; no fever. The phenomena gradually diminished, and, on -August 17, there was merely a trifling wound where the bite had -been inflicted. The patient was discharged at his own request.</p> - -<p>“Like Dr. Marchand (des Montils), we can certify that the -action of Calmette’s serum was rapid and efficacious. The injection -did not cause any pain or febrile reaction.”</p> - -<p>XXXI.—Case reported by Dr. Blin, of Dahomey.</p> - -<p>“On March 5, 1906, native hospital attendant C., while gathering -vegetables in the hospital garden, was bitten in the right hand -by a <i>Cerastes</i>. The bite was inflicted in the tip of the index finger. -Ten minutes later a ligature was applied to the base of the finger -and another to the upper arm, and as soon as we saw the man, -which was after the lapse of about an hour, he was given an -injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum. The patient complained -of feeling cold and vomited. The axillary temperature -was 36·1° C.; the pulse was weak, irregular, and rapid. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> -finger and hand were swollen. A few minutes later we gave -a second injection of serum. Until evening (the accident took -place at 11 a.m.) the patient suffered from nausea, but sweating -set in, and at 7 o’clock the temperature had risen to 36·7° C. The -feeling of depression was much less. On the following day the -symptoms had disappeared, and forty-eight hours afterwards the -patient returned to duty.”</p> - -<h4>K.—<b>Bitis arietans</b> (Puff Adder).</h4> - -<p>XXXII.—Case reported by Dr. P. M. Travers, Chilubula -Mission, North-eastern Rhodesia.</p> - -<p>“On Thursday, September 6, 1906, information was brought to -me that a child, aged 7 or 8, in inserting his hand into a mole’s -hole had been bitten by a <i>lifwafwa</i> (’Death-Death,’ <i>i.e.</i>, Puff -Adder). I set off in all haste on my bicycle. An accident obliged -me to leave the road when half-way, and, to complete the series -of mishaps, I went to a village with a similar name, a good -half-hour distant from that where the patient lived. The result -was that by the time I arrived I should say that about two hours -had elapsed since the child had been bitten. The snake had been -killed, and was, indeed, a puff adder. It had bitten the child in the -middle finger of the right hand, and half the arm was greatly -swollen, and as hard as stone. As quickly as possible I gave -an injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum, and then vainly -endeavoured to make the wound bleed. In a very short time the -serum was absorbed. On the following morning the child was still -ill, with wild eyes resembling those of an epileptic. He yawned -continually, and did not seem altogether conscious; the inflammation, -however, had greatly diminished. A few days later recovery -was complete, but a large abscess formed on the forearm, and the -hand became necrosed. I was obliged to amputate all the phalanges. -The natives said the child was going to die during the -night. In my opinion the serum saved the child’s life, and recovery -would have been more rapid had I not been so late in arriving.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span></p> - -<h4>L.—<b>Lachesis ferox</b> (known as the <i>Grage</i>, in French Guiana).</h4> - -<p>XXXIII.—Case reported by Dr. Lhomme.</p> - -<p>“In May, 1898, A., aged 48, a European convict undergoing -sentence, was admitted to the Penitentiary Infirmary, of Roches de -Kouvous (French Guiana), suffering from a poisonous bite.</p> - -<p>“The man had been bitten while engaged in felling timber, at -the place called Passouva. The locality is one that is infested with -snakes, especially at the end of the wet season. Two venomous -species in particular are found there in considerable numbers, the -rattle-snake and another called the <i>Grage</i> by the blacks, which -appears to be a <i>Lachesis</i>.</p> - -<p>“The patient arrived at the Infirmary in the evening, about -twelve hours after the accident. We endeavoured to obtain precise -details, but, owing to special circumstances, A., who was alone, -had been unable to see what animal had bitten him. The clinical -signs, however, pointed to a venomous snake; inflammatory phenomena -and pain set in soon after the wound was inflicted, and in -a very short time became acute.</p> - -<p>“<i>Clinical Signs.</i>—On examining the patient we found that the -whole of the right arm was swollen. The skin, which was of a -dark red colour, was acutely inflamed. The slightest touch or -the least movement caused the patient to cry out. The hand -showed traces of the bite, in the shape of two small red marks, -each surrounded by a bluish areola. The general condition was -good. The thermometer, however, indicated a slight rise of temperature, -and the pulse seemed a little soft. The urine on being -examined on the day after the accident contained a small quantity -of albumin. Organs normal. General health before the accident -excellent. Nothing worth mentioning in the previous history.</p> - -<p>“<i>Progress.</i>—The conditions that we have just described disappeared -very quickly, once the treatment was applied. The pain -soon ceased, the temperature fell, and the patient was able to -get a few hours sleep. By the following day the inflammatory -phenomena had noticeably diminished. The œdema of the forearm -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> -and hand, however, persisted for some time, though there was no -formation of pus. On the third day after the accident the albumin -had completely disappeared from the urine. Finally, after the -lapse of a fortnight, the condition became normal, and the convict, -who had recovered the entire use of his arm, was able to resume -work.</p> - -<p>“<i>Treatment.</i>—On admission to the Infirmary, A. received a hypodermic -injection in the thorax of the contents of a bottle of -antivenomous serum. At the same time he was given tonics -(alcoholised coffee). The injured limb was placed in a hot phenic -arm-bath. These baths were continued on the following days, -alternately with damp dressings. Milk diet, and daily aperients.</p> - -<p>“We saw the patient again more than a year after the accident; -his recovery had been complete; there was no loss of power in -the arm whatsoever, and he had never suffered from the nervous -troubles mentioned by some authors as a complication ensuing -after a long interval, and attributed by them to the antitoxic -serum.”</p> - -<p>XXXIV.—Case reported by M. Jean, Veterinary Surgeon of -Artillery in Martinique.</p> - -<p>“C., a negro, aged 26, employed in the artillery quarters at the -Rivière d’Or, was bitten in the right leg by a snake measuring -about 1 metre in length, which he declared was a <i>Trigonocephalus</i>. -The patient came to me twenty minutes after the accident. The -marks of the bite were clearly visible a hand’s breadth above the -external malleolus. The wounds were inflamed, and appeared as -two small red spots 1·5 cm. apart, from which a few drops of -serum were exuding. I did not notice any congestion. The -patient, however, complained of a feeling of weight in the leg, -and supported himself upon the sound one. After making the man -lie down upon a bed, I applied a tight ligature above the bitten -part, and, with a penknife passed through a flame, I endeavoured -to incise the wounds. The instrument, however, was blunt and -I obtained but little blood. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span></p> - -<p>“The treatment prescribed in Dr. Calmette’s directions was then -strictly followed. With the usual antiseptic precautions, I made -several hypodermic injections of the solution of hypochlorite of -calcium round the bite, and injected the dose of serum indicated -in two places in the abdominal wall. The patient was then -vigorously rubbed and covered with woollen blankets. He was -made to take two cups of a strong infusion of black coffee. Since -he could not be induced to go to hospital, he was carried half an -hour later to his home, where he placed himself in the hands of -a ‘dresser.’</p> - -<p>“According to information furnished by Captain Martin, who -lived on the spot and was able to follow the course of the case, -the patient remained throughout the day in a state of profound -prostration, and had several attacks of syncope. The injured limb -was greatly swollen, and the swelling, which extended to above -the knee, produced a mechanical difficulty in using the joint, -leading to a belief that paralysis was setting in. During the -first five days the condition of the patient was so alarming as -to cause a fatal issue to be apprehended. By degrees these -symptoms diminished, until they disappeared about the fifth day.</p> - -<p>“On the twentieth day, C. returned to his work. I saw him -again a month later, when he was in perfect health; his leg had -returned to its normal size, and all that remained were two small -fibrous nodules showing where the bite had been inflicted.”</p> - -<p>XXXV.—Case reported by Dr. Gries, Fort-de-France, Martinique.</p> - -<p>“On June 21, 1896, a young black, who had just been bitten in -the foot by a <i>Bothrops</i> of large size, was brought to the Fort-de-France -Hospital. The entire limb was swollen and benumbed.</p> - -<p>“Two hours after the accident I gave an injection of 10 c.c. of -serum in the abdomen, and the patient was taken back to his -family. I saw him again ten days later, and found that he was -quite cured. His friends stated that recovery had taken place -much more quickly than could have been hoped after so serious -a bite, and without the usual complications.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span></p> - -<p>XXXVI.—Case reported by Dr. Gries, Fort-de-France, Martinique.</p> - -<p>“About 7 a.m., on November 25, 1896, G., aged 23, a fusilier -belonging to the disciplinary battalion, was bitten by a <i>Bothrops</i> -at Fort Desaix under the following circumstances. One of his -comrades had just caught the snake, and was holding its head -down on the ground by means of a forked stick applied to the -neck. G. passed a running noose round the reptile’s neck, but, -his comrade having withdrawn the fork too soon, the snake -had time to dart at him and bite him in left thumb. At the -moment when he was bitten the man was squatting, but he -quickly stood up, carrying with him the snake, which remained for -a few seconds suspended from the thumb by its fangs, and did -not let go until its victim had struck it on the head with his fist. -G. immediately ran to one of his officers, who applied a tight -ligature to the base of his thumb, and sent him off to the hospital, -where he arrived on foot and quite out of breath, ten or twelve -minutes after the accident. He was at once given a hypodermic -injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum in the left flank; the -thumb was washed with a 1 in 60 solution of hypochlorite of -calcium, after which the ligature was removed. A few moments -later, thinking the case a serious one, I caused a second injection -of 10 c.c. of serum to be given in the right flank.</p> - -<p>“Immediately after being bitten the patient experienced complete -loss of sensation in the limb, as far as the middle of the -arm. About 9 a.m. he complained of acute shooting pains in the -hand. At 11 o’clock the limb was still benumbed, but by degrees -sensation returned. Profuse sweating.</p> - -<p>“On November 26 sensation was restored in the whole limb; -no inflammatory phenomena. The patient was perfectly well.</p> - -<p>“The <i>Bothrops</i> on being brought to the hospital measured -1 metre 47 cm. in length.”</p> - -<p>XXXVII.—Case reported by Dr. Lavigne, Colonial-Surgeon -at Fort-de-France. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span></p> - -<p>“At 7 a.m. on January 19, 1897, G., aged 22, was going along -a footpath near Trouvaillant, when he was bitten in the left -external malleolus by a <i>Trigonocephalus</i> which was rutting (a circumstance -which, according to the natives, aggravates the character -of the bite).</p> - -<p>“After killing one of the reptiles (the other having escaped), -the young man made his way to the detachment of gendarmery -stationed close by. The officer in command applied a ligature -to the upper part of the leg, cupped the man a few times, and -sent information to us at the Military Hospital. On reaching -the spot at 9.15 we found, on the postero-inferior surface of the -left external malleolus, two small wounds resembling those caused -by the bite of a snake. The leg was swollen and painful, and the -patient could hardly put his foot to the ground.</p> - -<p>“At 9.30, after taking the usual antiseptic precautions, we gave -an injection of Calmette’s antivenomous serum, from a bottle -dated December 26, 1896. Not having any hypochlorite of calcium -at our disposal, we washed the wound with a 1 in 60 solution of -hyposulphite of soda, and applied a dressing of carbolic gauze. An -hour later the patient was taken to Saint Pierre in a carriage. -Temperature 37·2° C. No vomiting, or tetanic phenomena. In -the afternoon the pain was less acute, and the œdema seemed -to have diminished a little. Mercurial ointment rubbed in.</p> - -<p>“Four days later the patient, being cured without having had -the least rise of temperature, proceeded to the country.</p> - -<p>“This case is interesting, since a single dose of antivenomous -serum (20 grammes), injected two hours and a half after the -accident, sufficed to cure a young man bitten by a <i>Trigonocephalus</i> -measuring 1 metre 20 cm. in length.”</p> - -<h4>M.—<b>Crotalus horridus.</b></h4> - -<p>XXXVIII.—Case recorded by Dr. P. Renaux, of Piriapolis, -Uruguay (<i>La Tribuna popular</i>, Piriapolis, December 14, 1898). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span></p> - -<p>Silverita, aged 20, bitten in the ankle by a <i>Crotalus</i>, on -December 7, 1898. Symptoms of serious intoxication. Treated -with a dose of antivenomous serum, injected half in the right -flank, half in the left. Recovery.</p> - -<h2 id="II_A_Few_Notes_and_Observations_Relating_to_Domestic">II.—<span class="smcap">A Few Notes and Observations Relating to Domestic -Animals Bitten by Poisonous Snakes and Treated with -Serum.</span></h2> - -<h4>A.—<b>Naja haje.</b></h4> - -<p>XXXIX.—Case reported by Dr. Maclaud, of Konakry, French -Guinea.</p> - -<p>“A hound belonging to the Governor of Konakry was bitten -in the ear by a black <i>Naja</i>. A similar accident happened last year, -and the animal died on the fifth day. In the present case, serious -phenomena had already manifested themselves: depression, convulsions, -and great swelling of the entire head and anterior portion -of the trunk. A dose of 10 c.c. was injected at three different -points: in the flank, neck, and cellular tissue of the injured ear. -Improvement was almost immediate. On the following day the -animal recovered its appetite, and two days later was completely -cured.”</p> - -<p>XL.—Case reported by Dr. Marotte, of Konakry.</p> - -<p>“At 10 a.m. on November 1, 1898, a large dog (a German brach), -weighing 33 kilogrammes, was running about in some tall grass. -It returned to its master, looking unhappy, with its eyelids swollen. -Thinking that his dog had been bitten by a <i>Naja</i>, a snake which -swarms round Konakry, he took it to the hospital. The animal -was unable to cover the distance, which was only 300 metres; it -was dragged along, but collapsed, and had to be carried. Its head -was swollen, it panted, and its breathing was rapid and irregular; -there was profuse salivation. On the inner face of the right ear -the marks of the two fangs of the reptile were distinctly visible. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> -A hypodermic injection of 10 c.c. of antivenomous serum was -immediately given in the right flank: this was at 10.10 a.m. At -11 o’clock the symptoms appeared to become less acute; the -animal was easier, and its breathing became less rapid and more -regular. At 1 o’clock the animal succeeded in getting on to its -feet; the œdema had somewhat diminished, and it was able to -half open its eyes. At 6 o’clock the dog was taken back to its -master’s house; it seemed just as lively as though nothing had -happened.</p> - -<p>“On the following morning there was still a small amount of -œdema in the eyelids, but the appearance of the head had become -normal.”</p> - -<h4>B.—<b>Pelias berus</b> (Common Viper).</h4> - -<p>XLI.—Case reported by M. de Maupas, of Challay, by Trôô.</p> - -<p>“About 1 p.m., on July 30, 1898, a fairly large pointer was -brought to me, bitten in the right paw. On shaving off the hair the -marks of the two fangs of the snake were clearly visible. The wound -had bled a little, and the injured limb was painful and swollen. I -ligatured the paw above the joint, and injected a bottle of antivenomous -serum, which had been in my possession since September -6, 1897. The effect was very rapid; after a quarter of an hour the -dog reopened its eyes, which until then had been half closed. -Towards 5 o’clock I removed the ligature. On the next day but -one the swelling had almost disappeared, and the dog took its -food of its own accord; it ran about and seemed lively.”</p> - -<p>XLII.—Case reported by M. de Villiers, Mayor of Villiers-le-Duc, -Côte-d’Or.</p> - -<p>“About 2 p.m., on May 23, 1898, the widow Veillard, of Villiers-le-Duc, -while driving her herd of cows to pasture among the -brushwood, saw a viper which she killed, and then, a few moments -later, three others in succession, which she likewise killed. -Madame Veillard thought of leaving this place, which seemed to -her to be too much infested, when one of her cows, which was -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> -quietly feeding, swerved violently and dashed off through the -scrub. With the help of her dog she succeeded in recovering the -cow, which appeared uneasy, ceased to feed, and had a swollen -muzzle. Madame Veillard then decided to return to the village.</p> - -<p>“Towards 6 p.m., that is to say about three hours after the -accident, I was sent for. The head and tongue of the cow were -swollen, there was foam on the mouth, and the animal had -difficulty in breathing. I injected a dose of antivenomous serum, -from our first-aid station, beneath the skin of the shoulder, and -gave a second injection a few moments later. The cow was then -led back to her shed.</p> - -<p>“At 9 p.m. she was quiet. The swelling did not increase, and -the cow, which had previously refused all food, ate a handful of hay.</p> - -<p>“On the following morning there was nothing to be seen -beyond a little swelling in the neck. The animal fed as usual, -and gave her normal quantity of milk.”</p> - -<p>XLIII.—Case reported by M. P. Rat, engineer, of Saint-Rambert-en-Bugey, -Ain.</p> - -<p>“About 2 p.m. on Sunday, September 7, 1902, while I was -out shooting, my bitch was bitten in the lower lip by a very -large viper. Since I was a long way from home, I was unable to -give the injections until 6 p.m., by which time the poor beast was -in a pitiable condition. Her head was as large as a saucepan; -she had no strength left, trembled, and was unable to stand. I -injected 15 c.c. of serum in the left flank. This was all that I did.</p> - -<p>“At 7 o’clock on the Monday morning the bitch ate and drank -a little. She began to walk about, and by the evening had completely -recovered. There was nothing but a very little swelling -left.”</p> - -<h4>C.—<b>Cerastes.</b></h4> - -<p>XLIV.—Case reported by Dr. Boyé, of Kissidougou, French -Soudan.</p> - -<p>“At Kan-Kau, on December 19, 1896, a cow belonging to the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> -post, which had been bitten by a snake at 8 a.m., seemed about -to die. The snake, which was killed by the herdsman, was a -<i>Cerastes</i> (Horned Viper).</p> - -<p>“On going to the cattle-shed I found the animal on her side -and panting, with the limbs completely relaxed. A thick foam -was dropping from the half-open mouth, and asphyxia seemed -imminent. The cow had been bitten in the teats, which were -enormously swollen; the œdema extended over the whole of the -belly and inner face of the thighs. Two doses of serum were -injected, one at the base of the teats, the other in the subcutaneous -tissue of the flank.</p> - -<p>“On the following morning the œdema had diminished, and -the breathing was much easier; the animal seemed to be conscious -of what was passing around it.</p> - -<p>“Forty-eight hours later the cow was able to walk and went -out to graze, having apparently entirely recovered from the -accident.”</p> - -<h2 id="III_Note_on_the_Collection_of_Venom_and_the_Treatment">III.—<span class="smcap">Note on the Collection of Venom and the Treatment -of Bites from Poisonous Snakes in the French Settlements -in India.</span><br /> - -<span class="center medium">By Dr. <span class="smcap">Paul Gouzien</span>.</span><br /> - -<span class="center small">Principal Medical Officer of Colonial Troops.</span></h2> - -<p>From the time of our arrival in India, in February, 1901, we -turned our attention to ensuring the regular collection of snake-venoms, -with a view to satisfying the desire for them that had been -expressed by our friend Professor Calmette, Director of the -Pasteur Institute at Lille.</p> - -<p>To gain this end, the moral and financial support of the -Administration was indispensable, and this did not fail us. Acting -on our suggestion, as formulated by letter on May 25, 1901, -Governor Rodier, on June 11, issued an order by the terms of -which a sum of 200 rupees was placed at the disposal of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> -Chief of the Sanitary Service, “with a view to encourage the -catching of poisonous snakes, and to assist the collection of snake-venom -by the granting of bounties to natives.”</p> - -<p>On the issue of this order, we drew up instructions for the -collection of venom, which we caused to be distributed to all -posts in the Colony. At the same time an appeal in the -vernacular was posted up in each of our sanitary institutions, -inviting the Hindus to commence the campaign forthwith. The -notice placarded on the door of the Pondicherry Hospital ran as -follows:—</p> - -<h4>“Public Notice.</h4> - -<p>“For the public good the Governor requests the population -to capture poisonous snakes in all places where they are found; -to take them alive if possible; and to bring them to the Hospital -without removing their fangs.</p> - -<p>“One rupee will immediately be paid for each snake brought in.</p> - -<p>“Those who read this notice are requested to communicate it to -their acquaintances.”</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Indian snake-charmers at once responded to this appeal, -and the harvest of snakes was soon abundant. The first provision -of 200 rupees, allotted to us by the Administration in June, 1901, -had to be successively renewed in May and October, 1902. Since -then, on the proposition of our successor, Dr. Camail, this sum of -200 rupees has been included in the local budget, thus definitively -sanctioning the principle of the collection of venom in our Indian -Settlements.</p> - -<p>The venom forwarded by us to France has been exclusively -derived from the cobra, or <i>Naja tripudians</i>. Other venomous -serpents are found in the French Settlements in India, especially -the species of <i>Hydrophis</i>, or sea-snakes; but the cobra is by far the -commonest species, and our trading stations teem with it. Yanaon -is infested by it at all seasons, but especially at the time when the -Godavari is in flood; the reptiles then make their way towards -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> -spots spared by the inundation, and the natives frequently kill them -in their houses. Thus M. Mariapregassam, the Sanitary Officer in -charge of the the Medical Service of this dependency, was in a -position to procure for us, at the very commencement of our -operations, important doses of venom: it should be added that he -acquitted himself of this task with a perseverance and devotion -worthy of the fullest recognition. Of the 653 cobras captured -between August 1, 1901, and February 23, 1903, 229, or more than -one-third, were furnished by Yanaon. Moreover, the cost price of -the cobra fell in proportion to its numbers, and Yanaon paid for -its snakes on the average at the rate of 33 centimes apiece; while -at Chandarnagar and Pondicherry the snake-charmers frequently -received 1 rupee (1 franc 67 centimes) per reptile, though it is -true that even this was an extremely poor remuneration, when we -consider the risk of the calling.</p> - -<p>Again, owing to the limited amount of our grants, we were -obliged to restrict our expenditure, regulating the purchase-price -of the snakes according to the quantity of venom collected. Thus -at Pondicherry, having observed that each cobra yielded on an -average twenty drops of venom, we fixed the value of two drops at -one <i>fanon</i> (one-eighth of a rupee), never more. In this way it was -decidedly to the snake-charmer’s interest to bring us fresh snakes, -and not such as had been previously deprived of their venom.</p> - -<p>In spite of this new regulation, snakes continued to pour into -the hospital, and several were repeatedly brought to us at the same -time; in October and November, 1902, the figure 9 appears three -times in our statistics.</p> - -<p>The combined results of the snake-harvest at our five settlements, -from August 1, 1901, to February 23, 1903, are shown in the -following table:—</p> - -<table class="center"> -<tr> -<th>Number of<br />cobras</th> -<th>Sum<br />expended</th> -<th>Quantity of<br />venom<br />collected</th> -<th>Averagen weight<br />of dry venom<br />per cobra</th> -<th>Average price<br />of the cobra</th> -<th>Average price<br />of 1 gramme<br />of venom</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>653</td> -<td>R. 446</td> -<td>242</td> -<td>0·37</td> -<td>R. 0.68</td> -<td>R. 1.84</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td>grammes</td> -<td>grammes</td> -<td>(1.13 fr.)</td> -<td>(3.07 fr.)</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span></p> - -<p>On an average, therefore, nearly three cobras are necessary to -furnish 1 gramme of dry venom, since freshly collected venom -weighs more, owing to the proportion of water contained in it, -which is greater than half the total weight. Thus the quantity -of fresh venom extracted from an average cobra may be estimated -at about 80 centigrammes. It may be added that the product of the -glands differs considerably in appearance, according as it is derived -from a dead or living snake. In the former case it takes the form -of extremely small, glistening lamellæ, of a golden-yellow colour, -similar in appearance, when in bulk, to iodoform. Venom extracted -from the living snake, on the other hand, is of an amber-brown -colour, and forms much larger lamellæ, which are translucent and -slightly elongate, resembling particles of gum arabic. When the -product is impure and mixed with a small quantity of blood, it -has a dull appearance, and is of a dark, dirty brown, almost black -colour.</p> - -<p>At the Pondicherry Hospital venom is collected in the following -manner;<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> The snake is brought by the snake-charmer in a <i>chatty</i>, -a kind of earthern pot, covered with a rag, or half a calabash. -Ensconced at the bottom of this receptacle, the reptile has a -difficulty in making up its mind to emerge, which it does only -after having been stirred up several times. Once it is outside -the charmer forces the cobra to uncoil, and, while the animal is -moving slowly along, fastens it to the ground by placing the end -of a bamboo on its neck, quite close to the head. The Indian -then cautiously seizes the head of the cobra with his forefinger -and thumb, and, with a rapid movement, throws it into a jar prepared -for the purpose, containing a few tampons of absorbent wool -impregnated with chloroform. As soon as the snake is inside, an -assistant quickly slips a metal plate over the opening of the jar -and presses his hand firmly down upon it. In a few minutes the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span> -animal is dead; it is then taken out of the jar and its mouth -is swabbed out; next, the fangs having been raised by means of -a probe, a saucer is placed between the jaws, and, by pressure -exerted upon the poison-glands laterally and from behind forwards, -the venom is made to spurt out. The fresh product obtained -in this way is of a very pale yellow colour, and viscid. It is protected -from the air and light until completely desiccated; then, -when it is in sufficient quantity and distributed in flakes round -the sides of the saucer, like the colours on a palette, it is cautiously -detached with a spatula, taking care to protect the eyes against -risk from flying particles of venom. After being placed in well-corked -bottles, the product is despatched to France.</p> - -<p>In spite of the precautions observed in the course of these -proceedings, and although the venom has not been extracted until -after the death of the animal, some regrettable accidents have taken -place, as we shall show further on.</p> - -<p>Cases of bites from poisonous snakes appear but seldom in the -statistics of our settlements in India, and, contrary to what is the -case in the neighbouring English possessions, hardly any deaths -are <i>officially</i> recognised in the annual returns as being due to -this cause. It is true that the death statistics are very badly -authenticated, and that the natives frequently conceal the real -cause of death.</p> - -<p>We have been informed by Dr. Cordier, Surgeon-Major of the -Sepoy Corps, that, during a previous tour of duty in Bengal, he -had successfully treated two cases of cobra-bite with Calmette’s -serum.</p> - -<p>At the end of 1901 the following note was forwarded to -us by Dr. Paramananda Mariadassou, Physician to the Karikal -Hospital:—</p> - -<p>“Case I.—In the month of November, 1901, a woman of robust -habit was brought about midnight to the Karikal Hospital, in a -semi-comatose condition. Her husband stated that an hour before, -while lying on a mat stretched on the ground, she felt herself bitten -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> -in the shoulder when in the act of placing her head on the pillow. -With a start of surprise she half rose and then lay down again. -It was only on being bitten for the third time that she made up -her mind to seek for the cause; passing her hand beneath the pillow -in the darkness she touched the body of a snake and cried out. -Directly afterwards she pointed out to her husband, who had at -once hastened to her, the snake coiled up against the wall; the man -killed the reptile and burnt it on the spot. According to him the -snake was about a metre in length, and as thick as all five fingers -put together. The woman had barely time to tell her husband -what had happened, for she speedily became unconscious, and was -in this condition when brought to the hospital.</p> - -<p>“On admission the following symptoms were observed: The -patient did not reply to questions put to her, the eyelids remained -closed, and the teeth clenched. On the right shoulder, a little on -the inner side of the deltoid prominence, two or three punctures -were distinguishable, marked by a small spot of coagulated blood. -The respiration was normal, but the pulse was feeble and thready. -When a pledget impregnated with ammonia was held under her -nose the woman reacted, but immediately relapsed into the soporose -condition.</p> - -<p>“Two doses of antivenomous serum were at once injected, one -in each flank: the patient seemed scarcely to feel the insertion of -the needle. The wound on the shoulder was then washed with -a fresh solution of hypochlorite of calcium, 1 in 60, and six injections, -each of 1 gramme, of the same solution were given -round the wound. The latter was covered with a pad of cotton-wool -saturated with the solution, and two more doses of serum -were injected into the flanks. As the result of this treatment, -which altogether took nearly half an hour, the woman began to -unclench her teeth, and to respond to her name. She was made -to swallow a few mouthfuls of very hot black coffee. A little later -she resisted when a fresh injection of serum was about to be given -her. After having taken a second cup of coffee she sat up, opened -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span> -her eyes, and recognised those about her. She immediately asked -to go home, but was detained for some time longer. After being -carried from the operating table to a bed, she was wrapped in a -blanket; a few minutes later profuse perspiration set in, and the -patient felt so well that she was allowed to go.</p> - -<p>“On the following day the husband came to thank us, and stated -that his wife had quite recovered, and that, while she had been -unable to sleep for the remainder of the night, it was rather from -fear caused by what had happened than in consequence of the -pain.”</p> - -<p>Case II.—We feel it our duty to relate in detail the following -case, having regard to the peculiar circumstances under which it -took place.</p> - -<p>Coupin, the son of Ponnin, aged 25, living at Carouvadicoupom, -near Pondicherry, is a snake-charmer, and one of those who regularly -supply us with venom. In the course of July, 1902, this -man pointed out to us a shrub<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> growing in one of the alleys of -the hospital, to which he attributed so marvellous a power against -the bites of poisonous snakes, that he offered to make a cobra bite -him in our presence, little as we showed any desire to witness such -an exhibition. We allowed him to talk, not wishing to encourage -such an act of bravado.</p> - -<p>However, on July 23 he returned to the charge, and, as we -were leaving the hospital accompanied by our colleagues, he showed -us a cobra which he had just caught, and declared himself ready -to carry out the proposed experiment there and then. In the face -of so much confidence and <i>sang-froid</i>, and, apart from this, being -interested in learning the justification for the reputation for immunity -possessed by Hindu snake-charmers, we thought we ought -not to oppose this voluntary test.</p> - -<p>Coupin then turned out from the chatty in which it was imprisoned -a medium-sized cobra, and amused himself for a few -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> -moments by teasing it. Irritated by this sport, the snake reared -itself up, hissed, and struck at its aggressor several times, as though -it would bite him; but, at each dart, Coupin stopped it with his -hand and gaze, and the snake remained fascinated, with open -mouth, hesitating to drive home its fangs. At one moment the -snake even crawled up to the native’s outstretched hand, and appeared -to lick it: it was evident that the animal’s only intention -was to defend itself, not to attack.</p> - -<p>Coupin, however, was bent on getting bitten, and, by dint of -exciting the snake, the latter became so exasperated that, with -hood dilated, it struck at the snake-charmer’s right hand and drove -in its fangs. The man quietly raised his arm, to allow it to be -clearly seen that the cobra had a firm hold; then, forcing the -animal to let go, he came to us to prove that he was really bitten. -There were two bleeding spots, 6 millimetres apart, in the centre -of the fourth intermetacarpal space of the right hand. The time -was exactly 4.40 p.m.</p> - -<p>The snake, which was immediately killed, was still able to -yield twelve drops of venom, when lateral pressure was applied -to its glands.</p> - -<p>Coupin walked towards a shrub of the kind mentioned above, -which he had planted that very morning in the courtyard of the -hospital,<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> plucked some leaves from it and began to chew them, -making rather a wry face, for he said that they were very bitter. -He then seemed to meditate for a few moments before the shrub. -We asked him whether he was afraid, but he stoutly denied it, -declaring that this was not his first experience, and that indeed -he had been bitten by cobras so often that he could not remember -the first occasion. We endeavoured to discover whether he was -not rendered immune, as Indian snake-charmers are reputed to -be, by inoculating themselves subcutaneously with increasing doses -of venom, according to a principle to a certain extent analagous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span> -to that on which the preparation of antivenomous serum is based. -He, however, assured us that he knew nothing about such practices, -and that the properties of the plant in question had always sufficed -to cure him without other treatment. Such was his confidence -in his specific that, before the cobra was killed, he suggested to -our hospital-warder that he should allow himself to be bitten in -his turn, in order to render the experiment still more conclusive, -adding that his own assistant would be the subject at the next -demonstration.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, a slight œdema began to appear round the bite. -The injured man seemed to be suffering a little, but the pain -did not extend above the wrist; a slight trembling appeared in -the other arm. From time to time Coupin gently massaged the -affected limb with his left hand from above downwards, in order, -he said, to lessen the pain, and perhaps also with a view to checking -the diffusion of the venom. A slight perspiration broke out -over the body; the pulse was regular, 92, twenty minutes after -the bite.</p> - -<p>Towards 6.15, or about an hour and a half after the experiment, -the man, refusing an injection of serum, prepared to go home, -but we insisted that he should remain at the hospital for at least -two hours longer, so as to enable us to watch his condition. He -consented to this, and asked for something to eat. At this time -the back of the hand was somewhat more swollen, but Coupin -seemed to be little disturbed by it; he even declared that the -swelling would increase still further on the following day, and -that, in two or three days, he would make an incision in order -to let out the impure blood collected at the spot; also that the -trouble was now localised, and would not extend higher. He -merely complained of acute thirst, and of a certain difficulty in -swallowing, which was due, he declared, to the extreme bitterness -of the leaves that he had just masticated. Temperature 36·8° C.; -pulse 36. After the brief reaction at the outset, there was a certain -amount of hypothermia, but the general condition seemed satisfactory, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> -and the man remained perfectly calm. We therefore left -him under the supervision of the resident student and the male -attendants, giving orders that we should be sent for immediately -in case of any serious symptoms arising.</p> - -<p>At 7.15 we received a note from the student to the effect that -Coupin had vomited, that his pulse was small, there was difficulty -in breathing, and that he had just received an injection of antivenomous -serum. We hastened to the hospital, where we were -speedily joined by Drs. Cordier and Lhomme.</p> - -<p>On our arrival we found Coupin in a rather prostrate condition. -The pupils were fixed, he was foaming slightly at the -mouth, respiration was regular, the pulse was strong and quite -rhythmical at 96; the man was somewhat chilly. The patient -was unable to speak, but had not lost consciousness, for, when -we asked him how he was, he indicated by signs that he felt very -ill. We subsequently learnt, from the student on duty, that -towards 6.45 the condition of the patient became suddenly worse, -after his companion had administered to him some medicine, the -nature of which we have been unable to discover; on swallowing -this drug Coupin was seized with vomiting, and became collapsed. -We thought it more likely, however, that this was a mere coincidence, -rather than the result of a poison adding its effects -to those produced by the bite of the snake.</p> - -<p>While waiting for our arrival a ligature had been applied to the -injured arm, and near the bite there had been made two deep -incisions, from which some dark blood escaped. At the same time -the patient received hypodermically a first injection of 10 c.c. of -Dr. Calmette’s antivenomous serum, and two injections of ether -and caffeine. As the result of this treatment we found a marked -increase in pulse-rate. After a subcutaneous injection of 500 -grammes of artificial serum, there appeared to be a further distinct -improvement until about 8.45 (four hours after the bite). From -this moment, however, the patient gradually sank. A second dose of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span> -antivenomous serum was injected beneath the skin,<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> and, since the -respiratory movements gradually became slower, artificial respiration -by Sylvester’s method was resorted to, while the tongue was -rhythmically drawn forward. From time to time these proceedings -were interrupted for a few moments, in order to observe the condition -of the respiration; at the base of the thorax and in the flanks -abrupt, jerky, tetaniform undulations were observable, but there -was no free respiratory movement. The abdominal aorta, the -pulsations of which were visible behind the navel, raising the -anterior wall of the abdomen, was somewhat misleading, simulating -the rhythmical oscillations of the abdominal respiratory type. The -heart, however, continued to beat regularly, without any appreciable -weakness. The radial pulse persisted, although weak and slow: -rate 48.</p> - -<p>The patient was kept alive by repeated injections of ether and -artificial serum (1¼ litres in three doses). About 8.30 there appeared -to be a slight improvement; the patient was warmer, and showed -some degree of sensation in the region of the bite. On pinching -the vasculo-nervous bundle in the left axilla reflex movements were -produced in the fingers, which closed convulsively. The pulse, -which had momentarily disappeared in the radial artery, could again -be felt, weak but regular. At the same time, when the epigastric -region was examined, a few faint respiratory movements were just -perceptible. A third injection of antivenomous serum was given -and artificial respiration was continued.</p> - -<p>This factitious amelioration, however, was not maintained, and -after a few scarcely visible movements of the thorax the end soon -came. The eyes were fixed and insensible, the pupils slightly -dilated; no sweats, no urine passed. The body slowly grew cold; -the pulse disappeared from the femoral and carotid arteries, and -diminished in the aorta. The contractions of the heart were once -or twice irregular, and its beats became weaker and gradually -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> -lower. The reflexes had disappeared. There were still a few -slight muscular contractions near the base of the chest, and the -patient quietly passed away at 11.5 p.m., as the result of the -progressive arrest of the heart’s action, respiration itself having -virtually disappeared two hours before the heart had ceased to beat.</p> - -<p>Case III.—A week after this sad occurrence, another snake-charmer, -Kingilien by name, aged 25, was bitten in the first -phalanx of the right forefinger, when taking hold of a cobra in -the courtyard of the Pondicherry Hospital. Refusing an injection -of antivenomous serum, the man ran off as fast as he could go, -after having a simple ligature applied to his wrist. Scarcely had -he reached his dwelling, when he fell into a deep coma, in which -condition he was carried to Cottacoupom, to the abode of one -Souraire Kramani, a kind of sorcerer, who administered to him a -certain medicament in a betel leaf. After having vomited a large -quantity of bile he was taken home. At this time, according to -the summary investigation that we caused to be made, the patient -was unable to utter a single word; he could only open his mouth -with difficulty, and his eyelids remained closed. Kingilien, who -had partially regained consciousness, seemed to be suffering from -continuous attacks of vertigo; his head, if pushed to one side, -drooped, and the man was incapable of voluntary movement. -Respiration was fairly easy, swallowing painful. The entire hand -was greatly swollen; poultices of leaves were applied to it, after -a few incisions had been made with a knife in the back of the hand, -in order to reduce the congestion. The arm was rubbed from above -downwards with the very bitter leaves of the <i>Vëmbou</i>, or mango-tree, -and prayers were recited. This is all the information that I -have been able to obtain with reference to this man, who, after -a prolonged convalescence, is said to have recovered (?).</p> - -<p>Case IV.—One Latchoumanin, aged 25, also a snake-charmer, -of Caradicoupom, was bitten at the Hospital at 10 a.m., on August 2, -while handling a cobra. The bite was situated in the second joint -of the right thumb. After it had bitten the man, ten drops of -venom were extracted from the reptile’s glands. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span></p> - -<p>A ligature was immediately applied, and the wound was made -to bleed by hard squeezing. Refusing all other treatment, especially -injection of serum, although we repeatedly urged it, the man made -off home with all speed, but on arrival failed to find the specific -on which he was relying. All that was then done was to recite -a few prayers over him, and a Brahmin priest was called to bless -him. About 11.30, after acute suffering, Latchoumanin sank into -a comatose condition. At 12.30 respiration became stertorous, and -the patient succumbed at 2 p.m., four hours after being bitten. -Just as the medical officer, deputed by us, reached the dying man, -two chatties containing live snakes were deposited at his bedside, -to ward off ill-luck!</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>On the whole, the evidence collected in the last two cases is -as confused as it is incomplete, and we can scarcely say how much -we regret the obstinacy of these unfortunate victims in refusing to -submit to our treatment, for the serum would undoubtedly have -produced its maximum effect in them, since it would have been -possible to make use of it in good time. These disastrous occurrences, -however, will not cure natives of their exclusive reliance -upon empirical practices; and as regards the inhabitants of the -Tamil country, that is to say, Southern India, it may be foreseen -that for a long time to come they will continue to remain refractory -to the serotherapic treatment, submission to which the English -have had less difficulty in securing from the natives of Bengal, -whose intellectual development undoubtedly stands on a higher -plane. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> - -<div class="table index"> -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">d’Abbadie, M</span>., on inoculation, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Acalyptophis</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Acanthophis</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><i>antarcticus</i> (death adder), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span>bite dangerous, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Acanthopterygii</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Acanthurus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>luridus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Adder, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>. <i>See also Vipera berus.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Africa, poisonous snakes in, <a href="#Page_57">57-81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution of genera (tables), <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (Central), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (East), Vatuas’ method of inoculation, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Agglutinins of venoms, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Aipysurus</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>annulatus</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>australis</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lævis</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>eydouxii</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Albuminoid of snake-venom produces hæmorrhages, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Albumins of venom devoid of toxic power, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Albumose of snake-venom attacks nerve-cell of respiratory centres, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Albumoses of venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> method of separation, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><i>See also</i> Proto-albumoses, Hetero-albumoses.</span> -<span class="trow">Alcatifa, extraction of venom from, for inoculation, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Alcock, researches of, on glands of snakes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Alexins, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> characteristics of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> fixation of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of normal serum, fixation by cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> neutralisation of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Alkaloids in venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Alps, and mountains of Central Europe, <i>Salamandra atra</i> found in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Amboceptors, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> fixation of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">America, snakes in, geographical distribution of genera of (table), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span>venomous snakes in, <a href="#Page_100">100-131</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> -<span class="trow">America, (Central), <i>Batrachus tau</i> found on shores of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (North), musical toad found in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (South), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (Tropical and Sub-tropical), <i>Latrodectus mactans</i> found in, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Ammonia, injection of, only temporary antidote against snake-venom, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Ancistrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>acutus</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bilineatus</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>blomhoffii</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>contortrix</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>himalayanus</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>hypnale</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>intermedius</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>piscivorus</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>rhodostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Anderson, relation of escape from <i>Naja haje</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Anemone scultata</i>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Aniline colours, action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Animals, venomous, definition of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Arachnolysin, poison from <i>Latrodectus</i> prepared by, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Araneida</i> (spiders), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Armstrong, H., chemical analysis of cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Arrows, poisoned by Hottentots with venom of <i>Bitis arietans</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Arthropods, poisonous species of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Asia, poisonous snakes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution of genera (tables), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Asp, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. <i>See also Vipera aspis</i>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Aspidelaps</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lubricus</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>scutatus</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Atheris</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ceratophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>chlorechis</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>squamiger</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Atlantic (Tropical), <i>Acanthurus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Muræna moringa</i> found in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Atractaspis</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>aterrima</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bibronii</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>congica</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>corpulenta</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>dahomeyensis</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>hildebrandtii</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>irregularis</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>leucomelas</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>microlepidota</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>micropholis</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>rostrata</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span> -<span class="trow">Australia, health authorities’ notices against venomous reptiles, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> mortality from snake-bite in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poisonous snakes of, <a href="#Page_81">81-100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> snakes of, almost all confined to sub-family <i>Elapinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Bacteriolytic</span> action of venoms, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> how differing from that of rat-serum, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bailey, action of venom on brain, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Batrachians, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Batrachiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Batrachus grunniens</i>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>tau</i>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bavay on the spitting snake, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bee-sting, remedies for, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bees, venom of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bertrand, researches of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bertrand and Phisalix, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> preparation of toad-venom, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bettencourt, R., venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bibron and Duméril on coloration of snakes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Naja</i> worship in Egypt, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bile, destructive effect on cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Birds, symptoms after inoculation with lethal doses of venom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Bitis</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>arietans</i> (puff adder), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite from, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom used for poisoning arrows by Hottentots, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>atropos</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>caudalis</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cornuta</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>gabonica</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> does not attack man, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>inornata</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>peringueyi</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Black snake, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Pseudechis porphyriacus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Blin, bite from <i>Cerastes</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Blindness following bite of viper, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Blood, anticoagulant action of venom on, mechanism of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> coagulability, action of venom of <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i> on, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> destroyed by venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> certain species of <i>Crotalinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> uncertain action of venom of Vipera berus on, in certain animals, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> coagulation of, connected with action of venoms of <i>Viperidæ</i> on nervous system, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> produced by venoms of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> not coagulated after death caused by venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of hedgehog toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of scorpion antitoxic, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span> -<span class="trow">Blood, toxicity of, in reptiles, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> confers partial immunity to venom, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> destroyed by heating, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> in venomous snakes, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Blood-corpuscles, red, agglutination by venoms, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dissolution only effected by combination of venom with blood-serum or lecithin, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dissolved by snake-serums, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> effects of venom upon, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> resistance to large doses of venom, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> explanation, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> washing of, important before presentation to action of venom, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> unaltered under action of simultaneous doses of venom and serum, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> white, effects of venom on, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bombay, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bonaparte, Lucien, chemistry of venom of vipers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Bothrops</i>, bites from, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bottard on venomous fishes, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Boulengerina</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>stormsi</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Brachyaspis</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>curta</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Brain, comparative action of venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i> and <i>Viperidæ</i> on, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> substance of, fixation of venom on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Brazil, <i>Thalassophryne maculosa</i> found on shores of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Brehm, on <i>Crotalus confluentus</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> the daboia (<i>Vipera russellii</i>), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Echis carinatus</i> (efa, viper of the pyramids), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> reverence paid by Hindus to <i>Naja</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Broad-headed snake, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Hoplocephalus variegatus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Briot, A., experiments with weever-venom, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison of <i>Scolopendra</i> prepared by, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bromized water, saturated, modifies or destroys venoms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Brown snake, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. <i>See also Diemenia textilis.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Brunton, Sir Lauder, on harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Bufo calamita</i> (natter-jack), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>musicus</i> (musical toad), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>viridis</i> (green toad), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>vulgaris</i> (common toad), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bufotalin, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> first active principle of toad-venom, and cardiac poison, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bufotenin, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> second active principle of toad-venom, and neurotoxic poison, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Bungarus</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cæruleus</i> (common krait), bite, cure of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, dose lethal for different animals, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>candidus</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Bungarus candidus</i>, resemblance to <i>Lycodon aulicus</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>fasciatus</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Buprestidæ</i>, food for larvæ of <i>Cerceris bupresticida</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Bushmaster, or surucucu, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span style="padding-left: 1em;"><i>See also Lachesis mutus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap"><i>Calamaridæ</i></span>, species of <i>Callophis</i> feed only upon, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Callionymus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>belennus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lacertus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lyra</i>, <a href="#Page_300">300-301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>vulsus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Callophis</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> feeds only on snakes belonging to <i>Calamaridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bibronii</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>gracilis</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>maclellandi</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>maculiceps</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>trimaculatus</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Calmette’s serum, cobra-bites treated with, <a href="#Page_363">363-5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also</i> Serum, antivenomous.</span></span> -<span class="trow">Calvados, <i>Callionymus lyra</i> common on coast of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cantharis</i> (blister-beetles), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cantor, on venom of <i>Naja bungarus</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> vindictiveness of <i>Naja bungarus</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Captivity, poisonous snakes kept in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Carawalla. <i>See Ancistrodon hypnale.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Cardiac poison of toad-venom (bufotalin), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Caribbean Sea, <i>Scorpæna grandicornis</i> found in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Carpi and Morgenroth, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Carrière, experiments on ingestion of venom, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cascavella (<i>Crotalus terrificus</i>), <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cato, army of, patronage of snake-charmers by, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Causus</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>defilipii</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lichtensteinii</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>resimus</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>rhombeatus</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cells, dissolution of. <i>See</i> Cytolytic action.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cerastes</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bites from, <a href="#Page_348">348-350</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> cured, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, fatal to barefooted pedestrians, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cornutus</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>vipera</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cerceris bupresticida</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Ceylon, snake-charmers of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Chameleons succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Chelicera (fang of spider), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Chemical reactions exhibited by venoms, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> -<span class="trow">Chemical substances modifying or destroying venoms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Chemistry of snake-venoms, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cherry and Martin on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Chilomycterus</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>orbicularis</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>tigrinus</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">China and Japan, <i>Lophius setigerus</i> found in seas of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Chloride of gold, antidote to venom before absorption, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> solution, modifies or destroys venom, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> lime solution, modifies or destroys venom, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cholesterin, antidote to lecithin, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Chromic acid, antidote to venom before absorption, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> solution, modifies or destroys venoms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Clamouse, on bites from European vipers, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Clot Bey on Egyptian snake-charmers, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Clothing protective against dangerous effects of snake-bite, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cobra, bite of, clinical symptoms, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> exhibit rapid general intoxication, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> treated with Calmette’s serum, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> extraction of venom from, method, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Egyptian (<i>Naja haje</i> or <i>haie</i>), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> method of carrying after capture, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> snake-charmers’ skill with, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> alkaloids in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> chemical analysis, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral injections, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> destructive action of bile on, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dissolution of trypanosomes by, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dose lethal for different animals in twenty-four hours, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> fixation on nervous elements, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> local effects on serous membranes slight, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> potency of antineurotoxic antivenomous serum against, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> vaccination against, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cobra-di-Capello, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Naja tripudians.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> spectacled, used by Hindu snake-charmer, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cœlenterates</i>, poisonous species of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cœlopeltis</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>moilensis</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>monspessulana</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cold, intense, toxicity of venom not diminished by, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Colombia, herons of, probably immune to snake-venom, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> hunt young snakes for food, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Coloration of snakes, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> subject to biological laws of mimicry, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-109</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Acanthophis</i>, <i>Aspidelaps</i>, <i>Boulengerina</i>, <i>Brachyaspis</i>, <i>Dendraspis</i>, <i>Denisonia</i>, <i>Diemenia</i>, <i>Elapechis</i>, <i>Elapognathus</i>, <i>Furina</i>, <i>Glyphodon</i>, <i>Homorelaps</i>, <i>Hoplocephalus</i>, <i>Micropechis</i>, <i>Notechis</i>, <i>Ogmodon</i>, <i>Opisthoglypha</i>, <i>Proteroglypha</i>, <i>Pseudechis</i>, <i>Pseudelaps</i>, <i>Rhinhoplocephalus</i>, <i>Rhynchelaps</i>, <i>Sepedon</i>, <i>Tropidechis</i>, <i>Walterinnesia</i>.</span></span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Colubridæ</i> (sub-family <i>Elapinæ</i>).</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Bungarus</i>, <i>Naja</i>, <i>Hemibungarus</i>, <i>Callophis</i>, <i>Doliophis</i>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> resemblance to harmless snakes, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> species of, bite rapidly produces general intoxication, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venoms of, absorption by digestive tract often without ill-effect, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> cause, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> action on nervous centres profound, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> affinity of scorpion poison to, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> albumoses of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> destroy coagulability of blood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dialyse slowly, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> lethal effects on mammals, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> minimum doses lethal for guinea-pig in twenty-four hours, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> recovery rapid after non-lethal doses, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> resistant to heat, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> richness in neurotoxin, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Common rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus durissus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Congestin, poison from <i>Anemone scultata</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Conjunctivitis caused by discharge into eyes of venom of spitting snake, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Copperhead, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Denisonia superba.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Coral-snake, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> immunity from bite of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venomous nature of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>See also Elaps corallinus.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Coral or harlequin snake, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See Elaps fulvius.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Cordier, D., cobra-bites treated with Calmette’s serum, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cotes, E. C., on extraction of venom by charmers, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cottus</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Crabronidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> stings of females of, toxic to other insects, nearly harmless to man, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Crotalinæ</i> (<i>Viperidæ</i>), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> characteristics of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venoms of certain species of, non-coagulant, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>See Ancistrodon</i>; <i>Lachesis</i>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Crotalus</i> (rattle-snake), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> comparative toxicity of organs, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> eggs of, rich in poison, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison glands of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, alkaloids in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral injections, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> ingestion causing death, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> weak hæmolysing power possessed by, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>adamanteus</i>, venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cerastes</i> (horned rattle-snake), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>confluentus</i> (Pacific or mottled rattle-snake), <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> habits, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> devoured by pigs, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Crotalus confluentus</i>, secretion of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>durissus</i> (common rattle-snake), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>horridus</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bites from, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lepidus</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>mitchelli</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>polystictus</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>scutulatus</i> (Texas rattle-snake), <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>terrificus</i> (dog-faced rattle-snake or cascavella), <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>tigris</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>triseriatus</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Cryptobranchus japonicus</i> (great Japanese salamander), <a href="#Page_313">313-315</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> action similar to that of viperine venoms, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Curados de Culebras</i>, immunity produced by inoculation by, <a href="#Page_235">235-237</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Cytolytic action of venoms, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Daboia</span>. <i>See Vipera russellii.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Deafness following bite of viper, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Death adder, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Acanthophis antarcticus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Delezenne, establishment of existence of kinase in venoms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> on the kinasic properties of venoms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Dendraspis</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>angusticeps</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>antinorii</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>jamesonii</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>viridis</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Denisonia</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>carpentariæ</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>coronata</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>coronoides</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>dæmelii</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>flagellum</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>frenata</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>frontalis</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>gouldii</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>maculata</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>melanura</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>muelleri</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nigrescens</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nigrostriata</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>pallidiceps</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>par</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>punctata</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ramsayi</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>signata</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>superba</i> (the copperhead), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>suta</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>woodfordii</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span> -<span class="trow">Dialysis, results of, in experiments with venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i> and <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Diastases, action upon venoms, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Diastasic actions of venoms, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Diemenia</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>modesta</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nuchalis</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>olivacea</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>psammophis</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>textilis</i> (brown snake), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite dangerous, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>torquata</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Digestion of snakes aided by venoms, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Digestive tract, absorption of venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i> often without ill-effect on, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> cause, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Diodon</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Dipsadomorphinæ</i>, sub-family of <i>Opisthoglypha</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Dipsas</i>, teeth of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Distira</i>, fresh-water genus of <i>Hydrophiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cyanocincta</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>jerdonii</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ornata</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>subcincta</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Dog, minimal dose of cobra-venom lethal for, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Dog-faced rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>. <i>See also Crotalus terrificus.</i></span> -<span class="trow"><i>Doliophis</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bilineatus</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bivirgatus</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>intestinalis</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>philippinus</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Domestic animals, treatment of poisonous bites in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Duck-billed platypus (<i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i> or <i>O. anatinus</i>), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Duméril and Bibron, on coloration of snakes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Naja worship</i> in Egypt, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Dutch Indies, poisonous snakes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_30">30-57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Dyer, venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Eau de Javel</span>, antidote to venom before absorption, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> in treatment of wasp- or bee-stings, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Echidnin, chemistry of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Echinoidea</i> (sea-urchins), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Echinoderms</i>, poisonous species of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Echis</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>carinatus</i> (<i>efa</i>, viper of the pyramids), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite from, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dreaded by Egyptians, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom rapid in action, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>coloratus</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Efa</i> (<i>Echis carinatus</i>), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>. <i>See also Echis carinatus.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Eggs of bees, venom contained in, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> fowls, artificial intoxication by venom, effect on embryo, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Crotalus</i> rich in poison, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Egypt, laboratory researches in, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> snake-charmers of, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Egyptians, dread of <i>Echis carinata</i> (<i>Efa</i>) shown by, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> and pursuit of <i>Naja haje</i> among, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Ehrlich, theory of lateral chains, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Elachistodontinæ</i>, sub-family of <i>Opisthoglypha</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Elapechis</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>boulengeri</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>decosteri</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>hessii</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>guentheri</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>niger</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>sundevallii</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Elapinæ</i>, sub-family of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Elapognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>minor</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Elaps</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ancoralis</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>annellatus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>anomalus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>buckleyi</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>corallinus</i> (coral snake), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also</i> Coral-snake.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>decoratus</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>dissoleucus</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>dumerilii</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>elegans</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>euryxanthus</i> (Sonoran coral-snake), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>filiformis</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>fraseri</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>frontalis</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>fulvius</i> (harlequin or coral-snake), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>gravenhorstii</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>hemprichii</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>heterochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>heterozonus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>langsdorffii</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lemniscatus</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>marcgravii</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>mentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>mipartitus</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>narduccii</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>psyches</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>spixii</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Elaps surinamensis</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>tschudii</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Electricity passed through solution of venom in form of continuous electrolytic current destroys toxicity, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also</i> High frequency currents.</span></span> -<span class="trow">Embryo, anomalies in development consequent on introduction of venom into eggs of fowl, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Enhydrina</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, fixation on nervous elements, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bengalensis</i> (syn. <i>E. valakadien</i>), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>valakadien</i> (syn. <i>E. bengalensis</i>), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, dose lethal for different animals, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Enhydris</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>curtus</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, dose lethal for rat, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Entomophaga</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Eosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Epeira</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Erythrosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Europe, poisonous snakes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_22">22-29</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution of genera (tables), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (Central). <i>See</i> Alps.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Triton cristatus</i> and <i>T. marmoratus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Ewing, action of venom on brain, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Facial</span> bones, special arrangements of, characteristic of poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fasting, prolonged, snake-venom shows greatest activity after, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Faust, S., salamandrine prepared by, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fayrer, Sir J., fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> on the daboia (<i>Vipera russellii</i>), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> habits of the krait (<i>Bungarus candidus</i>), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Naja bungarus</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Feeding, artificial, in laboratories for collection of venom, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> of poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fer-de-lance (<i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i>), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Féré, Ch., experiments on development of embryo after introduction of venom into fowl’s egg, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fishes succumb rapidly to snake-venom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venomous, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Flexner and Noguchi, on action of snake-serum on red corpuscles, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> cytolytic action of venoms, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Food, abstinence from, by snakes, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fowls killed by causing them to ingest venom, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fox, W. A., bite from <i>Sepedon hæmachates</i>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">France, mortality from snake-bite in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Fraser, on destructive action of bile on cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> -<span class="trow">Frog-serum, antidote to poison of pedicellariæ, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Frogs succumb slowly to snake-poisoning, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Furina</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bimaculata</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>calonota</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>occipitalis</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Gaboon</span> viper, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Bitis gabonica.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Gangrene, produced by venom of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Gautier, Armand, chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Geographical distribution of poisonous snakes in Africa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> America, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Asia, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Europe, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Oceania, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Geracki, collection of venom, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Gibbs, Wolcott, chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Glands (acid and alkaline), poison-organs of the hymenoptera, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of venom from, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Glandular secretions of persons and animals bitten by venomous snakes, toxic, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Glycerine, means of preservation of concentrated solution of venom, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Glyphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>tristis</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Gobiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Gouzien, Paul, collection of venom from poisonous snakes in French settlements in India, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> on collection of venom, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Grage (<i>Lachesis atrox</i>), immunity from bite of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Grass-snakes, parotid glands of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> withstand large doses of venom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Gressin on poisoning from weever-stings, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">de Gries on bites from <i>Bothrops</i>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Ground rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sistrurus miliarius.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Grunting batrachus. <i>See Batrachus grunniens.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Guiana, witch-doctors of, snake-bite remedies, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Guinea-pig, minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> vaccination against cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Hæmolysins</span> of venom, resistance to heat, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hæmolysis, failure of, under exposure of red corpuscles to large doses of venom, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> in venoms, comparative study of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> power of, possessed by various venoms, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hæmorrhages produced by albuminoid of snake-venom, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> visceral, complicating recovery from bites of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hæmorrhagin in venoms, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> local effects of, not prevented by antineurotoxic serum, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> predominance in venom of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span> -<span class="trow">Hæmorrhagin, present in some species of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> sensitive to heat, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hamadryas elaps</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Naja bungarus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Harlequin or coral snake, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Elaps fulvius.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Heart, action of venom on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Heat, comparative effect on venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <i>Hydrophiidæ</i> and <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> hæmorrhagin sensitive to, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> resistance of hæmolysins of venoms to, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> sole agent in attenuating venom submitted to alternating high frequency currents, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Heating destroys toxicity of blood of reptiles, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hedgehog, immunity of, to venom of <i>Vipera berus</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> proved experimentally, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> blood of, toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Heloderma horridum</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> saliva sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hemibungarus</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>calligaster</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>collaris</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>japonicus</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nigrescens</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Henri, V., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Herons of Colombia hunt young snakes for food, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> probable immunity to snake-venom, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hetero-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> separation from snake-venom, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Heterometrus maurus</i>, venom of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> effect upon sparrows, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">High frequency currents, alternating, attenuate venom only by thermic action, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hill, Patrick, on duck-billed platypus, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hindus, worship bestowed on <i>Naja</i> by, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Holbrook on <i>Crotalus confluentus</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Holocanthus</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>imperator</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Homalopsinæ</i>, sub-family of <i>Opisthoglypha</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> aquatic, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Homorelaps</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hoplocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bitorquatus</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bungaroides</i> (syn. <i>H. variegatus</i>, broad-headed snake), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>curtus</i> (<i>Notechis scutatus</i>, tiger-snake), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite dangerous, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>stephensii</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Horned rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus cerastes.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Horse, bleeding, aseptically, after vaccination to obtain antivenomous serum, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> immunisation to venom, difficulties attending, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span> -<span class="trow">Horse, minimal dose of venom lethal for, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> polyvalent serum prepared from, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> red corpuscles of, reasons for choice of, for exposure to action of venom, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> vaccination of, against cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Horse-serum must be added to venom to dissolve washed red corpuscles, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hottentots, venom of <i>Bitis arietans</i> employed for poisoning arrows by, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hydrelaps</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hydrophiidæ</i> (sea-snakes), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bite from, cure, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> rapidly produces general intoxication, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venoms of, resistant to heat, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hydrophiinæ</i> (sea-snakes), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> habitat and geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> habits of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hydrophis</i> (sea-snakes), <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom from, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cærulescens</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cantoris</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>elegans</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>fasciatus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>gracilis</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>leptodira</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nigrocinctus</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>obscurus</i> (syn. <i>H. stricticollis</i>), <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>spiralis</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Hydrus</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hymenoptera, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-glands of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hypochloride of calcium solution modifies or destroys venoms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hypochlorite of lime, antidote to venom before absorption, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> remedy for wasp- or bee-sting, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hypochlorites, alkaline, antidotes to venom before absorption, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Hypoleucocytosis, accompanying snake-bite, in lethal cases, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> following fatal dose of venom, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Immunity</span> to venom, active, incontestably possible, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> doubtful, by Vatuas’ method, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> hereditary, pretended, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> in India and Egypt, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> natural, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> partial, enjoyed by snakes due to diastasic substances in blood, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> in lethal doses not conferred by ingestion of venom, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">India, French Settlements in, collection of venom and treatment of bites from poisonous snakes in, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> legend relating to <i>Naja</i> in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> mortality from snake-bite in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> excessive, due to snake-worship, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Naja</i> bites, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span> -<span class="trow">India, poisonous snakes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_30">30-57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> snake-charmers in, <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> remedies for bites, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Teuthis</i> found in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Indian Ocean, <i>Chilomycterus orbiculari</i>s and <i>C. tigrinus</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Naseus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Plotosus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Pterois</i> found in, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Scorpæna diabolus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Tetrodon stellatus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Inoculation, experimental, by Fraser, of Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> extraction of venom from alcatifa for, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> graduated, by French viper-catchers, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> immunity incontestable from, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> subcutaneous, productive of immunity, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Insects, venomous species of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Invertebrata easily killed by venom inoculation, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Jacolot</span>, on Mexicans’ method of immunisation, <a href="#Page_255">255-257</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Japan, <i>Cryptobranchus japonicus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Prionurus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Tetrodon rubripes</i> found on shores of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>See also</i> China and Japan.</span> -<span class="trow">Jararacussu (<i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i>), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Jean, bite from <i>Trigonocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Jugglers called in to expel <i>efas</i> (<i>echis carinatus</i>) from Egyptian houses, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Julus</i>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Kanthack, A. A., on chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kasauli, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Katipo</i> (<i>Latrodectus scelio</i>), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kayalof, Mlle., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kidney, action of venom on, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kinase in snake-venoms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kinasic properties of venom, how produced, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>See also</i> Diastasic actions.</span> -<span class="trow">King cobra. <i>See Naja bungarus.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Kipling, Rudyard, account of battle between mongoose and cobra, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kobert, poison from <i>Latrodectus</i> and <i>Epeira</i> prepared by, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Krait, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Bungarus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Krefft, Gerard, on snakes of Australia, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Kyes, lecithide from scorpion-venom, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> on relation of toxins to antitoxins, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> the production of lecithides, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Labaria</span> (<i>Lachesis atrox</i>), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Labial glands, upper, venomous secretions, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Laboratories for preparation of antivenomous serum, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">de Lacerda, on diastatic actions of venoms, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Elaps</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Lacertidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Lachesis</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bite of, clinical symptoms, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> primarily local, violent, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> classification of species, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, absorption by digestive system, cause of acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> rich in kinase, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>alternatus</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ammodytoides</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>anamallensis</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>atrox</i> (grage), immunity from bite of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> (labaria), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>aurifer</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bicolor</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bilineatus</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>borneensis</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>brachystoma</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cantoris</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>castelnaudi</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ferox</i> (grage), bites from, cure, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>flavomaculatus</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>flavoviridis</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>godmani</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>gramineus</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>jerdonii</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lanceolatus</i> (fer-de-lance, or jararacussu), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> description and habits, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> mortality from bite of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> coagulant action on blood, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> diminishes when heated, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lansbergii</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lateralis</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>luteus</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>macrolepis</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>microphthalmus</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>monticola</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>mucrosquamatus</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>mutus</i> (bushmaster or surucucu), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>neuwiedii</i> (urutù), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nigroviridis</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nummifer</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>okinavensis</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>pictus</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>pulcher</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>puniceus</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Lachesis purpureomaculatus</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>schlegelii</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>strigatus</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>sumatranus</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>trigonocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>undulatus</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>wagleri</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>xanthogrammus</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lamb, G., on action of venom on brain, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> on coagulant action of venom of <i>Vipera russellii</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Landouzy, Prof., on serum therapeutics, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lannoy, on diastasic actions of venoms, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> proteolytic action of venoms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> researches of, on glands of snakes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lapeyre, on bites from European vipers, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Latrodectus</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>erebus</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>mactans</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>malmignattus</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lavigne, bite from <i>Trigonocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">de Lavison, R., on <i>Lachesis lanceolatus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lecithides, production of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> from bee-venom, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span>scorpion-venom, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lecithin, added to venom to dissolve washed red corpuscles, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> cholesterin antidote to, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> combination with snake-venom, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Leipothymia following inoculation of venom of <i>Synanceia brachio</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Le Naour, on the spitting snake, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Leucocytes, protective <i>rôle</i> against snake-poisoning, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Leucolysin, mode of producing, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lewin, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Leydig, researches of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lhomme, bite from <i>Lachesis ferox</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> collection of venom, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Light, destructive effect of, on venom in solution, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Liver, action of venom on, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Livingstone, mention of <i>Naja haje</i> by, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lizards, <a href="#Page_321">321-323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> only one species venomous, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Lophius</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>piscatorius</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>setigerus</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303-304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lucan, passage from, quoted, on immunity of Psylli, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lumière, A., and Nicolas, J., on effect of intense cold on venom, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Lungs, action of venom on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Lycodon aulicus</i>, resemblance of <i>Bungarus candidus</i> to, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Maclaud</span>, bite from <i>Naja haje</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> -<span class="trow">Madsen, Th., and Noguchi, H., on ratio between dose of venom and time elapsing till death, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mal on Hindu snake-charmers, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Malaysia, poisonous snakes of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Malmignatte</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mammals, action of <i>Colubrine</i> venom on, symptoms and course, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>post-mortem</i> findings, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Viperine</i> venoms on, symptoms and course, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>post-mortem</i> findings, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Man, minimal dose of venom lethal for, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> not attacked by <i>Bitis gabonica</i> (Gaboon viper), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mano de sapo root, eaten by Mexicans during immunisation treatment, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Maoris’ fear of <i>Katipo</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Marchand, on bites from European vipers, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mariadassou, P., serum treatment, <a href="#Page_363">363-371</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mariapregassam, collection of venom, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Marotte, on <i>Naja haje</i> bite, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Martin, C. J., chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> experiments on <i>Pseudechis</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> with rats proving harmlessness of ingestion of venom of <i>Pseudechis</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> on venom of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> and Cherry, on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> and Smith, MacGarvie, on local and general effects of albumoses derived from snake-venom, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Martinique, mortality from bite of fer-de-lance in, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Massasanga, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sistrurus catenatus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">de Maupas on <i>Pelias berus</i> bite, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mediterranean Sea, <i>Muræna helena</i> found in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Scorpæna porcus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Medulla, substance of, fixation of venom on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Meloë</i> (oil-beetles), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mexico, inoculation of natives in, successful, <a href="#Page_235">235-237</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Micropechis</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>elapoides</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ikaheka</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Milk from mother bitten by poisonous snake causing death of young, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mimicry, biological laws of, coloration of snakes subject to, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mitchell, S. Weir, on chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Moindrot, H., bites from European vipers, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Molluscs, poisonous species of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mongoose, battles with hamadryads and cobras, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> victory mainly due to natural agility, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> immunity to snake-venom, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> not absolute, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> proved by injections, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Monotremata.</i> <i>See Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i> or <i>O. anatinus</i>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span> -<span class="trow">Mons on bite from horned viper, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Morgenroth, on combination of venom with lecithin, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> reconstitution of toxins, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> and Carpi, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mortality from bite of <i>Naja</i> in India, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Vipera berus</i> (common viper or adder), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poisonous snake-bite; localities:—</span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="i20">Australia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i20">France, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i20">India, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i20">Martinique, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span></span> - -<span class="trow">Mottled Rattle-snake <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus confluentus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Moudon, on bite from <i>Cerastes</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Moult of snake’s skin, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom shows greatest activity after, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mouse, experiments on, demonstrating neutralisation of venom by antitoxin, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Mucous membranes, acute inflammation produced by deposit of venoms on, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Muræna</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison apparatus in buccal teeth, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>helena</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>moringa</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Murænidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Murex brandaris</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>trunculus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Murison, Lieutenant C. C., on bite from <i>Echis carinata</i>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Muscles, striated, action of venoms on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Muscular apparatus of head of poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Myriopods, venomous species of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap"><i>Naja</i></span> (cobra), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> habits of species of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> legend relating to marks on its neck, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> mortality from bite of, in India, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-glands of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> worship bestowed on, by Hindus, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>anchietæ</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bungarus</i> (<i>Ophiophagus</i> or <i>Hamadryas elaps</i>, king cobra or hamadryad), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> action of venom, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> feeds on other snakes, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> killed by mongoose, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> method of procuring food, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> vindictiveness of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>flava</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>goldii</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>haje</i> or <i>haie</i> (Egyptian cobra), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bites from, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Naja haje</i>, danger extreme from its boldness in pursuit of victims, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dreaded and hunted down in Egypt, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span>employed by Egyptian snake-charmers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> tables, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span> - -<span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> worshipped among ancient Egyptians, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>melanoleuca</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>nigricollis</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>samarensis</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>tripudians</i> (Cobra-di-capello), <a href="#Page_33">33-36</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> collection of venom from, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> marks produced on skin by bite of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> muscular apparatus of head of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-gland of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> var. <i>cæca</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>fasciata</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>miolepsis</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>sputatrix</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>typica</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Naseus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Natter-jack, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Neurotoxic and hæmolytic actions of venoms, parallelism between, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Neurotoxin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> essential active substance in venoms, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> highly resistant to heat, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of scorpion-poison, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of toad-venom (bufotenin), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> potency of antineurotoxic serum against, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> predominance in venom of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> present in venoms of some species of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Neuwied on <i>Elaps</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">New Caledonia, terrestrial poisonous snakes unknown in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">New Guinea, poisonous snakes of, <a href="#Page_81">81-100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">New Zealand, <i>Katipo</i> found in, 275.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> no poisonous snakes in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Nicolas, J., and Lumière, A., on effect of intense cold on venom, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Noc, on action of different venoms, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bacteriolytic property of venom, with respect to different micro-organisms, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> hæmolytic powers of venoms, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> study of venom of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Noguchi, H., on action of aniline colours on venom, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> failure of hæmolysis under large doses of venom, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> and Flexner, cytolytic action of venoms, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> on action of snake-serums on red corpuscles, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Madsen, Th., on ratio between dose of venom and time elapsing till death, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Normandy, coast of, <i>Cottus</i> abundant on, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Notechis</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>scutatus</i> (syn. <i>Hoplocephalus curtus</i>, tiger-snake), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite dangerous, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Oceania</span>, geographical distribution of genera of poisonous snakes (tables), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Octopods, poisonous juice exuded by, a means of overpowering prey, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Ogmodon</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>vitianus</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Oil beetles, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Meloë.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><i>Ophiogeni</i> in Egypt, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-229.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Ophiophagus</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>. <i>See also Naja bungarus.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Ophthalmia, purulent, produced by snake-venom experimentally, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of species of <i>Sepedon</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Opisthoglypha</i>, group of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> sub-families of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Homalopsinæ</i>, <i>Dipsadomorphinæ</i>, <i>Elachistodontinæ</i>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> slightly poisonous and not dangerous to man, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>, or <i>O. anatinus</i> (duck-billed platypus), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> action similar to venoms of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> toxicity very slight, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Pacific Ocean</span> (Equatorial), <i>Pterois</i> found in, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> (Tropical), <i>Scorpæna diabolus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Synanceia brachio</i> most commonly found in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus confluentus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Pain, severe, after bite of species of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> slight from bite of cobra, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Panama, <i>Thalassophryne reticulata</i> found on shores of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pancreatic juice, addition to venom produces kinasic power, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Paris, brown <i>Pelobates</i> found near, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Parotid glands, venomous secretions, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pasteur Institute (Lille), poisonous snakes in captivity at, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> preparation of antivenomous serum at, <a href="#Page_245">245-248</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> rattle-snakes in captivity at, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> work and experiments at, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244-248</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Paterne, D., bites from European vipers, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Peal, H. W., on bite from <i>Hydrophiidæ</i> (sea-snakes), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pedicellariæ (organs of the <i>Echinoidea</i>), poison prepared from, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pediculati</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pedlar on chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pelias berus</i> (common viper), bite from, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> cure, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pelobates fuscus</i> (brown <i>Pelobates</i>), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pelor, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Percidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> -<span class="trow">Peritoneum, hæmorrhagic injections of, produced by venoms of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Permanganate of potash, antidote to venom before absorption, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> solution, modifies or destroys venoms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Philadelphia, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Philippine Islands, poisonous snakes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_30">30-57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Phisalix, experiments of, on venom with alternating currents of high frequency, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> on effects of emanations of radium on venom, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> variations in local effects of venoms, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of <i>Cryptobranchus japonicus</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison from bee-venom prepared by, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> researches of, on glands of snakes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> and Bertrand, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> preparation of toad-venom, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Phoorsa.</i> <i>See Echis carinatus.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Phrynolysin, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> extracted from skins of toads, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Physiology of experimental poisoning, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Physostomi</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pig, destruction of vipers and rattle-snakes by, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> immunity to snake-venom due to defence provided by adipose tissue, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> serum, devoid of antitoxic substance, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pigeons, vaccination against rattle-snake-venom, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> killed by causing them to ingest venom, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pinto, Col. S., on immunity to inoculation, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Platurus</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>colubrinus</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>laticaudatus</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>muelleri</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>schistorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Plectognathi</i> (family <i>Gymnodontes</i>), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pliny on salamanders, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> treatment of poisonous snake-bites, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Plotosus</i>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lineatus</i>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Plutarch on snake-charmers, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Poison-apparatus of <i>Cottus</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Muræna</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Plotosus lineatus</i>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Scorpæna</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> snakes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Synanceia</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Trachinus</i> (weevers), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venomous fishes, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Poison-fang, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> action of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of <i>Proteroglypha</i> grooved, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Viperidæ</i> canaliculate, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Poison-gland of Hymenoptera, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span> -<span class="trow">Poison-gland of non-venomous snakes, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venomous snakes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Polistes</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pompilus</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pondicherry, collection of venom at, <a href="#Page_156">156-158</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Hospital, collection of venom, method, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> public notice in, <i>re</i> capture of poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Prairie rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sistrurus catenatus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Pravaz syringe, injection of serum with, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Precipitins of venoms, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Prionurus</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pröscher on extraction of phrynolysin from skins of toads, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Proteids, extraction from snake-venom, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Proteolytic action of venoms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> extent and limitations, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Proteroglypha</i> (group of <i>Colubridæ</i>), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bite rapidly produces general intoxication, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-fangs of, grooved, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> sub-families of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Hydrophiinæ</i>; <i>Elapinæ</i>.</span></span> -<span class="trow">Proto-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> separation from snake-venom, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pseudechis</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, experiments on, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> ingestion by rats harmless, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>australis</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>cupreus</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>darwiniensis</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ferox</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>microlepidotus</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>papuanus</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>porphyriacus</i> (black snake), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite dangerous, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>scutellatus</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pseudelaps</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>diadema</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>harriettæ</i>, So.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>krefftii</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>muelleri</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>squamulosus</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>sutherlandi</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>warro</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pseudocerastes persicus</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Psylli, Egyptian charmers and healers, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Roman charmers and healers, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Lucan on, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Pterois</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295-296</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Puff adder, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Bitis arietans.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Putrefaction, rapid, following death from snake-bite, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Pyramids, viper of (<i>Echis carinatus</i>), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Queensland</span>, mortality from snake-bite slight in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Rabbit</span>, experiments on, demonstrating neutralisation of venom by antitoxin, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> vaccination against cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Rascasse</i>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Rat, P., on common viper’s bite, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> ingestion of venom of <i>Pseudechis</i> harmless to, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Rat-serum, bacteriolytic action of venom not comparable to, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Rattle-snake, common, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus durissus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> dog-faced, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus terrificus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> ground, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sistrurus miliarius.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> horned, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus cerastes.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Pacific, or mottled, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus confluentus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> prairie, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sistrurus catenatus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Texas, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus scutulatus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom, vaccination of pigeons against, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Red Sea, <i>Naseus</i> found in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Reichert on chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Renaux, P., on bites from <i>Crotalus horridus</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Rennie, Major S. J., case of bite of <i>Bungarus cæruleus</i>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Reptiles, toxicity of blood in, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Respiratory centres, nerve-cell of, attacked by albumose of snake-venom, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Rhinhoplocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bicolor</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Rhynchelaps</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>australis</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>bertholdi</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>fasciolatus</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>semifasciatus</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Richards on fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Richet, C., congestin from <i>Anemone scultata</i> prepared by, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> thalassin, from <i>Anemone scultata</i> prepared by, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Ringhals slang, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sepedon hæmachates.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">River-jack viper, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Bitis gabonica.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Rogers, Major L., experiments on action of venom on nervous centres, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> researches of, on glands of snakes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Romans, snake-charmers’ customs among, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Lucan on, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Roudot, Natalis, on Hindu snake-charmers, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Russell, on the venom of <i>daboia</i> (<i>Vipera russellii</i>), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Sachs, on relation of toxins to antitoxins, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Salamandarin, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also</i> Salamandrine.</span></span> -<span class="trow">Salamander, Japanese, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Cryptobranchus japonicus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, closely analogous to that of toad, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> potency exaggerated by the ancients, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Salamanders and toads most dreaded by ancients, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Salamandra atra</i> (black salamander), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>maculosa</i> (spotted salamander), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Salamandridine prepared from venom of salamanders, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Salamandrine, prepared from venom of salamanders, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Saliva of <i>Heloderma horridum</i> sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venomous, of non-poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sangis, name of snake-charmers of Bengal, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">São-Paulo (Brazil), laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Scales, arrangement of, on heads of poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Scolopendra</i>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Scolopendridæ</i>, bite of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Scorpæna</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>diabolus</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>grandicornis</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>porcus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Scorpio occitanus</i>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Scorpion, blood of, antitoxic, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> manner of stinging, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> affinities with that of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> neurotoxin of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Scorpionidea</i> (scorpions), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sea-snakes, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2">See also Hydrophiinæ.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> (<i>Hydrophis</i>), venom from, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Sepedon hæmachates</i> (spitting snake or ringhals slang), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite of, cure, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, purulent ophthalmia discharged by spitting, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> caused by projection of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Serous membranes, local effects on, of cobra-venom, slight, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venoms of <i>Viperidæ</i>, severe, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Serph, collection of venom. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Serranus</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ouatabili</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Serum, antivenomous, antineurotoxic, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> potency against cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> in treatment of bites of poisonous snakes, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> yellow fever, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> method for measuring power of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>in vitro</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> neutralisation of snake-venom by, <a href="#Page_253">253-258</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> experiments showing necessary proportions to effect, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> polyvalent, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> prepared from horse, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> preparation of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> test-solutions, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> at Pasteur Institute, Lille, <a href="#Page_245">245-248</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> special laboratories, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> -<span class="trow">Serum, antivenomous, preventive power tested by intravenous injection, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> rules respecting proportions of quantity to be administered, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> specificity of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Calmette’s, in treatment of cobra-bites, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> therapeutics, antivenomous, <a href="#Page_241">241-252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> technique of, <a href="#Page_262">262-265</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>See also</i> Snake serum.</span> -<span class="trow">Serums, specific against coagulant venoms, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sewall on vaccination of pigeons against rattle-snake venom, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Siluridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Silurus glanis</i>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Sistrurus</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>catenatus</i> (prairie rattle-snake, or massasanga), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>miliarius</i> (ground rattle-snake), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ravus</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Skin, marks produced on, by bites of different species of snakes (venomous and non-venomous), <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Smell, loss of, following bite of viper, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Smith, MacGarvie, researches of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> on chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> and Martin, C. J., on local and general effects of albumoses derived from snake-venoms, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Snake-bite, death from, rapid putrefaction following, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> hypoleucocytosis accompanying, in lethal cases, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> mortality from, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> non-lethal, suppuration following, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poisonous, treatment in domestic animals, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> men and animals, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>See also</i> Serum therapeutics, antivenomous.</span> -<span class="trow">Snake-charmers, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> deaths from bites, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Egyptian, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> employment of <i>Naja haje</i> for performances, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Indian, <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Libyan, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> Roman, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> safety in skill, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Snake-serum combined with snake-venom does not destroy red corpuscles, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> dissolution of red corpuscles by, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Snake-venom, action on heart, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> kidney, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> liver, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> lungs, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> nervous centres, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> spleen, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> striated muscles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> activity greatest after prolonged fasting and after moult, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> aids digestion of prey, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> -<span class="trow">Snake-venom, antagonism between coagulant and anticoagulant kinds, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> antidotes to, before absorption, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> artificial introduction into egg of fowl, effect on embryo, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bacteriolytic action, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> substance in, peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> chemical study of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> collection of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-158</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> in French Settlements in India, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> combination with lecithin, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> combined with snake-serum does not dissolve red corpuscles, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> complex effects on tissues, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> complexity of means of defence against, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> cytolytic action, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> diastasic action of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> dried, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> effects of, in non-lethal doses, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> extraction of, by Hindus, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> from <i>Alcatifa</i>, for inoculation, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> freshly collected, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> hypoleucocytosis following fatal dose, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> immunity to, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> from inoculation, <a href="#Page_234">234-235</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> of herons to, probable, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> ingestion of, fails to secure immunity to lethal dose, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> harmless, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> lethal to snakes of other species, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> neutralisation by antitoxin, <a href="#Page_253">253-258</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> injection of antitoxic serum, second step in treatment after bite, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> no strict ratio between dose inoculated and time elapsing till death, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> parallelism between neurotoxic and hæmolytic action, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> prevention of absorption first step in treatment after bite, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> produces acute inflammation of mucous membrane, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> protective <i>rôle</i> of leucocytes against, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> proteolytic action, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> reconstitution, method of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> secretion of, <a href="#Page_147">147-152</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> temperature lowered after fatal dose, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> toxic conditions of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> vaccination against, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> variations in local effects of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Snakes, coloration of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> subject to biological laws of mimicry, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> cranial skeleton of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> dentition of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> moulting of skin, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> non-poisonous, arrangement of scales on head of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-glands in, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venomous saliva of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span> -<span class="trow">Snakes, non-poisonous, withstand large doses of venom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poisonous, all species carnivorous, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> arrangement of scales on head of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> artificial feeding of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite of, danger diminished by clothing or other means of protection, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> blood of, toxicity, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> characterised by special arrangement of facial bones, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> deaths from, in Queensland, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> devoured by herons, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> different species should not be placed in same cage, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> difficult to distinguish from non-venomous, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> digestion aided by venom, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dread of destruction of, cause of excessive mortality from snake-bite in India, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> habits of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> health authorities’ notices respecting, in Australia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> kept in captivity, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> method of capture, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> striking and seizing prey, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> muscular apparatus of head of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> of Africa, <a href="#Page_57">57-81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Asia, Dutch Indies and Philippine Islands, <a href="#Page_30">30-57</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Australia, <a href="#Page_81">81-100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Europe, <a href="#Page_22">22-29</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Malaysia, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> New Guinea, <a href="#Page_81">81-100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> South Sea Islands, <a href="#Page_81">81-100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> Sunda Islands, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-fangs of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-glands of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> succumb to venom of other species, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> teeth of, difference in arrangement and dimensions of various species, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> treatment of bites from, in French Settlements in India, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> unaffected by enormous doses of their own venom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> unknown in New Caledonia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span>New Zealand, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> victory of mongooses over, in combat, due mainly to natural agility, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> worship of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> extant in India, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Solenoglypha</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bite produces important local disorders, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> marks produced on skin by bite of one of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sonoran coral-snake, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Elaps euryxanthus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">South Sea Islands, poisonous snakes of, <a href="#Page_81">81-100</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sparrows, effect of venom of <i>Heterometrus maurus</i> on, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Sphærechinus granularis</i>, poison from pedicellariæ, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Spinal cord, comparative actions of venoms of <i>Colubridæ</i> and <i>Viperidæ</i> on, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> -<span class="trow">Spiders. <i>See Araneida.</i></span> -<span class="trow">Spitting snake, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Sepedon hæmachates.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Spleen, action of venom on, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sponge-divers, malady of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Squamipinnes</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Stings (wasp- or bee-), treatment for, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Stomach, acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane produced by ingestion of venoms of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Strongylocentrotus lividus</i>, poison from pedicellariæ of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Strychnine, injection of, of no value as antidote against snake-venom, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sunda Islands, poisonous snakes of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Superstitions, native methods of inoculation full of, <a href="#Page_239">239-240</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Suppuration following non-lethal snake-bites, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Surucucu or bushmaster, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span> -<span class="i2"><i>See also Lachesis mutus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Sutherland, Surgeon-Captain, bite from <i>Echis carinatus</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Sydney, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Synanceia</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>brachio</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Syncope, following inoculation of venom of <i>Synanceia brachio</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap"><i>Teleostei</i></span>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Temperature, effect of, on venoms, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Tetrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>rubripes</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>stellatus</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Teuthididæ</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Teuthis</i>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Texas rattle-snake, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Crotalus scutulatus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow">Thalassin, poison from <i>Anemone scultata</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Thalassophis</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Thalassophryne</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>maculosa</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>reticulata</i>, <a href="#Page_302">302-303</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Thuau on bites from European vipers, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Tidswell, F., on venom of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Tiger-snake, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Notechis scutatus</i>.</span></span> -<span class="trow">Toad, common, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> green, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> musical, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> and frog, distinctions between, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> salamander, much dreaded by ancients, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> active principles of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> closely analogous to that of salamander, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> preparation, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> exaggerated by the ancients, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Trachinidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Trachinus</i> (weever), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Trachinus</i> (weever) poison-apparatus of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>araneus</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>draco</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>radiatus</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>vipera</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Travers, P. M., on bite from <i>Bitis arietans</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Trichloride of iodine modifies or destroys venoms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Triglidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Trigonocephalus</i>, bites from, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Trimeresurus gramineus</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Lachesis gramineus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2">“<i>riukianus</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Lachesis flavoviridis.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><i>Triodon</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Triton cristatus</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>marmoratus</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Tropidechis</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>carinatus</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Tropidonotus matrix</i> (grass-snake), venogen of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Trypanosomes, dissolution by cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Tubriwallahs, snake-charmers of Bengal, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Tunis, snake-charmers of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Tuxpan, natives of, inoculation methods, <a href="#Page_235">235-237</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Urodela</span>, salamanders belong to order of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Urutù</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Lachesis neuwiedii.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Vaccination</span> against cobra-venom, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> snake-venom, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Van Denburgh, J., observations on <i>Heloderma horridum</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Vatuas, method of inoculation of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Venomous secretion, histology, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">de Villiers, on common viper’s bite, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Viper, common, of Europe. See <i>Vipera berus</i>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> horned, bite from, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> inoculation of professional catchers of, in France, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Vipera</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> zoological characters of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ammodytes</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>aspis</i> (asp, or red viper), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> bite from, cure, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-cells, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> berus (common viper, or adder), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> devoured by hedgehogs, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> mortality from bite, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, chemical constituency, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> immunity of hedgehog to, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> uncertain coagulant action on blood, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>latastii</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>lebetina</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Vipera raddii</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>renardi</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>russellii</i> (<i>daboia</i>, or Russell’s viper), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> muscular apparatus of head of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> poison-gland of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> protection against, adopted by natives, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> venom of, coagulant action on blood, diminished when heated, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> extremely potent, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> dose lethal for rabbit, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> ingestion causing death, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>superciliaris</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> <i>ursinii</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> bites of, local gangrene resulting from, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> characteristics of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> poison-fangs canaliculate, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> species of, bite produces grave local disorders, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> sub-families of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Viperinæ, Crotalinæ.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> venoms of, absorption by digestive tract sets up acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> action on nervous centres weak, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> comparison of coagulant action on blood of various species, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> easily destroyed by heat, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> hæmolysing power, weak, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> lethal effects on mammals, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> neurotoxin present in those of some species, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> non-dialytic, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> produce coagulation of blood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> hæmorrhagic injections of peritoneum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> recovery after non-lethal doses, slow, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> followed by loss of sight, smell, or hearing, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> recovery after non-lethal doses complicated by visceral hæmorrhages, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> resemblance in action of that of Japanese salamander to, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> to, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> richness in hæmorrhagin, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Viperin, chemistry of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Viperinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Atheris</i>, <i>Atractaspis</i>, <i>Bitis</i>, <i>Causus</i>, <i>Cerastes</i>, <i>Echis</i>, <i>Pseudocerastes</i>, <i>Vipera</i>.</span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> characteristics of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Viscera, hæmorrhages from, complicating recovery from bites of <i>Viperidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> hyperæmia of, caused by fatal bite of species of <i>Colubridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Wall</span>, chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Waller, fatal instance of rapid poisoning from bite of <i>Naja haje</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Walterinnesia</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span> -<span class="trow"><i>Walterinnesia ægyptia</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Wasp, sting of, death from, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span><span class="sq">“</span> remedies for, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Weevers, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><i>See also Trachinus.</i></span></span> -<span class="trow"><span class="sq">“</span> stings of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Wehrmann, on diastasic actions of venoms, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><span class="i2"><span class="sq">“</span> experiments on ingestion of venom, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span></span> -<span class="trow">Wertheimer, Austrian naturalist, fatally bitten by coral snake, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Witch-doctors, remedies of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Wolfenden, Norris, chemical constituents of venom, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span> -<span class="trow">Wright, O. B., observations on <i>Heloderma horridum</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Yellow</span> fever, treatment by antitoxin of venom, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span> -<span class="trow"><br /></span> - -<span class="trow"><span class="smcap">Zervos</span>, Dr. S., malady of sponge-divers, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</span> -</div> - - -<div class="footnotes"> -<h2 id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> -As regards the distinctive characters of these various snakes, and of the -majority of those that we shall describe in this book, we have followed the statements -in the “Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History),” -vol. iii., by George Albert Boulenger, F.R.S. (London: Printed by order of the -Trustees, 1896.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> -<i>Acad. de médecine</i>, March 19, 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> -<i>Erpétologie générale</i>, t. vii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> -“Le serpent cracheur de la côte occidentale d’Afrique,” <i>Société Zool. -de France</i>, 1895, p. 210. Bavay thinks that the Spitting Snake is a <i>Naja haje</i>, -but the description that he gives of the head of the reptile, which was sent -to him by Le Naour, certainly agrees with the characters of <i>Sepedon</i>. Moreover, -I have satisfied myself that the many specimens of <i>Naja haje</i> that I have kept -in captivity in my laboratory never possessed the faculty of spitting their poison -to a distance.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> -“The Snakes of Australia,” Sydney, 1869.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> -L. Lannoy, “Thèse de doctorat ès sciences,” Paris, 1903, No. 1,138, série A, -454.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> -“Snake Commission Report,” 1874.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> -<i>Bulletin de l’Académie de Médecine</i>, t. x., 1883, p. 947.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> -<i>Zeitschrift für Biologie</i>, xxiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> -Kühne and Chittenden, “Ueber Albumosen,” <i>Zeitschrift für Biologie</i>, 1884.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, 29 février, 1896.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1896, p. 489.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> -<i>Province médicale</i>, 21 Septembre, 1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> -Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> -<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, London, lxxiv., 1904, pp. 108-109.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 104-108.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> -“Communication de l’Institut Sérothérapique de l’État danois,” tome i., -Copenhagen, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> -<i>Indian Annals</i>, July, 1868.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> -<i>Medical News</i>, Philadelphia, 1884.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> -“Zur Pathologie des Schlangenbisses,” <i>Forschungen der Medicin</i>, Berlin, -1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, t. xii., 1898, p. 369.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> -<i>Thèse Bordeaux</i>, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> -<i>Virchow’s Archiv für Pathologie, Anatomie, und Physiologie</i>, Band 179, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> -Société de Médecine et de Chirurgie de São Paulo (Brazil), June 15, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> -<i>Medical Record</i>, September 15, 1900.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> -<i>Lancet</i>, January 2, August 20, October 22, 1904, and September 23, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> -<i>Proceedings of the Royal Society</i>, vol. lxxi., 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> -“The Constitution of Snake-venom and Snake-sera,” <i>University of Pennsylvania -Medical Bulletin</i>, vol. xv., 1902, p. 345.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> -Fontana, “On Poisons,” translated by J. Skinner: London, 1787.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> -<i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, 1854.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> -<i>Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge</i>, 1860.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> -<i>Medical Times and Gazette</i>, vol. ii., 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> -“On the Physiological Action of the Venom of the Australian Black Snake,” -<i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales</i>, July, 1895.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> -<i>Indian Medical Gazette</i>, December, 1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, November 4, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, October 28, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, June, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> -At the Serum-therapic Laboratory of São Paulo (Brazil), Dr. Vital, Brazil, -is at the present time preparing serum specific against <i>Lachesis</i>-venom.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> -<i>Medical Times and Gazette</i>, vol. ii., 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> -“The Thanatophidia of India.” Churchill, London, 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> -“On the Physiological Action of the Venom of the Australian Black Snake,” -<i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales</i>, July 3, 1895.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> -<i>Archives biologiques</i>, 1897 and 1898; <i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, -October 28, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, October 28, 1899; November 4, -1899; July 26, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, June, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> -<i>Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology</i>, 1899-1900.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> -<i>Journal of Experimental Medicine</i>, March 17, 1902; <i>University of Pennsylvania -Medical Bulletin</i>, November, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, June 16, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, No. 27, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> -<i>Berliner klinische Wochenschrift</i>, Nos. 38, 39, 1902; Nos. 2-4, 1903; Nos. -42-43, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1904, p. 387.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> -<i>Journal of Experimental Medicine</i>, 1905, No. 2, pp. 191-222.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> -<i>Lancet</i>, April 2, 1904, pp. 916-921.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> -“The Constitution of Snake-venoms and Snake-sera,” <i>University of -Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin</i>, vol. xv., November, 1902, p. 345.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, August 11, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, June, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> -“Sur l’action protéolytique des venins,” <i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des -Sciences</i>, September, 1902, and <i>Thèse Paris</i>, No. 1,138, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> -“On the Plurality of Cytolysins in Snake-venom,” <i>University of Pennsylvania -Medical Bulletin</i>, vol. xvi., 1903, p. 163.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> -<i>Ann. Soc. Méd. de Gand</i>, 1905, fasc. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, April, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> -<i>Thèse Paris</i>, No. 1138, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, August 11, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, January 11, 1896.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> -Wehrmann, <i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1897 and 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> -Carrière, “Sur le sort des toxines et des antitoxines dans le tube digestif,” -<i>ibid.</i>, 1898, p. 435.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> -<i>British Medical Journal</i>, 1895 and 1897.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> -Chatenay, “Les réactions leucocytaires vis-à-vis de certaines toxines,” -<i>Thèse Paris</i>, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> -Flexner and Noguchi, “Snake-venom in Relation to Hæmolysis, Bacteriolysis, -and Toxicity,” <i>Journal of Experimental Medicine</i>, vol. vi., March 17, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> -“Trattado del veneno della vipera,” 1787.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> -<i>Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie</i>, Bd. ix., 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> -<i>Morphologisches Jahrbuch</i>, Bd. viii., 1883.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, January 20, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> -<i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, Paris, January 22, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, January 13, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1897.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> -<i>Archives italiennes de Biologie</i>, 1888 and 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> -<i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, July 25, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> -<i>Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology</i>, May, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> -<i>Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology</i>, 1900, p. 273.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, July 1, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> -“The Jungle Book,” by Rudyard Kipling. London: Macmillan and Co., -Ltd. Reprint of 1905, pp. 183, 184.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> -<i>Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift</i>, 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, 1895, p. 639, and 1899, p. 77; -<i>Bulletin du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle</i>, 1895, t. i., p. 294, t. ii., p. 100.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> -“Aperçu général sur l’Egypte.” Paris, 1840.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> -Brehm’s “Thierleben”; French edition, “Les Reptiles,” p. 480.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> -<i>Maclure’s Magazine</i>, April, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> -<i>British Medical Journal</i>, August 17, 1895.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> -<i>Archives de médecine navale</i>, 1867, p. 390.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> -<i>Revue scientifique</i>, 1892, p. 254.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, February 24, 1896.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> -“The Pharsalia of Lucan, translated into blank verse by Edward Ridley, -Q.C., sometime Fellow of All Souls’ College, Oxford.” (London: Longmans, -Green and Co., 1896). Book ix., p. 296, lines 1,046 to 1,065.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> -<i>Journal of Physiology</i>, vol. viii., 1887, p. 203.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> -“Les Vipères de France,” p. 136 (1889).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1892, p. 181.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, t. 118, February, 1894, p. 356, -March, 1894, p. 720; <i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, February, 1894, -pp. 111, 120; <i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, July, 1894; <i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, -May, 1894, p. 275, April, 1895, p. 225.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> -<i>British Medical Journal</i>, June 15, 1895.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> -<i>Cf.</i> papers by George Lamb, <i>Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical -and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India</i>, New Series, Nos. 1, 3, -4, 5, 7, 10, 16; L. Rogers, <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>, vol. -lxxii., and <i>Lancet</i>, February 6, 1904; C. J. Martin, <i>Intercolonial Medical -Journal of Australasia</i>, August 20, 1897, April 20, 1898; Dr. Hunter, <i>Lancet</i>, -January 2, 1904; Dr. Tidswell, <i>Australasian Medical Gazette</i>, April 21, 1902; -A. Calmette, <i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, May 2, 1904; Dr. -Vital Brazil, “Contribution a l’étude de l’intoxication ophidienne” (separately -published pamphlet), Paris, 1905; G. Bill, <i>Intercolonial Medical Journal of -Australasia</i>, July 20, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1895, No. 4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> -“The Nature of the Antagonism between Toxins and Antitoxins,” <i>Proceedings -of the Royal Society of London</i>, vol. lxiii., 1898, p. 420.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> -Calmette, <i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, 1902, No. 24; Preston -Kyes, <i>Berliner klinische Wochenschrift</i>, 1904, No. 19.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> -<i>Berliner klinische Wochenschrift</i>, 1905, No. 50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, Paris, September, 1881.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> -“Le venin de la vipère,” Paris, 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> -<i>Transactions of the Third Intercolonial Congress</i>, 1892, p. 152.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> -“Les morsures de vipères chez les animaux,” <i>Recueil de médecine vétérinaire -d’Alfort</i>, May 15, 1897.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, December 13, 1902; June 6, -July 25, 1903; February 20, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> -<i>Semaine médicale</i>, June 24, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, May 19, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> -“El Latrodectus formidabilis de Chile,” by Fredérico Puga-Borne, Santiago, -1892; and “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” Arachnida, vol. ii., pl. 35.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> -Blackwell, “Experiments and Observations on the Poison of Araneida,” -<i>Transactions of the Linnean Society of London</i>, 1855, p. 31. See also “Insect -Life” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1889), vol. i., parts 7, 8, 9 and 10, -and vol. ii., part 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> -“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Giftspinnen.” Stuttgart, 1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> -“Zur Kenntniss des Kreuzspinnengiftes,” <i>Hofm. Beiträge</i>, ii., p. 125, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> -Joyeux-Laffuie, “Appareil venimeux et venin de scorpion” (Thesis for the -degree of Doctor of Science), Paris, 1883; and <i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie -des Sciences</i>, November 6, 1882.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> -“Ueber die Giftwirkung des Nordafrikanischen Skorpiones,” <i>Zeitschrift für -Biologie</i>, Bd. xii., p. 170, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, 1885, p. 574.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> -<i>Berliner klinische Wochenschrift</i>, 1903, Nos. 42, 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> -<i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1895, p. 232.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> -<i>Proceedings of the Royal Society</i>, vol. xlii., 1887, p. 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> -“L’immunité dans les maladies infectieuses,” Paris, 1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, November 15, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> -“La scolopendre et sa piqure,” <i>Thèse Paris</i>, 1887.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> -“Appareil venimeux et venin de la scolopendre,” <i>Thèse Montpellier</i>, 1885.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> -“Lehrbuch der Anatomie der Wirbellosen Tiere,” 1848.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> -<i>Arch für anat. Wissensch.</i>, 1859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences</i>, 1884.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> -“Appareil glandulaire des hyménoptères,” Paris, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> -<i>Annales sc. Anat. Zoologie</i>, 8<sup>e</sup> série, t. x., 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, July 25, 1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, July 24, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">133</a> -<i>Berliner klinische Wochenschrift</i>, 1906, No. 44.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">134</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie de Médecine</i>, t. liii., 1905, p. 498.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">135</a> -“Traité de zoologie médicale,” t. ii. (Paris).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">136</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, January 17, 1908.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">137</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, February 25, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">138</a> -“Les poissons venimeux,” <i>Thèse Paris</i>, 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">139</a> -“Poissons venimeux et poissons vénéneux,” <i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, May, -1872; <i>Archives de médecine navale</i>, February, 1865, and January, 1881.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">140</a> -“Poissons venimeux et poissons vénéneux,” <i>Thèse Paris</i>, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">141</a> -“Les poissons vénéneux,” Paris, 1900.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">142</a> -“Sédentarité des poissons venimeux,” <i>Comptes rendus de la Société de -Biologie</i>, 1895, p. 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">143</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, 1904, p. 666.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">144</a> -<i>Thèse Paris</i>, 1884.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">145</a> -<i>Bulletin du Muséum d’histoire naturelle</i>, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">146</a> -“Giftfische und Fischgifte,” <i>Vorträge im Rostocker Fischerverein</i>, 1902, and -<i>Die medizinische Wochenschrift</i>, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">147</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, October 25 and November 8, 1902, -and June 21, 1904; <i>Journal de Physiologie</i>, March, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">148</a> -Brehm (Sauvage’s translation), “Les Merveilles de la Nature—Reptiles et -Batraciens” (Paris, 1885).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">149</a> -Hoppe-Seyler’s “Med.-chem. Untersuchungen,” Berlin, 1866.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">150</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, April 1, 1889, and January 29, -1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">151</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, 1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">152</a> -“Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Salamandarins und Salamanderalkaloïde,” -<i>Archiv. f. experimentale Pathologie und Pharmakologie</i>, Bd. xli., 1898, p. 219, -and Bd. xliii., 1900, p. 84.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">153</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, 1897, pp. 723, 823.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">154</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, April 21, 1851, and May, 1852.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">155</a> -<i>Journal de Thérapeutique</i>, 1877, p. 929.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">156</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, February 25, 1884.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">157</a> -<i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, 1893, p. 511.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">158</a> -<i>Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie</i>, Bd. ii., 1889, p. 57.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">159</a> -“Zur Kenntniss des Krotengiftes,” <i>Hofm. Beiträge</i>, Bd. i., 1901, p. 575.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">160</a> -“Ueber Bufonin und Bufotalin,” Leipzig, 1902; and <i>Archiv für experimentale -Pathologie und Pharmakologie</i>, December, 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">161</a> -“Rapports des venins avec la biologie générale,” <i>Revue générale des -Sciences</i>, December 30, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">162</a> -<i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, December 14, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">163</a> -H. Coupin, <i>La Nature</i>, September 19, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">164</a> -“On the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>, its Venomous Spur and General -Structure,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, 1822, p. 622.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">165</a> -“Observations on the Femoral Gland of Ornithorhynchus and its Secretion;” -<i>Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales</i>, vol. ix., July, 1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">166</a> -“Note sur la sécrétion venimeuse de l’<i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>,” <i>Comptés -rendus de la Société de Biologie</i>, March 12, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">167</a> -“On the Effects of Wounds Inflicted by the Spurs of the <i>Platypus</i>,” -<i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania</i>, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">168</a> -The photographs, by which this note was accompanied, are reproduced in -Chapter IV. of this volume, pp. 155, 157, 158.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">169</a> -<i>Polygala telophioides</i>, Will.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">170</a> -We subsequently learnt that he had informed his friends of his intention, but -had not said a word about it to his wife.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">171</a> -The thick and cloudy appearance of the contents of the bottles made us -hesitate to have recourse to intravenous injection.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber’s Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Venoms, by A. Calmette - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VENOMS *** - -***** This file should be named 51078-h.htm or 51078-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/0/7/51078/ - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 45f4210..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_1.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_1.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 51b6e7b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_1.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_10.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 097590e..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_100.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_100.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cf55fea..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_100.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_101.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_101.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f2a8b3a..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_101.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_102.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_102.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b6cb894..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_102.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_103.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_103.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 36d7754..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_103.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_104.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_104.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ea64bd7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_104.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_105.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_105.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 046453c..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_105.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_106.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_106.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cc23aac..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_106.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_107.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_107.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 09a1edc..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_107.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_108.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_108.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d64d43c..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_108.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_109.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_109.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 11f7c1a..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_109.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_11.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_11.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2691129..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_11.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_110.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_110.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9b4dc83..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_110.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_111.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_111.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 14c2827..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_111.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_112.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_112.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c4bdc6f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_112.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_113.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_113.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7699108..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_113.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_114.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_114.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6775af2..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_114.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_115.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_115.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3f406fc..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_115.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_116.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_116.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7d00ad2..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_116.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_117.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_117.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7fc56e5..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_117.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_118.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_118.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f524812..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_118.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_119.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_119.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9ca8df6..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_119.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_12.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_12.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 55d26b8..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_12.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_120.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_120.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 43d67a5..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_120.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_121.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_121.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ac416f7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_121.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_122.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_122.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 55de0f6..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_122.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_123.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_123.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f75d43e..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_123.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_124.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_124.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9c14373..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_124.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_125.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_125.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 51ff384..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_125.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_13.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_13.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 16e7f37..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_13.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_14.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_14.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e0cff1e..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_14.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_15.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_15.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index eb8e25d..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_15.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_16.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_16.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7891b24..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_16.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_17.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_17.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 23543f5..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_17.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_18.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_18.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 86f9393..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_18.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_19.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_19.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 72a0a7f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_19.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_2.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_2.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 00716a4..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_2.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_20.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_20.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4a06c49..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_20.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_21.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_21.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c3c0445..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_21.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_22.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_22.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 52bd4ad..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_22.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_23.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_23.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d9d88f8..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_23.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_24.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_24.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4c68b3a..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_24.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_25.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_25.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ba735d1..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_25.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_26.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_26.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0e1018f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_26.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_27.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_27.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 77c65e7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_27.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_28.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_28.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 68c3b3c..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_28.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_29.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_29.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0207847..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_29.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_3.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_3.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a37db8b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_3.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_30.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_30.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e187a1f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_30.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_31.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_31.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c1be098..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_31.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_32.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_32.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5fbf19b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_32.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_33.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_33.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9076446..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_33.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_34.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_34.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e5d0dc4..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_34.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_35.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_35.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 62805d4..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_35.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_36.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_36.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0af4792..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_36.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_37.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_37.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7169e54..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_37.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_38.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_38.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 14571f1..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_38.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_39.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_39.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9f0e762..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_39.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_4.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_4.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b12e8e6..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_4.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_40.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_40.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e02abbd..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_40.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_41.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_41.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b9fccc4..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_41.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_42.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_42.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c870801..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_42.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_43.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_43.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6dec44a..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_43.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_44.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_44.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index af47642..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_44.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_45.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_45.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c075ea7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_45.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_46.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_46.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bf4ada9..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_46.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_47.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_47.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dd8d8f7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_47.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_48.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_48.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e5b11d4..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_48.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_49.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_49.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b95066c..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_49.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_5.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_5.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b763066..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_5.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_50.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_50.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8d64deb..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_50.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_51.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_51.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 71e71b1..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_51.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_52.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_52.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 891a441..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_52.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_53.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_53.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0a246b9..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_53.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_54.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_54.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0744299..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_54.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_55.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_55.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dce6578..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_55.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_56.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_56.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fe1346f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_56.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_57.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_57.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a8090b0..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_57.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_58.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_58.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3117397..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_58.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_59.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_59.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index acafc0b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_59.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_6.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_6.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5a7e3ed..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_6.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_60.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_60.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dc081cc..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_60.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_61.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_61.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bfc5ab9..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_61.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_62.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_62.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 24e1efb..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_62.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_63.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_63.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aadcc87..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_63.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_64.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_64.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9bb7fc0..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_64.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_65.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_65.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4588fe9..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_65.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_66.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_66.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a478e7e..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_66.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_67.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_67.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5ec44d9..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_67.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_68.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_68.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8d55b88..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_68.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_69.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_69.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 48d4cc1..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_69.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_7.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_7.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6d55ad5..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_7.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_70.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_70.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cb0c96e..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_70.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_71.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_71.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a458dac..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_71.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_72.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_72.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 47e75d7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_72.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_73.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_73.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 72bbc3b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_73.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_74.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_74.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 28fe42d..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_74.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_75.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_75.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1b3b2f7..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_75.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_76.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_76.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ccab5ef..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_76.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_77.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_77.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 11a51d5..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_77.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_78.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_78.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b88171f..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_78.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_79.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_79.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3f67bfe..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_79.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_8.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_8.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dd1a997..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_8.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_80.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_80.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ca14331..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_80.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_81.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_81.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6c75608..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_81.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_82.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_82.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3e6e354..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_82.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_83.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_83.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9521dcb..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_83.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_84.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_84.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a6f6535..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_84.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_85.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_85.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ff4c189..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_85.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_86.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_86.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7368bf8..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_86.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_87.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_87.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 02e36ea..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_87.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_88.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_88.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 13cdeab..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_88.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_89.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_89.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5d38cec..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_89.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_9.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_9.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8a1b023..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_9.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_90.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_90.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d10576e..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_90.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_91.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_91.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a85c397..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_91.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_92.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_92.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0302d26..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_92.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_93.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_93.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2e52b8b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_93.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_94.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_94.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a559a71..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_94.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_95.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_95.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1bcb47b..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_95.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_96.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_96.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9b82683..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_96.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_97.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_97.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 901258a..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_97.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_98.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_98.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a8ac090..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_98.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51078-h/images/fig_99.jpg b/old/51078-h/images/fig_99.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 80deb47..0000000 --- a/old/51078-h/images/fig_99.jpg +++ /dev/null |
