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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff76864 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #51068 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51068) diff --git a/old/51068-0.txt b/old/51068-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 19a97e5..0000000 --- a/old/51068-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1028 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Agatized Rainbows, by Harold J. Brodrick - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Agatized Rainbows - A Story of the Petrified Forest - -Author: Harold J. Brodrick - -Release Date: January 29, 2016 [EBook #51068] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AGATIZED RAINBOWS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - AGATIZED RAINBOWS - _A Story of the Petrified Forest_ - _With views of other National Park Service units of Northern Arizona_ - - - [Illustration: Third Forest. _Photo by Jerry McLain._] - - [Illustration: Colorful petrified log sections, typical of many - found in the monument. _Photo by Esther Henderson._] - - [Illustration: Blue Forest Badlands—Colorful banded ridges, a three - mile side trip. _Photo by Ray Manly._] - - [Illustration: MAP SHOWING: NATIONAL PARKS, NATIONAL MONUMENTS, - POINTS OF INTEREST] - - [Illustration: Agate Bridge. Erosion has cut out the rock from under - this log leaving a span of 45 feet forming a bridge, now supported - by a beam. _Photo by Leon Cantrell._] - - [Illustration: An example of color and erosion in the First Forest. - _Photo by Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Logs of rainbow hues in the Second Forest. _Photo by - Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Old Faithful Log near the Museum in Rainbow Forest - has the largest base diameter of those readily seen during a trip - through the Monument.] - - [Illustration: Logs in the Second Forest. _Photos by Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: A polished specimen of wood from Rainbow Forest - Museum, where many other colorful sections are on display. _Photo by - Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Mariposa Lilies, one of the beautiful wildflowers - that bloom during May, in the Forest. _Photo by Josef Muench._] - - - - - AGATIZED RAINBOWS - .... _A Story of the Petrified Forest_ - - - POPULAR SERIES No. 3—1951 - PRESENTED BY PETRIFIED FOREST MUSEUM ASSOCIATION, HOLBROOK, ARIZONA - AND THE ARIZONA STATE HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT - _TEXT BY HAROLD J. BRODRICK, PARK NATURALIST_ - -“Oh ranger, please! Just one itzy bitzy piece of petrified wood to take -home to show my boy friend. You won’t miss just one teeny weeny piece.” - -Holding in his hand an assortment of specimens of petrified wood which -he had just retrieved from the young lady driving the flashy -convertible, the Highway 260 checking station ranger at Petrified Forest -National Monument shook his head with a wry smile. “Sorry, lady, but the -rules say ‘It is unlawful to injure, destroy, or remove specimens of -petrified wood of any size whatsoever found within the monument boundary -* * *,’ and my job is to see that this and other regulations are obeyed. -You’re right, we would never miss these few pieces if you took them home -with you, but they belong to the people of the United States, and if -everyone of the 350,000 visitors who come here each year took away only -a few specimens, as you wish to do, in a very few years there wouldn’t -be any left. It’s my job, as representative of the people of this -country, to see that there will always be this great natural display of -petrified wood here where it was formed.” - -As the young lady drove off with a gay wave of her hand and “I think -you’re mean” tossed over her shoulder, the ranger turned to us with a -rueful smile. “Happens every day,” he said. “You can’t blame people for -wanting to take home a souvenir of the Petrified Forest, and the stuff -is so pretty that kids, especially, just can’t help but want to pack it -off. And, with so much of it here, it’s hard for them to understand that -it would soon be gone, particularly along the roads and trails, if -everyone carried off a handful or two.” - -We agreed with the ranger that it is hard to understand, until it is -explained that such enormous quantities of petrified wood as are strewn -over hundreds of acres in Petrified Forest National Monument could be -entirely removed in a few years by souvenir-hungry American tourists. -“But where,” we inquired, “do these roadside stands all along Highway 66 -get the huge piles of petrified wood which they offer for sale? Surely -the National Park Service doesn’t permit them to haul it off the -monument by the truckload.” - -“Oh no,” grinned the ranger. “All of that ‘for-sale’ wood comes from -private lands. The national monument preserves and protects only the -largest and most colorful deposits of petrified wood; but it is found in -many places throughout northeastern Arizona.” - -The impatient toot of an automobile horn informed us that we were -blocking traffic, so we thanked the ranger and continued on our way. -However, the interesting conversation aroused our curiosity, and at the -first opportunity we returned to the Petrified Forest to learn more -about the occurrence of petrified wood, and how Uncle Sam, through the -National Park Service, keeps the wood from being carried off by souvenir -collectors, and how the fascinating story of wood petrification is told -to visitors who take a little time to visit the monument museum at the -Rainbow Forest headquarters of the superintendent. This is the way the -naturalists tell it. - -Believe it or not, it was the threat of souvenir hunters and raids on -the fields of petrified wood by commercial jewelers, gem collectors, and -abrasive manufacturers in the late 1890’s and early 1900’s that led -thoughtful citizens of the then Arizona Territory to petition Congress -for the establishment of some sort of a protectorate for the Petrified -Forest. In the vicinity of the Agate Bridge and what is now known as the -First Forest, enterprising abrasive makers set up a stamp mill to -pulverize the great blocks of petrified wood which they found there. -Here, also, many of the logs were dynamited in the search for quartz and -amethyst crystals which some of them contained. - -As a result of the petition by citizens of Arizona Territory, and in -response to requests by other groups in the Southwest that steps be -taken to protect great cliff dwellings and other prehistoric Indian -remains which were being systematically pothunted and looted, Congress -passed the Antiquities Act. This authority enabled President Theodore -Roosevelt on December 8, 1906, to issue a proclamation establishing -Petrified Forest National Monument for the protection and preservation -of one of the world’s most colorful and extensive concentrations of -petrified wood “for the benefit and enjoyment of the people.” - -Northeastern Arizona is not the only area known to contain petrified -wood, for it has been found in nearly every State and in foreign -countries as well. Visitors from distant States are frequently surprised -to discover, from a map in the monument’s museum, that petrified wood is -to be found near their own homes. It is, however, the large amount of -the wood in such beautiful and varied colors that makes _this_ Petrified -Forest outstanding and worthy of being protected as an area of national -significance. - -We do not know for certain which of the early travelers was the first to -see the great display of petrified wood of northern Arizona. Spanish -explorers may have seen it during the 1500’s, since they viewed and -named the Painted Desert (Desierto Pintado), but no written account has -been located that gives any indication that they noticed the wood. In -fact, the earliest written report on record was not made until 1851. In -that year, Lieutenant Sitgreaves, an Army officer, explored parts of -northern Arizona and mentioned the petrified wood in his reports. In -1853, an Army expedition led by Lieutenant Whipple visited the present -monument area, camping near the Black Forest. - -It was not until the 1880’s that settlement of this part of the Arizona -territory really got under way with completion of the Santa Fe Railroad -across it in 1883. Word about the petrified wood spread, and it was not -long until the destructive activities were started. - -The six separate “forests” within the monument are areas of the greatest -concentration of petrified logs and have been named the First, Second, -Third, Black, Rainbow, and Blue Forests. The latter was given its name -because of the bluish color of much of the badlands formation in which -the wood is found. There is not a great deal of difference in the wood -found in the other locations, so they were apparently named by early -residents in order to distinguish one location from the other. - -Fortunately, this monument is easily accessible since it is crossed by -two main highways, thus giving visitors to northern Arizona an excellent -opportunity to enjoy the beauties of this unusual work of nature. The -National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior -has been entrusted with the responsibility of protecting and -administering this and all of the other national monuments and parks -forming America’s National Park System. It is the responsibility of all -the people, as owners of these outstanding national values, to help the -Service keep the wonders of this and other parks and monuments intact -for the enjoyment of future generations. - -Because of the name “Petrified Forest,” many people who have read of it -expect to find trees “turned to stone” and standing upright just as they -grew. Actually, geologists who have studied the area very carefully do -not believe that many of the living trees grew in this particular -location, for all of the evidence indicates that fallen timber from -forests a considerable distance away was carried here by flood waters of -ancient streams and stranded and buried in the mud and shallows of -lagoons and marshes. - -During the latter part of what geologists call the Triassic period, -about 160 to 170 million years ago, most of northeastern Arizona was -apparently an extensive flood plain; low, flat, and swampy. Numerous -streams, some of them quite large, flowed out from the surrounding low -hills into the plain. These streams brought enormous quantities of -sediments; mud, sand, and other minerals, spreading it out layer upon -layer as they shifted their flow back and forth just as on present river -deltas. These sediments contained huge amounts of volcanic ash which the -streams apparently picked up near their sources. This ash was largely -silica, the mineral which was later to be of major importance in the -petrification of the wood. (Silica (SiO₂) is the oxide of silicon, a -non-metallic element making up 28 per cent of the earth’s crust. The -crystal form of silica is quartz, the commonest of all minerals, which -is found in large amounts in many volcanic rocks.) - -The flood plain was broken by an occasional ridge or high spot, -apparently tree-covered, as a few petrified stumps with partial root -systems have been found in the locations where they apparently grew. -However, most of the trees grew in forests on the low hills through -which these rivers flowed, anywhere from a few miles to 50 or 100 miles -or more to the west and southwest of the present national monument. -These trees died from various causes, just as trees of our modern times -do. Fire, wind, insects, diseases, and other causes all took their toll. -Many trees probably decayed in the forest where they fell, but others -were picked up by flood waters and were eventually transported by the -streams to the flood plain there to become stranded with hundreds of -others and to be covered by the sediments brought in by the streams. - -This transportation theory is based on several types of evidence. In the -first place, the logs have been stripped of much of their original roots -and limbs, and practically all of the bark has disappeared. The logs -present a worn appearance, an indication of having received rough -treatment. Also, very few traces of cones or foliage have been located, -although the fossil remains of more than 30 species of fragile ferns, -cycads, rushes, and other plants that grew in the marshes of the ancient -flood plain have been found. The direction of the original drainage into -this area has been established by tracing the source of the Permian -gravels which are deposited here. - -The deposition of these sediments over the plain continued until a layer -about 400 feet thick was built up during the centuries. This deposit is -now known geologically as the “Chinle Formation.” One of the principal -materials found in the Chinle is Bentonite, originally a volcanic ash -which the streams brought. It has since decomposed into a clay-like soil -which is very porous and spongy and which readily absorbs water and -expands. When becoming very wet, it turns into a bluish mud and is -washed away. Erosion of this Bentonite and other materials deposited -with it forms the badlands area now seen on portions of the monument and -in the Painted Desert. During the ages when the original layers of mud, -sand, and silt were being deposited, many of the logs were washed in and -buried at various levels with this Chinle material. - -While all of this was slowly taking place, the land mass over this part -of the continent was gradually subsiding. It continued to settle during -the next geological period of millions of years, and layer after layer -of sediments were washed in and deposited on top of it. Then during the -next geological (Cretaceous) period, a long arm of a sea flooded this -part of the country. Marine deposits accumulated on the bottom of the -sea until finally the Chinle Formation containing the buried logs was -covered by 3,000 feet or more of other deposits. - -At the close of Cretaceous time, about 60 million years ago, uplift of -the present Rocky Mountain system commenced. The basin in which the -Petrified Forest lay buried rose with it. This gradual rising movement -has continued intermittently nearly to the present time. - -This uplift brought with it the activity of erosion which has continued -through the ages until finally almost all of the 3,000 feet of upper -layers of material have been washed away, and the many logs, that had -once been so deeply buried, have again been exposed on the surface; but -now as hard, colorful stone. Erosion continued to carry the soil away -from the petrified logs, exposing more and more of them. As forces of -erosion lowered the surface of the ground little by little, the -petrified logs, too hard to be affected, settled with it, eventually -accumulating with sections of other logs that had been buried on a lower -level. Thus, the present surface of the ground is rather thickly -covered, in many spots, with wood that was originally scattered through -approximately the upper 100 feet of this Chinle Formation. In the -vicinity of the Rainbow and Third Forest, at least, about 300 feet more -of this formation still remains. So far as we know, wood is to be found -throughout this entire layer. Therefore, theoretically at least, it may -be said that 25 per cent of the petrified wood that is here is visible -on the surface, the rest still remaining buried below. - -Three species of trees have been found here in petrified form. The most -common one is an Araucarian Pine (_Araucarioxylon Arizonicum_), a -primitive member of the pine family. This species became extinct long -ago, but there are still several species of modern Araucaria native to -South America, Australia, New Zealand, and other South Pacific islands -which are apparently very similar to this ancient form. Some of the -modern types have been imported to this country and are used for -ornamental purposes in certain locations in Florida and along the -Pacific coast. The most common ones are known as the “Monkey Puzzle -Tree” and “Norfolk Island Pine.” Claims made by roadside stand operators -along Highway 66 that the petrified wood offered for sale is “beach -walnut,” “cactus,” etc., have no basis in fact. - -Two other types of petrified wood are found here in smaller amounts. -These are the _Woodworthia Arizonica_, a cone-bearing tree somewhat -similar to the Araucaria and the _Schilderia Adamanica_, a tree with -peculiar radiating rays in the wood. Paleontologists are not sure where -this latter kind belongs in systematic plant classification. What -happened during the millenniums that the logs lay buried in their Chinle -tombs? - -How did these trees turn to stone? Most of our text books tell us that -the petrification of wood is a replacement process. Bit by bit, water -removed wood tissue and in its place left a mineral deposit in exactly -the same form as the original, so that when the process had been -completed there was no wood left but in its place an exact stone -duplicate. This theory was accepted for a very long time, but recently -some scientists were not satisfied with it because certain chemical -actions that would have to occur during such a process were difficult to -explain. - -Just prior to 1940, several scientists investigated the process, and -from their findings decided that the wood was not petrified by -_replacement_ but by the _infiltration_ of mineral-bearing water into -the wood and the deposition of this mineral in the air spaces within the -wood tissue. This process, they believe, continued until all of the -microscopic spaces in the wood were filled solid with this deposit and -the petrified log, composed of 98 per cent by volume of mineral deposit -and 2 per cent cellulose and lignin wood tissue, was the result. The -original wood tissue acted, they think, as a framework to hold the -mineral deposit like the walls of a building would act if the rooms and -spaces between the walls were filled in solid with liquid concrete. This -accounts for retention of the cell structure, annual rings, and other -features of the original wood. The petrification of wood has never been -studied sufficiently, and there are many questions for which -satisfactory answers have not yet been advanced. - -Although woods in different localities have been petrified by other -minerals, the most common is silica. In the case of this petrified wood, -the silica was deposited in an agatized non-crystalline form. The normal -color of the silica without mineral stain is a white or gray. Sometimes -small amounts of other minerals were in the solution along with silica, -or in some cases were brought in during the millions of years of burial -as a secondary deposit in the cracks, checks, or other openings in the -petrified or partially petrified wood. Iron oxides in small quantities -produced the great variety of shades of red, brown, and yellow. The -black color in most cases is due to manganese oxide or carbon. Thus, the -combination of minerals produced a rainbow of colors in the agatized -wood. - -Whenever there were small checked places, cracks, or hollows in the -wood, we find that they are often either filled or lined with quartz -crystals or occasionally with amethyst crystals. - -The term “chalcedony” (pronounced kal-sed´-nee) is a broad one usually -applied to any compact mass of silica free of definite color pattern, -but it is also frequently used to describe all forms of silica whether -translucent or opaque, and regardless of color. Agate, therefore, may be -considered a variegated chalcedony. Agate is translucent and has a -definite color or pattern. Jasper is opaque and may be either red, -brown, yellow, blue, or green in color. Quartz minerals are harder than -most types of steel, and there are only about 30 other minerals that -exceed it in hardness. In the mineral scale of hardness, quartz is rated -at 7 and diamond, the hardest of all, at 10. Petrified wood weighs about -166 pounds per cubic foot. - -“Who sawed these trees” is one of the questions visitors frequently ask. -It is a natural query because most of the logs are cracked into -sections, in many instances of rather uniform length, and each broken -face is smooth enough to appear almost like a saw cut. At first glance -this does give the impression that someone, possibly a Paul Bunyan with -an enormous diamond-toothed saw, had cut the logs into “stove wood” -lengths. Although there may be some differences of opinion about how -this fracturing occurred, the present explanation by scientists is that -most of this breakage took place during the period of uplift of this -section of the country. The gradual movement and elevation of the -earth’s crust caused numerous earthquakes. The shock waves of the -tremblor traveling through the earth set up vibrations which caused the -deeply buried, brittle, petrified logs to crack. The harmonic vibrations -created by the rhythm of the regular shock waves caused the cracks to be -rather regularly spaced. At first these cracks were tiny, but centuries -later, after the logs were exposed on the surface, the weathering -actions and the shifting and settling of the soil beneath them caused -the cracks to widen and eventually the fractured sections separated. -Occasionally breakage may also occur when soil washes out from under one -end of a log and its weight causes it to sag and crack. The normal -fracture line of this material is at right angles to the lineal axis, -and the rather smooth face causes the broken surface to appear much like -a saw cut. - -Polished wood sections that are exhibited in the Rainbow Forest Museum -show to best advantage the varied color pattern of this petrified wood. -The piece is first cut with either a diamond or carborundum saw. Then -the sawed face is ground as smooth as possible on carborundum wheels of -different grits. When ground sufficiently smooth, the final polish is -given the surface with hard felt buffing wheels and a polishing -compound. Due to the hardness of the petrified wood, it takes about an -hour to cut and polish a square inch, hence is an expensive process. -Some of the most colorful or “picture wood” specimens make very -attractive and durable settings for rings, pins, and other jewelry. - -Fossil remains of many forms of animal life that existed here during -Triassic times also are found in the Chinle deposits with the petrified -wood. Some parts of skeletons were mineralized and preserved in much the -same manner as was the wood. The animals which lived where the trees -accumulated were forms that normally inhabited muddy, marshy river -bottoms, another indication of the type of environment here during that -long-gone age. - -Largest of these animals was the Phytosaur, a crocodile-like reptile -about 18 feet long and weighing nearly a ton. Nostrils were located on -top of the head. These reptiles were omnivorous feeders, and with their -webbed feet and long flattened tails were at home either on land or in -the water. The Phytosaur was a distant relative of the Dinosaur but -became extinct before the Dinosaur reached its peak of development. - -Another inhabitant of the swampy lowlands where ancient logs were -stranded was the Stegocephalian, a primitive amphibian related to modern -salamanders, or mud puppies, but of huge size. They were heavy, -flattened creatures from six to nine feet long and probably weighed -about 500 to 600 pounds. Their legs were very short, and they moved -about by dragging themselves over the swampy ground, probably being -carnivorous feeders. The skull was almost completely solid and had -openings only for the nostrils, eyes, and a peculiar third eye in the -top which probably was capable of distinguishing movement or light, but -not color. - -Several types of fishes, amphibians, and small reptiles probably lived -along the streams and in the quiet pools of those ancient marshes. Among -them were lung-fishes whose teeth or “dental plates” are now found -scattered through the badlands of the Petrified Forest. - -Large rushes, or horsetails, bordered the streams and matted the swamps. -Their hollow stems grew to eight and ten inches in diameter and 30 to 40 -feet tall. At each joint were whorls of slender branches. Large, -broad-leaved ferns formed a striking contrast with the delicate foliage -of the seed fern types. Club mosses probably grew in small clusters in -sheltered places along the banks of the streams and pools. - -How different this scene of millions of years ago was from our -present-day landscape and modern plant and animal life. The climate must -have been at least sub-tropical then; today it is semi-arid. - -In contrast to the plants and animals of those Triassic times living in -swamps and marshes, we now have plants and animals that are able to -exist with a minimum of moisture. The present ground-cover is seldom -over three or four feet high, but includes a wide variety of plants -ranging from very small flowering herbs to the several species of -gray-foliaged salt brush and other shrubs. With suitable moisture, the -spring and fall wildflower displays are often very showy. The early -blooms of the chimaya, phacelia, and the large, white, evening primroses -are soon followed by desert mallow; vetch; a small white daisy-like -Fleabane; the large yellow tulip-like flowers of the mariposa or sego -lily; and as the season advances, the paint brush; asters; snake weed; -golden aster; rabbit brush; and many others. - -In contrast to the sluggish reptiles and amphibians in the Triassic, we -now have the fleet pronghorn (American Antelope); occasional coyotes and -bobcats, porcupine, prairie dogs, rabbits, and many of the smaller -rodents. Several species of harmless snakes and an occasional -rattlesnake; slender, striped, long-tailed race runner lizards; scaled -lizards, and the bright, green-backed, yellow-footed Bailey Collared -Lizard which frequently brings visitors hurrying in to inquire if it is -poisonous. It isn’t! - -Several species of birds such as the Desert Horned Larks and rock wrens -make this their permanent home while many other species ranging in size -from the tiny Allan Hummingbird to the mighty golden eagle either stay -here during various parts of the year, or pass through in the spring and -fall migrations. - -Intermixed with the surface deposits of petrified wood and other -remnants of the ancient Triassic time are the much more recent remains -of early men. Ruins of their homes, fragments of their handiwork, and -examples of their arts are to be found in many locations. - -These people were pre-Columbian Pueblo Indians, ancestors of our modern -Pueblo Indians, and of the same type that inhabited the other pueblo and -cliff-dwelling sites in the Southwest. It is probable that there was -considerable trading carried on between the people of this area and -those at other locations, since many of the same pottery types are found -throughout. - -This somewhat desolate region was apparently fairly densely populated by -little groups of farming Indians. With no survey or study of the -monument area having been made, more than 300 ruin sites have been -located and there are many others nearby. These ruins of stone buildings -are usually from one to a few rooms in size. However, one ruin near the -Puerco River Ranger Station is estimated to have had about 125 or more -rooms. It is built in the form of a hollow square about 180 feet by 230 -feet, around a plaza about 130 by 185 feet. Probably two stories in -height, it could have housed nearly a hundred families. - -A study of the pottery fragments from each site helps us to tell the -approximate time that the particular site was occupied. This time varies -from about 500 or 600 A.D. to 1400 A.D., some being used over a longer -period than others. - -In most cases, the buildings were constructed of pieces of sandstone, -but in a few instances the Indians had an eye for color and used pieces -of petrified wood which made a very substantial as well as colorful -building. “Agate House” in the south part of the Third Forest is one -example of such construction. This was partially reconstructed in 1934 -in the early Pueblo style by the use of chunks of petrified wood from -the heap of the ruins. Indians also used the petrified wood for making -arrow-points and other tools and weapons. - -These people practiced agriculture, cultivating corn, pumpkins, and -beans. They probably wore simple clothing made of cotton cloth or the -skins of wild animals. They also made pottery. - -Tree-ring studies show that there was a great drought from 1275 to 1299 -A.D. This apparently caused a great deal of shifting around among the -Pueblo people. Only a few villages in the Petrified Forest area were -occupied during the fourteenth century. It is not known whether the -people were driven out by the predatory Apaches or because of the -drought. - -Where did these Indians get water? While there probably has not been any -marked change in climate or rainfall since that time, there may have -been more springs and seeps along the cliffs. It is possible that these -failed during that great drought period. - -Pottery designs of these early Indians show an artistic talent, further -indicated by the many petroglyphs on the sandstone cliffs and boulders -throughout the area. A petroglyph is a picture or design carved or -pecked in the face of a rock. These pictures are of figures, geometric -patterns, and symbols in many cases similar to those found on the -pottery. Some represent hands, feet, human figures and shapes of -mammals, birds, or lizards. These appear to be simply a collection of -drawings made by various Indians over a period of time. In some cases, -they were clan symbols, each passerby adding his own much like a -visitor’s register such as we have today or a collection of initials or -names unthinking people carve on trees or scratch on rocks. -Unfortunately an occasional person nowadays, thoughtless of those that -follow, either destroys this ancient art work or defaces it by adding -his name or initials to those of an earlier man. “Newspaper Rock” is the -most spectacular group of petroglyphs found on the monument. - -Homes and tribal lands of modern Indians are located in areas to the -south, east, and north of Petrified Forest National Monument—homes that -were established in some cases before the first Spanish explorer entered -the Southwest. - -To the south in the White Mountains are the Apaches. Apparently both the -Apache and the Navajo entered the Southwest only a short time before the -Spaniards came. Being nomads and predatory in nature, they soon struck -terror in the hearts of the peaceful Pueblo people and caused many of -them to abandon their homes to seek more secluded and protected sites. - -To the east are the Zuni, a Pueblo people that some of the early -occupants of the Petrified Forest may have joined. When the Spaniards -came, these Zuni were living in seven pueblos that became known as the -historic “Seven Cities of Cibola.” - -To the north are the Navajo and Hopi peoples. Arizona’s famous Painted -Desert forms a long curving border to the Navajo Reservation—a border -extending from near the New Mexico line westward to the Colorado River -northwest of Cameron. A spectacular portion of it lies in the northern -part of Petrified Forest National Monument. - -The Painted Desert is a colorful, often fantastically eroded badlands of -Bentonitic beds stained with shades of red, orange, yellow, blue, -purple, and brown by iron minerals. Arid or semi-arid with only a sparse -vegetative cover, these soft beds are subject to rapid erosion during -Arizona’s season of torrential rains. - -The Painted Desert formed a barrier behind which the early Hopi people -withdrew to establish their famed mesa-top villages, including Oraibi -which has been continuously occupied since about 350 years before the -discovery of America. These people still live in their several mesa-top -villages, their reservation surrounded by that of the Navajo, their -former enemies, who now lead a peaceful, semi-nomadic life. - -There is much more to the fascinating story of the Petrified Forest as -told to us by naturalists of the national monument. Few visitors take -time from their mad rush to “get somewhere quickly” to make the effort -to understand the intricate and devious ways of Nature, of which “Time -is the essence,” resulting in the spectacular and brilliant display, -this glittering jewel of the desert, the Petrified Forest. Stopping only -long enough to marvel briefly, many of them feel the urge to take -something with them, some concrete reminder of the colorful scene, some -bits of petrified wood. Those who successfully “get past” the checking -station ranger with their illicit souvenirs usually lose these trinkets, -or find them turned to sharp goads which prod their consciences in later -years. How fortunate those visitors who, at the expense of an hour or so -of time, gain an understanding of what lies behind the scenery at the -Petrified Forest, thereby developing an appreciation of the work of -Nature and of God as exemplified here. These people take with them, not -merely a souvenir, but an experience which they will treasure and enjoy -throughout the remainder of their lives. - - [Illustration: The Painted Desert from the Monument’s rim drive. - _Photo by Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: A typical scene in Petrified Forest. _National Park - Service Photo._] - - [Illustration: Painted Desert from the Painted Desert Inn. _Photo by - Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Navajo National Monument. Deep in the heart of the - Navajo country is an area of cliffs, canyons, and prehistoric ruins. - One of the largest is Betatakin. _Photo by Martin Litton._] - - [Illustration: Sunset Crater. Sunset Crater National Monument, near - Flagstaff, comprises an area that was the scene of volcanic - activities hundreds of years ago. _Photo by Norman Wallace._] - - [Illustration: Tuzigoot—The hilltop home of an ancient, peaceful - farming people, near Clarkdale, has been excavated. _National Park - Service Photo._] - - [Illustration: Canyon De Chelly National Monument contains within - its borders Canyon De Chelly and Canyon del Muerto, as well as many - ruins. It is near Chinle. _Photo by J. H. McGibbeny._] - - [Illustration: Hoover (Boulder) Dam and Lake Mead provide a fine - recreational area along the Arizona-Nevada border. _Photo by Herb - McLoughlin._] - - [Illustration: Grand Canyon National Park. The Grand Canyon of the - mighty Colorado River defies efforts to describe it adequately. - _Photo by A. C. Jackson._] - - [Illustration: Wupatki ruins in Wupatki National Monument, one of - the most spectacular pueblos in Northern Arizona. _Photo by George - K. Geyer._] - - [Illustration: Walnut Canyon. In the walls of this canyon, near - Flagstaff, under overhanging ledges are a series of prehistoric - Indian ruins. _National Park Service Photo._] - - [Illustration: Montezuma Castle, overlooking Beaver Creek in the - Verde Valley, is one of the most beautiful cliff dwellings to be - found in this country. _Photo by Ray Manly._] - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Agatized Rainbows, by Harold J. 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text-align:center; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:auto; text-indent:0; margin-right:auto; max-width:25em; text-align:justify; } -p.pcap i { font-size:80%; text-align:right; font-weight:bold; font-family:sans-serif; display:block; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Agatized Rainbows, by Harold J. Brodrick - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Agatized Rainbows - A Story of the Petrified Forest - -Author: Harold J. Brodrick - -Release Date: January 29, 2016 [EBook #51068] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AGATIZED RAINBOWS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Agatized Rainbows: A Story of the Petrified Forest" width="500" height="724" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1><b>AGATIZED RAINBOWS</b> -<br /><i><span class="smaller">A Story of the Petrified Forest</span></i> -<br /><i><span class="smallest">With views of other National Park Service units of Northern Arizona</span></i></h1> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p00.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="581" /> -<p class="pcap">Third Forest. -<i>Photo by Jerry McLain.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="874" /> -<p class="pcap">Colorful petrified log sections, typical of many found in the monument. -<i>Photo by Esther Henderson.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p01a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="560" /> -<p class="pcap">Blue Forest Badlands—Colorful banded ridges, a three mile side trip. -<i>Photo by Ray Manly.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p01b.jpg" alt="MAP SHOWING: NATIONAL PARKS, NATIONAL MONUMENTS, POINTS OF INTEREST" width="600" height="359" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="629" height="400" /> -<p class="pcap">Agate Bridge. Erosion has cut out the -rock from under this log leaving a span -of 45 feet forming a bridge, now supported -by a beam. -<i>Photo by Leon Cantrell.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p02a.jpg" alt="" width="453" height="601" /> -<p class="pcap">An example of color and erosion in the First Forest. -<i>Photo by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p02b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="879" /> -<p class="pcap">Logs of rainbow hues in the -Second Forest. -<i>Photo by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="345" /> -<p class="pcap">Old Faithful Log near the Museum in Rainbow Forest -has the largest base diameter of those readily seen during a trip -through the Monument.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="457" /> -<p class="pcap">Logs in the Second Forest. -<i>Photos by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p03b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap">A polished specimen of wood from Rainbow Forest Museum, -where many other colorful sections are on display. -<i>Photo by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="714" /> -<p class="pcap">Mariposa Lilies, one of the beautiful wildflowers -that bloom during May, in the Forest. -<i>Photo by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<h1 title="">AGATIZED RAINBOWS -<br /><span class="small">.... <i>A Story of the Petrified Forest</i></span></h1> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="lr"><span class="ss"><span class="smaller"><b>POPULAR SERIES No. 3—1951</b></span></span></p> -<p class="lr"><span class="ss"><span class="smaller">PRESENTED BY <b>PETRIFIED FOREST MUSEUM ASSOCIATION, HOLBROOK, ARIZONA</b></span></span></p> -<p class="lr"><span class="ss"><span class="smaller">AND THE <b>ARIZONA STATE HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT</b></span></span></p> -<p class="lr"><span class="ss"><span class="smaller"><i>TEXT BY <b>HAROLD J. BRODRICK, PARK NATURALIST</b></i></span></span></p> -</div> -<p>“Oh ranger, please! Just one itzy bitzy -piece of petrified wood to take home to show -my boy friend. You won’t miss just one -teeny weeny piece.”</p> -<p>Holding in his hand an assortment of specimens -of petrified wood which he had just -retrieved from the young lady driving the -flashy convertible, the Highway 260 checking -station ranger at Petrified Forest National -Monument shook his head with a wry smile. -“Sorry, lady, but the rules say ‘It is unlawful -to injure, destroy, or remove specimens of -petrified wood of any size whatsoever found -within the monument boundary * * *,’ and -my job is to see that this and other regulations -are obeyed. You’re right, we would -never miss these few pieces if you took them -home with you, but they belong to the people -of the United States, and if everyone of the -350,000 visitors who come here each year -took away only a few specimens, as you wish -to do, in a very few years there wouldn’t be -any left. It’s my job, as representative of the -people of this country, to see that there will -always be this great natural display of petrified -wood here where it was formed.”</p> -<p>As the young lady drove off with a gay -wave of her hand and “I think you’re mean” -tossed over her shoulder, the ranger turned -to us with a rueful smile. “Happens every -day,” he said. “You can’t blame people for -wanting to take home a souvenir of the Petrified -Forest, and the stuff is so pretty that kids, -especially, just can’t help but want to pack -it off. And, with so much of it here, it’s hard -for them to understand that it would soon be -gone, particularly along the roads and trails, -if everyone carried off a handful or two.”</p> -<p>We agreed with the ranger that it is hard -to understand, until it is explained that such -enormous quantities of petrified wood as are -strewn over hundreds of acres in Petrified -Forest National Monument could be entirely -removed in a few years by souvenir-hungry -American tourists. “But where,” we inquired, -“do these roadside stands all along Highway -66 get the huge piles of petrified wood which -they offer for sale? Surely the National Park -Service doesn’t permit them to haul it off the -monument by the truckload.”</p> -<p>“Oh no,” grinned the ranger. “All of that -‘for-sale’ wood comes from private lands. The -national monument preserves and protects -only the largest and most colorful deposits of -petrified wood; but it is found in many places -throughout northeastern Arizona.”</p> -<p>The impatient toot of an automobile horn -informed us that we were blocking traffic, so -we thanked the ranger and continued on our -way. However, the interesting conversation -aroused our curiosity, and at the first opportunity -we returned to the Petrified Forest to -learn more about the occurrence of petrified -wood, and how Uncle Sam, through the -National Park Service, keeps the wood from -being carried off by souvenir collectors, and -how the fascinating story of wood petrification -is told to visitors who take a little time -to visit the monument museum at the Rainbow -Forest headquarters of the superintendent. -This is the way the naturalists tell it.</p> -<p>Believe it or not, it was the threat of souvenir -hunters and raids on the fields of petrified -wood by commercial jewelers, gem collectors, -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -and abrasive manufacturers in the late 1890’s -and early 1900’s that led thoughtful citizens -of the then Arizona Territory to petition -Congress for the establishment of some sort -of a protectorate for the Petrified Forest. In -the vicinity of the Agate Bridge and what is -now known as the First Forest, enterprising -abrasive makers set up a stamp mill to pulverize -the great blocks of petrified wood -which they found there. Here, also, many of -the logs were dynamited in the search for -quartz and amethyst crystals which some of -them contained.</p> -<p>As a result of the petition by citizens of -Arizona Territory, and in response to requests -by other groups in the Southwest that -steps be taken to protect great cliff dwellings -and other prehistoric Indian remains which -were being systematically pothunted and -looted, Congress passed the Antiquities Act. -This authority enabled President Theodore -Roosevelt on December 8, 1906, to issue a -proclamation establishing Petrified Forest -National Monument for the protection and -preservation of one of the world’s most colorful -and extensive concentrations of petrified -wood “for the benefit and enjoyment of -the people.”</p> -<p>Northeastern Arizona is not the only area -known to contain petrified wood, for it has -been found in nearly every State and in foreign -countries as well. Visitors from distant -States are frequently surprised to discover, -from a map in the monument’s museum, that -petrified wood is to be found near their own -homes. It is, however, the large amount of -the wood in such beautiful and varied colors -that makes <i>this</i> Petrified Forest outstanding -and worthy of being protected as an area of -national significance.</p> -<p>We do not know for certain which of the -early travelers was the first to see the great -display of petrified wood of northern Arizona. -Spanish explorers may have seen it -during the 1500’s, since they viewed and -named the Painted Desert (Desierto Pintado), -but no written account has been located -that gives any indication that they -noticed the wood. In fact, the earliest written -report on record was not made until 1851. -In that year, Lieutenant Sitgreaves, an Army -officer, explored parts of northern Arizona -and mentioned the petrified wood in his reports. -In 1853, an Army expedition led by -Lieutenant Whipple visited the present -monument area, camping near the Black -Forest.</p> -<p>It was not until the 1880’s that settlement -of this part of the Arizona territory really -got under way with completion of the Santa -Fe Railroad across it in 1883. Word about -the petrified wood spread, and it was not long -until the destructive activities were started.</p> -<p>The six separate “forests” within the -monument are areas of the greatest concentration -of petrified logs and have been named -the First, Second, Third, Black, Rainbow, and -Blue Forests. The latter was given its name -because of the bluish color of much of the -badlands formation in which the wood is -found. There is not a great deal of difference -in the wood found in the other locations, so -they were apparently named by early residents -in order to distinguish one location -from the other.</p> -<p>Fortunately, this monument is easily accessible -since it is crossed by two main highways, -thus giving visitors to northern Arizona an -excellent opportunity to enjoy the beauties -of this unusual work of nature. The National -Park Service of the United States Department -of the Interior has been entrusted with the -responsibility of protecting and administering -this and all of the other national monuments -and parks forming America’s National -Park System. It is the responsibility of all the -people, as owners of these outstanding national -values, to help the Service keep the -wonders of this and other parks and monuments -intact for the enjoyment of future -generations.</p> -<p>Because of the name “Petrified Forest,” -many people who have read of it expect to -find trees “turned to stone” and standing -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -upright just as they grew. Actually, geologists -who have studied the area very carefully do -not believe that many of the living trees -grew in this particular location, for all of the -evidence indicates that fallen timber from -forests a considerable distance away was carried -here by flood waters of ancient streams -and stranded and buried in the mud and -shallows of lagoons and marshes.</p> -<p>During the latter part of what geologists -call the Triassic period, about 160 to 170 -million years ago, most of northeastern Arizona -was apparently an extensive flood plain; -low, flat, and swampy. Numerous streams, -some of them quite large, flowed out from -the surrounding low hills into the plain. -These streams brought enormous quantities -of sediments; mud, sand, and other minerals, -spreading it out layer upon layer as they -shifted their flow back and forth just as on -present river deltas. These sediments contained -huge amounts of volcanic ash which -the streams apparently picked up near their -sources. This ash was largely silica, the mineral -which was later to be of major importance -in the petrification of the wood. (Silica -(SiO₂) is the oxide of silicon, a non-metallic -element making up 28 per cent of the earth’s -crust. The crystal form of silica is quartz, the -commonest of all minerals, which is found -in large amounts in many volcanic rocks.)</p> -<p>The flood plain was broken by an occasional -ridge or high spot, apparently tree-covered, -as a few petrified stumps with partial -root systems have been found in the -locations where they apparently grew. However, -most of the trees grew in forests on the -low hills through which these rivers flowed, -anywhere from a few miles to 50 or 100 miles -or more to the west and southwest of the -present national monument. These trees died -from various causes, just as trees of our modern -times do. Fire, wind, insects, diseases, -and other causes all took their toll. Many -trees probably decayed in the forest where -they fell, but others were picked up by flood -waters and were eventually transported by -the streams to the flood plain there to become -stranded with hundreds of others and to be -covered by the sediments brought in by -the streams.</p> -<p>This transportation theory is based on -several types of evidence. In the first place, -the logs have been stripped of much of their -original roots and limbs, and practically all -of the bark has disappeared. The logs present -a worn appearance, an indication of having -received rough treatment. Also, very few -traces of cones or foliage have been located, -although the fossil remains of more than 30 -species of fragile ferns, cycads, rushes, and -other plants that grew in the marshes of the -ancient flood plain have been found. The -direction of the original drainage into this -area has been established by tracing the -source of the Permian gravels which are deposited -here.</p> -<p>The deposition of these sediments over the -plain continued until a layer about 400 feet -thick was built up during the centuries. This -deposit is now known geologically as the -“Chinle Formation.” One of the principal -materials found in the Chinle is Bentonite, -originally a volcanic ash which the streams -brought. It has since decomposed into a clay-like -soil which is very porous and spongy -and which readily absorbs water and expands. -When becoming very wet, it turns into a -bluish mud and is washed away. Erosion of -this Bentonite and other materials deposited -with it forms the badlands area now seen on -portions of the monument and in the Painted -Desert. During the ages when the original -layers of mud, sand, and silt were being deposited, -many of the logs were washed in -and buried at various levels with this Chinle -material.</p> -<p>While all of this was slowly taking place, -the land mass over this part of the continent -was gradually subsiding. It continued to settle -during the next geological period of millions -of years, and layer after layer of sediments -were washed in and deposited on top of it. -Then during the next geological (Cretaceous) -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -period, a long arm of a sea flooded this -part of the country. Marine deposits accumulated -on the bottom of the sea until finally -the Chinle Formation containing the buried -logs was covered by 3,000 feet or more of -other deposits.</p> -<p>At the close of Cretaceous time, about 60 -million years ago, uplift of the present Rocky -Mountain system commenced. The basin in -which the Petrified Forest lay buried rose -with it. This gradual rising movement has -continued intermittently nearly to the present -time.</p> -<p>This uplift brought with it the activity of -erosion which has continued through the ages -until finally almost all of the 3,000 feet of -upper layers of material have been washed -away, and the many logs, that had once been -so deeply buried, have again been exposed -on the surface; but now as hard, colorful -stone. Erosion continued to carry the soil -away from the petrified logs, exposing more -and more of them. As forces of erosion lowered -the surface of the ground little by little, -the petrified logs, too hard to be affected, -settled with it, eventually accumulating with -sections of other logs that had been buried -on a lower level. Thus, the present surface -of the ground is rather thickly covered, in -many spots, with wood that was originally -scattered through approximately the upper -100 feet of this Chinle Formation. In the -vicinity of the Rainbow and Third Forest, -at least, about 300 feet more of this formation -still remains. So far as we know, wood -is to be found throughout this entire layer. -Therefore, theoretically at least, it may be -said that 25 per cent of the petrified wood -that is here is visible on the surface, the rest -still remaining buried below.</p> -<p>Three species of trees have been found -here in petrified form. The most common -one is an Araucarian Pine (<i>Araucarioxylon -Arizonicum</i>), a primitive member of the -pine family. This species became extinct -long ago, but there are still several species of -modern Araucaria native to South America, -Australia, New Zealand, and other South -Pacific islands which are apparently very similar -to this ancient form. Some of the modern -types have been imported to this country and -are used for ornamental purposes in certain -locations in Florida and along the Pacific -coast. The most common ones are known as -the “Monkey Puzzle Tree” and “Norfolk Island -Pine.” Claims made by roadside stand -operators along Highway 66 that the petrified -wood offered for sale is “beach walnut,” -“cactus,” etc., have no basis in fact.</p> -<p>Two other types of petrified wood are -found here in smaller amounts. These are -the <i>Woodworthia Arizonica</i>, a cone-bearing -tree somewhat similar to the Araucaria and -the <i>Schilderia Adamanica</i>, a tree with peculiar -radiating rays in the wood. Paleontologists -are not sure where this latter kind -belongs in systematic plant classification. -What happened during the millenniums that -the logs lay buried in their Chinle tombs?</p> -<p>How did these trees turn to stone? Most -of our text books tell us that the petrification -of wood is a replacement process. Bit by bit, -water removed wood tissue and in its place -left a mineral deposit in exactly the same -form as the original, so that when the process -had been completed there was no wood left -but in its place an exact stone duplicate. This -theory was accepted for a very long time, but -recently some scientists were not satisfied -with it because certain chemical actions that -would have to occur during such a process -were difficult to explain.</p> -<p>Just prior to 1940, several scientists investigated -the process, and from their findings -decided that the wood was not petrified by -<i>replacement</i> but by the <i>infiltration</i> of mineral-bearing -water into the wood and the deposition -of this mineral in the air spaces -within the wood tissue. This process, they -believe, continued until all of the microscopic -spaces in the wood were filled solid with this -deposit and the petrified log, composed of -98 per cent by volume of mineral deposit -and 2 per cent cellulose and lignin wood -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -tissue, was the result. The original wood -tissue acted, they think, as a framework to -hold the mineral deposit like the walls of a -building would act if the rooms and spaces -between the walls were filled in solid with -liquid concrete. This accounts for retention -of the cell structure, annual rings, and other -features of the original wood. The petrification -of wood has never been studied sufficiently, -and there are many questions for -which satisfactory answers have not yet been -advanced.</p> -<p>Although woods in different localities have -been petrified by other minerals, the most -common is silica. In the case of this petrified -wood, the silica was deposited in an agatized -non-crystalline form. The normal color of the -silica without mineral stain is a white or -gray. Sometimes small amounts of other -minerals were in the solution along with silica, -or in some cases were brought in during -the millions of years of burial as a secondary -deposit in the cracks, checks, or other openings -in the petrified or partially petrified -wood. Iron oxides in small quantities produced -the great variety of shades of red, -brown, and yellow. The black color in most -cases is due to manganese oxide or carbon. -Thus, the combination of minerals produced -a rainbow of colors in the agatized wood.</p> -<p>Whenever there were small checked places, -cracks, or hollows in the wood, we find that -they are often either filled or lined with -quartz crystals or occasionally with amethyst -crystals.</p> -<p>The term “chalcedony” (pronounced kal-sed´-nee) -is a broad one usually applied to -any compact mass of silica free of definite -color pattern, but it is also frequently used -to describe all forms of silica whether translucent -or opaque, and regardless of color. -Agate, therefore, may be considered a variegated -chalcedony. Agate is translucent and -has a definite color or pattern. Jasper is -opaque and may be either red, brown, yellow, -blue, or green in color. Quartz minerals are -harder than most types of steel, and there are -only about 30 other minerals that exceed it -in hardness. In the mineral scale of hardness, -quartz is rated at 7 and diamond, the hardest -of all, at 10. Petrified wood weighs about 166 -pounds per cubic foot.</p> -<p>“Who sawed these trees” is one of the -questions visitors frequently ask. It is a -natural query because most of the logs are -cracked into sections, in many instances of -rather uniform length, and each broken face -is smooth enough to appear almost like a saw -cut. At first glance this does give the impression -that someone, possibly a Paul Bunyan -with an enormous diamond-toothed saw, had -cut the logs into “stove wood” lengths. Although -there may be some differences of -opinion about how this fracturing occurred, -the present explanation by scientists is that -most of this breakage took place during the -period of uplift of this section of the country. -The gradual movement and elevation of the -earth’s crust caused numerous earthquakes. -The shock waves of the tremblor traveling -through the earth set up vibrations which -caused the deeply buried, brittle, petrified -logs to crack. The harmonic vibrations -created by the rhythm of the regular shock -waves caused the cracks to be rather regularly -spaced. At first these cracks were tiny, but -centuries later, after the logs were exposed -on the surface, the weathering actions and -the shifting and settling of the soil beneath -them caused the cracks to widen and eventually -the fractured sections separated. Occasionally -breakage may also occur when soil -washes out from under one end of a log and -its weight causes it to sag and crack. The -normal fracture line of this material is at -right angles to the lineal axis, and the rather -smooth face causes the broken surface to -appear much like a saw cut.</p> -<p>Polished wood sections that are exhibited -in the Rainbow Forest Museum show to best -advantage the varied color pattern of this -petrified wood. The piece is first cut with -either a diamond or carborundum saw. Then -the sawed face is ground as smooth as possible -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -on carborundum wheels of different -grits. When ground sufficiently smooth, the -final polish is given the surface with hard felt -buffing wheels and a polishing compound. -Due to the hardness of the petrified wood, it -takes about an hour to cut and polish a square -inch, hence is an expensive process. Some -of the most colorful or “picture wood” specimens -make very attractive and durable settings -for rings, pins, and other jewelry.</p> -<p>Fossil remains of many forms of animal -life that existed here during Triassic times -also are found in the Chinle deposits with the -petrified wood. Some parts of skeletons were -mineralized and preserved in much the same -manner as was the wood. The animals which -lived where the trees accumulated were forms -that normally inhabited muddy, marshy river -bottoms, another indication of the type of -environment here during that long-gone age.</p> -<p>Largest of these animals was the Phytosaur, -a crocodile-like reptile about 18 feet long and -weighing nearly a ton. Nostrils were located -on top of the head. These reptiles were omnivorous -feeders, and with their webbed feet -and long flattened tails were at home either -on land or in the water. The Phytosaur was -a distant relative of the Dinosaur but became -extinct before the Dinosaur reached its peak -of development.</p> -<p>Another inhabitant of the swampy lowlands -where ancient logs were stranded was -the Stegocephalian, a primitive amphibian -related to modern salamanders, or mud puppies, -but of huge size. They were heavy, -flattened creatures from six to nine feet long -and probably weighed about 500 to 600 -pounds. Their legs were very short, and they -moved about by dragging themselves over -the swampy ground, probably being carnivorous -feeders. The skull was almost completely -solid and had openings only for the -nostrils, eyes, and a peculiar third eye in the -top which probably was capable of distinguishing -movement or light, but not color.</p> -<p>Several types of fishes, amphibians, and -small reptiles probably lived along the -streams and in the quiet pools of those ancient -marshes. Among them were lung-fishes -whose teeth or “dental plates” are now found -scattered through the badlands of the Petrified -Forest.</p> -<p>Large rushes, or horsetails, bordered the -streams and matted the swamps. Their hollow -stems grew to eight and ten inches in -diameter and 30 to 40 feet tall. At each -joint were whorls of slender branches. Large, -broad-leaved ferns formed a striking contrast -with the delicate foliage of the seed fern -types. Club mosses probably grew in small -clusters in sheltered places along the banks -of the streams and pools.</p> -<p>How different this scene of millions of -years ago was from our present-day landscape -and modern plant and animal life. The climate -must have been at least sub-tropical -then; today it is semi-arid.</p> -<p>In contrast to the plants and animals of -those Triassic times living in swamps and -marshes, we now have plants and animals -that are able to exist with a minimum of -moisture. The present ground-cover is seldom -over three or four feet high, but includes a -wide variety of plants ranging from very -small flowering herbs to the several species -of gray-foliaged salt brush and other shrubs. -With suitable moisture, the spring and fall -wildflower displays are often very showy. -The early blooms of the chimaya, phacelia, -and the large, white, evening primroses are -soon followed by desert mallow; vetch; a -small white daisy-like Fleabane; the large -yellow tulip-like flowers of the mariposa -or sego lily; and as the season advances, the -paint brush; asters; snake weed; golden aster; -rabbit brush; and many others.</p> -<p>In contrast to the sluggish reptiles and -amphibians in the Triassic, we now have the -fleet pronghorn (American Antelope); occasional -coyotes and bobcats, porcupine, prairie -dogs, rabbits, and many of the smaller rodents. -Several species of harmless snakes and -an occasional rattlesnake; slender, striped, -long-tailed race runner lizards; scaled lizards, -<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span> -and the bright, green-backed, yellow-footed -Bailey Collared Lizard which frequently -brings visitors hurrying in to inquire if it -is poisonous. It isn’t!</p> -<p>Several species of birds such as the Desert -Horned Larks and rock wrens make this their -permanent home while many other species -ranging in size from the tiny Allan Hummingbird -to the mighty golden eagle either -stay here during various parts of the year, or -pass through in the spring and fall migrations.</p> -<p>Intermixed with the surface deposits of -petrified wood and other remnants of the -ancient Triassic time are the much more recent -remains of early men. Ruins of their -homes, fragments of their handiwork, and -examples of their arts are to be found in -many locations.</p> -<p>These people were pre-Columbian Pueblo -Indians, ancestors of our modern Pueblo Indians, -and of the same type that inhabited -the other pueblo and cliff-dwelling sites in -the Southwest. It is probable that there was -considerable trading carried on between the -people of this area and those at other locations, -since many of the same pottery types -are found throughout.</p> -<p>This somewhat desolate region was apparently -fairly densely populated by little groups -of farming Indians. With no survey or study -of the monument area having been made, -more than 300 ruin sites have been located -and there are many others nearby. These ruins -of stone buildings are usually from one to a -few rooms in size. However, one ruin near -the Puerco River Ranger Station is estimated -to have had about 125 or more rooms. It is -built in the form of a hollow square about -180 feet by 230 feet, around a plaza about -130 by 185 feet. Probably two stories in -height, it could have housed nearly a hundred -families.</p> -<p>A study of the pottery fragments from -each site helps us to tell the approximate time -that the particular site was occupied. This -time varies from about 500 or 600 A.D. to -1400 A.D., some being used over a longer -period than others.</p> -<p>In most cases, the buildings were constructed -of pieces of sandstone, but in a few -instances the Indians had an eye for color -and used pieces of petrified wood which made -a very substantial as well as colorful building. -“Agate House” in the south part of the Third -Forest is one example of such construction. -This was partially reconstructed in 1934 in -the early Pueblo style by the use of chunks -of petrified wood from the heap of the ruins. -Indians also used the petrified wood for -making arrow-points and other tools and -weapons.</p> -<p>These people practiced agriculture, cultivating -corn, pumpkins, and beans. They probably -wore simple clothing made of cotton -cloth or the skins of wild animals. They also -made pottery.</p> -<p>Tree-ring studies show that there was a -great drought from 1275 to 1299 A.D. This -apparently caused a great deal of shifting -around among the Pueblo people. Only a few -villages in the Petrified Forest area were -occupied during the fourteenth century. It -is not known whether the people were driven -out by the predatory Apaches or because of -the drought.</p> -<p>Where did these Indians get water? While -there probably has not been any marked -change in climate or rainfall since that time, -there may have been more springs and seeps -along the cliffs. It is possible that these failed -during that great drought period.</p> -<p>Pottery designs of these early Indians show -an artistic talent, further indicated by the -many petroglyphs on the sandstone cliffs and -boulders throughout the area. A petroglyph -is a picture or design carved or pecked in the -face of a rock. These pictures are of figures, -geometric patterns, and symbols in many -cases similar to those found on the pottery. -Some represent hands, feet, human figures -and shapes of mammals, birds, or lizards. -These appear to be simply a collection of -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -drawings made by various Indians over a -period of time. In some cases, they were clan -symbols, each passerby adding his own much -like a visitor’s register such as we have today -or a collection of initials or names unthinking -people carve on trees or scratch on rocks. -Unfortunately an occasional person nowadays, -thoughtless of those that follow, either -destroys this ancient art work or defaces it -by adding his name or initials to those of an -earlier man. “Newspaper Rock” is the most -spectacular group of petroglyphs found on -the monument.</p> -<p>Homes and tribal lands of modern Indians -are located in areas to the south, east, and -north of Petrified Forest National Monument—homes -that were established in some cases -before the first Spanish explorer entered the -Southwest.</p> -<p>To the south in the White Mountains are -the Apaches. Apparently both the Apache -and the Navajo entered the Southwest only -a short time before the Spaniards came. Being -nomads and predatory in nature, they soon -struck terror in the hearts of the peaceful -Pueblo people and caused many of them to -abandon their homes to seek more secluded -and protected sites.</p> -<p>To the east are the Zuni, a Pueblo people -that some of the early occupants of the Petrified -Forest may have joined. When the Spaniards -came, these Zuni were living in seven -pueblos that became known as the historic -“Seven Cities of Cibola.”</p> -<p>To the north are the Navajo and Hopi -peoples. Arizona’s famous Painted Desert -forms a long curving border to the Navajo -Reservation—a border extending from near -the New Mexico line westward to the Colorado -River northwest of Cameron. A spectacular -portion of it lies in the northern part -of Petrified Forest National Monument.</p> -<p>The Painted Desert is a colorful, often -fantastically eroded badlands of Bentonitic -beds stained with shades of red, orange, yellow, -blue, purple, and brown by iron minerals. -Arid or semi-arid with only a sparse -vegetative cover, these soft beds are subject -to rapid erosion during Arizona’s season of -torrential rains.</p> -<p>The Painted Desert formed a barrier behind -which the early Hopi people withdrew -to establish their famed mesa-top villages, -including Oraibi which has been continuously -occupied since about 350 years before -the discovery of America. These people still -live in their several mesa-top villages, their -reservation surrounded by that of the Navajo, -their former enemies, who now lead a peaceful, -semi-nomadic life.</p> -<p>There is much more to the fascinating -story of the Petrified Forest as told to us by -naturalists of the national monument. Few -visitors take time from their mad rush to -“get somewhere quickly” to make the effort -to understand the intricate and devious ways -of Nature, of which “Time is the essence,” -resulting in the spectacular and brilliant display, -this glittering jewel of the desert, the -Petrified Forest. Stopping only long enough -to marvel briefly, many of them feel the urge -to take something with them, some concrete -reminder of the colorful scene, some bits of -petrified wood. Those who successfully “get -past” the checking station ranger with their -illicit souvenirs usually lose these trinkets, or -find them turned to sharp goads which prod -their consciences in later years. How fortunate -those visitors who, at the expense of an -hour or so of time, gain an understanding of -what lies behind the scenery at the Petrified -Forest, thereby developing an appreciation -of the work of Nature and of God as exemplified -here. These people take with them, -not merely a souvenir, but an experience -which they will treasure and enjoy throughout -the remainder of their lives.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="495" /> -<p class="pcap">The Painted Desert from the Monument’s rim drive. -<i>Photo by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="457" /> -<p class="pcap">A typical scene in Petrified Forest. -<i>National Park Service Photo.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="522" /> -<p class="pcap">Painted Desert from -the Painted Desert Inn. -<i>Photo by Josef Muench.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="462" /> -<p class="pcap">Navajo National Monument. -Deep in the heart of the -Navajo country is an area of -cliffs, canyons, and prehistoric -ruins. One of the largest is Betatakin. -<i>Photo by Martin Litton.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p06b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="400" /> -<p class="pcap">Sunset Crater. Sunset Crater National Monument, near Flagstaff, -comprises an area that was the scene of volcanic activities hundreds of -years ago. -<i>Photo by Norman Wallace.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p06c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" /> -<p class="pcap">Tuzigoot—The hilltop home of an ancient, peaceful farming people, -near Clarkdale, has been excavated. -<i>National Park Service Photo.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="781" /> -<p class="pcap">Canyon De Chelly National Monument -contains within its borders Canyon -De Chelly and Canyon del -Muerto, as well as many ruins. It is -near Chinle. -<i>Photo by J. H. McGibbeny.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p07a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="304" /> -<p class="pcap">Hoover (Boulder) Dam and Lake Mead -provide a fine recreational area along -the Arizona-Nevada border. -<i>Photo by Herb McLoughlin.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p07b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="630" /> -<p class="pcap">Grand Canyon National Park. The Grand -Canyon of the mighty Colorado River defies -efforts to describe it adequately. -<i>Photo by A. C. Jackson.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="569" /> -<p class="pcap">Wupatki ruins in Wupatki National Monument, one of the most -spectacular pueblos in Northern Arizona. -<i>Photo by George K. Geyer.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="529" /> -<p class="pcap">Walnut Canyon. In the walls -of this canyon, near Flagstaff, -under overhanging ledges are a -series of prehistoric Indian ruins. -<i>National Park Service Photo.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p08b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="606" /> -<p class="pcap">Montezuma Castle, overlooking Beaver Creek in the -Verde Valley, is one of the most beautiful cliff dwellings -to be found in this country. -<i>Photo by Ray Manly.</i></p> -</div> -<h2><br /><span class="small">Transcriber’s Notes</span></h2> -<ul><li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li></ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Agatized Rainbows, by Harold J. 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b/old/51068.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c9bfb2b..0000000 --- a/old/51068.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1028 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Agatized Rainbows, by Harold J. Brodrick - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Agatized Rainbows - A Story of the Petrified Forest - -Author: Harold J. Brodrick - -Release Date: January 29, 2016 [EBook #51068] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AGATIZED RAINBOWS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - AGATIZED RAINBOWS - _A Story of the Petrified Forest_ - _With views of other National Park Service units of Northern Arizona_ - - - [Illustration: Third Forest. _Photo by Jerry McLain._] - - [Illustration: Colorful petrified log sections, typical of many - found in the monument. _Photo by Esther Henderson._] - - [Illustration: Blue Forest Badlands--Colorful banded ridges, a three - mile side trip. _Photo by Ray Manly._] - - [Illustration: MAP SHOWING: NATIONAL PARKS, NATIONAL MONUMENTS, - POINTS OF INTEREST] - - [Illustration: Agate Bridge. Erosion has cut out the rock from under - this log leaving a span of 45 feet forming a bridge, now supported - by a beam. _Photo by Leon Cantrell._] - - [Illustration: An example of color and erosion in the First Forest. - _Photo by Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Logs of rainbow hues in the Second Forest. _Photo by - Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Old Faithful Log near the Museum in Rainbow Forest - has the largest base diameter of those readily seen during a trip - through the Monument.] - - [Illustration: Logs in the Second Forest. _Photos by Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: A polished specimen of wood from Rainbow Forest - Museum, where many other colorful sections are on display. _Photo by - Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Mariposa Lilies, one of the beautiful wildflowers - that bloom during May, in the Forest. _Photo by Josef Muench._] - - - - - AGATIZED RAINBOWS - .... _A Story of the Petrified Forest_ - - - POPULAR SERIES No. 3--1951 - PRESENTED BY PETRIFIED FOREST MUSEUM ASSOCIATION, HOLBROOK, ARIZONA - AND THE ARIZONA STATE HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT - _TEXT BY HAROLD J. BRODRICK, PARK NATURALIST_ - -"Oh ranger, please! Just one itzy bitzy piece of petrified wood to take -home to show my boy friend. You won't miss just one teeny weeny piece." - -Holding in his hand an assortment of specimens of petrified wood which -he had just retrieved from the young lady driving the flashy -convertible, the Highway 260 checking station ranger at Petrified Forest -National Monument shook his head with a wry smile. "Sorry, lady, but the -rules say 'It is unlawful to injure, destroy, or remove specimens of -petrified wood of any size whatsoever found within the monument boundary -* * *,' and my job is to see that this and other regulations are obeyed. -You're right, we would never miss these few pieces if you took them home -with you, but they belong to the people of the United States, and if -everyone of the 350,000 visitors who come here each year took away only -a few specimens, as you wish to do, in a very few years there wouldn't -be any left. It's my job, as representative of the people of this -country, to see that there will always be this great natural display of -petrified wood here where it was formed." - -As the young lady drove off with a gay wave of her hand and "I think -you're mean" tossed over her shoulder, the ranger turned to us with a -rueful smile. "Happens every day," he said. "You can't blame people for -wanting to take home a souvenir of the Petrified Forest, and the stuff -is so pretty that kids, especially, just can't help but want to pack it -off. And, with so much of it here, it's hard for them to understand that -it would soon be gone, particularly along the roads and trails, if -everyone carried off a handful or two." - -We agreed with the ranger that it is hard to understand, until it is -explained that such enormous quantities of petrified wood as are strewn -over hundreds of acres in Petrified Forest National Monument could be -entirely removed in a few years by souvenir-hungry American tourists. -"But where," we inquired, "do these roadside stands all along Highway 66 -get the huge piles of petrified wood which they offer for sale? Surely -the National Park Service doesn't permit them to haul it off the -monument by the truckload." - -"Oh no," grinned the ranger. "All of that 'for-sale' wood comes from -private lands. The national monument preserves and protects only the -largest and most colorful deposits of petrified wood; but it is found in -many places throughout northeastern Arizona." - -The impatient toot of an automobile horn informed us that we were -blocking traffic, so we thanked the ranger and continued on our way. -However, the interesting conversation aroused our curiosity, and at the -first opportunity we returned to the Petrified Forest to learn more -about the occurrence of petrified wood, and how Uncle Sam, through the -National Park Service, keeps the wood from being carried off by souvenir -collectors, and how the fascinating story of wood petrification is told -to visitors who take a little time to visit the monument museum at the -Rainbow Forest headquarters of the superintendent. This is the way the -naturalists tell it. - -Believe it or not, it was the threat of souvenir hunters and raids on -the fields of petrified wood by commercial jewelers, gem collectors, and -abrasive manufacturers in the late 1890's and early 1900's that led -thoughtful citizens of the then Arizona Territory to petition Congress -for the establishment of some sort of a protectorate for the Petrified -Forest. In the vicinity of the Agate Bridge and what is now known as the -First Forest, enterprising abrasive makers set up a stamp mill to -pulverize the great blocks of petrified wood which they found there. -Here, also, many of the logs were dynamited in the search for quartz and -amethyst crystals which some of them contained. - -As a result of the petition by citizens of Arizona Territory, and in -response to requests by other groups in the Southwest that steps be -taken to protect great cliff dwellings and other prehistoric Indian -remains which were being systematically pothunted and looted, Congress -passed the Antiquities Act. This authority enabled President Theodore -Roosevelt on December 8, 1906, to issue a proclamation establishing -Petrified Forest National Monument for the protection and preservation -of one of the world's most colorful and extensive concentrations of -petrified wood "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." - -Northeastern Arizona is not the only area known to contain petrified -wood, for it has been found in nearly every State and in foreign -countries as well. Visitors from distant States are frequently surprised -to discover, from a map in the monument's museum, that petrified wood is -to be found near their own homes. It is, however, the large amount of -the wood in such beautiful and varied colors that makes _this_ Petrified -Forest outstanding and worthy of being protected as an area of national -significance. - -We do not know for certain which of the early travelers was the first to -see the great display of petrified wood of northern Arizona. Spanish -explorers may have seen it during the 1500's, since they viewed and -named the Painted Desert (Desierto Pintado), but no written account has -been located that gives any indication that they noticed the wood. In -fact, the earliest written report on record was not made until 1851. In -that year, Lieutenant Sitgreaves, an Army officer, explored parts of -northern Arizona and mentioned the petrified wood in his reports. In -1853, an Army expedition led by Lieutenant Whipple visited the present -monument area, camping near the Black Forest. - -It was not until the 1880's that settlement of this part of the Arizona -territory really got under way with completion of the Santa Fe Railroad -across it in 1883. Word about the petrified wood spread, and it was not -long until the destructive activities were started. - -The six separate "forests" within the monument are areas of the greatest -concentration of petrified logs and have been named the First, Second, -Third, Black, Rainbow, and Blue Forests. The latter was given its name -because of the bluish color of much of the badlands formation in which -the wood is found. There is not a great deal of difference in the wood -found in the other locations, so they were apparently named by early -residents in order to distinguish one location from the other. - -Fortunately, this monument is easily accessible since it is crossed by -two main highways, thus giving visitors to northern Arizona an excellent -opportunity to enjoy the beauties of this unusual work of nature. The -National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior -has been entrusted with the responsibility of protecting and -administering this and all of the other national monuments and parks -forming America's National Park System. It is the responsibility of all -the people, as owners of these outstanding national values, to help the -Service keep the wonders of this and other parks and monuments intact -for the enjoyment of future generations. - -Because of the name "Petrified Forest," many people who have read of it -expect to find trees "turned to stone" and standing upright just as they -grew. Actually, geologists who have studied the area very carefully do -not believe that many of the living trees grew in this particular -location, for all of the evidence indicates that fallen timber from -forests a considerable distance away was carried here by flood waters of -ancient streams and stranded and buried in the mud and shallows of -lagoons and marshes. - -During the latter part of what geologists call the Triassic period, -about 160 to 170 million years ago, most of northeastern Arizona was -apparently an extensive flood plain; low, flat, and swampy. Numerous -streams, some of them quite large, flowed out from the surrounding low -hills into the plain. These streams brought enormous quantities of -sediments; mud, sand, and other minerals, spreading it out layer upon -layer as they shifted their flow back and forth just as on present river -deltas. These sediments contained huge amounts of volcanic ash which the -streams apparently picked up near their sources. This ash was largely -silica, the mineral which was later to be of major importance in the -petrification of the wood. (Silica (SiO_{2}) is the oxide of silicon, a -non-metallic element making up 28 per cent of the earth's crust. The -crystal form of silica is quartz, the commonest of all minerals, which -is found in large amounts in many volcanic rocks.) - -The flood plain was broken by an occasional ridge or high spot, -apparently tree-covered, as a few petrified stumps with partial root -systems have been found in the locations where they apparently grew. -However, most of the trees grew in forests on the low hills through -which these rivers flowed, anywhere from a few miles to 50 or 100 miles -or more to the west and southwest of the present national monument. -These trees died from various causes, just as trees of our modern times -do. Fire, wind, insects, diseases, and other causes all took their toll. -Many trees probably decayed in the forest where they fell, but others -were picked up by flood waters and were eventually transported by the -streams to the flood plain there to become stranded with hundreds of -others and to be covered by the sediments brought in by the streams. - -This transportation theory is based on several types of evidence. In the -first place, the logs have been stripped of much of their original roots -and limbs, and practically all of the bark has disappeared. The logs -present a worn appearance, an indication of having received rough -treatment. Also, very few traces of cones or foliage have been located, -although the fossil remains of more than 30 species of fragile ferns, -cycads, rushes, and other plants that grew in the marshes of the ancient -flood plain have been found. The direction of the original drainage into -this area has been established by tracing the source of the Permian -gravels which are deposited here. - -The deposition of these sediments over the plain continued until a layer -about 400 feet thick was built up during the centuries. This deposit is -now known geologically as the "Chinle Formation." One of the principal -materials found in the Chinle is Bentonite, originally a volcanic ash -which the streams brought. It has since decomposed into a clay-like soil -which is very porous and spongy and which readily absorbs water and -expands. When becoming very wet, it turns into a bluish mud and is -washed away. Erosion of this Bentonite and other materials deposited -with it forms the badlands area now seen on portions of the monument and -in the Painted Desert. During the ages when the original layers of mud, -sand, and silt were being deposited, many of the logs were washed in and -buried at various levels with this Chinle material. - -While all of this was slowly taking place, the land mass over this part -of the continent was gradually subsiding. It continued to settle during -the next geological period of millions of years, and layer after layer -of sediments were washed in and deposited on top of it. Then during the -next geological (Cretaceous) period, a long arm of a sea flooded this -part of the country. Marine deposits accumulated on the bottom of the -sea until finally the Chinle Formation containing the buried logs was -covered by 3,000 feet or more of other deposits. - -At the close of Cretaceous time, about 60 million years ago, uplift of -the present Rocky Mountain system commenced. The basin in which the -Petrified Forest lay buried rose with it. This gradual rising movement -has continued intermittently nearly to the present time. - -This uplift brought with it the activity of erosion which has continued -through the ages until finally almost all of the 3,000 feet of upper -layers of material have been washed away, and the many logs, that had -once been so deeply buried, have again been exposed on the surface; but -now as hard, colorful stone. Erosion continued to carry the soil away -from the petrified logs, exposing more and more of them. As forces of -erosion lowered the surface of the ground little by little, the -petrified logs, too hard to be affected, settled with it, eventually -accumulating with sections of other logs that had been buried on a lower -level. Thus, the present surface of the ground is rather thickly -covered, in many spots, with wood that was originally scattered through -approximately the upper 100 feet of this Chinle Formation. In the -vicinity of the Rainbow and Third Forest, at least, about 300 feet more -of this formation still remains. So far as we know, wood is to be found -throughout this entire layer. Therefore, theoretically at least, it may -be said that 25 per cent of the petrified wood that is here is visible -on the surface, the rest still remaining buried below. - -Three species of trees have been found here in petrified form. The most -common one is an Araucarian Pine (_Araucarioxylon Arizonicum_), a -primitive member of the pine family. This species became extinct long -ago, but there are still several species of modern Araucaria native to -South America, Australia, New Zealand, and other South Pacific islands -which are apparently very similar to this ancient form. Some of the -modern types have been imported to this country and are used for -ornamental purposes in certain locations in Florida and along the -Pacific coast. The most common ones are known as the "Monkey Puzzle -Tree" and "Norfolk Island Pine." Claims made by roadside stand operators -along Highway 66 that the petrified wood offered for sale is "beach -walnut," "cactus," etc., have no basis in fact. - -Two other types of petrified wood are found here in smaller amounts. -These are the _Woodworthia Arizonica_, a cone-bearing tree somewhat -similar to the Araucaria and the _Schilderia Adamanica_, a tree with -peculiar radiating rays in the wood. Paleontologists are not sure where -this latter kind belongs in systematic plant classification. What -happened during the millenniums that the logs lay buried in their Chinle -tombs? - -How did these trees turn to stone? Most of our text books tell us that -the petrification of wood is a replacement process. Bit by bit, water -removed wood tissue and in its place left a mineral deposit in exactly -the same form as the original, so that when the process had been -completed there was no wood left but in its place an exact stone -duplicate. This theory was accepted for a very long time, but recently -some scientists were not satisfied with it because certain chemical -actions that would have to occur during such a process were difficult to -explain. - -Just prior to 1940, several scientists investigated the process, and -from their findings decided that the wood was not petrified by -_replacement_ but by the _infiltration_ of mineral-bearing water into -the wood and the deposition of this mineral in the air spaces within the -wood tissue. This process, they believe, continued until all of the -microscopic spaces in the wood were filled solid with this deposit and -the petrified log, composed of 98 per cent by volume of mineral deposit -and 2 per cent cellulose and lignin wood tissue, was the result. The -original wood tissue acted, they think, as a framework to hold the -mineral deposit like the walls of a building would act if the rooms and -spaces between the walls were filled in solid with liquid concrete. This -accounts for retention of the cell structure, annual rings, and other -features of the original wood. The petrification of wood has never been -studied sufficiently, and there are many questions for which -satisfactory answers have not yet been advanced. - -Although woods in different localities have been petrified by other -minerals, the most common is silica. In the case of this petrified wood, -the silica was deposited in an agatized non-crystalline form. The normal -color of the silica without mineral stain is a white or gray. Sometimes -small amounts of other minerals were in the solution along with silica, -or in some cases were brought in during the millions of years of burial -as a secondary deposit in the cracks, checks, or other openings in the -petrified or partially petrified wood. Iron oxides in small quantities -produced the great variety of shades of red, brown, and yellow. The -black color in most cases is due to manganese oxide or carbon. Thus, the -combination of minerals produced a rainbow of colors in the agatized -wood. - -Whenever there were small checked places, cracks, or hollows in the -wood, we find that they are often either filled or lined with quartz -crystals or occasionally with amethyst crystals. - -The term "chalcedony" (pronounced kal-sed'-nee) is a broad one usually -applied to any compact mass of silica free of definite color pattern, -but it is also frequently used to describe all forms of silica whether -translucent or opaque, and regardless of color. Agate, therefore, may be -considered a variegated chalcedony. Agate is translucent and has a -definite color or pattern. Jasper is opaque and may be either red, -brown, yellow, blue, or green in color. Quartz minerals are harder than -most types of steel, and there are only about 30 other minerals that -exceed it in hardness. In the mineral scale of hardness, quartz is rated -at 7 and diamond, the hardest of all, at 10. Petrified wood weighs about -166 pounds per cubic foot. - -"Who sawed these trees" is one of the questions visitors frequently ask. -It is a natural query because most of the logs are cracked into -sections, in many instances of rather uniform length, and each broken -face is smooth enough to appear almost like a saw cut. At first glance -this does give the impression that someone, possibly a Paul Bunyan with -an enormous diamond-toothed saw, had cut the logs into "stove wood" -lengths. Although there may be some differences of opinion about how -this fracturing occurred, the present explanation by scientists is that -most of this breakage took place during the period of uplift of this -section of the country. The gradual movement and elevation of the -earth's crust caused numerous earthquakes. The shock waves of the -tremblor traveling through the earth set up vibrations which caused the -deeply buried, brittle, petrified logs to crack. The harmonic vibrations -created by the rhythm of the regular shock waves caused the cracks to be -rather regularly spaced. At first these cracks were tiny, but centuries -later, after the logs were exposed on the surface, the weathering -actions and the shifting and settling of the soil beneath them caused -the cracks to widen and eventually the fractured sections separated. -Occasionally breakage may also occur when soil washes out from under one -end of a log and its weight causes it to sag and crack. The normal -fracture line of this material is at right angles to the lineal axis, -and the rather smooth face causes the broken surface to appear much like -a saw cut. - -Polished wood sections that are exhibited in the Rainbow Forest Museum -show to best advantage the varied color pattern of this petrified wood. -The piece is first cut with either a diamond or carborundum saw. Then -the sawed face is ground as smooth as possible on carborundum wheels of -different grits. When ground sufficiently smooth, the final polish is -given the surface with hard felt buffing wheels and a polishing -compound. Due to the hardness of the petrified wood, it takes about an -hour to cut and polish a square inch, hence is an expensive process. -Some of the most colorful or "picture wood" specimens make very -attractive and durable settings for rings, pins, and other jewelry. - -Fossil remains of many forms of animal life that existed here during -Triassic times also are found in the Chinle deposits with the petrified -wood. Some parts of skeletons were mineralized and preserved in much the -same manner as was the wood. The animals which lived where the trees -accumulated were forms that normally inhabited muddy, marshy river -bottoms, another indication of the type of environment here during that -long-gone age. - -Largest of these animals was the Phytosaur, a crocodile-like reptile -about 18 feet long and weighing nearly a ton. Nostrils were located on -top of the head. These reptiles were omnivorous feeders, and with their -webbed feet and long flattened tails were at home either on land or in -the water. The Phytosaur was a distant relative of the Dinosaur but -became extinct before the Dinosaur reached its peak of development. - -Another inhabitant of the swampy lowlands where ancient logs were -stranded was the Stegocephalian, a primitive amphibian related to modern -salamanders, or mud puppies, but of huge size. They were heavy, -flattened creatures from six to nine feet long and probably weighed -about 500 to 600 pounds. Their legs were very short, and they moved -about by dragging themselves over the swampy ground, probably being -carnivorous feeders. The skull was almost completely solid and had -openings only for the nostrils, eyes, and a peculiar third eye in the -top which probably was capable of distinguishing movement or light, but -not color. - -Several types of fishes, amphibians, and small reptiles probably lived -along the streams and in the quiet pools of those ancient marshes. Among -them were lung-fishes whose teeth or "dental plates" are now found -scattered through the badlands of the Petrified Forest. - -Large rushes, or horsetails, bordered the streams and matted the swamps. -Their hollow stems grew to eight and ten inches in diameter and 30 to 40 -feet tall. At each joint were whorls of slender branches. Large, -broad-leaved ferns formed a striking contrast with the delicate foliage -of the seed fern types. Club mosses probably grew in small clusters in -sheltered places along the banks of the streams and pools. - -How different this scene of millions of years ago was from our -present-day landscape and modern plant and animal life. The climate must -have been at least sub-tropical then; today it is semi-arid. - -In contrast to the plants and animals of those Triassic times living in -swamps and marshes, we now have plants and animals that are able to -exist with a minimum of moisture. The present ground-cover is seldom -over three or four feet high, but includes a wide variety of plants -ranging from very small flowering herbs to the several species of -gray-foliaged salt brush and other shrubs. With suitable moisture, the -spring and fall wildflower displays are often very showy. The early -blooms of the chimaya, phacelia, and the large, white, evening primroses -are soon followed by desert mallow; vetch; a small white daisy-like -Fleabane; the large yellow tulip-like flowers of the mariposa or sego -lily; and as the season advances, the paint brush; asters; snake weed; -golden aster; rabbit brush; and many others. - -In contrast to the sluggish reptiles and amphibians in the Triassic, we -now have the fleet pronghorn (American Antelope); occasional coyotes and -bobcats, porcupine, prairie dogs, rabbits, and many of the smaller -rodents. Several species of harmless snakes and an occasional -rattlesnake; slender, striped, long-tailed race runner lizards; scaled -lizards, and the bright, green-backed, yellow-footed Bailey Collared -Lizard which frequently brings visitors hurrying in to inquire if it is -poisonous. It isn't! - -Several species of birds such as the Desert Horned Larks and rock wrens -make this their permanent home while many other species ranging in size -from the tiny Allan Hummingbird to the mighty golden eagle either stay -here during various parts of the year, or pass through in the spring and -fall migrations. - -Intermixed with the surface deposits of petrified wood and other -remnants of the ancient Triassic time are the much more recent remains -of early men. Ruins of their homes, fragments of their handiwork, and -examples of their arts are to be found in many locations. - -These people were pre-Columbian Pueblo Indians, ancestors of our modern -Pueblo Indians, and of the same type that inhabited the other pueblo and -cliff-dwelling sites in the Southwest. It is probable that there was -considerable trading carried on between the people of this area and -those at other locations, since many of the same pottery types are found -throughout. - -This somewhat desolate region was apparently fairly densely populated by -little groups of farming Indians. With no survey or study of the -monument area having been made, more than 300 ruin sites have been -located and there are many others nearby. These ruins of stone buildings -are usually from one to a few rooms in size. However, one ruin near the -Puerco River Ranger Station is estimated to have had about 125 or more -rooms. It is built in the form of a hollow square about 180 feet by 230 -feet, around a plaza about 130 by 185 feet. Probably two stories in -height, it could have housed nearly a hundred families. - -A study of the pottery fragments from each site helps us to tell the -approximate time that the particular site was occupied. This time varies -from about 500 or 600 A.D. to 1400 A.D., some being used over a longer -period than others. - -In most cases, the buildings were constructed of pieces of sandstone, -but in a few instances the Indians had an eye for color and used pieces -of petrified wood which made a very substantial as well as colorful -building. "Agate House" in the south part of the Third Forest is one -example of such construction. This was partially reconstructed in 1934 -in the early Pueblo style by the use of chunks of petrified wood from -the heap of the ruins. Indians also used the petrified wood for making -arrow-points and other tools and weapons. - -These people practiced agriculture, cultivating corn, pumpkins, and -beans. They probably wore simple clothing made of cotton cloth or the -skins of wild animals. They also made pottery. - -Tree-ring studies show that there was a great drought from 1275 to 1299 -A.D. This apparently caused a great deal of shifting around among the -Pueblo people. Only a few villages in the Petrified Forest area were -occupied during the fourteenth century. It is not known whether the -people were driven out by the predatory Apaches or because of the -drought. - -Where did these Indians get water? While there probably has not been any -marked change in climate or rainfall since that time, there may have -been more springs and seeps along the cliffs. It is possible that these -failed during that great drought period. - -Pottery designs of these early Indians show an artistic talent, further -indicated by the many petroglyphs on the sandstone cliffs and boulders -throughout the area. A petroglyph is a picture or design carved or -pecked in the face of a rock. These pictures are of figures, geometric -patterns, and symbols in many cases similar to those found on the -pottery. Some represent hands, feet, human figures and shapes of -mammals, birds, or lizards. These appear to be simply a collection of -drawings made by various Indians over a period of time. In some cases, -they were clan symbols, each passerby adding his own much like a -visitor's register such as we have today or a collection of initials or -names unthinking people carve on trees or scratch on rocks. -Unfortunately an occasional person nowadays, thoughtless of those that -follow, either destroys this ancient art work or defaces it by adding -his name or initials to those of an earlier man. "Newspaper Rock" is the -most spectacular group of petroglyphs found on the monument. - -Homes and tribal lands of modern Indians are located in areas to the -south, east, and north of Petrified Forest National Monument--homes that -were established in some cases before the first Spanish explorer entered -the Southwest. - -To the south in the White Mountains are the Apaches. Apparently both the -Apache and the Navajo entered the Southwest only a short time before the -Spaniards came. Being nomads and predatory in nature, they soon struck -terror in the hearts of the peaceful Pueblo people and caused many of -them to abandon their homes to seek more secluded and protected sites. - -To the east are the Zuni, a Pueblo people that some of the early -occupants of the Petrified Forest may have joined. When the Spaniards -came, these Zuni were living in seven pueblos that became known as the -historic "Seven Cities of Cibola." - -To the north are the Navajo and Hopi peoples. Arizona's famous Painted -Desert forms a long curving border to the Navajo Reservation--a border -extending from near the New Mexico line westward to the Colorado River -northwest of Cameron. A spectacular portion of it lies in the northern -part of Petrified Forest National Monument. - -The Painted Desert is a colorful, often fantastically eroded badlands of -Bentonitic beds stained with shades of red, orange, yellow, blue, -purple, and brown by iron minerals. Arid or semi-arid with only a sparse -vegetative cover, these soft beds are subject to rapid erosion during -Arizona's season of torrential rains. - -The Painted Desert formed a barrier behind which the early Hopi people -withdrew to establish their famed mesa-top villages, including Oraibi -which has been continuously occupied since about 350 years before the -discovery of America. These people still live in their several mesa-top -villages, their reservation surrounded by that of the Navajo, their -former enemies, who now lead a peaceful, semi-nomadic life. - -There is much more to the fascinating story of the Petrified Forest as -told to us by naturalists of the national monument. Few visitors take -time from their mad rush to "get somewhere quickly" to make the effort -to understand the intricate and devious ways of Nature, of which "Time -is the essence," resulting in the spectacular and brilliant display, -this glittering jewel of the desert, the Petrified Forest. Stopping only -long enough to marvel briefly, many of them feel the urge to take -something with them, some concrete reminder of the colorful scene, some -bits of petrified wood. Those who successfully "get past" the checking -station ranger with their illicit souvenirs usually lose these trinkets, -or find them turned to sharp goads which prod their consciences in later -years. How fortunate those visitors who, at the expense of an hour or so -of time, gain an understanding of what lies behind the scenery at the -Petrified Forest, thereby developing an appreciation of the work of -Nature and of God as exemplified here. These people take with them, not -merely a souvenir, but an experience which they will treasure and enjoy -throughout the remainder of their lives. - - [Illustration: The Painted Desert from the Monument's rim drive. - _Photo by Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: A typical scene in Petrified Forest. _National Park - Service Photo._] - - [Illustration: Painted Desert from the Painted Desert Inn. _Photo by - Josef Muench._] - - [Illustration: Navajo National Monument. Deep in the heart of the - Navajo country is an area of cliffs, canyons, and prehistoric ruins. - One of the largest is Betatakin. _Photo by Martin Litton._] - - [Illustration: Sunset Crater. Sunset Crater National Monument, near - Flagstaff, comprises an area that was the scene of volcanic - activities hundreds of years ago. _Photo by Norman Wallace._] - - [Illustration: Tuzigoot--The hilltop home of an ancient, peaceful - farming people, near Clarkdale, has been excavated. _National Park - Service Photo._] - - [Illustration: Canyon De Chelly National Monument contains within - its borders Canyon De Chelly and Canyon del Muerto, as well as many - ruins. It is near Chinle. _Photo by J. H. McGibbeny._] - - [Illustration: Hoover (Boulder) Dam and Lake Mead provide a fine - recreational area along the Arizona-Nevada border. _Photo by Herb - McLoughlin._] - - [Illustration: Grand Canyon National Park. The Grand Canyon of the - mighty Colorado River defies efforts to describe it adequately. - _Photo by A. C. Jackson._] - - [Illustration: Wupatki ruins in Wupatki National Monument, one of - the most spectacular pueblos in Northern Arizona. _Photo by George - K. Geyer._] - - [Illustration: Walnut Canyon. In the walls of this canyon, near - Flagstaff, under overhanging ledges are a series of prehistoric - Indian ruins. _National Park Service Photo._] - - [Illustration: Montezuma Castle, overlooking Beaver Creek in the - Verde Valley, is one of the most beautiful cliff dwellings to be - found in this country. _Photo by Ray Manly._] - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Agatized Rainbows, by Harold J. 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